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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/36192-h.zip b/36192-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a466eea --- /dev/null +++ b/36192-h.zip diff --git a/36192-h/36192-h.htm b/36192-h/36192-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..30d6228 --- /dev/null +++ b/36192-h/36192-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4260 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<HTML> +<HEAD> + +<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> + +<TITLE> +The Project Gutenberg E-text of The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913, by Jacob Gould Shurman +</TITLE> + +<STYLE TYPE="text/css"> +BODY { color: Black; + background: White; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-left: 10%; + font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; + text-align: justify } + +P {text-indent: 4% } + +P.noindent {text-indent: 0% } + +P.t1 {text-indent: 0% ; + font-size: 200%; + text-align: center } + +P.t2 {text-indent: 0% ; + font-size: 150%; + text-align: center } + +P.t3 {text-indent: 0% ; + font-size: 100%; + text-align: center } + +P.t4 {text-indent: 0% ; + font-size: 80%; + text-align: center } + +P.t5 {text-indent: 0% ; + font-size: 50%; + text-align: center } + +P.poem {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; } + +P.letter {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10% ; + margin-right: 10% } + +P.salutation {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10% ; + margin-right: 10% } + +P.closing {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10% ; + margin-right: 10% } + +P.footnote {text-indent: 0% ; + font-size: 80%; + margin-left: 10% ; + margin-right: 10% } + +P.transnote {text-indent: 0% ; + margin-left: 0% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +P.index {text-indent: -5% ; + margin-left: 5% ; + margin-top: 0% ; + margin-bottom: 0% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +P.intro {font-size: 90% ; + text-indent: -5% ; + margin-left: 5% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +P.dedication {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 15%; + text-align: justify } + +P.published {text-indent: 0% ; + margin-left: 15% } + +P.quote {text-indent: 4% ; + margin-left: 0% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +P.report {text-indent: 4% ; + margin-left: 0% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +P.report2 {text-indent: 4% ; + margin-left: 10% ; + margin-right: 10% } + +P.finis { font-size: larger ; + text-align: center ; + text-indent: 0% ; + margin-left: 0% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +H4.h4center { margin-left: 0; + margin-right: 0 ; + margin-bottom: .5% ; + margin-top: 0; + float: none ; + clear: both ; + text-align: center } + +IMG.imgcenter { margin-left: auto; + margin-bottom: 0; + margin-top: 1%; + margin-right: auto; } + +.pagenum { position: absolute; + right: 1%; + font-size: 95%; + text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; } + +.sidenote { left: 0%; + font-size: 65%; + text-align: left; + text-indent: 0%; + width: 17%; + float: left; + clear: left; + padding-left: 0%; + padding-right: 2%; + padding-top: 2%; + padding-bottom: 2%; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + border: solid; + border-width: 1px; + font-variant: normal; } + +</STYLE> + +</HEAD> + +<BODY> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Balkan Wars, by Jacob Gould Schurman + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Balkan Wars + 1912-1913 + +Author: Jacob Gould Schurman + +Release Date: May 22, 2011 [EBook #36192] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BALKAN WARS *** + + + + +Produced by Al Haines + + + + + +</pre> + + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t1"> +THE BALKAN WARS +</P> + +<P CLASS="t2"> +1912-1913 +</P> + +<BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +BY +</P> + +<P CLASS="t2"> +JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t4"> +PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS +<BR> +PRINCETON +<BR> +LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD +<BR> +OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS +<BR> +1914 +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t4"> +Copyright, June 1914, December 1914, by +<BR> +PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS +<BR><BR> +Second Edition +<BR> +Published December, 1914 +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pv"></A>v}</SPAN> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION +</H3> + +<P> +The interest in the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 has exceeded the +expectations of the publishers of this volume. The first edition, +which was published five months ago, is already exhausted and a second +is now called for. +</P> + +<P> +Meanwhile there has broken out and is now in progress a war which is +generally regarded as the greatest of all time—a war already involving +five of the six Great Powers and three of the smaller nations of Europe +as well as Japan and Turkey and likely at any time to embroil other +countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa, which are already embraced in +the area of military operations. +</P> + +<P> +This War of Many Nations had its origin in the Balkan situation. It +began on July 28 with the declaration of the Dual Monarchy +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pvi"></A>vi}</SPAN> +to the +effect that from that moment Austria-Hungary was in a state of war with +Servia. And the fundamental reason for this declaration as given in +the note or ultimatum to Servia was the charge that the Servian +authorities had encouraged the Pan-Serb agitation which seriously +menaced the integrity of Austria-Hungary and had already caused the +assassination at Sarajevo of the Heir to the Throne. +</P> + +<P> +No one could have observed at close range the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 +without perceiving, always in the background and occasionally in the +foreground, the colossal rival figures of Russia and Austria-Hungary. +Attention was called to the phenomenon at various points in this volume +and especially in the concluding pages. +</P> + +<P> +The issue of the Balkan struggles of 1912-1913 was undoubtedly +favorable to Russia. By her constant diplomatic support she retained +the friendship and earned the gratitude of Greece, Montenegro, and +Servia; and through her +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pvii"></A>vii}</SPAN> +championship, belated though it was, of +the claims of Roumania to territorial compensation for benevolent +neutrality during the war of the Allies against Turkey, she won the +friendship of the predominant Balkan power which had hitherto been +regarded as the immovable eastern outpost of the Triple Alliance. But +while Russia was victorious she did not gain all that she had planned +and hoped for. Her very triumph at Bukarest was a proof that she had +lost her influence over Bulgaria. This Slav state after the war +against Turkey came under the influence of Austria-Hungary, by whom she +was undoubtedly incited to strife with Servia and her other partners in +the late war against Turkey. Russia was unable to prevent the second +Balkan war between the Allies. The Czar's summons to the Kings of +Bulgaria and Servia on June 9, 1913, to submit, in the name of +Pan-Slavism, their disputes to his decision failed to produce the +desired effect, while this assumption of Russian hegemony in Balkan +affairs greatly +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pviii"></A>viii}</SPAN> +exacerbated Austro-Hungarian sentiment. That +action of the Czar, however, was clear notification and proof to all +the world that Russia regarded the Slav States in the Balkans as +objects of her peculiar concern and protection. +</P> + +<P> +The first Balkan War—the war of the Allies against Turkey—ended in a +way that surprised all the world. Everybody expected a victory for the +Turks. That the Turks should one day be driven out of Europe was the +universal assumption, but it was the equally fixed belief that the +agents of their expulsion would be the Great Powers or some of the +Great Powers. That the little independent States of the Balkans should +themselves be equal to the task no one imagined,—no one with the +possible exception of the government of Russia. And as Russia rejoiced +over the victory of the Balkan States and the defeat of her secular +Mohammedan neighbor, Austria-Hungary looked on not only with amazement +but with disappointment and chagrin. +</P> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pix"></A>ix}</SPAN> + +<P> +For the contemporaneous diplomacy of the Austro-Hungarian government +was based on the assumption that the Balkan States would be vanquished +by Turkey. And its standing policy had been on the one hand to keep +the Kingdom of Servia small and weak (for the Dual Monarchy was itself +an important Serb state) and on the other hand to broaden her Adriatic +possessions and also to make her way through Novi Bazar and Macedonia +to Saloniki and the Aegean, when the time came to secure this +concession from the Sultan without provoking a European war. It seemed +in 1908 as though the favorable moment had arrived to make a first +move, and the Austro-Hungarian government put forward a project for +connecting the Bosnian and Macedonian railway systems. But the only +result was to bring to an end the co-operation which had for some years +been maintained between the Austrian and Russian governments in the +enforcement upon the Porte of the adoption of reforms in Macedonia. +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Px"></A>x}</SPAN> +And now the result of the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 was the +practical expulsion of Turkey from Europe and the territorial +aggrandizement of Servia and the sister state of Montenegro through the +annexation of those very Turkish domains which lay between the +Austro-Hungarian frontier and the Aegean. At every point +Austro-Hungarian policies had met with reverses. +</P> + +<P> +Only one success could possibly be attributed to the diplomacy of the +Ballplatz. The exclusion of Servia from the Adriatic Sea and the +establishment of the independent State of Albania was the achievement +of Count Berchtold, the Austro-Hungarian Minister of Foreign Affairs. +The new State has been a powder magazine from the beginning, and since +the withdrawal of Prince William of Wied, the government, always +powerless, has fallen into chaos. Intervention on the part of +neighboring states is inevitable. And only last month the southern +part of Albania—that is, Northern +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pxi"></A>xi}</SPAN> +Epirus—was occupied by a Greek +army for the purpose of ending the sanguinary anarchy which has +hitherto prevailed. This action will be no surprise to the readers of +this volume. The occupation, or rather re-occupation, is declared by +the Greek Government to be provisional and it is apparently approved by +all the Great Powers. Throughout the rest of Albania similar +intervention will be necessary to establish order, and to protect the +life and property of the inhabitants without distinction of race, +tribe, or creed. Servia might perhaps have governed the country, had +she not been compelled by the Great Powers, at the instigation of +Austria-Hungary, to withdraw her forces. And her extrusion from the +Adriatic threw her back toward the Aegean, with the result of shutting +Bulgaria out of Central Macedonia, which was annexed by Greece and +Servia presumably under arrangements satisfactory to the latter for an +outlet to the sea at Saloniki. +</P> + +<P> +The war declared by Austria-Hungary +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pxii"></A>xii}</SPAN> +against Servia may be +regarded to some extent as an effort to nullify in the interests of the +former the enormous advantages which accrued directly to Servia and +indirectly to Russia from the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913. That Russia +should have come to the support of Servia was as easy to foresee as any +future political event whatever. And the action of Germany and France +once war had broken out between their respective allies followed as a +matter of course. If the Austro-German Alliance wins in the War of +Many Nations it will doubtless control the eastern Adriatic and open up +a way for itself to the Aegean. Indeed, in that event, German trade +and German political influence would spread unchallenged across the +continents from the North Sea to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. +Turkey is a friend and ally; but even if Turkey were hostile she would +have no strength to resist such victorious powers. And the Balkan +States, with the defeat of Russia, would be compelled to recognize +Germanic supremacy. +</P> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pxiii"></A>xiii}</SPAN> + +<P> +If on the other hand the Allies come out victorious in the War of Many +Nations, Servia and perhaps Roumania would be permitted to annex the +provinces occupied by their brethren in the Dual Monarchy and Servian +expansion to the Adriatic would be assured. The Balkan States would +almost inevitably fall under the controlling influence of Russia, who +would become mistress of Constantinople and gain an unrestricted outlet +to the Mediterranean through the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and the +Dardanelles. +</P> + +<P> +In spite of themselves the destiny of the peoples of the Balkans is +once more set on the issue of war. It is not inconceivable, therefore, +that some or all of those States may be drawn into the present colossal +conflict. In 1912-1913 the first war showed Bulgaria, Greece, +Montenegro, and Servia allied against Turkey; and in the second war +Greece, Montenegro, and Servia were joined by Roumania in the war +against Bulgaria, who was also independently attacked +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pxiv"></A>xiv}</SPAN> +by Turkey. +What may happen in 1914 or 1915 no one can predict. But if this +terrible conflagration, which is already devastating Europe and +convulsing all the continents and vexing all the oceans of the globe, +spreads to the Balkans, one may hazard the guess that Greece, +Montenegro, Servia, and Roumania will stand together on the side of the +Allies and that Bulgaria if she is not carried away by marked +Austro-German victories will remain neutral,—unless indeed the other +Balkan States win her over, as they not inconceivably might do, if they +rose to the heights of unwonted statesmanship by recognizing her claim +to that part of Macedonia in which the Bulgarian element predominates +but which was ceded to her rivals by the Treaty of Bukarest. +</P> + +<P> +But I have said enough to indicate that as in its origin so also in its +results this awful cataclysm under which the civilized world is now +reeling will be found to be vitally connected with the Balkan Wars of +1912-1913. And I conclude +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pxv"></A>xv}</SPAN> +with the hope that the present volume, +which devotes indeed but little space to military matters and none at +all to atrocities and massacres, may prove helpful to readers who seek +light on the underlying conditions, the causes, and the consequences of +those historic struggles. The favor already accorded to the work and +the rapid exhaustion of the first edition* seem to furnish some +justification of this hope. +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN. +<BR> +<I>November 26, 1914.</I> +</P> + +<BR> + +<P CLASS="footnote"> +*The present work is rather a reprint than a new edition, few changes +having been made except the correction of typographical errors. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap01"></A> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P1"></A>1}</SPAN> + +<H2 ALIGN="center"> +I +</H2> + +<H2 ALIGN="center"> +TURKEY AND THE BALKAN STATES +</H2> + +<BR> + +<A NAME="img-003"></A> +<CENTER> +<IMG CLASS="imgcenter" SRC="images/img-003.jpg" ALT="Map: The Balkan Peninsula before the Wars of 1912-1913." BORDER="2"> +<H4 CLASS="h4center"> +Map: The Balkan Peninsula before the Wars of 1912-1913. +</H4> +</CENTER> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P3"></A>3}</SPAN> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +I +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +TURKEY AND THE BALKAN STATES +</H3> + +<P> +The expulsion of the Turks from Europe was long ago written in the book +of fate. There was nothing uncertain about it except the date and the +agency of destiny. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE TURKISH EMPIRE IN EUROPE +</P> + +<P> +A little clan of oriental shepherds, the Turks had in two generations +gained possession of the whole of the northwest corner of Asia Minor +and established themselves on the eastern shore of the Bosphorus. The +great city of Brusa, whose groves to-day enshrine the stately beauty of +their mosques and sultans' tombs, capitulated to Orkhan, the son of the +first Sultan, in 1326; and Nicaea, the cradle of the Greek church and +temporary capital of the Greek Empire, +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P4"></A>4}</SPAN> +surrendered in 1330. On the +other side of the Bosphorus Orkhan could see the domes and palaces of +Constantinople which, however, for another century was to remain the +seat of the Byzantine Empire. +</P> + +<P> +The Turks crossed the Hellespont and, favored by an earthquake, marched +in 1358 over the fallen walls and fortifications into the city of +Gallipoli. In 1361 Adrianople succumbed to the attacks of Orkhan's +son, Murad I, whose sway was soon acknowledged in Thrace and Macedonia, +and who was destined to lead the victorious Ottoman armies as far north +as the Danube. +</P> + +<P> +But though the provinces of the corrupt and effete Byzantine Empire +were falling into the hands of the Turks, the Slavs were still +unsubdued. Lazar the Serb threw down the gauntlet to Murad. On the +memorable field of Kossovo, in 1389, the opposing forces met—Murad +supported by his Asiatic and European vassals and allies, and Lazar +with his formidable army of +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P5"></A>5}</SPAN> +Serbs, Bosnians, Albanians, Poles, +Magyars, and Vlachs. Few battles in the world have produced such a +deep and lasting impression as this battle of Kossovo, in which the +Christian nations after long and stubborn resistance were vanquished by +the Moslems. The Servians still sing ballads which cast a halo of +pathetic romance round their great disaster. And after more than five +centuries the Montenegrins continue to wear black on their caps in +mourning for that fatal day. +</P> + +<P> +In the next two centuries the Ottoman Empire moved on toward the zenith +of its glory. Mohammed II conquered Constantinople in 1453. And in +1529 Suleyman the Magnificent was at the gates of Vienna. Suleyman's +reign forms the climax of Turkish history. The Turks had become a +central European power occupying Hungary and menacing Austria. +Suleyman's dominions extended from Mecca to Buda-Pesth and from Bagdad +to Algiers. He commanded the Mediterranean, the Euxine, +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P6"></A>6}</SPAN> +and the +Red Sea, and his navies threatened the coasts of India and Spain. +</P> + +<P> +But the conquests of the Turks were purely military. They did nothing +for their subjects, whom they treated with contempt, and they wanted +nothing from them but tribute and plunder. As the Turks were always +numerically inferior to the aggregate number of the peoples under their +sway, their one standing policy was to keep them divided—<I>divide et +impera</I>. To fan racial and religious differences among their subjects +was to perpetuate the rule of the masters. The whole task of +government, as the Turks conceived it, was to collect tribute from the +conquered and keep them in subjection by playing off their differences +against one another. +</P> + +<P> +But a deterioration of Turkish rulers set in soon after the time of +Suleyman with a corresponding decline in the character and efficiency +of the army. And the growth of Russia and the reassertion of Hungary, +Poland, and Austria +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P7"></A>7}</SPAN> +were fatal to the maintenance of an alien and +detested empire founded on military domination alone. By the end of +the seventeenth century the Turks had been driven out of Austria, +Hungary, Transylvania, and Podolia, and the northern boundaries of +their Empire were fixed by the Carpathians, the Danube, and the Save. +How marked and rapid was the further decline of the Ottoman Empire may +be inferred from the fact that twice in the eighteenth century Austria +and Russia discussed the project of dividing it between them. But the +inevitable disintegration of the Turkish dominion was not to inure to +the glorification of any of the Great Powers, though Russia certainly +contributed to the weakening of the common enemy. The decline and +diminution of the Ottoman Empire continued throughout the nineteenth +century. What happened, however, was the revolt of subject provinces +and the creation out of the territory of European Turkey of the +independent states of Greece, Servia, +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P8"></A>8}</SPAN> +Roumania, and Bulgaria. And +it was Bulgarians, Greeks, and Servians, with the active assistance of +the Montenegrins and the benevolent neutrality of the Roumanians, who, +in the war of 1912-1913, drove the Turk out of Europe, leaving him +nothing but the city of Constantinople and a territorial fringe +bordered by the Chataldja line of fortifications. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE EARLIER SLAV EMPIRES +</P> + +<P> +There is historic justice in the circumstance that the Turkish Empire +in Europe met its doom at the hands of the Balkan nations themselves. +For these nationalities had been completely submerged and even their +national consciousness annihilated under centuries of Moslem +intolerance, misgovernment, oppression, and cruelty. +</P> + +<P> +None suffered worse than Bulgaria, which lay nearest to the capital of +the Mohammedan conqueror. Yet Bulgaria had had a glorious, if +checkered, history long before there existed +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P9"></A>9}</SPAN> +any Ottoman Empire +either in Europe or in Asia. From the day their sovereign Boris +accepted Christianity in 864 the Bulgarians had made rapid and +conspicuous progress in their ceaseless conflicts with the Byzantine +Empire. The Bulgarian church was recognized as independent by the +Greek patriarch at Constantinople; its primates subsequently received +the title of patriarch, and their see was established at Preslav, and +then successively westward at Sofia, Vodena, Presba, and finally +Ochrida, which looks out on the mountains of Albania. Under Czar +Simeon, the son of Boris, "Bulgaria," says Gibbon, "assumed a rank +among the civilized powers of the earth." His dominions extended from +the Black Sea to the Adriatic and comprised the greater part of +Macedonia, Greece, Albania, Servia, and Dalmatia; leaving only to the +Byzantine Empire—whose civilization he introduced and sedulously +promoted among the Bulgarians—the cities of Constantinople, Saloniki, +and Adrianople with +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P10"></A>10}</SPAN> +the territory immediately surrounding them. +But this first Bulgarian Empire was short-lived, though the western +part remained independent under Samuel, who reigned, with Ochrida as +his capital, from 976 to 1014. Four years later the Byzantine Emperor, +Basil II, annihilated the power of Samuel, and for a hundred and fifty +years the Bulgarian people remained subject to the rule of +Constantinople. In 1186 under the leadership of the brothers Asen they +regained their independence. And the reign of Czar Asen II (1218-1240) +was the most prosperous period of all Bulgarian history. He restored +the Empire of Simeon, his boast being that he had left to the +Byzantines nothing but Constantinople and the cities round it, and he +encouraged commerce, cultivated arts and letters, founded and endowed +churches and monasteries, and embellished his capital, Trnovo, with +beautiful and magnificent buildings. After Asen came a period of +decline culminating in a humiliating defeat by the Servians +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P11"></A>11}</SPAN> +in +1330. The quarrels of the Christian races of the Balkans facilitated +the advance of the Moslem invader, who overwhelmed the Serbs and their +allies on the memorable field of Kossovo in 1389, and four years later +captured and burned the Bulgarian capital, Trnovo, Czar Shishman +himself perishing obscurely in the common destruction. For five +centuries Bulgaria remained under Moslem despotism, we ourselves being +the witnesses of her emancipation in the last thirty-five years. +</P> + +<P> +The fate of the Serbs differed only in degree from that of the +Bulgarians. Converted to Christianity in the middle of the ninth +century, the major portion of the race remained till the twelfth +century under either Bulgarian or Byzantine sovereignty. But Stephen +Nemanyo brought under his rule Herzegovina, Montenegro, and part of +modern Servia and old Servia, and on his abdication in 1195 in favor of +his son launched a royal dynasty which reigned over the Serb people for +two centuries. Of +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P12"></A>12}</SPAN> +that line the most distinguished member was +Stephen Dushan, who reigned from 1331 to 1355. He wrested the whole of +the Balkan Peninsula from the Byzantine Emperor, and took Belgrade, +Bosnia, and Herzegovina from the King of Hungary. He encouraged +literature, gave to his country a highly advanced code of laws, and +protected the church whose head—the Archbishop of Ipek—he raised to +the dignity of patriarch. On Easter Day 1346 he had himself crowned at +Uskub as "Emperor of the Greeks and Serbs." A few years later he +embarked on an enterprise by which, had he been successful, he might +have changed the course of European history. It was nothing less than +the capture of Constantinople and the union of Serbs, Bulgarians, and +Greeks into an empire which might defend Christendom against the rising +power of Islam. Dushan was within forty miles of his goal with an army +of 80,000 men when he died suddenly in camp on the 20th of December, +1355. Thirty-four years +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P13"></A>13}</SPAN> +later Dushan's countrymen were +annihilated by the Turks at Kossovo! All the Slavonic peoples of the +Balkan Peninsula save the brave mountaineers of Montenegro came under +Moslem subjection. And under Moslem subjection they remained till the +nineteenth century. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +TURKISH OPPRESSION OF SLAVS +</P> + +<P> +It is impossible to give any adequate description of the horrors of +Turkish rule in these Christian countries of the Balkans. Their +people, disqualified from holding even the smallest office, were +absolutely helpless under the oppression of their foreign masters, who +ground them down under an intolerable load of taxation and plunder. +The culminating cruelty was the tribute of Christian children from ten +to twelve years of age who were sent to Constantinople to recruit the +corps of janissaries. It is not surprising that for the protection of +their wives and children and the safeguarding of their interests the +nobles of Bosnia and the +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P14"></A>14}</SPAN> +Pomaks of Southeastern Bulgaria embraced +the creed of their conquerors; the wonder is that the people as a whole +remained true to their Christian faith even at the cost of daily +martyrdom from generation to generation. Their fate too grew worse as +the Turkish power declined after the unsuccessful siege of Vienna in +1683. For at first Ottoman troops ravaged Bulgaria as they marched +through the land on their way to Austria; and later disbanded soldiers +in defiance of Turkish authority plundered the country and committed +nameless atrocities. Servia was to some extent protected by her remote +location, but that very circumstance bred insubordination in the +janissaries, who refused to obey the local Turkish governors and gave +themselves up to looting, brigandage, and massacre. The national +spirit of the subject races was completely crushed. The Servians and +Bulgarians for three or four centuries lost all consciousness of a +fatherland. The countrymen of Simeon and Dushan became +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P15"></A>15}</SPAN> +mere +hewers of wood and drawers of water for their foreign masters. Servia +and Bulgaria simply disappeared. As late as 1834 Kinglake in +travelling to Constantinople from Belgrade must have passed straight +across Bulgaria. Yet in "Eothen," in which he describes his travels, +he never even mentions that country or its people. +</P> + +<P> +It is easy to understand that this history of Turkish horrors should +have burned itself into the heart and soul of the resurrected Servia +and Bulgaria of our own day. But there is another circumstance +connected with the ruthless destruction and long entombment of these +nationalities which it is difficult for foreigners, even the most +intelligent foreigners, to understand or at any rate to grasp in its +full significance. Yet the sentiments to which that circumstance has +given rise and which it still nourishes are perhaps as potent a factor +in contemporary Balkan politics as the antipathy of the Christian +nations to their former Moslem oppressors. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P16"></A>16}</SPAN> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +GREEK ECCLESIASTICAL DOMINATION OF SLAVS +</P> + +<P> +I refer to the special and exceptional position held by the Greeks in +the Turkish dominions. Though the Moslems had possessed themselves of +the Greek Empire from the Bosphorus to the Danube, Greek domination +still survived as an intellectual, ecclesiastical, and commercial +force. The nature and effects of that supremacy, and its results upon +the fortunes of other Balkan nations, we must now proceed to consider. +</P> + +<P> +The Turkish government classifies its subjects not on the basis of +nationality but on the basis of religion. A homogeneous religious +group is designated a millet or nation. Thus the Moslems form the +millet of Islam. And at the present time there are among others a +Greek millet, a Catholic millet, and a Jewish millet. But from the +first days of the Ottoman conquest until very recent times all the +Christian population, irrespective of denominational differences, was +assigned by the Sultans to the +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P17"></A>17}</SPAN> +Greek millet, of which the +patriarch of Constantinople was the head. The members of this millet +were all called Greeks; the bishops and higher clergy were exclusively +Greek; and the language of their churches and schools was Greek, which +was also the language of literature, commerce, and polite society. But +the jurisdiction of the patriarch was not restricted even to +ecclesiastical and educational matters. It extended to a considerable +part of civil law—notably to questions of marriage, divorce, and +inheritance when they concerned Christians only. +</P> + +<P> +It is obvious that the possession by the Greek patriarch of +Constantinople of this enormous power over the Christian subjects of +the Turks enabled him to carry on a propaganda of hellenization. The +disappearance for three centuries of the national consciousness in +Servia and Bulgaria was not the sole work of the Moslem invader; a more +fatal blight to the national languages and culture were the Greek +bishops +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P18"></A>18}</SPAN> +and clergy who conducted their churches and schools. And +if Kinglake knew nothing of Bulgaria as late as 1834 it was because +every educated person in that country called himself a Greek. For it +cannot be too strongly emphasized that until comparatively recent times +all Christians of whatever nation or sect were officially recognized by +the Turks as members of the Greek millet and were therefore designated +Greeks. +</P> + +<P> +The hostility of the Slavonic peoples in the Balkans, and especially of +the Bulgarians, to the Greeks, grows out of the ecclesiastical and +educational domination which the Greek clergy and bishops so long and +so relentlessly exercised over them. Of course the Turkish Sultans are +responsible for the arrangement. But there is no evidence that they +had any other intention than to rid themselves of a disagreeable task. +For the rest they regarded Greeks and Slavs with equal contempt. But +the Greeks quickly recognized the racial advantage of their +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P19"></A>19}</SPAN> +ecclesiastical hegemony. And it was not in human nature to give it up +without a struggle. The patriarchate retained its exclusive +jurisdiction over all orthodox populations till 1870, when the Sultan +issued a firman establishing the Bulgarian exarchate. +</P> + +<P> +There were two other spheres in which Greek influence was paramount in +the Turkish Empire. The Turk is a soldier and farmer; the Greek is +pre-eminent as a trader, and his ability secured him a disproportionate +share of the trade of the empire. Again, the Greeks of Constantinople +and other large cities gradually won the confidence of the Turks and +attained political importance. During the eighteenth century the +highest officials in the empire were invariably Phanariots, as the +Constantinople Greeks were termed from the quarter of the city in which +they resided. +</P> + +<P> +In speaking of the Greeks I have not had in mind the inhabitants of the +present kingdom of Greece. Their subjection by the Turks was as +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P20"></A>20}</SPAN> +complete as that of the Serbs and Bulgarians, though of course they +were exempt from ecclesiastical domination at the hands of an alien +clergy speaking a foreign language. The enmity of the Bulgarians may +to-day be visited upon the subjects of King Constantine, but it was not +their ancestors who imposed upon Bulgaria foreign schools and churches +but the Greeks of Constantinople and Thrace, over whom the government +of Athens has never had jurisdiction. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +SERVIAN INDEPENDENCE +</P> + +<P> +So much of the Balkan countries under Turkish rule. Their emancipation +did not come till the nineteenth century. The first to throw off the +yoke was Servia. Taking advantage of the disorganization and anarchy +prevailing in the Ottoman Empire the Servian people rose in a body +against their oppressors in January, 1804. Under the able leadership +first of Kara-George and afterward of Milosh Obrenovich, Servian +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P21"></A>21}</SPAN> +autonomy was definitely established in 1817. The complete independence +of the country was recognized by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The +boundaries of the new state, however, fell far short of Servian +aspirations, excluding as they did large numbers of the Servian +population. The first ruling prince of modern Servia was Milosh +Obrenovich; and the subsequent rulers have belonged either to the +Obrenovich dynasty or to its rival the dynasty of Kara-George. King +Peter, who came to the throne in 1903, is a member of the latter family. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +GREEK INDEPENDENCE +</P> + +<P> +Scarcely had Servia won her freedom when the Greek war of independence +broke out. Archbishop Germanos called the Christian population of the +Morea under the standard of the cross in 1821. For three years the +Greeks, with the assistance of European money and volunteers (of whom +Lord Byron was the most illustrious), conducted a successful campaign +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P22"></A>22}</SPAN> +against the Turkish forces; but after the Sultan had in 1824 +summoned to his aid Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, with his powerful +fleet and disciplined army, the laurels which the Greek patriots had +won were recovered by the oppressor; and, with the recapture of Athens +in May, 1827, the whole country once more lay under the dominion of the +Turks. The Powers now recognized that nothing but intervention could +save Greece for European civilization. The Egyptian fleet was +annihilated at Navarino in October, 1828, by the fleets of England, +France, and Russia. Greece was constituted an independent monarchy, +though the Powers who recognized its independence traced the frontier +of the emancipated country in a jealous and niggardly spirit. Prince +Otto of Bavaria was designated the first King and reigned for thirty +years. He was succeeded in 1863 by King George who lived to see the +northern boundary of his kingdom advanced to Saloniki, where, like a +faithful sentinel at his post, he fell, on +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P23"></A>23}</SPAN> +March 18, 1913, by the +hand of an assassin just as he had attained the glorious fruition of a +reign of fifty years. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +BULGARIAN INDEPENDENCE +</P> + +<P> +There had been a literary revival preceding the dawn of independence in +Greece. In Bulgaria, which was the last of the Balkan states to become +independent, the national regeneration was also fostered by a literary +and educational movement, of which the founding of the first Bulgarian +school—that of Gabrovo—in 1835 was undoubtedly the most important +event. In the next five years more than fifty Bulgarian schools were +established and five Bulgarian printing-presses set up. The Bulgarians +were beginning to re-discover their own nationality. Bulgarian schools +and books produced a reaction against Greek culture and the Greek +clergy who maintained it. Not much longer would Greek remain the +language of the upper classes in Bulgarian cities; not much +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P24"></A>24}</SPAN> +longer +would ignorant peasants, who spoke only Bulgarian, call themselves +Greek. The days of the spiritual domination of the Greek patriarchate +were numbered. The ecclesiastical ascendency of the Greeks had crushed +Bulgarian nationality more completely than even the civil power of the +Turks. The abolition of the spiritual rule of foreigners and the +restoration of the independent Bulgarian church became the leading +object of the literary reformers, educators, and patriots. It was a +long and arduous campaign—a campaign of education and awakening at +home and of appeal and discussion in Constantinople. Finally the +Sultan intervened and in 1870 issued a firman establishing the +Bulgarian exarchate, conferring on it immediate jurisdiction over +fifteen dioceses, and providing for the addition of other dioceses on a +vote of two-thirds of their Christian population. The new Bulgarian +exarch was immediately excommunicated by the Greek patriarch. But the +first and most important official step had +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P25"></A>25}</SPAN> +been taken in the +development of Bulgarian nationality. +</P> + +<P> +The revolt against the Turks followed in 1876. It was suppressed by +acts of cruelty and horror unparalleled even in the Balkans. Many +thousands of men, women, and children were massacred and scores of +villages destroyed. I remember vividly—for I was then in England—how +Gladstone's denunciation of those atrocities aroused a wave of moral +indignation and wrath which swept furiously from one end of Great +Britain to the other, and even aroused the governments and peoples of +the Continent of Europe. The Porte refusing to adopt satisfactory +measures of reform, Russia declared war and her victorious army +advanced to the very gates of Constantinople. The Treaty of San +Stefano, which Russia then enforced upon Turkey, created a "Big +Bulgaria" that extended from the Black Sea to the Albanian Mountains +and from the Danube to the Aegean, leaving to Turkey, however, +Adrianople, Saloniki, and the +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P26"></A>26}</SPAN> +Chalcidician Peninsula. But this +treaty was torn to pieces by the Powers, who feared that "Big Bulgaria" +would become a mere Russian dependency, and they substituted for it the +Treaty of Berlin. Under this memorable instrument, which dashed to the +ground the racial and national aspirations of the Bulgarians which the +Treaty of San Stefano had so completely satisfied, their country was +restricted to a "tributary principality" lying between the Danube and +the Balkans, Eastern Roumelia to the south being excluded from it and +made an autonomous province of Turkey. This breach in the political +life of the race was healed in 1885 by the union of Eastern Roumelia +with Bulgaria; and the Ottoman sovereignty, which had become little +more than a form, was completely ended in 1908 when the ruler of the +enlarged principality of Bulgaria publicly proclaimed it an independent +kingdom. In spite of a protest from the Porte the independence of +Bulgaria was at once recognized by the Powers. +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P27"></A>27}</SPAN> +If Bulgaria owed +the freedom with which the Treaty of Berlin dowered her to the swords, +and also to the pens, of foreigners, her complete independence was her +own achievement. But it was not brought about till a generation after +the Treaty of Berlin had recognized the independence of Servia, +Montenegro, and Roumania and delegated to Austria-Hungary the +administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Yet the progress made by +Bulgaria first under Prince Alexander and especially since 1887 under +Prince Ferdinand (who subsequently assumed the title of King and later +of Czar) is one of the most astonishing phenomena in the history of +Modern Europe. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE BALKAN COUNTRIES +</P> + +<P> +Thus in consequence of the events we have here so hastily sketched +Turkey had lost since the nineteenth century opened a large portion of +the Balkan Peninsula. Along the Danube and the Save at the north +Bulgaria and Servia had +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P28"></A>28}</SPAN> +become independent kingdoms and Bosnia and +Herzegovina had at first practically and later formally been annexed to +Austria-Hungary. At the extreme southern end of the Balkan Peninsula +the Greeks had carved out an independent kingdom extending from Cape +Matapan to the Vale of Tempe and the Gulf of Arta. All that remained +of European Turkey was the territory lying between Greece and the Slav +countries of Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria. The Porte has +divided this domain into six provinces or vilayets, besides +Constantinople and its environs. These vilayets are Scutari and Janina +on the Adriatic; Kossovo and Monastir, adjoining them on the east; next +Saloniki, embracing the centre of the area; and finally Adrianople, +extending from the Mesta River to the Black Sea. In ordinary language +the ancient classical names are generally used to designate these +divisions. The vilayet of Adrianople roughly corresponds to Thrace, +the Adriatic vilayets to Epirus, and the intervening +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P29"></A>29}</SPAN> +territory to +Macedonia. Parts of the domain in question are, however, also known +under other names. The district immediately south of Servia is often +called Old Servia; and the Adriatic coast lands between Montenegro and +Greece are generally designated Albania on the north and Epirus on the +south. +</P> + +<P> +The area of Turkey in Europe in 1912 was 169,300 square kilometers; of +Bulgaria 96,300; of Greece 64,600; of Servia 48,300; and of Montenegro +9,000. The population of European Turkey at the same date was +6,130,000; of Bulgaria 4,329,000; of Greece 2,632,000; of Servia +2,912,000; and of Montenegro 250,000. To the north of the Balkan +states, with the Danube on the south and the Black Sea on the east, lay +Roumania having an area of 131,350 square kilometers and a population +of 7,070,000. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P30"></A>30}</SPAN> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +CAUSES OF THE FIRST BALKAN WAR +</P> + +<P> +What was the occasion of the war between Turkey and the Balkan states +in 1912? The most general answer that can be given to that question is +contained in the one word <I>Macedonia</I>. Geographically Macedonia lies +between Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria. Ethnographically it is an +extension of their races. And if, as Matthew Arnold declared, the +primary impulse both of individuals and of nations is the tendency to +expansion, Macedonia both in virtue of its location and of its +population was fore-ordained to be a magnet to the emancipated +Christian nations of the Balkans. Of course the expansion of Greeks +and Slavs meant the expulsion of Turks. Hence the Macedonian question +was the quintessence of the Near Eastern Question. +</P> + +<P> +But apart altogether from the expansionist ambitions and the racial +sympathies of their kindred in Bulgaria, Servia, and Greece, the +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P31"></A>31}</SPAN> +population of Macedonia had the same right to emancipation from Turkish +domination and oppression as their brethren in these neighboring +states. The Moslems had forfeited their sovereign rights in Europe by +their unutterable incapacity to govern their Christian subjects. Had +the Treaty of Berlin sanctioned, instead of undoing, the Treaty of San +Stefano, the whole of Macedonia would have come under Bulgarian +sovereignty; and although Servia and especially Greece would have +protested against the Bulgarian absorption of their Macedonian brethren +(whom they had always hoped to bring under their own jurisdiction when +the Turk was expelled) the result would certainly have been better for +all the Christian inhabitants of Macedonia as well as for the +Mohammedans (who number 800,000 persons or nearly one third of the +entire population of Macedonia). As it was these people were all +doomed to a continuation of Turkish misgovernment, oppression, and +slaughter. The Treaty of Berlin +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P32"></A>32}</SPAN> +indeed provided for reforms, but +the Porte through diplomacy and delay frustrated all the efforts of +Europe to have them put into effect. For fifteen years the people +waited for the fulfilment of the European promise of an amelioration of +their condition, enduring meanwhile the scandalous misgovernment of +Abdul Hamid II. But after 1893 revolutionary societies became active. +The Internal Organization was a local body whose programme was +"Macedonia for the Macedonians." But both in Bulgaria and in Greece +there were organized societies which sent insurgent bands into +Macedonia to maintain and assert their respective national interests. +This was one of the causes of the war between Turkey and Greece in +1897, and the reverses of the Greeks in that war inured to the +advantage of the Bulgarian propaganda in Macedonia. Servian bands soon +after began to appear on the scene. These hostile activities in +Macedonia naturally produced reprisals at the hands of the Turkish +authorities. In one +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P33"></A>33}</SPAN> +district alone 100 villages were burned, over +8,000 houses destroyed, and 60,000 peasants left without homes at the +beginning of winter. Meanwhile the Austrian and Russian governments +intervened and drew up elaborate schemes of reform, but their plans +could not be adequately enforced and the result was failure. The +Austro-Russian entente came to an end in 1908, and in the same year +England joined Russia in a project aiming at a better administration of +justice and involving more effective European supervision. Scarcely +had this programme been announced when the revolution under the Young +Turk party broke out which promised to the world a regeneration of the +Ottoman Empire. Hopeful of these constitutional reformers of Turkey, +Europe withdrew from Macedonia and entrusted its destinies to its new +master. Never was there a more bitter disappointment. If autocratic +Sultans had punished the poor Macedonians with whips, the Young Turks +flayed them with scorpions. +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P34"></A>34}</SPAN> +Sympathy, indignation, and horror +conspired with nationalistic aspirations and territorial interests to +arouse the kindred populations of the surrounding states. And in +October, 1912, war was declared against Turkey by Bulgaria, Servia, +Montenegro, and Greece. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE BALKAN LEAGUE +</P> + +<P> +This brings us to the so-called Balkan Alliance about which much has +been written and many errors ignorantly propagated. For months after +the outbreak of the war against Turkey the development of this Alliance +into a Confederation of the Balkan states, on the model of the American +or the German constitution, was a theme of constant discussion in +Europe and America. As a matter of fact there existed no juridical +ground for this expectation, and the sentiments of the peoples of the +four Christian nations, even while they fought together against the +Moslem, were saturated with such an infusion of suspicion +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P35"></A>35}</SPAN> +and +hostility as to render nugatory any programme of Balkan confederation. +An alliance had indeed been concluded between Greece and Bulgaria in +May, 1912, but it was a defensive, not an offensive alliance. It +provided that in case Turkey attacked either of these states, the other +should come to its assistance with all its forces, and that whether the +object of the attack were the territorial integrity of the nation or +the rights guaranteed it by international law or special conventions. +Without the knowledge of the Greek government, an offensive alliance +against Turkey had in March, 1912, been concluded between Servia and +Bulgaria which determined their respective military obligations in case +of war and the partition between them, in the event of victory, of the +conquered Turkish provinces in Europe. A similar offensive and +defensive alliance between Greece and Turkey was under consideration, +but before the plan was matured Bulgaria and Servia had decided to +declare war against Turkey. This +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P36"></A>36}</SPAN> +decision had been hastened by +the Turkish massacres at Kochana and Berane, which aroused the deepest +indignation, especially in Bulgaria. Servia and Bulgaria informed +Greece that in three days they would mobilize their forces for the +purpose of imposing reforms on Turkey, and, if within a specified time +they did not receive a satisfactory reply, they would invade the +Ottoman territory and declare war. They invited Greece on this short +notice to co-operate with them by a simultaneous mobilization. It was +a critical moment not only for the little kingdom of King George, but +for that great cause of Hellenism which for thousands of years had +animated, and which still animated, the souls of the Greek population +in all Aegean lands. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +GREECE AND THE LEAGUE +</P> + +<P> +King George himself was a ruler of large experience, of great practical +wisdom, and of fine diplomatic skill. He had shortly before +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P37"></A>37}</SPAN> +selected as prime minister the former Cretan insurgent, Mr. Eleutherios +Venizelos. It is significant that the new premier had also taken the +War portfolio. He foresaw the impending conflict—as every wise +statesman in Europe had foreseen it—and began to make preparations for +it. For the reorganization of the army and navy he secured French and +English experts, the former headed by General Eydoux, the latter by +Admiral Tufnel. By 1914 it was estimated that the military and naval +forces of the country would be thoroughly trained and equipped, and war +was not expected before that date. But now in 1912 the hand of the +Greek government was forced. And a decision one way or the other was +inevitable. +</P> + +<P> +Mr. Venizelos had already proved himself an agitator, an orator, and a +politician. He was now to reveal himself not only to Greece but to +Europe as a wise statesman and an effective leader of his people. The +first test came in his answer to the invitation to join Bulgaria and +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P38"></A>38}</SPAN> +Servia within three days in a war against Turkey. Of all +possibilities open to him Mr. Venizelos rejected the programme of +continued isolation for Greece. There were those who glorified it as +splendid and majestic: to him under the existing circumstances it +seemed stupid in itself and certain to prove disastrous in its results. +Greece alone would never have been able to wage a war against Turkey. +And if Greece declined to participate in the inevitable conflict, which +the action of the two Slav states had only hastened, then whether they +won or Turkey won, Greece was bound to lose. It was improbable that +the Ottoman power should come out of the contest victorious; but, if +the unexpected happened, what would be the position, not only of the +millions of Greeks in the Turkish Empire, but of the little kingdom of +Greece itself on whose northern boundary the insolent Moslem oppressor, +flushed with his triumph over Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro, would +be immovably entrenched? On the other +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P39"></A>39}</SPAN> +hand, if these Christian +states themselves should succeed, as seemed likely, in destroying the +Ottoman Empire in Europe, the Kingdom of Greece, if she now remained a +passive spectator of their struggles, would find in the end that +Macedonia had come into the possession of the victorious Slavs, and the +Great Idea of the Greeks—the idea of expansion into Hellenic lands +eastward toward Constantinople—exploded as an empty bubble. It was +Mr. Venizelos's conclusion that Greece could not avoid participating in +the struggle. Neutrality would have entailed the complete bankruptcy +of Hellenism in the Orient. There remained only the alternative of +co-operation—co-operation with Turkey or co-operation with the +Christian states of the Balkans. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +GREEK AND BULGARIAN ANTIPATHIES +</P> + +<P> +How near Greece was to an alliance with Turkey the world may never +know. At the time nothing of the sort was even suspected. It +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P40"></A>40}</SPAN> +was +not until Turkey had been overpowered by the forces of the four +Christian states and the attitude of Bulgaria toward the other three on +the question of the division of the conquered territories had become +irreconcilable and menacing that Mr. Venizelos felt it proper to +communicate to the Greek people the history of the negotiations by +which the Greek government had bound their country to a partner now +felt to be so unreasonable and greedy. Feeling in Greece was running +high against Bulgaria. The attacks on Mr. Venizelos's government were +numerous and bitter. He was getting little or no credit for the +victory that had been won against Turkey, while his opponents denounced +him for sacrificing the fruits of that victory to Bulgaria. The Greek +nation especially resented the occupation by Bulgarian troops of the +Aegean coast lands with their large Hellenic population which lay +between the Struma and the Mesta including the cities of Seres and +Drama and especially Kavala with +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P41"></A>41}</SPAN> +its fine harbor and its +hinterland famed for crops of choice tobacco. +</P> + +<P> +It was on the fourth of July, 1913, a few days after the outbreak of +the war between Bulgaria and her late allies, that Mr. Venizelos made +his defence in an eloquent and powerful speech at a special session of +the Greek parliament. The accusation against him was not only that +during the late war he had sacrificed Greek interests to Bulgaria but +that he had committed a fatal blunder in joining her in the campaign +against Turkey. His reply was that since Greece could not stand alone +he had to seek allies in the Balkans, and that it was not his fault if +the choice had fallen on Bulgaria. He had endeavored to maintain peace +with Turkey. Listen to his own words: +</P> + +<P> +"I did not seek war against the Ottoman Empire. I would not have +sought war at a later date if I could have obtained any adjustment of +the Cretan question—that thorn in the side of Greece which can no +longer be left as +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P42"></A>42}</SPAN> +it is without rendering a normal political life +absolutely impossible for us. I endeavored to adjust this question, to +continue the policy of a close understanding with the neighboring +empire, in the hope of obtaining in this way the introduction of +reforms which would render existence tolerable to the millions of +Greeks within the Ottoman Empire." +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE CRETAN PROBLEM +</P> + +<P> +It was this Cretan question, even more than the Macedonian question, +which in 1897 had driven Greece, single-handed and unprepared, into a +war with Turkey in which she was destined to meet speedy and +overwhelming defeat. It was this same "accursed Cretan question," as +Mr. Venizelos called it, which now drew the country into a military +alliance against her Ottoman neighbor who, until too late, refused to +make any concession either to the just claims of the Cretans or to the +conciliatory proposals of the Greek government. +</P> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P43"></A>43}</SPAN> + +<P> +Lying midway between three continents, the island of Crete has played a +large part both in ancient and modern history. The explorations and +excavations of Sir Arthur Evans at Cnossus seem to prove that the +Homeric civilization of Tiryns and Mycenae was derived from Crete, +whose earliest remains carry us back three thousand years before the +Christian era. And if Crete gave to ancient Greece her earliest +civilization she has insisted on giving herself to modern Greece. It +is a natural union; for the Cretans are Greeks, undiluted with Turk, +Albanian, or Slav blood, though with some admixture of Italian. The +one obstacle to this marriage of kindred souls has been Turkey. For +Crete was taken from the Venetians by the Turks in 1669, after a twenty +years' siege of Candia, the capital. A portion of the inhabitants +embraced the creed of their conquerors, so that at the present time +perhaps two-thirds of the population are Christian and one-third +Moslem. The result has been to make Crete the +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P44"></A>44}</SPAN> +worst governed +province of the Ottoman Empire. In Turkey in Europe diversity of race +has kept the Christians quarreling with one another; in Crete diversity +of religion plunges the same race into internecine war as often as once +in ten years. The island had been the scene of chronic insurrections +all through the nineteenth century. Each ended as a rule with a +promise of the Sultan to confer upon the Cretans some form of local +self-government, with additional privileges, financial or other. But +these promises were never fulfilled. Things went from bad to worse. +The military intervention of Greece in 1897 led to war with Turkey in +which she was disastrously defeated. The European Powers had meantime +intervened and they decided that Crete should be endowed with autonomy +under the sovereignty of the Sultan, and in 1898 they appointed Prince +George of Greece as High Commissioner. Between the political parties +of the island and the representatives of the Powers +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P45"></A>45}</SPAN> +the Prince, +who worked steadily for the welfare of Crete, had a difficult task, and +in 1906 he withdrew, his successor being Mr. Zaimis, a former prime +minister of Greece. The new commissioner was able to report to the +protecting Powers in 1908 that a gendarmerie had been established, that +tranquility was being maintained, and that the Moslem population +enjoyed safety and security. Thereupon the Powers began to withdraw +their forces from the island. And the project for annexation with +Greece, which had been proclaimed by the Cretan insurgents under Mr. +Venizelos in 1905 and which the insular assembly had hastened to +endorse, was once more voted by the assembly, who went on to provide +for the government of the island in the name of the King of Greece. I +have not time to follow in detail the history of this programme of +annexation. Suffice it to say that the Cretans ultimately went so far +as to elect members to sit in the Greek parliament at Athens, and that +Turkey had +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P46"></A>46}</SPAN> +given notice that their admission to the chamber would +be regarded as a <I>casus belli</I>. I saw them on their arrival in Athens +in October, 1912, where they received a most enthusiastic welcome from +the Greeks, while everybody stopped to admire their picturesque dress, +their superb physique, and their dignified demeanor. +</P> + +<P> +If Mr. Venizelos excluded these delegates from the chamber he would +defy the sentiments of the Greek people. If he admitted them, Turkey +would proclaim war. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +MR. VENIZELOS'S SOLUTION +</P> + +<P> +The course actually pursued by Mr. Venizelos in this predicament he +himself explained to the parliament in the speech delivered at the +close of the war against Turkey from which I have already quoted. He +declared to his astonished countrymen that in his desire to reach a +close understanding with Turkey he had arrived at the point where he no +longer demanded a union of Crete with Greece, "knowing it was +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P47"></A>47}</SPAN> +too +much for the Ottoman Empire." What he did ask for was the recognition +of the right of the Cretan deputies to sit in the Greek chamber, while +Crete itself should remain an autonomous state under the sovereignty of +the Sultan. Nay, Mr. Venizelos was so anxious to prevent war with +Turkey that he made another concession, for which, he frankly +confessed, his political opponents if things had turned out differently +would have impeached him for high treason. He actually proposed, in +return for the recognition of the right of the Cretan deputies to sit +in the Greek chamber, that Greece should pay on behalf of Crete an +annual tribute to the Porte. +</P> + +<P> +Happily for Mr. Venizelos's government the Young Turk party who then +governed the Ottoman Empire rejected all these proposals. Meanwhile +their misgovernment and massacre of Christians in Macedonia were +inflaming the kindred Slav nations and driving them into war against +Turkey. When matters had +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P48"></A>48}</SPAN> +reached a crisis, the reactionary and +incompetent Young Turk party were forced out of power and a wise and +prudent statesman, the venerable Kiamil Pasha, succeeded to the office +of Grand Vizier. He was all for conciliation and compromise with the +Greek government, whom he had often warned against an alliance with +Bulgaria, and he had in readiness a solution of the Cretan question +which he was certain would be satisfactory to both Greece and Turkey. +But these concessions were now too late. Greece had decided to throw +in her lot with Servia and Bulgaria. And a decree was issued for the +mobilization of the Greek troops. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE WAR +</P> + +<P> +There is not time, nor have I the qualifications, to describe the +military operations which followed. In Greece the Crown Prince was +appointed commanding general, and the event proved him one of the great +captains of our day. The prime minister, who was also minister +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P49"></A>49}</SPAN> +of +war, furnished him with troops and munitions and supplies. The plains +and hills about Athens were turned into mock battlefields for the +training of raw recruits; and young Greeks from all parts of the +world—tens of thousands of them from America—poured in to protect the +fatherland and to fight the secular enemy of Europe. The Greek +government had undertaken to raise an army of 125,000 men to co-operate +with the Allies; it was twice as large a number as even the friends of +Greece dreamed possible; yet before the war closed King Constantine had +under his banner an army of 250,000 men admirably armed, clothed, and +equipped;—each soldier indeed having munitions fifty per cent in +excess of the figure fixed by the general staff. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +GREEK MILITARY AND NAVAL OPERATIONS +</P> + +<P> +The Greek army, which had been concentrated at Larissa, entered +Macedonia by the Meluna Pass and the valley of the Xerias River. +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P50"></A>50}</SPAN> +The Turks met the advancing force at Elassona, but retired after a few +hours' fighting. They took their stand at the pass of Sarandaporon, +from which they were driven by a day's hard fighting on the part of the +Greek army and the masterly tactics of the Crown Prince. On October 23 +the Greeks were in possession of Serfidje. Thence they pushed forward +on both sides of the Aliakmon River toward Veria, which the Crown +Prince entered with his staff on the morning of October 30. They had +covered 150 miles from Larissa, with no facilities but wagons for +feeding the army and supplying ammunition. But at Veria they struck +the line of railway from Monastir to Saloniki. Not far away was +Jenitsa, where the Turkish army numbering from 35,000 to 40,000 had +concentrated to make a stand for the protection of Saloniki. The +battle of Jenitsa was fiercely contested but the Greeks were victorious +though they lost about 2000 men. This victory opened the way to +Saloniki. The Turkish armies +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P51"></A>51}</SPAN> +which defended it having been +scattered by the Greek forces, that city surrendered to Crown Prince +Constantine on the eighth of November. It was only three weeks since +the Greek army had left Larissa and it had disposed of about 60,000 +Turks on the way. +</P> + +<P> +On the outbreak of war Greece had declared a blockade of all Turkish +ports. To the usual list of contraband articles there were added not +only coal, concerning which the practice of belligerent nations had +varied, but also machine oil, which so far as I know was then for the +first time declared contraband of war. As Turkey imported both coal +and lubricants, the purpose of this policy was of course to paralyze +transportation in the Ottoman Empire. Incidentally I may say the +prohibition of lubricating oil caused much inconvenience to American +commerce; not, however, primarily on its own account, but because of +its confusion, in the minds of Greek officials, with such harmless +substances as cotton seed oil and oleo. The +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P52"></A>52}</SPAN> +Greek navy not only +maintained a very effective blockade but also took possession of all +the Aegean Islands under Turkish rule, excepting Rhodes and the +Dodecanese, which Italy held as a temporary pledge for the fulfilment +by Turkey of some of the conditions of the treaty by which they had +closed their recent war. It will be seen, therefore, that the navy was +a most important agent in the campaign, and Greece was the only one of +the Allies that had a navy. The Greek navy was sufficient not only to +terrorize the Turkish navy, which it reduced to complete impotence, but +also to paralyze Turkish trade and commerce with the outside world, to +embarrass railway transportation within the Empire, to prevent the +sending of reinforcements to Macedonia or the Aegean coast of Thrace, +and to detach from Turkey those Aegean Islands over which she still +exercised effective jurisdiction. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P53"></A>53}</SPAN> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +SERB MILITARY OPERATIONS +</P> + +<P> +On land the other Allies had been not less active than Greece. +Montenegro had fired the first shot of the war. And the brave soldiers +of King Nicholas, the illustrious ruler of the one Balkan state which +the Turks had never conquered, were dealing deadly blows to their +secular enemy both in Novi Bazar and Albania. +</P> + +<P> +As the Greeks had pressed into southern Macedonia, so the Servian +armies advanced through old Servia into northern and central Macedonia. +In their great victory over the Turkish forces at Kumanovo they avenged +the defeat of their ancestors at Kossovo five hundred years before. +Still marching southward they again defeated the enemy in two great +engagements, the one at Prilip and the other at Monastir. The latter +city had been the object of the Greek advance to Fiorina, but when the +prize fell to Servia, though the Greeks were disappointed, it made no +breach in the friendship +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P54"></A>54}</SPAN> +of the two Allies. Already no doubt they +were both gratified that the spheres of their military occupation were +conterminous and that no Turkish territory remained for Bulgaria to +occupy west of the Vardar River. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +BULGARIAN MILITARY OPERATIONS +</P> + +<P> +While Greece and Servia were scattering, capturing, or destroying the +Turkish troops stationed in Macedonia, and closing in on that province +from north and south like an irresistible vise, it fell to Bulgaria to +meet the enemy's main army in the plains of Eastern Thrace. The +distribution of the forces of the Allies was the natural result of +their respective geographical location. Macedonia to the west of the +Vardar and Bregalnitza Rivers was the only part of Turkey which +adjoined Greece and Servia. Thrace, on the other hand, marched with +the southern boundary of Bulgaria from the sources of the Mesta River +to the Black Sea, and its eastern half was intersected +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P55"></A>55}</SPAN> +diagonally +by the main road from Sofia to Adrianople and Constantinople. Along +this line the Bulgarians sent their forces against the common enemy as +soon as war was declared. The swift story of their military exploits, +the record of their brilliant victories, struck Europe with amazement. +Here was a country which only thirty-five years earlier had been an +unknown and despised province of Turkey in Europe now overwhelming the +armies of the Ottoman Empire in the great victories of Kirk Kilisse, +Lule Burgas, and Chorlu. In a few weeks the irresistible troops of +King Ferdinand had reached the Chataldja line of fortifications. Only +twenty-five miles beyond lay Constantinople where they hoped to +celebrate their final triumph. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE COLLAPSE OF TURKEY +</P> + +<P> +The Great Powers of Europe had other views. Even if the Bulgarian +delay at Chataldja—a delay probably due to +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P56"></A>56}</SPAN> +exhaustion—had not +given the Turks time to strengthen their defences and reorganize their +forces, it is practically certain that the Bulgarian army would not +have been permitted to enter Constantinople. But with the exception of +the capital and its fortified fringe, all Turkey in Europe now lay at +the mercy of the Allies. The entire territory was either already +occupied by their troops or could be occupied at leisure. Only at +three isolated points was the Ottoman power unsubdued. The city of +Adrianople, though closely besieged by the Bulgarians, still held out, +and the great fortresses of Scutari in Northern Albania and Janina in +Epirus remained in the hands of their Turkish garrisons. +</P> + +<P> +The power of Turkey had collapsed in a few weeks. Whether the ruin was +due to inefficiency and corruption in government or the injection by +the Young Turk party of politics into the army or exhaustion resulting +from the recent war with Italy or to other causes more obscure, +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P57"></A>57}</SPAN> +we +need not pause to inquire. The disaster itself, however, had spread +far enough in the opinion of Europe, and a Peace Conference was +summoned in December. Delegates from the belligerent states and +ambassadors from the Great Powers came together in London. But their +labors in the cause of peace proved unavailing. Turkey was unwilling +to surrender Adrianople and Bulgaria insisted on it as a <I>sine qua +non</I>. The Peace Conference broke up and hostilities were resumed. The +siege of Adrianople was pressed by the Bulgarians with the aid of +60,000 Servian troops. It was taken by storm on March 26. Already, on +March 6, Janina had yielded to the well directed attacks of King +Constantine. And the fighting ended with the spectacular surrender on +April 23 of Scutari to King Nicholas, who for a day at least defied the +united will of Europe. +</P> + +<P> +Turkey was finally compelled to accept terms of peace. In January, +while the London Peace Conference was still in session, Kiamil Pasha, +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P58"></A>58}</SPAN> +who had endeavored to prepare the nation for the territorial +sacrifice he had all along recognized as inevitable, was driven from +power and his war minister, Nazim Pasha, murdered through an uprising +of the Young Turk party executed by Enver Bey, who himself demanded the +resignation of Kiamil and carried it to the Sultan and secured its +acceptance. The insurgents set up Mahmud Shevket Pasha as Grand Vizier +and made the retention of Adrianople their cardinal policy. But the +same inexorable fate overtook the new government in April as faced +Kiamil in January. The Powers were insistent on peace, and the +successes of the Allies left no alternative and no excuse for delay. +The Young Turk party who had come to power on the Adrianople issue were +accordingly compelled to ratify the cession to the allies of the city +with all its mosques and tombs and historic souvenirs. The Treaty of +London, which proved to be short-lived, was signed on May 30. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P59"></A>59}</SPAN> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE TERMS OF PEACE +</P> + +<P> +The treaty of peace provided that beyond a line drawn from Enos near +the mouth of the Maritza River on the Aegean Sea to Midia on the coast +of the Black Sea all Turkey should be ceded to the Allies except +Albania, whose boundaries were to be fixed by the Great Powers. It was +also stipulated that the Great Powers should determine the destiny of +the Aegean Islands belonging to Turkey which Greece now claimed by +right of military occupation and the vote of their inhabitants (nearly +all of whom were Greek). A more direct concession to Greece was the +withdrawal of Turkish sovereignty over Crete. The treaty also +contained financial and other provisions, but they do not concern us +here. The essential point is that, with the exception of +Constantinople and a narrow hinterland for its protection, the Moslems +after more than five centuries of possession had been driven out of +Europe. +</P> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P60"></A>60}</SPAN> + +<P> +This great and memorable consummation was the achievement of the united +nations of the Balkans. It was not a happy augury for the immediate +future to recall the historic fact that the past successes of the +Moslems had been due to dissensions and divisions among their Christian +neighbors. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap02"></A> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P61"></A>61}</SPAN> + +<H2 ALIGN="center"> +II +</H2> + +<H2 ALIGN="center"> +THE WAR BETWEEN THE ALLIES +</H2> + +<BR> + +<A NAME="img-060"></A> +<CENTER> +<IMG CLASS="imgcenter" SRC="images/img-060.jpg" ALT="Map showing the Turkish Territories occupied by the Armies of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Servia at the close of the War against Turkey." BORDER="2"> +<H4 CLASS="h4center"> +Map showing the Turkish Territories occupied by the Armies of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Servia at the close of the War against Turkey. +</H4> +</CENTER> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P63"></A>63}</SPAN> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +II +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +THE WAR BETWEEN THE ALLIES +</H3> + +<P> +The Treaty of London officially eliminated Turkey from the further +settlement of the Balkan question. Thanks to the good will of the +Great Powers toward herself or to their rising jealousy of Bulgaria she +was not stripped of her entire European possessions west of the +Chataldja lines where the victorious Bulgarians had planted their +standards. The Enos-Midia frontier not only guaranteed to her a +considerable portion of territory which the Bulgarians had occupied but +extended her coast line, from the point where the Chataldja lines +strike the Sea of Marmora, out through the Dardanelles and along the +Aegean littoral to the mouth of the Maritza River. To that extent the +Great Powers may be said to have re-established the +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P64"></A>64}</SPAN> +Turks once +more in Europe from which they had been practically driven by the +Balkan Allies, and especially the Bulgarians. All the rest of her +European possessions, however, Turkey was forced to surrender either in +trust to the Great Powers or absolutely to the Balkan Allies. +</P> + +<P> +The great question now was how the Allies should divide among +themselves the spoils of war. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +RIVAL AMBITIONS OF THE ALLIES +</P> + +<P> +This was a difficult matter to adjust. Before the war began, as we +have already seen, a Treaty of Partition had been negotiated between +Bulgaria and Servia, but conditions had changed materially in the +interval and Servia now demanded a revision of the treaty and refused +to withdraw her troops from Central Macedonia, which the treaty had +marked for reversion to Bulgaria. In consequence the relations between +the governments and peoples of +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P65"></A>65}</SPAN> +Servia and Bulgaria were +dangerously strained. The Bulgarians denounced the Servians as +perfidious and faithless and the Servians responded by excoriating the +colossal greed and intolerance of the Bulgarians. The immemorial +mutual hatred of the two Slav nations was stirred to its lowest depths, +and it boiled and sputtered like a witches' cauldron. +</P> + +<P> +In Eastern Macedonia Bulgarians and Greeks were each eagerly pushing +their respective spheres of occupation without much regard to the +rights or feeling of the other Ally. Though the Bulgarians had not +forgiven the Greeks for anticipating them in the capture of Saloniki in +the month of November, the rivalry between them in the following winter +and spring had for its stage the territory between the Struma and the +Mesta Rivers—and especially the quadrilateral marked by Kavala and +Orphani on the coast and Seres and Drama on the line of railway from +Saloniki to Adrianople. The Greeks had one advantage over the +Bulgarians: +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P66"></A>66}</SPAN> +their troops could be employed to secure extensions of +territory for the Hellenic kingdom at a time when Bulgaria still needed +the bulk of her forces to fight the Turks at Chataldja and Adrianople. +Hence the Greeks occupied towns in the district from which Bulgarian +troops had been recalled. Nor did they hesitate to dislodge scattered +Bulgarian troops which their ally had left behind to establish a claim +of occupation. Naturally disputes arose between the military +commanders and these led to repeated armed encounters. On March 5 +Greeks and Bulgarians fought at Nigrita as they subsequently fought at +Pravishta, Leftera, Panghaion, and Anghista. +</P> + +<P> +This conduct of the Allies toward one another while the common enemy +was still in the field boded ill for their future relations. "Our next +war will be with Bulgaria," said the man on the street in Athens, and +this bellicose sentiment was reciprocated alike by the Bulgarian people +and the Bulgarian army. The +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P67"></A>67}</SPAN> +secular mutual enmities and +animosities of the Greeks and Bulgarians, which self-interest had +suppressed long enough to enable the Balkan Allies to make European +Turkey their own, burst forth with redoubled violence under the +stimulus of the imperious demand which the occasion now made upon them +all for an equitable distribution of the conquered territory. For ages +the fatal vice of the Balkan nations has been the immoderate and +intolerant assertion by each of its own claims coupled with +contemptuous disregard of the rights of others. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +ALBANIA A CAUSE OF FRICTION +</P> + +<P> +There were also external causes which contributed to the deepening +tragedy in the Balkans. Undoubtedly the most potent was the +dislocation of the plans of the Allies by the creation of an +independent Albania. This new kingdom was called into being by the +voice of the European concert at the demand of Austria-Hungary +supported by Italy. +</P> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P68"></A>68}</SPAN> + +<P> +The controlling force in politics, though not the only force, is +self-interest. Austria-Hungary had long sought an outlet through +Macedonia to the Aegean by way of Saloniki. It was also the aim of +Servia to reach the Adriatic. But the foreign policy of +Austria-Hungary, which has millions of Serbs under its dominion, has +steadily opposed the aggrandizement of Servia. And now that Servia and +her allies had taken possession of Macedonia and blocked the path of +Austria-Hungary to Saloniki, it was not merely revenge, it was +self-interest pursuing a consistent foreign policy, which moved the +Dual Monarchy to make the cardinal feature of its Balkan programme the +exclusion of Servia from access to the Adriatic Sea. Before the first +Balkan war began the Adriatic littoral was under the dominion of +Austria-Hungary and Italy, for though Montenegro and European Turkey +were their maritime neighbors neither of them had any naval strength. +Naturally +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P69"></A>69}</SPAN> +these two dominant powers desired that after the close +of the Balkan war they should not be in a worse position in the +Adriatic than heretofore. But if Servia were allowed to expand +westward to the Adriatic, their supremacy might in the future be +challenged. For Servia might enter into special relations with her +great sister Slav state, Russia, or a confederation might be formed +embracing all the Balkan states between the Black Sea and the Adriatic: +and, in either event, Austria-Hungary and Italy would no longer enjoy +the unchallenged supremacy on the Adriatic coasts which was theirs so +long as Turkey held dominion over the maritime country lying between +Greece and Montenegro. As a necessity of practical politics, +therefore, there emerged the Austro-Italian policy of an independent +Albania. But natural and essential as this policy was for Italy and +Austria-Hungary, it was fatal to Servia's dream of expansion to the +Adriatic; it set narrow limits to the northward extension of +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P70"></A>70}</SPAN> + +Greece into Epirus, and the southward extension of Montenegro below +Scutari; it impelled these Allies to seek compensation in territory +that Bulgaria had regarded as her peculiar preserve; and as a +consequence it seriously menaced the existence of the Balkan Alliance +torn as it already was by mutual jealousies, enmities, aggressions, and +recriminations. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +RECOIL OF SERVIA TOWARD THE AEGEAN +</P> + +<P> +The first effect of the European fiat regarding an independent Albania +was the recoil of Servia against Bulgaria. Confronted by the <I>force +majeure</I> of the Great Powers which stopped her advance to the Adriatic, +Servia turned her anxious regard toward the Gulf of Saloniki and the +Aegean Sea. Already her victorious armies had occupied Macedonia from +the Albanian frontier eastward beyond the Vardar River to Strumnitza, +Istib, and Kochana, and southward below Monastir and Ghevgheli, where +they touched the boundary of the +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P71"></A>71}</SPAN> +Greek occupation of Southern +Macedonia. An agreement with the Greeks, who held the city of Saloniki +and its hinterland as well as the whole Chalcidician Peninsula, would +ensure Servia an outlet to the sea. And the merchants of +Saloniki—mostly the descendants of Jews expelled from Spain in the +fifteenth century—were shrewd enough to recognize the advantage to +their city of securing the commerce of Servia, especially as they were +destined to lose, in consequence of hostile tariffs certain to be +established by the conquerors, a considerable portion of the trade +which had formerly flowed to them without let or hindrance from a large +section of European Turkey. The government of Greece was equally +favorably disposed to this programme; for, in the first place, it was +to its interest to cultivate friendly relations with Servia, in view of +possible embroilments with Bulgaria; and, in the second place, it had +to countercheck the game of those who wanted either to make Saloniki a +free city or to +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P72"></A>72}</SPAN> +incorporate it in a Big Bulgaria, and who were +using with some effect the argument that the annexation of the city to +Greece meant the throttling of its trade and the annihilation of its +prosperity. The interests of the city of Saloniki, the interests of +Greece, and the interests of Servia all combined to demand the free +flow of Servian trade by way of Saloniki. And if no other power +obtained jurisdiction over any Macedonian territory through which that +trade passed, it would be easy for the Greek and Servian governments to +come to an understanding. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +TREATY RESTRICTIONS +</P> + +<P> +Just here, however, was the rub. The secret treaty of March, 1912, +providing for the offensive and defensive alliance of Bulgaria and +Servia against the Ottoman Empire regulated, in case of victory, the +division of the conquered territory between the Allies. And the +extreme limit, on the south and east, of Turkish territory +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P73"></A>73}</SPAN> +assigned to Servia by this treaty was fixed by a line starting from +Ochrida on the borders of Albania and running northeastward across the +Vardar River a few miles above Veles and thence, following the same +general direction, through Ovcepolje and Egri Palanka to Golema Vreh on +the frontier of Bulgaria—a terminus some twenty miles southeast of the +meeting point of Servia, Macedonia, and Bulgaria. During the war with +Turkey the Servian armies had paid no attention to the Ochrida-Golema +Vreh line. The great victory over the Turks at Kumanovo, by which the +Slav defeat at Kossovo five hundred years earlier was avenged, was, it +is true, won at a point north of the line in question. But the +subsequent victories of Prilip and Monastir were gained to the south of +it—far, indeed, into the heart of the Macedonian territory recognized +by the treaty as Bulgarian. +</P> + +<P> +If you look at a map you will see that the boundary between Servia and +Bulgaria, starting +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P74"></A>74}</SPAN> +from the Danube, runs in a slightly undulating +line due south. Now what the military forces of King Peter did during +the war of the Balkan states with the Ottoman Empire was to occupy all +European Turkey south of Servia between the prolongation of that +boundary line and the new Kingdom of Albania till they met the Hellenic +army advancing northward under Crown Prince Constantine, when the two +governments agreed on a common boundary for New Servia and New Greece +along a line starting from Lake Presba and running eastward between +Monastir and Fiorina to the Vardar River a little to the south of +Ghevgheli. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE APPLE OF DISCORD +</P> + +<P> +But this arrangement between Greece and Servia would leave no territory +for Bulgaria in Central and Western Macedonia! Yet Servia had solemnly +bound herself by treaty not to ask for any Turkish territory below the +Ochrida-Golema Vreh line. There was no +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P75"></A>75}</SPAN> +similar treaty with +Greece, but Bulgaria regarded the northern frontier of New Greece as a +matter for adjustment between the two governments. Servia, withdrawn +behind the Ochrida-Golema Vreh line in accordance with the terms of the +treaty, would at any rate have nothing to say about the matter. And, +although the Bulgarian government never communicated, officially or +unofficially, its own views to Greece or Servia, I believe we should +not make much mistake in asserting that a line drawn from Ochrida to +Saloniki (which Bulgaria in spite of the Greek occupation continued to +claim) would roughly represent the limit of its voluntary concession. +Now if you imagine a base line drawn from Saloniki to Goletna Vreh, you +have an equilateral triangle resting on Ochrida as apex. And this +equilateral triangle represents approximately what Bulgaria claimed in +the western half of Macedonia as her own. +</P> + +<P> +The war between the Allies was fought over the possession of this +triangle. The larger +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P76"></A>76}</SPAN> +portion of it had in the war against Turkey +been occupied by the forces of Servia; and the nation, inflamed by the +military spirit of the army, had made up its mind that, treaty or no +treaty, it should not be evacuated. On the south, especially above +Vodena, the Greeks had occupied a section of the fatal triangle. And +the two governments had decided that they would not tolerate the +driving of a Bulgarian wedge between New Servia and New Greece. +Bulgaria, on the other hand, was inexorable in her demands on Servia +for the fulfilment of the terms of the Treaty of Partition. At the +same time she worried the Greek government about the future of +Saloniki, and that at a time when the Greek people were criticizing Mr. +Venizelos for having allowed the Bulgarians to occupy regions in +Macedonia and Thrace inhabited by Greeks, notably Seres, Drama, and +Kavala, and the adjacent country between the Struma and the Mesta. +These were additional causes of dissension between the Allies. But the +primary +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P77"></A>77}</SPAN> +disruptive force was the attraction, the incompatible +attraction, exerted on them all by that central Macedonian triangle +whose apex rested on the ruins of Czar Samuel's palace at Ochrida and +whose base extended from Saloniki to Golema Vreh. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE CLAIM OF BULGARIA +</P> + +<P> +From that base line to the Black Sea nearly all European Turkey (with +the exception of the Chalcidician Peninsula, including Saloniki and its +hinterland) had been occupied by the military forces of Bulgaria. Why +then was Bulgaria so insistent on getting beyond that base line, +crossing the Vardar, and possessing herself of Central Macedonia up to +Ochrida and the eastern frontier of Albania? +</P> + +<P> +The answer, in brief, is that it has been the undeviating policy of +Bulgaria, ever since her own emancipation by Russia in 1877, to free +the Bulgarians still under the Ottoman yoke and unite them in a common +fatherland. The +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P78"></A>78}</SPAN> +Great Bulgaria which was created by Russia in the +treaty she forced on Turkey—the Treaty of San Stefano—was constructed +under the influence of the idea of a union of the Bulgarian race in a +single state under a common government. This treaty was afterward torn +to pieces by the Congress of Berlin, which set up for the Bulgarians a +very diminutive principality. But the Bulgarians, from the palace down +to the meanest hut, have always been animated by that racial and +national idea. The annexation of Eastern Roumelia in 1885 was a great +step in the direction of its realization. And it was to carry that +programme to completion that Bulgaria made war against Turkey in 1912. +Her primary object was the liberation of the Bulgarians in Macedonia +and their incorporation in a Great Bulgaria. And the Treaty of +Partition with Servia seemed, in the event of victory over Turkey, to +afford a guarantee of the accomplishment of her long-cherished purpose. +It was a strange irony of +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P79"></A>79}</SPAN> +fate that while as a result of the +geographical situation of the belligerents Bulgaria, at the close of +the war with Turkey, found herself in actual occupation of all European +Turkey from the Black Sea up to the River Struma and beyond,—that is, +all Thrace to Chataldja as well as Eastern Macedonia—her allies were +in possession of the bulk of Macedonia, including the entire triangle +she had planned to inject between the frontiers of New Servia and New +Greece! +</P> + +<P> +The Bulgarians claimed this triangle on ethnological grounds. Its +inhabitants, they asseverated, were their brethren, as genuinely +Bulgarian as the subjects of King Ferdinand. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +RACIAL PROPAGANDA IN MACEDONIA +</P> + +<P> +Of all perplexing subjects in the world few can be more baffling than +the distribution of races in Macedonia. The Turks classify the +population, not by language or by physical characteristics, but by +religion. A Greek is a member of the Orthodox Church who +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P80"></A>80}</SPAN> + +recognizes the patriarch of Constantinople; a Bulgarian, on the other +hand, is one of the same religious faith who recognizes the exarch; and +since the Servians in Turkey have no independent church but recognize +the patriarchate they are often, as opposed to Bulgarians, called +Greeks. Race, being thus merged in religion—in something that rests +on the human will and not on physical characteristics fixed by +nature—can in that part of the world be changed as easily as religion. +A Macedonian may be a Greek to-day, a Bulgarian to-morrow, and a +Servian next day. We have all heard of the captain in the comic opera +who "in spite of all temptations to belong to other nations" remained +an Englishman. There would have been nothing comic in this assertion +had the redoubtable captain lived in Macedonia. In that land a race is +a political party composed of members with common customs and religion +who stand for a "national idea" which they strenuously endeavor to +force on others. +</P> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P81"></A>81}</SPAN> + +<P> +Macedonia is the land of such racial propaganda. As the Turkish +government forbids public meetings for political purposes, the +propaganda takes an ecclesiastical and linguistic form. Each "race" +seeks to convert the people to its faith by the agency of schools and +churches, which teach and use its own language. Up to the middle of +the nineteenth century the Greeks, owing to their privileged +ecclesiastical position in the Ottoman Empire, had exclusive spiritual +and educational jurisdiction over the members of the Orthodox Church in +Macedonia. The opposition of the Bulgarians led, as we have already +seen, to the establishment in 1870 of the exarchate, that is, of an +independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church with the exarch at its head. The +Bulgarian propaganda in Macedonia demanded the appointment of bishops +to conduct churches and schools under the authority of the exarchate. +In 1891 the Porte conceded Bulgarian bishops to Ochrida and Uskub, in +1894 to Veles and Nevrokop, +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P82"></A>82}</SPAN> +and in 1898 to Monastir, Strumnitza, +and Dibra. As has been well said, the church of the exarchate was +really occupied in creating Bulgarians: it offered to the Slavonic +population of Macedonia services and schools conducted in a language +which they understood and showed a genuine interest in their education. +By 1900 Macedonia had 785 Bulgarian schools, 39,892 pupils, and 1,250 +teachers. +</P> + +<P> +The Servian propaganda in Macedonia was at a disadvantage in comparison +with the Bulgarian because it had not a separate ecclesiastical +organization. As we have already seen, the orthodox Serbs owe +allegiance to the Greek patriarch in Constantinople. And at first they +did not push their propaganda as zealously or as successfully as the +Bulgarians. In fact the national aspirations of the people of Servia +had been in the direction of Bosnia and Herzegovina; but after these +provinces were assigned to Austria by the Treaty of Berlin, a marked +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P83"></A>83}</SPAN> +change of attitude occurred in the Servian government and nation. +They now claimed as Servian the Slavonic population of Macedonia which +hitherto Bulgaria had cultivated as her own. The course of politics in +Bulgaria, notably her embroilment with Russia, inured to the advantage +of the Servian propaganda in Macedonia, which after 1890 made great +headway. The Servian government made liberal contributions for +Macedonian schools. And before the nineteenth century closed the +Servian propaganda could claim 178 schools in the vilayets of Saloniki +and Monastir and in Uskub with 321 teachers and 7,200 pupils. +</P> + +<P> +These Slav propagandists made serious encroachments upon the Greek +cause, which, only a generation earlier, had possessed a practical +monopoly in Macedonia. Greek efforts too were for a time almost +paralyzed in consequence of the disastrous issue of the Greco-Turkish +war in 1897. Nevertheless in 1901 the Greeks claimed 927 schools in +the vilayets of +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P84"></A>84}</SPAN> +Saloniki and Monastir with 1,397 teachers and +57,607 pupils. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +RACIAL FACTS AND FALLACIES +</P> + +<P> +The more bishops, churches, and schools a nationality could show, the +stronger its claim on the reversion of Macedonia when the Turk should +be driven out of Europe! There was no doubt much juggling with +statistics. And though schools and churches were provided by Greeks, +Servians, and Bulgarians to satisfy the spiritual and intellectual +needs of their kinsmen in Macedonia, there was always the ulterior +(which was generally the dominant) object of staking out claims in the +domain soon to drop from the paralyzed hand of the Turk. The bishops +may have been good shepherds of their flocks, but the primary +qualification for the office was, I imagine, the gift of aggressive +political leadership. The Turkish government now favored one +nationality and now another as the interests of the moment seemed +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P85"></A>85}</SPAN> +to suggest. With an impish delight in playing off Slav against Greek +and Servian against Bulgarian, its action on applications for +bishoprics was generally taken with a view to embarrassing the rival +Christian nationalities. And it could when necessary keep the +propagandists within severe limits. The Bulgarians grew bold after +securing so many bishoprics in the nineties and the bishop at Uskub +thought to open new schools and churches. But the Turkish +governor—the Vali—summoned him and delivered this warning: "O +Bulgarian, sit upon the eggs you have, and do not burst your belly by +trying to lay more." +</P> + +<P> +How are we to determine the racial complexion of a country in which +race is certified by religion, in which religion is measured by the +number of bishops and churches and schools, in which bishops and +churches and schools are created and maintained by a propaganda +conducted by competing external powers, and in which the results of the +propaganda +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P86"></A>86}</SPAN> +are determined largely by money and men sent from +Sofia, Athens, and Belgrade, subject always to the caprice and +manipulation of the Sultan's government at Constantinople? +</P> + +<P> +In Southern Macedonia from the Thessalian frontier as far north as the +parallel of Saloniki, the population is almost exclusively Greek, as is +also the whole of the Chalcidician Peninsula, while further east the +coast region between the Struma and the Mesta is also predominantly +Greek. Eastern Macedonia to the north of the line of Seres and Drama +and south of the Kingdom of Bulgaria is generally Bulgarian. On the +northwest from the city of Uskub up to the confines of Servia and +Bosnia, Macedonia is mixed Serb, Bulgarian, and Albanian, with the Serb +element preponderating as you travel northward and the Albanian +westward. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P87"></A>87}</SPAN> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS AND EXPERIENCES +</P> + +<P> +The difficulty comes when we attempt to give the racial character of +Central Macedonia, which is equally remote from Greece, Bulgaria, and +Servia. I travelled through this district last summer. On June 29, +when the war broke out between the Allies I found myself in Uskub. +Through the courtesy of the Servian authorities I was permitted to ride +on the first military train which left the city. Descending at Veles I +drove across Central Macedonia by way of Prilip to Monastir, spending +the first night, for lack of a better bed, in the carriage, which was +guarded by Servian sentries. From Monastir I motored over execrable +roads to Lake Presba and Lake Ochrida and thence beyond the city of +Ochrida to Struga on the Black Drin, from which I looked out on the +mountains of Albania. +</P> + +<P> +Coming from Athens where for many months I had listened to patriotic +stories of +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P88"></A>88}</SPAN> +the thorough permeation of Macedonia by Greek +settlements my first surprise was my inability to discover a Greek +majority in Central Macedonia. In most of the cities a fraction of the +population indeed is Greek and as a rule the colony is prosperous. +This is especially true in Monastir, which is a stronghold of Greek +influence. But while half the population of Monastir is Mohammedan the +so-called Bulgarians form the majority of the Christian population, +though both Servians and Roumanians have conducted energetic +propaganda. In Veles two-thirds of the population are Christians and +nearly all of these are called Bulgarians. In Ochrida the lower town +is Mohammedan and the upper Christian, and the Christian population is +almost exclusively of the Bulgarian Church. +</P> + +<P> +It does not follow, however, that the people of Central Macedonia, even +if Bulgarian churches are in the ascendant among them, are really +connected by ties of blood and language +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P89"></A>89}</SPAN> +with Bulgaria rather than +with Servia. If history is invoked we shall have to admit that under +Dushan this region was a part of the Serb empire as under Simeon and +Asen it was part of the Bulgarian. If an appeal is made to +anthropology the answer is still uncertain. For while the Mongolian +features—broad flat faces, narrow eyes, and straight black hair—which +characterize the subjects of King Ferdinand can be seen—I myself have +seen them—as far west as Ochrida, they may also be found all over +Northern Servia as far as Belgrade though the Servian physical type is +entirely different. There is no fixed connection between the +anthropological unit and the linguistic or political unit. +Furthermore, while there are well-marked groups who call themselves +Serbs or Bulgarians there is a larger population not so clearly +differentiated by physique or language. Undoubtedly they are Slavs. +But whether Serb or Bulgarian, or intermediate between the two, no one +to-day can demonstrate. Central +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P90"></A>90}</SPAN> +Macedonia has its own dialects, +any one of which under happy literary auspices might have developed +into a separate language. And the men who speak them to-day can more +or less understand either Servian or Bulgarian. Hence as the anonymous +and highly authoritative author of "Turkey in Europe," who calls +himself Odysseus, declares: +</P> + +<P> +"The practical conclusion is that neither Greeks, Servians, nor +Bulgarians have a right to claim Central Macedonia. The fact that they +all do so shows how weak each claim must be." +</P> + +<P> +Yet it was Bulgaria's intransigent assertion of her claim to Central +Macedonia which led to the war between the Allies. +</P> + +<P> +It will be instructive to consider the attitude of each of the +governments concerned on the eve of the conflict. I hope I am in a +position correctly to report it. Certainly I had unusual opportunities +to learn it. For besides the official position I held in Athens during +the entire course of both Balkan wars I visited the +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P91"></A>91}</SPAN> +Balkan states +in June and was accorded the privilege of discussing the then pending +crisis with the prime ministers of Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria. It +would of course be improper to quote them; nay more, I feel myself +under special obligation sacredly to respect the confidence they +reposed in me. But the frank disclosures they made in these +conversations gave me a point of view for the comprehension of the +situation and the estimate of facts which I have found simply +invaluable. And if Mr. Venizelos in Athens, or Mr. Maioresco in +Bukarest, or Mr. Pashitch in Belgrade, or Dr. Daneff, who is no longer +prime minister of Bulgaria, should ever chance to read what I am +saying, I hope each will feel that I have fairly and impartially +presented the attitude which their respective governments had taken at +this critical moment on the vital issue then confronting them. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P92"></A>92}</SPAN> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE ATTITUDE OF SERVIA +</P> + +<P> +I have already indicated the situation of Servia. Compelled by the +Great Powers to withdraw her troops from Albania, after they had +triumphantly made their way to the Adriatic, she was now requested by +Bulgaria to evacuate Central Macedonia up to the Ochrida-Golema Vreh +line in accordance with the terms of the treaty between the two +countries which was ratified in March, 1912. The Servian government +believed that for the loss of Albania, which the treaty assumed would +be annexed to Servia, they were entitled to compensation in Macedonia. +And if now, instead of compensation for the loss of an outlet on the +Adriatic, they were to withdraw their forces from Central Macedonia and +allow Bulgaria to establish herself between New Servia and New Greece, +they would block their own way to Saloniki, which was the only prospect +now left of a Servian outlet to the sea. Nor was this the whole +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P93"></A>93}</SPAN> +story by any means. The army, which comprised all able-bodied +Servians, was in possession of Central Macedonia; and the military +leaders, with the usual professional bias in favor of imperialism, +dictated their expansionist views to the government at Belgrade. If +Bulgaria would not voluntarily grant compensation for the loss of +Albania, the Servian people were ready to take it by force. They had +also a direct claim against Bulgaria. They had sent 60,000 soldiers to +the siege of Adrianople, which the Bulgarians had hitherto failed to +capture. And the Servians were now asking, in bitter irony, whether +they had gone to war solely for the benefit of Bulgaria; whether +besides helping her to win all Thrace and Eastern Macedonia they were +now to present her with Central Macedonia, and that at a time when the +European Concert had stripped them of the expected prize of Albania +with its much desired Adriatic littoral! This argument was graphically +presented on a map of which I secured a +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P94"></A>94}</SPAN> +copy in Belgrade. The +legend on this map reads as follows: +</P> + +<P> +"Territories occupied by Servia 55,000 square miles. Servia cedes to +her allies in the east and south 3,800 square miles. Servia cedes to +Albania 15,200 square miles. Servia retains 36,000 square miles. +Territories occupied by Bulgaria to Enos-Midia, 51,200 square miles. +The Bulgarians demand from the Servians still 10,240 square miles. +According to Bulgarian pretensions Bulgaria should get 61,520 square +miles and Servia only 25,760!" +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +PROPOSED REVISION OF TREATY AND ARBITRATION +</P> + +<P> +When the treaty between Servia and Bulgaria was negotiated, it seems to +have been assumed that the theatre of a war with Turkey would be +Macedonia and that Thrace—the country from the Mesta to the Black +Sea—would remain intact to Turkey. And if the rest of Turkey in +Europe up to the Adriatic +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P95"></A>95}</SPAN> +were conquered by the two Allies, the +Ochrida-Golema Vreh line would make a fairly equitable division between +them of the spoils of war. But with Albania denied to Servia and +Thrace occupied by Bulgaria, conditions had wholly changed. The +Servian government declared that the changed conditions had abrogated +the Treaty of Partition and that it was for the two governments now to +adjust themselves to the logic of events! On May 28 Mr. Pashitch, the +Servian prime minister, formally demanded a revision of the treaty. A +personal interview with the Bulgarian prime minister, Mr. Gueshoff, +followed on June 2 at Tsaribrod. And Mr. Gueshoff accepted Mr. +Pashitch's suggestion (which originated with Mr. Venizelos, the Greek +prime minister) of a conference of representatives of the four Allies +at St. Petersburg. For it should be added that, in the Treaty of +Partition, the Czar had been named as arbiter in case of any +territorial dispute between the two parties. +</P> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P96"></A>96}</SPAN> + +<P> +What followed in the next few days has never been clearly disclosed. +But it was of transcendent importance. I have always thought that if +Mr. Gueshoff, one of the authors of the Balkan Alliance, had been +allowed like Mr. Venizelos and Mr. Pashitch, to finish his work, there +would have been no war between the Allies. I did not enjoy the +personal acquaintance of Mr. Gueshoff, but I regarded him as a wise +statesman of moderate views, who was disposed to make reasonable +concessions for the sake of peace. But a whole nation in arms, flushed +with the sense of victory, is always dangerous to the authority of +civil government. If Mr. Gueshoff was ready to arrange some +accommodation with Mr. Pashitch, the military party in Bulgaria was all +the more insistent in its demands on Servia for the evacuation of +Central Macedonia. Even in Servia Mr. Pashitch had great difficulty in +repressing the jingo ardor of the army, whose bellicose spirit was +believed to find expression in the attitude +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P97"></A>97}</SPAN> +of the Crown Prince. +But the provocation in Bulgaria was greater, because, when all was said +and done, Servia was actually violating an agreement with Bulgaria to +which she had solemnly set her name. Possibly the military party +gained the ear of King Ferdinand. Certainly it was reported that he +was consulting with leaders of the opposition. Presumably they were +all dissatisfied with the conciliatory attitude which Mr. Gueshoff had +shown in the Tsaribrod conference. Whatever the expiation, Mr. +Gueshoff resigned on June 9. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +DELAY AND OPPOSITION OF BULGARIA +</P> + +<P> +On that very day the Czar summoned the Kings of Bulgaria and Servia to +submit their disputes to his decision. While this demand was based on +a specific provision of the Servo-Bulgarian treaty, His Majesty also +urged it on the ground of devotion to the Slav cause. This pro-Slav +argument provoked much criticism in Austro-Hungarian circles which +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P98"></A>98}</SPAN> +resented bitterly the assumption of Slav hegemony in Balkan affairs. +However, on June 12 Bulgaria and Servia accepted Russian arbitration. +But the terms were not agreed upon. While Mr. Venizelos and Mr. +Pashitch impatiently awaited the summons to St. Petersburg they could +get no definite information of the intentions of the Bulgarian +government. And the rivalry of Austria-Hungary and Russia for +predominance in the Balkans was never more intense than at this +critical moment. +</P> + +<P> +On June 14 Dr. Daneff was appointed prime minister in succession to Mr. +Gueshoff. He had represented Bulgaria in the London Peace Conference +where his aggressive and uncompromising attitude had perturbed his +fellow delegates from the other Balkan states and provoked some +criticism in the European press. He was known as a Russophil. And he +seems now to have got assurance from Russia that she would maintain the +Bulgarian view of the treaty with Servia, although she +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P99"></A>99}</SPAN> +had at one +time favored the Servian demand for an extensive revision of it. +Certainly Dr. Daneff voiced the views and sentiments of the Bulgarian +army and nation. I was in Sofia the week before the outbreak of the +war between the Allies. And the two points on which everybody insisted +were, first, that Servia must be compelled to observe the Treaty of +Partition, and, secondly, that Central Macedonia must be annexed to +Bulgaria. For these things all Bulgarians were ready to fight. And +flushed with their great victories over the main army of Turkey they +believed it would be an easy task to overpower the forces of Servia and +Greece. For the Greeks they entertained a sort of contempt; and as for +the Servians, had they not already defeated them completely at +Slivnitza in 1886? Men high in the military service of the nation +assured me that the Bulgarian army would be in Belgrade in eight days +after war was declared. The Greeks too would quickly be driven out of +Saloniki. The idea of +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P100"></A>100}</SPAN> +a conference to decide the territorial +question in dispute between the Allies found no favor in any quarter. +</P> + +<P> +Now it is important that full justice should be done to Bulgaria. As +against Servia, if Servia had stood alone, she might have appealed to +the sanctity and inviolability of treaties. Circumstances had indeed +changed since the treaty was negotiated. But was that a good reason, +Bulgaria might have asked, why she should be excluded from Central +Macedonia which the treaty guaranteed to her? Was that a good reason +why she should not emancipate her Macedonian brethren for whose sake +she had waged a bloody and costly war with Turkey? The Bulgarians saw +nothing in the problem but their treaty with Servia and apparently +cared for no territorial compensation without Central Macedonia. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P101"></A>101}</SPAN> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +BULGARIA'S UNCOMPROMISING POLICY +</P> + +<P> +The Bulgarians were blind to all facts and considerations but the +abstract terms of the treaty with Servia. It was a fact, however, that +the war against Turkey had been fought by four Allies. It was a fact +that the Ottoman government had ceded European Turkey (except Albania) +to these four Allies. No two of the Allies could divide between +themselves the common possession. A division made by the four Allies +might contravene the terms of a treaty which existed between any two of +the Allies prior to the outbreak of the war. In any event it was for +the four Allies together to effect a distribution of the territory +ceded to them by Turkey. For that purpose a conference was an +essential organ. How otherwise could the four nations reach any +agreement? Yet the Bulgarians—army, government, and nation—were +obsessed by the fixed idea that Bulgaria enjoyed not only a primacy in +this +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P102"></A>102}</SPAN> +matter but a sort of sovereign monopoly by virtue of which +it was her right and privilege to determine how much of the common +spoils she should assign Servia (with whom she had an ante-bellum +treaty), and, after Servia had been eliminated, how much she could +spare to Greece (with whom no treaty of partition existed), and, when +Greece had been disposed of, whether any crumbs could be flung to +Montenegro, who had indeed very little to hope for from the Bulgarian +government. And so Bulgaria opposed a conference of the four prime +ministers though a conference was the natural, obvious, and necessary +method of disposing of the common business pressing upon them. +</P> + +<P> +The attitude of Bulgaria left no alternative but war. Yet the +Bulgarian government failed to reckon the cost of war. Was it not +madness for Bulgaria to force war upon Greece, Servia, and Montenegro +on the west at a time when Roumania was making demands for territorial +compensation on the north and Turkey was +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P103"></A>103}</SPAN> +sure to seize the +occasion to win back territory which Bulgaria had just wrested from her +on the south? Never was a government blinder to the significant facts +of a critical situation. All circumstances conspired to prescribe +peace as the manifest policy for Bulgaria, yet nearly every step taken +by the government was provocative of war. The Bulgarian army had +covered itself with glory in the victorious campaign against the +Moslem. A large part of European Turkey was already in Bulgarian +hands. To imperil that glory and those possessions by the risk of a +new war, when the country was exhausted and new enemies lay in wait, +was as foolish as it was criminal. That way madness lay. Yet that way +the policy pursued by the Bulgarian government infallibly led. Must we +assume that there is some ground for suspecting that Austria-Hungary +was inciting Bulgaria to war? We must leave it to history to answer. +If the result was a terrible disaster, that was only the old Greek +Nemesis of the +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P104"></A>104}</SPAN> +gods for the outraged principles of reason and +moderation. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE CONCILIATORY SPIRIT OF GREECE +</P> + +<P> +Those principles, thanks to the conciliatory spirit of Mr. Venizelos, +the prime minister, and the steady support of King Constantine, who was +also commander-in-chief, were loyally followed in Greece. A few days +after the declaration of war against the Ottoman Empire, into which +Greece was precipitately hastened by the unexpected action of Servia +and Bulgaria, the Greek foreign minister addressed a communication to +the Allies on the subject of the division of conquered territory. He +traced the line of Greek claims, as based on ethnological grounds, and +added that, as he foresaw difficulties in the way of a direct +adjustment, he thought the disputed points should be submitted to +arbitration. But months followed months without bringing from Bulgaria +any clear reply to this just and reasonable proposal of the Greek +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P105"></A>105}</SPAN> +government. Nevertheless, Mr. Venizelos persisted in his attitude of +conciliation toward Bulgaria. He made concessions, not only in Thrace +but in Eastern Macedonia, for which he was bitterly criticized on the +ground of sacrificing vital Greek interests to Bulgaria. He +recognized, as his critics refused to do, that the Balkan question +could not be settled on ethnological principles alone; one had to take +account also of geographical necessities. He saw that the Greeks in +Thrace must be handed over to Bulgaria. He demanded only the +Macedonian territory which the Greek forces had actually occupied, +including Saloniki with an adequate hinterland. As the attitude of +Bulgaria became more uncompromising, as she pushed her army of +occupation further westward, Mr. Venizelos was even ready to make the +River Struma the eastern boundary of New Greece, and to abandon to +Bulgaria the Aegean littoral between the Struma and the Mesta Rivers +including Greek cities like Kavala, +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P106"></A>106}</SPAN> +Seres, and Drama. But these +new concessions of Mr. Venizelos were in danger of alienating from him +the support of the Greek nation without yielding anything in return +from Bulgaria. The outbreak of the war between the Allies saved him +from a difficult political position. Yet against that war Mr. +Venizelos strove resolutely to the end. And when in despite of all his +efforts war came, he was justified in saying, as he did say to the +national parliament, that the Greeks had the right to present +themselves before the civilized world with head erect because this new +war which was bathing with blood the Balkan Peninsula had not been +provoked by Greece or brought about by the demand of Greece to receive +satisfaction for all her ethnological claims. And this position in +which he had placed his country was, he proudly declared, a "moral +capital" of the greatest value. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P107"></A>107}</SPAN> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +BULGARIA BEGINS HOSTILITIES +</P> + +<P> +Bulgaria's belated acceptance of Russian arbitration was not destined +to establish peace. Yet Dr. Daneff, the prime minister, who received +me on June 27 and talked freely of the Balkan situation (perhaps the +more freely because in this conversation it transpired that we had been +fellow students together at the University of Heidelberg), decided on +June 28 not to go to war with the Allies. Yet that very evening at +eight o'clock, unknown to Dr. Daneff, an order in cipher and marked +"very urgent" was issued by General Savoff to the commander of the +fourth army directing him on the following evening to attack the +Servians "most vigorously along the whole front." On the following +afternoon, the 29th, General Savoff issued another order to the army +commanders giving further instructions for attacks on the Servians and +Greeks, including an attack on Saloniki, stating that these attacks +were +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P108"></A>108}</SPAN> +taking place "without any official declaration of war," and +that they were undertaken in order to accustom the Bulgarian army to +regard their former allies as enemies, to hasten the activities of the +Russian government, to compel the former allies to be more +conciliatory, and to secure new territories for Bulgaria! Who was +responsible for this deplorable lack of harmony between the civil +government and the military authorities has not yet been officially +disclosed. Did General Savoff act on his own responsibility? Or is +there any truth in the charge that King Ferdinand after a long +consultation with the Austro-Hungarian Minister instructed the General +to issue the order? Dr. Daneff knew nothing of it, and though he made +every effort to stop the resulting hostilities, the dogs of war had +been let loose and could not now be torn from one another's throats. +</P> + +<P> +There had been sporadic fighting in Macedonia between the Allies for +some months past. Greece and Servia had concluded an anti-Bulgarian +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P109"></A>109}</SPAN> +alliance on June 1. They also entered into a convention with +Roumania by which that power agreed to intervene in case of war between +the late Allies. And war having been declared, Roumania seized +Silistria at midnight, July 10. Meanwhile the Servian and Greek forces +were fighting the Bulgarians hard at Kilkis, Doiran, and other points +between the Varclar and the Struma. And, as if Bulgaria had not +enemies enough on her back already, the Turkish Army on July 12 left +the Chataldja fortifications, crossed the Enos-Midia line, and in less +than two weeks, with Enver Bey at its head, re-occupied Adrianople. +Bulgaria was powerless to stop the further advance of the Turks, nor +had she forces to send against the Roumanians who marched unopposed +through the neighboring country till Sofia itself was within their +power. +</P> + +<P> +No nation could stand up against such fearful odds. Dr. Daneff +resigned on July 15. +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P110"></A>110}</SPAN> +And the new ministry had to make the best +terms it could. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +TERMS OF PEACE +</P> + +<P> +A Peace Conference met at Bukarest on July 28, and peace was signed on +August 10. By this Treaty of Bukarest Servia secured not only all that +part of Macedonia already under her occupation but gained also an +eastward extension beyond the Doiran-Istib-Kochana line into purely +Bulgarian territory. Greece fared still better under the treaty; for +it gave her not only all the Macedonian lands she had already occupied +but extended her domain on the Aegean littoral as far east as the mouth +of the Mesta and away into the interior as far above Seres and Drama as +they are from the sea,—thus establishing the northern frontier of New +Greece from Lake Presba (near the eastern boundary of Albania) on a +northward-ascending line past Ghevgheli and Doiran to Kainchal in +Thrace on the other +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P111"></A>111}</SPAN> +side of the Mesta River. This assignment of +territory conquered from Turkey had the effect of shutting out Bulgaria +from the Western Aegean; and the littoral left to Bulgaria between the +Mesta River and the Turkish boundary has no harbor of any consequence +but Dedeagach, which is much inferior to Kavala. +</P> + +<P> +The new Turkish boundary was arranged by negotiations between the +Bulgarian and Ottoman governments. The terminus on the Black Sea was +pushed north from Midia almost up to the southern boundary of Bulgaria. +Enos remained the terminus on the Aegean. But the two termini were +connected by a curved line which after following the Maritza River to a +point between Sufli and Dimotika then swung in a semicircle well beyond +Adrianople to Bulgaria and the Black Sea. Thus Bulgaria was compelled +to cede back to the Asiatic enemy not only Adrianople but the +battlefields of Kirk Kilisse, Lule Burgas, and Chorlu on which +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P112"></A>112}</SPAN> +her brave soldiers had won such magnificent victories over the Moslems. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE ATTITUDE OF ROUMANIA +</P> + +<P> +The Treaty of Bukarest marked the predominance of Roumania in Balkan +affairs. And of course Roumania had her own reward. She had long +coveted the northeastern corner of Bulgaria, from Turtukai on the +Danube to Baltchik on the Black Sea. And this territory, even some +miles beyond that line, Bulgaria was now compelled to cede to her by +the treaty. It is a fertile area with a population of some 300,000 +souls, many of whom are Turks. +</P> + +<P> +The claim of Roumania to compensation for her neutrality during the +first Balkan war was severely criticized by the independent press of +western Europe. It was first put forward in the London Peace +Conference, but rejected by Dr. Daneff, the Bulgarian delegate. But +the Roumanian government persisted in pressing the claim, and the +Powers finally decided to +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P113"></A>113}</SPAN> +mediate, with the result that the city +of Silistria and the immediately adjoining territory were assigned to +Roumania. Neither state was satisfied with the award and the second +Balkan war broke out before the transfer had been effected. This gave +Roumania the opportunity to enforce her original claim, and, despite +the advice of Austria-Hungary, she used it, as we have already seen. +</P> + +<P> +The Roumanian government justifies its position in this matter by two +considerations. In the first place, as Roumania was larger and more +populous than any of the Balkan states, the Roumanian nation could not +sit still with folded arms while Bulgaria wrested this pre-eminence +from her. And if Bulgaria had not precipitated a war among the Allies, +if she had been content with annexing the portion of European Turkey +which she held under military occupation, New Bulgaria would have +contained a greater area and a larger population than Roumania. The +Roumanians claim, +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P114"></A>114}</SPAN> +accordingly, that the course they pursued was +dictated by a legitimate and vital national interest. And, in the +second place, as Greeks, Servians, and Bulgarians based their +respective claims to Macedonian territory on the racial character of +the inhabitants, Roumania asserted that the presence of a large +Roumanian (or Vlach) population in that disputed region gave her an +equally valid claim to a share in the common estate. +</P> + +<P> +In all Macedonia there may be some 100,000 Vlachs, though Roumanian +officials put the number much higher. Many of them are highland +shepherds; others engage in transportation with trains of horses or +mules; those in the lowlands are good farmers. They are found +especially in the mountains and valleys between Thessaly and Albania. +They are generally favorable to the Greek cause. Most of them speak +Greek as well as Roumanian; and they are all devoted members of the +Greek Orthodox Church. Yet there has been a Roumanian +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P115"></A>115}</SPAN> +propaganda +in Macedonia since 1886, and the government at Bukarest has devoted +large sums to the maintenance of Roumanian schools, of which the +maximum number at any time has perhaps not exceeded forty. +</P> + +<P> +Now if every other nation—Greek, Servian, Bulgarian—which had +hitherto maintained its propaganda of schools and churches in +Macedonia, was to bring its now emancipated children under the benign +sway of the home government and also was to annex the Macedonian lands +which they occupied, why, Roumania asked, should she be excluded from +participation in the arrangement? She did not, it is true, join the +Allies in fighting the common Moslem oppressor. But she maintained a +benevolent neutrality. And since Macedonia is not conterminous with +Roumania, she was not seeking to annex any portion of it. Yet the +rights those Roumanians in Macedonia gave her should be satisfied. And +so arguing, the Roumanian government claimed as a <I>quid pro +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P116"></A>116}</SPAN> +quo</I> +the adjoining northeastern corner of Bulgaria, permitting Bulgaria to +recoup herself by the uncontested annexation of Thrace and Eastern +Macedonia. +</P> + +<P> +Such was the Roumanian reasoning. Certainly it bore hard on Bulgaria. +But none of the belligerents showed any mercy on Bulgaria. War is a +game of ruthless self-interest. It was Bulgaria who appealed to arms +and she now had to pay the penalty. Her losses enriched all her +neighbors. What Lord Bacon says of individuals is still more true of +nations: the folly of one is the fortune of another, and none prospers +so suddenly as by others' errors. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE WORK AND REWARD OF MONTENEGRO +</P> + +<P> +I have already sufficiently described the territorial gains of +Roumania, Servia, and Greece. But I must not pass over Montenegro in +silence. As the invincible warriors of King Nicholas opened the war +against the Ottoman Empire, so they joined Servia and Greece in the +struggle +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P117"></A>117}</SPAN> +against Bulgaria. On Sunday, June 29, I saw encamped +across the street from my hotel in Uskub 15,000 of these Montenegrin +soldiers who had arrived only a day or two before by train from +Mitrowitza, into which they had marched across Novi Bazar. Tall, +lithe, daring, with countenances bespeaking clean lives, they looked as +fine a body of men as one could find anywhere in the world, and their +commanding figures and manly bearing were set off to great advantage by +their striking and picturesque uniforms. The officers told me next day +that in a few hours they would be fighting at Ghevgheli. Their +splendid appearance seemed an augury of victory for the Serbs. +</P> + +<P> +Montenegro too received her reward by an extension of territory on the +south to the frontier of Albania (as fixed by the Great Powers) and a +still more liberal extension on the east in the sandjak of Novi Bazar. +This patriarchal kingdom will probably remain unchanged so long as the +present King lives, +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P118"></A>118}</SPAN> +the much-beloved King Nicholas, a genuinely +Homeric Father of his People. But forces of an economic, social, and +political character are already at work tending to draw it into closer +union with Servia, and the Balkan wars have given a great impetus to +these forces. A united Serb state, with an Adriatic littoral which +would include the harbors of Antivari and Dulcigno, may be the future +which destiny has in store for the sister kingdoms of Servia and +Montenegro. If so, it is likely to be a mutually voluntary union; and +neither Austria-Hungary nor Italy, the warders of the Adriatic, would +seem to have any good ground to object to such a purely domestic +arrangement. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE PROBLEM OF ALBANIA +</P> + +<P> +The Albanians, though they rather opposed than assisted the Allies in +the war against Turkey, were set off as an independent nation by the +Great Powers at the instigation of Austria-Hungary with the support of +Italy. The +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P119"></A>119}</SPAN> +determination of the boundaries of the new state was +the resultant of conflicting forces in operation in the European +concert. On the north while Scutari was retained for Albania through +the insistence of Austria-Hungary, Russian influence was strong enough +to secure the Albanian centres of Ipek and Djakova and Prisrend, as +well as Dibra on the east, for the allied Serb states. This was a sort +of compensation to Servia for her loss of an Adriatic outlet at a time +when the war between the Allies, which was destined so greatly to +extend her territories, was not foreseen. But while in this way +Albanians were excluded from the new state on the north and east, an +incongruous compensation was afforded it on the south by an +unjustifiable extension into northern Epirus, whose population is +prevailingly Greek. +</P> + +<P> +The location of the boundary between Albania and New Greece was forced +upon the Great Powers by the stand of Italy. During the first war the +Greeks had occupied Epirus or southern +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P120"></A>120}</SPAN> +Albania as far north as a +line drawn from a point a little above Khimara on the coast due east +toward Lake Presba, so that the cities of Tepeleni and Koritza were +included in the Greek area. But Italy protested that the Greek +occupation of territory on both sides of the Straits of Corfu would +menace the control of the Adriatic and insisted that the boundary +between Albania and Greece should start from a point on the coast +opposite the southern part of the island of Corfu. Greece, +accordingly, was compelled to evacuate most of the territory she had +occupied above Janina. And Albania subsequently attempted to assert +her jurisdiction over it. +</P> + +<P> +But the task of Albania is bound to be difficult. For though the Great +Powers have provided it with a ruler—the German Prince William of +Wied—there is no organized state. The Albanians are one of the oldest +races in Europe, if not the oldest. But they have never created a +state. And to-day they are hopelessly +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P121"></A>121}</SPAN> +divided. It is a land of +universal opposition—north against south, tribe against tribe, bey +against bey. The majority of the population are Mohammedan but there +are many Roman Catholics in the north and in the south the Greek +Orthodox Church is predominant. The inhabitants of the north, who are +called Ghegs, are divided into numerous tribes whose principal +occupation is fighting with one another under a system of perpetual +blood-feuds and inextinguishable vendettas. There are no tribes in the +south, but the people, who are known as Tosks, live under territorial +magnates called beys, who are practically the absolute rulers of their +districts. The country as a whole is a strange farrago of survivals of +primitive conditions. And it is not only without art and literature, +but without manufactures or trade or even agriculture. It is little +wonder that the Greeks of Epirus feel outraged by the destiny which the +European Powers have imposed upon them—to be torn +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P122"></A>122}</SPAN> +from their own +civilized and Christian kindred and subjected to the sway of the +barbarous Mohammedans who occupy Albania. Nor is it surprising that +since Hellenic armies have evacuated northern Epirus in conformity with +the decree of the Great Powers, the inhabitants of the district, all +the way from Santi Quaranta to Koritza, are declaring their +independence and fighting the Albanians who attempt to bring them under +the yoke. +</P> + +<P> +The future of Albania is full of uncertainty. The State, however, was +not created for the Albanians, who for the rest, are not in a condition +to administer or maintain it. The state was established in the +interests of Austria-Hungary and Italy. And those powers are likely to +shape its future. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE AEGEAN ISLANDS AND CRETE +</P> + +<P> +For the sacrifice demanded of Greece in Epirus the Great Powers +permitted her by way of compensation to retain all the Aegean Islands +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P123"></A>123}</SPAN> +occupied by her during the war, except Imbros, Tenedos, and the +Rabbit Islands at the mouth of the Dardanelles. These islands, +however, Greece is never to fortify or convert into naval bases. This +allotment of the Asiatic Islands (which includes all but Rhodes and the +Dodecanese, temporarily held by Italy as a pledge of the evacuation of +Libya by the Turkish officers and troops) has given great +dissatisfaction in Turkey, where it is declared it would be better to +have a war with Greece than cede certain islands especially Chios and +Mitylene. The question of the disposition of the islands had, however, +been committed by Turkey to the Great Powers in the Treaty of London. +And Turkish unofficial condemnation of the action of the Powers now +creates a dangerous situation. Mr. Venizelos declared not long ago, +with the enthusiastic approval of the chamber, that the security of +Greece lay alone in the possession of a strong navy. +</P> + +<P> +For Mr. Venizelos personally nothing in all +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P124"></A>124}</SPAN> +these great events +can have been more gratifying than the achievement of the union of +Crete with Greece. This was consummated on December 14, when the Greek +flag was hoisted on Canea Fort in the presence of King Constantine, the +prime minister, and the consuls of the Great Powers, and saluted with +101 guns by the Greek fleet. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +KING CONSTANTINE +</P> + +<P> +Fortune in an extraordinary degree has favored the King of the +Hellenes—Fortune and his own wise head and valiant arm and the loyal +support of his people. When before has a Prince taken supreme command +of a nation's army and in the few months preceding and succeeding his +accession to the throne by successful generalship doubled the area and +population of his country? +</P> + +<BR> + +<A NAME="img-124"></A> +<CENTER> +<IMG CLASS="imgcenter" SRC="images/img-124.jpg" ALT="Map: The Balkan Peninsula after the Wars of 1912-1913." BORDER="2"> +<H4 CLASS="h4center"> +Map: The Balkan Peninsula after the Wars of 1912-1913. +</H4> +</CENTER> + +<BR><BR> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P125"></A>125}</SPAN> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +COST OF THE WAR +</P> + +<P> +The Balkan wars have been bloody and costly. We shall never know of +the thousands of men, women, and children who died from privation, +disease, and massacre. But the losses of the dead and wounded in the +armies were for Montenegro 11,200, for Greece 68,000, for Servia +71,000, for Bulgaria 156,000, and for Turkey about the same as for +Bulgaria. The losses in treasure were as colossal as in blood. Only +rough computations are possible. But the direct military expenditures +are estimated at figures varying from a billion and a quarter to a +billion and a half of dollars. This of course takes no account of the +paralysis of productive industry, trade, and commerce or of the +destruction of existing economic values. +</P> + +<P> +Yet great and momentous results have been achieved. Although seated +again in his ancient capital of Adrianople, the Moslem has been +expelled from Europe, or at any rate is no +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P126"></A>126}</SPAN> +longer a European +Power. For the first time in more than five centuries, therefore, +conditions of stable equilibrium are now possible for the Christian +nations of the Balkans. Whether the present alignment of those states +toward one another and towards the Great Powers is destined to continue +it would be foolhardy to attempt to predict. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="t3"> +THE FUTURE OF THE BALKANS +</P> + +<P> +But without pretending to cast a horoscope, certain significant facts +may be mentioned in a concluding word. If the Balkan states are left +to themselves, if they are permitted to settle their own affairs +without the intervention of the Great Powers, there is no reason why +the existing relations between Greece, Servia, Montenegro, and +Roumania, founded as they are on mutual interest, should not continue; +and if they continue, peace will be assured in spite of Bulgaria's cry +for revenge and readjustment. The danger lies in the influence of the +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P127"></A>127}</SPAN> +Great Powers with their varying attractions and repulsions. +France, Germany, and Great Britain, disconnected with the Balkans and +remote from them, are not likely to exert much direct individual +influence. But their connections with the Triple Alliance and the +Triple Entente would not leave them altogether free to take isolated +action. And two other members of those European groups—Russia and +Austria-Hungary—have long been vitally interested in the Balkan +question; while the opposition to Servian annexation on the Adriatic +littoral and of Greek annexation in Epirus now for the first time +reveals the deep concern of Italy in the same question. +</P> + +<P> +The Serbs are Slavs. And the unhappy relations between Servia and +Austria-Hungary have always intensified their pro-Russian proclivities. +The Roumanians are a Romance people, like the French and Italians, and +they have hitherto been regarded as a Balkan extension of the Triple +Alliance. The attitude of +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P128"></A>128}</SPAN> +Austria-Hungary, however, during the +Balkan wars has caused a cooling of Roumanian friendship, so that its +transference to Russia is no longer inconceivable or even improbable. +Greece desires to be independent of both groups of the European system, +but the action of Italy in regard to Northern Epirus and in regard to +Rhodes and the Dodecanese has produced a feeling of irritation and +resentment among the Greeks which nothing is likely to allay or even +greatly alleviate. Bulgaria in the past has carried her desire to live +an independent national life to the point of hostility to Russia, but +since Stambuloff's time she has shown more natural sentiments towards +her great Slav sister and liberator. Whether the desire of revenge +against Servia (and Greece) will once more draw her toward +Austria-Hungary only time can disclose. +</P> + +<P> +In any event it will take a long time for all the Balkan states to +recover from the terrible exhaustion of the two wars of 1912 and 1913. +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P129"></A>129}</SPAN> +Their financial resources have been depleted; their male +population has been decimated. Necessity, therefore, is likely to +co-operate with the community of interest established by the Treaty of +Bukarest in the maintenance of conditions of stable equilibrium in the +Balkans. Of course the peace-compelling forces operative in the Balkan +states themselves might be counter-acted by hostile activities on the +part of some of the Great Powers. And there is one danger-point for +which the Great Powers themselves are solely responsible. This, as I +have already explained, is Albania. An artificial creation with +unnatural boundaries, it is a grave question whether this so-called +state can either manage its own affairs or live in peace with its Serb +and Greek neighbors. At this moment the Greeks of Epirus (whom the +Great Powers have transferred to Albania) are resisting to the death +incorporation in a state which outrages their deepest and holiest +sentiments of religion, race, nationality, and humane +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P130"></A>130}</SPAN> +civilization. On the other hand the Hoti and Gruda tribes on the north +fiercely resent annexation to Montenegro (which the Great Powers have +decreed) and threaten to summon to their support other Malissori tribes +with whom they have had a defensive alliance for several centuries. If +Prince William of Wied is unable to cope with these difficulties, Italy +and Austria-Hungary may think it necessary to intervene in Albania. +But the intervention of either would almost certainly provoke +compensatory action on the part of other European Powers, especially +Russia. +</P> + +<P> +One can only hope that the Great Powers may have wisdom granted to them +to find a peaceful solution of the embarrassing problem which they have +created in setting up the new state of Albania. That the Albanians +themselves will have an opportunity to develop their own national +independence I find it impossible to believe. Yet I heard in the +summer of 1913 at Valona from the lips of Ismail Kemal Bey, +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P131"></A>131}</SPAN> +the +head of the provisional government, a most impressive statement of his +hopes and aspirations for an independent Albania and his faith and +confidence in its future, in which he claimed to voice the sentiments +of the Albanian people. But, as I have already explained, I think it +doubtful whether under the most favorable external circumstances the +Albanians are at present qualified to establish and maintain an +independent state. And their destiny is so inextricably entangled with +the ambitions of some of the Great Powers that the experiment stands no +chance of getting a fair trial. I heartily wish the circumstances were +other than they are. For as an American I sympathize with the +aspirations of all struggling nationalities to be free and independent. +And my interest in Albania is deepened, as the interest of all +Americans must be deepened, by the fact that a large number of +Albanians have now found a home in the United States. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap03"></A> + +<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P133"></A>133}</SPAN> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +INDEX +</H3> + +<BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Abdul Hamid II, misgovernment, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Adrianople, capture by Murad I, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>; left to Turkey, <A HREF="#P9">9</A>, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>; holds out +against Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>; <I>sine qua non</I> at Peace Conference, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; captured, +<A HREF="#P57">57</A>; question of retention of, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>; reoccupied by Turkish army, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>; +ceded back to Turkey, <A HREF="#P111">111</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Adriatic, question of supremacy over, <A HREF="#P68">68</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Aegean Islands, Greece takes, <A HREF="#P52">52</A>; left to decision of Powers, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>; given +to Greece, <A HREF="#P122">122</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Albania, Montenegrins, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>; to be left to Powers, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>; cause of friction, +<A HREF="#P67">67</A>; problem of, <A HREF="#P118">118</A>; given a ruler, <A HREF="#P120">120</A>; danger-point of the Balkans, +<A HREF="#P129">129</A>; northern tribes oppose absorption by Montenegro, <A HREF="#P130">130</A>; future of, +<A HREF="#P131">131</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Alexander, Prince, of Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Area, see under countries. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Asen brothers, free Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Athens, recaptured, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Austria, discusses division of Turkey, <A HREF="#P7">7</A>; given Bosnia and Herzegovina, +<A HREF="#P27">27</A>; intervenes in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>; demands independent Albania, <A HREF="#P67">67</A>, <A HREF="#P118">118</A>; +opposes Servia, <A HREF="#P68">68</A>; dislikes Slav hegemony, <A HREF="#P97">97</A>; interests in Balkans, +<A HREF="#P127">127</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Balkan Alliance, see Balkan states. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Balkan states, quarrel, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>; peninsula under Moslems, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>; massacres in, +<A HREF="#P25">25</A>; large part of peninsula lost to Turkey, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>; dissensions among, <A HREF="#P60">60</A>; +alliance, <A HREF="#P34">34</A>; rival ambitions among, <A HREF="#P64">64</A>; treaty restrictions, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>; +causes of war between, <A HREF="#P75">75</A>; previous fighting between, <A HREF="#P108">108</A>; make peace, +<A HREF="#P110">110</A>; future, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Balkan wars, cause of first war, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>; cause of second war, <A HREF="#P64">64</A>; division +of fighting, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>; cost, <A HREF="#P125">125</A>. (For progress, see under countries.) +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Basil II, conquers Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Belgrade, conquered by Dushan, <A HREF="#P12">12</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Berane, massacre at, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Berlin, Treaty of, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>; Congress of, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Blockade, Greek, of Turkey, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Boris, accepts Christianity, <A HREF="#P9">9</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Bosnia, conquered by Dushan, <A HREF="#P12">12</A>; delegated to Austria, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Bosphorus, Turks on, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Brusa, surrendered, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Bukarest, see Treaty of, and Peace Conference. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Bulgaria, independent, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>; suffers most, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>; church, progress, area, <A HREF="#P9">9</A>; +under Moslem despotism, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>; ravaged by Turks, decline, <A HREF="#P14">14</A>; educational +movement, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>; exarchate established, <A HREF="#P24">24</A>; revolt against Turkey, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>; +"Big Bulgaria," <A HREF="#P25">25</A>; proclaimed independent, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>; astounding progress, +<A HREF="#P27">27</A>; area and population, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>; declares war against Turkey, <A HREF="#P34">34</A>; alliance +with Greece, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>; with Servia, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>; decide to mobilize, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>; enters +Thrace, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>; success at Kirk Kilisse, Lule Burgas, and Chorlu, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>; +capture Adrianople, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; disagreement with Servia, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>; rivalry with +Greece, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>; as to division of Macedonia, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>; demands that Servia +observe treaty, <A HREF="#P76">76</A>; claims of, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>; exarchate in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P81">81</A>; alleged +majority in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P88">88</A>; jingoism in, <A HREF="#P96">96</A>; position of, as to +arbitration of Czar, <A HREF="#P99">99</A>; uncompromising policy, <A HREF="#P101">101</A>; her mistake, <A HREF="#P102">102</A>; +opens war, <A HREF="#P107">107</A>; defeat by Allies, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>; makes peace, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>; present +attitude, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Byron, Lord, volunteer in Greece, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Byzantine Empire, falling before Turks, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>; annihilates Bulgaria under +Samuel, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Chataldja, now border of Turkey, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>; Bulgarians at, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Chorlu, Bulgarians victorious at, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Christians, defeated by Moslems, <A HREF="#P5">5</A>; races quarrel, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>; In Macedonia, +<A HREF="#P31">31</A>; oppressed, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Constantine, King, <A HREF="#P20">20</A>; as Crown Prince, commanding general, <A HREF="#P48">48</A>; +success, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>; captures Janina, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; ability and achievements, <A HREF="#P124">124</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Constantinople, seat of Byzantine Empire, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>; captured by Mohammed II, +<A HREF="#P5">5</A>; left to Turkey, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>; Russia at gates of, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Crete, question of, <A HREF="#P42">42</A>; captured by Venetians, <A HREF="#P43">43</A>; present condition, +<A HREF="#P43">43</A>, <A HREF="#P44">44</A>; becomes autonomous, <A HREF="#P44">44</A>; elects members to Greek parliament, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>; +process of annexation to Greece, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>, <A HREF="#P124">124</A>; Turkish sovereignty +withdrawn, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Czar, arbiter of Treaty of Partition, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>; summons Servia and Bulgaria +to submit their disputes, <A HREF="#P97">97</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Daneff, Dr., prime minister of Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P98">98</A>; tries to stop war, <A HREF="#P107">107</A>; +rejects Roumanian claim, <A HREF="#P112">112</A>; resigns, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Dushan, Stephen, rules Servia, <A HREF="#P12">12</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Eastern Roumelia, see Roumelia. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Elassona, Greeks win at, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +England, fleet at Navarino, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>; joins Russia to reform Macedonia, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>; +influence, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Enver Bey, heads Young Turk revolt, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +"Eothen," does not mention Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P15">15</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Epinus holds out, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>; Greeks of, resist incorporation in Albania, <A HREF="#P129">129</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +European, aid for Greece, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Evans, Sir Arthur, excavations in Crete, <A HREF="#P43">43</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Exarchate, Bulgarian, <A HREF="#P19">19</A>; Sultan's firman, <A HREF="#P24">24</A>; in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P81">81</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Ferdinand, Prince, of Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>; King, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>, <A HREF="#P108">108</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +France, fleet at Navarino, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>; influence, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Gabrovo, school of, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Gallipoli, entry of Turks into, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +George, King of Greece, assassinated, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>; experienced ruler, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>; +Prince, Commissioner of Crete, <A HREF="#P44">44</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Germany, influence, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Gibbon, quoted as to Czar Simeon, <A HREF="#P9">9</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Gladstone, denunciation of Turkish atrocities, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Great Britain, see England. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Greece, becomes independent, <A HREF="#P7">7</A>; ecclesiastical domination of Slavs, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>; +Greek millet, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>; ascendancy in Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P18">18</A>; influence in Turkish +Empire, <A HREF="#P19">19</A>; war of independence, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>; Powers make her independent, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>; +boundaries, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>; area and population, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>; causes of war with Turkey, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>; +declares war, <A HREF="#P34">34</A>; alliance with Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>; reorganizes army, <A HREF="#P37">37</A>; +near alliance with Turkey, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>; Cretan question, <A HREF="#P42">42</A>; mobilization, <A HREF="#P48">48</A>; +enters Macedonia, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>; conquers at Sarandaporon, Serfidje, Elassona, +Veria, and Jenitsa, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>; blockades Turkey, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>; captures Janina, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; +rivalry with Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>; favors Servian egress to Aegean, <A HREF="#P71">71</A>; +question of division of Macedonia, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>; propaganda in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P83">83</A>; +position of division of territory, <A HREF="#P104">104</A>; conciliatory methods, <A HREF="#P105">105</A>; +alliance against Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P108">108</A>; treaty of peace and extension of +territory, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>; annexation of Crete, <A HREF="#P124">124</A>; attitude toward Italy, <A HREF="#P128">128</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Gueshoff, agrees to conference of Allies, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>; statesman, <A HREF="#P96">96</A>; resigns, +<A HREF="#P97">97</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Hellenism, cause of, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Hellespont, Turks cross, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Herzegovina, conquered by Stephen Nemanyo, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>; delegated to Austria, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +"Internal Organization" in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Ipek, Archbishop of, <A HREF="#P12">12</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Islam, millet of, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Ismail Kemal Bey on Albania's future, <A HREF="#P130">130</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Italy holds Rhodes, <A HREF="#P52">52</A>; demands independent Albania, <A HREF="#P67">67</A>, <A HREF="#P118">118</A>; desires +control of Adriatic, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>; protests against Greece at Corfu, <A HREF="#P120">120</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Janina, holds out, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>; falls, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Janissaries, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>; revolt, <A HREF="#P14">14</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Jenitsa, Turks defeated at, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Kara-George, leads Servians, <A HREF="#P20">20</A>; dynasty, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Kiamil Pasha, Grand Vizier, <A HREF="#P48">48</A>; driven out, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Kilkis, battle of, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Kirk Kilisse, Bulgarian victory, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Kossovo, field of, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>; avenged, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Kochana, massacre at, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Kumanovo, Servians defeat Turks at, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Lazar, the Serb, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Literary revival in Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +London, see Treaty of, and Peace Conference. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Lule Burgas, Bulgarian victory, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Macedonia, ruled by Murad I, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>; cause of first Balkan war, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>; question +of its division, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>; racial problem, <A HREF="#P79">79</A>, <A HREF="#P89">89</A>; religion in, <A HREF="#P81">81</A>; alleged +Bulgarian majority in, <A HREF="#P88">88</A>; claims to central portion of, <A HREF="#P89">89</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Mahmud Shevket Pasha, Grand Vizier, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Massacre, in 1876, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>; at Kochana and Berane, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>; inflames Slavs, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Mehemet Ali, fights against Greece, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Meluna Pass, Greeks enter, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Millet, a Turkish term, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Mohammed II, conquers Constantinople, <A HREF="#P5">5</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Mohammedan, intolerance, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>; Balkan peninsula under, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>; incapacity, <A HREF="#P31">31</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Monastir, captured by Serbs, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Montenegro, remembers Kossovo, <A HREF="#P5">5</A>; conquered by Nemanyo, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>; independent +by Treaty of Berlin, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>; area and population, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>; declares war against +Turkey, <A HREF="#P34">34</A>; fires first shot of war, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>; captures Scutari, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; work and +reward, <A HREF="#P116">116</A>; inclination toward Servia, <A HREF="#P118">118</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Moslem, see Mohammedan. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Murad I, captures Adrianople, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Navarino, Battle of, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Nazim Pasha, murdered, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Near Eastern Question, Macedonia, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Nemanyo, Stephen, unites Servia, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Nicaea, surrender of, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Nicholas, King of Montenegro, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>; Homeric Father, <A HREF="#P118">118</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Nigrita, Greeks and Bulgarians fight at, <A HREF="#P66">66</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Novi-Bazar, Montenegrins in, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Obrenovich, Milosh, leads Servians, <A HREF="#P20">20</A>; dynasty, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Ochrida, location, <A HREF="#P9">9</A>; given bishop, <A HREF="#P81">81</A>; religious division, <A HREF="#P88">88</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Orkhan, Brusa surrenders to, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Otto, of Bavaria, becomes King of Greece, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Ottoman Empire, see Turkey. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Pashitch, demands revision of treaty, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Patriarch, Greek, of Constantinople, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Patriarchate restricted, <A HREF="#P19">19</A>, <A HREF="#P24">24</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Peace Conference, at London, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; at Bukarest, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Peace, terms of, with Turkey, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>; between Allies, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Peter, King, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Phanariots, Turkish term, <A HREF="#P19">19</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Pomaks, become Moslem, <A HREF="#P14">14</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Population, see under countries. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Porte, see Turkey. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Powers, intervene in Greece, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>; recognize Bulgarian independence, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>; +views of Balkan success, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>; meet at London, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; lack of success, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; +insist on peace, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>; give Silistria to Roumania, <A HREF="#P112">112</A>; in Albania, <A HREF="#P119">119</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Prilip, Serbs capture, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Racial, division, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>; sympathies, <A HREF="#P31">31</A>; problem in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P79">79</A>; +fallacies in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P84">84</A>; characteristics, <A HREF="#P89">89</A>; in Albania, <A HREF="#P121">121</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Religion, Turks divide subjects by, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>; contest in Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P24">24</A>; in +Crete, <A HREF="#P43">43</A>, <A HREF="#P44">44</A>; in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P81">81</A>; in Albania, <A HREF="#P121">121</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Roumania, becomes independent, <A HREF="#P7">7</A>; by Treaty of Berlin, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>; convention +with Greece and Servia, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>; seizes Silistria, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>; at Treaty of +Bukarest, <A HREF="#P112">112</A>; justification, <A HREF="#P113">113</A>; attitude toward Triple Alliance, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Roumelia, Eastern, union with Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>; annexation, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Russia, discusses the division of Turkey, <A HREF="#P7">7</A>; fleet at Navarino, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>; +declares war against Turkey, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>; intervention in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>; rivalry +with Austria, <A HREF="#P98">98</A>; interest in Balkans, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +St. Petersburg, conference of allies at, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Saloniki, left to Turkey, <A HREF="#P9">9</A>; conquered by Greeks, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>; desirability, <A HREF="#P70">70</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Samuel, reigns in Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +San Stefano, Treaty of, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>; destroyed by Powers, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Sarandaporon, Turks driven from, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Savoff, General, orders attacks on Servians and Greeks, <A HREF="#P107">107</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Scutari holds out, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>; falls, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; to Albania, <A HREF="#P119">119</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Serbs, see Servia. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Serfidje, Greeks capture, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Servia, remembers Kossovo, <A HREF="#P5">5</A>; independent, <A HREF="#P7">7</A>; conquers Bulgaria, under +Asen, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>; become Christian, launch a dynasty, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>; decline, <A HREF="#P14">14</A>; throws +off Turkish yoke, <A HREF="#P20">20</A>; independence by Treaty of Berlin, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>; area and +population, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>; bands in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>; declares war against Turkey, +<A HREF="#P34">34</A>; alliance with Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>; decide to mobilize, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>; enter +Macedonia, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>; victorious, at Kumanovo, Prilip, and Monastir, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>; +differences with Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P64">64</A>; desire to reach Adriatic, <A HREF="#P68">68</A>; recoils to +Aegean, <A HREF="#P70">70</A>; question of division of Macedonia, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>; propaganda in +Macedonia, <A HREF="#P82">82</A>; attitude of, <A HREF="#P92">92</A>; jingoism in, <A HREF="#P96">96</A>; position of, <A HREF="#P100">100</A>; +alliance against Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P108">108</A>; her enlargement of territory under the +Treaty of Bukarest, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>; affiliations with Russia, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Shishman, Czar, dies, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Silistria, taken by Roumania, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>; awarded by Powers, <A HREF="#P113">113</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Slavs, unsubdued, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>; all under Moslems, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>; hostility to Greeks, <A HREF="#P18">18</A>; +indignation against Turkey, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>; racial characteristics in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P89">89</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Suleyman the Magnificent, <A HREF="#P5">5</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Thrace, ruled by Murad I, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>; location, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>; entered by Bulgarians, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Treaty of Berlin, recognizes Servian independence, etc., <A HREF="#P21">21</A>; of +Bukarest, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>; of London, short lived, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>; eliminates Turkey, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>; of +Partition, between Servia and Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P64">64</A>; of San Stefano, created +"Big Bulgaria," <A HREF="#P25">25</A>; torn up by Powers, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Triple Alliance, influence, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Triple Entente, influence, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Trnovo capital of Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>; burned, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Tsaribrod, interview at, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Turkey, empire in Europe, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>; armies go to Danube, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>; becomes central +European power, <A HREF="#P5">5</A>; treatment of subjects, <A HREF="#P6">6</A>; decline and division, <A HREF="#P7">7</A>; +driven from Europe, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>; oppression, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>; troops ravage Bulgaria, <A HREF="#P14">14</A>; +reconquers Greece, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>; European, how divided, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>; area and population, +<A HREF="#P29">29</A>; frustrates Treaty of Berlin, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>; war against by Balkans, <A HREF="#P34">34</A>; +blockaded by Greece, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>; at mercy of Allies, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>; at Peace Conference, +<A HREF="#P57">57</A>; accepts peace, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; driven from Europe, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>; reoccupies Adrianople, +<A HREF="#P109">109</A>; final boundary of Turkey in Europe, <A HREF="#P111">111</A>; no longer European power, +<A HREF="#P125">125</A>; Asiatic, next danger-point, <A HREF="#P129">129</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Uskub, Dushan crowned at, <A HREF="#P12">12</A>; given Bishop, <A HREF="#P81">81</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Venizelos, Prime Minister of Greece, <A HREF="#P37">37</A>; criticism of and defense, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>; +his predicament, <A HREF="#P46">46</A>; suggests conference of Allies, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>; conciliatory +position, <A HREF="#P104">104</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Veria, Greeks enter, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Vienna, Suleyman at gates of, <A HREF="#P5">5</A>; siege of, <A HREF="#P14">14</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Vilayet, Turkish term, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>. +</P> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Vlachs, in Macedonia, <A HREF="#P114">114</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +William, of Wied, King of Albania, <A HREF="#P120">120</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Young Turks, rule, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>; reject proposals of Venizelos, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>; forced out, +<A HREF="#P48">48</A>; depose Kiamil Pasha, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR> + +<P CLASS="index"> +Zaimis, succeeds Prince George in Crete, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR><BR> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Balkan Wars, by Jacob Gould Schurman + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BALKAN WARS *** + +***** This file should be named 36192-h.htm or 36192-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/6/1/9/36192/ + +Produced by Al Haines + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Balkan Wars + 1912-1913 + +Author: Jacob Gould Schurman + +Release Date: May 22, 2011 [EBook #36192] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BALKAN WARS *** + + + + +Produced by Al Haines + + + + + + + + + +THE BALKAN WARS + +1912-1913 + + +BY + +JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN + + + + + +PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS + +PRINCETON + +LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD + +OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS + +1914 + + + + +Copyright, June 1914, December 1914, by + +PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS + + +Second Edition + +Published December, 1914 + + + + +{v} + +PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION + +The interest in the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 has exceeded the +expectations of the publishers of this volume. The first edition, +which was published five months ago, is already exhausted and a second +is now called for. + +Meanwhile there has broken out and is now in progress a war which is +generally regarded as the greatest of all time--a war already involving +five of the six Great Powers and three of the smaller nations of Europe +as well as Japan and Turkey and likely at any time to embroil other +countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa, which are already embraced in +the area of military operations. + +This War of Many Nations had its origin in the Balkan situation. It +began on July 28 with the declaration of the Dual Monarchy {vi} to the +effect that from that moment Austria-Hungary was in a state of war with +Servia. And the fundamental reason for this declaration as given in +the note or ultimatum to Servia was the charge that the Servian +authorities had encouraged the Pan-Serb agitation which seriously +menaced the integrity of Austria-Hungary and had already caused the +assassination at Sarajevo of the Heir to the Throne. + +No one could have observed at close range the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 +without perceiving, always in the background and occasionally in the +foreground, the colossal rival figures of Russia and Austria-Hungary. +Attention was called to the phenomenon at various points in this volume +and especially in the concluding pages. + +The issue of the Balkan struggles of 1912-1913 was undoubtedly +favorable to Russia. By her constant diplomatic support she retained +the friendship and earned the gratitude of Greece, Montenegro, and +Servia; and through her {vii} championship, belated though it was, of +the claims of Roumania to territorial compensation for benevolent +neutrality during the war of the Allies against Turkey, she won the +friendship of the predominant Balkan power which had hitherto been +regarded as the immovable eastern outpost of the Triple Alliance. But +while Russia was victorious she did not gain all that she had planned +and hoped for. Her very triumph at Bukarest was a proof that she had +lost her influence over Bulgaria. This Slav state after the war +against Turkey came under the influence of Austria-Hungary, by whom she +was undoubtedly incited to strife with Servia and her other partners in +the late war against Turkey. Russia was unable to prevent the second +Balkan war between the Allies. The Czar's summons to the Kings of +Bulgaria and Servia on June 9, 1913, to submit, in the name of +Pan-Slavism, their disputes to his decision failed to produce the +desired effect, while this assumption of Russian hegemony in Balkan +affairs greatly {viii} exacerbated Austro-Hungarian sentiment. That +action of the Czar, however, was clear notification and proof to all +the world that Russia regarded the Slav States in the Balkans as +objects of her peculiar concern and protection. + +The first Balkan War--the war of the Allies against Turkey--ended in a +way that surprised all the world. Everybody expected a victory for the +Turks. That the Turks should one day be driven out of Europe was the +universal assumption, but it was the equally fixed belief that the +agents of their expulsion would be the Great Powers or some of the +Great Powers. That the little independent States of the Balkans should +themselves be equal to the task no one imagined,--no one with the +possible exception of the government of Russia. And as Russia rejoiced +over the victory of the Balkan States and the defeat of her secular +Mohammedan neighbor, Austria-Hungary looked on not only with amazement +but with disappointment and chagrin. + +{ix} + +For the contemporaneous diplomacy of the Austro-Hungarian government +was based on the assumption that the Balkan States would be vanquished +by Turkey. And its standing policy had been on the one hand to keep +the Kingdom of Servia small and weak (for the Dual Monarchy was itself +an important Serb state) and on the other hand to broaden her Adriatic +possessions and also to make her way through Novi Bazar and Macedonia +to Saloniki and the Aegean, when the time came to secure this +concession from the Sultan without provoking a European war. It seemed +in 1908 as though the favorable moment had arrived to make a first +move, and the Austro-Hungarian government put forward a project for +connecting the Bosnian and Macedonian railway systems. But the only +result was to bring to an end the co-operation which had for some years +been maintained between the Austrian and Russian governments in the +enforcement upon the Porte of the adoption of reforms in Macedonia. +{x} And now the result of the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 was the +practical expulsion of Turkey from Europe and the territorial +aggrandizement of Servia and the sister state of Montenegro through the +annexation of those very Turkish domains which lay between the +Austro-Hungarian frontier and the Aegean. At every point +Austro-Hungarian policies had met with reverses. + +Only one success could possibly be attributed to the diplomacy of the +Ballplatz. The exclusion of Servia from the Adriatic Sea and the +establishment of the independent State of Albania was the achievement +of Count Berchtold, the Austro-Hungarian Minister of Foreign Affairs. +The new State has been a powder magazine from the beginning, and since +the withdrawal of Prince William of Wied, the government, always +powerless, has fallen into chaos. Intervention on the part of +neighboring states is inevitable. And only last month the southern +part of Albania--that is, Northern {xi} Epirus--was occupied by a Greek +army for the purpose of ending the sanguinary anarchy which has +hitherto prevailed. This action will be no surprise to the readers of +this volume. The occupation, or rather re-occupation, is declared by +the Greek Government to be provisional and it is apparently approved by +all the Great Powers. Throughout the rest of Albania similar +intervention will be necessary to establish order, and to protect the +life and property of the inhabitants without distinction of race, +tribe, or creed. Servia might perhaps have governed the country, had +she not been compelled by the Great Powers, at the instigation of +Austria-Hungary, to withdraw her forces. And her extrusion from the +Adriatic threw her back toward the Aegean, with the result of shutting +Bulgaria out of Central Macedonia, which was annexed by Greece and +Servia presumably under arrangements satisfactory to the latter for an +outlet to the sea at Saloniki. + +The war declared by Austria-Hungary {xii} against Servia may be +regarded to some extent as an effort to nullify in the interests of the +former the enormous advantages which accrued directly to Servia and +indirectly to Russia from the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913. That Russia +should have come to the support of Servia was as easy to foresee as any +future political event whatever. And the action of Germany and France +once war had broken out between their respective allies followed as a +matter of course. If the Austro-German Alliance wins in the War of +Many Nations it will doubtless control the eastern Adriatic and open up +a way for itself to the Aegean. Indeed, in that event, German trade +and German political influence would spread unchallenged across the +continents from the North Sea to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. +Turkey is a friend and ally; but even if Turkey were hostile she would +have no strength to resist such victorious powers. And the Balkan +States, with the defeat of Russia, would be compelled to recognize +Germanic supremacy. + +{xiii} + +If on the other hand the Allies come out victorious in the War of Many +Nations, Servia and perhaps Roumania would be permitted to annex the +provinces occupied by their brethren in the Dual Monarchy and Servian +expansion to the Adriatic would be assured. The Balkan States would +almost inevitably fall under the controlling influence of Russia, who +would become mistress of Constantinople and gain an unrestricted outlet +to the Mediterranean through the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and the +Dardanelles. + +In spite of themselves the destiny of the peoples of the Balkans is +once more set on the issue of war. It is not inconceivable, therefore, +that some or all of those States may be drawn into the present colossal +conflict. In 1912-1913 the first war showed Bulgaria, Greece, +Montenegro, and Servia allied against Turkey; and in the second war +Greece, Montenegro, and Servia were joined by Roumania in the war +against Bulgaria, who was also independently attacked {xiv} by Turkey. +What may happen in 1914 or 1915 no one can predict. But if this +terrible conflagration, which is already devastating Europe and +convulsing all the continents and vexing all the oceans of the globe, +spreads to the Balkans, one may hazard the guess that Greece, +Montenegro, Servia, and Roumania will stand together on the side of the +Allies and that Bulgaria if she is not carried away by marked +Austro-German victories will remain neutral,--unless indeed the other +Balkan States win her over, as they not inconceivably might do, if they +rose to the heights of unwonted statesmanship by recognizing her claim +to that part of Macedonia in which the Bulgarian element predominates +but which was ceded to her rivals by the Treaty of Bukarest. + +But I have said enough to indicate that as in its origin so also in its +results this awful cataclysm under which the civilized world is now +reeling will be found to be vitally connected with the Balkan Wars of +1912-1913. And I conclude {xv} with the hope that the present volume, +which devotes indeed but little space to military matters and none at +all to atrocities and massacres, may prove helpful to readers who seek +light on the underlying conditions, the causes, and the consequences of +those historic struggles. The favor already accorded to the work and +the rapid exhaustion of the first edition* seem to furnish some +justification of this hope. + +JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN. + +_November 26, 1914._ + + +*The present work is rather a reprint than a new edition, few changes +having been made except the correction of typographical errors. + + + + +{1} + +I + +TURKEY AND THE BALKAN STATES + +[Illustration: Map: The Balkan Peninsula before the Wars of 1912-1913.] + +{3} + +I + +TURKEY AND THE BALKAN STATES + +The expulsion of the Turks from Europe was long ago written in the book +of fate. There was nothing uncertain about it except the date and the +agency of destiny. + + + +THE TURKISH EMPIRE IN EUROPE + +A little clan of oriental shepherds, the Turks had in two generations +gained possession of the whole of the northwest corner of Asia Minor +and established themselves on the eastern shore of the Bosphorus. The +great city of Brusa, whose groves to-day enshrine the stately beauty of +their mosques and sultans' tombs, capitulated to Orkhan, the son of the +first Sultan, in 1326; and Nicaea, the cradle of the Greek church and +temporary capital of the Greek Empire, {4} surrendered in 1330. On the +other side of the Bosphorus Orkhan could see the domes and palaces of +Constantinople which, however, for another century was to remain the +seat of the Byzantine Empire. + +The Turks crossed the Hellespont and, favored by an earthquake, marched +in 1358 over the fallen walls and fortifications into the city of +Gallipoli. In 1361 Adrianople succumbed to the attacks of Orkhan's +son, Murad I, whose sway was soon acknowledged in Thrace and Macedonia, +and who was destined to lead the victorious Ottoman armies as far north +as the Danube. + +But though the provinces of the corrupt and effete Byzantine Empire +were falling into the hands of the Turks, the Slavs were still +unsubdued. Lazar the Serb threw down the gauntlet to Murad. On the +memorable field of Kossovo, in 1389, the opposing forces met--Murad +supported by his Asiatic and European vassals and allies, and Lazar +with his formidable army of {5} Serbs, Bosnians, Albanians, Poles, +Magyars, and Vlachs. Few battles in the world have produced such a +deep and lasting impression as this battle of Kossovo, in which the +Christian nations after long and stubborn resistance were vanquished by +the Moslems. The Servians still sing ballads which cast a halo of +pathetic romance round their great disaster. And after more than five +centuries the Montenegrins continue to wear black on their caps in +mourning for that fatal day. + +In the next two centuries the Ottoman Empire moved on toward the zenith +of its glory. Mohammed II conquered Constantinople in 1453. And in +1529 Suleyman the Magnificent was at the gates of Vienna. Suleyman's +reign forms the climax of Turkish history. The Turks had become a +central European power occupying Hungary and menacing Austria. +Suleyman's dominions extended from Mecca to Buda-Pesth and from Bagdad +to Algiers. He commanded the Mediterranean, the Euxine, {6} and the +Red Sea, and his navies threatened the coasts of India and Spain. + +But the conquests of the Turks were purely military. They did nothing +for their subjects, whom they treated with contempt, and they wanted +nothing from them but tribute and plunder. As the Turks were always +numerically inferior to the aggregate number of the peoples under their +sway, their one standing policy was to keep them divided--_divide et +impera_. To fan racial and religious differences among their subjects +was to perpetuate the rule of the masters. The whole task of +government, as the Turks conceived it, was to collect tribute from the +conquered and keep them in subjection by playing off their differences +against one another. + +But a deterioration of Turkish rulers set in soon after the time of +Suleyman with a corresponding decline in the character and efficiency +of the army. And the growth of Russia and the reassertion of Hungary, +Poland, and Austria {7} were fatal to the maintenance of an alien and +detested empire founded on military domination alone. By the end of +the seventeenth century the Turks had been driven out of Austria, +Hungary, Transylvania, and Podolia, and the northern boundaries of +their Empire were fixed by the Carpathians, the Danube, and the Save. +How marked and rapid was the further decline of the Ottoman Empire may +be inferred from the fact that twice in the eighteenth century Austria +and Russia discussed the project of dividing it between them. But the +inevitable disintegration of the Turkish dominion was not to inure to +the glorification of any of the Great Powers, though Russia certainly +contributed to the weakening of the common enemy. The decline and +diminution of the Ottoman Empire continued throughout the nineteenth +century. What happened, however, was the revolt of subject provinces +and the creation out of the territory of European Turkey of the +independent states of Greece, Servia, {8} Roumania, and Bulgaria. And +it was Bulgarians, Greeks, and Servians, with the active assistance of +the Montenegrins and the benevolent neutrality of the Roumanians, who, +in the war of 1912-1913, drove the Turk out of Europe, leaving him +nothing but the city of Constantinople and a territorial fringe +bordered by the Chataldja line of fortifications. + + + +THE EARLIER SLAV EMPIRES + +There is historic justice in the circumstance that the Turkish Empire +in Europe met its doom at the hands of the Balkan nations themselves. +For these nationalities had been completely submerged and even their +national consciousness annihilated under centuries of Moslem +intolerance, misgovernment, oppression, and cruelty. + +None suffered worse than Bulgaria, which lay nearest to the capital of +the Mohammedan conqueror. Yet Bulgaria had had a glorious, if +checkered, history long before there existed {9} any Ottoman Empire +either in Europe or in Asia. From the day their sovereign Boris +accepted Christianity in 864 the Bulgarians had made rapid and +conspicuous progress in their ceaseless conflicts with the Byzantine +Empire. The Bulgarian church was recognized as independent by the +Greek patriarch at Constantinople; its primates subsequently received +the title of patriarch, and their see was established at Preslav, and +then successively westward at Sofia, Vodena, Presba, and finally +Ochrida, which looks out on the mountains of Albania. Under Czar +Simeon, the son of Boris, "Bulgaria," says Gibbon, "assumed a rank +among the civilized powers of the earth." His dominions extended from +the Black Sea to the Adriatic and comprised the greater part of +Macedonia, Greece, Albania, Servia, and Dalmatia; leaving only to the +Byzantine Empire--whose civilization he introduced and sedulously +promoted among the Bulgarians--the cities of Constantinople, Saloniki, +and Adrianople with {10} the territory immediately surrounding them. +But this first Bulgarian Empire was short-lived, though the western +part remained independent under Samuel, who reigned, with Ochrida as +his capital, from 976 to 1014. Four years later the Byzantine Emperor, +Basil II, annihilated the power of Samuel, and for a hundred and fifty +years the Bulgarian people remained subject to the rule of +Constantinople. In 1186 under the leadership of the brothers Asen they +regained their independence. And the reign of Czar Asen II (1218-1240) +was the most prosperous period of all Bulgarian history. He restored +the Empire of Simeon, his boast being that he had left to the +Byzantines nothing but Constantinople and the cities round it, and he +encouraged commerce, cultivated arts and letters, founded and endowed +churches and monasteries, and embellished his capital, Trnovo, with +beautiful and magnificent buildings. After Asen came a period of +decline culminating in a humiliating defeat by the Servians {11} in +1330. The quarrels of the Christian races of the Balkans facilitated +the advance of the Moslem invader, who overwhelmed the Serbs and their +allies on the memorable field of Kossovo in 1389, and four years later +captured and burned the Bulgarian capital, Trnovo, Czar Shishman +himself perishing obscurely in the common destruction. For five +centuries Bulgaria remained under Moslem despotism, we ourselves being +the witnesses of her emancipation in the last thirty-five years. + +The fate of the Serbs differed only in degree from that of the +Bulgarians. Converted to Christianity in the middle of the ninth +century, the major portion of the race remained till the twelfth +century under either Bulgarian or Byzantine sovereignty. But Stephen +Nemanyo brought under his rule Herzegovina, Montenegro, and part of +modern Servia and old Servia, and on his abdication in 1195 in favor of +his son launched a royal dynasty which reigned over the Serb people for +two centuries. Of {12} that line the most distinguished member was +Stephen Dushan, who reigned from 1331 to 1355. He wrested the whole of +the Balkan Peninsula from the Byzantine Emperor, and took Belgrade, +Bosnia, and Herzegovina from the King of Hungary. He encouraged +literature, gave to his country a highly advanced code of laws, and +protected the church whose head--the Archbishop of Ipek--he raised to +the dignity of patriarch. On Easter Day 1346 he had himself crowned at +Uskub as "Emperor of the Greeks and Serbs." A few years later he +embarked on an enterprise by which, had he been successful, he might +have changed the course of European history. It was nothing less than +the capture of Constantinople and the union of Serbs, Bulgarians, and +Greeks into an empire which might defend Christendom against the rising +power of Islam. Dushan was within forty miles of his goal with an army +of 80,000 men when he died suddenly in camp on the 20th of December, +1355. Thirty-four years {13} later Dushan's countrymen were +annihilated by the Turks at Kossovo! All the Slavonic peoples of the +Balkan Peninsula save the brave mountaineers of Montenegro came under +Moslem subjection. And under Moslem subjection they remained till the +nineteenth century. + + + +TURKISH OPPRESSION OF SLAVS + +It is impossible to give any adequate description of the horrors of +Turkish rule in these Christian countries of the Balkans. Their +people, disqualified from holding even the smallest office, were +absolutely helpless under the oppression of their foreign masters, who +ground them down under an intolerable load of taxation and plunder. +The culminating cruelty was the tribute of Christian children from ten +to twelve years of age who were sent to Constantinople to recruit the +corps of janissaries. It is not surprising that for the protection of +their wives and children and the safeguarding of their interests the +nobles of Bosnia and the {14} Pomaks of Southeastern Bulgaria embraced +the creed of their conquerors; the wonder is that the people as a whole +remained true to their Christian faith even at the cost of daily +martyrdom from generation to generation. Their fate too grew worse as +the Turkish power declined after the unsuccessful siege of Vienna in +1683. For at first Ottoman troops ravaged Bulgaria as they marched +through the land on their way to Austria; and later disbanded soldiers +in defiance of Turkish authority plundered the country and committed +nameless atrocities. Servia was to some extent protected by her remote +location, but that very circumstance bred insubordination in the +janissaries, who refused to obey the local Turkish governors and gave +themselves up to looting, brigandage, and massacre. The national +spirit of the subject races was completely crushed. The Servians and +Bulgarians for three or four centuries lost all consciousness of a +fatherland. The countrymen of Simeon and Dushan became {15} mere +hewers of wood and drawers of water for their foreign masters. Servia +and Bulgaria simply disappeared. As late as 1834 Kinglake in +travelling to Constantinople from Belgrade must have passed straight +across Bulgaria. Yet in "Eothen," in which he describes his travels, +he never even mentions that country or its people. + +It is easy to understand that this history of Turkish horrors should +have burned itself into the heart and soul of the resurrected Servia +and Bulgaria of our own day. But there is another circumstance +connected with the ruthless destruction and long entombment of these +nationalities which it is difficult for foreigners, even the most +intelligent foreigners, to understand or at any rate to grasp in its +full significance. Yet the sentiments to which that circumstance has +given rise and which it still nourishes are perhaps as potent a factor +in contemporary Balkan politics as the antipathy of the Christian +nations to their former Moslem oppressors. + + + +{16} + +GREEK ECCLESIASTICAL DOMINATION OF SLAVS + +I refer to the special and exceptional position held by the Greeks in +the Turkish dominions. Though the Moslems had possessed themselves of +the Greek Empire from the Bosphorus to the Danube, Greek domination +still survived as an intellectual, ecclesiastical, and commercial +force. The nature and effects of that supremacy, and its results upon +the fortunes of other Balkan nations, we must now proceed to consider. + +The Turkish government classifies its subjects not on the basis of +nationality but on the basis of religion. A homogeneous religious +group is designated a millet or nation. Thus the Moslems form the +millet of Islam. And at the present time there are among others a +Greek millet, a Catholic millet, and a Jewish millet. But from the +first days of the Ottoman conquest until very recent times all the +Christian population, irrespective of denominational differences, was +assigned by the Sultans to the {17} Greek millet, of which the +patriarch of Constantinople was the head. The members of this millet +were all called Greeks; the bishops and higher clergy were exclusively +Greek; and the language of their churches and schools was Greek, which +was also the language of literature, commerce, and polite society. But +the jurisdiction of the patriarch was not restricted even to +ecclesiastical and educational matters. It extended to a considerable +part of civil law--notably to questions of marriage, divorce, and +inheritance when they concerned Christians only. + +It is obvious that the possession by the Greek patriarch of +Constantinople of this enormous power over the Christian subjects of +the Turks enabled him to carry on a propaganda of hellenization. The +disappearance for three centuries of the national consciousness in +Servia and Bulgaria was not the sole work of the Moslem invader; a more +fatal blight to the national languages and culture were the Greek +bishops {18} and clergy who conducted their churches and schools. And +if Kinglake knew nothing of Bulgaria as late as 1834 it was because +every educated person in that country called himself a Greek. For it +cannot be too strongly emphasized that until comparatively recent times +all Christians of whatever nation or sect were officially recognized by +the Turks as members of the Greek millet and were therefore designated +Greeks. + +The hostility of the Slavonic peoples in the Balkans, and especially of +the Bulgarians, to the Greeks, grows out of the ecclesiastical and +educational domination which the Greek clergy and bishops so long and +so relentlessly exercised over them. Of course the Turkish Sultans are +responsible for the arrangement. But there is no evidence that they +had any other intention than to rid themselves of a disagreeable task. +For the rest they regarded Greeks and Slavs with equal contempt. But +the Greeks quickly recognized the racial advantage of their {19} +ecclesiastical hegemony. And it was not in human nature to give it up +without a struggle. The patriarchate retained its exclusive +jurisdiction over all orthodox populations till 1870, when the Sultan +issued a firman establishing the Bulgarian exarchate. + +There were two other spheres in which Greek influence was paramount in +the Turkish Empire. The Turk is a soldier and farmer; the Greek is +pre-eminent as a trader, and his ability secured him a disproportionate +share of the trade of the empire. Again, the Greeks of Constantinople +and other large cities gradually won the confidence of the Turks and +attained political importance. During the eighteenth century the +highest officials in the empire were invariably Phanariots, as the +Constantinople Greeks were termed from the quarter of the city in which +they resided. + +In speaking of the Greeks I have not had in mind the inhabitants of the +present kingdom of Greece. Their subjection by the Turks was as {20} +complete as that of the Serbs and Bulgarians, though of course they +were exempt from ecclesiastical domination at the hands of an alien +clergy speaking a foreign language. The enmity of the Bulgarians may +to-day be visited upon the subjects of King Constantine, but it was not +their ancestors who imposed upon Bulgaria foreign schools and churches +but the Greeks of Constantinople and Thrace, over whom the government +of Athens has never had jurisdiction. + + + +SERVIAN INDEPENDENCE + +So much of the Balkan countries under Turkish rule. Their emancipation +did not come till the nineteenth century. The first to throw off the +yoke was Servia. Taking advantage of the disorganization and anarchy +prevailing in the Ottoman Empire the Servian people rose in a body +against their oppressors in January, 1804. Under the able leadership +first of Kara-George and afterward of Milosh Obrenovich, Servian {21} +autonomy was definitely established in 1817. The complete independence +of the country was recognized by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The +boundaries of the new state, however, fell far short of Servian +aspirations, excluding as they did large numbers of the Servian +population. The first ruling prince of modern Servia was Milosh +Obrenovich; and the subsequent rulers have belonged either to the +Obrenovich dynasty or to its rival the dynasty of Kara-George. King +Peter, who came to the throne in 1903, is a member of the latter family. + + + +GREEK INDEPENDENCE + +Scarcely had Servia won her freedom when the Greek war of independence +broke out. Archbishop Germanos called the Christian population of the +Morea under the standard of the cross in 1821. For three years the +Greeks, with the assistance of European money and volunteers (of whom +Lord Byron was the most illustrious), conducted a successful campaign +{22} against the Turkish forces; but after the Sultan had in 1824 +summoned to his aid Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, with his powerful +fleet and disciplined army, the laurels which the Greek patriots had +won were recovered by the oppressor; and, with the recapture of Athens +in May, 1827, the whole country once more lay under the dominion of the +Turks. The Powers now recognized that nothing but intervention could +save Greece for European civilization. The Egyptian fleet was +annihilated at Navarino in October, 1828, by the fleets of England, +France, and Russia. Greece was constituted an independent monarchy, +though the Powers who recognized its independence traced the frontier +of the emancipated country in a jealous and niggardly spirit. Prince +Otto of Bavaria was designated the first King and reigned for thirty +years. He was succeeded in 1863 by King George who lived to see the +northern boundary of his kingdom advanced to Saloniki, where, like a +faithful sentinel at his post, he fell, on {23} March 18, 1913, by the +hand of an assassin just as he had attained the glorious fruition of a +reign of fifty years. + + + +BULGARIAN INDEPENDENCE + +There had been a literary revival preceding the dawn of independence in +Greece. In Bulgaria, which was the last of the Balkan states to become +independent, the national regeneration was also fostered by a literary +and educational movement, of which the founding of the first Bulgarian +school--that of Gabrovo--in 1835 was undoubtedly the most important +event. In the next five years more than fifty Bulgarian schools were +established and five Bulgarian printing-presses set up. The Bulgarians +were beginning to re-discover their own nationality. Bulgarian schools +and books produced a reaction against Greek culture and the Greek +clergy who maintained it. Not much longer would Greek remain the +language of the upper classes in Bulgarian cities; not much {24} longer +would ignorant peasants, who spoke only Bulgarian, call themselves +Greek. The days of the spiritual domination of the Greek patriarchate +were numbered. The ecclesiastical ascendency of the Greeks had crushed +Bulgarian nationality more completely than even the civil power of the +Turks. The abolition of the spiritual rule of foreigners and the +restoration of the independent Bulgarian church became the leading +object of the literary reformers, educators, and patriots. It was a +long and arduous campaign--a campaign of education and awakening at +home and of appeal and discussion in Constantinople. Finally the +Sultan intervened and in 1870 issued a firman establishing the +Bulgarian exarchate, conferring on it immediate jurisdiction over +fifteen dioceses, and providing for the addition of other dioceses on a +vote of two-thirds of their Christian population. The new Bulgarian +exarch was immediately excommunicated by the Greek patriarch. But the +first and most important official step had {25} been taken in the +development of Bulgarian nationality. + +The revolt against the Turks followed in 1876. It was suppressed by +acts of cruelty and horror unparalleled even in the Balkans. Many +thousands of men, women, and children were massacred and scores of +villages destroyed. I remember vividly--for I was then in England--how +Gladstone's denunciation of those atrocities aroused a wave of moral +indignation and wrath which swept furiously from one end of Great +Britain to the other, and even aroused the governments and peoples of +the Continent of Europe. The Porte refusing to adopt satisfactory +measures of reform, Russia declared war and her victorious army +advanced to the very gates of Constantinople. The Treaty of San +Stefano, which Russia then enforced upon Turkey, created a "Big +Bulgaria" that extended from the Black Sea to the Albanian Mountains +and from the Danube to the Aegean, leaving to Turkey, however, +Adrianople, Saloniki, and the {26} Chalcidician Peninsula. But this +treaty was torn to pieces by the Powers, who feared that "Big Bulgaria" +would become a mere Russian dependency, and they substituted for it the +Treaty of Berlin. Under this memorable instrument, which dashed to the +ground the racial and national aspirations of the Bulgarians which the +Treaty of San Stefano had so completely satisfied, their country was +restricted to a "tributary principality" lying between the Danube and +the Balkans, Eastern Roumelia to the south being excluded from it and +made an autonomous province of Turkey. This breach in the political +life of the race was healed in 1885 by the union of Eastern Roumelia +with Bulgaria; and the Ottoman sovereignty, which had become little +more than a form, was completely ended in 1908 when the ruler of the +enlarged principality of Bulgaria publicly proclaimed it an independent +kingdom. In spite of a protest from the Porte the independence of +Bulgaria was at once recognized by the Powers. {27} If Bulgaria owed +the freedom with which the Treaty of Berlin dowered her to the swords, +and also to the pens, of foreigners, her complete independence was her +own achievement. But it was not brought about till a generation after +the Treaty of Berlin had recognized the independence of Servia, +Montenegro, and Roumania and delegated to Austria-Hungary the +administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Yet the progress made by +Bulgaria first under Prince Alexander and especially since 1887 under +Prince Ferdinand (who subsequently assumed the title of King and later +of Czar) is one of the most astonishing phenomena in the history of +Modern Europe. + + + +THE BALKAN COUNTRIES + +Thus in consequence of the events we have here so hastily sketched +Turkey had lost since the nineteenth century opened a large portion of +the Balkan Peninsula. Along the Danube and the Save at the north +Bulgaria and Servia had {28} become independent kingdoms and Bosnia and +Herzegovina had at first practically and later formally been annexed to +Austria-Hungary. At the extreme southern end of the Balkan Peninsula +the Greeks had carved out an independent kingdom extending from Cape +Matapan to the Vale of Tempe and the Gulf of Arta. All that remained +of European Turkey was the territory lying between Greece and the Slav +countries of Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria. The Porte has +divided this domain into six provinces or vilayets, besides +Constantinople and its environs. These vilayets are Scutari and Janina +on the Adriatic; Kossovo and Monastir, adjoining them on the east; next +Saloniki, embracing the centre of the area; and finally Adrianople, +extending from the Mesta River to the Black Sea. In ordinary language +the ancient classical names are generally used to designate these +divisions. The vilayet of Adrianople roughly corresponds to Thrace, +the Adriatic vilayets to Epirus, and the intervening {29} territory to +Macedonia. Parts of the domain in question are, however, also known +under other names. The district immediately south of Servia is often +called Old Servia; and the Adriatic coast lands between Montenegro and +Greece are generally designated Albania on the north and Epirus on the +south. + +The area of Turkey in Europe in 1912 was 169,300 square kilometers; of +Bulgaria 96,300; of Greece 64,600; of Servia 48,300; and of Montenegro +9,000. The population of European Turkey at the same date was +6,130,000; of Bulgaria 4,329,000; of Greece 2,632,000; of Servia +2,912,000; and of Montenegro 250,000. To the north of the Balkan +states, with the Danube on the south and the Black Sea on the east, lay +Roumania having an area of 131,350 square kilometers and a population +of 7,070,000. + + + +{30} + +CAUSES OF THE FIRST BALKAN WAR + +What was the occasion of the war between Turkey and the Balkan states +in 1912? The most general answer that can be given to that question is +contained in the one word _Macedonia_. Geographically Macedonia lies +between Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria. Ethnographically it is an +extension of their races. And if, as Matthew Arnold declared, the +primary impulse both of individuals and of nations is the tendency to +expansion, Macedonia both in virtue of its location and of its +population was fore-ordained to be a magnet to the emancipated +Christian nations of the Balkans. Of course the expansion of Greeks +and Slavs meant the expulsion of Turks. Hence the Macedonian question +was the quintessence of the Near Eastern Question. + +But apart altogether from the expansionist ambitions and the racial +sympathies of their kindred in Bulgaria, Servia, and Greece, the {31} +population of Macedonia had the same right to emancipation from Turkish +domination and oppression as their brethren in these neighboring +states. The Moslems had forfeited their sovereign rights in Europe by +their unutterable incapacity to govern their Christian subjects. Had +the Treaty of Berlin sanctioned, instead of undoing, the Treaty of San +Stefano, the whole of Macedonia would have come under Bulgarian +sovereignty; and although Servia and especially Greece would have +protested against the Bulgarian absorption of their Macedonian brethren +(whom they had always hoped to bring under their own jurisdiction when +the Turk was expelled) the result would certainly have been better for +all the Christian inhabitants of Macedonia as well as for the +Mohammedans (who number 800,000 persons or nearly one third of the +entire population of Macedonia). As it was these people were all +doomed to a continuation of Turkish misgovernment, oppression, and +slaughter. The Treaty of Berlin {32} indeed provided for reforms, but +the Porte through diplomacy and delay frustrated all the efforts of +Europe to have them put into effect. For fifteen years the people +waited for the fulfilment of the European promise of an amelioration of +their condition, enduring meanwhile the scandalous misgovernment of +Abdul Hamid II. But after 1893 revolutionary societies became active. +The Internal Organization was a local body whose programme was +"Macedonia for the Macedonians." But both in Bulgaria and in Greece +there were organized societies which sent insurgent bands into +Macedonia to maintain and assert their respective national interests. +This was one of the causes of the war between Turkey and Greece in +1897, and the reverses of the Greeks in that war inured to the +advantage of the Bulgarian propaganda in Macedonia. Servian bands soon +after began to appear on the scene. These hostile activities in +Macedonia naturally produced reprisals at the hands of the Turkish +authorities. In one {33} district alone 100 villages were burned, over +8,000 houses destroyed, and 60,000 peasants left without homes at the +beginning of winter. Meanwhile the Austrian and Russian governments +intervened and drew up elaborate schemes of reform, but their plans +could not be adequately enforced and the result was failure. The +Austro-Russian entente came to an end in 1908, and in the same year +England joined Russia in a project aiming at a better administration of +justice and involving more effective European supervision. Scarcely +had this programme been announced when the revolution under the Young +Turk party broke out which promised to the world a regeneration of the +Ottoman Empire. Hopeful of these constitutional reformers of Turkey, +Europe withdrew from Macedonia and entrusted its destinies to its new +master. Never was there a more bitter disappointment. If autocratic +Sultans had punished the poor Macedonians with whips, the Young Turks +flayed them with scorpions. {34} Sympathy, indignation, and horror +conspired with nationalistic aspirations and territorial interests to +arouse the kindred populations of the surrounding states. And in +October, 1912, war was declared against Turkey by Bulgaria, Servia, +Montenegro, and Greece. + + + +THE BALKAN LEAGUE + +This brings us to the so-called Balkan Alliance about which much has +been written and many errors ignorantly propagated. For months after +the outbreak of the war against Turkey the development of this Alliance +into a Confederation of the Balkan states, on the model of the American +or the German constitution, was a theme of constant discussion in +Europe and America. As a matter of fact there existed no juridical +ground for this expectation, and the sentiments of the peoples of the +four Christian nations, even while they fought together against the +Moslem, were saturated with such an infusion of suspicion {35} and +hostility as to render nugatory any programme of Balkan confederation. +An alliance had indeed been concluded between Greece and Bulgaria in +May, 1912, but it was a defensive, not an offensive alliance. It +provided that in case Turkey attacked either of these states, the other +should come to its assistance with all its forces, and that whether the +object of the attack were the territorial integrity of the nation or +the rights guaranteed it by international law or special conventions. +Without the knowledge of the Greek government, an offensive alliance +against Turkey had in March, 1912, been concluded between Servia and +Bulgaria which determined their respective military obligations in case +of war and the partition between them, in the event of victory, of the +conquered Turkish provinces in Europe. A similar offensive and +defensive alliance between Greece and Turkey was under consideration, +but before the plan was matured Bulgaria and Servia had decided to +declare war against Turkey. This {36} decision had been hastened by +the Turkish massacres at Kochana and Berane, which aroused the deepest +indignation, especially in Bulgaria. Servia and Bulgaria informed +Greece that in three days they would mobilize their forces for the +purpose of imposing reforms on Turkey, and, if within a specified time +they did not receive a satisfactory reply, they would invade the +Ottoman territory and declare war. They invited Greece on this short +notice to co-operate with them by a simultaneous mobilization. It was +a critical moment not only for the little kingdom of King George, but +for that great cause of Hellenism which for thousands of years had +animated, and which still animated, the souls of the Greek population +in all Aegean lands. + + + +GREECE AND THE LEAGUE + +King George himself was a ruler of large experience, of great practical +wisdom, and of fine diplomatic skill. He had shortly before {37} +selected as prime minister the former Cretan insurgent, Mr. Eleutherios +Venizelos. It is significant that the new premier had also taken the +War portfolio. He foresaw the impending conflict--as every wise +statesman in Europe had foreseen it--and began to make preparations for +it. For the reorganization of the army and navy he secured French and +English experts, the former headed by General Eydoux, the latter by +Admiral Tufnel. By 1914 it was estimated that the military and naval +forces of the country would be thoroughly trained and equipped, and war +was not expected before that date. But now in 1912 the hand of the +Greek government was forced. And a decision one way or the other was +inevitable. + +Mr. Venizelos had already proved himself an agitator, an orator, and a +politician. He was now to reveal himself not only to Greece but to +Europe as a wise statesman and an effective leader of his people. The +first test came in his answer to the invitation to join Bulgaria and +{38} Servia within three days in a war against Turkey. Of all +possibilities open to him Mr. Venizelos rejected the programme of +continued isolation for Greece. There were those who glorified it as +splendid and majestic: to him under the existing circumstances it +seemed stupid in itself and certain to prove disastrous in its results. +Greece alone would never have been able to wage a war against Turkey. +And if Greece declined to participate in the inevitable conflict, which +the action of the two Slav states had only hastened, then whether they +won or Turkey won, Greece was bound to lose. It was improbable that +the Ottoman power should come out of the contest victorious; but, if +the unexpected happened, what would be the position, not only of the +millions of Greeks in the Turkish Empire, but of the little kingdom of +Greece itself on whose northern boundary the insolent Moslem oppressor, +flushed with his triumph over Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro, would +be immovably entrenched? On the other {39} hand, if these Christian +states themselves should succeed, as seemed likely, in destroying the +Ottoman Empire in Europe, the Kingdom of Greece, if she now remained a +passive spectator of their struggles, would find in the end that +Macedonia had come into the possession of the victorious Slavs, and the +Great Idea of the Greeks--the idea of expansion into Hellenic lands +eastward toward Constantinople--exploded as an empty bubble. It was +Mr. Venizelos's conclusion that Greece could not avoid participating in +the struggle. Neutrality would have entailed the complete bankruptcy +of Hellenism in the Orient. There remained only the alternative of +co-operation--co-operation with Turkey or co-operation with the +Christian states of the Balkans. + + + +GREEK AND BULGARIAN ANTIPATHIES + +How near Greece was to an alliance with Turkey the world may never +know. At the time nothing of the sort was even suspected. It {40} was +not until Turkey had been overpowered by the forces of the four +Christian states and the attitude of Bulgaria toward the other three on +the question of the division of the conquered territories had become +irreconcilable and menacing that Mr. Venizelos felt it proper to +communicate to the Greek people the history of the negotiations by +which the Greek government had bound their country to a partner now +felt to be so unreasonable and greedy. Feeling in Greece was running +high against Bulgaria. The attacks on Mr. Venizelos's government were +numerous and bitter. He was getting little or no credit for the +victory that had been won against Turkey, while his opponents denounced +him for sacrificing the fruits of that victory to Bulgaria. The Greek +nation especially resented the occupation by Bulgarian troops of the +Aegean coast lands with their large Hellenic population which lay +between the Struma and the Mesta including the cities of Seres and +Drama and especially Kavala with {41} its fine harbor and its +hinterland famed for crops of choice tobacco. + +It was on the fourth of July, 1913, a few days after the outbreak of +the war between Bulgaria and her late allies, that Mr. Venizelos made +his defence in an eloquent and powerful speech at a special session of +the Greek parliament. The accusation against him was not only that +during the late war he had sacrificed Greek interests to Bulgaria but +that he had committed a fatal blunder in joining her in the campaign +against Turkey. His reply was that since Greece could not stand alone +he had to seek allies in the Balkans, and that it was not his fault if +the choice had fallen on Bulgaria. He had endeavored to maintain peace +with Turkey. Listen to his own words: + +"I did not seek war against the Ottoman Empire. I would not have +sought war at a later date if I could have obtained any adjustment of +the Cretan question--that thorn in the side of Greece which can no +longer be left as {42} it is without rendering a normal political life +absolutely impossible for us. I endeavored to adjust this question, to +continue the policy of a close understanding with the neighboring +empire, in the hope of obtaining in this way the introduction of +reforms which would render existence tolerable to the millions of +Greeks within the Ottoman Empire." + + + +THE CRETAN PROBLEM + +It was this Cretan question, even more than the Macedonian question, +which in 1897 had driven Greece, single-handed and unprepared, into a +war with Turkey in which she was destined to meet speedy and +overwhelming defeat. It was this same "accursed Cretan question," as +Mr. Venizelos called it, which now drew the country into a military +alliance against her Ottoman neighbor who, until too late, refused to +make any concession either to the just claims of the Cretans or to the +conciliatory proposals of the Greek government. + +{43} + +Lying midway between three continents, the island of Crete has played a +large part both in ancient and modern history. The explorations and +excavations of Sir Arthur Evans at Cnossus seem to prove that the +Homeric civilization of Tiryns and Mycenae was derived from Crete, +whose earliest remains carry us back three thousand years before the +Christian era. And if Crete gave to ancient Greece her earliest +civilization she has insisted on giving herself to modern Greece. It +is a natural union; for the Cretans are Greeks, undiluted with Turk, +Albanian, or Slav blood, though with some admixture of Italian. The +one obstacle to this marriage of kindred souls has been Turkey. For +Crete was taken from the Venetians by the Turks in 1669, after a twenty +years' siege of Candia, the capital. A portion of the inhabitants +embraced the creed of their conquerors, so that at the present time +perhaps two-thirds of the population are Christian and one-third +Moslem. The result has been to make Crete the {44} worst governed +province of the Ottoman Empire. In Turkey in Europe diversity of race +has kept the Christians quarreling with one another; in Crete diversity +of religion plunges the same race into internecine war as often as once +in ten years. The island had been the scene of chronic insurrections +all through the nineteenth century. Each ended as a rule with a +promise of the Sultan to confer upon the Cretans some form of local +self-government, with additional privileges, financial or other. But +these promises were never fulfilled. Things went from bad to worse. +The military intervention of Greece in 1897 led to war with Turkey in +which she was disastrously defeated. The European Powers had meantime +intervened and they decided that Crete should be endowed with autonomy +under the sovereignty of the Sultan, and in 1898 they appointed Prince +George of Greece as High Commissioner. Between the political parties +of the island and the representatives of the Powers {45} the Prince, +who worked steadily for the welfare of Crete, had a difficult task, and +in 1906 he withdrew, his successor being Mr. Zaimis, a former prime +minister of Greece. The new commissioner was able to report to the +protecting Powers in 1908 that a gendarmerie had been established, that +tranquility was being maintained, and that the Moslem population +enjoyed safety and security. Thereupon the Powers began to withdraw +their forces from the island. And the project for annexation with +Greece, which had been proclaimed by the Cretan insurgents under Mr. +Venizelos in 1905 and which the insular assembly had hastened to +endorse, was once more voted by the assembly, who went on to provide +for the government of the island in the name of the King of Greece. I +have not time to follow in detail the history of this programme of +annexation. Suffice it to say that the Cretans ultimately went so far +as to elect members to sit in the Greek parliament at Athens, and that +Turkey had {46} given notice that their admission to the chamber would +be regarded as a _casus belli_. I saw them on their arrival in Athens +in October, 1912, where they received a most enthusiastic welcome from +the Greeks, while everybody stopped to admire their picturesque dress, +their superb physique, and their dignified demeanor. + +If Mr. Venizelos excluded these delegates from the chamber he would +defy the sentiments of the Greek people. If he admitted them, Turkey +would proclaim war. + + + +MR. VENIZELOS'S SOLUTION + +The course actually pursued by Mr. Venizelos in this predicament he +himself explained to the parliament in the speech delivered at the +close of the war against Turkey from which I have already quoted. He +declared to his astonished countrymen that in his desire to reach a +close understanding with Turkey he had arrived at the point where he no +longer demanded a union of Crete with Greece, "knowing it was {47} too +much for the Ottoman Empire." What he did ask for was the recognition +of the right of the Cretan deputies to sit in the Greek chamber, while +Crete itself should remain an autonomous state under the sovereignty of +the Sultan. Nay, Mr. Venizelos was so anxious to prevent war with +Turkey that he made another concession, for which, he frankly +confessed, his political opponents if things had turned out differently +would have impeached him for high treason. He actually proposed, in +return for the recognition of the right of the Cretan deputies to sit +in the Greek chamber, that Greece should pay on behalf of Crete an +annual tribute to the Porte. + +Happily for Mr. Venizelos's government the Young Turk party who then +governed the Ottoman Empire rejected all these proposals. Meanwhile +their misgovernment and massacre of Christians in Macedonia were +inflaming the kindred Slav nations and driving them into war against +Turkey. When matters had {48} reached a crisis, the reactionary and +incompetent Young Turk party were forced out of power and a wise and +prudent statesman, the venerable Kiamil Pasha, succeeded to the office +of Grand Vizier. He was all for conciliation and compromise with the +Greek government, whom he had often warned against an alliance with +Bulgaria, and he had in readiness a solution of the Cretan question +which he was certain would be satisfactory to both Greece and Turkey. +But these concessions were now too late. Greece had decided to throw +in her lot with Servia and Bulgaria. And a decree was issued for the +mobilization of the Greek troops. + + + +THE WAR + +There is not time, nor have I the qualifications, to describe the +military operations which followed. In Greece the Crown Prince was +appointed commanding general, and the event proved him one of the great +captains of our day. The prime minister, who was also minister {49} of +war, furnished him with troops and munitions and supplies. The plains +and hills about Athens were turned into mock battlefields for the +training of raw recruits; and young Greeks from all parts of the +world--tens of thousands of them from America--poured in to protect the +fatherland and to fight the secular enemy of Europe. The Greek +government had undertaken to raise an army of 125,000 men to co-operate +with the Allies; it was twice as large a number as even the friends of +Greece dreamed possible; yet before the war closed King Constantine had +under his banner an army of 250,000 men admirably armed, clothed, and +equipped;--each soldier indeed having munitions fifty per cent in +excess of the figure fixed by the general staff. + + + +GREEK MILITARY AND NAVAL OPERATIONS + +The Greek army, which had been concentrated at Larissa, entered +Macedonia by the Meluna Pass and the valley of the Xerias River. {50} +The Turks met the advancing force at Elassona, but retired after a few +hours' fighting. They took their stand at the pass of Sarandaporon, +from which they were driven by a day's hard fighting on the part of the +Greek army and the masterly tactics of the Crown Prince. On October 23 +the Greeks were in possession of Serfidje. Thence they pushed forward +on both sides of the Aliakmon River toward Veria, which the Crown +Prince entered with his staff on the morning of October 30. They had +covered 150 miles from Larissa, with no facilities but wagons for +feeding the army and supplying ammunition. But at Veria they struck +the line of railway from Monastir to Saloniki. Not far away was +Jenitsa, where the Turkish army numbering from 35,000 to 40,000 had +concentrated to make a stand for the protection of Saloniki. The +battle of Jenitsa was fiercely contested but the Greeks were victorious +though they lost about 2000 men. This victory opened the way to +Saloniki. The Turkish armies {51} which defended it having been +scattered by the Greek forces, that city surrendered to Crown Prince +Constantine on the eighth of November. It was only three weeks since +the Greek army had left Larissa and it had disposed of about 60,000 +Turks on the way. + +On the outbreak of war Greece had declared a blockade of all Turkish +ports. To the usual list of contraband articles there were added not +only coal, concerning which the practice of belligerent nations had +varied, but also machine oil, which so far as I know was then for the +first time declared contraband of war. As Turkey imported both coal +and lubricants, the purpose of this policy was of course to paralyze +transportation in the Ottoman Empire. Incidentally I may say the +prohibition of lubricating oil caused much inconvenience to American +commerce; not, however, primarily on its own account, but because of +its confusion, in the minds of Greek officials, with such harmless +substances as cotton seed oil and oleo. The {52} Greek navy not only +maintained a very effective blockade but also took possession of all +the Aegean Islands under Turkish rule, excepting Rhodes and the +Dodecanese, which Italy held as a temporary pledge for the fulfilment +by Turkey of some of the conditions of the treaty by which they had +closed their recent war. It will be seen, therefore, that the navy was +a most important agent in the campaign, and Greece was the only one of +the Allies that had a navy. The Greek navy was sufficient not only to +terrorize the Turkish navy, which it reduced to complete impotence, but +also to paralyze Turkish trade and commerce with the outside world, to +embarrass railway transportation within the Empire, to prevent the +sending of reinforcements to Macedonia or the Aegean coast of Thrace, +and to detach from Turkey those Aegean Islands over which she still +exercised effective jurisdiction. + + + +{53} + +SERB MILITARY OPERATIONS + +On land the other Allies had been not less active than Greece. +Montenegro had fired the first shot of the war. And the brave soldiers +of King Nicholas, the illustrious ruler of the one Balkan state which +the Turks had never conquered, were dealing deadly blows to their +secular enemy both in Novi Bazar and Albania. + +As the Greeks had pressed into southern Macedonia, so the Servian +armies advanced through old Servia into northern and central Macedonia. +In their great victory over the Turkish forces at Kumanovo they avenged +the defeat of their ancestors at Kossovo five hundred years before. +Still marching southward they again defeated the enemy in two great +engagements, the one at Prilip and the other at Monastir. The latter +city had been the object of the Greek advance to Fiorina, but when the +prize fell to Servia, though the Greeks were disappointed, it made no +breach in the friendship {54} of the two Allies. Already no doubt they +were both gratified that the spheres of their military occupation were +conterminous and that no Turkish territory remained for Bulgaria to +occupy west of the Vardar River. + + + +BULGARIAN MILITARY OPERATIONS + +While Greece and Servia were scattering, capturing, or destroying the +Turkish troops stationed in Macedonia, and closing in on that province +from north and south like an irresistible vise, it fell to Bulgaria to +meet the enemy's main army in the plains of Eastern Thrace. The +distribution of the forces of the Allies was the natural result of +their respective geographical location. Macedonia to the west of the +Vardar and Bregalnitza Rivers was the only part of Turkey which +adjoined Greece and Servia. Thrace, on the other hand, marched with +the southern boundary of Bulgaria from the sources of the Mesta River +to the Black Sea, and its eastern half was intersected {55} diagonally +by the main road from Sofia to Adrianople and Constantinople. Along +this line the Bulgarians sent their forces against the common enemy as +soon as war was declared. The swift story of their military exploits, +the record of their brilliant victories, struck Europe with amazement. +Here was a country which only thirty-five years earlier had been an +unknown and despised province of Turkey in Europe now overwhelming the +armies of the Ottoman Empire in the great victories of Kirk Kilisse, +Lule Burgas, and Chorlu. In a few weeks the irresistible troops of +King Ferdinand had reached the Chataldja line of fortifications. Only +twenty-five miles beyond lay Constantinople where they hoped to +celebrate their final triumph. + + + +THE COLLAPSE OF TURKEY + +The Great Powers of Europe had other views. Even if the Bulgarian +delay at Chataldja--a delay probably due to {56} exhaustion--had not +given the Turks time to strengthen their defences and reorganize their +forces, it is practically certain that the Bulgarian army would not +have been permitted to enter Constantinople. But with the exception of +the capital and its fortified fringe, all Turkey in Europe now lay at +the mercy of the Allies. The entire territory was either already +occupied by their troops or could be occupied at leisure. Only at +three isolated points was the Ottoman power unsubdued. The city of +Adrianople, though closely besieged by the Bulgarians, still held out, +and the great fortresses of Scutari in Northern Albania and Janina in +Epirus remained in the hands of their Turkish garrisons. + +The power of Turkey had collapsed in a few weeks. Whether the ruin was +due to inefficiency and corruption in government or the injection by +the Young Turk party of politics into the army or exhaustion resulting +from the recent war with Italy or to other causes more obscure, {57} we +need not pause to inquire. The disaster itself, however, had spread +far enough in the opinion of Europe, and a Peace Conference was +summoned in December. Delegates from the belligerent states and +ambassadors from the Great Powers came together in London. But their +labors in the cause of peace proved unavailing. Turkey was unwilling +to surrender Adrianople and Bulgaria insisted on it as a _sine qua +non_. The Peace Conference broke up and hostilities were resumed. The +siege of Adrianople was pressed by the Bulgarians with the aid of +60,000 Servian troops. It was taken by storm on March 26. Already, on +March 6, Janina had yielded to the well directed attacks of King +Constantine. And the fighting ended with the spectacular surrender on +April 23 of Scutari to King Nicholas, who for a day at least defied the +united will of Europe. + +Turkey was finally compelled to accept terms of peace. In January, +while the London Peace Conference was still in session, Kiamil Pasha, +{58} who had endeavored to prepare the nation for the territorial +sacrifice he had all along recognized as inevitable, was driven from +power and his war minister, Nazim Pasha, murdered through an uprising +of the Young Turk party executed by Enver Bey, who himself demanded the +resignation of Kiamil and carried it to the Sultan and secured its +acceptance. The insurgents set up Mahmud Shevket Pasha as Grand Vizier +and made the retention of Adrianople their cardinal policy. But the +same inexorable fate overtook the new government in April as faced +Kiamil in January. The Powers were insistent on peace, and the +successes of the Allies left no alternative and no excuse for delay. +The Young Turk party who had come to power on the Adrianople issue were +accordingly compelled to ratify the cession to the allies of the city +with all its mosques and tombs and historic souvenirs. The Treaty of +London, which proved to be short-lived, was signed on May 30. + + + +{59} + +THE TERMS OF PEACE + +The treaty of peace provided that beyond a line drawn from Enos near +the mouth of the Maritza River on the Aegean Sea to Midia on the coast +of the Black Sea all Turkey should be ceded to the Allies except +Albania, whose boundaries were to be fixed by the Great Powers. It was +also stipulated that the Great Powers should determine the destiny of +the Aegean Islands belonging to Turkey which Greece now claimed by +right of military occupation and the vote of their inhabitants (nearly +all of whom were Greek). A more direct concession to Greece was the +withdrawal of Turkish sovereignty over Crete. The treaty also +contained financial and other provisions, but they do not concern us +here. The essential point is that, with the exception of +Constantinople and a narrow hinterland for its protection, the Moslems +after more than five centuries of possession had been driven out of +Europe. + +{60} + +This great and memorable consummation was the achievement of the united +nations of the Balkans. It was not a happy augury for the immediate +future to recall the historic fact that the past successes of the +Moslems had been due to dissensions and divisions among their Christian +neighbors. + + + + +{61} + +II + +THE WAR BETWEEN THE ALLIES + +[Illustration: Map showing the Turkish Territories occupied by the +Armies of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Servia at the close of the +War against Turkey.] + +{63} + +II + +THE WAR BETWEEN THE ALLIES + +The Treaty of London officially eliminated Turkey from the further +settlement of the Balkan question. Thanks to the good will of the +Great Powers toward herself or to their rising jealousy of Bulgaria she +was not stripped of her entire European possessions west of the +Chataldja lines where the victorious Bulgarians had planted their +standards. The Enos-Midia frontier not only guaranteed to her a +considerable portion of territory which the Bulgarians had occupied but +extended her coast line, from the point where the Chataldja lines +strike the Sea of Marmora, out through the Dardanelles and along the +Aegean littoral to the mouth of the Maritza River. To that extent the +Great Powers may be said to have re-established the {64} Turks once +more in Europe from which they had been practically driven by the +Balkan Allies, and especially the Bulgarians. All the rest of her +European possessions, however, Turkey was forced to surrender either in +trust to the Great Powers or absolutely to the Balkan Allies. + +The great question now was how the Allies should divide among +themselves the spoils of war. + + + +RIVAL AMBITIONS OF THE ALLIES + +This was a difficult matter to adjust. Before the war began, as we +have already seen, a Treaty of Partition had been negotiated between +Bulgaria and Servia, but conditions had changed materially in the +interval and Servia now demanded a revision of the treaty and refused +to withdraw her troops from Central Macedonia, which the treaty had +marked for reversion to Bulgaria. In consequence the relations between +the governments and peoples of {65} Servia and Bulgaria were +dangerously strained. The Bulgarians denounced the Servians as +perfidious and faithless and the Servians responded by excoriating the +colossal greed and intolerance of the Bulgarians. The immemorial +mutual hatred of the two Slav nations was stirred to its lowest depths, +and it boiled and sputtered like a witches' cauldron. + +In Eastern Macedonia Bulgarians and Greeks were each eagerly pushing +their respective spheres of occupation without much regard to the +rights or feeling of the other Ally. Though the Bulgarians had not +forgiven the Greeks for anticipating them in the capture of Saloniki in +the month of November, the rivalry between them in the following winter +and spring had for its stage the territory between the Struma and the +Mesta Rivers--and especially the quadrilateral marked by Kavala and +Orphani on the coast and Seres and Drama on the line of railway from +Saloniki to Adrianople. The Greeks had one advantage over the +Bulgarians: {66} their troops could be employed to secure extensions of +territory for the Hellenic kingdom at a time when Bulgaria still needed +the bulk of her forces to fight the Turks at Chataldja and Adrianople. +Hence the Greeks occupied towns in the district from which Bulgarian +troops had been recalled. Nor did they hesitate to dislodge scattered +Bulgarian troops which their ally had left behind to establish a claim +of occupation. Naturally disputes arose between the military +commanders and these led to repeated armed encounters. On March 5 +Greeks and Bulgarians fought at Nigrita as they subsequently fought at +Pravishta, Leftera, Panghaion, and Anghista. + +This conduct of the Allies toward one another while the common enemy +was still in the field boded ill for their future relations. "Our next +war will be with Bulgaria," said the man on the street in Athens, and +this bellicose sentiment was reciprocated alike by the Bulgarian people +and the Bulgarian army. The {67} secular mutual enmities and +animosities of the Greeks and Bulgarians, which self-interest had +suppressed long enough to enable the Balkan Allies to make European +Turkey their own, burst forth with redoubled violence under the +stimulus of the imperious demand which the occasion now made upon them +all for an equitable distribution of the conquered territory. For ages +the fatal vice of the Balkan nations has been the immoderate and +intolerant assertion by each of its own claims coupled with +contemptuous disregard of the rights of others. + + + +ALBANIA A CAUSE OF FRICTION + +There were also external causes which contributed to the deepening +tragedy in the Balkans. Undoubtedly the most potent was the +dislocation of the plans of the Allies by the creation of an +independent Albania. This new kingdom was called into being by the +voice of the European concert at the demand of Austria-Hungary +supported by Italy. + +{68} + +The controlling force in politics, though not the only force, is +self-interest. Austria-Hungary had long sought an outlet through +Macedonia to the Aegean by way of Saloniki. It was also the aim of +Servia to reach the Adriatic. But the foreign policy of +Austria-Hungary, which has millions of Serbs under its dominion, has +steadily opposed the aggrandizement of Servia. And now that Servia and +her allies had taken possession of Macedonia and blocked the path of +Austria-Hungary to Saloniki, it was not merely revenge, it was +self-interest pursuing a consistent foreign policy, which moved the +Dual Monarchy to make the cardinal feature of its Balkan programme the +exclusion of Servia from access to the Adriatic Sea. Before the first +Balkan war began the Adriatic littoral was under the dominion of +Austria-Hungary and Italy, for though Montenegro and European Turkey +were their maritime neighbors neither of them had any naval strength. +Naturally {69} these two dominant powers desired that after the close +of the Balkan war they should not be in a worse position in the +Adriatic than heretofore. But if Servia were allowed to expand +westward to the Adriatic, their supremacy might in the future be +challenged. For Servia might enter into special relations with her +great sister Slav state, Russia, or a confederation might be formed +embracing all the Balkan states between the Black Sea and the Adriatic: +and, in either event, Austria-Hungary and Italy would no longer enjoy +the unchallenged supremacy on the Adriatic coasts which was theirs so +long as Turkey held dominion over the maritime country lying between +Greece and Montenegro. As a necessity of practical politics, +therefore, there emerged the Austro-Italian policy of an independent +Albania. But natural and essential as this policy was for Italy and +Austria-Hungary, it was fatal to Servia's dream of expansion to the +Adriatic; it set narrow limits to the northward extension of {70} +Greece into Epirus, and the southward extension of Montenegro below +Scutari; it impelled these Allies to seek compensation in territory +that Bulgaria had regarded as her peculiar preserve; and as a +consequence it seriously menaced the existence of the Balkan Alliance +torn as it already was by mutual jealousies, enmities, aggressions, and +recriminations. + + + +RECOIL OF SERVIA TOWARD THE AEGEAN + +The first effect of the European fiat regarding an independent Albania +was the recoil of Servia against Bulgaria. Confronted by the _force +majeure_ of the Great Powers which stopped her advance to the Adriatic, +Servia turned her anxious regard toward the Gulf of Saloniki and the +Aegean Sea. Already her victorious armies had occupied Macedonia from +the Albanian frontier eastward beyond the Vardar River to Strumnitza, +Istib, and Kochana, and southward below Monastir and Ghevgheli, where +they touched the boundary of the {71} Greek occupation of Southern +Macedonia. An agreement with the Greeks, who held the city of Saloniki +and its hinterland as well as the whole Chalcidician Peninsula, would +ensure Servia an outlet to the sea. And the merchants of +Saloniki--mostly the descendants of Jews expelled from Spain in the +fifteenth century--were shrewd enough to recognize the advantage to +their city of securing the commerce of Servia, especially as they were +destined to lose, in consequence of hostile tariffs certain to be +established by the conquerors, a considerable portion of the trade +which had formerly flowed to them without let or hindrance from a large +section of European Turkey. The government of Greece was equally +favorably disposed to this programme; for, in the first place, it was +to its interest to cultivate friendly relations with Servia, in view of +possible embroilments with Bulgaria; and, in the second place, it had +to countercheck the game of those who wanted either to make Saloniki a +free city or to {72} incorporate it in a Big Bulgaria, and who were +using with some effect the argument that the annexation of the city to +Greece meant the throttling of its trade and the annihilation of its +prosperity. The interests of the city of Saloniki, the interests of +Greece, and the interests of Servia all combined to demand the free +flow of Servian trade by way of Saloniki. And if no other power +obtained jurisdiction over any Macedonian territory through which that +trade passed, it would be easy for the Greek and Servian governments to +come to an understanding. + + + +TREATY RESTRICTIONS + +Just here, however, was the rub. The secret treaty of March, 1912, +providing for the offensive and defensive alliance of Bulgaria and +Servia against the Ottoman Empire regulated, in case of victory, the +division of the conquered territory between the Allies. And the +extreme limit, on the south and east, of Turkish territory {73} +assigned to Servia by this treaty was fixed by a line starting from +Ochrida on the borders of Albania and running northeastward across the +Vardar River a few miles above Veles and thence, following the same +general direction, through Ovcepolje and Egri Palanka to Golema Vreh on +the frontier of Bulgaria--a terminus some twenty miles southeast of the +meeting point of Servia, Macedonia, and Bulgaria. During the war with +Turkey the Servian armies had paid no attention to the Ochrida-Golema +Vreh line. The great victory over the Turks at Kumanovo, by which the +Slav defeat at Kossovo five hundred years earlier was avenged, was, it +is true, won at a point north of the line in question. But the +subsequent victories of Prilip and Monastir were gained to the south of +it--far, indeed, into the heart of the Macedonian territory recognized +by the treaty as Bulgarian. + +If you look at a map you will see that the boundary between Servia and +Bulgaria, starting {74} from the Danube, runs in a slightly undulating +line due south. Now what the military forces of King Peter did during +the war of the Balkan states with the Ottoman Empire was to occupy all +European Turkey south of Servia between the prolongation of that +boundary line and the new Kingdom of Albania till they met the Hellenic +army advancing northward under Crown Prince Constantine, when the two +governments agreed on a common boundary for New Servia and New Greece +along a line starting from Lake Presba and running eastward between +Monastir and Fiorina to the Vardar River a little to the south of +Ghevgheli. + + + +THE APPLE OF DISCORD + +But this arrangement between Greece and Servia would leave no territory +for Bulgaria in Central and Western Macedonia! Yet Servia had solemnly +bound herself by treaty not to ask for any Turkish territory below the +Ochrida-Golema Vreh line. There was no {75} similar treaty with +Greece, but Bulgaria regarded the northern frontier of New Greece as a +matter for adjustment between the two governments. Servia, withdrawn +behind the Ochrida-Golema Vreh line in accordance with the terms of the +treaty, would at any rate have nothing to say about the matter. And, +although the Bulgarian government never communicated, officially or +unofficially, its own views to Greece or Servia, I believe we should +not make much mistake in asserting that a line drawn from Ochrida to +Saloniki (which Bulgaria in spite of the Greek occupation continued to +claim) would roughly represent the limit of its voluntary concession. +Now if you imagine a base line drawn from Saloniki to Goletna Vreh, you +have an equilateral triangle resting on Ochrida as apex. And this +equilateral triangle represents approximately what Bulgaria claimed in +the western half of Macedonia as her own. + +The war between the Allies was fought over the possession of this +triangle. The larger {76} portion of it had in the war against Turkey +been occupied by the forces of Servia; and the nation, inflamed by the +military spirit of the army, had made up its mind that, treaty or no +treaty, it should not be evacuated. On the south, especially above +Vodena, the Greeks had occupied a section of the fatal triangle. And +the two governments had decided that they would not tolerate the +driving of a Bulgarian wedge between New Servia and New Greece. +Bulgaria, on the other hand, was inexorable in her demands on Servia +for the fulfilment of the terms of the Treaty of Partition. At the +same time she worried the Greek government about the future of +Saloniki, and that at a time when the Greek people were criticizing Mr. +Venizelos for having allowed the Bulgarians to occupy regions in +Macedonia and Thrace inhabited by Greeks, notably Seres, Drama, and +Kavala, and the adjacent country between the Struma and the Mesta. +These were additional causes of dissension between the Allies. But the +primary {77} disruptive force was the attraction, the incompatible +attraction, exerted on them all by that central Macedonian triangle +whose apex rested on the ruins of Czar Samuel's palace at Ochrida and +whose base extended from Saloniki to Golema Vreh. + + + +THE CLAIM OF BULGARIA + +From that base line to the Black Sea nearly all European Turkey (with +the exception of the Chalcidician Peninsula, including Saloniki and its +hinterland) had been occupied by the military forces of Bulgaria. Why +then was Bulgaria so insistent on getting beyond that base line, +crossing the Vardar, and possessing herself of Central Macedonia up to +Ochrida and the eastern frontier of Albania? + +The answer, in brief, is that it has been the undeviating policy of +Bulgaria, ever since her own emancipation by Russia in 1877, to free +the Bulgarians still under the Ottoman yoke and unite them in a common +fatherland. The {78} Great Bulgaria which was created by Russia in the +treaty she forced on Turkey--the Treaty of San Stefano--was constructed +under the influence of the idea of a union of the Bulgarian race in a +single state under a common government. This treaty was afterward torn +to pieces by the Congress of Berlin, which set up for the Bulgarians a +very diminutive principality. But the Bulgarians, from the palace down +to the meanest hut, have always been animated by that racial and +national idea. The annexation of Eastern Roumelia in 1885 was a great +step in the direction of its realization. And it was to carry that +programme to completion that Bulgaria made war against Turkey in 1912. +Her primary object was the liberation of the Bulgarians in Macedonia +and their incorporation in a Great Bulgaria. And the Treaty of +Partition with Servia seemed, in the event of victory over Turkey, to +afford a guarantee of the accomplishment of her long-cherished purpose. +It was a strange irony of {79} fate that while as a result of the +geographical situation of the belligerents Bulgaria, at the close of +the war with Turkey, found herself in actual occupation of all European +Turkey from the Black Sea up to the River Struma and beyond,--that is, +all Thrace to Chataldja as well as Eastern Macedonia--her allies were +in possession of the bulk of Macedonia, including the entire triangle +she had planned to inject between the frontiers of New Servia and New +Greece! + +The Bulgarians claimed this triangle on ethnological grounds. Its +inhabitants, they asseverated, were their brethren, as genuinely +Bulgarian as the subjects of King Ferdinand. + + + +RACIAL PROPAGANDA IN MACEDONIA + +Of all perplexing subjects in the world few can be more baffling than +the distribution of races in Macedonia. The Turks classify the +population, not by language or by physical characteristics, but by +religion. A Greek is a member of the Orthodox Church who {80} +recognizes the patriarch of Constantinople; a Bulgarian, on the other +hand, is one of the same religious faith who recognizes the exarch; and +since the Servians in Turkey have no independent church but recognize +the patriarchate they are often, as opposed to Bulgarians, called +Greeks. Race, being thus merged in religion--in something that rests +on the human will and not on physical characteristics fixed by +nature--can in that part of the world be changed as easily as religion. +A Macedonian may be a Greek to-day, a Bulgarian to-morrow, and a +Servian next day. We have all heard of the captain in the comic opera +who "in spite of all temptations to belong to other nations" remained +an Englishman. There would have been nothing comic in this assertion +had the redoubtable captain lived in Macedonia. In that land a race is +a political party composed of members with common customs and religion +who stand for a "national idea" which they strenuously endeavor to +force on others. + +{81} + +Macedonia is the land of such racial propaganda. As the Turkish +government forbids public meetings for political purposes, the +propaganda takes an ecclesiastical and linguistic form. Each "race" +seeks to convert the people to its faith by the agency of schools and +churches, which teach and use its own language. Up to the middle of +the nineteenth century the Greeks, owing to their privileged +ecclesiastical position in the Ottoman Empire, had exclusive spiritual +and educational jurisdiction over the members of the Orthodox Church in +Macedonia. The opposition of the Bulgarians led, as we have already +seen, to the establishment in 1870 of the exarchate, that is, of an +independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church with the exarch at its head. The +Bulgarian propaganda in Macedonia demanded the appointment of bishops +to conduct churches and schools under the authority of the exarchate. +In 1891 the Porte conceded Bulgarian bishops to Ochrida and Uskub, in +1894 to Veles and Nevrokop, {82} and in 1898 to Monastir, Strumnitza, +and Dibra. As has been well said, the church of the exarchate was +really occupied in creating Bulgarians: it offered to the Slavonic +population of Macedonia services and schools conducted in a language +which they understood and showed a genuine interest in their education. +By 1900 Macedonia had 785 Bulgarian schools, 39,892 pupils, and 1,250 +teachers. + +The Servian propaganda in Macedonia was at a disadvantage in comparison +with the Bulgarian because it had not a separate ecclesiastical +organization. As we have already seen, the orthodox Serbs owe +allegiance to the Greek patriarch in Constantinople. And at first they +did not push their propaganda as zealously or as successfully as the +Bulgarians. In fact the national aspirations of the people of Servia +had been in the direction of Bosnia and Herzegovina; but after these +provinces were assigned to Austria by the Treaty of Berlin, a marked +{83} change of attitude occurred in the Servian government and nation. +They now claimed as Servian the Slavonic population of Macedonia which +hitherto Bulgaria had cultivated as her own. The course of politics in +Bulgaria, notably her embroilment with Russia, inured to the advantage +of the Servian propaganda in Macedonia, which after 1890 made great +headway. The Servian government made liberal contributions for +Macedonian schools. And before the nineteenth century closed the +Servian propaganda could claim 178 schools in the vilayets of Saloniki +and Monastir and in Uskub with 321 teachers and 7,200 pupils. + +These Slav propagandists made serious encroachments upon the Greek +cause, which, only a generation earlier, had possessed a practical +monopoly in Macedonia. Greek efforts too were for a time almost +paralyzed in consequence of the disastrous issue of the Greco-Turkish +war in 1897. Nevertheless in 1901 the Greeks claimed 927 schools in +the vilayets of {84} Saloniki and Monastir with 1,397 teachers and +57,607 pupils. + + + +RACIAL FACTS AND FALLACIES + +The more bishops, churches, and schools a nationality could show, the +stronger its claim on the reversion of Macedonia when the Turk should +be driven out of Europe! There was no doubt much juggling with +statistics. And though schools and churches were provided by Greeks, +Servians, and Bulgarians to satisfy the spiritual and intellectual +needs of their kinsmen in Macedonia, there was always the ulterior +(which was generally the dominant) object of staking out claims in the +domain soon to drop from the paralyzed hand of the Turk. The bishops +may have been good shepherds of their flocks, but the primary +qualification for the office was, I imagine, the gift of aggressive +political leadership. The Turkish government now favored one +nationality and now another as the interests of the moment seemed {85} +to suggest. With an impish delight in playing off Slav against Greek +and Servian against Bulgarian, its action on applications for +bishoprics was generally taken with a view to embarrassing the rival +Christian nationalities. And it could when necessary keep the +propagandists within severe limits. The Bulgarians grew bold after +securing so many bishoprics in the nineties and the bishop at Uskub +thought to open new schools and churches. But the Turkish +governor--the Vali--summoned him and delivered this warning: "O +Bulgarian, sit upon the eggs you have, and do not burst your belly by +trying to lay more." + +How are we to determine the racial complexion of a country in which +race is certified by religion, in which religion is measured by the +number of bishops and churches and schools, in which bishops and +churches and schools are created and maintained by a propaganda +conducted by competing external powers, and in which the results of the +propaganda {86} are determined largely by money and men sent from +Sofia, Athens, and Belgrade, subject always to the caprice and +manipulation of the Sultan's government at Constantinople? + +In Southern Macedonia from the Thessalian frontier as far north as the +parallel of Saloniki, the population is almost exclusively Greek, as is +also the whole of the Chalcidician Peninsula, while further east the +coast region between the Struma and the Mesta is also predominantly +Greek. Eastern Macedonia to the north of the line of Seres and Drama +and south of the Kingdom of Bulgaria is generally Bulgarian. On the +northwest from the city of Uskub up to the confines of Servia and +Bosnia, Macedonia is mixed Serb, Bulgarian, and Albanian, with the Serb +element preponderating as you travel northward and the Albanian +westward. + + + +{87} + +PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS AND EXPERIENCES + +The difficulty comes when we attempt to give the racial character of +Central Macedonia, which is equally remote from Greece, Bulgaria, and +Servia. I travelled through this district last summer. On June 29, +when the war broke out between the Allies I found myself in Uskub. +Through the courtesy of the Servian authorities I was permitted to ride +on the first military train which left the city. Descending at Veles I +drove across Central Macedonia by way of Prilip to Monastir, spending +the first night, for lack of a better bed, in the carriage, which was +guarded by Servian sentries. From Monastir I motored over execrable +roads to Lake Presba and Lake Ochrida and thence beyond the city of +Ochrida to Struga on the Black Drin, from which I looked out on the +mountains of Albania. + +Coming from Athens where for many months I had listened to patriotic +stories of {88} the thorough permeation of Macedonia by Greek +settlements my first surprise was my inability to discover a Greek +majority in Central Macedonia. In most of the cities a fraction of the +population indeed is Greek and as a rule the colony is prosperous. +This is especially true in Monastir, which is a stronghold of Greek +influence. But while half the population of Monastir is Mohammedan the +so-called Bulgarians form the majority of the Christian population, +though both Servians and Roumanians have conducted energetic +propaganda. In Veles two-thirds of the population are Christians and +nearly all of these are called Bulgarians. In Ochrida the lower town +is Mohammedan and the upper Christian, and the Christian population is +almost exclusively of the Bulgarian Church. + +It does not follow, however, that the people of Central Macedonia, even +if Bulgarian churches are in the ascendant among them, are really +connected by ties of blood and language {89} with Bulgaria rather than +with Servia. If history is invoked we shall have to admit that under +Dushan this region was a part of the Serb empire as under Simeon and +Asen it was part of the Bulgarian. If an appeal is made to +anthropology the answer is still uncertain. For while the Mongolian +features--broad flat faces, narrow eyes, and straight black hair--which +characterize the subjects of King Ferdinand can be seen--I myself have +seen them--as far west as Ochrida, they may also be found all over +Northern Servia as far as Belgrade though the Servian physical type is +entirely different. There is no fixed connection between the +anthropological unit and the linguistic or political unit. +Furthermore, while there are well-marked groups who call themselves +Serbs or Bulgarians there is a larger population not so clearly +differentiated by physique or language. Undoubtedly they are Slavs. +But whether Serb or Bulgarian, or intermediate between the two, no one +to-day can demonstrate. Central {90} Macedonia has its own dialects, +any one of which under happy literary auspices might have developed +into a separate language. And the men who speak them to-day can more +or less understand either Servian or Bulgarian. Hence as the anonymous +and highly authoritative author of "Turkey in Europe," who calls +himself Odysseus, declares: + +"The practical conclusion is that neither Greeks, Servians, nor +Bulgarians have a right to claim Central Macedonia. The fact that they +all do so shows how weak each claim must be." + +Yet it was Bulgaria's intransigent assertion of her claim to Central +Macedonia which led to the war between the Allies. + +It will be instructive to consider the attitude of each of the +governments concerned on the eve of the conflict. I hope I am in a +position correctly to report it. Certainly I had unusual opportunities +to learn it. For besides the official position I held in Athens during +the entire course of both Balkan wars I visited the {91} Balkan states +in June and was accorded the privilege of discussing the then pending +crisis with the prime ministers of Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria. It +would of course be improper to quote them; nay more, I feel myself +under special obligation sacredly to respect the confidence they +reposed in me. But the frank disclosures they made in these +conversations gave me a point of view for the comprehension of the +situation and the estimate of facts which I have found simply +invaluable. And if Mr. Venizelos in Athens, or Mr. Maioresco in +Bukarest, or Mr. Pashitch in Belgrade, or Dr. Daneff, who is no longer +prime minister of Bulgaria, should ever chance to read what I am +saying, I hope each will feel that I have fairly and impartially +presented the attitude which their respective governments had taken at +this critical moment on the vital issue then confronting them. + + + +{92} + +THE ATTITUDE OF SERVIA + +I have already indicated the situation of Servia. Compelled by the +Great Powers to withdraw her troops from Albania, after they had +triumphantly made their way to the Adriatic, she was now requested by +Bulgaria to evacuate Central Macedonia up to the Ochrida-Golema Vreh +line in accordance with the terms of the treaty between the two +countries which was ratified in March, 1912. The Servian government +believed that for the loss of Albania, which the treaty assumed would +be annexed to Servia, they were entitled to compensation in Macedonia. +And if now, instead of compensation for the loss of an outlet on the +Adriatic, they were to withdraw their forces from Central Macedonia and +allow Bulgaria to establish herself between New Servia and New Greece, +they would block their own way to Saloniki, which was the only prospect +now left of a Servian outlet to the sea. Nor was this the whole {93} +story by any means. The army, which comprised all able-bodied +Servians, was in possession of Central Macedonia; and the military +leaders, with the usual professional bias in favor of imperialism, +dictated their expansionist views to the government at Belgrade. If +Bulgaria would not voluntarily grant compensation for the loss of +Albania, the Servian people were ready to take it by force. They had +also a direct claim against Bulgaria. They had sent 60,000 soldiers to +the siege of Adrianople, which the Bulgarians had hitherto failed to +capture. And the Servians were now asking, in bitter irony, whether +they had gone to war solely for the benefit of Bulgaria; whether +besides helping her to win all Thrace and Eastern Macedonia they were +now to present her with Central Macedonia, and that at a time when the +European Concert had stripped them of the expected prize of Albania +with its much desired Adriatic littoral! This argument was graphically +presented on a map of which I secured a {94} copy in Belgrade. The +legend on this map reads as follows: + +"Territories occupied by Servia 55,000 square miles. Servia cedes to +her allies in the east and south 3,800 square miles. Servia cedes to +Albania 15,200 square miles. Servia retains 36,000 square miles. +Territories occupied by Bulgaria to Enos-Midia, 51,200 square miles. +The Bulgarians demand from the Servians still 10,240 square miles. +According to Bulgarian pretensions Bulgaria should get 61,520 square +miles and Servia only 25,760!" + + + +PROPOSED REVISION OF TREATY AND ARBITRATION + +When the treaty between Servia and Bulgaria was negotiated, it seems to +have been assumed that the theatre of a war with Turkey would be +Macedonia and that Thrace--the country from the Mesta to the Black +Sea--would remain intact to Turkey. And if the rest of Turkey in +Europe up to the Adriatic {95} were conquered by the two Allies, the +Ochrida-Golema Vreh line would make a fairly equitable division between +them of the spoils of war. But with Albania denied to Servia and +Thrace occupied by Bulgaria, conditions had wholly changed. The +Servian government declared that the changed conditions had abrogated +the Treaty of Partition and that it was for the two governments now to +adjust themselves to the logic of events! On May 28 Mr. Pashitch, the +Servian prime minister, formally demanded a revision of the treaty. A +personal interview with the Bulgarian prime minister, Mr. Gueshoff, +followed on June 2 at Tsaribrod. And Mr. Gueshoff accepted Mr. +Pashitch's suggestion (which originated with Mr. Venizelos, the Greek +prime minister) of a conference of representatives of the four Allies +at St. Petersburg. For it should be added that, in the Treaty of +Partition, the Czar had been named as arbiter in case of any +territorial dispute between the two parties. + +{96} + +What followed in the next few days has never been clearly disclosed. +But it was of transcendent importance. I have always thought that if +Mr. Gueshoff, one of the authors of the Balkan Alliance, had been +allowed like Mr. Venizelos and Mr. Pashitch, to finish his work, there +would have been no war between the Allies. I did not enjoy the +personal acquaintance of Mr. Gueshoff, but I regarded him as a wise +statesman of moderate views, who was disposed to make reasonable +concessions for the sake of peace. But a whole nation in arms, flushed +with the sense of victory, is always dangerous to the authority of +civil government. If Mr. Gueshoff was ready to arrange some +accommodation with Mr. Pashitch, the military party in Bulgaria was all +the more insistent in its demands on Servia for the evacuation of +Central Macedonia. Even in Servia Mr. Pashitch had great difficulty in +repressing the jingo ardor of the army, whose bellicose spirit was +believed to find expression in the attitude {97} of the Crown Prince. +But the provocation in Bulgaria was greater, because, when all was said +and done, Servia was actually violating an agreement with Bulgaria to +which she had solemnly set her name. Possibly the military party +gained the ear of King Ferdinand. Certainly it was reported that he +was consulting with leaders of the opposition. Presumably they were +all dissatisfied with the conciliatory attitude which Mr. Gueshoff had +shown in the Tsaribrod conference. Whatever the expiation, Mr. +Gueshoff resigned on June 9. + + + +DELAY AND OPPOSITION OF BULGARIA + +On that very day the Czar summoned the Kings of Bulgaria and Servia to +submit their disputes to his decision. While this demand was based on +a specific provision of the Servo-Bulgarian treaty, His Majesty also +urged it on the ground of devotion to the Slav cause. This pro-Slav +argument provoked much criticism in Austro-Hungarian circles which {98} +resented bitterly the assumption of Slav hegemony in Balkan affairs. +However, on June 12 Bulgaria and Servia accepted Russian arbitration. +But the terms were not agreed upon. While Mr. Venizelos and Mr. +Pashitch impatiently awaited the summons to St. Petersburg they could +get no definite information of the intentions of the Bulgarian +government. And the rivalry of Austria-Hungary and Russia for +predominance in the Balkans was never more intense than at this +critical moment. + +On June 14 Dr. Daneff was appointed prime minister in succession to Mr. +Gueshoff. He had represented Bulgaria in the London Peace Conference +where his aggressive and uncompromising attitude had perturbed his +fellow delegates from the other Balkan states and provoked some +criticism in the European press. He was known as a Russophil. And he +seems now to have got assurance from Russia that she would maintain the +Bulgarian view of the treaty with Servia, although she {99} had at one +time favored the Servian demand for an extensive revision of it. +Certainly Dr. Daneff voiced the views and sentiments of the Bulgarian +army and nation. I was in Sofia the week before the outbreak of the +war between the Allies. And the two points on which everybody insisted +were, first, that Servia must be compelled to observe the Treaty of +Partition, and, secondly, that Central Macedonia must be annexed to +Bulgaria. For these things all Bulgarians were ready to fight. And +flushed with their great victories over the main army of Turkey they +believed it would be an easy task to overpower the forces of Servia and +Greece. For the Greeks they entertained a sort of contempt; and as for +the Servians, had they not already defeated them completely at +Slivnitza in 1886? Men high in the military service of the nation +assured me that the Bulgarian army would be in Belgrade in eight days +after war was declared. The Greeks too would quickly be driven out of +Saloniki. The idea of {100} a conference to decide the territorial +question in dispute between the Allies found no favor in any quarter. + +Now it is important that full justice should be done to Bulgaria. As +against Servia, if Servia had stood alone, she might have appealed to +the sanctity and inviolability of treaties. Circumstances had indeed +changed since the treaty was negotiated. But was that a good reason, +Bulgaria might have asked, why she should be excluded from Central +Macedonia which the treaty guaranteed to her? Was that a good reason +why she should not emancipate her Macedonian brethren for whose sake +she had waged a bloody and costly war with Turkey? The Bulgarians saw +nothing in the problem but their treaty with Servia and apparently +cared for no territorial compensation without Central Macedonia. + + + +{101} + +BULGARIA'S UNCOMPROMISING POLICY + +The Bulgarians were blind to all facts and considerations but the +abstract terms of the treaty with Servia. It was a fact, however, that +the war against Turkey had been fought by four Allies. It was a fact +that the Ottoman government had ceded European Turkey (except Albania) +to these four Allies. No two of the Allies could divide between +themselves the common possession. A division made by the four Allies +might contravene the terms of a treaty which existed between any two of +the Allies prior to the outbreak of the war. In any event it was for +the four Allies together to effect a distribution of the territory +ceded to them by Turkey. For that purpose a conference was an +essential organ. How otherwise could the four nations reach any +agreement? Yet the Bulgarians--army, government, and nation--were +obsessed by the fixed idea that Bulgaria enjoyed not only a primacy in +this {102} matter but a sort of sovereign monopoly by virtue of which +it was her right and privilege to determine how much of the common +spoils she should assign Servia (with whom she had an ante-bellum +treaty), and, after Servia had been eliminated, how much she could +spare to Greece (with whom no treaty of partition existed), and, when +Greece had been disposed of, whether any crumbs could be flung to +Montenegro, who had indeed very little to hope for from the Bulgarian +government. And so Bulgaria opposed a conference of the four prime +ministers though a conference was the natural, obvious, and necessary +method of disposing of the common business pressing upon them. + +The attitude of Bulgaria left no alternative but war. Yet the +Bulgarian government failed to reckon the cost of war. Was it not +madness for Bulgaria to force war upon Greece, Servia, and Montenegro +on the west at a time when Roumania was making demands for territorial +compensation on the north and Turkey was {103} sure to seize the +occasion to win back territory which Bulgaria had just wrested from her +on the south? Never was a government blinder to the significant facts +of a critical situation. All circumstances conspired to prescribe +peace as the manifest policy for Bulgaria, yet nearly every step taken +by the government was provocative of war. The Bulgarian army had +covered itself with glory in the victorious campaign against the +Moslem. A large part of European Turkey was already in Bulgarian +hands. To imperil that glory and those possessions by the risk of a +new war, when the country was exhausted and new enemies lay in wait, +was as foolish as it was criminal. That way madness lay. Yet that way +the policy pursued by the Bulgarian government infallibly led. Must we +assume that there is some ground for suspecting that Austria-Hungary +was inciting Bulgaria to war? We must leave it to history to answer. +If the result was a terrible disaster, that was only the old Greek +Nemesis of the {104} gods for the outraged principles of reason and +moderation. + + + +THE CONCILIATORY SPIRIT OF GREECE + +Those principles, thanks to the conciliatory spirit of Mr. Venizelos, +the prime minister, and the steady support of King Constantine, who was +also commander-in-chief, were loyally followed in Greece. A few days +after the declaration of war against the Ottoman Empire, into which +Greece was precipitately hastened by the unexpected action of Servia +and Bulgaria, the Greek foreign minister addressed a communication to +the Allies on the subject of the division of conquered territory. He +traced the line of Greek claims, as based on ethnological grounds, and +added that, as he foresaw difficulties in the way of a direct +adjustment, he thought the disputed points should be submitted to +arbitration. But months followed months without bringing from Bulgaria +any clear reply to this just and reasonable proposal of the Greek {105} +government. Nevertheless, Mr. Venizelos persisted in his attitude of +conciliation toward Bulgaria. He made concessions, not only in Thrace +but in Eastern Macedonia, for which he was bitterly criticized on the +ground of sacrificing vital Greek interests to Bulgaria. He +recognized, as his critics refused to do, that the Balkan question +could not be settled on ethnological principles alone; one had to take +account also of geographical necessities. He saw that the Greeks in +Thrace must be handed over to Bulgaria. He demanded only the +Macedonian territory which the Greek forces had actually occupied, +including Saloniki with an adequate hinterland. As the attitude of +Bulgaria became more uncompromising, as she pushed her army of +occupation further westward, Mr. Venizelos was even ready to make the +River Struma the eastern boundary of New Greece, and to abandon to +Bulgaria the Aegean littoral between the Struma and the Mesta Rivers +including Greek cities like Kavala, {106} Seres, and Drama. But these +new concessions of Mr. Venizelos were in danger of alienating from him +the support of the Greek nation without yielding anything in return +from Bulgaria. The outbreak of the war between the Allies saved him +from a difficult political position. Yet against that war Mr. +Venizelos strove resolutely to the end. And when in despite of all his +efforts war came, he was justified in saying, as he did say to the +national parliament, that the Greeks had the right to present +themselves before the civilized world with head erect because this new +war which was bathing with blood the Balkan Peninsula had not been +provoked by Greece or brought about by the demand of Greece to receive +satisfaction for all her ethnological claims. And this position in +which he had placed his country was, he proudly declared, a "moral +capital" of the greatest value. + + + +{107} + +BULGARIA BEGINS HOSTILITIES + +Bulgaria's belated acceptance of Russian arbitration was not destined +to establish peace. Yet Dr. Daneff, the prime minister, who received +me on June 27 and talked freely of the Balkan situation (perhaps the +more freely because in this conversation it transpired that we had been +fellow students together at the University of Heidelberg), decided on +June 28 not to go to war with the Allies. Yet that very evening at +eight o'clock, unknown to Dr. Daneff, an order in cipher and marked +"very urgent" was issued by General Savoff to the commander of the +fourth army directing him on the following evening to attack the +Servians "most vigorously along the whole front." On the following +afternoon, the 29th, General Savoff issued another order to the army +commanders giving further instructions for attacks on the Servians and +Greeks, including an attack on Saloniki, stating that these attacks +were {108} taking place "without any official declaration of war," and +that they were undertaken in order to accustom the Bulgarian army to +regard their former allies as enemies, to hasten the activities of the +Russian government, to compel the former allies to be more +conciliatory, and to secure new territories for Bulgaria! Who was +responsible for this deplorable lack of harmony between the civil +government and the military authorities has not yet been officially +disclosed. Did General Savoff act on his own responsibility? Or is +there any truth in the charge that King Ferdinand after a long +consultation with the Austro-Hungarian Minister instructed the General +to issue the order? Dr. Daneff knew nothing of it, and though he made +every effort to stop the resulting hostilities, the dogs of war had +been let loose and could not now be torn from one another's throats. + +There had been sporadic fighting in Macedonia between the Allies for +some months past. Greece and Servia had concluded an anti-Bulgarian +{109} alliance on June 1. They also entered into a convention with +Roumania by which that power agreed to intervene in case of war between +the late Allies. And war having been declared, Roumania seized +Silistria at midnight, July 10. Meanwhile the Servian and Greek forces +were fighting the Bulgarians hard at Kilkis, Doiran, and other points +between the Varclar and the Struma. And, as if Bulgaria had not +enemies enough on her back already, the Turkish Army on July 12 left +the Chataldja fortifications, crossed the Enos-Midia line, and in less +than two weeks, with Enver Bey at its head, re-occupied Adrianople. +Bulgaria was powerless to stop the further advance of the Turks, nor +had she forces to send against the Roumanians who marched unopposed +through the neighboring country till Sofia itself was within their +power. + +No nation could stand up against such fearful odds. Dr. Daneff +resigned on July 15. {110} And the new ministry had to make the best +terms it could. + + + +TERMS OF PEACE + +A Peace Conference met at Bukarest on July 28, and peace was signed on +August 10. By this Treaty of Bukarest Servia secured not only all that +part of Macedonia already under her occupation but gained also an +eastward extension beyond the Doiran-Istib-Kochana line into purely +Bulgarian territory. Greece fared still better under the treaty; for +it gave her not only all the Macedonian lands she had already occupied +but extended her domain on the Aegean littoral as far east as the mouth +of the Mesta and away into the interior as far above Seres and Drama as +they are from the sea,--thus establishing the northern frontier of New +Greece from Lake Presba (near the eastern boundary of Albania) on a +northward-ascending line past Ghevgheli and Doiran to Kainchal in +Thrace on the other {111} side of the Mesta River. This assignment of +territory conquered from Turkey had the effect of shutting out Bulgaria +from the Western Aegean; and the littoral left to Bulgaria between the +Mesta River and the Turkish boundary has no harbor of any consequence +but Dedeagach, which is much inferior to Kavala. + +The new Turkish boundary was arranged by negotiations between the +Bulgarian and Ottoman governments. The terminus on the Black Sea was +pushed north from Midia almost up to the southern boundary of Bulgaria. +Enos remained the terminus on the Aegean. But the two termini were +connected by a curved line which after following the Maritza River to a +point between Sufli and Dimotika then swung in a semicircle well beyond +Adrianople to Bulgaria and the Black Sea. Thus Bulgaria was compelled +to cede back to the Asiatic enemy not only Adrianople but the +battlefields of Kirk Kilisse, Lule Burgas, and Chorlu on which {112} +her brave soldiers had won such magnificent victories over the Moslems. + + + +THE ATTITUDE OF ROUMANIA + +The Treaty of Bukarest marked the predominance of Roumania in Balkan +affairs. And of course Roumania had her own reward. She had long +coveted the northeastern corner of Bulgaria, from Turtukai on the +Danube to Baltchik on the Black Sea. And this territory, even some +miles beyond that line, Bulgaria was now compelled to cede to her by +the treaty. It is a fertile area with a population of some 300,000 +souls, many of whom are Turks. + +The claim of Roumania to compensation for her neutrality during the +first Balkan war was severely criticized by the independent press of +western Europe. It was first put forward in the London Peace +Conference, but rejected by Dr. Daneff, the Bulgarian delegate. But +the Roumanian government persisted in pressing the claim, and the +Powers finally decided to {113} mediate, with the result that the city +of Silistria and the immediately adjoining territory were assigned to +Roumania. Neither state was satisfied with the award and the second +Balkan war broke out before the transfer had been effected. This gave +Roumania the opportunity to enforce her original claim, and, despite +the advice of Austria-Hungary, she used it, as we have already seen. + +The Roumanian government justifies its position in this matter by two +considerations. In the first place, as Roumania was larger and more +populous than any of the Balkan states, the Roumanian nation could not +sit still with folded arms while Bulgaria wrested this pre-eminence +from her. And if Bulgaria had not precipitated a war among the Allies, +if she had been content with annexing the portion of European Turkey +which she held under military occupation, New Bulgaria would have +contained a greater area and a larger population than Roumania. The +Roumanians claim, {114} accordingly, that the course they pursued was +dictated by a legitimate and vital national interest. And, in the +second place, as Greeks, Servians, and Bulgarians based their +respective claims to Macedonian territory on the racial character of +the inhabitants, Roumania asserted that the presence of a large +Roumanian (or Vlach) population in that disputed region gave her an +equally valid claim to a share in the common estate. + +In all Macedonia there may be some 100,000 Vlachs, though Roumanian +officials put the number much higher. Many of them are highland +shepherds; others engage in transportation with trains of horses or +mules; those in the lowlands are good farmers. They are found +especially in the mountains and valleys between Thessaly and Albania. +They are generally favorable to the Greek cause. Most of them speak +Greek as well as Roumanian; and they are all devoted members of the +Greek Orthodox Church. Yet there has been a Roumanian {115} propaganda +in Macedonia since 1886, and the government at Bukarest has devoted +large sums to the maintenance of Roumanian schools, of which the +maximum number at any time has perhaps not exceeded forty. + +Now if every other nation--Greek, Servian, Bulgarian--which had +hitherto maintained its propaganda of schools and churches in +Macedonia, was to bring its now emancipated children under the benign +sway of the home government and also was to annex the Macedonian lands +which they occupied, why, Roumania asked, should she be excluded from +participation in the arrangement? She did not, it is true, join the +Allies in fighting the common Moslem oppressor. But she maintained a +benevolent neutrality. And since Macedonia is not conterminous with +Roumania, she was not seeking to annex any portion of it. Yet the +rights those Roumanians in Macedonia gave her should be satisfied. And +so arguing, the Roumanian government claimed as a _quid pro {116} quo_ +the adjoining northeastern corner of Bulgaria, permitting Bulgaria to +recoup herself by the uncontested annexation of Thrace and Eastern +Macedonia. + +Such was the Roumanian reasoning. Certainly it bore hard on Bulgaria. +But none of the belligerents showed any mercy on Bulgaria. War is a +game of ruthless self-interest. It was Bulgaria who appealed to arms +and she now had to pay the penalty. Her losses enriched all her +neighbors. What Lord Bacon says of individuals is still more true of +nations: the folly of one is the fortune of another, and none prospers +so suddenly as by others' errors. + + + +THE WORK AND REWARD OF MONTENEGRO + +I have already sufficiently described the territorial gains of +Roumania, Servia, and Greece. But I must not pass over Montenegro in +silence. As the invincible warriors of King Nicholas opened the war +against the Ottoman Empire, so they joined Servia and Greece in the +struggle {117} against Bulgaria. On Sunday, June 29, I saw encamped +across the street from my hotel in Uskub 15,000 of these Montenegrin +soldiers who had arrived only a day or two before by train from +Mitrowitza, into which they had marched across Novi Bazar. Tall, +lithe, daring, with countenances bespeaking clean lives, they looked as +fine a body of men as one could find anywhere in the world, and their +commanding figures and manly bearing were set off to great advantage by +their striking and picturesque uniforms. The officers told me next day +that in a few hours they would be fighting at Ghevgheli. Their +splendid appearance seemed an augury of victory for the Serbs. + +Montenegro too received her reward by an extension of territory on the +south to the frontier of Albania (as fixed by the Great Powers) and a +still more liberal extension on the east in the sandjak of Novi Bazar. +This patriarchal kingdom will probably remain unchanged so long as the +present King lives, {118} the much-beloved King Nicholas, a genuinely +Homeric Father of his People. But forces of an economic, social, and +political character are already at work tending to draw it into closer +union with Servia, and the Balkan wars have given a great impetus to +these forces. A united Serb state, with an Adriatic littoral which +would include the harbors of Antivari and Dulcigno, may be the future +which destiny has in store for the sister kingdoms of Servia and +Montenegro. If so, it is likely to be a mutually voluntary union; and +neither Austria-Hungary nor Italy, the warders of the Adriatic, would +seem to have any good ground to object to such a purely domestic +arrangement. + + + +THE PROBLEM OF ALBANIA + +The Albanians, though they rather opposed than assisted the Allies in +the war against Turkey, were set off as an independent nation by the +Great Powers at the instigation of Austria-Hungary with the support of +Italy. The {119} determination of the boundaries of the new state was +the resultant of conflicting forces in operation in the European +concert. On the north while Scutari was retained for Albania through +the insistence of Austria-Hungary, Russian influence was strong enough +to secure the Albanian centres of Ipek and Djakova and Prisrend, as +well as Dibra on the east, for the allied Serb states. This was a sort +of compensation to Servia for her loss of an Adriatic outlet at a time +when the war between the Allies, which was destined so greatly to +extend her territories, was not foreseen. But while in this way +Albanians were excluded from the new state on the north and east, an +incongruous compensation was afforded it on the south by an +unjustifiable extension into northern Epirus, whose population is +prevailingly Greek. + +The location of the boundary between Albania and New Greece was forced +upon the Great Powers by the stand of Italy. During the first war the +Greeks had occupied Epirus or southern {120} Albania as far north as a +line drawn from a point a little above Khimara on the coast due east +toward Lake Presba, so that the cities of Tepeleni and Koritza were +included in the Greek area. But Italy protested that the Greek +occupation of territory on both sides of the Straits of Corfu would +menace the control of the Adriatic and insisted that the boundary +between Albania and Greece should start from a point on the coast +opposite the southern part of the island of Corfu. Greece, +accordingly, was compelled to evacuate most of the territory she had +occupied above Janina. And Albania subsequently attempted to assert +her jurisdiction over it. + +But the task of Albania is bound to be difficult. For though the Great +Powers have provided it with a ruler--the German Prince William of +Wied--there is no organized state. The Albanians are one of the oldest +races in Europe, if not the oldest. But they have never created a +state. And to-day they are hopelessly {121} divided. It is a land of +universal opposition--north against south, tribe against tribe, bey +against bey. The majority of the population are Mohammedan but there +are many Roman Catholics in the north and in the south the Greek +Orthodox Church is predominant. The inhabitants of the north, who are +called Ghegs, are divided into numerous tribes whose principal +occupation is fighting with one another under a system of perpetual +blood-feuds and inextinguishable vendettas. There are no tribes in the +south, but the people, who are known as Tosks, live under territorial +magnates called beys, who are practically the absolute rulers of their +districts. The country as a whole is a strange farrago of survivals of +primitive conditions. And it is not only without art and literature, +but without manufactures or trade or even agriculture. It is little +wonder that the Greeks of Epirus feel outraged by the destiny which the +European Powers have imposed upon them--to be torn {122} from their own +civilized and Christian kindred and subjected to the sway of the +barbarous Mohammedans who occupy Albania. Nor is it surprising that +since Hellenic armies have evacuated northern Epirus in conformity with +the decree of the Great Powers, the inhabitants of the district, all +the way from Santi Quaranta to Koritza, are declaring their +independence and fighting the Albanians who attempt to bring them under +the yoke. + +The future of Albania is full of uncertainty. The State, however, was +not created for the Albanians, who for the rest, are not in a condition +to administer or maintain it. The state was established in the +interests of Austria-Hungary and Italy. And those powers are likely to +shape its future. + + + +THE AEGEAN ISLANDS AND CRETE + +For the sacrifice demanded of Greece in Epirus the Great Powers +permitted her by way of compensation to retain all the Aegean Islands +{123} occupied by her during the war, except Imbros, Tenedos, and the +Rabbit Islands at the mouth of the Dardanelles. These islands, +however, Greece is never to fortify or convert into naval bases. This +allotment of the Asiatic Islands (which includes all but Rhodes and the +Dodecanese, temporarily held by Italy as a pledge of the evacuation of +Libya by the Turkish officers and troops) has given great +dissatisfaction in Turkey, where it is declared it would be better to +have a war with Greece than cede certain islands especially Chios and +Mitylene. The question of the disposition of the islands had, however, +been committed by Turkey to the Great Powers in the Treaty of London. +And Turkish unofficial condemnation of the action of the Powers now +creates a dangerous situation. Mr. Venizelos declared not long ago, +with the enthusiastic approval of the chamber, that the security of +Greece lay alone in the possession of a strong navy. + +For Mr. Venizelos personally nothing in all {124} these great events +can have been more gratifying than the achievement of the union of +Crete with Greece. This was consummated on December 14, when the Greek +flag was hoisted on Canea Fort in the presence of King Constantine, the +prime minister, and the consuls of the Great Powers, and saluted with +101 guns by the Greek fleet. + + + +KING CONSTANTINE + +Fortune in an extraordinary degree has favored the King of the +Hellenes--Fortune and his own wise head and valiant arm and the loyal +support of his people. When before has a Prince taken supreme command +of a nation's army and in the few months preceding and succeeding his +accession to the throne by successful generalship doubled the area and +population of his country? + +[Illustration: Map: The Balkan Peninsula after the Wars of 1912-1913.] + + +{125} + +COST OF THE WAR + +The Balkan wars have been bloody and costly. We shall never know of +the thousands of men, women, and children who died from privation, +disease, and massacre. But the losses of the dead and wounded in the +armies were for Montenegro 11,200, for Greece 68,000, for Servia +71,000, for Bulgaria 156,000, and for Turkey about the same as for +Bulgaria. The losses in treasure were as colossal as in blood. Only +rough computations are possible. But the direct military expenditures +are estimated at figures varying from a billion and a quarter to a +billion and a half of dollars. This of course takes no account of the +paralysis of productive industry, trade, and commerce or of the +destruction of existing economic values. + +Yet great and momentous results have been achieved. Although seated +again in his ancient capital of Adrianople, the Moslem has been +expelled from Europe, or at any rate is no {126} longer a European +Power. For the first time in more than five centuries, therefore, +conditions of stable equilibrium are now possible for the Christian +nations of the Balkans. Whether the present alignment of those states +toward one another and towards the Great Powers is destined to continue +it would be foolhardy to attempt to predict. + + + +THE FUTURE OF THE BALKANS + +But without pretending to cast a horoscope, certain significant facts +may be mentioned in a concluding word. If the Balkan states are left +to themselves, if they are permitted to settle their own affairs +without the intervention of the Great Powers, there is no reason why +the existing relations between Greece, Servia, Montenegro, and +Roumania, founded as they are on mutual interest, should not continue; +and if they continue, peace will be assured in spite of Bulgaria's cry +for revenge and readjustment. The danger lies in the influence of the +{127} Great Powers with their varying attractions and repulsions. +France, Germany, and Great Britain, disconnected with the Balkans and +remote from them, are not likely to exert much direct individual +influence. But their connections with the Triple Alliance and the +Triple Entente would not leave them altogether free to take isolated +action. And two other members of those European groups--Russia and +Austria-Hungary--have long been vitally interested in the Balkan +question; while the opposition to Servian annexation on the Adriatic +littoral and of Greek annexation in Epirus now for the first time +reveals the deep concern of Italy in the same question. + +The Serbs are Slavs. And the unhappy relations between Servia and +Austria-Hungary have always intensified their pro-Russian proclivities. +The Roumanians are a Romance people, like the French and Italians, and +they have hitherto been regarded as a Balkan extension of the Triple +Alliance. The attitude of {128} Austria-Hungary, however, during the +Balkan wars has caused a cooling of Roumanian friendship, so that its +transference to Russia is no longer inconceivable or even improbable. +Greece desires to be independent of both groups of the European system, +but the action of Italy in regard to Northern Epirus and in regard to +Rhodes and the Dodecanese has produced a feeling of irritation and +resentment among the Greeks which nothing is likely to allay or even +greatly alleviate. Bulgaria in the past has carried her desire to live +an independent national life to the point of hostility to Russia, but +since Stambuloff's time she has shown more natural sentiments towards +her great Slav sister and liberator. Whether the desire of revenge +against Servia (and Greece) will once more draw her toward +Austria-Hungary only time can disclose. + +In any event it will take a long time for all the Balkan states to +recover from the terrible exhaustion of the two wars of 1912 and 1913. +{129} Their financial resources have been depleted; their male +population has been decimated. Necessity, therefore, is likely to +co-operate with the community of interest established by the Treaty of +Bukarest in the maintenance of conditions of stable equilibrium in the +Balkans. Of course the peace-compelling forces operative in the Balkan +states themselves might be counter-acted by hostile activities on the +part of some of the Great Powers. And there is one danger-point for +which the Great Powers themselves are solely responsible. This, as I +have already explained, is Albania. An artificial creation with +unnatural boundaries, it is a grave question whether this so-called +state can either manage its own affairs or live in peace with its Serb +and Greek neighbors. At this moment the Greeks of Epirus (whom the +Great Powers have transferred to Albania) are resisting to the death +incorporation in a state which outrages their deepest and holiest +sentiments of religion, race, nationality, and humane {130} +civilization. On the other hand the Hoti and Gruda tribes on the north +fiercely resent annexation to Montenegro (which the Great Powers have +decreed) and threaten to summon to their support other Malissori tribes +with whom they have had a defensive alliance for several centuries. If +Prince William of Wied is unable to cope with these difficulties, Italy +and Austria-Hungary may think it necessary to intervene in Albania. +But the intervention of either would almost certainly provoke +compensatory action on the part of other European Powers, especially +Russia. + +One can only hope that the Great Powers may have wisdom granted to them +to find a peaceful solution of the embarrassing problem which they have +created in setting up the new state of Albania. That the Albanians +themselves will have an opportunity to develop their own national +independence I find it impossible to believe. Yet I heard in the +summer of 1913 at Valona from the lips of Ismail Kemal Bey, {131} the +head of the provisional government, a most impressive statement of his +hopes and aspirations for an independent Albania and his faith and +confidence in its future, in which he claimed to voice the sentiments +of the Albanian people. But, as I have already explained, I think it +doubtful whether under the most favorable external circumstances the +Albanians are at present qualified to establish and maintain an +independent state. And their destiny is so inextricably entangled with +the ambitions of some of the Great Powers that the experiment stands no +chance of getting a fair trial. I heartily wish the circumstances were +other than they are. For as an American I sympathize with the +aspirations of all struggling nationalities to be free and independent. +And my interest in Albania is deepened, as the interest of all +Americans must be deepened, by the fact that a large number of +Albanians have now found a home in the United States. + + + + +{133} + +INDEX + + +Abdul Hamid II, misgovernment, 32. + +Adrianople, capture by Murad I, 4; left to Turkey, 9, 25; holds out +against Bulgaria, 56; _sine qua non_ at Peace Conference, 57; captured, +57; question of retention of, 58; reoccupied by Turkish army, 109; +ceded back to Turkey, 111. + +Adriatic, question of supremacy over, 68. + +Aegean Islands, Greece takes, 52; left to decision of Powers, 59; given +to Greece, 122. + +Albania, Montenegrins, 53; to be left to Powers, 59; cause of friction, +67; problem of, 118; given a ruler, 120; danger-point of the Balkans, +129; northern tribes oppose absorption by Montenegro, 130; future of, +131. + +Alexander, Prince, of Bulgaria, 27. + +Area, see under countries. + +Asen brothers, free Bulgaria, 10. + +Athens, recaptured, 22. + +Austria, discusses division of Turkey, 7; given Bosnia and Herzegovina, +27; intervenes in Macedonia, 33; demands independent Albania, 67, 118; +opposes Servia, 68; dislikes Slav hegemony, 97; interests in Balkans, +127. + + + +Balkan Alliance, see Balkan states. + +Balkan states, quarrel, 11; peninsula under Moslems, 13; massacres in, +25; large part of peninsula lost to Turkey, 27; dissensions among, 60; +alliance, 34; rival ambitions among, 64; treaty restrictions, 72; +causes of war between, 75; previous fighting between, 108; make peace, +110; future, 126. + +Balkan wars, cause of first war, 30; cause of second war, 64; division +of fighting, 54; cost, 125. (For progress, see under countries.) + +Basil II, conquers Bulgaria, 10. + +Belgrade, conquered by Dushan, 12. + +Berane, massacre at, 36. + +Berlin, Treaty of, 21; Congress of, 78. + +Blockade, Greek, of Turkey, 51. + +Boris, accepts Christianity, 9. + +Bosnia, conquered by Dushan, 12; delegated to Austria, 27. + +Bosphorus, Turks on, 3. + +Brusa, surrendered, 3. + +Bukarest, see Treaty of, and Peace Conference. + +Bulgaria, independent, 8; suffers most, 8; church, progress, area, 9; +under Moslem despotism, 11; ravaged by Turks, decline, 14; educational +movement, 23; exarchate established, 24; revolt against Turkey, 25; +"Big Bulgaria," 25; proclaimed independent, 26; astounding progress, +27; area and population, 29; declares war against Turkey, 34; alliance +with Greece, 35; with Servia, 35; decide to mobilize, 36; enters +Thrace, 54; success at Kirk Kilisse, Lule Burgas, and Chorlu, 55; +capture Adrianople, 57; disagreement with Servia, 65; rivalry with +Greece, 65; as to division of Macedonia, 72; demands that Servia +observe treaty, 76; claims of, 77; exarchate in Macedonia, 81; alleged +majority in Macedonia, 88; jingoism in, 96; position of, as to +arbitration of Czar, 99; uncompromising policy, 101; her mistake, 102; +opens war, 107; defeat by Allies, 109; makes peace, 110; present +attitude, 127. + +Byron, Lord, volunteer in Greece, 21. + +Byzantine Empire, falling before Turks, 4; annihilates Bulgaria under +Samuel, 10. + + + +Chataldja, now border of Turkey, 8; Bulgarians at, 55. + +Chorlu, Bulgarians victorious at, 55. + +Christians, defeated by Moslems, 5; races quarrel, 11; In Macedonia, +31; oppressed, 13. + +Constantine, King, 20; as Crown Prince, commanding general, 48; +success, 50; captures Janina, 57; ability and achievements, 124. + +Constantinople, seat of Byzantine Empire, 4; captured by Mohammed II, +5; left to Turkey, 8; Russia at gates of, 25. + +Crete, question of, 42; captured by Venetians, 43; present condition, +43, 44; becomes autonomous, 44; elects members to Greek parliament, 45; +process of annexation to Greece, 45, 124; Turkish sovereignty +withdrawn, 59. + +Czar, arbiter of Treaty of Partition, 95; summons Servia and Bulgaria +to submit their disputes, 97. + + + +Daneff, Dr., prime minister of Bulgaria, 98; tries to stop war, 107; +rejects Roumanian claim, 112; resigns, 109. + +Dushan, Stephen, rules Servia, 12. + + + +Eastern Roumelia, see Roumelia. + +Elassona, Greeks win at, 50. + +England, fleet at Navarino, 22; joins Russia to reform Macedonia, 33; +influence, 127. + +Enver Bey, heads Young Turk revolt, 58. + +"Eothen," does not mention Bulgaria, 15. + +Epinus holds out, 56; Greeks of, resist incorporation in Albania, 129. + +European, aid for Greece, 21. + +Evans, Sir Arthur, excavations in Crete, 43. + +Exarchate, Bulgarian, 19; Sultan's firman, 24; in Macedonia, 81. + + + +Ferdinand, Prince, of Bulgaria, 27; King, 55, 108. + +France, fleet at Navarino, 22; influence, 127. + + + +Gabrovo, school of, 23. + +Gallipoli, entry of Turks into, 4. + +George, King of Greece, assassinated, 22; experienced ruler, 36; +Prince, Commissioner of Crete, 44. + +Germany, influence, 127. + +Gibbon, quoted as to Czar Simeon, 9. + +Gladstone, denunciation of Turkish atrocities, 25. + +Great Britain, see England. + +Greece, becomes independent, 7; ecclesiastical domination of Slavs, 16; +Greek millet, 17; ascendancy in Bulgaria, 18; influence in Turkish +Empire, 19; war of independence, 21; Powers make her independent, 22; +boundaries, 28; area and population, 29; causes of war with Turkey, 32; +declares war, 34; alliance with Bulgaria, 35; reorganizes army, 37; +near alliance with Turkey, 40; Cretan question, 42; mobilization, 48; +enters Macedonia, 49; conquers at Sarandaporon, Serfidje, Elassona, +Veria, and Jenitsa, 50; blockades Turkey, 51; captures Janina, 57; +rivalry with Bulgaria, 65; favors Servian egress to Aegean, 71; +question of division of Macedonia, 74; propaganda in Macedonia, 83; +position of division of territory, 104; conciliatory methods, 105; +alliance against Bulgaria, 108; treaty of peace and extension of +territory, 110; annexation of Crete, 124; attitude toward Italy, 128. + +Gueshoff, agrees to conference of Allies, 95; statesman, 96; resigns, +97. + + + +Hellenism, cause of, 36. + +Hellespont, Turks cross, 4. + +Herzegovina, conquered by Stephen Nemanyo, 11; delegated to Austria, 27. + + + +"Internal Organization" in Macedonia, 32. + +Ipek, Archbishop of, 12. + +Islam, millet of, 16. + +Ismail Kemal Bey on Albania's future, 130. + +Italy holds Rhodes, 52; demands independent Albania, 67, 118; desires +control of Adriatic, 69; protests against Greece at Corfu, 120. + + + +Janina, holds out, 56; falls, 57. + +Janissaries, 13; revolt, 14. + +Jenitsa, Turks defeated at, 50. + + + +Kara-George, leads Servians, 20; dynasty, 21. + +Kiamil Pasha, Grand Vizier, 48; driven out, 58. + +Kilkis, battle of, 109. + +Kirk Kilisse, Bulgarian victory, 55. + +Kossovo, field of, 4; avenged, 53. + +Kochana, massacre at, 36. + +Kumanovo, Servians defeat Turks at, 53. + + + +Lazar, the Serb, 4. + +Literary revival in Bulgaria, 23. + +London, see Treaty of, and Peace Conference. + +Lule Burgas, Bulgarian victory, 55. + + + +Macedonia, ruled by Murad I, 4; cause of first Balkan war, 30; question +of its division, 72; racial problem, 79, 89; religion in, 81; alleged +Bulgarian majority in, 88; claims to central portion of, 89. + +Mahmud Shevket Pasha, Grand Vizier, 58. + +Massacre, in 1876, 25; at Kochana and Berane, 36; inflames Slavs, 47. + +Mehemet Ali, fights against Greece, 22. + +Meluna Pass, Greeks enter, 49. + +Millet, a Turkish term, 16. + +Mohammed II, conquers Constantinople, 5. + +Mohammedan, intolerance, 8; Balkan peninsula under, 13; incapacity, 31. + +Monastir, captured by Serbs, 53. + +Montenegro, remembers Kossovo, 5; conquered by Nemanyo, 11; independent +by Treaty of Berlin, 27; area and population, 29; declares war against +Turkey, 34; fires first shot of war, 53; captures Scutari, 57; work and +reward, 116; inclination toward Servia, 118. + +Moslem, see Mohammedan. + +Murad I, captures Adrianople, 4. + + + +Navarino, Battle of, 22. + +Nazim Pasha, murdered, 58. + +Near Eastern Question, Macedonia, 30. + +Nemanyo, Stephen, unites Servia, 11. + +Nicaea, surrender of, 3. + +Nicholas, King of Montenegro, 53; Homeric Father, 118. + +Nigrita, Greeks and Bulgarians fight at, 66. + +Novi-Bazar, Montenegrins in, 53. + + + +Obrenovich, Milosh, leads Servians, 20; dynasty, 21. + +Ochrida, location, 9; given bishop, 81; religious division, 88. + +Orkhan, Brusa surrenders to, 3. + +Otto, of Bavaria, becomes King of Greece, 22. + +Ottoman Empire, see Turkey. + + + +Pashitch, demands revision of treaty, 95. + +Patriarch, Greek, of Constantinople, 17. + +Patriarchate restricted, 19, 24. + +Peace Conference, at London, 57; at Bukarest, 110. + +Peace, terms of, with Turkey, 59; between Allies, 110. + +Peter, King, 21. + +Phanariots, Turkish term, 19. + +Pomaks, become Moslem, 14. + +Population, see under countries. + +Porte, see Turkey. + +Powers, intervene in Greece, 22; recognize Bulgarian independence, 26; +views of Balkan success, 55; meet at London, 57; lack of success, 57; +insist on peace, 58; give Silistria to Roumania, 112; in Albania, 119. + +Prilip, Serbs capture, 53. + + + +Racial, division, 30; sympathies, 31; problem in Macedonia, 79; +fallacies in Macedonia, 84; characteristics, 89; in Albania, 121. + +Religion, Turks divide subjects by, 16; contest in Bulgaria, 24; in +Crete, 43, 44; in Macedonia, 81; in Albania, 121. + +Roumania, becomes independent, 7; by Treaty of Berlin, 27; convention +with Greece and Servia, 109; seizes Silistria, 109; at Treaty of +Bukarest, 112; justification, 113; attitude toward Triple Alliance, 127. + +Roumelia, Eastern, union with Bulgaria, 26; annexation, 78. + +Russia, discusses the division of Turkey, 7; fleet at Navarino, 22; +declares war against Turkey, 25; intervention in Macedonia, 33; rivalry +with Austria, 98; interest in Balkans, 127. + + + +St. Petersburg, conference of allies at, 95. + +Saloniki, left to Turkey, 9; conquered by Greeks, 51; desirability, 70. + +Samuel, reigns in Bulgaria, 10. + +San Stefano, Treaty of, 25; destroyed by Powers, 26. + +Sarandaporon, Turks driven from, 50. + +Savoff, General, orders attacks on Servians and Greeks, 107. + +Scutari holds out, 56; falls, 57; to Albania, 119. + +Serbs, see Servia. + +Serfidje, Greeks capture, 50. + +Servia, remembers Kossovo, 5; independent, 7; conquers Bulgaria, under +Asen, 10; become Christian, launch a dynasty, 11; decline, 14; throws +off Turkish yoke, 20; independence by Treaty of Berlin, 27; area and +population, 29; bands in Macedonia, 32; declares war against Turkey, +34; alliance with Bulgaria, 35; decide to mobilize, 36; enter +Macedonia, 53; victorious, at Kumanovo, Prilip, and Monastir, 53; +differences with Bulgaria, 64; desire to reach Adriatic, 68; recoils to +Aegean, 70; question of division of Macedonia, 72; propaganda in +Macedonia, 82; attitude of, 92; jingoism in, 96; position of, 100; +alliance against Bulgaria, 108; her enlargement of territory under the +Treaty of Bukarest, 110; affiliations with Russia, 127. + +Shishman, Czar, dies, 11. + +Silistria, taken by Roumania, 109; awarded by Powers, 113. + +Slavs, unsubdued, 4; all under Moslems, 13; hostility to Greeks, 18; +indignation against Turkey, 47; racial characteristics in Macedonia, 89. + +Suleyman the Magnificent, 5. + + + +Thrace, ruled by Murad I, 4; location, 54; entered by Bulgarians, 54. + +Treaty of Berlin, recognizes Servian independence, etc., 21; of +Bukarest, 110; of London, short lived, 58; eliminates Turkey, 63; of +Partition, between Servia and Bulgaria, 64; of San Stefano, created +"Big Bulgaria," 25; torn up by Powers, 26. + +Triple Alliance, influence, 127. + +Triple Entente, influence, 127. + +Trnovo capital of Bulgaria, 10; burned, 11. + +Tsaribrod, interview at, 95. + +Turkey, empire in Europe, 3; armies go to Danube, 4; becomes central +European power, 5; treatment of subjects, 6; decline and division, 7; +driven from Europe, 8; oppression, 13; troops ravage Bulgaria, 14; +reconquers Greece, 22; European, how divided, 28; area and population, +29; frustrates Treaty of Berlin, 32; war against by Balkans, 34; +blockaded by Greece, 51; at mercy of Allies, 56; at Peace Conference, +57; accepts peace, 57; driven from Europe, 59; reoccupies Adrianople, +109; final boundary of Turkey in Europe, 111; no longer European power, +125; Asiatic, next danger-point, 129. + + + +Uskub, Dushan crowned at, 12; given Bishop, 81. + + + +Venizelos, Prime Minister of Greece, 37; criticism of and defense, 40; +his predicament, 46; suggests conference of Allies, 95; conciliatory +position, 104. + +Veria, Greeks enter, 50. + +Vienna, Suleyman at gates of, 5; siege of, 14. + +Vilayet, Turkish term, 28. + +Vlachs, in Macedonia, 114. + + + +William, of Wied, King of Albania, 120. + + + +Young Turks, rule, 33; reject proposals of Venizelos, 47; forced out, +48; depose Kiamil Pasha, 58. + + + +Zaimis, succeeds Prince George in Crete, 45. + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Balkan Wars, by Jacob Gould Schurman + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BALKAN WARS *** + +***** This file should be named 36192.txt or 36192.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/6/1/9/36192/ + +Produced by Al Haines + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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