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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: A Short History of the World
+
+Author: H. G. Wells
+
+Release Date: March 2, 2011 [eBook #35461]
+[Most recently updated: October 27, 2021]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+Produced by: Donald F. Behan
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD ***
+
+
+
+
+A SHORT
+HISTORY OF THE WORLD
+
+By H. G. WELLS
+
+New York
+
+THE MACMILLAN & COMPANY
+
+1922
+
+_Copyright 1922_
+
+
+CONTENTS  CHAPTER Page
+
+A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD
+I. THE WORLD IN SPACE 1
+II. THE WORLD IN TIME 5
+III. THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE 11
+IV. THE AGE OF FISHES 16
+V. THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS 21
+VI. THE AGE OF REPTILES 26
+VII. THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS 31
+VIII. THE AGE OF MAMMALS 37
+IX. MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN 43
+X. THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN 48
+XI. THE FIRST TRUE MEN 53
+XII. PRIMITIVE THOUGHT 60
+XIII. THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION 65
+XIV. PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS 71
+XV. SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING 77
+XVI. PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES 84
+XVII. THE FIRST SEA-GOING PEOPLES 91
+XVIII. EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA 96
+XIX. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS 104
+XX. THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I 109
+XXI. THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS 115
+XXII. PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA 122
+XXIII. THE GREEKS 127
+XXIV. THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS 134
+XXV. THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE 139
+XXVI. THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT 145
+XXVII. THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA 150
+XXVIII. THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA 156
+XXIX. KING ASOKA 163
+XXX. CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE 167
+XXXI. ROME COMES INTO HISTORY 174
+XXXII. ROME AND CARTHAGE 180
+XXXIII. THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 185
+XXXIV. BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA 196
+XXXV. THE COMMON MAN’S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE 201
+XXXVI. RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE 208
+XXXVII. THE TEACHING OF JESUS 214
+XXXVIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY 222
+XXXIX. THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST 227
+XL. THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE 233
+XLI. THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES 238
+XLII. THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA 245
+XLIII. MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM 248
+XLIV. THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS 253
+XLV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM 258
+XLVI. THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION 267
+XLVII. RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM 277
+XLVIII. THE MONGOL CONQUESTS 287
+XLIX. THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS 294
+L. THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH 304
+LI. THE EMPEROR CHARLES V 309
+LII. THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND MONARCHY AND
+     PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE 318
+LIII. THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS 329
+LIV. THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 335
+LV. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY IN FRANCE 341
+LVI. 
+THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 349
+LVII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE 355
+LVIII. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 365
+LIX. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS 370
+LX. THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES 382
+LXI. THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE 390
+LXII. THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF THE STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY 393
+LXIII. 
+EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA, AND THE RISE OF JAPAN 399
+LXIV. THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914 405
+LXV. THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18 409
+LXVI. THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA 415
+LXVII. THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD 421
+CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 429
+INDEX 439 
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Page
+
+Luminous Spiral Clouds of Matter 2
+
+Nebula seen Edge-on 3
+
+The Great Spiral Nebula 6
+
+A Dark Nebula 7
+
+Another Spiral Nebula 8
+
+Landscape before Life 9
+
+Marine Life in the Cambrian Period 12
+
+Fossil Trilobite 13
+
+Early Palæozoic Fossils of various Species of
+ Lingula 14
+
+Fossilized Footprints of a Labyrinthodont, Cheirotherium 15
+
+Pterichthys Milleri 17
+
+Fossil of Cladoselache 18
+
+Sharks and Ganoids of the Devonian Period 19
+
+A Carboniferous Swamp 22
+
+Skull of a Labyrinthodont, Capitosaurus 23
+
+Skeleton of a Labyrinthodont: The Eryops 24
+
+A Fossil Ichthyosaurus 27
+
+A Pterodactyl 28
+
+The Diplodocus 29
+
+Fossil of Archeopteryx 32
+
+Hesperornis in its Native Seas 33
+
+The Ki-wi 34
+
+Slab of Marl Rich in Cainozoic Fossils 35
+
+Titanotherium Robustum 38
+
+Skeleton of Giraffe-camel 40
+
+Skeleton of Early Horse 40
+
+Comparative Sizes of Brains of Rhinoceros and Dinoceras 41
+
+A Mammoth 44
+
+Flint Implements from Piltdown Region 45
+
+A Pithecanthropean Man 46
+
+The Heidelberg Man 46
+
+The Piltdown Skull 47
+
+A Neanderthaler 49
+
+Europe and Western Asia 50,000 years ago
+
+_Map_  50
+
+Comparison of Modern Skull and Rhodesian Skull 51
+
+Altamira Cave Paintings 54
+
+Later Palæolithic Carvings 55
+
+Bust of Cro-magnon Man 57
+
+Later Palæolithic Art 58
+
+Relics of the Stone Age 62
+
+Gray’s Inn Lane Flint Implement 63
+
+Somaliland Flint Implement 63
+
+Neolithic Flint Implement 67
+
+Australian Spearheads 68
+
+Neolithic Pottery 69
+
+Relationship of Human Races _Map_  72
+
+A Maya Stele 73
+
+European Neolithic Warrior 75
+
+Babylonian Brick 78
+
+Egyptian Cylinder Seals of First Dynasty 79
+
+The Sakhara Pyramids 80
+
+The Pyramid of Cheops: Scene from Summit 81
+
+The Temple of Hathor 82
+
+Pottery and Implements of the Lake
+ Dwellers 85
+
+A Lake Village 86
+
+Flint Knives of 4500 B.C. 87
+
+Egyptian Wall Paintings of Nomads 87
+
+Egyptian Peasants Going to Work 88
+
+Stele of Naram Sin 89
+
+The Treasure House at Mycenæ 93
+
+The Palace at Cnossos 95
+
+Temple at Abu Simbel 97
+
+Avenue of Sphinxes at Karnak 98
+
+The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak 99
+
+Frieze of Slaves 101
+
+The Temple of Horus, Edfu 103
+
+Archaic Amphora 105
+
+The Mound of Nippur 107
+
+Median and Chaldean Empires _Map_  110
+
+The Empire of Darius _Map_  111
+
+A Persian Monarch 112
+
+The Ruins of Persepolis 113
+
+The Great Porch of Xerxes 113
+
+The Land of the Hebrews _Map_  117
+
+Nebuchadnezzar’s Mound at Babylon 118
+
+The Ishtar Gateway, Babylon 120
+
+Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II 124
+
+Captive Princes making Obeisance 125
+
+Statue of Meleager 128
+
+Ruins of Temple of Zeus 130
+
+The Temple of Neptune, Pæstum 132
+
+Greek Ships on Ancient Pottery 135
+
+The Temple of Corinth 137
+
+The Temple of Neptune at Cape Sunium 138
+
+Frieze of the Parthenon, Athens 140
+
+The Acropolis, Athens 141
+
+Theatre at Epidauros, Greece 141
+
+The Caryatides of the Erechtheum 142
+
+Athene of the Parthenon 143
+
+Alexander the Great 146
+
+Alexander’s Victory at Issus 147
+
+The Apollo Belvedere 148
+
+Aristotle 152
+
+Statuette of Maitreya 153
+
+The Death of Buddha 154
+
+Tibetan Buddha 158
+
+A Burmese Buddha 159
+
+The Dhamêkh Tower, Sarnath 160
+
+A Chinese Buddhist Apostle 164
+
+The Court of Asoka 165
+
+Asoka Panel from Bharhut 165
+
+The Pillar of Lions (Asokan)  166
+
+Confucius 169
+
+The Great Wall of China 171
+
+Early Chinese Bronze Bell 172
+
+The Dying Gaul 175
+
+Ancient Roman Cisterns at Carthage 177
+
+Hannibal 181
+
+Roman Empire and its Alliances, 150 B.C. _Map_  183
+
+The Forum, Rome 188
+
+Ruined Coliseum in Tunis 189
+
+Roman Arch at Ctesiphon 190
+
+The Column of Trajan, Rome 193
+
+Glazed Jar of Han Dynasty 197
+
+Vase of Han Dynasty 198
+
+Chinese Vessel in Bronze 199
+
+A Gladiator (contemporary representation) 202
+
+A Street in Pompeii 204
+
+The Coliseum, Rome 206
+
+Interior of Coliseum 206
+
+Mithras Sacrificing a Bull 210
+
+Isis and Horus 211
+
+Bust of Emperor Commodus 212
+
+Early Portrait of Jesus Christ 216
+
+Road from Nazareth to Tiberias 217
+
+David’s Tower and Wall of Jerusalem 218
+
+A Street in Jerusalem 219
+
+The Peter and Paul Mosaic at Rome 223
+
+Baptism of Christ (Ivory Panel)  225
+
+Roman Empire and the Barbarians _Map_  228
+
+Constantine’s Pillar, Constantinople 229
+
+The Obelisk of Theodosius, Constantinople 231
+
+Head of Barbarian Chief 235
+
+The Church of S. Sophia, Constantinople 239
+
+Roof-work in S. Sophia 240
+
+Justinian and his Court 241
+
+The Rock-hewn Temple at Petra 242
+
+Chinese Earthenware of Tang Dynasty 246
+
+At Prayer in the Desert 	250
+
+Looking Across the Sea of Sand 251
+
+Growth of Moslem Power _Map_  254
+
+The Moslem Empire _Map_  254
+
+The Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem 255
+
+Cairo Mosques 256
+
+Frankish Dominions of Martel _Map_  260
+
+Statue of Charlemagne 262
+
+Europe at Death of Charlemagne _Map_  264
+
+Crusader Tombs, Exeter Cathedral 268
+
+View of Cairo 269
+
+The Horses of S. Mark, Venice 271
+
+Courtyard in the Alhambra 273
+
+Milan Cathedral (showing spires)  278
+
+A Typical Crusader 280
+
+Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes)  283
+
+Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes)  284
+
+The Empire of Jengis Khan _Map_  288
+
+Ottoman Empire before 1453 _Map_  289
+
+Tartar Horsemen 291
+
+Ottoman Empire, 1566 _Map_  292
+
+An Early Printing Press 296
+
+Ancient Bronze from Benin 299
+
+Negro Bronze-work 300
+
+Early Sailing Ship (Italian Engraving)  301
+
+Portrait of Martin Luther 305
+
+The Church Triumphant (Italian Majolica work, 1543) 307
+
+Charles V (the Titian Portrait)  311
+
+S. Peter’s, Rome: the High Altar 315
+
+Cromwell Dissolves the Long Parliament 321
+
+The Court at Versailles 323
+
+Sack of a Village, French Revolution 325
+
+Central Europe after Peace of Westphalia,
+ 1648 _Map_  326
+
+European Territory in America, 1750 _Map_  330
+
+Europeans Tiger Hunting in India 331
+
+Fall of Tippoo Sultan 332
+
+George Washington 337
+
+The Battle of Bunker Hill 338
+
+The U.S.A., 1790 339
+
+The Trial of Louis XVI 344
+
+Execution of Marie Antoinette 346
+
+Portrait of Napoleon 352
+
+Europe after the Congress of Vienna _Map_  353
+
+Early Rolling Stock, Liverpool and Manchester
+ Railway 356
+
+Passenger Train in 1833 356
+
+The Steamboat _Clermont_ 357
+
+Eighteenth Century Spinning Wheel 361
+
+Arkwright’s Spinning Jenny 361
+
+An Early Weaving Machine 363
+
+An Incident of the Slave Trade 367
+
+Early Factory, in Colebrookdale 368
+
+Carl Marx 372
+
+Electric Conveyor, in Coal Mine 376
+
+Constructional Detail, Forth Bridge 378
+
+American River Steamer 385
+
+Abraham Lincoln 387
+
+Europe, 1848-71 _Map_  391
+
+Victoria Falls, Zambesi 395
+
+The British Empire, 1815 _Map_  397
+
+Japanese Soldier, Eighteenth Century 401
+
+A Street in Tokio 403
+
+Overseas Empires of Europe, 1914 _Map_  406
+
+Gibraltar 407
+
+Street in Hong Kong 408
+
+British Tank in Battle 410
+
+The Ruins of Ypres 411
+
+Modern War: War Entanglements 412
+
+A View in Petersburg under Bolshevik Rule 418
+
+Passenger Aeroplane in Flight 423
+
+A Peaceful Garden in England 426
+
+
+
+
+A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD
+
+
+
+I
+THE WORLD IN SPACE
+
+
+The story of our world is a story that is still very imperfectly known.
+A couple of hundred years ago men possessed the history of little more
+than the last three thousand years. What happened before that time was
+a matter of legend and speculation.  Over a large part of the civilized
+world it was believed and taught that the world had been created
+suddenly in 4004 B.C., though authorities differed as to whether this
+had occurred in the spring or autumn of that year. This fantastically
+precise misconception was based upon a too literal interpretation of
+the Hebrew Bible, and upon rather arbitrary theological assumptions
+connected therewith.  Such ideas have long since been abandoned by
+religious teachers, and it is universally recognized that the universe
+in which we live has to all appearances existed for an enormous period
+of time and possibly for endless time.  Of course there may be
+deception in these appearances, as a room may be made to seem endless
+by putting mirrors facing each other at either end. But that the
+universe in which we live has existed only for six or seven thousand
+years may be regarded as an altogether exploded idea.
+
+The earth, as everybody knows nowadays, is a spheroid, a sphere
+slightly compressed, orange fashion, with a diameter of nearly 8,000
+miles.  Its spherical shape has been known at least to a limited number
+of intelligent people for nearly 2,500 years, but before that time it
+was supposed to be flat, and various ideas which now seem fantastic
+were entertained about its relations to the sky and the stars and
+planets.  We know now that it rotates upon its axis (which is about 24
+miles shorter than its equatorial diameter) every twenty-four hours,
+and that this is the cause of the alternations of day and night, that
+it circles about the sun in a slightly distorted and slowly variable
+oval path in a year. Its distance from the sun varies between
+ninety-one and a half millions at its nearest and ninety-four and a
+half million miles.
+
+
+LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER
+“LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER”
+
+(Nebula photographed 1910)
+
+_Photo: G. W. Ritchey_
+
+
+About the earth circles a smaller sphere, the moon, at an average
+distance  of 239,000 miles. Earth and moon are not the only bodies to
+travel round  the sun.  There are also the planets, Mercury and Venus,
+at distances of  thirty-six and sixty-seven millions of miles; and
+beyond the circle of the  earth and disregarding a belt of numerous
+smaller bodies, the planetoids,  there are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
+Uranus and Neptune at mean distances of 141, 483, 886, 1,782, and 1,793
+millions of miles respectively. These figures in millions of miles are
+very difficult for the mind to grasp.  It may help the reader’s
+imagination if we reduce the sun and planets to a smaller, more
+conceivable scale.
+
+
+THE NEBULA SEEN EDGE ON
+THE NEBULA SEEN EDGE-ON
+
+Note the central core which, through millions of years, is cooling to
+solidity
+
+_Photo: G. W. Ritchey_
+
+
+If, then, we represent our earth as a little ball of one inch diameter,
+ the sun would be a big globe nine feet across and 323 yards away, that
+ is about a fifth of a mile, four or five minutes’ walking.  The  moon
+would be a small pea two feet and a half from the world.  Between earth
+and sun there would be the two inner planets, Mercury and Venus,  at
+distances of one hundred and twenty-five and two hundred and fifty 
+yards from the sun. All round and about these bodies there would be 
+emptiness until you came to Mars, a hundred and seventy-five feet
+beyond the earth; Jupiter nearly a mile away, a foot in diameter;
+Saturn, a little smaller, two miles off; Uranus four miles off and
+Neptune six miles off. Then nothingness and nothingness except for
+small particles and drifting scraps of attenuated vapour for thousands
+of miles.  The nearest star to earth on this scale would be 40,000
+miles away.
+
+These figures will serve perhaps to give one some conception of the
+immense emptiness of space in which the drama of life goes on.
+
+For in all this enormous vacancy of space we know certainly of life
+only  upon the surface of our earth. It does not penetrate much more
+than three miles down into the 4,000 miles that separate us from the
+centre of our globe, and it does not reach more than five miles above
+its surface.  Apparently all the limitlessness of space is otherwise
+empty and dead.
+
+The deepest ocean dredgings go down to five miles. The highest recorded
+flight of an aeroplane is little more than four miles. Men have reached
+to seven miles up in balloons, but at a cost of great suffering.  No
+bird can fly so high as five miles, and small birds and insects which
+have been carried up by aeroplanes drop off insensible far below that
+level.
+
+
+
+
+II
+THE WORLD IN TIME
+
+
+In the last fifty years there has been much very fine and interesting
+speculation on the part of scientific men upon the age and origin of
+our earth. Here we cannot pretend to give even a summary of such
+speculations because they involve the most subtle mathematical and
+physical considerations. The truth is that the physical and
+astronomical sciences are still too undeveloped as yet to make anything
+of the sort more than an illustrative guesswork. The general tendency
+has been to make the estimated age of our globe longer and longer. It
+now seems probable that the earth has had an independent existence as a
+spinning planet flying round and round the sun for a longer period than
+2,000,000,000 years. It may have been much longer than that. This is a
+length of time that absolutely overpowers the imagination.
+
+Before that vast period of separate existence, the sun and earth and
+the other planets that circulate round the sun may have been a great
+swirl of diffused matter in space.  The telescope reveals to us in
+various parts of the heavens luminous spiral clouds of matter, the
+spiral nebulæ, which appear to be in rotation about a centre. It is
+supposed by many astronomers that the sun and its planets were once
+such a spiral, and that their matter has undergone concentration into
+its present form. Through majestic æons that concentration went on
+until in that vast remoteness of the past for which we have given
+figures, the world and its moon were distinguishable.  They were
+spinning then much faster than they are spinning now; they were at a
+lesser distance from the sun; they travelled round it very much faster,
+and they were probably incandescent or molten at the surface.  The sun
+itself was a much greater blaze in the heavens.
+
+THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA
+THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA
+
+_Photo: G. W. Ritchey_
+
+If we could go back through that infinitude of time and see the earth
+in this earlier stage of its history, we should behold a scene more
+like the interior of a blast furnace or the surface of a lava flow
+before it cools and cakes over than any other contemporary scene.  No
+water would be visible because all the water there was would still be
+superheated steam in a stormy atmosphere of sulphurous and metallic
+vapours.  Beneath this would swirl and boil an ocean of molten rock
+substance.  Across a sky of fiery clouds the glare of the hurrying sun
+and moon would sweep swiftly like hot breaths of flame.
+
+A DARK NEBULA
+A DARK NEBULA
+_Taken in 1920 with the aid of the largest telescope in the world. One
+of the first photographs taken by the Mount Wilson telescope._
+
+There are dark nebulæ and bright nebulæ.  Prof. Henry Norris Russell,
+against the British theory, holds that the dark nebulæ preceded the
+bright nebulæ.
+
+_Photo: Prof. Hale_
+
+
+Slowly by degrees as one million of years followed another, this fiery
+scene would lose its eruptive incandescence.  The vapours in the sky
+would rain down and become less dense overhead; great slaggy cakes of
+solidifying rock would appear upon the surface of the molten sea, and
+sink under it, to be replaced by other floating masses.  The sun and
+moon growing now each more distant and each smaller, would rush with
+diminishing swiftness across the heavens. The moon now, because of its
+smaller size, would be already cooled far below incandescence, and
+would be alternately obstructing and reflecting the sunlight in a
+series of eclipses and full moons.
+
+
+ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA
+ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA
+
+_Photo: G. W. Ritchey_
+
+And so with a tremendous slowness through the vastness of time, the
+earth would grow more and more like the earth on which we live, until
+at last an age would come when, in the cooling air, steam would begin
+to condense into clouds, and the first rain would fall hissing upon the
+first rocks below.  For endless millenia the greater part of the
+earth’s water would still be vaporized in the atmosphere, but there
+would now be hot streams running over the crystallizing rocks below and
+pools and lakes into which these streams would be carrying detritus and
+depositing sediment.
+
+
+LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE
+LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE
+“Great lava-like masses of rock without traces of soil”
+
+
+At last a condition of things must have been attained in which a man
+might have stood up on earth and looked about him and lived. If we
+could have visited the earth at that time we should have stood on great
+lava-like masses of rock without a trace of soil or touch of living
+vegetation, under a storm-rent sky.  Hot and violent winds, exceeding
+the fiercest tornado that ever blows, and downpours of rain such as our
+milder, slower earth to-day knows nothing of, might have assailed us. 
+The water of the downpour would have rushed by us, muddy with the
+spoils of the rocks, coming together into torrents, cutting deep gorges
+and canyons as they hurried past to deposit their sediment in the
+earliest seas.  Through the clouds we should have glimpsed a great sun
+moving visibly across the sky, and in its wake and in the wake of the
+moon would have come a diurnal tide of earthquake and upheaval. And
+
+the moon, which nowadays keeps one constant face to earth, would then
+have been rotating visibly and showing the side it now hides so
+inexorably.
+
+The earth aged.  One million years followed another, and the day
+lengthened, the sun grew more distant and milder, the moon’s pace in
+the sky slackened; the intensity of rain and storm diminished and the
+water in the first seas increased and ran together into the ocean
+garment our planet henceforth wore.
+
+But there was no life as yet upon the earth; the seas were lifeless,
+and the rocks were barren.
+
+
+
+
+III
+THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE
+
+
+As everybody knows nowadays, the knowledge we possess of life before
+the beginnings of human memory and tradition is derived from the
+markings and fossils of living things in the stratified rocks. We find
+preserved in shale and slate, limestone, and sandstone, bones, shells,
+fibres, stems, fruits, footmarks, scratchings and the like, side by
+side with the ripple marks of the earliest tides and the pittings of
+the earliest rain-falls. It is by the sedulous examination of this
+Record of the Rocks that the past history of the earth’s life has been
+pieced together.  That much nearly everybody knows to-day.  The
+sedimentary rocks do not lie neatly stratum above stratum; they have
+been crumpled, bent, thrust about, distorted and mixed together like
+the leaves of a library that has been repeatedly looted and burnt, and
+it is only as a result of many devoted lifetimes of work that the
+record has been put into order and read.  The whole compass of time
+represented by the record of the rocks is now estimated as
+1,600,000,000 years.
+
+The earliest rocks in the record are called by geologists the Azoic
+rocks, because they show no traces of life.  Great areas of these Azoic
+rocks lie uncovered in North America, and they are of such a thickness
+that geologists consider that they represent a period of at least half
+of the 1,600,000,000 which they assign to the whole geological record. 
+Let me repeat this profoundly significant fact. Half the great interval
+of time since land and sea were first distinguishable on earth has left
+us no traces of life.  There are ripplings and rain marks still to be
+found in these rocks, but no marks nor vestiges of any living thing.
+
+MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD
+MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD
+1 and 8, Jellyfishes;  2, Hyolithes (swimming snail);  3, Humenocaris; 
+4, Protospongia; 5, Lampshells (Obolella);  6, Orthoceras;  7,
+Trilobite (Paradoxides) — see fossil on page 13; 9, Coral
+(Archæocyathus);  10, Bryograptus;  11, Trilobite (Olenellus); 12,
+Palesterina
+
+
+Then, as we come up the record, signs of past life appear and increase.
+ The age of the world’s history in which we find these past traces is
+called by geologists the Lower Palæozoic age. The first indications
+that life was astir are vestiges of comparatively simple and lowly
+things: the shells of small shellfish, the stems and flowerlike heads
+of zoophytes, seaweeds and the tracks and remains of sea worms and
+crustacea.  Very early appear certain creatures rather like plant-lice,
+crawling creatures which could roll themselves up into balls as the
+plant-lice do, the trilobites.  Later by a few million years or so come
+certain sea scorpions, more mobile and powerful creatures than the
+world had ever seen before.
+
+
+FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY MAGNIFIED)
+FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY MAGNIFIED)
+_Photo: John J. Ward, F.E.S._
+
+
+None of these creatures were of very great size.  Among the largest
+were certain of the sea scorpions, which measured nine feet in length. 
+There are no signs whatever of land life of any sort, plant or animal;
+there are no fishes nor any vertebrated creatures in this part of the
+record.  Essentially all the plants and creatures which have left us
+their traces from this period of the earth’s history are shallow-water
+and intertidal beings.  If we wished to parallel the flora and fauna of
+the Lower Palæozoic rocks on the earth to-day, we should do it best,
+except in the matter of size, by taking a drop of water from a rock
+pool or scummy ditch and examining it under a microscope.  The little
+crustacea, the small shellfish, the zoophytes and algæ we should find
+there would display a quite striking resemblance to these clumsier,
+larger prototypes that once were the crown of life upon our planet.
+
+
+EARLY PALÆOLITHIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF LINGULA
+EARLY PALÆOLITHIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF LINGULA
+
+Species of this most ancient genus of shellfish still live to-day
+
+_(In Natural History Museum, London)_
+
+
+It is well, however, to bear in mind that the Lower Palæozoic rocks
+probably do not give us anything at all representative of the first
+beginnings of life on our planet. Unless a creature has bones or other
+hard parts, unless it wears a shell or is big enough and heavy enough
+to make characteristic footprints and trails in mud, it is unlikely to
+leave any fossilized traces of its existence behind.  To-day there are
+hundreds of thousands of species of small soft-bodied creatures in our
+world which it is inconceivable can ever leave any mark for future
+geologists to discover.  In the world’s past, millions of millions of
+species of such creatures may have lived and multiplied and flourished
+and passed away without a trace remaining.  The waters of the warm and
+shallow lakes and seas of the so-called Azoic period may have teemed
+with an infinite variety of lowly, jelly-like, shell-less and boneless
+creatures, and a multitude of green scummy plants may have spread over
+the sunlit intertidal rocks and beaches.  The Record of the Rocks is no
+more a complete record of life in the past than the books of a bank are
+a record of the existence of everybody in the neighbourhood.  It is
+only when a species begins to secrete a shell or a spicule or a
+carapace or a lime-supported stem, and so put by something for the
+future, that it goes upon the Record.  But in rocks of an age prior to
+those which bear any fossil traces, graphite, a form of uncombined
+carbon, is sometimes found, and some authorities consider that it may
+have been separated out from combination through the vital activities
+of unknown living things.
+
+
+ FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT CHEIROTHERIUM
+FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT CHEIROTHERIUM
+
+_(In Natural History Museum, London)_
+
+
+
+
+IV
+THE AGE OF FISHES
+
+
+In the days when the world was supposed to have endured for only a few
+thousand years, it was supposed that the different species of plants
+and animals were fixed and final; they had all been created exactly as
+they are to-day, each species by itself.  But as men began to discover
+and study the Record of the Rocks this belief gave place to the
+suspicion that many species had changed and developed slowly through
+the course of ages, and this again expanded into a belief in what is
+called Organic Evolution, a belief that all species of life upon earth,
+animal and vegetable alike, are descended by slow continuous processes
+of change from some very simple ancestral form of life, some almost
+structureless living substance, far back in the so-called Azoic seas.
+
+This question of Organic Evolution, like the question of the age of the
+earth, has in the past been the subject of much bitter controversy. 
+There was a time when a belief in organic evolution was for rather
+obscure reasons supposed to be incompatible with sound Christian,
+Jewish and Moslem doctrine.  That time has passed, and the men of the
+most orthodox Catholic, Protestant, Jewish and Mohammedan belief are
+now free to accept this newer and broader view of a common origin of
+all living things.  No life seems to have happened suddenly upon earth.
+ Life grew and grows.  Age by age through gulfs of time at which
+imagination reels, life has been growing from a mere stirring in the
+intertidal slime towards freedom, power and consciousness.
+
+Life consists of individuals. These individuals are definite things,
+they are not like the lumps and masses, nor even the limitless and
+motionless crystals, of non-living matter, and they have two
+characteristics no dead matter possesses.  They can assimilate other
+matter into themselves and make it part of themselves, and they can
+reproduce themselves.  They eat and they breed.  They can give rise to
+other individuals, for the most part like themselves, but always also a
+little different from themselves.  There is a specific and family
+resemblance between an individual and its offspring, and there is an
+individual difference between every parent and every offspring it
+produces, and this is true in every species and at every stage of life.
+
+
+SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION SHOWING BODY ARMOUR
+SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION SHOWING BODY ARMOUR
+
+
+Now scientific men are not able to explain to us either why offspring
+should resemble nor why they should differ from their parents.  But
+seeing that offspring do at once resemble and differ, it is a matter
+rather of common sense than of scientific knowledge that, if the
+conditions under which a species live are changed, the species should
+undergo some correlated changes.  Because in any generation of the
+species there must be a number of individuals whose individual
+differences make them better adapted to the new conditions under which
+the species has to live, and a number whose individuals whose
+individual differences make it rather harder for them to live.  And on
+the whole the former sort will live longer, bear more offspring, and
+reproduce themselves more abundantly than the latter, and so generation
+by generation the average of the species will change in the favourable
+direction.  This process, which is called Natural Selection, is not so
+much a scientific theory as a necessary deduction from the facts of
+reproduction and individual difference.  There may be many forces at
+work varying, destroying and preserving species, about which science
+may still be unaware or undecided, but the man who can deny the
+operation of this process of natural selection upon life since its
+beginning must be either ignorant of the elementary facts of life or
+incapable of ordinary thought.
+
+Many scientific men have speculated about the first beginning of life
+and their speculations are often of great interest, but there is
+absolutely no definite knowledge and no convincing guess yet of the way
+in which life began.  But nearly all authorities are agreed that it
+probably began upon mud or sand in warm sunlit shallow brackish water,
+and that it spread up the beaches to the intertidal lines and out to
+the open waters.
+
+
+FOSSIL OF THE CLADOSELACHE, A DEVONIAN SHARK
+FOSSIL OF THE CLADOSELACHE, A DEVONIAN SHARK
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+That early world was a world of strong tides and currents.  An
+incessant destruction of individuals must have been going on through
+their being swept up the beaches and dried, or by their being swept out
+to sea and sinking down out of reach of air and sun.  Early conditions
+favoured the development of every tendency to root and hold on, every
+tendency to form an outer skin and casing to protect the stranded
+individual from immediate desiccation.  From the very earliest any
+tendency to sensitiveness to taste would turn the individual in the
+direction of food, and any sensitiveness to light would assist it to
+struggle back out of the darkness of the sea deeps and caverns or to
+wriggle back out of the excessive glare of the dangerous shallows.
+
+Probably the first shells and body armour of living things were
+protections against drying rather than against active enemies. But
+tooth and claw come early into our earthly history.
+
+We have already noted the size of the earlier water scorpions.  For
+long ages such creatures were the supreme lords of life. Then in a
+division of these Palæozoic rocks called the Silurian division, which
+many geologists now suppose to be as old as five hundred million years,
+there appears a new type of being, equipped with eyes and teeth and
+swimming powers of an altogether more powerful kind.  These were the
+first known backboned animals, the earliest fishes, the first known
+Vertebrata.
+
+
+SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD
+SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD
+
+_By Alice Woodward_
+
+
+These fishes increase greatly in the next division of rocks, the rocks
+known as the Devonian system.  They are so prevalent that this period
+of the Record of the Rocks has been called the Age of Fishes.  Fishes
+of a pattern now gone from the earth, and fishes allied to the sharks
+and sturgeons of to-day, rushed through the waters, leapt in the air,
+browsed among the seaweeds, pursued and preyed upon one another, and
+gave a new liveliness to the waters of the world. None of these were
+excessively big by our present standards.  Few of them were more than
+two or three feet long, but there were exceptional forms which were as
+long as twenty feet.
+
+We know nothing from geology of the ancestors of these fishes.  They do
+not appear to be related to any of the forms that preceded them.
+Zoologists have the most interesting views of their ancestry, but these
+they derive from the study of the development of the eggs of their
+still living relations, and from other sources.  Apparently the
+ancestors of the vertebrata were soft-bodied and perhaps quite small
+swimming creatures who began first to develop hard parts as teeth round
+and about their mouths.  The teeth of a skate or dogfish cover the roof
+and floor of its mouth and pass at the lip into the flattened toothlike
+scales that encase most of its body. As the fishes develop these teeth
+scales in the geological record, they swim out of the hidden darkness
+of the past into the light, the first vertebrated animals visible in
+the record.
+
+
+
+
+V
+THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS
+
+
+The land during this Age of Fishes was apparently quite lifeless. Crags
+and uplands of barren rock lay under the sun and rain. There was no
+real soil—for as yet there were no earthworms which help to make a
+soil, and no plants to break up the rock particles into mould; there
+was no trace of moss or lichen. Life was still only in the sea.
+
+Over this world of barren rock played great changes of climate. The
+causes of these changes of climate were very complex and they have
+still to be properly estimated.  The changing shape of the earth’s
+orbit, the gradual shifting of the poles of rotation, changes in the
+shapes of the continents, probably even fluctuations in the warmth of
+the sun, now conspired to plunge great areas of the earth’s surface
+into long periods of cold and ice and now again for millions of years
+spread a warm or equable climate over this planet.  There seem to have
+been phases of great internal activity in the world’s history, when in
+the course of a few million years accumulated upthrusts would break out
+in lines of volcanic eruption and upheaval and rearrange the mountain
+and continental outlines of the globe, increasing the depth of the sea
+and the height of the mountains and exaggerating the extremes of
+climate.  And these would be followed by vast ages of comparative
+quiescence, when frost, rain and river would wear down the mountain
+heights and carry great masses of silt to fill and raise the sea
+bottoms and spread the seas, ever shallower and wider, over more and
+more of the land.  There have been “high and deep” ages in the world’s
+history and “low and level” ages.  The reader must dismiss from his
+mind any idea that the surface of the earth has been growing steadily
+cooler since its crust grew solid.  After that much cooling had been
+achieved, the internal temperature ceased to affect surface conditions.
+There are traces of periods of superabundant ice and snow, of “Glacial
+Ages,” that is, even in the Azoic period.
+
+It was only towards the close of the Age of Fishes, in a period of
+extensive shallow seas and lagoons, that life spread itself out in any
+effectual way from the waters on to the land.  No doubt the earlier
+types of the forms that now begin to appear in great abundance had
+already been developing in a rare and obscure manner for many scores of
+millions of years.  But now came their opportunity.
+
+
+A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP
+A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP
+
+_A Coal Seam in the Making_
+
+
+Plants no doubt preceded animal forms in this invasion of the land, but
+the animals probably followed up the plant emigration very closely. The
+first problem that the plant had to solve was the problem of some
+sustaining stiff support to hold up its fronds to the sunlight when the
+buoyant water was withdrawn; the second was the problem of getting
+water from the swampy ground below to the tissues of the plant, now
+that it was no longer close at hand.  The two problems were solved by
+the development of woody tissue which both sustained the plant and
+acted as water carrier to the leaves.  The Record of the Rocks is
+suddenly crowded by a vast variety of woody swamp plants, many of them
+of great size, big tree mosses, tree ferns, gigantic horsetails and the
+like.  And with these, age by age, there crawled out of the water a
+great variety of animal forms. There were centipedes and millipedes;
+there were the first primitive insects; there were creatures related to
+the ancient king crabs and sea scorpions which became the earliest
+spiders and land scorpions, and presently there were vertebrated
+animals.
+
+
+SKULL OF A LABYRINTHODONT, CAPITOSAURUS
+SKULL OF A LABYRINTHODONT, CAPITOSAURUS
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+Some of the earlier insects were very large. There were dragon flies in
+this period with wings that spread out to twenty-nine inches.
+
+In various ways these new orders and genera had adapted themselves to
+breathing air.  Hitherto all animals had breathed air dissolved in
+water, and that indeed is what all animals still have to do. But now in
+divers fashions the animal kingdom was acquiring the power of supplying
+its own moisture where it was needed.  A man with a perfectly dry lung
+would suffocate to-day; his lung surfaces must be moist in order that
+air may pass through them into his blood.  The adaptation to air
+breathing consists in all cases either in the development of a cover to
+the old-fashioned gills to stop evaporation, or in the development of
+tubes or other new breathing organs lying deep inside the body and
+moistened by a watery secretion.  The old gills with which the
+ancestral fish of the vertebrated line had breathed were inadaptable to
+breathing upon land, and in the case of this division of the animal
+kingdom it is the swimming bladder of the fish which becomes a new,
+deep-seated breathing organ, the lung.  The kind of animals known as
+amphibia, the frogs and newts of to-day, begin their lives in the water
+and breathe by gills; and subsequently the lung, developing in the same
+way as the swimming bladder of many fishes do, as a baglike outgrowth
+from the throat, takes over the business of breathing, the animal comes
+out on land, and the gills dwindle and the gill slits disappear.  (All
+except an outgrowth of one gill slit, which becomes the passage of the
+ear and ear-drum.)  The animal can now live only in the air, but it
+must return at least to the edge of the water to lay its eggs and
+reproduce its kind.
+
+
+SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT: THE ERYOPS
+SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT: THE ERYOPS
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+All the air-breathing vertebrata of this age of swamps and plants
+belonged to the class amphibia.  They were nearly all of them forms
+related to the newts of to-day, and some of them attained a
+considerable size.  They were land animals, it is true, but they were
+land animals needing to live in and near moist and swampy places, and
+all the great trees of this period were equally amphibious in their
+habits.  None of them had yet developed fruits and seeds of a kind that
+could fall on land and develop with the help only of such moisture as
+dew and rain could bring.  They all had to shed their spores in water,
+it would seem, if they were to germinate.
+
+It is one of the most beautiful interests of that beautiful science,
+comparative anatomy, to trace the complex and wonderful adaptations of
+living things to the necessities of existence in air.  All living
+things, plants and animals alike, are primarily water things.  For
+example all the higher vertebrated animals above the fishes, up to and
+including man, pass through a stage in their development in the egg or
+before birth in which they have gill slits which are obliterated before
+the young emerge.  The bare, water-washed eye of the fish is protected
+in the higher forms from drying up by eyelids and glands which secrete
+moisture.  The weaker sound vibrations of air necessitate an ear-drum. 
+In nearly every organ of the body similar modifications and adaptations
+are to be detected, similar patchings-up to meet aerial conditions.
+
+This Carboniferous age, this age of the amphibia, was an age of life in
+the swamps and lagoons and on the low banks among these waters. Thus
+far life had now extended.  The hills and high lands were still quite
+barren and lifeless.  Life had learnt to breathe air indeed, but it
+still had its roots in its native water; it still had to return to the
+water to reproduce its kind.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+THE AGE OF REPTILES
+
+
+The abundant life of the Carboniferous period was succeeded by a vast
+cycle of dry and bitter ages.  They are represented in the Record of
+the Rocks by thick deposits of sandstones and the like, in which
+fossils are comparatively few. The temperature of the world fluctuated
+widely, and there were long periods of glacial cold. Over great areas
+the former profusion of swamp vegetation ceased, and, overlaid by these
+newer deposits, it began that process of compression and mineralization
+that gave the world most of the coal deposits of to-day.
+
+But it is during periods of change that life undergoes its most rapid
+modifications, and under hardship that it learns its hardest lessons. 
+As conditions revert towards warmth and moisture again we find a new
+series of animal and plant forms established,  We find in the record
+the remains of vertebrated animals that laid eggs which, instead of
+hatching out tadpoles which needed to live for a time in water, carried
+on their development before hatching to a stage so nearly like the
+adult form that the young could live in air from the first moment of
+independent existence.  Gills had been cut out altogether, and the gill
+slits only appeared as an embryonic phase.
+
+These new creatures without a tadpole stage were the Reptiles.
+Concurrently there had been a development of seed-bearing trees, which
+could spread their seed, independently of swamp or lakes. There were
+now palmlike cycads and many tropical conifers, though as yet there
+were no flowering plants and no grasses.  There was a great number of
+ferns.  And there was now also an increased variety of insects.  There
+were beetles, though bees and butterflies had yet to come.  But all the
+fundamental forms of a new real land fauna and flora had been laid down
+during these vast ages of severity.  This new land life needed only the
+opportunity of favourable conditions to flourish and prevail.
+
+
+A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD
+A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD
+
+Found in the Lower Lias in Somersetshire
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+Age by age and with abundant fluctuations that mitigation came.  The
+still incalculable movements of the earth’s crust, the changes in its
+orbit, the increase and diminution of the mutual inclination of orbit
+and pole, worked together to produce a great spell of widely diffused
+warm conditions.  The period lasted altogether, it is now supposed,
+upwards of two hundred million years.  It is called the Mesozoic
+period, to distinguish it from the altogether vaster Palæozoic and
+Azoic periods (together fourteen hundred millions) that preceded it,
+and from the Cainozoic or new life period that intervened between its
+close and the present time, and it is also called the Age of Reptiles
+because of the astonishing predominance and variety of this form of
+life.  It came to an end some eighty million  years ago.
+
+In the world to-day the genera of Reptiles are comparatively few and
+their distribution is very limited.  They are more various, it is true,
+than are the few surviving members of the order of the amphibia which
+once in the Carboniferous period ruled the world.  We still have the
+snakes, the turtles and tortoises (the Chelonia), the alligators and
+crocodiles, and the lizards.  Without exception they are creatures
+requiring warmth all the year round; they cannot stand exposure to
+cold, and it is probable that all the reptilian beings of the Mesozoic
+suffered under the same limitation.  It was a hothouse fauna, living
+amidst a hothouse flora.  It endured no frosts.  But the world had at
+least attained a real dry land fauna and flora as distinguished from
+the mud and swamp fauna and flora of the previous heyday of life upon
+earth.
+
+
+A PTERODACTYL
+A PTERODACTYL
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+All the sorts of reptile we know now were much more abundantly
+represented then, great turtles and tortoises, big crocodiles and many
+lizards and snakes, but in addition there was a number of series of
+wonderful creatures that have now vanished altogether from the earth. 
+There was a vast variety of beings called the Dinosaurs. Vegetation was
+now spreading over the lower levels of the world, reeds, brakes of fern
+and the like; and browsing upon this abundance came a multitude of
+herbivorous reptiles, which increased in size as the Mesozoic period
+rose to its climax.  Some of these beasts exceeded in size any other
+land animals that have ever lived; they were as large as whales.  The
+_Diplodocus Carnegii_ for example measured eighty-four feet from snout
+to tail; the Gigantosaurus was even greater; it measured a hundred
+feet.  Living upon these monsters was a swarm of carnivorous Dinosaurs
+of a corresponding size.  One of these, the Tyrannosaurus, is figured
+and described in many books as the last word in reptilian
+frightfulness.
+
+
+A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS, OVER EIGHTY FEET FROM
+SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP
+A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS, OVER EIGHTY FEET FROM
+SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+While these great creatures pastured and pursued amidst the fronds and
+evergreens of the Mesozoic jungles, another now vanished tribe of
+reptiles, with a bat-like development of the fore limbs, pursued
+insects and one another, first leapt and parachuted and presently flew
+amidst the fronds and branches of the forest trees.  These were the
+Pterodactyls. These were the first flying creatures with backbones;
+they mark a new achievement in the growing powers of vertebrated life.
+
+Moreover some of the reptiles were returning to the sea waters. Three
+groups of big swimming beings had invaded the sea from which their
+ancestors had come: the Mososaurs, the Plesiosaurs, and Ichthyosaurs. 
+Some of these again approached the proportions of our present whales. 
+The Ichthyosaurs seem to have been quite seagoing creatures, but the
+Plesiosaurs were a type of animal that has no cognate form to-day.  The
+body was stout and big with paddles, adapted either for swimming or
+crawling through marshes, or along the bottom of shallow waters.  The
+comparatively small head was poised on a vast snake of neck, altogether
+outdoing the neck of the swan. Either the Plesiosaur swam and searched
+for food under the water and fed as the swan will do, or it lurked
+under water and snatched at passing fish or beast.
+
+Such was the predominant land life throughout the Mesozoic age.  It was
+by our human standards an advance upon anything that had preceded it. 
+It had produced land animals greater in size, range, power and
+activity, more “vital” as people say, than anything the world had seen
+before.  In the seas there had been no such advance but a great
+proliferation of new forms of life.  An enormous variety of squid-like
+creatures with chambered shells, for the most part coiled, had appeared
+in the shallow seas, the Ammonites.  They had had predecessors in the
+Palæozoic seas, but now was their age of glory.  To-day they have left
+no survivors at all; their nearest relation is the pearly Nautilus, an
+inhabitant of tropical waters.  And a new and more prolific type of
+fish with lighter, finer scales than the plate-like and tooth-like
+coverings that had hitherto prevailed, became and has since remained
+predominant in the seas and rivers.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS
+
+
+In a few paragraphs a picture of the lush vegetation and swarming
+reptiles of that first great summer of life, the Mesozoic period, has
+been sketched.  But while the Dinosaurs lorded it over the hot selvas
+and marshy plains and the Pterodactyls filled the forests with their
+flutterings and possibly with shrieks and croakings as they pursued the
+humming insect life of the still flowerless shrubs and trees, some less
+conspicuous and less abundant forms upon the margins of this abounding
+life were acquiring certain powers and learning certain lessons of
+endurance, that were to be of the utmost value to their race when at
+last the smiling generosity of sun and earth began to fade.
+
+A group of tribes and genera of hopping reptiles, small creatures of
+the dinosaur type, seem to have been pushed by competition and the
+pursuit of their enemies towards the alternatives of extinction or
+adaptation to colder conditions in the higher hills or by the sea.
+Among these distressed tribes there was developed a new type of
+scale—scales that were elongated into quill-like forms and that
+presently branched into the crude beginnings of feathers. These
+quill-like scales layover one another and formed a heat-retaining
+covering more efficient than any reptilian covering that had hitherto
+existed.  So they permitted an invasion of colder regions that were
+otherwise uninhabited.  Perhaps simultaneously with these changes there
+arose in these creatures a greater solicitude for their eggs.  Most
+reptiles are apparently quite careless about their eggs, which are left
+for sun and season to hatch.  But some of the varieties upon this new
+branch of the tree of life were acquiring a habit of guarding their
+eggs and keeping them warm with the warmth of their bodies.
+
+With these adaptations to cold other internal modifications were going
+on that made these creatures, the primitive birds, warm-blooded and
+independent of basking.  The very earliest birds seem to have been
+seabirds living upon fish, and their fore limbs were not wings but
+paddles rather after the penguin type.  That peculiarly primitive bird,
+the New Zealand Ki-Wi, has feathers of a very simple sort, and neither
+flies nor appears to be descended from flying ancestors.  In the
+development of the birds, feathers came before wings.  But once the
+feather was developed the possibility of making a light spread of
+feathers led inevitably to the wing.  We know of the fossil remains of
+one bird at least which had reptilian teeth in its jaw and a long
+reptilian tail, but which also had a true bird’s wing and which
+certainly flew and held its own among the pterodactyls of the Mesozoic
+time.  Nevertheless birds were neither varied nor abundant in Mesozoic
+times.  If a man could go back to typical Mesozoic country, he might
+walk for days and never see or hear such a thing as a bird, though he
+would see a great abundance of pterodactyls and insects among the
+fronds and reeds.
+
+
+FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST BIRDS
+FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST BIRDS
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+And another thing he would probably never see, and that would be any
+sign of a mammal.  Probably the first mammals were in existence
+millions of years before the first thing one could call a bird, but
+they were altogether too small and obscure and remote for attention.
+
+
+HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS
+HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS
+
+
+The earliest mammals, like the earliest birds, were creatures driven by
+competition and pursuit into a life of hardship and adaptation to cold.
+ With them also the scale became quill-like, and was developed into a
+heat-retaining covering; and they too underwent modifications, similar
+in kind though different in detail, to become warm-blooded and
+independent of basking.  Instead of feathers they developed hairs, and
+instead of guarding and incubating their eggs they kept them warm and
+safe by retaining them inside their bodies until they were almost
+mature.  Most of them became altogether vivaparous and brought their
+young into the world alive.  And even after their young were born they
+tended to maintain a protective and nutritive association with them. 
+Most but not all mammals to-day have mammæ and suckle their young.  Two
+mammals still live which lay eggs and which have not proper mammæ,
+though they nourish their young by a nutritive secretion of the under
+skin; these are the duck-billed platypus and the echidna.  The echidna
+lays leathery eggs and then puts them into a pouch under its belly, and
+so carries them about warm and safe until they hatch.
+
+But just as a visitor to the Mesozoic world might have searched for
+days and weeks before finding a bird, so, unless he knew exactly where
+to go and look, he might have searched in vain for any traces of a
+mammal.  Both birds and mammals would have seemed very eccentric and
+secondary and unimportant creatures in Mesozoic times.
+
+
+THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND
+THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND
+_Photo: Autotype Fine Art Co._
+
+SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL
+SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL
+Discovered in Greece; it is rich in fossilized bones of early mammals
+
+
+The Age of Reptiles lasted, it is now guessed, eighty million years.
+Had any quasi-human intelligence been watching the world through that
+inconceivable length of time, how safe and eternal the sunshine and
+abundance must have seemed, how assured the wallowing prosperity of the
+dinosaurs and the flapping abundance of the flying lizards! And then
+the mysterious rhythms and accumulating forces of the universe began to
+turn against that quasi-eternal stability.  That run of luck for life
+was running out.  Age by age, myriad of years after myriad of years,
+with halts no doubt and retrogressions, came a change towards hardship
+and extreme conditions, came great alterations of level and great
+redistributions of mountain and sea.  We find one thing in the Record
+of the Rocks during the decadence of the long Mesozoic age of
+prosperity that is very significant of steadily sustained changes of
+condition, and that is a violent fluctuation of living forms and the
+appearance of new and strange species. Under the gathering threat of
+extinction the older orders and genera are displaying their utmost
+capacity for variation and adaptation.  The Ammonites for example in
+these last pages of the Mesozoic chapter exhibit a multitude of
+fantastic forms.  Under settled conditions there is no encouragement
+for novelties; they do not develop, they are suppressed; what is best
+adapted is already there.  Under novel conditions it is the ordinary
+type that suffers, and the novelty that may have a better chance to
+survive and establish itself....
+
+There comes a break in the Record of the Rocks that may represent
+several million years.  There is a veil here still, over even the
+outline of the history of life.  When it lifts again, the Age of
+Reptiles is at an end; the Dinosaurs, the Plesiosaurs and Ichthyosaurs,
+the Pterodactyls, the innumerable genera and species of Ammonite have
+all gone absolutely.  In all their stupendous variety they have died
+out and left no descendants.  The cold has killed them.  All their
+final variations were insufficient; they had never hit upon survival
+conditions.  The world had passed through a phase of extreme conditions
+beyond their powers of endurance, a slow and complete massacre of
+Mesozoic life has occurred, and we find now a new scene, a new and
+hardier flora, and a new and hardier fauna in possession of the world.
+
+It is still a bleak and impoverished scene with which this new volume
+of the book of life begins. The cycads and tropical conifers have given
+place very largely to trees that shed their leaves to avoid destruction
+by the snows of winter and to flowering plants and shrubs, and where
+there was formerly a profusion of reptiles, an increasing variety of
+birds and mammals is entering into their inheritance.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+THE AGE OF MAMMALS
+
+
+The opening of the next great period in the life of the earth, the
+Cainozoic period, was a period of upheaval and extreme volcanic
+activity. Now it was that the vast masses of the Alps and Himalayas and
+the mountain backbone of the Rockies and Andes were thrust up, and that
+the rude outlines of our present oceans and continents appeared. The
+map of the world begins to display a first dim resemblance to the map
+of to-day. It is estimated now that between forty and eighty million
+years have elapsed from the beginnings of the Cainozoic period to the
+present time.
+
+At the outset of the Cainozoic period the climate of the world was
+austere.  It grew generally warmer until a fresh phase of great
+abundance was reached, after which conditions grew hard again and the
+earth passed into a series of extremely cold cycles, the Glacial Ages,
+from which apparently it is now slowly emerging.
+
+But we do not know sufficient of the causes of climatic change at
+present to forecast the possible fluctuations of climatic conditions
+that lie before us.  We may be moving towards increasing sunshine or
+lapsing towards another glacial age; volcanic activity and the upheaval
+of mountain masses may be increasing or diminishing; we do not know; we
+lack sufficient science.
+
+With the opening of this period the grasses appear; for the first time
+there is pasture in the world; and with the full development of the
+once obscure mammalian type, appear a number of interesting grazing
+animals and of carnivorous types which prey upon these.
+
+At first these early mammals seem to differ only in a few characters
+from the great herbivorous and carnivorous reptiles that ages before
+had flourished and then vanished from the earth.  A careless observer
+might suppose that in this second long age of warmth and plenty that
+was now beginning, nature was merely repeating the first, with
+herbivorous and carnivorous mammals to parallel the herbivorous and
+carnivorous dinosaurs, with birds replacing pterodactyls and so on. 
+But this would be an altogether superficial comparison.  The variety of
+the universe is infinite and incessant; it progresses eternally;
+history never repeats itself and no parallels are precisely true. The
+differences between the life of the Cainozoic and Mesozoic periods are
+far profounder than the resemblances.
+
+
+A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD
+A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD
+
+The Titanotherum (Brontops) Robustum
+
+
+The most fundamental of all these differences lies in the mental life
+of the two periods.  It arises essentially out of the continuing
+contact of parent and offspring which distinguishes mammalian and in a
+lesser degree bird life, from the life of the reptile.  With very few
+exceptions the reptile abandons its egg to hatch alone.  The young
+reptile has no knowledge whatever of its parent; its mental life, such
+as it is, begins and ends with its own experiences. It may tolerate the
+existence of its fellows but it has no communication with them; it
+never imitates, never learns from them, is incapable of concerted
+action with them.  Its life is that of an isolated individual.  But
+with the suckling and cherishing of young which was distinctive of the
+new mammalian and avian strains arose the possibility of learning by
+imitation, of communication, by warning cries and other concerted
+action, of mutual control and instruction.  A teachable type of life
+had come into the world.
+
+The earliest mammals of the Cainozoic period are but little superior in
+brain size to the more active carnivorous dinosaurs, but as we read on
+through the record towards modern times we find, in every tribe and
+race of the mammalian animals, a steady universal increase in brain
+capacity.  For instance we find at a comparatively early stage that
+rhinoceros-like beasts appear.  There is a creature, the Titanotherium,
+which lived in the earliest division of this period.  It was probably
+very like a modern rhinoceros in its habits and needs.  But its brain
+capacity was not one tenth that of its living successor.
+
+The earlier mammals probably parted from their offspring as soon as
+suckling was over, but, once the capacity for mutual understanding has
+arisen, the advantages of continuing the association are very great;
+and we presently find a number of mammalian species displaying the
+beginnings of a true social life and keeping together in herds, packs
+and flocks, watching each other, imitating each other, taking warning
+from each other’s acts and cries.  This is something that the world had
+not seen before among vertebrated animals. Reptiles and fish may no
+doubt be found in swarms and shoals; they have been hatched in
+quantities and similar conditions have kept them together, but in the
+case of the social and gregarious mammals the association arises not
+simply from a community of external forces, it is sustained by an inner
+impulse.  They are not merely like one another and so found in the same
+places at the same times; they like one another and so they keep
+together.
+
+
+STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI--A GIRAFFE-CAMEL
+STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI—A GIRAFFE-CAMEL
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS—EARLY HORSE
+SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS--EARLY HORSE
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+This difference between the reptile world and the world of our human
+minds is one our sympathies seem unable to pass. We cannot conceive in
+ourselves the swift uncomplicated urgency of a reptile’s instinctive
+motives, its appetites, fears and hates.  We cannot understand them in
+their simplicity because all our motives are complicated; our’s are
+balances and resultants and not simple urgencies.  But the mammals and
+birds have self-restraint and consideration for other individuals, a
+social appeal, a self- control that is, at its lower level, after our
+own fashion. We can in consequence establish relations with almost all
+sorts of them.  When they suffer they utter cries and make movements
+that rouse our feelings.  We can make understanding pets of them with a
+mutual recognition.  They can be tamed to self-restraint towards us,
+domesticated and taught.
+
+
+COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND DINOCERAS
+COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND DINOCERAS
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+That unusual growth of brain which is the central fact of Cainozoic
+times marks a new communication and interdependence of individuals.  It
+foreshadows the development of human societies of which we shall soon
+be telling.
+
+As the Cainozoic period unrolled, the resemblance of its flora and
+fauna to the plants and animals that inhabit the world to-day
+increased.  The big clumsy Uintatheres and Titanotheres, the
+Entelodonts and Hyracodons, big clumsy brutes like nothing living,
+disappeared.  On the other hand a series of forms led up by steady
+degrees from grotesque and clumsy predecessors to the giraffes, camels,
+horses, elephants, deer, dogs and lions and tigers of the existing
+world.  The evolution of the horse is particularly legible upon the
+geological record.  We have a fairly complete series of forms from a
+small tapir-like ancestor in the early Cainozoic.  Another line of
+development that has now been pieced together with some precision is
+that of the llamas and camels.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN
+
+
+Naturalists divide the class _Mammalia_ into a number of orders. At the
+head of these is the order _Primates_, which includes the lemurs, the
+monkeys, apes and man. Their classification was based originally upon
+anatomical resemblances and took no account of any mental qualities.
+
+Now the past history of the Primates is one very difficult to decipher
+in the geological record.  They are for the most part animals which
+live in forests like the lemurs and monkeys or in bare rocky places
+like the baboons.  They are rarely drowned and covered up by sediment,
+nor are most of them very numerous species, and so they do not figure
+so largely among the fossils as the ancestors of the horses, camels and
+so forth do.  But we know that quite early in the Cainozoic period,
+that is to say some forty million years ago or so, primitive monkeys
+and lemuroid creatures had appeared, poorer in brain and not so
+specialized as their later successors.
+
+The great world summer of the middle Cainozoic period drew at last to
+an end.  It was to follow those other two great summers in the history
+of life, the summer of the Coal Swamps and the vast summer of the Age
+of Reptiles.  Once more the earth spun towards an ice age.  The world
+chilled, grew milder for a time and chilled again.  In the warm past
+hippopotami had wallowed through a lush sub-tropical vegetation, and a
+tremendous tiger with fangs like sabres, the sabre-toothed tiger, had
+hunted its prey where now the journalists of Fleet Street go to and
+fro.  Now came a bleaker age and still bleaker ages.  A great weeding
+and extinction of species occurred.  A woolly rhinoceros, adapted to a
+cold climate, and the mammoth, a big woolly cousin of the elephants,
+the Arctic musk ox and the reindeer passed across the scene.  Then
+century by century the Arctic ice cap, the wintry death of the great
+Ice Age, crept southward.  In England it came almost down to the
+Thames, in America it reached Ohio.  There would be warmer spells of a
+few thousand years and relapses towards a bitterer cold.
+
+Geologists talk of these wintry phases as the First, Second, Third and
+Fourth Glacial Ages, and of the interludes as Interglacial periods.  We
+live to-day in a world that is still impoverished and scarred by that
+terrible winter.  The First Glacial Age was coming on 600,000 years
+ago; the Fourth Glacial Age reached its bitterest some fifty thousand
+years ago.  And it was amidst the snows of this long universal winter
+that the first man-like beings lived upon our planet.
+
+A MAMMOTH
+A MAMMOTH
+
+By the middle Cainozoic period there have appeared various apes with
+many quasi-human attributes of the jaws and leg bones, but it is only
+as we approach these Glacial Ages that we find traces of creatures that
+we can speak of as “almost human.”  These traces are not bones but
+implements.  In Europe, in deposits of this period, between half a
+million and a million years old, we find flints and stones that have
+evidently been chipped intentionally by some handy creature desirous of
+hammering, scraping or fighting with the sharpened edge.  These things
+have been called “Eoliths” (dawn stones).  In Europe there are no bones
+nor other remains of the creature which made these objects, simply the
+objects themselves.  For all the certainty we have it may have been
+some entirely un-human but intelligent monkey.  But at Trinil in Java,
+in accumulations of this age, a piece of a skull and various teeth and
+bones have been found of a sort of ape man, with a brain case bigger
+than that of any living apes, which seems to have walked erect.  This
+creature is now called _Pithecanthropus erectus_, the walking ape man,
+and the little trayful of its bones is the only help our imaginations
+have as yet in figuring to, ourselves the makers of the Eoliths.
+
+FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN PILTDOWN REGION
+FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN PILTDOWN REGION
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+It is not until we come to sands that are almost a quarter of a million
+years old that we find any other particle of a sub- human being.  But
+there are plenty of implements, and they are steadily improving in
+quality as we read on through the record.  They are no longer clumsy
+Eoliths; they are now shapely instruments made with considerable skill.
+ _And they are much bigger than the similar implements afterwards made
+by true man._  Then, in a sandpit at Heidelberg, appears a single
+quasi-human jaw-bone, a clumsy jaw-bone, absolutely chinless, far
+heavier than a true human jaw-bone and narrower, so that it is
+improbable the creature’s tongue could have moved about for articulate
+speech.  On the strength of this jaw-bone, scientific men suppose this
+creature to have been a heavy, almost human monster, possibly with huge
+limbs and hands, possibly with a thick felt of hair, and they call it
+the Heidelberg Man.
+
+A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS BY PROF. RUTOT
+A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS BY PROF. RUTOT
+
+This jaw-bone is, I think, one of the most tormenting objects in the
+world to our human curiosity.  To see it is like looking through a
+defective glass into the past and catching just one blurred and
+tantalizing glimpse of this Thing, shambling through the bleak
+wilderness, clambering to avoid the sabre- toothed tiger, watching the
+woolly rhinoceros in the woods. Then before we can scrutinize the
+monster, he vanishes.  Yet the soil is littered abundantly with the
+indestructible implements he chipped out for his uses.
+
+THE HEIDELBERG MAN
+THE HEIDELBERG MAN
+
+The Heidelberg Man, as modelled under the supervision of Prof. Rutot
+
+Still more fascinatingly enigmatical are the remains of a creature
+found at Piltdown in Sussex in a deposit that may indicate an age
+between a hundred and a hundred and fifty thousand years ago, though
+some authorities would put these particular remains back in time to
+before the Heidelberg jaw- bone. Here there are the remains of a thick
+sub-human skull much larger than any existing ape’s, and a
+chimpanzee-like jaw-bone which may or may not belong to it, and, in
+addition, a bat-shaped piece of elephant bone evidently carefully
+manufactured, through which a hole had apparently been bored.  There is
+also the thigh-bone of a deer with cuts upon it like a tally.  That is
+all.
+
+THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ORIGINAL FRAGMENT
+THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ORIGINAL FRAGMENT
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+What sort of beast was this creature which sat and bored holes in
+bones?
+
+Scientific men have named him Eoanthropus, the Dawn Man.  He stands
+apart from his kindred; a very different being either from the
+Heidelberg creature or from any living ape.  No other vestige like him
+is known.  But the gravels and deposits of from one hundred thousand
+years onward are increasingly rich in implements of flint and similar
+stone. And these implements are no longer rude “Eoliths.” The
+archæologists are presently able to distinguish scrapers, borers,
+knives, darts, throwing stones and hand axes ....
+
+We are drawing very near to man.  In our next section we shall have to
+describe the strangest of all these precursors of humanity, the
+Neanderthalers, the men who were almost, but not quite, true men.
+
+But it may be well perhaps to state quite clearly here that no
+scientific man supposes either of these creatures, the Heidelberg Man
+or _Eoanthropus_, to be direct ancestors of the men of to-day.  These
+are, at the closest, related forms.
+
+
+
+
+X
+THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN
+
+
+About fifty or sixty thousand years ago, before the climax of the
+Fourth Glacial Age, there lived a creature on earth so like a man that
+until a few years ago its remains were considered to be altogether
+human. We have skulls and bones of it and a great accumulation of the
+large implements it made and used. It made fires. It sheltered in caves
+from the cold. It probably dressed skins roughly and wore them. It was
+right-handed as men are.
+
+Yet now the ethnologists tell us these creatures were not true men. 
+They were of a different species of the same genus.  They had heavy
+protruding jaws and great brow ridges above the eyes and very low
+foreheads.  Their thumbs were not opposable to the fingers as men’s
+are; their necks were so poised that they could not turn back their
+heads and look up to the sky.  They probably slouched along, head down
+and forward.  Their chinless jaw-bones resemble the Heidelberg jaw-bone
+and are markedly unlike human jaw-bones.  And there were great
+differences from the human pattern in their teeth. Their cheek teeth
+were more complicated in structure than ours, more complicated and not
+less so; they had not the long fangs of our cheek teeth; and also these
+quasi-men had not the marked canines (dog teeth) of an ordinary human
+being. The capacity of their skulls was quite human, but the brain was
+bigger behind and lower in front than the human brain. Their
+intellectual faculties were differently arranged.  They were not
+ancestral to the human line. Mentally and physically they were upon a
+different line from the human line.
+
+Skulls and bones of this extinct species of man were found at
+Neanderthal among other places, and from that place these strange
+proto-men have been christened Neanderthal Men, or Neanderthalers. They
+must have endured in Europe for many hundreds or even thousands of
+years.
+
+THE NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT
+THE NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT
+
+At that time the climate and geography of our world was very different
+from what they are at the present time. Europe for example was covered
+with ice reaching as far south as the Thames and into Central Germany
+and Russia; there was no Channel separating Britain from France; the
+Mediterranean and the Red Sea were great valleys, with perhaps a chain
+of lakes in their deeper portions, and a great inland sea spread from
+the present Black Sea across South Russia and far into Central Asia. 
+Spain and all of Europe not actually under ice consisted of bleak
+uplands under a harder climate than that of Labrador, and it was only
+when North Africa was reached that one would have found a temperate
+climate.  Across the cold steppes of Southern Europe with its sparse
+arctic vegetation, drifted such hardy creatures as the woolly mammoth,
+and woolly rhinoceros, great oxen and reindeer, no doubt following the
+vegetation northward in spring and southward in autumn.
+
+Map: Possible Outline of Europe and Western Asia at the Maximum of the
+Fourth Ice Age (about 50,000 years ago)
+
+Such was the scene through which the Neanderthaler wandered, gathering
+such subsistence as he could from small game or fruits and berries and
+roots.  Possibly he was mainly a vegetarian, chewing twigs and roots. 
+His level elaborate teeth suggest a largely vegetarian dietary.  But we
+also find the long marrow bones of great animals in his caves, cracked
+to extract the marrow.  His weapons could not have been of much avail
+in open conflict with great beasts, but it is supposed that he attacked
+them with spears at difficult river crossings and even constructed
+pitfalls for them.  Possibly he followed the herds and preyed upon any
+dead that were killed in fights, and perhaps he played the part of
+jackal to the sabre-toothed tiger which still survived in his day. 
+Possibly in the bitter hardships of the Glacial Ages this creature had
+taken to attacking animals after long ages of vegetarian adaptation.
+
+We cannot guess what this Neanderthal man looked like. He may have been
+very hairy and very unhuman-looking indeed.  It is even doubtful if he
+went erect.  He may have used his knuckles as well as his feet to hold
+himself up. Probably he went about alone or in small family groups.  It
+is inferred from the structure of his jaw that he was incapable of
+speech as we understand it.
+
+For thousands of years these Neanderthalers were the highest animals
+that the European area had ever seen; and then some thirty or
+thirty-five thousand years ago as the climate grew warmer a race of
+kindred beings, more intelligent, knowing more, talking and
+co-operating together, came drifting into the Neanderthaler’s world
+from the south.  They ousted the Neanderthalers from their caves and
+squatting places; they hunted the same food; they probably made war
+upon their grisly predecessors and killed them off.  These newcomers
+from the south or the east—for at present we do not know their region
+of origin—who at last drove the Neanderthalers out of existence
+altogether, were beings of our own blood and kin, the first True Men. 
+Their brain-cases and thumbs and necks and teeth were anatomically the
+same as our own.  In a cave at Cro-Magnon and in another at Grimaldi, a
+number of skeletons have been found, the earliest truly human remains
+that are so far known.
+
+So it is our race comes into the Record of the Rocks, and the story of
+mankind begins.
+
+COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN SKULL
+COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN SKULL
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+The world was growing liker our own in those days though the climate
+was still austere.  The glaciers of the Ice Age were receding in
+Europe; the reindeer of France and Spain presently gave way to great
+herds of horses as grass increased upon the steppes, and the mammoth
+became more and more rare in southern Europe and finally receded
+northward altogether ....
+
+We do not know where the True Men first originated.  But in the summer
+of 1921, an extremely interesting skull was found together with pieces
+of a skeleton at Broken Hill in South Africa, which seems to be a relic
+of a third sort of man, intermediate in its characteristics between the
+Neanderthaler and the human being.  The brain-case indicates a brain
+bigger in front and smaller behind than the Neanderthaler’s, and the
+skull was poised erect upon the backbone in a quite human way.  The
+teeth also and the bones are quite human. But the face must have been
+ape-like with enormous brow ridges and a ridge along the middle of the
+skull.  The creature was indeed a true man, so to speak, with an ape-
+like, Neanderthaler face.  This Rhodesian Man is evidently still closer
+to real men than the Neanderthal Man.
+
+This Rhodesian skull is probably only the second of what in the end may
+prove to be a long list of finds of sub-human species which lived on
+the earth in the vast interval of time between the beginnings of the
+Ice Age and the appearance of their common heir, and perhaps their
+common exterminator, the True Man.  The Rhodesian skull itself may not
+be very ancient.  Up to the time of publishing this book there has been
+no exact determination of its probable age. It may be that this
+sub-human creature survived in South Africa until quite recent times.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+THE FIRST TRUE MEN
+
+
+The earliest signs and traces at present known to science, of a
+humanity which is indisputably kindred with ourselves, have been found
+in western Europe and particularly in France and Spain. Bones, weapons,
+scratchings upon bone and rock, carved fragments of bone, and paintings
+in caves and upon rock surfaces dating. it is supposed. from 30,000
+years ago or more, have been discovered in both these countries. Spain
+is at present the richest country in the world in these first relics of
+our real human ancestors.
+
+Of course our present collections of these things are the merest
+beginnings of the accumulations we may hope for in the future, when
+there are searchers enough to make a thorough examination of all
+possible sources and when other countries in the world, now
+inaccessible to archæologists, have been explored in some detail.  The
+greater part of Africa and Asia has never even been traversed yet by a
+trained observer interested in these matters and free to explore, and
+we must be very careful therefore not to conclude that the early true
+men were distinctively inhabitants of western Europe or that they first
+appeared in that region.
+
+In Asia or Africa or submerged beneath the sea of to-day there may be
+richer and much earlier deposits of real human remains than anything
+that has yet come to light.  I write in Asia or Africa, and I do not
+mention America because so far there have been no finds at all of any
+of the higher Primates, either of great apes, sub-men, Neanderthalers
+nor early true men.  This development of life seems to have been an
+exclusively old world development, and it was only apparently at the
+end of the Old Stone Age that human beings first made their way across
+the land connexion that is now cut by Behring Straits, into the
+American continent.
+
+ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA, NORTH SPAIN
+ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA, NORTH SPAIN
+
+The Walls of the Caves are covered in these representations of Bulls,
+etc., painted in the soft tones of red shaded to black. They may be
+fifteen or twenty thousand years old
+
+These first real human beings we know of in Europe appear already to
+have belonged to one or other of at least two very distinct races. One
+of these races was of a very high type indeed; it was tall and big
+brained.  One of the women’s skulls found exceeds in capacity that of
+the average man of to-day.  One of the men’s skeletons is over six feet
+in height.  The physical type resembled that of the North American
+Indian.  From the Cro-Magnon cave in which the first skeletons were
+found these people have been called Cro-Magnards.  They were savages,
+but savages of a high order. The second race, the race of the Grimaldi
+cave remains, was distinctly negroid in its characters.  Its nearest
+living affinities are the Bushmen and Hottentots of South Africa.  It
+is interesting to find at the very outset of the known human story,
+that mankind was already racially divided into at least two main
+varieties; and one is tempted to such unwarrantable guesses as that the
+former race was probably brownish rather than black and that it came
+from the East or North, and that the latter was blackish rather than
+brown and came from the equatorial south.
+
+BONE CARVINGS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD
+BONE CARVINGS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD
+
+(1 and 2) Mammoth tusk carved to shape of Reindeer, (3) Dagger Handle
+representing Mammoth, and (4) Bone engraved with Horses’ Heads
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+And these savages of perhaps forty thousand years ago were so human
+that they pierced shells to make necklaces, painted themselves, carved
+images of bone and stone, scratched figures on rocks and bones, and
+painted rude but often very able sketches of beasts and the like upon
+the smooth walls of caves and upon inviting rock surfaces.  They made a
+great variety of implements, much smaller in scale and finer than those
+of the Neanderthal men.  We have now in our museums great quantities of
+their implements, their statuettes, their rock drawings and the like.
+
+The earliest of them were hunters.  Their chief pursuit was the wild
+horse, the little bearded pony of that time.  They followed it as it
+moved after pasture.  And also they followed the bison.  They knew the
+mammoth, because they have left us strikingly effective pictures of
+that creature.  To judge by one rather ambiguous drawing they trapped
+and killed it.
+
+They hunted with spears and throwing stones.  They do not seem to have
+had the bow, and it is doubtful if they had yet learnt to tame any
+animals.  They had no dogs.  There is one carving of a horse’s head and
+one or two drawings that suggest a bridled horse, with a twisted skin
+or tendon round it.  But the little horses of that age and region could
+not have carried a man, and if the horse was domesticated it was used
+as a led horse.  It is doubtful and improbable that they had yet learnt
+the rather unnatural use of animal’s milk as food.
+
+They do not seem to have erected any buildings though they may have had
+tents of skins, and though they made clay figures they never rose to
+the making of pottery.  Since they had no cooking implements their
+cookery must have been rudimentary or nonexistent.  They knew nothing
+of cultivation and nothing of any sort of basket work or woven cloth.
+Except for their robes of skin or fur they were naked painted savages.
+
+These earliest known men hunted the open steppes of Europe for a
+hundred centuries perhaps, and then slowly drifted and changed before a
+change of climate.  Europe, century by century, was growing milder and
+damper. Reindeer receded northward and eastward, and bison and horse
+followed.  The steppes gave way to forests, and red deer took the place
+of horse and bison. There is a change in the character of the
+implements with this change in their application.  River and lake
+fishing becomes of great importance to men, and fine implements of bone
+increased.  “The bone needles of this age,” says de Mortillet, “are
+much superior to those of later, even historical times, down to the
+Renaissance.  The Romans, for example, never had needles comparable to
+those of this epoch.”
+
+THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN
+THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN
+
+Almost fifteen or twelve thousand years ago a fresh people drifted into
+the south of Spain, and left very remarkable drawings of themselves
+upon exposed rock faces there.  These were the Azilians (named from the
+Mas d’Azil cave). They had the bow; they seem to have worn feather
+headdresses; they drew vividly; but also they had reduced their
+drawings to a sort of symbolism—a man for instance would be represented
+by a vertical dab with two or three horizontal dabs—that suggest the
+dawn of the writing idea. Against hunting sketches there are often
+marks like tallies. One drawing shows two men smoking out a bees’ nest.
+
+FIGHT OF BOWMEN
+Among the most recent discoveries of Palæolithic Art are these
+specimens found in 1920 in Spain.  They are probably ten or twelve
+thousand years old
+
+These are the latest of the men that we call Palæolithic (Old Stone
+Age) because they had only chipped implements.  By ten or twelve
+thousand years a new sort of life has dawned in Europe, men have learnt
+not only to chip but to polish and grind stone implements, and they
+have begun cultivation.  The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) was
+beginning.
+
+It is interesting to note that less than a century ago there still
+survived in a remote part of the world, in Tasmania, a race of human
+beings at a lower level of physical and intellectual development than
+any of these earliest races of mankind who have left traces in Europe. 
+These people had long ago been cut off by geographical changes from the
+rest of the species, and from stimulation and improvement.  They seem
+to have degenerated rather than developed.  They lived a base life
+subsisting upon shellfish and small game.  They had no habitations but
+only squatting places.  They were real men of our species, but they had
+neither the manual dexterity nor the artistic powers of the first true
+men.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+PRIMITIVE THOUGHT
+
+
+And now let us indulge in a very interesting speculation; how did it
+feel to be a man in those early days of the human adventure? How did
+men think and what did they think in those remote days of hunting and
+wandering four hundred centuries ago before seed time and harvest
+began. Those were days long before the written record of any human
+impressions, and we are left almost entirely to inference and guesswork
+in our answers to these questions.
+
+The sources to which scientific men have gone in their attempts to
+reconstruct that primitive mentality are very various.  Recently the
+science of psycho-analysis, which analyzes the way in which the
+egotistic and passionate impulses of the child are restrained,
+suppressed, modified or overlaid, to adapt them to the needs of social
+life, seems to have thrown a considerable amount of light upon the
+history of primitive society; and another fruitful source of suggestion
+has been the study of the ideas and customs of such contemporary
+savages as still survive.  Again there is a sort of mental
+fossilization which we find in folk-lore and the deep-lying irrational
+superstitions and prejudices that still survive among modern civilized
+people.  And finally we have in the increasingly numerous pictures,
+statues, carvings, symbols and the like, as we draw near to our own
+time, clearer and clearer indications of what man found interesting and
+worthy of record and representation.
+
+Primitive man probably thought very much as a child thinks, that is to
+say in a series of imaginative pictures.  He conjured up images or
+images presented themselves to his mind, and he acted in accordance
+with the emotions they aroused.  So a child or an uneducated person
+does to-day. Systematic thinking is apparently a comparatively late
+development in human experience; it has not played any great part in
+human life until within the last three thousand years.  And even to-day
+those who really control and order their thoughts are but a small
+minority of mankind.  Most of the world still lives by imagination and
+passion.
+
+Probably the earliest human societies, in the opening stages of the
+true human story, were small family groups.  Just as the flocks and
+herds of the earlier mammals arose out of families which remained
+together and multiplied, so probably did the earliest tribes.  But
+before this could happen a certain restraint upon the primitive
+egotisms of the individual had to be established.  The fear of the
+father and respect for the mother had to be extended into adult life,
+and the natural jealousy of the old man of the group for the younger
+males as they grew up had to be mitigated.  The mother on the other
+hand was the natural adviser and protector of the young.  Human social
+life grew up out of the reaction between the crude instinct of the
+young to go off and pair by themselves as they grew up, on the one
+hand, and the dangers and disadvantages of separation on the other.  An
+anthropological writer of great genius, J. J. Atkinson, in his _Primal
+Law_, has shown how much of the customary law of savages, the _Tabus_,
+that are so remarkable a fact in tribal life, can be ascribed to such a
+mental adjustment of the needs of the primitive human animal to a
+developing social life, and the later work of the psycho- analysts has
+done much to confirm his interpretation of these possibilities.
+
+Some speculative writers would have us believe that respect and fear of
+the Old Man and the emotional reaction of the primitive savage to older
+protective women, exaggerated in dreams and enriched by fanciful mental
+play, played a large part in the beginnings of primitive religion and
+in the conception of gods and goddesses.  Associated with this respect
+for powerful or helpful personalities was a dread and exaltation of
+such personages after their deaths, due to their reappearance in
+dreams.  It was easy to believe they were not truly dead but only
+fantastically transferred to a remoteness of greater power.
+
+The dreams, imaginations and fears of a child are far more vivid and
+real than those of a modern adult, and primitive man was always
+something of a child. He was nearer to the animals also, and he could
+suppose them to have motives and reactions like his own.  He could
+imagine animal helpers, animal enemies, animal gods.  One needs to have
+been an imaginative child oneself to realize again how important,
+significant, portentous or friendly, strangely shaped rocks, lumps of
+wood, exceptional trees or the like may have appeared to the men of the
+Old Stone Age, and how dream and fancy would create stories and legends
+about such things that would become credible as they told them.  Some
+of these stories would be good enough to remember and tell again.  The
+women would tell them to the children and so establish a tradition.  To
+this day most imaginative children invent long stories in which some
+favourite doll or animal or some fantastic semi-human being figures as
+the hero, and primitive man probably did the same—with a much stronger
+disposition to believe his hero real.
+
+RELICS OF THE STONE AGE
+RELICS OF THE STONE AGE
+
+Chert implements from Somaliland.  In general form they are similar to
+those found in Western and Northern Europe
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+For the very earliest of the true men that we know of were probably
+quite talkative beings.  In that way they have differed from the
+Neanderthalers and had an advantage over them.  The Neanderthaler may
+have been a dumb animal. Of course the primitive human speech was
+probably a very scanty collection of names, and may have been eked out
+with gestures and signs.
+
+There is no sort of savage so low as not to have a kind of science of
+cause and effect.  But primitive man was not very critical in his
+associations of cause with effect; he very easily connected an effect
+with something quite wrong as its cause. “You do so and so,” he said,
+“and so and so happens.”  You give a child a poisonous berry and it
+dies.  You eat the heart of a valiant enemy and you become strong. 
+There we have two bits of cause and effect association, one true one
+false.  We call the system of cause and effect in the mind of a savage,
+Fetish; but Fetish is simply savage science.  It differs from modern
+science in that it is totally unsystematic and uncritical and so more
+frequently wrong.
+
+WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE
+WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE
+
+On the left is a flint implement excavated in Gray’s Inn Lane, London;
+on the right one of similar form chipped by primitive men of Somaliland
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+In many cases it is not difficult to link cause and effect, in many
+others erroneous ideas were soon corrected by experience; but there was
+a large series of issues of very great importance to primitive man,
+where he sought persistently for causes and found explanations that
+were wrong but not sufficiently wrong nor so obviously wrong as to be
+detected.  It was a matter of great importance to him that game should
+be abundant or fish plentiful and easily caught, and no doubt he tried
+and believed in a thousand charms, incantations and omens to determine
+these desirable results.  Another great concern of his was illness and
+death.  Occasionally infections crept through the land and men died of
+them.  Occasionally men were stricken by illness and died or were
+enfeebled without any manifest cause.  This too must have given the
+hasty, emotional mind of primitive man much feverish exercise. Dreams
+and fantastic guesses made him blame this, or appeal for help to that
+man or beast or thing.  He had the child’s aptitude for fear and panic.
+
+Quite early in the little human tribe, older, steadier minds sharing
+the fears, sharing the imaginations, but a little more forceful than
+the others, must have asserted themselves, to advise, to prescribe, to
+command. This they declared unpropitious and that imperative, this an
+omen of good and that an omen of evil.  The expert in Fetish, the
+Medicine Man, was the first priest.  He exhorted, he interpreted
+dreams, he warned, he performed the complicated hocus pocus that
+brought luck or averted calamity.  Primitive religion was not so much
+what we now call religion as practice and observance, and the early
+priest dictated what was indeed an arbitrary primitive practical
+science.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION
+
+
+We are still very ignorant about the beginnings of cultivation and
+settlement in the world although a vast amount of research and
+speculation has been given to these matters in the last fifty years.
+All that we can say with any confidence at present is that somewhen
+about 15,000 and 12,000 B.C. while the Azilian people were in the south
+of Spain and while the remnants of the earlier hunters were drifting
+northward and eastward, somewhere in North Africa or Western Asia or in
+that great Mediterranean valley that is now submerged under the waters
+of the Mediterranean sea, there were people who, age by age, were
+working out two vitally important things; they were beginning
+cultivation and they were domesticating animals. They were also
+beginning to make, in addition to the chipped implements of their
+hunter forebears, implements of polished stone. They had discovered the
+possibility of basketwork and roughly woven textiles of plant fibre,
+and they were beginning to make a rudely modelled pottery.
+
+They were entering upon a new phase in human culture, the Neolithic
+phase (New Stone Age) as distinguished from the Palæolithic (Old Stone)
+phase of the Cro-Magnards, the Grimaldi people, the Azilians and their
+like.  [1] Slowly these Neolithic people spread over the warmer parts
+of the world; and the arts they had mastered, the plants and animals
+they had learnt to use, spread by imitation and acquisition even more
+widely than they did.  By 10,000 B.C., most of mankind was at the
+Neolithic level.
+
+Now the ploughing of land, the sowing of seed, the reaping of harvest,
+threshing and grinding, may seem the most obviously reasonable steps to
+a modern mind just as to a modern mind it is a commonplace that the
+world is round.  What else could you do? people will ask.  What else
+can it be?  But to the primitive man of twenty thousand years ago
+neither of the systems of action and reasoning that seem so sure and
+manifest to us to-day were at all obvious.  He felt his way to
+effectual practice through a multitude of trials and misconceptions,
+with fantastic and unnecessary elaborations and false interpretations
+at every turn.  Somewhere in the Mediterranean region, wheat grew wild;
+and man may have learnt to pound and then grind up its seeds for food
+long before he learnt to sow.  He reaped before he sowed.
+
+And it is a very remarkable thing that throughout the world wherever
+there is sowing and harvesting there is still traceable the vestiges of
+a strong primitive association of the idea of sowing with the idea of a
+blood sacrifice, and primarily of the sacrifice of a human being.  The
+study of the original entanglement of these two things is a profoundly
+attractive one to the curious mind; the interested reader will find it
+very fully developed in that monumental work, Sir J. G. Frazer’s
+_Golden Bough_.  It was an entanglement, we must remember, in the
+childish, dreaming, myth-making primitive mind; no reasoned process
+will explain it.  But in that world of 12,000 to 20,000 years ago, it
+would seem that whenever seed time came round to the Neolithic peoples
+there was a human sacrifice.  And it was not the sacrifice of any mean
+or outcast person; it was the sacrifice usually of a chosen youth or
+maiden, a youth more often who was treated with profound deference and
+even worship up to the moment of his immolation.  He was a sort of
+sacrificial god-king, and all the details of his killing had become a
+ritual directed by the old, knowing men and sanctioned by the
+accumulated usage of ages.
+
+NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS
+NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+At first primitive men, with only a very rough idea of the seasons,
+must have found great difficulty in determining when was the propitious
+moment for the seed-time sacrifice and the sowing.  There is some
+reason for supposing that there was an early stage in human experience
+when men had no idea of a year. The first chronology was in lunar
+months; it is supposed that the years of the Biblical patriarchs are
+really moons, and the Babylonian calendar shows distinct traces of an
+attempt to reckon seed time by taking thirteen lunar months to see it
+round. This lunar influence upon the calendar reaches down to our own
+days. If usage did not dull our sense of its strangeness we should
+think it a very remarkable thing indeed that the Christian Church does
+not commemorate the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Christ on the
+proper anniversaries but on dates that vary year by year with the
+phases of the moon.
+
+It may be doubted whether the first agriculturalists made any
+observation of the stars.  It is more likely that stars were first
+observed by migratory herdsmen, who found them a convenient mark of
+direction.  But once their use in determining seasons was realized,
+their importance to agriculture became very great.  The seed-time
+sacrifice was linked up with the southing or northing of some prominent
+star.  A myth and worship of that star was for primitive man an almost
+inevitable consequence.
+
+NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY
+NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY
+
+Spearheads, exactly as in the true Neolithic days, but made recently by
+Australian Natives,
+
+(1) Made from a telegraph insulator;
+
+(2) from a piece of broken bottle glass.
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+It is easy to see how important the man of knowledge and experience,
+the man who knew about the blood sacrifice and the stars, became in
+this early Neolithic world.
+
+The fear of uncleanness and pollution, and the methods of cleansing
+that were advisable, constituted another source of power for the
+knowledgeable men and women. For there have always been witches as well
+as wizards, and priestesses as well as priests.  The early priest was
+really not so much a religious man as a man of applied science.  His
+science was generally empirical and often bad; he kept it secret from
+the generality of men very jealously; but that does not alter the fact
+that his primary function was knowledge and that his primary use was a
+practical use.
+
+SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY
+SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY
+
+Dug up at Mortlake from the Thames Bed
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+Twelve or fifteen thousand years ago, in all the warm and fairly
+well-watered parts of the Old World these Neolithic human communities,
+with their class and tradition of priests and priestesses and their
+cultivated fields and their development of villages and little walled
+cities, were spreading.  Age by age a drift and exchange of ideas went
+on between these communities.  Eliot Smith and Rivers have used the
+term “Heliolithic culture” for the culture of these first agricultural
+peoples.  “Heliolithic” (Sun and Stone) is not perhaps the best
+possible word to use for this, but until scientific men give us a
+better one we shall have to use it.  Originating somewhere in the
+Mediterranean and western Asiatic area, it spread age by age eastward
+and from island to island across the Pacific until it may even have
+reached America and mingled with the more primitive ways of living of
+the Mongoloid immigrants coming down from the North.
+
+Wherever the brownish people with the Heliolithic culture went they
+took with them all or most of a certain group of curious ideas and
+practices.  Some of them are such queer ideas that they call for the
+explanation of the mental expert.  They made pyramids and great mounds,
+and set up great circles of big stones, perhaps to facilitate the
+astronomical observation of the priests; they made mummies of some or
+all of their dead; they tattooed and circumcized; they had the old
+custom, known as the _couvade_, of sending the _father_ to bed and rest
+when a child was born, and they had as a luck symbol the well-known
+Swastika.
+
+If we were to make a map of the world with dots to show how far these
+group practices have left their traces, we should make a belt along the
+temperate and sub-tropical coasts of the world from Stonehenge and
+Spain across the world to Mexico and Peru.  But Africa below the
+equator, north central Europe, and north Asia would show none of these
+dottings; there lived races who were developing along practically
+independent lines.
+
+[1] The term Palæolithic we may note is also used to cover the
+Neanderthaler and even the Eolithic implements.  The pre-human age is
+called the “Older Palæolithic;” the age of true men using unpolished
+stones in the “Newer Palæolithic.”
+
+
+XIV
+PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS
+
+
+About 10,000 B.C. the geography of the world was very similar in its
+general outline to that of the world to-day. It is probable that by
+that time the great barrier across the Straits of Gibraltar that had
+hitherto banked back the ocean waters from the Mediterranean valley had
+been eaten through, and that the Mediterranean was a sea following much
+the same coastlines as it does now. The Caspian Sea was probably still
+far more extensive than it is at present, and it may have been
+continuous with the Black Sea to the north of the Caucasus Mountains.
+About this great Central Asian sea lands that are now steppes and
+deserts were fertile and habitable. Generally it was a moister and more
+fertile world. European Russia was much more a land of swamp and lake
+than it is now, and there may still have been a land connexion between
+Asia and America at Behring Straits.
+
+It would have been already possible at that time to have distinguished
+the main racial divisions of mankind as we know them to-day.  Across
+the warm temperate regions of this rather warmer and better-wooded
+world, and along the coasts, stretched the brownish peoples of the
+Heliolithic culture, the ancestors of the bulk of the living
+inhabitants of the Mediterranean world, of the Berbers, the Egyptians
+and of much of the population of South and Eastern Asia.  This great
+race had of course a number of varieties.  The Iberian or Mediterranean
+or “dark-white” race of the Atlantic and Mediterranean coast, the
+“Hamitic” peoples which include the Berbers and Egyptians, the
+Dravidians; the darker people of India, a multitude of East Indian
+people, many Polynesian races and the Maoris are all divisions of
+various value of this great main mass of humanity.  Its western
+varieties are whiter than its eastern.
+
+In the forests of central and northern Europe a more blonde variety of
+men with blue eyes was becoming distinguishable, branching off from the
+main mass of brownish people, a variety which many people now speak of
+as the Nordic race.  In the more open regions of northeastern Asia was
+another differentiation of this brownish humanity in the direction of a
+type with more oblique eyes, high cheek-bones, a yellowish skin, and
+very straight black hair, the Mongolian peoples.  In South Africa,
+Australia, in many tropical islands in the south of Asia were remains
+of the early negroid peoples. The central parts of Africa were already
+a region of racial intermixture. Nearly all the coloured races of
+Africa to-day seem to be blends of the brownish peoples of the north
+with a negroid substratum.
+
+
+A Diagrammatic Summary of Current Ideas of the Relationship of Human
+Races
+
+We have to remember that human races can all interbreed freely and that
+they separate, mingle and reunite as clouds do.  Human races do not
+branch out like trees with branches that never come together again.  It
+is a thing we need to bear constantly in mind, this remingling of races
+at any opportunity.  It will save us from many cruel delusions and
+prejudices if we do so.  People will use such a word as race in the
+loosest manner, and base the most preposterous generalizations upon it.
+ They will speak of a “British” race or of a “European” race.  But
+nearly all the European nations are confused mixtures of brownish,
+dark-white, white and Mongolian elements.
+
+
+A MAYA STELE
+A MAYA STELE
+
+Showing a worshipper and a Serpent God.  Note the grotesque faces in
+the writing
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+
+It was at the Neolithic phase of human development that peoples of the
+Mongolian breed first made their way into America.  Apparently they
+came by way of Behring Straits and spread southward.  They found
+caribou, the American reindeer, in the north and great herds of bison
+in the south.  When they reached South America there were still living
+the Glyptodon, a gigantic armadillo, and the Megatherium, a monstrous
+clumsy sloth as high as an elephant.  They probably exterminated the
+latter beast, which was as helpless as it was big.
+
+The greater portion of these American tribes never rose above a hunting
+nomadic Neolithic life.  They never discovered the use of iron, and
+their chief metal possessions were native gold and copper.  But in
+Mexico, Yucatan and Peru conditions existed favourable to settled
+cultivation, and here about 1000 B.C. or so arose very interesting
+civilizations of a parallel but different type from the old-world
+civilization.  Like the much earlier primitive civilizations of the old
+world these communities displayed a great development of human
+sacrifice about the processes of seed time and harvest; but while in
+the old world, as we shall see, these primary ideas were ultimately
+mitigated, complicated and overlaid by others, in America they
+developed and were elaborated, to a very high degree of intensity. 
+These American civilized countries were essentially priest-ruled
+countries; their war chiefs and rulers were under a rigorous rule of
+law and omen.
+
+These priests carried astronomical science to a high level of accuracy.
+ They knew their year better than the Babylonians of whom we shall
+presently tell.  In Yucatan they had a kind of writing, the Maya
+writing, of the most curious and elaborate character.  So far as we
+have been able to decipher it, it was used mainly for keeping the exact
+and complicated calendars upon which the priests expended their
+intelligence. The art of the Maya civilization came to a climax about
+700 or 800 A.D.  The sculptured work of these people amazes the modern
+observer by its great plastic power and its frequent beauty, and
+perplexes him by a grotesqueness and by a sort of insane
+conventionality and intricacy outside the circle of his ideas.  There
+is nothing quite like it in the old world.  The nearest approach, and
+that is a remote one, is found in archaic Indian carvings. Everywhere
+there are woven feathers and serpents twine in and out.  Many Maya
+inscriptions resemble a certain sort of elaborate drawing made by
+lunatics in European asylums, more than any other old-world work.  It
+is as if the Maya mind had developed upon a different line from the
+old-world mind, had a different twist to its ideas, was not, by
+old-world standards, a rational mind at all.
+
+This linking of these aberrant American civilizations to the idea of a
+general mental aberration finds support in their extraordinary
+obsession by the shedding of human blood.  The Mexican civilization in
+particular ran blood; it offered thousands of human victims yearly. 
+The cutting open of living victims, the tearing out of the still
+beating heart, was an act that dominated the minds and lives of these
+strange priesthoods.  The public life, the national festivities all
+turned on this fantastically horrible act.
+
+
+NEOLITHIC WARRIOR
+NEOLITHIC WARRIOR
+
+Modelled from drawing by Prof. Rutot
+
+
+The ordinary existence of the common people in these communities was
+very like the ordinary existence of any other barbaric peasantry. 
+Their pottery, weaving and dyeing was very good.  The Maya writing was
+not only carven on stone but written and painted upon skins and the
+like.  The European and American museums contain many enigmatical Maya
+manuscripts of which at present little has been deciphered except the
+dates.  In Peru there were beginnings of a similar writing but they
+were superseded by a method of keeping records by knotting cords.  A
+similar method of mnemonics was in use in China thousands of years ago.
+
+In the old world before 4000 or 5000 B.C., that is to say three or four
+thousand years earlier, there were primitive civilizations not unlike
+these American civilizations; civilizations based upon a temple, having
+a vast quantity of blood sacrifices and with an intensely astronomical
+priesthood.  But in the old world the primitive civilizations reacted
+upon one another and developed towards the conditions of our own world.
+ In America these primitive civilizations never progressed beyond this
+primitive stage.  Each of them was in a little world of its own. 
+Mexico it seems knew little or nothing of Peru, until the Europeans
+came to America.  The potato, which was the principal food stuff in
+Peru, was unknown in Mexico.
+
+Age by age these peoples lived and marvelled at their gods and made
+their sacrifices and died.  Maya art rose to high levels of decorative
+beauty.  Men made love and tribes made war.  Drought and plenty,
+pestilence and health, followed one another.  The priests elaborated
+their calendar and their sacrificial ritual through long centuries, but
+made little progress in other directions.
+
+
+
+
+XV
+SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING
+
+
+The old world is a wider, more varied stage than the new. By 6000 or
+7000 B.C. there were already quasi-civilized communities almost at the
+Peruvian level, appearing in various fertile regions of Asia and in the
+Nile valley. At that time north Persia and western Turkestan and south
+Arabia were all more fertile than they are now, and there are traces of
+very early communities in these regions. It is in lower Mesopotamia
+however and in Egypt that there first appear cities, temples,
+systematic irrigation, and evidences of a social organization rising
+above the level of a mere barbaric village-town. In those days the
+Euphrates and Tigris flowed by separate mouths into the Persian Gulf,
+and it was in the country between them that the Sumerians built their
+first cities. About the same time, for chronology is still vague, the
+great history of Egypt was beginning.
+
+These Sumerians appear to have been a brownish people with prominent
+noses.  They employed a sort of writing that has been deciphered, and
+their language is now known.  They had discovered the use of bronze and
+they built great tower-like temples of sun-dried brick. The clay of
+this country is very fine; they used it to write upon, and so it is
+that their inscriptions have been preserved to us.  They had cattle,
+sheep, goats and asses, but no horses.  They fought on foot, in close
+formation, carrying spears and shields of skin. Their clothing was of
+wool and they shaved their heads.
+
+Each of the Sumerian cities seems generally to have been an independent
+state with a god of its own and priests of its own.  But sometimes one
+city would establish an ascendancy over others and exact tribute from
+their population.  A very ancient inscription at Nippur records the
+“empire,” the first recorded empire, of the Sumerian city of Erech. 
+Its god and its priest-king claimed an authority from the Persian Gulf
+to the Red Sea.
+
+
+BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200 B.C.
+BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200 B.C.
+
+Note the cuneiform characters of the inscription, which records the
+building of a temple to a Sun God
+
+
+At first writing was merely an abbreviated method of pictorial record. 
+Even before Neolithic times men were beginning to write.  The Azilian
+rock pictures to which we have already referred show the beginning of
+the process. Many of them record hunts and expeditions, and in most of
+these the human figures are plainly drawn.  But in some the painter
+would not bother with head and limbs; he just indicated men by a
+vertical and one or two transverse strokes.  From this to a
+conventional condensed picture writing was an easy transition.  In
+Sumeria, where the writing was done on clay with a stick, the dabs of
+the characters soon became unrecognizably unlike the things they stood
+for, but in Egypt where men painted on walls and on strips of the
+papyrus reed (the first paper) the likeness to the thing imitated
+remained.  From the fact that the wooden styles used in Sumeria made
+wedge-shaped marks, the Sumerian writing is called cuneiform (=
+wedge-shaped).
+
+
+EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY
+EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY
+
+Recovered from the Tombs at Abydos in 1921 by the British School of
+Archæology.  They give evidence of early form of block printing
+
+
+An important step towards writing was made when pictures were used to
+indicate not the thing represented but some similar thing.  In the
+rebus dear to children of a suitable age, this is still done to-day. 
+We draw a camp with tents and a bell, and the child is delighted to
+guess that this is the Scotch name Campbell.  The Sumerian language was
+a language made up of accumulated syllables rather like some
+contemporary Amerindian languages, and it lent itself very readily to
+this syllabic method of writing words expressing ideas that could not
+be conveyed by pictures directly.  Egyptian writing underwent parallel
+developments.  Later on, when foreign peoples with less distinctly
+syllabled methods of speech were to learn and use these picture scripts
+they were to make those further modifications and simplifications that
+developed at last into alphabetical writing.  All the true alphabets of
+the later world derived from a mixture of the Sumerian cuneiform and
+the Egyptian hieroglyphic (priest writing).  Later in China there was
+to develop a conventionalized picture writing, but in China it never
+got to the alphabetical stage.
+
+The invention of writing was of very great importance in the
+development of human societies.  It put agreements, laws, commandments
+on record.  It made the growth of states larger than the old city
+states possible.  It made a continuous historical consciousness
+possible.  The command of the priest or king and his seal could go far
+beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death.  It is
+interesting to note that in ancient Sumeria seals were greatly used.  A
+king or a nobleman or a merchant would have his seal often very
+artistically carved, and would impress it on any clay document he
+wished to authorize.  So close had civilization got to printing six
+thousand years ago.  Then the clay was dried hard and became permanent.
+ For the reader must remember that in the land of Mesopotamia for
+countless years, letters, records and accounts were all written on
+comparatively indestructible tiles.  To that fact we owe a great wealth
+of recovered knowledge.
+
+
+THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS
+THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS
+
+The Pyramid to the right, the step Pyramid, is the oldest stone
+building in the world
+
+_Photo: F. Boyer_
+
+
+Bronze, copper, gold, silver and, as a precious rarity, meteoric iron
+were known in both Sumeria and Egypt at a very early stage.
+
+
+VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS
+VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS
+
+Showing how these great monuments dominate the plain
+
+_Photo: D. McLeish_
+
+THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH
+THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH
+
+_Photo: D. McLeish_
+
+
+Daily life in those first city lands of the old world must have been
+very similar in both Egypt and Sumeria.  And except for the asses and
+cattle in the streets it must have been not unlike the life in the Maya
+cities of America three or four thousand years later.  Most of the
+people in peace time were busy with irrigation and cultivation—except
+on days of religious festivity. They had no money and no need for it. 
+They managed their small occasional trades by barter.  The princes and
+rulers who alone had more than a few possessions used gold and silver
+bars and precious stones for any incidental act of trade.  The temple
+dominated life; in Sumeria it was a great towering temple that went up
+to a roof from which the stars were observed; in Egypt it was a massive
+building with only a ground floor. In Sumeria the priest ruler was the
+greatest, most splendid of beings.  In Egypt however there was one who
+was raised above the priests; he was the living incarnation of the
+chief god of the land, the Pharaoh, the god king.
+
+There were few changes in the world in those days; men’s days were
+sunny, toilsome and conventional.  Few strangers came into the land and
+such as did fared uncomfortably.  The priest directed life according to
+immemorial rules and watched the stars for seed time and marked the
+omens of the sacrifices and interpreted the warnings of dreams.  Men
+worked and loved and died, not unhappily, forgetful of the savage past
+of their race and heedless of its future.  Sometimes the ruler was
+benign. Such was Pepi II, who reigned in Egypt for ninety years.
+Sometimes he was ambitious and took men’s sons to be soldiers and sent
+them against neighbouring city states to war and plunder, or he made
+them toil to build great buildings.  Such were Cheops and Chephren and
+Mycerinus, who built those vast sepulchral piles, the pyramids at
+Gizeh. The largest of these is 450 feet high and the weight of stone in
+it is 4,883,000 tons.  All this was brought down the Nile in boats and
+lugged into place chiefly by human muscle.  Its erection must have
+exhausted Egypt more than a great war would have done.
+
+
+
+
+XVI
+PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES
+
+
+It was not only in Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley that men were
+settling down to agriculture and the formation of city states in the
+centuries between 6000 and 8000 B.C. Wherever there were possibilities
+of irrigation and a steady all-the-year-round food supply men were
+exchanging the uncertainties and hardships of hunting and wandering for
+the routines of settlement. On the upper Tigris a people called the
+Assyrians were founding cities; in the valleys of Asia Minor and on the
+Mediterranean shores and islands, there were small communities growing
+up to civilization. Possibly parallel developments of human life were
+already going on in favourable regions of India, and China. In many
+parts of Europe where there were lakes well stocked with fish, little
+communities of men had long settled in dwellings built on piles over
+the water, and were eking out agriculture by fishing and hunting. But
+over much larger areas of the old world no such settlement was
+possible. The land was too harsh, too thickly wooded or too arid, or
+the seasons too uncertain for mankind, with only the implements and
+science of that age to take root.
+
+For settlement under the conditions of the primitive civilizations men
+needed a constant water supply and warmth and sunshine.  Where these
+needs were not satisfied, man could live as a transient, as a hunter
+following his game, as a herdsman following the seasonal grass, but he
+could not settle.  The transition from the hunting to the herding life
+may have been very gradual.  From following herds of wild cattle or (in
+Asia) wild horses, men may have come to an idea of property in them,
+have learnt to pen them into valleys, have fought for them against
+wolves, wild dogs and other predatory beasts.
+
+
+POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS
+POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE
+A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE
+
+These Borneo dwellings are practically counterparts of the homes of
+European neolithic communities 6000 B.C.
+
+
+So while the primitive civilizations of the cultivators were growing up
+chiefly in the great river valleys, a different way of living, the
+nomadic life, a life in constant movement to and fro from winter
+pasture to summer pasture, was also growing up.  The nomadic peoples
+were on the whole hardier than the agriculturalists; they were less
+prolific and numerous, they had no permanent temples and no highly
+organized priesthood; they had less gear; but the reader must not
+suppose that theirs was necessarily a less highly developed way of
+living on that account.  In many ways this free life was a fuller life
+than that of the tillers of the soil.  The individual was more
+self-reliant; less of a unit in a crowd.  The leader was more
+important; the medicine man perhaps less so.
+
+
+NOMADS IN EGYPT
+
+NOMADS IN EGYPT
+NOMADS IN EGYPT
+
+Egyptian wall painting in a tomb near ancient Beni Hassan, middle
+Egypt.  It depicts the arrival of a tribe of Semitic Nomads in Egypt
+about the year of 1895 B.C.
+
+
+Moving over large stretches of country the nomad took a wider view of
+life.  He touched on the confines of this settled land and that.  He
+was used to the sight of strange faces.  He had to scheme and treat for
+pasture with competing tribes.  He knew more of minerals than the folk
+upon the plough lands because he went over mountain passes and into
+rocky places.  He may have been a better metallurgist.  Possibly bronze
+and much more probably iron smelting were nomadic discoveries.  Some of
+the earliest implements of iron reduced from its ores have been found
+in Central Europe far away from the early civilizations.
+
+
+FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 B.C.
+FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 B.C.
+
+Excavated 1922 by the British School of Archæology in Egypt from First
+Dynasty Tombs
+
+
+On the other hand the settled folk had their textiles and their pottery
+and made many desirable things.  It was inevitable that as the two
+sorts of life, the agricultural and the nomadic differentiated, a
+certain amount of looting and trading should develop between the two. 
+In Sumeria particularly which had deserts and seasonal country on
+either hand it must have been usual to have the nomads camping close to
+the cultivated fields, trading and stealing and perhaps tinkering, as
+gipsies do to this day.  (But hens they would not steal, because the
+domestic fowl—an Indian jungle fowl originally was not domesticated by
+man until about 1000 B.C.)  They would bring precious stones and things
+of metal and leather.  If they were hunters they would bring skins. 
+They would get in exchange pottery and beads and glass, garments and
+suchlike manufactured things.
+
+
+EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK
+EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK
+
+From an ancient and curiously painted model in the British Museum
+
+
+Three main regions and three main kinds of wandering and imperfectly
+settled people there were in those remote days of the first
+civilizations in Sumeria and early Egypt.  Away in the forests of
+Europe were the blonde Nordic peoples, hunters and herdsmen, a lowly
+race.  The primitive civilizations saw very little of this race before
+1500 B.C.  Away on the steppes of eastern Asia various Mongolian
+tribes, the Hunnish peoples, were domesticating the horse and
+developing a very wide sweeping habit of seasonal movement between
+their summer and winter camping places. Possibly the Nordic and Hunnish
+peoples were still separated from one another by the swamps of Russia
+and the greater Caspian Sea of that time.  For very much of Russia
+there was swamp and lake.  In the deserts, which were growing more arid
+now, of Syria and Arabia, tribes of a dark white or brownish people,
+the Semitic tribes, were driving flocks of sheep and goats and asses
+from pasture to pasture.  It was these Semitic shepherds and certain
+more negroid people from southern Persia, the Elamites, who were the
+first nomads to come into close contact with the early civilizations. 
+They came as traders and as raiders.  Finally there arose leaders among
+them with bolder imaginations, and they became conquerors.
+
+
+STELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD
+STELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD
+
+This monarch, son of Sargon I, was a great architecht as well as a
+famous conqueror.  Discovered in 1898 among the ruins of Susa, Persia
+
+
+About 2750 B.C. a great Semitic leader, Sargon, had conquered the whole
+Sumerian land and was master of all the world from the Persian Gulf to
+the Mediterranean Sea.  He was an illiterate barbarian and his people,
+the Akkadians, learnt the Sumerian writing and adopted the Sumerian
+language as the speech of the officials and the learned.  The empire he
+founded decayed after two centuries, and after one inundation of
+Elamites a fresh Semitic people, the Amorites, by degrees established
+their rule over Sumeria.  They made their capital in what had hitherto
+been a small up-river town, Babylon, and their empire is called the
+first Babylonian Empire.  It was consolidated by a great king called
+Hammurabi (circa 2100 B.C.) who made the earliest code of laws yet
+known to history.
+
+The narrow valley of the Nile lies less open to nomadic invasion than
+Mesopotamia, but about the time of Hammurabi occurred a successful
+Semitic invasion of Egypt and a line of Pharaohs was set up, the Hyksos
+or “shepherd kings,” which lasted for several centuries.  These Semitic
+conquerors never assimilated themselves with the Egyptians; they were
+always regarded with hostility as foreigners and barbarians; and they
+were at last expelled by a popular uprising about 1600 B.C.
+
+But the Semites had come into Sumeria for good and all, the two races
+assimilated and the Babylonian Empire became Semitic in its language
+and character.
+
+
+
+
+XVII
+THE FIRST SEAGOING PEOPLES
+
+
+The earliest boats and ships must have come into use some twenty-five
+or thirty thousand years ago. Man was probably paddling about on the
+water with a log of wood or an inflated skin to assist him, at latest
+in the beginnings of the Neolithic period. A basketwork boat covered
+with skin and caulked was used in Egypt and Sumeria from the beginnings
+of our knowledge. Such boats are still used there. They are used to
+this day in Ireland and Wales and in Alaska; sealskin boats still make
+the crossing of Behring Straits. The hollow log followed as tools
+improved. The building of boats and then ships came in a natural
+succession.
+
+Perhaps the legend of Noah’s Ark preserves the memory of some early
+exploit in shipbuilding, just as the story of the Flood, so widely
+distributed among the peoples of the world, may be the tradition of the
+flooding of the Mediterranean basin.
+
+There were ships upon the Red Sea long before the pyramids were built,
+and there were ships on the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf by 7000 B.C.
+ Mostly these were the ships of fishermen, but some were already
+trading and pirate ships—for knowing what we do of mankind we may guess
+pretty safely that the first sailors plundered where they could and
+traded where they had to do so.
+
+The seas on which these first ships adventured were inland seas on
+which the wind blew fitfully and which were often at a dead calm for
+days together, so that sailing did not develop beyond an accessory use.
+ It is only in the last four hundred years that the well-rigged,
+ocean-going, sailing ship has developed.  The ships of the ancient
+world were essentially rowing ships which hugged the shore and went
+into harbour at the first sign of rough weather.  As ships grew into
+big galleys they caused a demand for war captives as galley slaves.
+
+We have already noted the appearance of the Semitic people as wanderers
+and nomads in the region of Syria and Arabia, and how they conquered
+Sumeria and set up first the Akkadian and then the first Babylonian
+Empire.  In the west these same Semitic peoples were taking to the sea.
+ They set up a string of harbour towns along the Eastern coast of the
+Mediterranean, of which Tyre and Sidon were the chief; and by the time
+of Hammurabi in Babylon, they had spread as traders, wanderers and
+colonizers over the whole Mediterranean basin. These sea Semites were
+called the Phœnicians, They settled largely in Spain, pushing back the
+old Iberian Basque population and sending coasting expeditions through
+the straits of Gibraltar; and they set up colonies upon the north coast
+of Africa.  Of Carthage, one of these Phœnician cities, we shall have
+much more to tell later.
+
+But the Phœnicians were not the first people to have galleys in the
+Mediterranean waters.  There was already a series of towns and cities
+among the islands and coasts of that sea belonging to a race or races
+apparently connected by blood and language with the Basques to the west
+and the Berbers and Egyptians to the south, the Ægean peoples. These
+peoples must not be confused with the Greeks, who come much later into
+our story; they were pre-Greek, but they had cities in Greece and Asia
+Minor; Mycenæ and Troy for example, and they had a great and prosperous
+establishment at Cnossos in Crete.
+
+It is only in the last half century that the industry of excavating
+archæologists has brought the extent and civilization of the Ægean
+peoples to our knowledge. Cnossos has been most thoroughly explored; it
+was happily not succeeded by any city big enough to destroy its ruins,
+and so it is our chief source of information about this once almost
+forgotten civilization.
+
+The history of Cnossos goes back as far as the history of Egypt; the
+two countries were trading actively across the sea by 4000 B.C.  By
+2500 B.C., that is between the time of Sargon I and Hammurabi, Cretan
+civilization was at its zenith.
+
+Cnossos was not so much a town as a great palace for the Cretan monarch
+and his people.  It was not even fortified. It was only fortified later
+as the Phœnicians grew strong, and as a new and more terrible breed of
+pirates, the Greeks, came upon the sea from the north.
+
+
+THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCENÆ
+THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCENÆ
+
+_Photo: Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+The monarch was called Minos, as the Egyptian monarch was called
+Pharaoh; and he kept his state in a palace fitted with running water,
+with bathrooms and the like conveniences such as we know of in no other
+ancient remains.  There he held great festivals and shows.  There was
+bull-fighting, singularly like the bull-fighting that still survives in
+Spain; there was resemblance even in the costumes of the bull-fighters;
+and there were gymnastic displays.  The women’s clothes were remarkably
+modern in spirit; they wore corsets and flounced dresses.  The pottery,
+the textile manufactures, the sculpture, painting, jewellery, ivory,
+metal and inlay work of these Cretans was often astonishingly
+beautiful.  And they had a system of writing, but that still remains to
+be deciphered.
+
+This happy and sunny and civilized life lasted for some score of
+centuries.  About 2000 B.C. Cnossos and Babylon abounded in comfortable
+and cultivated people who probably led very pleasant lives.  They had
+shows and they had religious festivals, they had domestic slaves to
+look after them and industrial slaves to make a profit for them.  Life
+must have seemed very secure in Cnossos for such people, sunlit and
+girdled by the blue sea.  Egypt of course must have appeared rather a
+declining country in those days under the rule of her half-barbaric
+shepherd kings, and if one took an interest in politics one must have
+noticed how the Semitic people seemed to be getting everywhere, ruling
+Egypt, ruling distant Babylon, building Nineveh on the upper Tigris,
+sailing west to the Pillars of Hercules (the straits of Gibraltar) and
+setting up their colonies on those distant coasts.
+
+There were some active arid curious minds in Cnossos, because later on
+the Greeks told legends of a certain skilful Cretan artificer, Dædalus,
+who attempted to make some sort of flying machine, perhaps a glider,
+which collapsed and fell into the sea.
+
+It is interesting to note some of the differences as well as the
+resemblances between the life of Cnossos and our own.  To a Cretan
+gentleman of 2500 B.C. iron was a rare metal which fell out of the sky
+and was curious rather than useful—for as yet only meteoric iron was
+known, iron had not been obtained from its ores.  Compare that with our
+modern state of affairs pervaded by iron everywhere.  The horse again
+would be a quite legendary creature to our Cretan, a sort of super-ass
+which lived in the bleak northern lands far away beyond the Black Sea.
+Civilization for him dwelt chiefly in Ægean Greece and Asia Minor,
+where Lydians and Carians and Trojans lived a life and probably spoke
+languages like his own.  There were Phœnicians and Ægeans settled in
+Spain and North Africa, but those were very remote regions to his
+imagination.  Italy was still a desolate land covered with dense
+forests; the brown-skinned Etruscans had not yet gone there from Asia
+Minor.  And one day perhaps this Cretan gentleman went down to the
+harbour and saw a captive who attracted his attention because he was
+very fair-complexioned and had blue eyes.  Perhaps our Cretan tried to
+talk to him and was answered in an unintelligible gibberish.  This
+creature came from somewhere beyond the Black Sea and seemed to be an
+altogether benighted savage.  But indeed he was an Aryan tribesman, of
+a race and culture of which we shall soon have much to tell, and the
+strange gibberish he spoke was to differentiate some day into Sanskrit,
+Persian, Greek, Latin, German, English and most of the chief languages
+of the world.
+
+
+THE PALACE AT CNOSSOS
+THE PALACE AT CNOSSOS
+
+The painted walls of the Throne Room
+
+_Photo: Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+Such was Cnossos at its zenith, intelligent, enterprising, bright and
+happy.  But about 1400 B.C. disaster came perhaps very suddenly upon
+its prosperity.  The palace of Minos was destroyed, and its ruins have
+never been rebuilt or inhabited from that day to this. We do not know
+how this disaster occurred.  The excavators note what appears to be
+scattered plunder and the marks of the fire.  But the traces of a very
+destructive earthquake have also been found.  Nature alone may have
+destroyed Cnossos, or the Greeks may have finished what the earthquake
+began.
+
+
+
+
+XVIII
+EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA
+
+
+The Egyptians had never submitted very willingly to the rule of their
+Semitic shepherd kings and about 1600 A.D. a vigorous patriotic
+movement expelled these foreigners. Followed a new phase or revival for
+Egypt, a period known to Egyptologists as the New Empire. Egypt, which
+had not been closely consolidated before the Hyksos invasion, was now a
+united country; and the phase of subjugation and insurrection left her
+full of military spirit. The Pharaohs became aggressive conquerors.
+They had now acquired the war horse and the war chariot, which the
+Hyksos had brought to them. Under Thothmes III and Amenophis III Egypt
+had extended her rule into Asia as far as the Euphrates.
+
+We are entering now upon a thousand years of warfare between the once
+quite separated civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Nile.  At first
+Egypt was ascendant.  The great dynasties, the Seventeenth Dynasty,
+which included Thothmes III and Amenophis III and IV and a great queen
+Hatasu, and the Nineteenth, when Rameses II, supposed by some to have
+been the Pharaoh of Moses, reigned for sixty-seven years, raised Egypt
+to high levels of prosperity.  In between there were phases of
+depression for Egypt, conquest by the Syrians and later conquest by the
+Ethiopians from the South.  In Mesopotamia Babylon ruled, then the
+Hittites and the Syrians of Damascus rose to a transitory predominance;
+at one time the Syrians conquered Egypt; the fortunes of the Assyrians
+of Nineveh ebbed and flowed; sometimes the city was a conquered city;
+sometimes the Assyrians ruled in Babylon and assailed Egypt.  Our space
+is too limited here to tell of the comings and goings of the armies of
+the Egyptians and of the various Semitic powers of Asia Minor, Syria
+and Mesopotamia.  They were armies now provided with vast droves of war
+chariots, for the horse—still used only for war and glory—had spread by
+this time into the old civilizations from Central Asia.
+
+
+TEMPLE AT ABU SIMBEL
+TEMPLE AT ABU SIMBEL
+
+Showing the statues of Rameses II at entrance
+
+
+Great conquerors appear in the dim light of that distant time and pass,
+Tushratta, King of Mitanni, who captured Nineveh, Tiglath Pileser I of
+Assyria who conquered Babylon.  At last the Assyrians became the
+greatest military power of the time. Tiglath Pileser III conquered
+Babylon in 745 B.C. and founded what historians call the New Assyrian
+Empire.  Iron had also come now into civilization out of the north; the
+Hittites, the precursors of the Armenians, had it first and
+communicated its use to the Assyrians, and an Assyrian usurper, Sargon
+II, armed his troops with it.  Assyria became the first power to
+expound the doctrine of blood and iron.  Sargon’s son Sennacherib led
+an army to the borders of Egypt, and was defeated not by military
+strength but by the plague. Sennacherib’s grandson Assurbanipal (who is
+also known in history by his Greek name of Sardanapalus) did actually
+conquer Egypt in 670 B.C.  But Egypt was already a conquered country
+then under an Ethiopian dynasty.  Sardanapalus simply replaced one
+conqueror by another.
+
+
+AVENUE OF SPHINXES
+AVENUE OF SPHINXES
+
+Leading from the Nile to the great Temple of Karnak
+
+_Photo: D. McLeish_
+
+
+If one had a series of political maps of this long period of history,
+this interval of ten centuries, we should have Egypt expanding and
+contracting like an amœba under a microscope, and we should see these
+various Semitic states of the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Hittites
+and the Syrians coming and going, eating each other up and disgorging
+each other again.  To the west of Asia Minor there would be little
+Ægean states like Lydia, whose capital was Sardis, and Caria.  But
+after about 1200 B.C. and perhaps earlier, a new set of names would
+come into the map of the ancient world from the north-east and from the
+north- west.  These would be the names of certain barbaric tribes,
+armed with iron weapons and using horse-chariots, who were becoming a
+great affliction to the Ægean and Semitic civilizations on the northern
+borders.  They all spoke variants of what once must have been the same
+language, Aryan.
+
+
+THE GREAT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK
+THE GREAT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK
+
+_Photo: D. McLeish_
+
+
+Round the north-east of the Black and Caspian Seas were coming the
+Medes and Persians.  Confused with these in the records of the time
+were Scythians and Samatians.  From north-east or north-west came the
+Armenians, from the north- west of the sea-barrier through the Balkan
+peninsula came Cimmerians, Phrygians and the Hellenic tribes whom now
+we call the Greeks.  They were raiders and robbers and plunderers of
+cities, these Ayrans, east and west alike. They were all kindred and
+similar peoples, hardy herdsmen who had taken to plunder.  In the east
+they were still only borderers and raiders, but in the west they were
+taking cities and driving out the civilized Ægean populations. The
+Ægean peoples were so pressed that they were seeking new homes in lands
+beyond the Aryan range.  Some were seeking a settlement in the delta of
+the Nile and being repulsed by the Egyptians; some, the Etruscans, seem
+to have sailed from Asia Minor to found a state in the forest
+wildernesses of middle Italy; some built themselves cities upon the
+south- east coasts of the Mediterranean and became later that people
+known in history as the Philistines.
+
+Of these Aryans who came thus rudely upon the scene of the ancient
+civilizations we will tell more fully in a later section.  Here we note
+simply all this stir and emigration amidst the area of the ancient
+civilizations, that was set up by the swirl of the gradual and
+continuous advance of these Aryan barbarians out of the northern
+forests and wildernesses between 1600 and 600 B.C.
+
+And in a section to follow we must tell also of a little Semitic
+people, the Hebrews, in the hills behind the Phœnician and Philistine
+coasts, who began to be of significance in the world towards the end of
+this period. They produced a literature of very great importance in
+subsequent history, a collection of books, histories, poems, books of
+wisdom and prophetic works, the Hebrew Bible.
+
+In Mesopotamia and Egypt the coming of the Aryans did not cause
+fundamental changes until after 600 B.C.  The flight of the Ægeans
+before the Greeks and even the destruction of Cnossos must have seemed
+a very remote disturbance to both the citizens of Egypt and of Babylon.
+ Dynasties came and went in these cradle states of civilization, but
+the main tenor of human life went on, with a slow increase in
+refinement and complexity age by age.  In Egypt the accumulated
+monuments of more ancient times—the pyramids were already in their
+third thousand of years and a show for visitors just as they are to-
+day—were supplemented by fresh and splendid buildings, more
+particularly in the time of the seventeenth and nineteenth dynasties. 
+The great temples at Karnak and Luxor date from this time.  All the
+chief monuments of Nineveh, the great temples, the winged bulls with
+human heads, the reliefs of kings and chariots and lion hunts, were
+done in these centuries between 1600 and 600 B.C., and this period also
+covers most of the splendours of Babylon.
+
+
+FRIEZE SHOWING EGYPTIAN FEMALE SLAVES CARRYING LUXURIOUS FOODS
+FRIEZE SHOWING EGYPTIAN FEMALE SLAVES CARRYING LUXURIOUS FOODS
+
+_Photo: Jacques Boyer_
+
+
+Both from Mesopotamia and Egypt we now have abundant public records,
+business accounts, stories, poetry and private correspondence.  We know
+that life, for prosperous and influential people in such cities as
+Babylon and the Egyptian Thebes, was already almost as refined and as
+luxurious as that of comfortable and prosperous people to-day.  Such
+people lived an orderly and ceremonious life in beautiful and
+beautifully furnished and decorated houses, wore richly decorated
+clothing and lovely jewels; they had feasts and festivals, entertained
+one another with music and dancing, were waited upon by highly trained
+servants, were cared for by doctors and dentists.  They did not travel
+very much or very far, but boating excursions were a common summer
+pleasure both on the Nile and on the Euphrates.  The beast of burthen
+was the ass; the horse was still used only in chariots for war and upon
+occasions of state.  The mule was still novel and the camel, though it
+was known in Mesopotamia, had not been brought into Egypt.  And there
+were few utensils of iron; copper and bronze remained the prevailing
+metals.  Fine linen and cotton fabrics were known as well as wool.  But
+there was no silk yet.  Glass was known and beautifully coloured, but
+glass things were usually small.  There was no clear glass and no
+optical use of glass. People had gold stoppings in their teeth but no
+spectacles on their noses.
+
+One odd contrast between the life of old Thebes or Babylon and modern
+life was the absence of coined money.  Most trade was still done by
+barter.  Babylon was financially far ahead of Egypt.  Gold and silver
+were used for exchange and kept in ingots; and there were bankers,
+before coinage, who stamped their names and the weight on these lumps
+of precious metal. A merchant or traveller would carry precious stones
+to sell to pay for his necessities.  Most servants and workers were
+slaves who were paid not money but in kind.  As money came in slavery
+declined.
+
+A modern visitor to these crowning cities of the ancient world would
+have missed two very important articles of diet; there were no hens and
+no eggs.  A French cook would have found small joy in Babylon.  These
+things came from the East somewhere about the time of the last Assyrian
+empire.
+
+Religion like everything else had undergone great refinement. Human
+sacrifice for instance had long since disappeared; animals or bread
+dummies had been substituted for the victim. (But the Phœnicians and
+especially the citizens of Carthage, their greatest settlement in
+Africa, were accused, later of immolating human beings.)  When a great
+chief had died in the ancient days it had been customary to sacrifice
+his wives and slaves and break spear and bow at his tomb so that he
+should not go unattended and unarmed in the spirit world.  In Egypt
+there survived of this dark tradition the pleasant custom of burying
+small models of house and shop and servants and cattle with the dead,
+models that give us to-day the liveliest realization of the safe and
+cultivated life of these ancient people, three thousand years and more
+ago.
+
+
+THE TEMPLE OF HORUS AT EDFU
+THE TEMPLE OF HORUS AT EDFU
+
+
+Such was the ancient world before the coming of the Aryans out of the
+northern forests and plains.  In India and China there were parallel
+developments.  In the great valleys of both these regions agricultural
+city states of brownish peoples were growing up, but in India they do
+not seem to have advanced or coalesced so rapidly as the city states of
+Mesopotamia or Egypt.  They were nearer the level of the ancient
+Sumerians or of the Maya civilization of America.  Chinese history has
+still to be modernized by Chinese scholars and cleared of much
+legendary matter.  Probably China at this time was in advance of India.
+ Contemporary with the seventeenth dynasty in Egypt, there was a
+dynasty of emperors in China, the Shang dynasty, priest emperors over a
+loose-knit empire of subordinate kings.  The chief duty of these early
+emperors was to perform the seasonal sacrifices.  Beautiful bronze
+vessels from the time of the Shang dynasty still exist, and their
+beauty and workmanship compel us to recognize that many centuries of
+civilization must have preceded their manufacture.
+
+
+
+
+XIX
+THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS
+
+
+Four thousand years ago, that is to say about 2000 B.C., central and
+south-eastern Europe and central Asia were probably warmer, moister and
+better wooded than they are now. In these regions of the earth wandered
+a group of tribes mainly of the fair and blue-eyed Nordic race,
+sufficiently in touch with one another to speak merely variations of
+one common language from the Rhine to the Caspian Sea. At that time
+they may not have been a very numerous people, and their existence was
+unsuspected by the Babylonians to whom Hammurabi was giving laws, or by
+the already ancient and cultivated land of Egypt which was tasting in
+those days for the first time the bitterness of foreign conquest.
+
+These Nordic people were destined to play a very important part indeed
+in the world’s history.  They were a people of the parklands and the
+forest clearings; they had no horses at first but they had cattle; when
+they wandered they put their tents and other gear on rough ox waggons;
+when they settled for a time they may have made huts of wattle and mud.
+They burnt their important dead; they did not bury them ceremoniously
+as the brunette peoples did.  They put the ashes of their greater
+leaders in urns and then made a great circular mound about them.  These
+mounds are the “round barrows” that occur all over north Europe.  The
+brunette people, their predecessors, did not burn their dead but buried
+them in a sitting position in elongated mounds; the “long barrows.”
+
+The Aryans raised crops of wheat, ploughing with oxen, but they did not
+settle down by their crops; they would reap and move on.  They had
+bronze, and somewhen about 1500 B.C. they acquired iron.  They may have
+been the discoverers of iron smelting.  And somewhen vaguely about that
+time they also got the horse—which to begin with they used only for
+draught purposes.  Their social life did not centre upon a temple like
+that of the more settled people round the Mediterranean, and their
+chief men were leaders rather than priests.  They had an aristocratic
+social order rather than a divine and regal order; from a very early
+stage they distinguished certain families as leaderly and noble.
+
+
+A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA
+A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA
+
+Compare the horses and other animals with the Altamira drawing on p.
+54, and also with the Greek frieze, p. 140
+
+
+They were a very vocal people.  They enlivened their wanderings by
+feasts, at which there was much drunkenness and at which a special sort
+of man, the bards, would sing and recite.  They had no writing until
+they had come into contact with civilization, and the memories of these
+bards were their living literature.  This use of recited language as an
+entertainment did much to make it a fine and beautiful instrument of
+expression, and to that no doubt the subsequent predominance of the
+languages derived from Aryan is, in part, to be ascribed.  Every Aryan
+people had its legendary history crystallized in bardic recitations,
+epics, sagas and vedas, as they were variously called.
+
+The social life of these people centred about the households of their
+leading men.  The hall of the chief where they settled for a time was
+often a very capacious timber building.  There were no doubt huts for
+herds and outlying farm buildings; but with most of the Aryan peoples
+this hall was the general centre, everyone went there to feast and hear
+the bards and take part in games and discussions.  Cowsheds and
+stabling surrounded it.  The chief and his wife and so forth would
+sleep on a dais or in an upper gallery; the commoner sort slept about
+anywhere, as people still do in Indian households.  Except for weapons,
+ornaments, tools and suchlike personal possessions there was a sort of
+patriarchal communism in the tribe.  The chief owned the cattle and
+grazing lands in the common interest; forest and rivers were the wild.
+
+This was the fashion of the people who were increasing and multiplying
+over the great spaces of central Europe and west central Asia during
+the growth of the great civilization of Mesopotamia and the Nile, and
+whom we find pressing upon the heliolithic peoples everywhere in the
+second millennium before Christ.  They were coming into France and
+Britain and into Spain.  They pushed westward in two waves.  The first
+of these people who reached Britain and Ireland were armed with bronze
+weapons.  They exterminated or subjugated the people who had made the
+great stone monuments of Carnac in Brittany and Stonehenge and Avebury
+in England.  They reached Ireland. They are called the Goidelic Celts.
+The second wave of a closely kindred people, perhaps intermixed with
+other racial elements, brought iron with it into Great Britain, and is
+known as the wave of Brythonic Celts.  From them the Welsh derive their
+language.
+
+
+THE MOUND OF NIPPUR
+THE MOUND OF NIPPUR
+
+The site of a city which recent excavations have proved to date from at
+least as early as 5000 B.C., and probably 1000 years earlier
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+Kindred Celtic peoples were pressing southward into Spain and coming
+into contact not only with the heliolithic Basque people who still
+occupied the country but with the Semitic Phœnician colonies of the sea
+coast.  A closely allied series of tribes, the Italians, were making
+their way down the still wild and wooded Italian peninsula.  They did
+not always conquer.  In the eighth century B.C.  Rome appears in
+history, a trading town on the Tiber, inhabited by Aryan Latins but
+under the rule of Etruscan nobles and kings.
+
+At the other extremity of the Aryan range there was a similar progress
+southward of similar tribes.  Aryan peoples, speaking Sanskrit, had
+come down through the western passes into North India long before 1000
+B.C.  There they came into contact with a primordial brunette
+civilization, the Dravidian civilization, and learnt much from it. 
+Other Aryan tribes seem to have spread over the mountain masses of
+Central Asia far to the east of the present range of such peoples.  In
+Eastern Turkestan there are still fair, blue-eyed Nordic tribes, but
+now they speak Mongolian tongues.
+
+Between the Black and Caspian Seas the ancient Hittites had been
+submerged and “Aryanized” by the Armenians before 1000 B.C., and the
+Assyrians and Babylonians were already aware of a new and formidable
+fighting barbarism on the north-eastern frontiers, a group of tribes
+amidst which the Scythians, the Medes and the Persians remain as
+outstanding names.
+
+But it was through the Balkan peninsula that Aryan tribes made their
+first heavy thrust into the heart of the old-world civilization.  They
+were already coming southward and crossing into Asia Minor many
+centuries before 1000 B.C.  First came a group of tribes of whom the
+Phrygians were the most conspicuous, and then in succession the Æolic,
+the Ionic and the Dorian Greeks. By 1000 B.C. they had wiped out the
+ancient Ægean civilization both in the mainland of Greece and in most
+of the Greek islands; the cities of Mycenæ and Tiryns were obliterated
+and Cnossos was nearly forgotten.  The Greeks had taken to the sea
+before 1000 A.D., they had settled in Crete and Rhodes, and they were
+founding colonies in Sicily and the south of Italy after the fashion of
+the Phœnician trading cities that were dotted along the Mediterranean
+coasts.
+
+So it was, while Tiglath Pileser III and Sargon II and Sardanapalus
+were ruling in Assyria and fighting with Babylonia and Syria and Egypt,
+the Aryan peoples were learning the methods of civilization and making
+it over for their own purposes in Italy and Greece and north Persia. 
+The theme of history from the ninth century B.C. A.D. onward for six
+centuries is the story of how these Aryan peoples grew to power and
+enterprise and how at last they subjugated the whole Ancient World,
+Semitic, Ægean and Egyptian alike.  In form the Aryan peoples were
+altogether victorious; but the struggle of Aryan, Semitic and Egyptian
+ideas and methods was continued long after the sceptre was in Aryan
+hands.  It is indeed a struggle that goes on through all the rest of
+history and still in a manner continues to this day.
+
+
+
+
+XX
+THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I
+
+
+We have already mentioned how Assyria became a great military power
+under Tiglath Pileser III and under the usurper Sargon II. Sargon was
+not this man’s original name; he adopted it to flatter the conquered
+Babylonians by reminding them of that ancient founder of the Akkadian
+Empire, Sargon I, two thousand years before his time. Babylon, for all
+that it was a conquered city, was of greater population and importance
+than Nineveh, and its great god Bel Marduk and its traders and priests
+had to be treated politely. In Mesopotamia in the eighth century B.C.
+A.D. we are already far beyond the barbaric days when the capture of a
+town meant loot and massacre. Conquerors sought to propitiate and win
+the conquered. For a century and a half after Sargon the new Assyrian
+empire endured and, as we have noted, Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus) held
+at least lower Egypt.
+
+But the power and solidarity of Assyria waned rapidly.  Egypt by an
+effort threw off the foreigner under a Pharoah Psammetichus I, and
+under Necho II attempted a war of conquest in Syria.  By that time
+Assyria was grappling with foes nearer at hand, and could make but a
+poor resistance.  A Semitic people from south-east Mesopotamia, the
+Chaldeans, combined with Aryan Medes and Persians from the north-east
+against Nineveh, and in 606 B.C.—for now we are coming down to exact
+chronology—took that city.
+
+There was a division of the spoils of Assyria.  A Median Empire was set
+up in the north under Cyaxares.   It included Nineveh, and its capital
+was Ecbatana.  Eastward it reached to the borders of India.  To the
+south of this in a great crescent was a new Chaldean Empire, the Second
+Babylonian Empire, which rose to a very great degree of wealth and
+power under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar the Great (the Nebuchadnezzar of
+the Bible). The last great days, the greatest days of all, for Babylon
+began.  For a time the two Empires remained at peace, and the daughter
+of Nebuchadnezzar was married to Cyaxares.
+
+Meanwhile Necho II was pursuing his easy conquests in Syria. He had
+defeated and slain King Josiah of Judah, a small country of which there
+is more to tell presently, at the battle of Megiddo in 608 B.C., and he
+pushed on to the Euphrates to encounter not a decadent Assyria but a
+renascent Babylonia.  The Chaldeans dealt very vigorously with the
+Egyptians.  Necho was routed and driven back to Egypt, and the
+Babylonian frontier pushed down to the ancient Egyptian boundaries.
+
+
+Map showing the relation of the Median and Second Babylonian (Chaldæan)
+Empires in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar the Great
+
+From 606 until 589 B.C. the Second Babylonian Empire flourished
+insecurely.  It flourished so long as it kept the peace with the
+stronger, hardier Median Empire to the north.  And during these
+sixty-seven years not only life but learning flourished in the ancient
+city.
+
+
+Map: The Empire of Darius (tribute-paying countries) at its greatest
+extent
+
+Even under the Assyrian monarchs and especially under Sardanapalus,
+Babylon had been a scene of great intellectual activity.  Sardanapalus,
+though an Assyrian, had been quite Babylon-ized.  He made a library, a
+library not of paper but of the clay tablets that were used for writing
+in Mesopotamia since early Sumerian days.  His collection has been
+unearthed and is perhaps the most precious store of historical material
+in the world.  The last of the Chaldean line of Babylonian monarchs,
+Nabonidus, had even keener literary tastes.  He patronized antiquarian
+researches, and when a date was worked out by his investigators for the
+accession of Sargon I he commemorated the fact by inscriptions.  But
+there were many signs of disunion in his empire, and he sought to
+centralize it by bringing a number of the various local gods to Babylon
+and setting up temples to them there.  This device was to be practised
+quite successfully by the Romans in later times, but in Babylon it
+roused the jealousy of the powerful priesthood of Bel Marduk, the
+dominant god of the Babylonians.  They cast about for a possible
+alternative to Nabonidus and found it in Cyrus the Persian, the ruler
+of the adjacent Median Empire.  Cyrus had already distinguished himself
+by conquering Croesus, the rich king of Lydia in Eastern Asia Minor. 
+He came up against Babylon, there was a battle outside the walls, and
+the gates of the city were opened to him (538 B.C.).  His soldiers
+entered the city without fighting.  The crown prince Belshazzar, the
+son of Nabonidus, was feasting, the Bible relates, when a hand appeared
+and wrote in letters of fire upon the wall these mystical words: 
+_“Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin,”_ which was interpreted by the prophet
+Daniel, whom he summoned to read the riddle, as “God has numbered thy
+kingdom and finished it; thou art weighed in the balance and found
+wanting and thy kingdom is given to the Medes and Persians.”  Possibly
+the priests of Bel Marduk knew something about that writing on the
+wall. Belshazzar was killed that night, says the Bible.  Nabonidus was
+taken prisoner, and the occupation of the city was so peaceful that the
+services of Bel Marduk continued without intermission.
+
+
+PERSIAN MONARCH
+PERSIAN MONARCH
+
+From the ruins of Persepolis
+
+_Photo:  Miss F. Biggs_
+
+
+Thus it was the Babylonian and Median empires were united. Cambyses,
+the son of Cyrus, subjugated Egypt.  Cambyses went mad and was
+accidentally killed, and was presently succeeded by Darius the Mede,
+Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, one of the chief councillors of Cyrus.
+
+
+THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS
+THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS
+
+The capital city of the Persian Empire; burnt by Alexander the Great
+
+_Photo:  Major W. F. P. Rodd_
+
+
+THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS
+THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS
+
+_Photo:  Major W. F. P. Rodd_
+
+
+The Persian Empire of Darius I, the first of the new Aryan empires in
+the seat of the old civilizations, was the greatest empire the world
+had hitherto seen.  It included all Asia Minor and Syria, all the old
+Assyrian and Babylonian empires, Egypt, the Caucasus and Caspian
+regions, Media, Persia, and it extended into India as far as the Indus.
+ Such an empire was possible because the horse and rider and the
+chariot and the made-road had now been brought into the world. 
+Hitherto the ass and ox and the camel for desert use had afforded the
+swiftest method of transport.  Great arterial roads were made by the
+Persian rulers to hold their new empire, and post horses were always in
+waiting for the imperial messenger or the traveller with an official
+permit.  Moreover the world was now beginning to use coined money,
+which greatly facilitated trade and intercourse.  But the capital of
+this vast empire was no longer Babylon.  In the long run the priesthood
+of Bel Marduk gained nothing by their treason. Babylon though still
+important was now a declining city, and the great cities of the new
+empire were Persepolis and Susa and Ecbatana.  The capital was Susa. 
+Nineveh was already abandoned and sinking into ruins.
+
+
+
+
+XXI
+THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS
+
+
+And now we can tell of the Hebrews, a Semitic people, not so important
+in their own time as in their influence upon the later history of the
+world. They were settled in Judea long before 1000 B.C., and their
+capital city after that time was Jerusalem. Their story is interwoven
+with that of the great empires on either side of them, Egypt to the
+south and the changing empires of Syria, Assyria and Babylon to the
+north. Their country was an inevitable high road between these latter
+powers and Egypt.
+
+Their importance in the world is due to the fact that they produced a
+written literature, a world history, a collection of laws, chronicles,
+psalms, books of wisdom, poetry and fiction and political utterances
+which became at last what Christians know as the Old Testament, the
+Hebrew Bible.  This literature appears in history in the fourth or
+fifth century B.C.
+
+Probably this literature was first put together in Babylon. We have
+already told how the Pharaoh, Necho II, invaded the Assyrian Empire
+while Assyria was fighting for life against Medes, Persians and
+Chaldeans.  Josiah King of Judah opposed him, and was defeated and
+slain at Megiddo (608 B.C.).  Judah became a tributary to Egypt, and
+when Nebuchadnezzar the Great, the new Chaldean king in Babylon, rolled
+back Necho into Egypt, he attempted to manage Judah by setting up
+puppet kings in Jerusalem.  The experiment failed, the people massacred
+his Babylonian officials, and he then determined to break up this
+little state altogether, which had long been playing off Egypt against
+the northern empire.  Jerusalem was sacked and burnt, and the remnant
+of the people was carried off captive to Babylon.
+
+There they remained until Cyrus took Babylon (538 B.C.).  He then
+collected them together and sent them back to resettle their country
+and rebuild the walls and temple of Jerusalem.
+
+Before that time the Jews do not seem to have been a very civilized or
+united people.  Probably only a very few of them could read or write. 
+In their own history one never hears of the early books of the Bible
+being read; the first mention of a book is in the time of Josiah.  The
+Babylonian captivity civilized them and consolidated them.  They
+returned aware of their own literature, an acutely self-conscious and
+political people.
+
+Their Bible at that time seems to have consisted only of the
+Pentateuch, that is to say the first five books of the Old Testament as
+we know it.  In addition, as separate books they already had many of
+the other books that have since been incorporated with the Pentateuch
+into the present Hebrew Bible, Chronicles, the Psalms and Proverbs for
+example.
+
+The accounts of the Creation of the World, of Adam and Eve and of the
+Flood, with which the Bible begins, run closely parallel with similar
+Babylonian legends; they seem to have been part of the common beliefs
+of all the Semitic peoples. So too the stories of Moses and of Samson
+have Sumerian and Babylonian parallels.  But with the story of Abraham
+and onward begins something more special to the Jewish race.
+
+Abraham may have lived as early as the days of Hammurabi in Babylon. 
+He was a patriarchal Semitic nomad.  To the book of Genesis the reader
+must go for the story of his wanderings and for the stories of his sons
+and grandchildren and how they became captive in the Land of Egypt.  He
+travelled through Canaan, and the God of Abraham, says the Bible story,
+promised this smiling land of prosperous cities to him and to his
+children.
+
+And after a long sojourn in Egypt and after fifty years of wandering in
+the wilderness under the leadership of Moses, the children of Abraham,
+grown now to a host of twelve tribes, invaded the land of Canaan from
+the Arabian deserts to the East.  They may have done this somewhen
+between 1600 B.C. and 1300 B.C.; there are no Egyptian records of Moses
+nor of Canaan at this time to help out the story.  But at any rate they
+did not succeed in conquering any more than the hilly backgrounds of
+the promised land.  The coast was now in the hands, not of the
+Canaanites but of newcomers, those Ægean peoples, the Philistines; and
+their cities, Gaza, Gath, Ashdod, Ascalon and Joppa successfully
+withstood the Hebrew attack.  For many generations the children of
+Abraham remained an obscure people of the hilly back country engaged in
+incessant bickerings with the Philistines and with the kindred tribes
+about them, the Moabites, the Midianites and so forth.  The reader will
+find in the book of Judges a record of their struggles and disasters
+during this period. For very largely it is a record of disasters and
+failures frankly told.
+
+
+Map: The Land of the Hebrews
+
+For most of this period the Hebrews were ruled, so far as there was any
+rule among them, by priestly judges selected by the elders of the
+people, but at last somewhen towards 1000 B.C. they chose themselves a
+king, Saul, to lead them in battle.  But Saul’s leading was no great
+improvement upon the leading of the Judges; he perished under the hail
+of Philistine arrows at the battle of Mount Gilboa, his armour went
+into the temple of the Philistine Venus, and his body was nailed to the
+walls of Beth-shan.
+
+
+MOUND AT BABYLON
+THE MOUND AT BABYLON
+
+Beneath which are the remains of a great palace of Nebuchadnezzar
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+His successor David was more successful and more politic. With David
+dawned the only period of prosperity the Hebrew peoples were ever to
+know.  It was based on a close alliance with the Phœnician city of
+Tyre, whose King Hiram seems to have been a man of very great
+intelligence and enterprise. He wished to secure a trade route to the
+Red Sea through the Hebrew hill country.  Normally Phœnician trade went
+to the Red Sea by Egypt, but Egypt was in a state of profound disorder
+at this time; there may have been other obstructions to Phœnician trade
+along this line, and at any rate Hiram established the very closest
+relations both with David and with his son and successor Solomon. 
+Under Hiram’s auspices the walls, palace and temple of Jerusalem arose,
+and in return Hiram built and launched his ships on the Red Sea.  A
+very considerable trade passed northward and southward through
+Jerusalem.  And Solomon achieved a prosperity and magnificence
+unprecedented in the experience of his people.  He was even given a
+daughter of Pharaoh in marriage.
+
+But it is well to keep the proportion of things in mind.  At the climax
+of his glories Solomon was only a little subordinate king in a little
+city.  His power was so transitory that within a few years of his
+death, Shishak the first Pharaoh of the twenty-second dynasty, had
+taken Jerusalem and looted most of its splendours.  The account of
+Solomon’s magnificence given in the books of Kings and Chronicles is
+questioned by many critics.  They say that it was added to and
+exaggerated by the patriotic pride of later writers.  But the Bible
+account read carefully is not so overwhelming as it appears at the
+first reading. Solomon’s temple, if one works out the measurements,
+would go inside a small suburban church, and his fourteen hundred
+chariots cease to impress us when we learn from an Assyrian monument
+that his successor Ahab sent a contingent of two thousand to the
+Assyrian army.  It is also plainly manifest from the Bible narrative
+that Solomon spent himself in display and overtaxed and overworked his
+people.  At his death the northern part of his kingdom broke off from
+Jerusalem and became the independent kingdom of Israel. Jerusalem
+remained the capital city of Judah.
+
+
+THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON
+THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON
+
+The bulls are in richly coloured enamel on baked brick
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+The prosperity of the Hebrew people was short-lived.  Hiram died, and
+the help of Tyre ceased to strengthen Jerusalem. Egypt grew strong
+again.  The history of the kings of Israel and the kings of Judah
+becomes a history of two little states ground between, first, Syria,
+then Assyria and then Babylon to the north and Egypt to the south.  It
+is a tale of disasters and of deliverances that only delayed disaster. 
+It is a tale of barbaric kings ruling a barbaric people. In 721 B.C.
+the kingdom of Israel was swept away into captivity by the Assyrians
+and its people utterly lost to history.  Judah struggled on until in
+604 B.C., as we have told, it shared the fate of Israel.  There may be
+details open to criticism in the Bible story of Hebrew history from the
+days of the Judges onward, but on the whole it is evidently a true
+story which squares with all that has been learnt in the excavation of
+Egypt and Assyria and Babylon during the past century.
+
+It was in Babylon that the Hebrew people got their history together and
+evolved their tradition.  The people who came back to Jerusalem at the
+command of Cyrus were a very different people in spirit and knowledge
+from those who had gone into captivity.  They had learnt civilization. 
+In the development of their peculiar character a very great part was
+played by certain men, a new sort of men, the Prophets, to whom we must
+now direct our attention.  These Prophets mark the appearance of new
+and remarkable forces in the steady development of human society.
+
+
+
+
+XXII
+PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA
+
+
+The fall of Assyria and Babylon were only the first of a series of
+disasters that were to happen to the Semitic peoples. In the seventh
+century B.C. it would have seemed as though the whole civilized world
+was to be dominated by Semitic rulers. They ruled the great Assyrian
+empire and they had conquered Egypt; Assyria, Babylon, Syria were all
+Semitic, speaking languages that were mutually intelligible. The trade
+of the world was in Semitic hands. Tyre, Sidon, the great mother cities
+of the Phœnician coast, had thrown out colonies that grew at last to
+even greater proportion in Spain, Sicily and Africa. Carthage, founded
+before 800 B.C., had risen to a population of more than a million. It
+was for a time the greatest city on earth. Its ships went to Britain
+and out into the Atlantic. They may have reached Madeira. We have
+already noted how Hiram co-operated with Solomon to build ships on the
+Red Sea for the Arabian and perhaps for the Indian trade. In the time
+of the Pharaoh Necho, a Phœnician expedition sailed completely round
+Africa.
+
+At that time the Aryan peoples were still barbarians.  Only the Greeks
+were reconstructing a new civilization of the ruins of the one they had
+destroyed, and the Medes were becoming “formidable,” as an Assyrian
+inscription calls them, in central Asia.  In 800 B.C. no one could have
+prophesied that before the third century B.C. every trace of Semitic
+dominion would be wiped out by Aryan-speaking conquerors, and that
+everywhere the Semitic peoples would be subjects or tributaries or
+scattered altogether.  Everywhere except in the northern deserts of
+Arabia, where the Bedouin adhered steadily to the nomadic way of life,
+the ancient way of life of the Semites before Sargon I and his
+Akkadians went down to conquer Sumeria.  But the Arab Bedouin were
+never conquered by Aryan masters.
+
+Now of all these civilized Semites who were beaten and overrun in these
+five eventful centuries one people only held together and clung to its
+ancient traditions and that was this little people, the Jews, who were
+sent back to build their city of Jerusalem by Cyrus the Persian.  And
+they were able to do this, because they had got together this
+literature of theirs, their Bible, in Babylon.  It is not so much the
+Jews who made the Bible as the Bible which made the Jews.  Running
+through this Bible were certain ideas, different from the ideas of the
+people about them, very stimulating and sustaining ideas, to which they
+were destined to cling through five and twenty centuries of hardship,
+adventure and oppression.
+
+Foremost of these Jewish ideas was this, that their God was invisible
+and remote, an invisible God in a temple not made with hands, a Lord of
+Righteousness throughout the earth. All other peoples had national gods
+embodied in images that lived in temples.  If the image was smashed and
+the temple razed, presently that god died out.  But this was a new
+idea, this God of the Jews, in the heavens, high above priests and
+sacrifices.  And this God of Abraham, the Jews believed, had chosen
+them to be his peculiar people, to restore Jerusalem and make it the
+capital of Righteousness in the World.  They were a people exalted by
+their sense of a common destiny. This belief saturated them all when
+they returned to Jerusalem after the captivity in Babylon.
+
+Is it any miracle that in their days of overthrow and subjugation many
+Babylonians and Syrians and so forth and later on many Phœnicians,
+speaking practically the same language and having endless customs,
+habits, tastes and traditions in common, should be attracted by this
+inspiring cult and should seek to share in its fellowship and its
+promise?  After the fall of Tyre, Sidon, Carthage and the Spanish
+Phœnician cities, the Phœnicians suddenly vanish from history; and as
+suddenly we find, not simply in Jerusalem but in Spain, Africa, Egypt,
+Arabia, the East, wherever the Phœnicians had set their feet,
+communities of Jews.  And they were all held together by the Bible and
+by the reading of the Bible.  Jerusalem was from the first only their
+nominal capital; their real city was this book of books.  This is a new
+sort of thing in history.  It is something of which the seeds were sown
+long before, when the Sumerians and Egyptians began to turn their
+hieroglyphics into writing.  The Jews were a new thing, a people
+without a king and presently without a temple (for as we shall tell
+Jerusalem itself was broken up in 70 A.D.), held together and
+consolidated out of heterogeneous elements by nothing but the power of
+the written word.
+
+And this mental welding of the Jews was neither planned nor foreseen
+nor done by either priests or statesmen.  Not only a new kind of
+community but a new kind of man comes into history with the development
+of the Jews.  In the days of Solomon the Hebrews looked like becoming a
+little people just like any other little people of that time clustering
+around court and temple, ruled by the wisdom of the priest and led by
+the ambition of the king.  But already, the reader may learn from the
+Bible, this new sort of man of which we speak, the Prophet, was in
+evidence.
+
+As troubles thicken round the divided Hebrews the importance of these
+Prophets increases.
+
+
+THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II
+THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II
+
+This obelisk (in the British Museum) of the King of Assyria mentions,
+in cuneiform, “Jehu the son of Omri.”  Panel showing Jewish captives
+bringing tribute
+
+
+What were these Prophets?  They were men of the most diverse origins. 
+The Prophet Ezekiel was of the priestly caste and the Prophet Amos wore
+the goatskin mantle of a shepherd, but all had this in common, that
+they gave allegiance to no one but to the God of Righteousness and that
+they spoke directly to the people.  They came without licence or
+consecration.  “Now the word of the Lord came unto me;” that was the
+formula.  They were intensely political.  They exhorted the people
+against Egypt, “that broken reed,” or against Assyria or Babylon; they
+denounced the indolence of the priestly order or the flagrant sins of
+the King.  Some of them turned their attention to what we should now
+call “social reform.”  The rich were “grinding the faces of the poor,”
+the luxurious were consuming the children’s bread; wealthy people made
+friends with and imitated the splendours and vices of foreigners; and
+this was hateful to Jehovah, the God of Abraham, who would certainly
+punish this land.
+
+
+ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK
+ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK
+
+Captive Princes making obeisance to Shalmaneser II
+
+
+These fulminations were written down and preserved and studied.  They
+went wherever the Jews went, and wherever they went they spread a new
+religious spirit.  They carried the common man past priest and temple,
+past court and king and brought him face to face with the Rule of
+Righteousness. That is their supreme importance in the history of
+mankind. In the great utterances of Isaiah the prophetic voice rises to
+a pitch of splendid anticipation and foreshadows the whole earth united
+and at peace under one God.  Therein the Jewish prophecies culminate.
+
+All the Prophets did not speak in this fashion, and the intelligent
+reader of the prophetic books will find much hate in them, much
+prejudice, and much that will remind him of the propaganda pamphlets of
+the present time.  Nevertheless it is the Hebrew Prophets of the period
+round and about the Babylonian captivity who mark the appearance of a
+new power in the world, the power of individual moral appeal, of an
+appeal to the free conscience of mankind against the fetish sacrifices
+and slavish loyalties that had hitherto bridled and harnessed our race.
+
+
+
+
+XXIII
+THE GREEKS
+
+
+Now while after Solomon (whose reign was probably about 960 B.C.) the
+divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah were suffering destruction and
+deportation, and while the Jewish people were developing their
+tradition in captivity in Babylon, another great power over the human
+mind, the Greek tradition, was also arising. While the Hebrew prophets
+were working out a new sense of direct moral responsibility between the
+people and an eternal and universal God of Right, the Greek
+philosophers were training the human mind in a new method and spirit of
+intellectual adventure.
+
+The Greek tribes as we have told were a branch of the Aryan- speaking
+stem. They had come down among the Ægean cities and islands some
+centuries before 1000 B.C.  They were probably already in southward
+movement before the Pharaoh Thothmes hunted his first elephants beyond
+the conquered Euphrates.  For in those days there were elephants in
+Mesopotamia and lions in Greece.
+
+It is possible that it was a Greek raid that burnt Cnossos, but there
+are no Greek legends of such a victory though there are stories of
+Minos and his palace (the Labyrinth) and of the skill of the Cretan
+artificers.
+
+
+STATUE OF MELEAGER
+STATUE OF MELEAGER
+
+Note the progress in plastic power from the earlier wooden statue on
+left
+
+_Photo:  Sebah & Foaillier_
+
+
+Like most of the Aryans these Greeks had singers and reciters whose
+performances were an important social link, and these handed down from
+the barbaric beginnings of their people two great epics, the _Iliad_,
+telling how a league of Greek tribes besieged and took and sacked the
+town of Troy in Asia Minor, and the _Odyssey_, being a long adventure
+story of the return of the sage captain, Odysseus, from Troy to his own
+island.  These epics were written down somewhen in the eighth or
+seventh century B.C., when the Greeks had acquired the use of an
+alphabet from their more civilized neighbours, but they are supposed to
+have been in existence very much earlier.  Formerly they were ascribed
+to a particular blind bard, Homer, who was supposed to have sat down
+and composed them as Milton composed Paradise Lost. Whether there
+really was such a poet, whether he composed or only wrote down and
+polished these epics and so forth, is a favourite quarrelling ground
+for the erudite.  We need not concern ourselves with such bickerings
+here.  The thing that matters from our point of view is that the Greeks
+were in possession of their epics in the eighth century B.C., and that
+they were a common possession and a link between their various tribes,
+giving them a sense of fellowship as against the outer barbarians. 
+They were a group of kindred peoples linked by the spoken and
+afterwards by the written word, and sharing common ideals of courage
+and behaviour.
+
+The epics showed the Greeks a barbaric people without iron, without
+writing, and still not living in cities.  They seem to have lived at
+first in open villages of huts around the halls of their chiefs outside
+the ruins of the Ægean cities they had destroyed.  Then they began to
+wall their cities and to adopt the idea of temples from the people they
+had conquered.  It has been said that the cities of the primitive
+civilizations grew up about the altar of some tribal god, and that the
+wall was added; in the cities of the Greeks the wall preceded the
+temple.  They began to trade and send out colonies.  By the seventh
+century B.C. a new series of cities had grown up in the valleys and
+islands of Greece, forgetful of the Ægean cities and civilization that
+had preceded them; Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Samos, Miletus
+among the chief. There were already Greek settlements along the coast
+of the Black Sea and in Italy and Sicily.  The heel and toe of Italy
+was called Magna Græcia.  Marseilles was a Greek town established on
+the site of an earlier Phœnician colony.
+
+Now countries which are great plains or which have as a chief means of
+transport some great river like the Euphrates or Nile tend to become
+united under some common rule.  The cities of Egypt and the cities of
+Sumeria, for example, ran together under one system of government. But
+the Greek peoples were cut up among islands and mountain valleys; both
+Greece and Magna Græcia are very mountainous; and the tendency was all
+the other way.  When the Greeks come into history they are divided up
+into a number of little states which showed no signs of coalescence. 
+They are different even in race.  Some consist chiefly of citizens of
+this or that Greek tribe, Ionic, Æolian or Doric; some have a mingled
+population of Greeks and descendants of the pre-Greek “Mediterranean”
+folk; some have an unmixed free citizenship of Greeks lording it over
+an enslaved conquered population like the “Helots” in Sparta.  In some
+the old leaderly Aryan families have become a close aristocracy; in
+some there is a democracy of all the Aryan citizens; in some there are
+elected or even hereditary kings, in some usurpers or tyrants.
+
+
+RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA
+RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+And the same geographical conditions that kept the Greek states divided
+and various, kept them small.  The largest states were smaller than
+many English counties, and it is doubtful if the population of any of
+their cities ever exceeded a third of a million.  Few came up even to
+50,000. There were unions of interest and sympathy but no coalescences.
+ Cities made leagues and alliances as trade increased, and small cities
+put themselves under the protection of great ones.  Yet all Greece was
+held together in a certain community of feeling by two things, by the
+epics and by the custom of taking part every fourth year in the
+athletic contests at Olympia.  This did not prevent wars and feuds, but
+it mitigated something of the savagery of war between them, and a truce
+protected all travellers to and from the games.  As time went on the
+sentiment of a common heritage grew and the number of states
+participating in the Olympic games increased until at last not only
+Greeks but competitors from the closely kindred countries of Epirus and
+Macedonia to the north were admitted.
+
+The Greek cities grew in trade and importance, and the quality of their
+civilization rose steadily in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. 
+Their social life differed in many interesting points from the social
+life of the Ægean and river valley civilizations. They had splendid
+temples but the priesthood was not the great traditional body it was in
+the cities of the older world, the-repository of all knowledge, the
+storehouse of ideas.  They had leaders and noble families, but no
+quasi- divine monarch surrounded by an elaborately organized court.
+Rather their organization was aristocratic, with leading families which
+kept each other in order.  Even their so- called “democracies” were
+aristocratic; every citizen had a share in public affairs and came to
+the assembly in a democracy, _but everybody was not a citizen_.  The
+Greek democracies were not like our modern “democracies” in which
+everyone has a vote.  Many of the Greek democracies had a few hundred
+or a few thousand citizens and then many thousands of slaves, freedmen
+and so forth, with no share in public affairs.  Generally in Greece
+affairs were in the hands of a community of substantial men. Their
+kings and their tyrants alike were just men set in front of other men
+or usurping a leadership; they were not quasi-divine overmen like
+Pharaoh or Minos or the monarchs of Mesopotamia.  Both thought and
+government therefore had a freedom under Greek conditions such as they
+had known in none of the older civilizations.  The Greeks had brought
+down into cities the individualism, the personal initiative of the
+wandering life of the northern parklands.  They were the first
+republicans of importance in history.
+
+
+THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), PÆSTUM, SICILY
+THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), PÆSTUM, SICILY
+
+_Photo:  Alinari_
+
+
+And we find that as they emerge from a condition of barbaric warfare a
+new thing becomes apparent in their intellectual life.  We find men who
+are not priests seeking and recording knowledge and enquiring into the
+mysteries of life and being, in a way that has hitherto been the
+sublime privilege of priesthood or the presumptuous amusement of kings.
+ We find already in the sixth century B.C.—perhaps while Isaiah was
+still prophesying in Babylon—such men as Thales and Anaximander of
+Miletus and Heraclitus of Ephesus, who were what we should now call
+independent gentlemen, giving their minds to shrewd questionings of the
+world in which we live, asking what its real nature was, whence it came
+and what its destiny might be, and refusing all ready-made or evasive
+answers.  Of these questionings of the universe by the Greek mind, we
+shall have more to say a little later in this history.  These Greek
+enquirers who begin to be remarkable in the sixth century B.C. are the
+first philosophers, the first “wisdom-lovers,” in the world.
+
+And it may be noted here how important a century this sixth century
+B.C. was in the history of humanity.  For not only were these Greek
+philosophers beginning the research for clear ideas about this universe
+and man’s place in it and Isaiah carrying Jewish prophecy to its
+sublimest levels, but as we shall tell later Gautama Buddha was then
+teaching in India and Confucius and Lao Tse in China. From Athens to
+the Pacific the human mind was astir.
+
+
+
+
+XXIV
+THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS
+
+
+While the Greeks in the cities in Greece, South Italy and Asia Minor
+were embarking upon free intellectual enquiry and while in Babylon and
+Jerusalem the last of the Hebrew prophets were creating a free
+conscience for mankind, two adventurous Aryan peoples, the Medes and
+the Persians, were in possession of the civilization of the ancient
+world and were making a great empire, the Persian empire, which was far
+larger in extent than any empire the world had seen hitherto. Under
+Cyrus, Babylon and the rich and ancient civilization of Lydia had been
+added to the Persian rule; the Phœnician cities of the Levant and all
+the Greek cities in Asia Minor had been made tributary, Cambyses had
+subjected Egypt, and Darius I, the Mede, the third of the Persian
+rulers (521 B.C.), found himself monarch as it seemed of all the world.
+His couriers rode with his decrees from the Dardanelles to the Indus
+and from Upper Egypt to Central Asia.
+
+The Greeks in Europe, it is true, Italy, Carthage, Sicily and the
+Spanish Phœnician settlements, were not under the Persian Peace; but
+they treated it with respect and the only people who gave any serious
+trouble were the old parent hordes of Nordic people in South Russia and
+Central Asia, the Scythians, who raided the northern and north-eastern
+borders.
+
+Of course the population of this great Persian empire was not a
+population of Persians, The Persians were only the small conquering
+minority of this enormous realm.  The rest of the population was what
+it had been before the Persians came from time immemorial, only that
+Persian was the administrative language.  Trade and finance were still
+largely Semitic, Tyre and Sidon as of old were the great Mediterranean
+ports and Semitic shipping plied upon the seas.  But many of these
+Semitic merchants and business people as they went from place to place
+already found a sympathetic and convenient common history in the Hebrew
+tradition and the Hebrew scriptures.  A new element which was
+increasing rapidly in this empire was the Greek element.  The Greeks
+were becoming serious rivals to the Semites upon the sea, and their
+detached and vigorous intelligence made them useful and, unprejudiced
+officials.
+
+
+FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY
+FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY
+
+Showing Greek merchant vesselswith sails and oars statue on left
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+
+It was on account of the Scythians that Darius I invaded Europe.  He
+wanted to reach South Russia, the homeland of the Scythian horsemen. 
+He crossed the Bosphorus with a great army and marched through Bulgaria
+to the Danube, crossed this by a bridge of boats and pushed far
+northward.  His army suffered terribly.  It was largely an infantry
+force and the mounted Scythians rode all round it, cut off its
+supplies, destroyed any stragglers and never came to a pitched battle.
+Darius was forced into an inglorious retreat.
+
+He returned himself to Susa but he left an army in Thrace and
+Macedonia, and Macedonia submitted to Darius.  Insurrections of the
+Greek cities in Asia followed this failure, and the European Greeks
+were drawn into the contest.  Darius resolved upon the subjugation of
+the Greeks in Europe.  With the Phœnician fleet at his disposal he was
+able to subdue one island after another, and finally in 490 B.C. he
+made his main attack upon Athens.  A considerable Armada sailed from
+the ports of Asia Minor and the eastern Mediterranean, and the
+expedition landed its troops at Marathon to the north of Athens.  There
+they were met and signally defeated by the Athenians.
+
+An extraordinary thing happened at this time.  The bitterest rival of
+Athens in Greece was Sparta, but now Athens appealed to Sparta, sending
+a herald, a swift runner, imploring the Spartans not to let Greeks
+become slaves to barbarians.  This runner (the prototype of all
+“Marathon” runners) did over a hundred miles of broken country in less
+than two days.  The Spartans responded promptly and generously; but
+when, in three days, the Spartan force reached Athens, there was
+nothing for it to do but to view the battlefield and the bodies of the
+defeated Persian soldiers.  The Persian fleet had returned to Asia.  So
+ended the first Persian attack on Greece.
+
+The next was much more impressive.  Darius died soon after the news of
+his defeat at Marathon reached him, and for four years his son and
+successor, Xerxes, prepared a host to crush the Greeks.  For a time
+terror united all the Greeks.  The army of Xerxes was certainly the
+greatest that had hitherto been assembled in the world.  It was a huge
+assembly of discordant elements.  It crossed the Dardanelles, 480 B.C.,
+by a bridge of boats; and along the coast as it advanced moved an
+equally miscellaneous fleet carrying supplies.  At the narrow pass of
+Thermopylæ a small force of 1400 men under the Spartan Leonidas
+resisted this multitude, and after a fight of unsurpassed heroism was
+completely destroyed.  Every man was killed.  But the losses they
+inflicted upon the Persians were enormous, and the army of Xerxes
+pushed on to Thebes and Athens in a chastened mood. Thebes surrendered
+and made terms.  The Athenians abandoned their city and it was burnt.
+
+Greece seemed in the hands of the conqueror, but again came victory
+against the odds and all expectations.  The Greek fleet, though not a
+third the size of the Persian, assailed it in the bay of Salamis and
+destroyed it.  Xerxes found himself and his immense army cut off from
+supplies and his heart failed him.  He retreated to Asia with one half
+of his army, leaving the rest to be defeated at Platea (479 B.C.) what
+time the remnants of the Persian fleet were hunted down by the Greeks
+and destroyed at Mycalæ in Asia Minor.
+
+
+ALL THAT REMAINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF CORINTH
+ALL THAT REMAINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF CORINTH
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+The Persian danger was at an end.  Most of the Greek cities in Asia
+became free.  All this is told in great detail and with much
+picturesqueness in the first of written histories, the _History_ of
+Herodotus.  This Herodotus was born about 484 B.C. in the Ionian city
+of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, and he visited Babylon and Egypt in his
+search for exact particulars.  From Mycalæ onward Persia sank into a
+confusion of dynastic troubles.  Xerxes was murdered in 465 B.C. and
+rebellions in Egypt, Syria and Media broke up the brief order of that
+mighty realm.  The history of Herodotus lays stress on the weakness of
+Persia.  This history is indeed what we should now call
+propaganda—propaganda for Greece to unite and conquer Persia. 
+Herodotus makes one character, Aristagoras, go to the Spartans with a
+map of the known world and say to them: “These Barbarians are not
+valiant in fight.  You on the other hand have now attained the utmost
+skill in war .... No other nations in the world have what they possess:
+gold, silver, bronze, embroidered garments, beasts and slaves. _All
+this you might have for yourselves, if you so desired_.”
+
+
+THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM
+THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+
+
+XXV
+THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE
+
+
+The century and a half that followed the defeat of Persia was one of
+very great splendour for the Greek civilization. True that Greece was
+torn by a desperate struggle for ascendancy between Athens, Sparta and
+other states (the Peloponnesian War 431 to 404 B.C.) and that in 338
+B.C. the Macedonians became virtually masters of Greece; nevertheless
+during this period the thought and the creative and artistic impulse of
+the Greeks rose to levels that made their achievement a lamp to mankind
+for all the rest of history.
+
+The head and centre of this mental activity was Athens.  For over
+thirty years (466 to 428 B.C.) Athens was dominated by a man of great
+vigour and liberality of mind, Pericles, who set himself to rebuild the
+city from the ashes to which the Persians had reduced it. The beautiful
+ruins that still glorify Athens to-day are chiefly the remains of this
+great effort.  And he did not simply rebuild a material Athens.  He
+rebuilt Athens intellectually.  He gathered about him not only
+architects and sculptors but poets, dramatists, philosophers and
+teachers.  Herodotus came to Athens to recite his history (438 B.C.).
+Anaxagoras came with the beginnings of a scientific description of the
+sun and stars.  Æschylus, Sophocles and Euripides one after the other
+carried the Greek drama to its highest levels or beauty and nobility.
+
+The impetus Pericles gave to the intellectual life of Athens lived on
+after his death, and in spite of the fact that the peace of Greece was
+now broken by the Peloponnesian War and a long and wasteful struggle
+for “ascendancy” was beginning.  Indeed the darkling of the political
+horizon seems for a time to have quickened rather than discouraged
+men’s minds.
+
+Already long before the time of Pericles the peculiar freedom of Greek
+institutions had given great importance to skill in discussion. 
+Decision rested neither with king nor with priest but in the assemblies
+of the people or of leading men.  Eloquence and able argument became
+very desirable accomplishments therefore, and a class of teachers
+arose, the Sophists, who undertook to strengthen young men in these
+arts.  But one cannot reason without matter, and knowledge followed in
+the wake of speech.  The activities and rivalries of these Sophists led
+very naturally to an acute examination of style, of methods of thought
+and of the validity of arguments.  When Pericles died a certain
+Socrates was becoming prominent as an able and destructive critic of
+bad argument—and much of the teaching of the Sophists was bad argument.
+ A group of brilliant young men gathered about Socrates.  In the end
+Socrates was executed for disturbing people’s minds (399 B.C.), he was
+condemned after the dignified fashion of the Athens of those days to
+drink in his own house and among his own friends a poisonous draught
+made from hemlock, but the disturbance of people’s minds went on in
+spite of his condemnation. His young men carried on his teaching.
+
+
+PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS
+PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS
+
+A specimen of Grecian sculpture in its finest expression. Compare the
+advance of art with that seen in the animals shown on p. 105
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS
+THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS
+
+The marvellous group of Temples and monuments built under the
+inspriration of Pericles
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE
+THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE
+
+A wonderfully preserved specimen showing the vast auditorium
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+Chief among these young men was Plato (427 to 347 B.C.) who presently
+began to teach philosophy in the grove of the Academy.  His teaching
+fell into two main divisions, an examination of the foundations and
+methods of human thinking and an examination of political institutions.
+He was the first man to write a Utopia, that is to say the plan of a
+community different from and better than any existing community.  This
+shows an altogether unprecedented boldness in the human mind which had
+hitherto accepted social traditions and usages with scarcely a
+question.  Plato said plainly to mankind: “Most of the social and
+political ills from which you suffer are under your control, given only
+the will and courage to change them.  You can live in another and a
+wiser fashion if you choose to think it out and work it out.  You are
+not awake to your own power.”  That is a high adventurous teaching that
+has still to soak in to the common intelligence of our race.  One of
+his earliest works was the Republic, a dream of a communist
+aristocracy; his last unfinished work was the Laws, a scheme of
+regulation for another such Utopian state.
+
+
+THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM
+THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM
+
+The ancient sanctuary on the Acropolis at Athens
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON
+ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON
+_Photo:  Alinart_
+
+
+The criticism of methods of thinking and methods of government was
+carried on after Plato’s death by Aristotle, who had been his pupil and
+who taught in the Lyceum.  Aristotle came from the city of Stagira in
+Macedonia, and his father was court physician to the Macedonian king. 
+For a time Aristotle was tutor to Alexander, the king’s son, who was
+destined to achieve very great things of which we shall soon be
+telling.  Aristotle’s work upon methods of thinking carried the science
+of Logic to a level at which it remained for fifteen hundred years or
+more, until the mediæval schoolmen took up the ancient questions again.
+ He made no Utopias.  Before man could really control his destiny as
+Plato taught, Aristotle perceived that he needed far more knowledge and
+far more accurate knowledge than he possessed. And so Aristotle began
+that systematic collection of knowledge which nowadays we call Science.
+ He sent out explorers to collect _facts_.  He was the father of
+natural history.  He was the founder of political science. His students
+at the Lyceum examined and compared the constitutions of 158 different
+states ....
+
+Here in the fourth century B.C. we find men who are practically “modern
+thinkers.” The child-like, dream-like methods of primitive thought had
+given way to a disciplined and critical attack upon the problems of
+life.  The weird and monstrous symbolism and imagery of the gods and
+god monsters, and all the taboos and awes and restraints that have
+hitherto encumbered thinking are here completely set aside.  Free,
+exact and systematic thinking has begun.  The fresh and unencumbered
+mind of these newcomers out of the northern forests has thrust itself
+into the mysteries of the temple and let the daylight in.
+
+
+
+
+XXVI
+THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
+
+
+From 431 to 404 B.C. the Peloponnesian War wasted Greece. Meanwhile to
+the north of Greece, the kindred country of Macedonia was rising slowly
+to power and civilization. The Macedonians spoke a language closely
+akin to Greek, and on several occasions Macedonian competitors had
+taken part in the Olympic games. In 359 B.C. a man of very great
+abilities and ambition became king of this little country—Philip.
+Philip had previously been a hostage in Greece; he had had a thoroughly
+Greek education and he was probably aware of the ideas of
+Herodotus—which had also been developed by the philosopher Isocrates—of
+a possible conquest of Asia by a consolidated Greece.
+
+He set himself first to extend and organize his own realm and to
+remodel his army.  For a thousand years now the charging horse-chariot
+had been the decisive factor in battles, that and the close-fighting
+infantry.  Mounted horsemen had also fought, but as a cloud of
+skirmishers, individually and without discipline.  Philip made his
+infantry fight in a closely packed mass, the Macedonian phalanx, and he
+trained his mounted gentlemen, the knights or companions, to fight in
+formation and so invented cavalry.  The master move in most of his
+battles and in the battles of his son Alexander was a cavalry charge. 
+The phalanx _held_ the enemy infantry in front while the cavalry swept
+away the enemy horse on his wings and poured in on the flank and rear
+of his infantry. Chariots were disabled by bowmen, who shot the horses.
+
+With this new army Philip extended his frontiers through Thessaly to
+Greece; and the battle of Chæronia (338 B.C.), fought against Athens
+and her allies, put all Greece at his feet.  At last the dream of
+Herodotus was bearing fruit.  A congress of all the Greek states
+appointed Philip captain-general of the Græco- Macedonian confederacy
+against Persia, and in 336 B.C. his advanced guard crossed into Asia
+upon this long premeditated adventure.  But he never followed it.  He
+was assassinated; it is believed at the instigation of his queen
+Olympias, Alexander’s mother.  She was jealous because Philip had
+married a second wife.
+
+
+BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
+BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
+_(As in the British Museum)_
+
+
+But Philip had taken unusual pains with his son’s education.  He had
+not only secured Aristotle, the greatest philosopher in the world, as
+this boy’s tutor, but he had shared his ideas with him and thrust
+military experience upon him.  At Chæronia Alexander, who was then only
+eighteen years old, had been in command of the cavalry.  And so it was
+possible for this young man, who was still only twenty years old at the
+time of his accession, to take up his father’s task at once and to
+proceed successfully with the Persian adventure.
+
+In 334 B.C.—for two years were needed to establish and confirm his
+position in Macedonia and Greece—he crossed into Asia, defeated a not
+very much bigger Persian army at the battle of the Granicus and
+captured a number of cities in Asia Minor.  He kept along the
+sea-coast.  It was necessary for him to reduce and garrison all the
+coast towns as he advanced because the Persians had control of the
+fleets of Tyre and Sidon and so had command of the sea.  Had he left a
+hostile port in his rear the Persians might have landed forces to raid
+his communications and cut him off. At  Issus (333 B.C.) he met and
+smashed a vast conglomerate host under Darius III.  Like the host of
+Xerxes that had crossed the Dardanelles a century and a half before, it
+was an incoherent accumulation of contingents and it was encumbered
+with a multitude of court officials, the harem of Darius and many camp
+followers.  Sidon surrendered to Alexander but Tyre resisted
+obstinately.  Finally that great city was stormed and plundered and
+destroyed.  Gaza also was stormed, and towards the end of 332 B.C. the
+conqueror entered Egypt and took over its rule from the Persians.
+
+
+ALEXANDER’S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS
+ALEXANDER’S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS
+_(From the Pompeian Mosaic)_
+
+Alexander charges in on the left, Darius is in the chariot to the right
+
+
+At Alexandretta and at Alexandria in Egypt he built great cities,
+accessible from the land and so incapable of revolt. To these the trade
+of the Phœnician cities was diverted. The Phœnicians of the western
+Mediterranean suddenly disappear from history—and as immediately the
+Jews of Alexandria and the other new trading cities created by
+Alexander appear.
+
+In 331 B.C. Alexander marched out of Egypt upon Babylon as Thothmes and
+Rameses and Necho had done before him.  But he marched by way of Tyre. 
+At Arbela near the ruins of Nineveh, which was already a forgotten
+city, he met Darius and fought the decisive battle of the war.  The
+Persian chariot charge failed, a Macedonian cavalry charge broke up the
+great composite host and the phalanx completed the victory.  Darius led
+the retreat.  He made no further attempt to resist the invader but fled
+northward into the country of the Medes.  Alexander marched on to
+Babylon, still prosperous and important, and then to Susa and
+Persepolis.  There after a drunken festival he burnt down the palace of
+Darius, the king of kings.
+
+
+THE APOLLO BELVEDERE
+THE APOLLO BELVEDERE
+
+_(In the Vatican Museum)_
+
+
+Thence Alexander presently made a military parade of central Asia,
+going to the utmost bounds of the Persian empire.  At first he turned
+northward.  Darius was pursued; and he was overtaken at dawn dying in
+his chariot, having been murdered by his own people.  He was still
+living when the foremost Greeks reached him.  Alexander came up to find
+him dead. Alexander skirted the Caspian Sea, he went up into the
+mountains of western Turkestan, he came down by Herat (which he
+founded) and Cabul and the Khyber Pass into India.  He fought a great
+battle on the Indus with an Indian king, Porus, and here the Macedonian
+troops met elephants for the first time and defeated them.  Finally he
+built himself ships, sailed down to the mouth of the Indus, and marched
+back by the coast of Beluchistan, reaching Susa again in 324 B.C. after
+an absence of six years. He then prepared to consolidate and organize
+this vast empire he had won.  He sought to win over his new subjects. 
+He assumed the robes and tiara of a Persian monarch, and this roused
+the jealousy of his Macedonian commanders.  He had much trouble with
+them.  He arranged a number of marriages between these Macedonian
+officers and Persian and Babylonian women: the “Marriage of the East
+and West.”  He never lived to effect the consolidation he had planned. 
+A fever seized him after a drinking bout in Babylon and he died in 323
+B.C.
+
+Immediately this vast dominion fell to pieces.  One of his generals,
+Seleucus, retained most of the old Persian empire from the Indus to
+Ephesus; another, Ptolemy, seized Egypt, and Antigonus secured
+Macedonia.  The rest of the empire remained unstable, passing under the
+control of a succession of local adventurers.  Barbarian raids began
+from the north and grew in scope and intensity.  Until at last, as we
+shall tell, a new power, the power of the Roman republic, came out of
+the west to subjugate one fragment after another and weld them together
+into a new and more enduring empire.
+
+
+
+
+XXVII
+THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+Before the time of Alexander Greeks had already been spreading as
+merchants, artists, officials, mercenary soldiers, over most of the
+Persian dominions. In the dynastic disputes that followed the death of
+Xerxes, a band of ten thousand Greek mercenaries played a part under
+the leadership of Xenophon. Their return to Asiatic Greece from Babylon
+is described in his _Retreat of the Ten Thousand_, one of the first war
+stories that was ever written by a general in command. But the
+conquests of Alexander and the division of his brief empire among his
+subordinate generals, greatly stimulated this permeation of the ancient
+world by the Greeks and their language and fashions and culture. Traces
+of this Greek dissemination are to be found far away in central Asia
+and in north-west India. Their influence upon the development of Indian
+art was profound.
+
+For many centuries Athens retained her prestige as a centre of art and
+culture; her schools went on indeed to 529 A.D., that is to say for
+nearly a thousand years; but the leadership in the intellectual
+activity of the world passed presently across the Mediterranean to
+Alexandria, the new trading city that Alexander had founded. Here the
+Macedonian general Ptolemy had become Pharaoh, with a court that spoke
+Greek.  He had become an intimate of Alexander before he became king,
+and he was deeply saturated with the ideas of Aristotle.  He set
+himself, with great energy and capacity, to organize knowledge and
+investigation. He also wrote a history of Alexander’s campaigns which,
+unhappily, is lost to the world.
+
+Alexander had already devoted considerable sums to finance the
+enquiries of Aristotle, but Ptolemy I was the first person to make a
+permanent endowment of science.  He set up a foundation in Alexandria
+which was formerly dedicated to the Muses, the Museum of Alexandria. 
+For two or three generations the scientific work done at Alexandria was
+extraordinarily good.  Euclid, Eratosthenes who measured the size of
+the earth and came within fifty miles of its true diameter, Apollonius
+who wrote on conic sections, Hipparchus who made the first star map and
+catalogue, and Hero who devised the first steam engine are among the
+greater stars of an extraordinary constellation of scientific pioneers.
+Archimedes came from Syracuse to Alexandria to study, and was a
+frequent correspondent of the Museum.  Herophilus was one of the
+greatest of Greek anatomists, and is said to have practised
+vivisection.
+
+For a generation or so during the reigns of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II
+there was such a blaze of knowledge and discovery at Alexandria as the
+world was not to see again until the sixteenth century A.D.  But it did
+not continue.  There may have been several causes of this decline. 
+Chief among them, the late Professor Mahaffy suggested, was the fact
+that the Museum was a “royal” college and all its professors and
+fellows were appointed and paid by Pharaoh.  This was all very well
+when Pharaoh was Ptolemy I, the pupil and friend of Aristotle.  But as
+the dynasty of the Ptolemies went on they became Egyptianized, they
+fell under the sway of Egyptian priests and Egyptian religious
+developments, they ceased to follow the work that was done, and their
+control stifled the spirit of enquiry altogether.  The Museum produced
+little good work after its first century of activity.
+
+Ptolemy I not only sought in the most modern spirit to organize the
+finding of fresh knowledge.  He tried also to set up an encyclopædic
+storehouse of wisdom in the Library of Alexandria.  It was not simply a
+storehouse, it was also a book-copying and book-selling organization. 
+A great army of copyists was set to work perpetually multiplying copies
+of books.
+
+Here then we have the definite first opening up of the intellectual
+process in which we live to-day; here we have the systematic gathering
+and distribution of knowledge.  The foundation of this Museum and
+Library marks one of the great epochs in the history of mankind.  It is
+the true beginning of Modern History.
+
+
+ARISTOTLE
+ARISTOTLE
+From Herculaneum, probably Fourth Century B.C.
+
+_Photo:  Dr. Singer_
+
+
+Both the work of research and the work of dissemination went on under
+serious handicaps.  One of these was the great social gap that
+separated the philosopher, who was a gentleman, from the trader and the
+artisan.  There were glass workers and metal workers in abundance in
+those days, but they were not in mental contact with the thinkers.  The
+glass worker was making the most beautifully coloured beads and phials
+and so forth, but he never made a Florentine flask or a lens.  Clear
+glass does not seem to have interested him. The metal worker made
+weapons and jewellery but he never made a chemical balance.  The
+philosopher speculated loftily about atoms and the nature of things,
+but he had no practical experience of enamels and pigments and philters
+and so forth. He was not interested in substances.  So Alexandria in
+its brief day of opportunity produced no microscopes and no chemistry. 
+And though Hero invented a steam engine it was never set either to pump
+or drive a boat or do any useful thing.  There were few practical
+applications of science except in the realm of medicine, and the
+progress of science was not stimulated and sustained by the interest
+and excitement of practical applications.  There was nothing to keep
+the work going therefore when the intellectual curiosity of Ptolemy I
+and Ptolemy II was withdrawn.  The discoveries of the Museum went on
+record in obscure manuscripts and never, until the revival of
+scientific curiosity at the Renascence, reached out to the mass of
+mankind.
+
+Nor did the Library produce any improvements in book making. That
+ancient world had no paper made in definite sizes from rag pulp.  Paper
+was a Chinese invention and it did not reach the western world until
+the ninth century A.D.  The only book materials were parchment and
+strips of the papyrus reed joined edge to edge.  These strips were kept
+on rolls which were very unwieldy to wind to and fro and read, and very
+inconvenient for reference.  It was these things that prevented the
+development of paged and printed books.  Printing itself was known in
+the world it would seem as early as the Old Stone Age; there were seals
+in ancient Sumeria; but without abundant paper there was little
+advantage in printing books, an improvement that may further have been
+resisted by trades unionism on the part of the copyists employed. 
+Alexandria produced abundant books but not cheap books, and it never
+spread knowledge into the population of the ancient world below the
+level of a wealthy and influential class.
+
+
+STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME
+STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME
+A Græco-Buddhist sculpture of the Third Century A.D.
+
+_(From Malakand, N. W. Province, now in the India Museum)_
+
+
+So it was that this blaze of intellectual enterprise never reached
+beyond a small circle of people in touch with the group of philosophers
+collected by the first two Ptolemies. It was like the light in a dark
+lantern which is shut off from the world at large.  Within the blaze
+may be blindingly bright, but nevertheless it is unseen.  The rest of
+the world went on its old ways unaware that the seed of scientific
+knowledge that was one day to revolutionize it altogether had been
+sown.  Presently a darkness of bigotry fell even upon Alexandria.
+Thereafter for a thousand years of darkness the seed that Aristotle had
+sown lay hidden.  Then it stirred and began to germinate.  In a few
+centuries it had become that widespread growth of knowledge and clear
+ideas that is now changing the whole of human life.
+
+
+THE DEATH OF BUDDHA
+THE DEATH OF BUDDHA
+Græco-Buddhist carving from Sivat Valley, N. W. Province, probably A.D.
+350
+
+_India Mus._
+
+
+Alexandria was not the only centre of Greek intellectual activity in
+the third century B.C. There were many other cities that displayed a
+brilliant intellectual life amidst the disintegrating fragments of the
+brief empire of Alexander.  There was, for example, the Greek city of
+Syracuse in Sicily, where thought and science flourished for two
+centuries; there was Pergamum in Asia Minor, which also had a great
+library.  But this brilliant Hellenic world was now stricken by
+invasion from the north. New Nordic barbarians, the Gauls, were
+striking down along the tracks that had once been followed by the
+ancestors of the Greeks and Phrygians and Macedonians.  They raided,
+shattered and destroyed.  And in the wake of the Gauls came a new
+conquering people out of Italy, the Romans, who gradually subjugated
+all the western half of the vast realm of Darius and Alexander.  They
+were an able but unimaginative people, preferring law and profit to
+either science or art.  New invaders were also coming down out of
+central Asia to shatter and subdue the Seleucid empire and to cut off
+the western world again from India.  These were the Parthians, hosts of
+mounted bowmen, who treated the Græco-Persian empire of Persepolis and
+Susa in the third century B.C. in much the same fashion that the Medes
+and Persians had treated it in the seventh and sixth.  And there were
+now other nomadic peoples also coming out of the northeast, peoples who
+were not fair and Nordic and Aryan- speaking but yellow-skinned and
+black-haired and with a Mongolian speech.  But of these latter people
+we shall tell more in a subsequent chapter.
+
+
+
+
+XXVIII
+THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA
+
+
+But now we must go back three centuries in our story to tell of a great
+teacher who came near to revolutionizing the religious thought and
+feeling of all Asia. This was Gautama Buddha, who taught his disciples
+at Benares in India about the same time that Isaiah was prophesying
+among the Jews in Babylon and Heraclitus was carrying on his
+speculative enquiries into the nature of things at Ephesus. All these
+men were in the world at the same time, in the sixth century
+B.C.—unaware of one another.
+
+This sixth century B.C. was indeed one of the most remarkable in all
+history. Everywhere—for as we shall tell it was also the case in
+China—men’s minds were displaying a new boldness. Everywhere they were
+waking up out of the traditions of kingships and priests and blood
+sacrifices and asking the most penetrating questions.  It is as if the
+race had reached a stage of adolescence—after a childhood of twenty
+thousand years.
+
+The early history of India is still very obscure.  Somewhen perhaps
+about 2000 B.C., an Aryan- speaking people came down from the
+north-west into India either in one invasion or in a series of
+invasions; and was able to spread its language and traditions over most
+of north India.  Its peculiar variety of Aryan speech was the Sanskrit.
+ They found a brunette people with a more elaborate civilization and
+less vigour of will, in possession of the country of the Indus and
+Ganges.  But they do not seem to have mingled with their predecessors
+as freely as did the Greeks and Persians.  They remained aloof.  When
+the past of India becomes dimly visible to the historian, Indian
+society is already stratified into several layers, with a variable
+number of sub-divisions, which do not eat together nor intermarry nor
+associate freely.  And throughout history this stratification into
+castes continues.  This makes the Indian population something different
+from the simple, freely inter-breeding European or Mongolian
+communities.  It is really a community of communities.
+
+Siddhattha Gautama was the son of an aristocratic family which ruled a
+small district on the Himalayan slopes.  He was married at nineteen to
+a beautiful cousin.  He hunted and played and went about in his sunny
+world of gardens and groves and irrigated rice-fields.  And it was
+amidst this life that a great discontent fell upon him.  It was the
+unhappiness of a fine brain that seeks employment.  He felt that the
+existence he was leading was not the reality of life, but a holiday—a
+holiday that had gone on too long.
+
+The sense of disease and mortality, the insecurity and the
+un-satisfactoriness of all happiness, descended upon the mind of
+Gautama.  While he was in this mood he met one of those wandering
+ascetics who already existed in great numbers in India.  These men
+lived under severe rules, spending much time in meditation and in
+religious discussion.  They were supposed to be seeking some deeper
+reality in life, and a passionate desire to do likewise took possession
+of Gautama.
+
+He was meditating upon this project, says the story, when the news was
+brought to him that his wife had been delivered of his first-born son.
+“This is another tie to break,” said Gautama.
+
+He returned to the village amidst the rejoicings of his fellow
+clansmen.  There was a great feast and a Nautch dance to celebrate the
+birth of this new tie, and in the night Gautama awoke in a great agony
+of spirit, “like a man who is told that his house is on fire.”  He
+resolved to leave his happy aimless life forthwith.  He went softly to
+the threshold of his wife’s chamber, and saw her by the light of a
+little oil lamp, sleeping sweetly, surrounded by flowers, with his
+infant son in her arms.  He felt a great craving to take up the child
+in one first and last embrace before he departed, but the fear of
+waking his wife prevented him, and at last he turned away and went out
+into the bright Indian moonshine and mounted his horse and rode off
+into the world.
+
+
+TIBETAN BUDDHA
+TIBETAN BUDDHA
+Gilt Brass Casting in India Museum, showing Gautama Buddha in the
+“earth witness” attitude
+
+_India Mus._
+
+
+Very far he rode that night, and in the morning he stopped outside the
+lands of his clan, and dismounted beside a sandy river.  There he cut
+off his flowing locks with his sword, removed all his ornaments and
+sent them and his horse and sword back to his house.  Going on he
+presently met a ragged man and exchanged clothes with him, and so
+having divested himself of all worldly entanglements he was free to
+pursue his search after wisdom. He made his way southward to a resort
+of hermits and teachers in a hilly spur of the Vindhya Mountains. 
+There lived a number of wise men in a warren of caves, going into the
+town for their simple supplies and imparting their knowledge by word of
+mouth to such as cared to come to them.  Gautama became versed in all
+the metaphysics of his age.  But his acute intelligence was
+dissatisfied with the solutions offered him.
+
+
+A BURMESE BUDDHA
+A BURMESE BUDDHA
+Marble Figure from Mandalay, eighteenth century work, now in the India
+Museum
+
+
+The Indian mind has always been disposed to believe that power and
+knowledge may be obtained by extreme asceticism, by fasting,
+sleeplessness, and self-torment, and these ideas Gautama now put to the
+test.  He betook himself with five disciple companions to the jungle
+and there he gave himself up to fasting and terrible penances.  His
+fame spread, “like the sound of a great bell hung in the canopy of the
+skies.”  But it brought him no sense of truth achieved. One day he was
+walking up and down, trying to think in spite of his enfeebled state. 
+Suddenly he fell unconscious.  When he recovered, the preposterousness
+of these semi-magical ways to wisdom was plain to him.
+
+
+THE DHAMÊKH TOWER
+THE DHAMÊKH TOWER
+In the Deer Park at Sarnath.  Sixth Century A.D.
+
+_(From a Painting in the India Museum)_
+
+
+He horrified his companions by demanding ordinary food and refusing to
+continue his mortifications.  He had realized that whatever truth a man
+may reach is reached best by a nourished brain in a healthy body.  Such
+a conception was absolutely foreign to the ideas of the land and age. 
+His disciples deserted him, and went off in a melancholy state to
+Benares.  Gautama wandered alone.
+
+When the mind grapples with a great and intricate problem, it makes its
+advances step by step, with but little realization of the gains it has
+made, until suddenly, with an effect of abrupt illumination, it
+realizes its victory.  So it happened to Gautama.  He had seated
+himself under a great tree by the side of a river to eat, when this
+sense of clear vision came to him.  It seemed to him that he saw life
+plain.  He is said to have sat all day and all night in profound
+thought, and then he rose up to impart his vision to the world.
+
+He went on to Benares and there he sought out and won back his lost
+disciples to his new teaching.  In the King’s Deer Park at Benares they
+built themselves huts and set up a sort of school to which came many
+who were seeking after wisdom.
+
+The starting point of his teaching was his own question as a fortunate
+young man, “Why am I not completely happy?”  It was an introspective
+question. It was a question very different in quality from the frank
+and self-forgetful _externalized_ curiosity with which Thales and
+Heraclitus were attacking the problems of the universe, or the equally
+self-forgetful burthen of moral obligation that the culminating
+prophets were imposing upon the Hebrew mind.  The Indian teacher did
+not forget self, he concentrated upon self and sought to destroy it. 
+All suffering, he taught, was due to the greedy desires of the
+individual.  Until man has conquered his personal cravings his life is
+trouble and his end sorrow.  There were three principal forms that the
+craving for life took and they were all evil.  The first was the desire
+of the appetites, greed and all forms of sensuousness, the second was
+the desire for a personal and egotistic immortality, the third was the
+craving for personal success, worldliness, avarice and the like.  All
+these forms of desire had to be overcome to escape from the distresses
+and chagrins of life.  When they were overcome, when self had vanished
+altogether, then serenity of soul, Nirvana, the highest good was
+attained.
+
+This was the gist of his teaching, a very subtle and metaphysical
+teaching indeed, not nearly so easy to understand as the Greek
+injunction to see and know fearlessly and rightly and the Hebrew
+command to fear God and accomplish righteousness.  It was a teaching
+much beyond the understanding of even Gautama’s immediate disciples,
+and it is no wonder that so soon as his personal influence was
+withdrawn it became corrupted and coarsened.  There was a widespread
+belief in India at that time that at long intervals Wisdom came to
+earth and was incarnate in some chosen person who was known as the
+Buddha.  Gautama’s disciples declared that he was a Buddha, the latest
+of the Buddhas, though there is no evidence that he himself ever
+accepted the title.  Before he was well dead, a cycle of fantastic
+legends began to be woven about him.  The human heart has always
+preferred a wonder story to a moral effort, and Gautama Buddha became
+very wonderful.
+
+Yet there remained a substantial gain in the world.  If Nirvana was too
+high and subtle for most men’s imaginations, if the myth-making impulse
+in the race was too strong for the simple facts of Gautama’s life, they
+could at least grasp something of the intention of what Gautama called
+the Eight-fold way, the Aryan or Noble Path in life.  In this there was
+an insistence upon mental uprightness, upon right aims and speech,
+right conduct and honest livelihood.  There was a quickening of the
+conscience and an appeal to generous and self-forgetful ends.
+
+
+
+
+XXIX
+KING ASOKA
+
+
+For some generations after the death of Gautama, these high and noble
+Buddhist teachings, this first plain teaching that the highest good for
+man is the subjugation of self, made comparatively little headway in
+the world. Then they conquered the imagination of one of the greatest
+monarchs the world has ever seen.
+
+We have already mentioned how Alexander the Great came down into India
+and fought with Porus upon the Indus.  It is related by the Greek
+historians that a certain Chandragupta Maurya came into Alexander’s
+camp and tried to persuade him to go on to the Ganges and conquer all
+India. Alexander could not do this because of the refusal of his
+Macedonians to go further into what was for them an unknown world, and
+later on (303 B.C.) Chandragupta was able to secure the help or various
+hill tribes and realize his dream without Greek help. He built up an
+empire in North India and was presently (303 B.C.) able to attack
+Seleucus I in the Punjab and drive the last vestige of Greek power out
+of India. His son extended this new empire. His grandson, Asoka, the
+monarch of whom we now have to tell, found himself in 264 B.C. ruling
+from Afghanistan to Madras.
+
+Asoka was at first disposed to follow the example of his father and
+grandfather and complete the conquest of the Indian peninsula.  He
+invaded Kalinga (255 B.C.), a country on the east coast of Madras, he
+was successful in his military operations and—alone among conquerors—he
+was so disgusted by the cruelty and horror of war that he renounced it.
+ He would have no more of it.  He adopted the peaceful doctrines of
+Buddhism and declared that henceforth his conquests should be the
+conquests of religion.
+
+
+A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty)
+A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty)
+
+_(From the statue in the British Museum)_
+
+
+His reign for eight-and-twenty years was one of the brightest
+interludes in the troubled history of mankind.  He organized a great
+digging of wells in India and the planting of trees for shade.  He
+founded hospitals and public gardens and gardens for the growing of
+medicinal herbs.  He created a ministry for the care of the aborigines
+and subject races of India. He made provision for the education of
+women.  He made vast benefactions to the Buddhist teaching orders, and
+tried to stimulate them to a better and more energetic criticism of
+their own accumulated literature.  For corruptions and superstitious
+accretions had accumulated very speedily upon the pure and simple
+teaching of the great Indian master. Missionaries went from Asoka to
+Kashmir, to Persia, to Ceylon and Alexandria.
+
+
+TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA
+TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA
+
+_India Mus._
+
+ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUT
+ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUT
+
+_India Mus._
+
+
+Such was Asoka, greatest of kings.  He was far in advance of his age. 
+He left no prince and no organization of men to carry on his work, and
+within a century of his death the great days of his reign had become a
+glorious memory in a shattered and decaying India.  The priestly caste
+of the Brahmins, the highest and most privileged caste in the Indian
+social body, has always been opposed to the frank and open teaching of
+Buddha.  Gradually they undermined the Buddhist influence in the land. 
+The old monstrous gods, the innumerable cults of Hinduism, resumed
+their sway.  Caste became more rigorous and complicated. For long
+centuries Buddhism and Brahminism flourished side by side, and then
+slowly Buddhism decayed and Brahminism in a multitude of forms replaced
+it.  But beyond the confines of India and the realms of caste Buddhism
+spread—until it had won China and Siam and Burma and Japan, countries
+in which it is predominant to this day.
+
+
+THE PILLAR OF LIONS
+THE PILLAR OF LIONS
+Capital of the Pillar (column lying on side) erected in Deer Park in
+the time of Asoka, where Buddha preached his first sermon
+
+_(From a print in the India Museum)_
+
+
+
+
+XXX
+CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE
+
+
+We have still to tell of two other great men, Confucius and Lao Tse,
+who lived in that wonderful century which began the adolescence of
+mankind, the sixth century B.C. In this history thus far we have told
+very little of the early story of China. At present that early history
+is still very obscure, and we look to Chinese explorers and
+archæolologists in the new China that is now arising to work out their
+past as thoroughly as the European past has been worked out during the
+last century. Very long ago the first primitive Chinese civilizations
+arose in the great river valleys out of the primordial heliolithic
+culture. They had, like Egypt and Sumeria, the general characteristics
+of that culture, and they centred upon temples in which priests and
+priest kings offered the seasonal blood sacrifices. The life in those
+cities must have been very like the Egyptian and Sumerian life of six
+or seven thousand years ago and very like the Maya life of Central
+America a thousand years ago.
+
+If there were human sacrifices they had long given way to animal
+sacrifices before the dawn of history.  And a form of picture writing
+was growing up long before a thousand years B.C.
+
+And just as the primitive civilizations of Europe and western Asia were
+in conflict with the nomads of the desert and the nomads of the north,
+so the primitive Chinese civilizations had a great cloud of nomadic
+peoples on their northern borders.  There was a number of tribes akin
+in language and ways of living, who are spoken of in history in
+succession as the Huns, the Mongols, the Turks and Tartars.  They
+changed and divided and combined and re-combined, just as the Nordic
+peoples in north Europe and central Asia changed and varied in name
+rather than in nature.  These Mongolian nomads had horses earlier than
+the Nordic peoples, and it may be that in the region of the Altai
+Mountains they made an independent discovery of iron somewhen after
+1000 B.C. And just as in the western case so ever and again these
+eastern nomads would achieve a sort of political unity, and become the
+conquerors and masters and revivers of this or that settled and
+civilized region.
+
+It is quite possible that the earliest civilization of China was not
+Mongolian at all any more than the earliest civilization of Europe and
+western Asia was Nordic or Semitic.  It is quite possible that the
+earliest civilization of China was a brunette civilization and of a
+piece with the earliest Egyptian, Sumerian and Dravidian civilizations,
+and that when the first recorded history of China began there had
+already been conquests and intermixture.  At any rate we find that by
+1750 B.C. China was already a vast system of little kingdoms and city
+states, all acknowledging a loose allegiance and paying more or less
+regularly, more or less definite feudal dues to one great priest
+emperor, the “Son of Heaven.”  The “Shang” dynasty came to an end in
+1125 B.C.  A “Chow” dynasty succeeded “Shang,” and maintained China in
+a relaxing unity until the days of Asoka in India and of the Ptolemies
+in Egypt.  Gradually China went to pieces during that long “Chow”
+period.  Hunnish peoples came down and set up principalities; local
+rulers discontinued their tribute and became independent.  There was in
+the sixth century B.C., says one Chinese authority, five or six
+thousand practically independent states in China.  It was what the
+Chinese call in their records an “Age of Confusion.”
+
+But this Age of Confusion was compatible with much intellectual
+activity and with the existence of many local centres of art and
+civilized living.  When we know more of Chinese history we shall find
+that China also had her Miletus and her Athens, her Pergamum and her
+Macedonia.  At present we must be vague and brief about this period of
+Chinese division simply because our knowledge is not sufficient for us
+to frame a coherent and consecutive story.
+
+
+CONFUCIUS
+CONFUCIUS
+Copy of stone carving in the Temple of Confucius at K’iu Fu
+
+_(From the records of the Archæological Mission to North China
+(Chavannes))_
+
+
+And just as in divided Greece there were philosophers and in shattered
+and captive Jewry prophets, so in disordered China there were
+philosophers and teachers at this time.  In all these cases insecurity
+and uncertainty seemed to have quickened the better sort of mind. 
+Confucius was a man of aristocratic origin and some official importance
+in a small state called Lu.  Here in a very parallel mood to the Greek
+impulse he set up a sort of Academy for discovering and teaching
+Wisdom.  The lawlessness and disorder of China distressed him
+profoundly.  He conceived an ideal of a better government and a better
+life, and travelled from state to state seeking a prince who would
+carry out his legislative and educational ideas.  He never found his
+prince; he found a prince, but court intrigues undermined the influence
+of the teacher and finally defeated his reforming proposals.  It is
+interesting to note that a century and a half later the Greek
+philosopher Plato also sought a prince, and was for a time adviser to
+the tyrant Dionysius who ruled Syracuse in Sicily.
+
+Confucius died a disappointed man.  “No intelligent ruler arises to
+take me as his master,” he said, “and my time has come to die.”  But
+his teaching had more vitality than he imagined in his declining and
+hopeless years, and it became a great formative influence with the
+Chinese people.  It became one of what the Chinese call the Three
+Teachings, the other two being those of Buddha and of Lao Tse.
+
+The gist of the teaching of Confucius was the way of the noble or
+aristocratic man.  He was concerned with personal conduct as much as
+Gautama was concerned with the peace of self-forgetfulness and the
+Greek with external knowledge and the Jew with righteousness.  He was
+the most public-minded of all great teachers.  He was supremely
+concerned by the confusion and miseries of the world, and he wanted to
+make men noble in order to bring about a noble world.  He sought to
+regulate conduct to an extraordinary extent; to provide sound rules for
+every occasion in life.  A polite, public- spirited gentleman, rather
+sternly self-disciplined, was the ideal he found already developing in
+the northern Chinese world and one to which he gave a permanent form.
+
+
+THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA
+THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA
+As it crosses the mountains in Manchuria
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+The teaching of Lao Tse, who was for a long time in charge of the
+imperial library of the Chow dynasty, was much more mystical and vague
+and elusive than that of Confucius.  He seems to have preached a
+stoical indifference to the pleasures and powers of the world and a
+return to an imaginary simple life of the past.  He left writings very
+contracted in style and very obscure.  He wrote in riddles.  After his
+death his teachings, like the teachings of Gautama Buddha, were
+corrupted and overlaid by legends and had the most complex and
+extraordinary observances and superstitious ideas grafted upon them. 
+In China just as in India primordial ideas of magic and monstrous
+legends out of the childish past of our race struggled against the new
+thinking in the world and succeeded in plastering it over with
+grotesque, irrational and antiquated observances.  Both Buddhism and
+Taoism (which ascribes itself largely to Lao Tse) as one finds them in
+China now, are religions of monk, temple, priest and offering of a type
+as ancient in form, if not in thought, as the sacrificial religions of
+ancient Sumeria and Egypt.  But the teaching of Confucius was not so
+overlaid because it was limited and plain and straightforward and lent
+itself to no such distortions.
+
+
+EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL
+EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL
+Inscribed in archaic characters: “made for use by the elder of Hing
+village in Ting district;” latter half of the Chou Dynasty, Sixth
+Century B.C.
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+North China, the China of the Hwang-ho River, became Confucian in
+thought and spirit; south China, Yang-tse-Kiang China, became Taoist. 
+Since those days a conflict has always been traceable in Chinese
+affairs between these two spirits, the spirit of the north and the
+spirit of the south, between (in latter times) Pekin and Nankin,
+between the official- minded, upright and conservative north, and the
+sceptical, artistic, lax and experimental south.
+
+The divisions of China of the Age of Confusion reached their worst
+stage in the sixth century B.C. The Chow dynasty was so enfeebled and
+so discredited that Lao Tse left the unhappy court and retired into
+private life.
+
+Three nominally subordinate powers dominated the situation in those
+days, Ts’i and Ts’in, both northern powers, and Ch’u, which was an
+aggressive military power in the Yangtse valley.  At last Ts’i and
+Ts’in formed an alliance, subdued Ch’u and imposed a general treaty of
+disarmament and peace in China.  The power of Ts’in became predominant.
+ Finally about the time of Asoka in India the Ts’in monarch seized upon
+the sacrificial vessels of the Chow emperor and took over his
+sacrificial duties. His son, Shi-Hwang-ti (king in 246 B.C., emperor in
+220 B.C.), is called in the Chinese Chronicles “the First Universal
+Emperor.”
+
+More fortunate than Alexander, Shi-Hwang-ti reigned for thirty-six
+years as king and emperor.  His energetic reign marks the beginning of
+a new era of unity and prosperity for the Chinese people.  He fought
+vigorously against the Hunnish invaders from the northern deserts, and
+he began that immense work, the Great Wall of China, to set a limit to
+their incursions.
+
+
+
+
+XXXI
+ROME COMES INTO HISTORY
+
+
+The reader will note a general similarity in the history of all these
+civilizations in spite of the effectual separation caused by the great
+barriers of the Indian north-west frontier and of the mountain masses
+of Central Asia and further India. First for thousands of years the
+heliolithic culture spread over all the warm and fertile river valleys
+of the old world and developed a temple system and priest rulers about
+its sacrificial traditions. Apparently its first makers were always
+those brunette peoples we have spoken of as the central race of
+mankind. Then the nomads came in from the regions of seasonal grass and
+seasonal migrations and superposed their own characteristics and often
+their own language on the primitive civilization. They subjugated and
+stimulated it, and were stimulated to fresh developments and made it
+here one thing and here another. In Mesopotamia it was the Elamite and
+then the Semite, and at last the Nordic Medes and Persians and the
+Greeks who supplied the ferment; over the region of the Ægean peoples
+it was the Greeks; in India it was the Aryan-speakers; in Egypt there
+was a thinner infusion of conquerors into a more intensely saturated
+priestly civilization; in China, the Hun conquered and was absorbed and
+was followed by fresh Huns. China was Mongolized just as Greece and
+North India were Aryanized and Mesopotamia Semitized and Aryanized.
+Everywhere the nomads destroyed much, but everywhere they brought in a
+new spirit of free enquiry and moral innovation. They questioned the
+beliefs of immemorial ages. They let daylight into the temples. They
+set up kings who were neither priests nor gods but mere leaders among
+their captains and companions.
+
+
+THE DYING GAUL
+THE DYING GAUL
+The statue in the National Museum, Rome, depicting a Gaul stabbing
+himself, after killing his wife, in the presence of his enemies
+
+_Photo: Anderson_
+
+In the centuries following the sixth century B.C. we find everywhere a
+great breaking down of ancient traditions and a new spirit of moral and
+intellectual enquiry awake, a spirit never more to be altogether
+stilled in the great progressive movement of mankind.  We find reading
+and writing becoming common and accessible accomplishments among the
+ruling and prosperous minority; they were no longer the jealously
+guarded secret of the priests.  Travel is increasing and transport
+growing easier by reason of horses and roads.  A new and easy device to
+facilitate trade has been found in coined money.
+
+Let us now transfer our attention back from China in the extreme east
+of the old world to the western half of the Mediterranean.  Here we
+have to note the appearance of a city which was destined to play at
+last a very great part indeed in human affairs, Rome.
+
+Hitherto we have told very little about Italy in our story. It was
+before 1000 B.C. a land of mountain and forest and thinly populated. 
+Aryan-speaking tribes had pressed down this peninsula and formed little
+towns and cities, and the southern extremity was studded with Greek
+settlements.  The noble ruins of Pæstum preserve for us to this day
+something of the dignity and splendour of these early Greek
+establishments.  A non-Aryan people, probably akin to the Ægean
+peoples, the Etruscans, had established themselves in the central part
+of the peninsula. They had reversed the usual process by subjugating
+various Aryan tribes.  Rome, when it comes into the light of history,
+is a little trading city at a ford on the Tiber, with a Latin-speaking
+population ruled over by Etruscan kings.  The old chronologies gave 753
+B.C. as the date of the founding of Rome, half a century later than the
+founding of the great Phœnician city of Carthage and twenty-three years
+after the first Olympiad.  Etruscan tombs of a much earlier date than
+753 B.C. have, however, been excavated in the Roman Forum.
+
+In that red-letter century, the sixth century B.C., the Etruscan kings
+were expelled (510 B.C.) and Rome became an aristocratic republic with
+a lordly class of “patrician” families dominating a commonalty of
+“plebeians.” Except that it spoke Latin it was not unlike many
+aristocratic Greek republics.
+
+For some centuries the internal history of Rome was the story of a long
+and obstinate struggle for freedom and a share in the government on the
+part of the plebeians.  It would not be difficult to find Greek
+parallels to this conflict, which the Greeks would have called a
+conflict of aristocracy with democracy.  In the end the plebeians broke
+down most of the exclusive barriers of the old families and established
+a working equality with them.  They destroyed the old exclusiveness,
+and made it possible and acceptable for Rome to extend her citizenship
+by the inclusion of more and more “outsiders.”  For while she still
+struggled at home, she was extending her power abroad.
+
+
+REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE
+REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+The extension of Roman power began in the fifth century B.C.  Until
+that time they had waged war, and generally unsuccessful war, with the
+Etruscans.  There was an Etruscan fort, Veii, only a few miles from
+Rome which the Romans had never been able to capture.  In 474 B.C.,
+however, a great misfortune came to the Etruscans.  Their fleet was
+destroyed by the Greeks of Syracuse in Sicily.  At the same time a wave
+of Nordic invaders came down upon them from the north, the Gauls.
+Caught between Roman and Gaul, the Etruscans fell—and disappear from
+history.  Veii was captured by the Romans, The Gauls came through to
+Rome and sacked the city (390 B.C.A.D.) but could not capture the
+Capitol. An attempted night surprise was betrayed by the cackling of
+some geese, and finally the invaders were bought off and retired to the
+north of Italy again.
+
+The Gaulish raid seems to have invigorated rather than weakened Rome. 
+The Romans conquered and assimilated the Etruscans, and extended their
+power over all central Italy from the Arno to Naples.  To this they had
+reached within a few years of 300 B.C.  Their conquests in Italy were
+going on simultaneously with the growth of Philip’s power in Macedonia
+and Greece, and the tremendous raid of Alexander to Egypt and the
+Indus.  The Romans had become notable people in the civilized world to
+the east of them by the break-up of Alexander’s empire.
+
+To the north of the Roman power were the Gauls; to the south of them
+were the Greek settlements of Magna Græcia, that is to say of Sicily
+and of the toe and heel of Italy.  The Gauls were a hardy, warlike
+people and the Romans held that boundary by a line of forts and
+fortified settlements.  The Greek cities in the south headed by
+Tarentum (now Taranto) and by Syracuse in Sicily, did not so much
+threaten as fear the Romans.  They looked about for some help against
+these new conquerors.
+
+We have already told how the empire of Alexander fell to pieces and was
+divided among his generals and companions. Among these adventurers was
+a kinsman of Alexander’s named Pyrrhus, who established himself in
+Epirus, which is across the Adriatic Sea over against the heel of
+Italy.  It was his ambition to play the part of Philip of Macedonia to
+Magna Græcia, and to become protector and master-general of Tarentum,
+Syracuse and the rest of that part of the world. He had what was then
+it very efficient modern army; he had an infantry phalanx, cavalry from
+Thessaly—which was now quite as good as the original Macedonian
+cavalry—and twenty fighting elephants; he invaded Italy and routed the
+Romans in two considerable battles, Heraclea (280 B.C.) and Ausculum
+(279 B.C.), and having driven them north, he turned his attention to
+the subjugation of Sicily.
+
+But this brought against him a more formidable enemy than were the
+Romans at that time, the Phœnician trading city of Carthage, which was
+probably then the greatest city in the world.  Sicily was too near
+Carthage for a new Alexander to be welcome there, and Carthage was
+mindful of the fate that had befallen her mother city Tyre half a
+century before.  So she sent a fleet to encourage or compel Rome to
+continue the struggle, and she cut the overseas communications of
+Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus found himself freshly assailed by the Romans, and
+suffered a disastrous repulse in an attack he had made upon their camp
+at Beneventum between Naples and Rome.
+
+And suddenly came news that recalled him to Epirus.  The Gauls were
+raiding south.  But this time they were not raiding down into Italy;
+the Roman frontier, fortified and guarded, had become too formidable
+for them.  They were raiding down through Illyria (which is now Serbia
+and Albania) to Macedonia and Epirus.  Repulsed by the Romans,
+endangered at sea by the Carthaginians, and threatened at home by the
+Gauls, Pyrrhus abandoned his dream of conquest and went home (275
+B.C.), and the power of Rome was extended to the Straits of Messina.
+
+On the Sicilian side of the Straits was the Greek city of Messina, and
+this presently fell into the hands of a gang of pirates.  The
+Carthaginians, who were already practically overlords of Sicily and
+allies of Syracuse, suppressed these pirates (270 B.C.) and put in a
+Carthaginian garrison there.  The pirates appealed to Rome and Rome
+listened to their complaint.  And so across the Straits of Messina the
+great trading power of Carthage and this new conquering people, the
+Romans, found themselves in antagonism, face to face.
+
+
+
+
+XXXII
+ROME AND CARTHAGE
+
+
+It was in 264 B.C. that the great struggle between Rome and Carthage,
+the Punic Wars, began. In that year Asoka was beginning his reign in
+Behar and Shi- Hwang-ti was a little child, the Museum in Alexandria
+was still doing good scientific work, and the barbaric Gauls were now
+in Asia Minor and exacting a tribute from Pergamum. The different
+regions of the world were still separated by insurmountable distances,
+and probably the rest of mankind heard only vague and remote rumours of
+the mortal fight that went on for a century and a half in Spain, Italy,
+North Africa and the western Mediterranean, between the last stronghold
+of Semitic power and Rome, this newcomer among Aryan-speaking peoples.
+
+That war has left its traces upon issues that still stir the world. 
+Rome triumphed over Carthage, but the rivalry of Aryan and Semite was
+to merge itself later on in the conflict of Gentile and Jew.  Our
+history now is coming to events whose consequences and distorted
+traditions still maintain a lingering and expiring vitality in, and
+exercise a complicating and confusing influence upon, the conflicts and
+controversies of to-day.
+
+The First Punic War began in 264 B.C. about the pirates of Messina.  It
+developed into a struggle for the possession of all Sicily except the
+dominions of the Greek king of Syracuse.  The advantage of the sea was
+at first with the Carthaginians.  They had great fighting ships of what
+was hitherto an unheard-of size, quinqueremes, galleys with five banks
+of oars and a huge ram.  At the battle of Salamis, two centuries
+before, the leading battleships had only been triremes with three
+banks.  But the Romans, with extraordinary energy and in spite of the
+fact that they had little naval experience, set themselves to outbuild
+the Carthaginians.  They manned the new navy they created chiefly with
+Greek seamen, and they invented grappling and boarding to make up for
+the superior seamanship of the enemy. When the Carthaginian came up to
+ram or shear the oars of the Roman, huge grappling irons seized him and
+the Roman soldiers swarmed aboard him.  At Mylæ (260 B.C.) and at
+Ecnomus (256 B.C.) the Carthaginians were disastrously beaten. They
+repulsed a Roman landing near Carthage but were badly beaten at
+Palermo, losing one hundred and four elephants there—to grace such a
+triumphal procession through the Forum as Rome had never seen before. 
+But after that came two Roman defeats and then a Roman recovery.  The
+last naval forces of Carthage were defeated by it last Roman effort at
+the battle of the Ægatian Isles (241 B.C.) and Carthage sued for peace.
+ All Sicily except the dominions of Hiero, king of Syracuse, was ceded
+to the Romans.
+
+
+HANNIBAL
+HANNIBAL
+
+Bust in the National Museum at Naples
+
+_Photo:  Mansell_
+
+
+For twenty-two years Rome and Carthage kept the peace.  Both had
+trouble enough at home.  In Italy the Gauls came south again,
+threatened Rome—_which in a state of panic offered human sacrifices to
+the Gods!_—and were routed at Telamon.  Rome pushed forward to the
+Alps, and even extended her dominions down the Adriatic coast to
+Illyria. Carthage suffered from domestic insurrections and from revolts
+in Corsica and Sardinia, and displayed far less recuperative power. 
+Finally, an act of intolerable aggression, Rome seized and annexed the
+two revolting islands.
+
+Spain at that time was Carthaginian as far north as the river Ebro.  To
+that boundary the Romans restricted them.  Any crossing of the Ebro by
+the Carthaginians was to be considered an act of war against the
+Romans.  At last in 218 B.C. the Carthaginians, provoked by new Roman
+aggressions, did cross this river under a young general named Hannibal,
+one of the most brilliant commanders in the whole of history.  He
+marched his army from Spain over the Alps into Italy, raised the Gauls
+against the Romans, and carried on the Second Punic War in Italy itself
+for fifteen years.  He inflicted tremendous defeats upon the Romans at
+Lake Trasimere and at Cannæ, and throughout all his Italian campaigns
+no Roman army stood against him and escaped disaster.  But a Roman army
+had landed at Marseilles and cut his communications with Spain; he had
+no siege train, and he could never capture Rome.  Finally the
+Carthaginians, threatened by the revolt of the Numidians at home, were
+forced back upon the defence of their own city in Africa, a Roman army
+crossed into Africa, and Hannibal experienced his first defeat under
+its walls at the battle of Zama (202 B.C. at the hands of Scipio
+Africanus the Elder.  The battle of Zama ended this Second Punic War.
+Carthage capitulated; she surrendered Spain and her war fleet; she paid
+an enormous indemnity and agreed to give up Hannibal to the vengeance
+of the Romans.  But Hannibal escaped and fled to Asia where later,
+being in danger of falling into the hands of his relentless enemies, he
+took poison and died.
+
+For fifty-six years Rome and the shorn city of Carthage were at peace. 
+And meanwhile Rome spread her empire over confused and divided Greece,
+invaded Asia Minor, and defeated Antiochus III, the Seleucid monarch,
+at Magnesia in Lydia. She made Egypt, still under the Ptolemies, and
+Pergamum and most of the small states of Asia Minor into “Allies,” or,
+as we should call them now, “protected states.”
+
+Meanwhile Carthage, subjugated and enfeebled, had been slowly regaining
+something of her former prosperity.  Her recovery revived the hate and
+suspicion of the Romans.  She was attacked upon the most shallow and
+artificial of quarrels (149 B.C.), she made an obstinate and bitter
+resistance, stood a long siege and was stormed (146 B.C.). The street
+fighting, or massacre, lasted six days; it was extraordinarily bloody,
+and when the citadel capitulated only about fifty thousand of the
+Carthaginian population remained alive out of a quarter of a million. 
+They were sold into slavery, and the city was burnt and elaborately
+destroyed.  The blackened ruins were ploughed and sown as a sort of
+ceremonial effacement.
+
+
+Map: The Extent of the Roman Power & its Alliances about 150 B.C.
+
+So ended the Third Punic War.  Of all the Semitic states and cities
+that had flourished in the world five centuries before only one little
+country remained free under native rulers. This was Judea, which had
+liberated itself from the Seleucids and was under the rule of the
+native Maccabean princes. By this time it had its Bible almost
+complete, and was developing the distinctive traditions of the Jewish
+world as we know it now.  It was natural that the Carthaginians,
+Phoenicians and kindred peoples dispersed about the world should find a
+common link in their practically identical language and in this
+literature of hope and courage.  To a large extent they were still the
+traders and bankers of the world.  The Semitic world had been submerged
+rather than replaced.
+
+Jerusalem, which has always been rather the symbol than the centre of
+Judaism, was taken by the Romans in 65 B.C.; and after various
+vicissitudes of quasi- independence and revolt was besieged by them in
+70 A.D. and captured after a stubborn struggle. The Temple was
+destroyed.  A later rebellion in 132 A.D. completed its destruction,
+and the Jerusalem we know to-day was rebuilt later under Roman
+auspices.  A temple to the Roman god, Jupiter Capitolinus, stood in the
+place of the Temple, and Jews were forbidden to inhabit the city.
+
+
+
+
+XXXIII
+THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+Now this new Roman power which arose to dominate the western world in
+the second and first centuries B.C. was in several respects a different
+thing from any of the great empires that had hitherto prevailed in the
+civilized world. It was not at first a monarchy, and it was not the
+creation of any one great conqueror. It was not indeed the first of
+republican empires; Athens had dominated a group of Allies and
+dependents in the time of Pericles, and Carthage when she entered upon
+her fatal struggle with Rome was mistress of Sardinia and Corsica,
+Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and most of Spain and Sicily. But it was the
+first republican empire that escaped extinction and went on to fresh
+developments.
+
+The centre of this new system lay far to the west of the more ancient
+centres of empire, which had hitherto been the river valleys of
+Mesopotamia and Egypt.  This westward position enabled Rome to bring in
+to civilization quite fresh regions and peoples. The Roman power
+extended to Morocco and Spain, and was presently able to thrust
+north-westward over what is now France and Belgium to Britain and
+north-eastward into Hungary and South Russia.  But on the other hand it
+was never able to maintain itself in Central Asia or Persia because
+they were too far from its administrative centres.  It included
+therefore great masses of fresh Nordic Aryan- speaking peoples, it
+presently incorporated nearly all the Greek people in the world, and
+its population was less strongly Hamitic and Semitic than that of any
+preceding empire.
+
+For some centuries this Roman Empire did not fall into the grooves of
+precedent that had so speedily swallowed up Persian and Greek, and all
+that time it developed.  The rulers of the Medes and Persians became
+entirely Babylonized in a generation or so; they took over the tiara of
+the king of kings and the temples and priesthoods of his gods;
+Alexander and his successors followed in the same easy path of
+assimilation; the Seleucid monarchs had much the same court and
+administrative methods as Nebuchadnezzar; the Ptolemies became Pharaohs
+and altogether Egyptian.  They were assimilated just as before them the
+Semitic conquerors of the Sumerians had been assimilated.  But the
+Romans ruled in their own city, and for some centuries kept to the laws
+of their own nature.  The only people who exercised any great mental
+influence upon them before the second or third century A.D. were the
+kindred and similar Greeks.  So that the Roman Empire was essentially a
+first attempt to rule a great dominion upon mainly Aryan lines.  It was
+so far a new pattern in history, it was an expanded Aryan republic. 
+The old pattern of a personal conqueror ruling over a capital city that
+had grown up round the temple of a harvest god did not apply to it. 
+The Romans had gods and temples, but like the gods of the Greeks their
+gods were quasi-human immortals, divine patricians.  The Romans also
+had blood sacrifices and even made human ones in times of stress,
+things they may have learnt to do from their dusky Etruscan teachers;
+but until Rome was long past its zenith neither priest nor temple
+played a large part in Roman history.
+
+The Roman Empire was a growth, an unplanned novel growth; the Roman
+people found themselves engaged almost unawares in a vast
+administrative experiment.  It cannot be called a successful
+experiment.  In the end their empire collapsed altogether.  And it
+changed enormously in form and method from century to century.  It
+changed more in a hundred years than Bengal or Mesopotamia or Egypt
+changed in a thousand. It was always changing.  It never attained to
+any fixity.
+
+In a sense the experiment failed.  In a sense the experiment remains
+unfinished, and Europe and America to-day are still working out the
+riddles of world-wide statescraft first confronted by the Roman people.
+
+It is well for the student of history to bear in mind the very great
+changes not only in political but in social and moral matters that went
+on throughout the period of Roman dominion.  There is much too strong a
+tendency in people’s minds to think of the Roman rule as something
+finished and stable, firm, rounded, noble and decisive.  Macaulay’s
+_Lays of Ancient Rome_, S.P.Q.R. the elder Cato, the Scipios, Julius
+Cæsar, Diocletian, Constantine the Great, triumphs, orations,
+gladiatorial combats and Christian martyrs are all mixed up together in
+a picture of something high and cruel and dignified.  The items of that
+picture have to be disentangled.  They are collected at different
+points from a process of change profounder than that which separates
+the London of William the Conqueror from the London of to-day.
+
+We may very conveniently divide the expansion of Rome into four stages.
+ The first stage began after the sack of Rome by the Goths in 390 B.C.
+and went on until the end of the First Punic War (240 B.C,).  We may
+call this stage the stage of the Assimilative Republic.  It was perhaps
+the finest, most characteristic stage in Roman history.  The age-long
+dissensions of patrician and plebeian were drawing to it close, the
+Etruscan threat had come to an end, no one was very rich yet nor very
+poor, and most men were public-spirited.  It was a republic like the
+republic of the South African Boers before 1900 or like the northern
+states of the American union between 1800 and 1850; a free- farmers
+republic.  At the outset of this stage Rome was a little state scarcely
+twenty miles square.  She fought the sturdy but kindred states about
+her, and sought not their destruction but coalescence.  Her centuries
+of civil dissension had trained her people in compromise and
+concessions.  Some of the defeated cities became altogether Roman with
+a voting share in the government, some became self-governing with the
+right to trade and marry in Rome; garrisons full of citizens were set
+up at strategic points and colonies of varied privileges founded among
+the freshly conquered people.  Great roads were made.  The rapid
+Latinization of all Italy was the inevitable consequence of such a
+policy.  In 89 B.C. all the free inhabitants of Italy became citizens
+of the city of Rome.  Formally the whole Roman Empire became at last an
+extended city.  In 212 A.D. every free man in the entire extent of the
+empire was given citizenship; the right, if he could get there, to vote
+in the town meeting in Rome.
+
+This extension of citizenship to tractable cities and to whole
+countries was the distinctive device of Roman expansion.  It reversed
+the old process of conquest and assimilation altogether.  By the Roman
+method the conquerors assimilated the conquered.
+
+
+THE FORUM AT ROME AS IT IS TO-DAY
+THE FORUM AT ROME AS IT IS TO-DAY
+
+
+But after the First Punic War and the annexation of Sicily, though the
+old process of assimilation still went on, another process arose by its
+side.  Sicily for instance was treated as a conquered prey.  It was
+declared an “estate” of the Roman people.  Its rich soil and
+industrious population was exploited to make Rome rich.  The patricians
+and the more influential among the plebeians secured the major share of
+that wealth.  And the war also brought in a large supply of slaves. 
+Before the First Punic War the population of the republic had been
+largely a population of citizen farmers.  Military service was their
+privilege and liability.  While they were on active service their farms
+fell into debt and a new large-scale slave agriculture grew up; when
+they returned they found their produce in competition with slave-grown
+produce from Sicily and from the new estates at home.  Times had
+changed.  The republic had altered its character.  Not only was Sicily
+in the hands of Rome, the common man was in the hands of the rich
+creditor and the rich competitor.  Rome had entered upon its second
+stage, the Republic of Adventurous Rich Men.
+
+For two hundred years the Roman soldier farmers had struggled for
+freedom and a share in the government of their state; for a hundred
+years they had enjoyed their privileges.  The First Punic War wasted
+them and robbed them of all they had won.
+
+
+RELICS OF ROMAN RULE
+RELICS OF ROMAN RULE
+
+Ruins of Coliseum in Tunis
+
+_Photo:  Jacques Boyer_
+
+
+The value of their electoral privileges had also evaporated. The
+governing bodies of the Roman republic were two in number.  The first
+and more important was the Senate.  This was a body originally of
+patricians and then of prominent men of all sorts, who were summoned to
+it first by certain powerful officials, the consuls and censors.  Like
+the British House of Lords it became a gathering of great landowners,
+prominent politicians, big business men and the like. It was much more
+like the British House of Lords than it was like the American Senate. 
+For three centuries, from the Punic Wars onward, it was the centre of
+Roman political thought and purpose.  The second body was the Popular
+Assembly.  This was supposed to be an assembly of _all_ the citizens of
+Rome.  When Rome was a little state twenty miles square this was a
+possible gathering.  When the citizenship of Rome had spread beyond the
+confines in Italy, it was an altogether impossible one.  Its meetings,
+proclaimed by horn-blowing from the Capitol and the city walls, became
+more and more a gathering of political hacks and city riff-raff.  In
+the fourth century B.C. the Popular Assembly was a considerable check
+upon the Senate, a competent representation of the claims and rights of
+the common man.  By the end of the Punic Wars it was an impotent relic
+of a vanquished popular control.  No effectual legal check remained
+upon the big men.
+
+
+THE GREAT ROMAN ARCH AT CTESIPHON NEAR BAGDAD
+THE GREAT ROMAN ARCH AT CTESIPHON NEAR BAGDAD
+
+
+Nothing of the nature of representative government was ever introduced
+into the Roman republic.  No one thought of electing delegates to
+represent the will of the citizens. This is a very important point for
+the student to grasp.  The Popular Assembly never became the equivalent
+of the American House of Representatives or the British House of
+Commons.  In theory it was all the citizens; in practice it ceased to
+be anything at all worth consideration.
+
+The common citizen of the Roman Empire was therefore in a very poor
+case after the Second Punic War; he was impoverished, he had often lost
+his farm, he was ousted from profitable production by slaves, and he
+had no political power left to him to remedy these things.  The only
+methods of popular expression left to a people without any form of
+political expression are the strike and the revolt.  The story of the
+second and first centuries B.C., so far as internal politics go, is a
+story of futile revolutionary upheaval.  The scale of this history will
+not permit us to tell of the intricate struggles of that time, of the
+attempts to break up estates and restore the land to the free farmer,
+of proposals to abolish debts in whole or in part.  There was revolt
+and civil war.  In 73 B.C., the distresses of Italy were enhanced by a
+great insurrection, of the slaves under Spartacus.  The slaves of Italy
+revolted with some effect, for among them were the trained fighters of
+the gladiatorial shows.  For two years Spartacus held out in the crater
+of Vesuvius, which seemed at that time to be an extinct volcano. This
+insurrection was defeated at last and suppressed with frantic cruelty. 
+Six thousand captured Spartacists were crucified along the Appian Way,
+the great highway that runs southward out of Rome (71 B.C.).
+
+The common man never made head against the forces that were subjugating
+and degrading him.  But the big rich men who were overcoming him were
+even in his defeat preparing a new power in the Roman world over
+themselves and him, the power of the army.
+
+Before the Second Punic War the army of Rome was a levy of free
+farmers, who, according to their quality, rode or marched afoot to
+battle.  This was a very good force for wars close at hand, but not the
+sort of army that will go abroad and bear long campaigns with patience.
+ And moreover as the slaves multiplied and the estates grew, the supply
+of free- spirited fighting farmers declined.  It was a popular leader
+named Marius who introduced a new factor.  North Africa after the
+overthrow of the Carthaginian civilization had become a semi-barbaric
+kingdom, the kingdom of Numidia.  The Roman power fell into conflict
+with Jugurtha, king of this state, and experienced enormous
+difficulties in subduing him. Marius was made consul, in a phase of
+public indignation, to end this discreditable war.  This he did by
+raising _paid troops_ and drilling them hard.  Jugurtha was brought in
+chains to Rome (106 B.C.) and Marius, when his time of office had
+expired, held on to his consulship illegally with his newly created
+legions.  There was no power in Rome to restrain him.
+
+With Marius began the third phase in the development of the Roman
+power, the Republic of the Military Commanders.  For now began a period
+in which the leaders of the paid legions fought for the mastery of the
+Roman world.  Against Marius was pitted the aristocratic Sulla who had
+served under him in Africa.  Each in turn made a great massacre of his
+political opponents.  Men were proscribed and executed by the thousand,
+and their estates were sold.  After the bloody rivalry of these two and
+the horror of the revolt of Spartacus, came a phase in which Lucullus
+and Pompey the Great and Crassus and Julius Cæsar were the masters of
+armies and dominated affairs.  It was Crassus who defeated Spartacus. 
+Lucullus conquered Asia Minor and penetrated to Armenia, and retired
+with great wealth into private life.  Crassus thrusting further invaded
+Persia and was defeated and slain by the Parthians.  After a long
+rivalry Pompey was defeated by Julius Cæsar (48 B.C.) and murdered in
+Egypt, leaving Julius Cæsar sole master of the Roman world.
+
+The figure of Julius Cæsar is one that has stirred the human
+imagination out of all proportion to its merit or true importance.  He
+has become a legend and a symbol.  For us he is chiefly important as
+marking the transition from the phase of military adventurers to the
+beginning of the fourth stage in Roman expansion, the Early Empire. 
+For in spite of the profoundest economic and political convulsions, in
+spite of civil war and social degeneration, throughout all this time
+the boundaries of the Roman state crept outward and continued to creep
+outward to their maximum about 100 A.D.  There had been something like
+an ebb during the doubtful phases of the Second Punic War, and again a
+manifest loss of vigour before the reconstruction of the army by
+Marius. The revolt of Spartacus marked a third phase.  Julius Cæsar
+made his reputation as a military leader in Gaul, which is now France
+and Belgium.  (The chief tribes inhabiting this country belonged to the
+same Celtic people as the Gauls who had occupied north Italy for a
+time, and who had afterwards raided into Asia Minor and settled down as
+the Galatians.)  Cæsar drove back a German invasion of Gaul and added
+all that country to the empire, and he twice crossed the Straits of
+Dover into Britain (55 and 54 B.C.), where however he made no permanent
+conquest.  Meanwhile Pompey the Great was consolidating Roman conquests
+that reached in the east to the Caspian Sea.
+
+
+THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME
+THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME
+
+Representing his conquests at Dacia and elsewhere
+
+
+At this time, the middle of the first century B.C., the Roman Senate
+was still the nominal centre of the Roman government, appointing
+consuls and other officials, granting powers and the like; and a number
+of politicians, among whom Cicero was an outstanding figure, were
+struggling to preserve the great traditions of republican Rome and to
+maintain respect for its laws.  But the spirit of citizenship had gone
+from Italy with the wasting away of the free farmers; it was a land now
+of slaves and impoverished men with neither the understanding nor the
+desire for freedom.  There was nothing whatever behind these republican
+leaders in the Senate, while behind the great adventurers they feared
+and desired to control were the legions.  Over the heads of the Senate
+Crassus and Pompey and Cæsar divided the rule of the Empire between
+them (The First Triumvirate).  When presently Crassus was killed at
+distant Carrhæ by the Parthians, Pompey and Cæsar fell out. Pompey took
+up the republican side, and laws were passed to bring Cæsar to trial
+for his breaches of law and his disobedience to the decrees of the
+Senate.
+
+It was illegal for a general to bring his troops out of the boundary of
+his command, and the boundary between Cæsar’s command and Italy was the
+Rubicon.  In 49 B.C. he crossed the Rubicon, saying “The die is cast”
+and marched upon Pompey and Rome.
+
+It had been the custom in Rome in the past, in periods of military
+extremity, to elect a “dictator” with practically unlimited powers to
+rule through the crisis. After his overthrow of Pompey, Cæsar was made
+dictator first for ten years and then (in 45 B.C.) for life.  In effect
+he was made monarch of the empire for life.  There was talk of a king,
+a word abhorrent to Rome since the expulsion of the Etruscans five
+centuries before.  Cæsar refused to be king, but adopted throne and
+sceptre.  After his defeat of Pompey, Cæsar had gone on into Egypt and
+had made love to Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, the goddess
+queen of Egypt.  She seems to have turned his head very completely.  He
+had brought back to Rome the Egyptian idea of a god-king.  His statue
+was set up in a temple with an inscription “To the Unconquerable God.” 
+The expiring republicanism of Rome flared up in a last protest, and
+Cæsar was stabbed to death in the Senate at the foot of the statue of
+his murdered rival, Pompey the Great.
+
+Thirteen years more of this conflict of ambitious personalities
+followed.  There was a second Triumvirate of Lepidus, Mark Antony and
+Octavian Cæsar, the latter the nephew of Julius Cæsar.  Octavian like
+his uncle took the poorer, hardier western provinces where the best
+legions were recruited.  In 31 B.C., he defeated Mark Antony, his only
+serious rival, at the naval battle of Actium, and made himself sole
+master of the Roman world.  But Octavian was a man of different quality
+altogether from Julius Cæsar.  He had no foolish craving to be God or
+King.  He had no queen-lover that he wished to dazzle.  He restored
+freedom to the Senate and people of Rome.  He declined to be dictator. 
+The grateful Senate in return gave him the reality instead of the forms
+of power. He was to be called not King indeed, but “Princeps” and
+“Augustus.”  He became Augustus Cæsar, the first of the Roman emperors
+(27 B.C. to 14 A.D.).
+
+He was followed by Tiberius Cæsar (14 to 37 A.D.) and he by others,
+Caligula, Claudius, Nero and so on up to Trajan (98 A.D.), Hadrian (117
+A.D.), Antonius Pius (138 A.D.) and Marcus Aurelius (161- 180 A.D.). 
+All these emperors were emperors of the legions.  The soldiers made
+them, and some the soldiers destroyed.  Gradually the Senate fades out
+of Roman-history, and the emperor and his administrative officials
+replace it.  The boundaries of the empire crept forward now to their
+utmost limits.  Most of Britain was added to the empire, Transylvania
+was brought in as a new province, Dacia; Trajan crossed the Euphrates. 
+Hadrian had an idea that reminds us at once of what had happened at the
+other end of the old world.  Like Shi-Hwang-ti he built walls against
+the northern barbarians; one across Britain and a palisade between the
+Rhine and the Danube.  He abandoned some of the acquisitions of Trajan.
+
+The expansion of the Roman Empire was at an end.
+
+
+
+
+XXXIV
+BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA
+
+
+The second and first centuries B.C. mark a new phase in the history of
+mankind. Mesopotamia and the eastern Mediterranean are no longer the
+centre of interest. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt were still fertile,
+populous and fairly prosperous, but they were no longer the dominant
+regions of the world. Power had drifted to the west and to the east.
+Two great empires now dominated the world, this new Roman Empire and
+the renascent Empire of China. Rome extended its power to the
+Euphrates, but it was never able to get beyond that boundary. It was
+too remote. Beyond the Euphrates the former Persian and Indian
+dominions of the Seleucids fell under a number of new masters. China,
+now under the Han dynasty, which had replaced the Ts’in dynasty at the
+death of Shi-Hwang-ti, had extended its power across Tibet and over the
+high mountain passes of the Pamirs into western Turkestan. But there,
+too, it reached its extremes. Beyond was too far.
+
+China at this time was the greatest, best organized and most civilized
+political system in the world.  It was superior in area and population
+to the Roman Empire at its zenith.  It was possible then for these two
+vast systems to flourish in the same world at the same time in almost
+complete ignorance of each other.  The means of communication both by
+sea and land was not yet sufficiently developed and organized for them
+to come to a direct clash.
+
+Yet they reacted upon each other in a very remarkable way, and their
+influence upon the fate of the regions that lay between them, upon
+central Asia and India, was profound.  A certain amount of trade
+trickled through, by camel caravans across Persia, for example, and by
+coasting ships by way of India and the Red Sea.  In 66 B.C. Roman
+troops under Pompey followed in the footsteps of Alexander the Great,
+and marched up the eastern shores of the Caspian Sea.  In 102 A.D. a
+Chinese expeditionary force under Pan Chau reached the Caspian, and
+sent emissaries to report upon the power of Rome.  But many centuries
+were still to pass before definite knowledge and direct intercourse
+were to link the great parallel worlds of Europe and Eastern Asia.
+
+To the north of both these great empires were barbaric wildernesses. 
+What is now Germany was largely forest lands; the forests extended far
+into Russia and made a home for the gigantic aurochs, a bull of almost
+elephantine size.  Then to the north of the great mountain masses of
+Asia stretched a band of deserts, steppes and then forests and frozen
+lands. In the eastward lap of the elevated part of Asia was the great
+triangle of Manchuria.  Large parts of these regions, stretching
+between South Russia and Turkestan into Manchuria, were and are regions
+of exceptional climatic insecurity. Their rainfall has varied greatly
+in the course of a few centuries  They are lands treacherous to man. 
+For years they will carry pasture and sustain cultivation, and then
+will come an age of decline in humidity and a cycle of killing
+droughts.
+
+
+A CHINESE COVERED JAR OF GREEN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE
+A CHINESE COVERED JAR OF GREEN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE
+
+Han Dynasty (contemporary with the late Roman republic and early
+Empire)
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+The western part of this barbaric north from the German forests to
+South Russia and Turkestan and from Gothland to the Alps was the region
+of origin of the Nordic peoples and of the Aryan speech.  The eastern
+steppes and deserts of Mongolia was the region of origin of the Hunnish
+or Mongolian or Tartar or Turkish peoples—for all these several peoples
+were akin in language, race, and way of life.  And as the Nordic
+peoples seem to have been continually overflowing their own borders and
+pressing south upon the developing civilizations of Mesopotamia and the
+Mediterranean coast, so the Hunnish tribes sent their surplus as
+wanderers, raiders and conquerors into the settled regions of China. 
+Periods of plenty in the north would mean an increase in population
+there; a shortage of grass, a spell of cattle disease, would drive the
+hungry warlike tribesmen south.
+
+For a time there were simultaneously two fairly effective Empires in
+the world capable of holding back the barbarians and even forcing
+forward the frontiers of the imperial peace. The thrust of the Han
+empire from north China into Mongolia was strong and continuous.  The
+Chinese population welled up over the barrier of the Great Wall. 
+Behind the imperial frontier guards came the Chinese farmer with horse
+and plough, ploughing up the grass lands and enclosing the winter
+pasture.  The Hunnish peoples raided and murdered the settlers, but the
+Chinese punitive expeditions were too much for them.  The nomads were
+faced with the choice of settling down to the plough and becoming
+Chinese tax-payers or shifting in search of fresh summer pastures. 
+Some took the former course and were absorbed.  Some drifted
+north-eastward and eastward over the mountain passes down into western
+Turkestan.
+
+
+VASE OF BRONZE FORM, UNGLAZED STONEWARE
+VASE OF BRONZE FORM, UNGLAZED STONEWARE
+
+Han Dynasty (B.C. 206 - A.D. 220)
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+This westward drive of the Mongolian horsemen was going on from 200
+B.C. onward.  It was producing a westward pressure upon the Aryan
+tribes, and these again were pressing upon the Roman frontiers ready to
+break through directly there was any weakness apparent.  The Parthians,
+who were apparently a Scythian people with some Mongolian admixture,
+came down to the Euphrates by the first century B.C.  They fought
+against Pompey the Great in his eastern raid.  They defeated and killed
+Crassus.  They replaced the Seleucid monarchy in Persia by a dynasty of
+Parthian kings, the Arsacid dynasty.
+
+
+CHINESE VESSEL IN BRONZE, IN FORM OF A GOOSE
+CHINESE VESSEL IN BRONZE, IN FORM OF A GOOSE
+
+Dating from before the time of Shi-Hwang-ti.  Such a piece of work
+indicates a high level of comfort and humour
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+But for a time the line of least resistance for hungry nomads lay
+neither to the west nor the east but through central Asia and then
+south-eastward through the Khyber Pass into India. It was India which
+received the Mongolian drive in these centuries of Roman and Chinese
+strength.  A series of raiding conquerors poured down through the
+Punjab into the great plains to loot and destroy.  The empire of Asoka
+was broken up, and for a time the history of India passes into
+darkness. A certain Kushan dynasty founded by the “Indo- Scythians”—one
+of the raiding peoples—ruled for a time over North India and maintained
+a certain order. These invasions went on for several centuries.  For a
+large part of the fifth century A.D. India was afflicted by the
+Ephthalites or White Huns, who levied tribute on the small Indian
+princes and held India in terror. Every summer these Ephthalites
+pastured in western Turkestan, every autumn they came down through the
+passes to terrorize India.
+
+In the second century A.D. a great misfortune came upon the Roman and
+Chinese empires that probably weakened the resistance of both to
+barbarian pressure.  This was a pestilence of unexampled virulence.  It
+raged for eleven years in China and disorganized the social framework
+profoundly.  The Han dynasty fell, and a new age of division and
+confusion began from which China did not fairly recover until the
+seventh century A.D. with the coming of the great Tang dynasty.
+
+The infection spread through Asia to Europe.  It raged throughout the
+Roman Empire from 164 to 180 A.D.  It evidently weakened the Roman
+imperial fabric very seriously.  We begin to hear of depopulation in
+the Roman provinces after this, and there was a marked deterioration in
+the vigour and efficiency of government.  At any rate we presently find
+the frontier no longer invulnerable, but giving way first in this place
+and then in that.  A new Nordic people, the Goths, coming originally
+from Gothland in Sweden, had migrated across Russia to the Volga region
+and the shores of the Black Sea and taken to the sea and piracy.  By
+the end of the second century they may have begun to feel the westward
+thrust of the Huns.  In 247 they crossed the Danube in a great land
+raid, and defeated and killed the Emperor Decius in a battle in what is
+now Serbia. In 236 another Germanic people, the Franks, had broken
+bounds upon the lower Rhine, and the Alemanni had poured into Alsace. 
+The legions in Gaul beat back their invaders, but the Goths in the
+Balkan peninsula raided again and again. The province of Dacia vanished
+from Roman history.
+
+A chill had come to the pride and confidence of Rome.  In 270-275 Rome,
+which had been an open and secure city for three centuries, was
+fortified by the Emperor Aurelian.
+
+
+
+
+XXXV
+THE COMMON MAN’S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+Before we tell of how this Roman empire which was built up in the two
+centuries B.C., and which flourished in peace and security from the
+days of Augustus Cæsar onward for two centuries, fell into disorder and
+was broken up, it may be as well to devote some attention to the life
+of the ordinary people throughout this great realm. Our history has
+come down now to within 2000 years of our own time; and the life of the
+civilized people, both under the Peace of Rome and the Peace of the Han
+dynasty, was beginning to resemble more and more clearly the life of
+their civilized successors to-day.
+
+In the western world coined money was now in common use; outside the
+priestly world there were many people of independent means who were
+neither officials of the government nor priests; people travelled about
+more freely than they had ever done before, and there were high roads
+and inns for them. Compared with the past, with the time before 500
+B.C., life had become much more loose. Before that date civilized men
+had been bound to a district or country, had been bound to a tradition
+and lived within a very limited horizon; only the nomads traded and
+travelled.
+
+But neither the Roman Peace nor the Peace of the Han dynasty meant a
+uniform civilization over the large areas they controlled.  There were
+very great local differences and great contrasts and inequalities of
+culture between one district and another, just as there are to-day
+under the British Peace in India.  The Roman garrisons and colonies
+were dotted here and there over this great space, worshipping Roman
+gods and speaking the Latin language; but where there had been towns
+and cities before the coming of the Romans, they went on, subordinated
+indeed but managing their own affairs, and, for a time at least,
+worshipping their own gods in their own fashion.  Over Greece, Asia
+Minor, Egypt and the Hellenized East generally, the Latin language
+never prevailed.  Greek ruled there invincibly.  Saul of Tarsus, who
+became the apostle Paul, was a Jew and a Roman citizen; but he spoke
+and wrote Greek and not Hebrew.  Even at the court of the Parthian
+dynasty, which had overthrown the Greek Seleucids in Persia, and was
+quite outside the Roman imperial boundaries, Greek was the fashionable
+language.  In some parts of Spain and in North Africa, the Carthaginian
+language also held on for a long time in spite of the destruction of
+Carthage.  Such a town as Seville, which had been a prosperous city
+long before the Roman name had been heard of, kept its Semitic goddess
+and preserved its Semitic speech for generations, in spite of a colony
+of Roman veterans at Italica a few miles away.  Septimius Severus, who
+was emperor from 193 to 211 A.D., spoke Carthaginian as his mother
+speech.  He learnt Latin later as a foreign tongue; and it is recorded
+that his sister never learnt Latin and conducted her Roman household in
+the Punic language.
+
+
+A Gladiator (contemporary representation)
+
+In such countries as Gaul and Britain and in provinces like Dacia (now
+roughly Roumania) and Pannonia (Hungary south of the Danube), where
+there were no pre-existing great cities and temples and cultures, the
+Roman empire did however “Latinize.”  It civilized these countries for
+the first time.  It created cities and towns where Latin was from the
+first the dominant speech, and where Roman gods were served and Roman
+customs and fashions followed.  The Roumanian, Italian, French and
+Spanish languages, all variations and modifications of Latin, remain to
+remind us of this extension of Latin speech and customs.  North-west
+Africa also became at last largely Latin-speaking.  Egypt, Greece and
+the rest of the empire to the east were never Latinized.  They remained
+Egyptian and Greek in culture and spirit.  And even in Rome, among
+educated men, Greek was learnt as the language of a gentleman and Greek
+literature and learning were very, properly preferred to Latin.
+
+In this miscellaneous empire the ways of doing work and business were
+naturally also very miscellaneous.  The chief industry of the settled
+world was still largely agriculture. We have told how in Italy the
+sturdy free farmers who were the backbone of the early Roman republic
+were replaced by estates worked by slave labour after the Punic wars. 
+The Greek world had had very various methods of cultivation, from the
+Arcadian plan, wherein every free citizen toiled with his own hands, to
+Sparta, wherein it was a dishonour to work and where agricultural work
+was done by a special slave class, the Helots.  But that was ancient
+history now, and over most of the Hellenized world the estate system
+and slave-gangs had spread.  The agricultural slaves were captives who
+spoke many different languages so that they could not understand each
+other, or they were born slaves; they had no solidarity to resist
+oppression, no tradition of rights, no knowledge, for they could not
+read nor write.  Although they came to form a majority of the country
+population they never made a successful insurrection.  The insurrection
+of Spartacus in the first century B.C. was an insurrection of the
+special slaves who were trained for the gladiatorial combats. The
+agricultural workers in Italy in the latter days of the Republic and
+the early Empire suffered frightful indignities; they would be chained
+at night to prevent escape or have half the head shaved to make it
+difficult.  They had no wives of their own; they could be outraged,
+mutilated and killed by their masters.  A master could sell his slave
+to fight beasts in the arena.  If a slave slew his master, all the
+slaves in his household and not merely the murderer were crucified.  In
+some parts of Greece, in Athens notably, the lot of the slave was never
+quite so frightful as this, but it was still detestable.  To such a
+population the barbarian invaders who presently broke through the
+defensive line of the legions, came not as enemies but as liberators.
+
+
+POMPEII
+POMPEII
+
+“Note the ruts in roadway worn by chariot wheels.”
+
+
+The slave system had spread to most industries and to every sort of
+work that could be done by gangs.  Mines and metallurgical operations,
+the rowing of galleys, road-making and big building operations were all
+largely slave occupations.  And almost all domestic service was
+performed by slaves.  There were poor free-men and there were freed-men
+in the cities and upon the country side, working for themselves or even
+working for wages.  They were artizans, supervisors and so forth,
+workers of a new money- paid class working in competition with slave
+workers; but we do not know what proportion they made of the general
+population.  It probably varied widely in different places and at
+different periods.  And there were also many modifications of slavery,
+from the slavery that was chained at night and driven with whips to the
+farm or quarry, to the slave whose master found it advantageous to
+leave him to cultivate his patch or work his craft and own his wife
+like a free-man, provided he paid in a satisfactory quittance to his
+owner.
+
+There were armed slaves.  At the opening of the period of the Punic
+wars, in 264 B.C., the Etruscan sport of setting slaves to fight for
+their lives was revived in Rome.  It grew rapidly fashionable; and soon
+every great Roman rich man kept a retinue of gladiators, who sometimes
+fought in the arena but whose real business it was to act as his
+bodyguard of bullies.  And also there were learned slaves.  The
+conquests of the later Republic were among the highly civilized cities
+of Greece, North Africa and Asia Minor; and they brought in many highly
+educated captives. The tutor of a young Roman of good family was
+usually a slave.  A rich man would have a Greek slave as librarian, and
+slave secretaries and learned men.  He would keep his poet as he would
+keep a performing dog.  In this atmosphere of slavery the traditions of
+modern literary criticism were evolved.  The slaves still boast and
+quarrel in our reviews. There were enterprising people who bought
+intelligent boy slaves and had them educated for sale.  Slaves were
+trained as book copyists, as jewellers, and for endless skilled
+callings.
+
+
+THE COLISEUM, ROME
+THE COLISEUM, ROME
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AT IT APPEARS TO-DAY
+INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AT IT APPEARS TO-DAY
+
+
+But there were very considerable changes in the position of a slave
+during the four hundred years between the opening days of conquest
+under the republic of rich men and the days of disintegration that
+followed the great pestilence.  In the second century B.C. war-captives
+were abundant, manners gross and brutal; the slave had no rights and
+there was scarcely an outrage the reader can imagine that was not
+practised upon slaves in those days.  But already in the first century
+A.D. there was a perceptible improvement in the attitude of the Roman
+civilization towards slavery.  Captives were not so abundant for one
+thing, and slaves were dearer.  And slave- owners began to realize that
+the profit and comfort they got from their slaves increased with the
+self-respect of these unfortunates.  But also the moral tone of the
+community was rising, and a sense of justice was becoming effective. 
+The higher mentality of Greece was qualifying the old Roman harshness. 
+Restrictions upon cruelty were made, a master might no longer sell his
+slave to fight beasts, a slave was given property rights in what was
+called his _peculium_, slaves were paid wages as an encouragement and
+stimulus, a form of slave marriage was recognized.  Very many forms of
+agriculture do not lend themselves to gang working, or require gang
+workers only at certain seasons.  In regions where such conditions
+prevailed the slave presently became a serf, paying his owner part of
+his produce or working for him at certain seasons.
+
+When we begin to realize how essentially this great Latin and
+Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the first two centuries A.D. was a slave
+state and how small was the minority who had any pride or freedom in
+their lives, we lay our hands on the clues to its decay and collapse. 
+There was little of what we should call family life, few homes of
+temperate living and active thought and study; schools and colleges
+were few and far between.  The free will and the free mind were nowhere
+to be found.  The great roads, the ruins of splendid buildings, the
+tradition of law and power it left for the astonishment of succeeding
+generations must not conceal from us that all its outer splendour was
+built upon thwarted wills, stifled intelligence, and crippled and
+perverted desires.  And even the minority who lorded it over that wide
+realm of subjugation and of restraint and forced labour were uneasy and
+unhappy in their souls; art and literature, science and philosophy,
+which are the fruits of free and happy minds, waned in that atmosphere.
+ There was much copying and imitation, an abundance of artistic
+artificers, much slavish pedantry among the servile men of learning,
+but the whole Roman empire in four centuries produced nothing to set
+beside the bold and noble intellectual activities of the comparatively
+little city of Athens during its one century of greatness.  Athens
+decayed under the Roman sceptre.  The science of Alexandria decayed.
+The spirit of man, it seemed, was decaying in those days.
+
+
+
+
+XXXVI
+RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+The soul of man under that Latin and Greek empire of the first two
+centuries of the Christian era was a worried and frustrated soul.
+Compulsion and cruelty reigned; there were pride and display but little
+honour; little serenity or steadfast happiness. The unfortunate were
+despised and wretched; the fortunate were insecure and feverishly eager
+for gratifications. In a great number of cities life centred on the red
+excitement of the arena, where men and beasts fought and were tormented
+and slain. Amphitheatres are the most characteristic of Roman ruins.
+Life went on in that key. The uneasiness of men’s hearts manifested
+itself in profound religious unrest.
+
+From the days when the Aryan hordes first broke in upon the ancient
+civilizations, it was inevitable that the old gods of the temples and
+priesthoods should suffer great adaptations or disappear.  In the
+course of hundreds of generations the agricultural peoples of the
+brunette civilizations had shaped their lives and thoughts to the
+temple-centred life. Observances and the fear of disturbed routines,
+sacrifices and mysteries, dominated their minds.  Their gods seem
+monstrous and illogical to our modern minds because we belong to an
+Aryanized world, but to these older peoples these deities had the
+immediate conviction and vividness of things seen in an intense dream. 
+The conquest of one city state by another in Sumeria or early Egypt
+meant a change or a renaming of gods or goddesses, but left the shape
+and spirit of the worship intact.  There was no change in its general
+character.  The figures in the dream changed, but the dream went on and
+it was the same sort of dream.  And the early Semitic conquerors were
+sufficiently akin in spirit to the Sumerians to take over the religion
+of the Mesopotamian civilization they subjugated without any profound
+alteration. Egypt was never indeed subjugated to the extent of a
+religious revolution.  Under the Ptolemies and under the Cæsars, her
+temples and altars and priesthoods remained essentially Egyptian.
+
+So long as conquests went on between people of similar social and
+religious habits it was possible to get over the clash between the god
+of this temple and region and the god of that by a process of grouping
+or assimilation.  If the two gods were alike in character they were
+identified.  It was really the same god under another name, said the
+priests and the people.  This fusion of gods is called theocrasia; and
+the age of the great conquests of the thousand years B.C. was an age of
+theocrasia.  Over wide areas the local gods were displaced by, or
+rather they were swallowed up in, a general god.  So that when at last
+Hebrew prophets in Babylon proclaimed one God of Righteousness in all
+the earth men’s minds were fully prepared for that idea.
+
+But often the gods were too dissimilar for such an assimilation, and
+then they were grouped together in some plausible relationship.  A
+female god - and the Ægean world before the coming of the Greek was
+much addicted to Mother Gods—would be married to a male god, and an
+animal god or a star god would be humanized and the animal or
+astronomical aspect, the serpent or the sun or the star, made into an
+ornament or a symbol.  Or the god of a defeated people would become a
+malignant antagonist to the brighter gods.  The history of theology is
+full of such adaptations, compromises and rationalizations of once
+local gods.
+
+As Egypt developed from city states into one united kingdom there was
+much of this theocrasia.  The chief god so to speak was Osiris, a
+sacrificial harvest god of whom Pharaoh was supposed to be the earthly
+incarnation.  Osiris was represented as repeatedly dying and rising
+again; he was not only the seed and the harvest but also by a natural
+extension of thought the means of human immortality.  Among his symbols
+was the wide-winged scarabeus beetle which buries its eggs to rise
+again, and also the effulgent sun which sets to rise. Later on he was
+to be identified with Apis, the sacred bull. Associated with him was
+the goddess Isis.  Isis was also Hathor, a cow-goddess, and the
+crescent moon and the Star of the sea.  Osiris dies and she bears a
+child, Horus, who is also a hawk-god and the dawn, and who grows to
+become Osiris again.  The effigies of Isis represent her as bearing the
+infant Horus in her arms and standing on the crescent moon.  These are
+not logical relationships, but they were devised by the human mind
+before the development of hard and systematic thinking and they have a
+dream-like coherence.  Beneath this triple group there are other and
+darker Egyptian gods, bad gods, the dog-headed Anubis, black night and
+the like, devourers, tempters, enemies of god and man.
+
+
+MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN
+MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN
+
+_(In the British Museum)_
+
+
+Every religious system does in the course of time fit itself to the
+shape of the human soul, and there can be no doubt that out of these
+illogical and even uncouth symbols, Egyptian people were able to
+fashion for themselves ways of genuine devotion and consolation.  The
+desire for immortality was very strong in the Egyptian mind, and the
+religious life of Egypt turned on that desire. The Egyptian religion
+was an immortality religion as no other religion had ever been. As
+Egypt went down under foreign conquerors and the Egyptian gods ceased
+to have any satisfactory political significance, this craving for a
+life of compensations here-after, intensified.
+
+
+ISIS AND HORUS
+ISIS AND HORUS
+
+
+After the Greek conquest, the new city of Alexandria became the centre
+of Egyptian religious life, and indeed of the religious life of the
+whole Hellenic world.  A great temple, the Serapeum, was set up by
+Ptolemy I at which a sort of trinity of gods was worshipped. These were
+Serapis (who was Osiris-Apis rechristened), Isis and Horus. These were
+not regarded as separate gods but as three aspects of one god, and
+Serapis was identified with the Greek Zeus, the Roman Jupiter and the
+Persian sun-god.  This worship spread wherever the Hellenic influence
+extended, even into North India and Western China.  The idea of
+immortality, an immortality of compensations and consolation, was
+eagerly received by a world in which the common life was hopelessly
+wretched.  Serapis was called “the saviour of souls.”  “After death,”
+said the hymns of that time, “we are still in the care of his
+providence.”  Isis attracted many devotees.  Her images stood in her
+temples, as Queen of Heaven, bearing the infant Horus in her arms. 
+Candles were burnt before her, votive offerings were made to her,
+shaven priests consecrated to celibacy waited on her altar.
+
+The rise of the Roman empire opened the western European world to this
+growing cult.  The temples of Serapis-Isis, the chanting of the priests
+and the hope of immortal life, followed the Roman standards to Scotland
+and Holland.  But there were many rivals to the Serapis-Isis religion.
+Prominent among these was Mithraism.  This was a religion of Persian
+origin, and it centred upon some now forgotten mysteries about Mithras
+sacrificing a sacred and benevolent bull.  Here we seem to have
+something more primordial than the complicated and sophisticated
+Serapis-Isis beliefs.  We are carried back directly to the blood
+sacrifices of the heliolithic stage in human culture.  The bull upon
+the Mithraic monuments always bleeds copiously from a wound in its
+side, and from this blood springs new life.  The votary to Mithraism
+actually bathed in the blood of the sacrificial bull.  At his
+initiation he went beneath a scaffolding upon which a bull was killed
+so that the blood could actually run down on him.
+
+Both these religions, and the same is true of many other of the
+numerous parallel cults that sought the allegiance of the slaves and
+citizens under the earlier Roman emperors, are personal religions. 
+They aim at personal salvation and personal immortality.  The older
+religions were not personal like that; they were social.  The older
+fashion of divinity was god or goddess of the city first or of the
+state, and only secondarily of the individual.  The sacrifices were a
+public and not a private function.  They concerned collective practical
+needs in this world in which we live.  But the Greeks first and now the
+Romans had pushed religion out of politics.  Guided by the Egyptian
+tradition religion had retreated to the other world.
+
+
+BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, A.D. 180-192
+BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, A.D. 180-192
+
+Represented as the God Mithras, Roman, Circa A.D. 190
+
+_(In the British Museum)_
+
+
+These new private immortality religions took all the heart and emotion
+out of the old state religions, but they did not actually replace them.
+ A typical city under the earlier Roman emperors would have a number of
+temples to all sorts of gods.  There might be a temple to Jupiter of
+the Capitol, the great god of Rome, and there would probably be one to
+the reigning Cæsar.  For the Cæsars had learnt from the Pharaohs the
+possibility of being gods.  In such temples a cold and stately
+political worship went on; one would go and make an offering and burn a
+pinch of incense to show one’s loyalty.  But it would be to the temple
+of Isis, the dear Queen of Heaven, one would go with the burthen of
+one’s private troubles for advice and relief.  There might be local and
+eccentric gods.  Seville, for example, long affected the worship of the
+old Carthaginian Venus.  In a cave or an underground temple there would
+certainly be an altar to Mithras, attended by legionaries and slaves. 
+And probably also there would be a synagogue where the Jews gathered to
+read their Bible and uphold their faith in the unseen God of all the
+Earth.
+
+Sometimes there would be trouble with the Jews about the political side
+of the state religion.  They held that their God was a jealous God
+intolerant of idolatry, and they would refuse to take part in the
+public sacrifices to Cæsar. They would not even salute the Roman
+standards for fear of idolatry.
+
+In the East long before the time of Buddha there had been ascetics, men
+and women who gave up most of the delights of life, who repudiated
+marriage and property and sought spiritual powers and an escape from
+the stresses and mortifications of the world in abstinence, pain and
+solitude. Buddha himself set his face against ascetic extravagances,
+but many of his disciples followed a monkish life of great severity. 
+Obscure Greek cults practised similar disciplines even to the extent of
+self-mutilation.  Asceticism appeared in the Jewish communities of
+Judea and Alexandria also in the first century B.C.  Communities of men
+abandoned the world and gave themselves to austerities and mystical
+contemplation.  Such was the sect of the Essenes.  Throughout the first
+and second centuries A.D. there was an almost world-wide resort to such
+repudiations of life, a universal search for “salvation” from the
+distresses of the time.  The old sense of an established order, the old
+confidence in priest and temple and law and custom, had gone.  Amidst
+the prevailing slavery, cruelty, fear, anxiety, waste, display and
+hectic self-indulgence, went this epidemic of self- disgust and mental
+insecurity, this agonized search for peace even at the price of
+renunciation and voluntary suffering. This it was that filled the
+Serapeum with weeping penitents and brought the converts into the gloom
+and gore of the Mithraic cave.
+
+
+
+
+XXXVII
+THE TEACHING OF JESUS
+
+
+It was while Augustus Cæsar, the first of the Emperors, was reigning in
+Rome that Jesus who is the Christ of Christianity was born in Judea. In
+his name a religion was to arise which was destined to become the
+official religion of the entire Roman Empire.
+
+Now it is on the whole more convenient to keep history and theology
+apart.  A large proportion of the Christian world believes that Jesus
+was an incarnation of that God of all the Earth whom the Jews first
+recognized.  The historian, if he is to remain historian, can neither
+accept nor deny that interpretation.  Materially Jesus appeared in the
+likeness of a man, and it is as a man that the historian must deal with
+him.
+
+He appeared in Judea in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar.  He was a prophet.
+ He preached after the fashion of the preceding Jewish prophets.  He
+was a man of about thirty, and we are in the profoundest ignorance of
+his manner of life before his preaching began.
+
+Our only direct sources of information about the life and teaching of
+Jesus are the four Gospels.  All four agree in giving us a picture of a
+very definite personality.  One is obliged to say, “Here was a man. 
+This could not have been invented.”
+
+But just as the personality of Gautama Buddha has been distorted and
+obscured by the stiff squatting figure, the gilded idol of later
+Buddhism, so one feels that the lean and strenuous personality of Jesus
+is much wronged by the unreality and conventionality that a mistaken
+reverence has imposed upon his figure in modern Christian art.  Jesus
+was a penniless teacher, who wandered about the dusty sun-bit country
+of Judea, living upon casual gifts of food; yet he is always
+represented clean, combed and sleek, in spotless raiment, erect and
+with something motionless about him as though he was gliding through
+the air. This alone has made him unreal and incredible to many people
+who cannot distinguish the core of the story from the ornamental and
+unwise additions of the unintelligently devout.
+
+We are left, if we do strip this record of these difficult accessories,
+with the figure of a being, very human, very earnest and passionate,
+capable of swift anger, and teaching a new and simple and profound
+doctrine—namely, the universal loving Fatherhood of God and the coming
+of the Kingdom of Heaven.  He was clearly a person—to use a common
+phrase—of intense personal magnetism.  He attracted followers and
+filled them with love and courage. Weak and ailing people were
+heartened and healed by his presence.  Yet he was probably of a
+delicate physique, because of the swiftness with which he died under
+the pains of crucifixion.  There is a tradition that he fainted when,
+according to the custom, he was made to bear his cross to the place of
+execution.  He went about the country for three years spreading his
+doctrine and then he came to Jerusalem and was accused of trying to set
+up a strange kingdom in Judea; he was tried upon this charge, and
+crucified together with two thieves.  Long before these two were dead
+his sufferings were over.
+
+The doctrine of the Kingdom of Heaven, which was the main teaching of
+Jesus, is certainly one of the most revolutionary doctrines that ever
+stirred and changed human thought.  It is small wonder if the world of
+that time failed to grasp its full significance, and recoiled in dismay
+from even a half apprehension of its tremendous challenges to the
+established habits and institutions of mankind.  For the doctrine of
+the Kingdom of Heaven, as Jesus seems to have preached it, was no less
+than a bold and uncompromising demand for a complete change and
+cleansing of the life of our struggling race, an utter cleansing,
+without and within.  To the gospels the reader must go for all that is
+preserved of this tremendous teaching; here we are only concerned with
+the jar of its impact upon established ideas.
+
+The Jews were persuaded that God, the one God of the whole world, was a
+righteous god, but they also thought of him as a trading god who had
+made a bargain with their Father Abraham about them, a very good
+bargain indeed for them, to bring them at last to predominance in the
+earth. With dismay and anger they heard Jesus sweeping away their dear
+securities.  God, he taught, was no bargainer; there were no chosen
+people and no favourites in the Kingdom of Heaven.  God was the loving
+father of all life, as incapable of showing favour as the universal
+sun.  And all men were brothers—sinners alike and beloved sons alike—of
+this divine father.  In the parable of the Good Samaritan Jesus cast
+scorn upon that natural tendency we all obey, to glorify our own people
+and to minimize the righteousness of other creeds and other races.  In
+the parable of the labourers he thrust aside the obstinate claim of the
+Jews to have a special claim upon God. All whom God takes into the
+kingdom, he taught, God serves alike; there is no distinction in his
+treatment, because there is no measure to his bounty.  From all
+moreover, as the parable of the buried talent witnesses, and as the
+incident of the widow’s mite enforces, he demands the utmost. There are
+no privileges, no rebates and no excuses in the Kingdom of Heaven.
+
+
+EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS CHRIST IN WHICH THE
+TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN
+EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS CHRIST IN WHICH THE
+TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN
+
+
+But it is not only the intense tribal patriotism of the Jews that Jesus
+outraged.  They were a people of intense family loyalty, and he would
+have swept away all the narrow and restrictive family affections in the
+great flood of the love of God.  The whole kingdom of Heaven was to be
+the family of his followers.  We are told that, “While he yet talked to
+the people, behold, his mother and his brethren stood without, desiring
+to speak with him.  Then one said unto him, Behold, thy mother and thy
+brethren stand without, desiring to speak with thee.  But he answered
+and said unto him that told him, Who is my mother? and who are my
+brethren? And he stretched forth his hands towards his disciples, and
+said, Behold my mother and my brethren!  For whosoever shall do the
+will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, and
+sister, and mother.?  [1]
+
+
+THE ROAD FROM NAZARETH TO TIBERIAS
+THE ROAD FROM NAZARETH TO TIBERIAS
+
+_Photo:  Fannaway_
+
+
+And not only did Jesus strike at patriotism and the bonds of family
+loyalty in the name of God’s universal fatherhood and brotherhood of
+all mankind, but it is clear that his teaching condemned all the
+gradations of the economic system, all private wealth, and personal
+advantages.  All men belonged to the kingdom; all their possessions
+belonged to the kingdom; the righteous life for all men, the only
+righteous life, was the service of God’s will with all that we had,
+with all that we were. Again and again he denounced private riches and
+the reservation of any private life.
+
+
+DAVID’S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM
+DAVID’S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM
+
+_Photo:  Fannaway_
+
+
+“And when he was gone forth into the way, there came one running, and
+kneeled to him, and asked him, Good Master, what shall I do that I may
+inherit eternal life?  And Jesus said to him, Why callest thou me good?
+there is none good but one, that is God.  Thou knowest the
+commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not
+bear false witness, Defraud not, Honour thy father and mother.  And he
+answered and said unto him, Master, all these things have I observed
+from my youth.  Then Jesus beholding him loved him, and said unto him,
+One thing thou lackest; go thy way, sell whatsoever thou hast, and give
+to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven; and come, take up
+the cross, and follow me.  And he was sad at that saying, and went away
+grieved; for he had great possessions.
+
+
+A STREET IN JERUSALEM
+A STREET IN JERUSALEM
+
+Along such a thoroughfare Christ carried his cross to the place of
+execution
+
+_Photo:  Fannaway_
+
+
+“And Jesus looked round about, and saith unto his disciples, How hardly
+shall they that have riches enter into the Kingdom of God!  And the
+disciples were astonished at his words.  But Jesus answered again, and
+saith unto them, Children, how hard is it for them that trust in riches
+to enter into the Kingdom of God!  It is easier for a camel to go
+through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the
+Kingdom of God.”  [2]
+
+Moreover, in his tremendous prophecy of this kingdom which was to make
+all men one together in God, Jesus had small patience for the
+bargaining righteousness of formal religion. Another large part of his
+recorded utterances is aimed against the meticulous observance of the
+rules of the pious career.  “Then the Pharisees and scribes asked him,
+Why walk not thy disciples according to the tradition of the elders,
+but eat bread with unwashen hands?  He answered and said unto them,
+Well hath Isaiah prophesied of you hypocrites, as it is written,
+
+“This people honoureth me with their lips,
+
+“But their heart is far from me.
+
+“Howbeit in vain do they worship me,
+
+“Teaching for doctrines the commandments of men.
+
+“For laying aside the commandment of God, ye hold the tradition of men,
+as the washing of pots and cups: and many other such things ye do.  And
+he said unto them, Full well ye reject the commandment of God, that ye
+may keep your own tradition.”  [3]
+
+It was not merely a moral and a social revolution that Jesus
+proclaimed; it is clear from a score of indications that his teaching
+had a political bent of the plainest sort.  It is true that he said his
+kingdom was not of this world, that it was in the hearts of men and not
+upon a throne; but it is equally clear that wherever and in what
+measure his kingdom was set up in the hearts of men, the outer world
+would be in that measure revolutionized and made new.
+
+Whatever else the deafness and blindness of his hearers may have missed
+in his utterances, it is plain they did not miss his resolve to
+revolutionize the world.  The whole tenor of the opposition to him and
+the circumstances of his trial and execution show clearly that to his
+contemporaries he seemed to propose plainly, and did propose plainly,
+to change and fuse and enlarge all human life.
+
+In view of what he plainly said, is it any wonder that all who were
+rich and prosperous felt a horror of strange things, a swimming of
+their world at his teaching?  He was dragging out all the little
+private reservations they had made from social service into the light
+of a universal religious life.  He was like some terrible moral
+huntsman digging mankind out of the snug burrows in which they had
+lived hitherto.  In the white blaze of this kingdom of his there was to
+be no property, no privilege, no pride and precedence; no motive indeed
+and no reward but love.  Is it any wonder that men were dazzled and
+blinded and cried out against him?  Even his disciples cried out when
+he would not spare them the light. Is it any wonder that the priests
+realized that between this man and themselves there was no choice but
+that he or priestcraft should perish?  Is it any wonder that the Roman
+soldiers, confronted and amazed by something soaring over their
+comprehension and threatening all their disciplines, should take refuge
+in wild laughter, and crown him with thorns and robe him in purple and
+make a mock Cæsar of him?  For to take him seriously was to enter upon
+a strange and alarming life, to abandon habits, to control instincts
+and impulses, to essay an incredible happiness. . . .
+
+
+[1] Matt. xii, 46-50.
+
+
+[2] Mark x, 17-25.
+
+
+[3] Mark vii, 1-9.
+
+
+
+
+XXXVIII
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY
+
+
+In the four gospels we find the personality and teachings of Jesus but
+very little of the dogmas of the Christian church. It is in the
+epistles, a series of writings by the immediate followers of Jesus,
+that the broad lines of Christian belief are laid down.
+
+Chief among the makers of Christian doctrine was St. Paul. He had never
+seen Jesus nor heard him preach.  Paul’s name was originally Saul, and
+he was conspicuous at first as an active persecutor of the little band
+of disciples after the crucifixion.  Then he was suddenly converted to
+Christianity, and he changed his name to Paul.  He was a man of great
+intellectual vigour and deeply and passionately interested in the
+religious movements of the time.  He was well versed in Judaism and in
+the Mithraism and Alexandrian religion of the day.  He carried over
+many of their ideas and terms of expression into Christianity.  He did
+very little to enlarge or develop the original teaching of Jesus, the
+teaching of the Kingdom of Heaven.  But he taught that Jesus was not
+only the promised Christ, the promised leader of the Jews, but also
+that his death was a sacrifice, like the deaths of the ancient
+sacrificial victims of the primordial civilizations, for the redemption
+of mankind.
+
+When religions flourish side by side they tend to pick up each other’s
+ceremonial and other outward peculiarities.  Buddhism, for example, in
+China has now almost the same sort of temples and priests and uses as
+Taoism, which follows in the teachings of Lao Tse.  Yet the original
+teachings of Buddhism and Taoism were almost flatly opposed.  And it
+reflects no doubt or discredit upon the essentials of Christian
+teaching that it took over not merely such formal things as the shaven
+priest, the votive offering, the altars, candles, chanting and images
+of the Alexandrian and Mithraic faiths, but adopted even their
+devotional phrases and their theological ideas.  All these religions
+were flourishing side by side with many less prominent cults. Each was
+seeking adherents, and there must have been a constant going and coming
+of converts between them. Sometimes one or other would be in favour
+with the government.  But Christianity was regarded with more suspicion
+than its rivals because, like the Jews, its adherents would not perform
+acts of worship to the God Cæsar.  This made it a seditious religion,
+quite apart from the revolutionary spirit of the teachings of Jesus
+himself.
+
+
+MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE, ON GOLD BACKGROUND
+MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE, ON GOLD BACKGROUND
+
+From the Ninth Century original, in the Church of Sta. Prassede, Rome
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+St. Paul familiarized his disciples with the idea that Jesus, like
+Osiris, was a god who died to rise again and give men immortality.  And
+presently the spreading Christian community was greatly torn by
+complicated theological disputes about the relationship of this God
+Jesus to God the Father of Mankind.  The Arians taught that Jesus was
+divine, but distant from and inferior to the Father.  The Sabellians
+taught that Jesus was merely an aspect of the Father, and that God was
+Jesus and Father at the same time just as a man may be a father and an
+artificer at the same time; and the Trinitarians taught a more subtle
+doctrine that God was both one and three, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. 
+For a time it seemed that Arianism would prevail over its rivals, and
+then after disputes, violence and wars, the Trinitarian formula became
+the accepted formula of all Christendom.  It may be found in its
+completest expression in the Athanasian Creed.
+
+We offer no comment on these controversies here.  They do not sway
+history as the personal teaching of Jesus sways history. The personal
+teaching of Jesus does seem to mark a new phase in the moral and
+spiritual life of our race.  Its insistence upon the universal
+Fatherhood of God and the implicit brotherhood of all men, its
+insistence upon the sacredness of every human personality as a living
+temple of God, was to have the profoundest effect upon all the
+subsequent social and political life of mankind.  With Christianity,
+with the spreading teachings of Jesus, a new respect appears in the
+world for man as man.  It may be true, as hostile critics of
+Christianity have urged, that St.. Paul preached obedience to slaves,
+but it is equally true that the whole spirit of the teachings of Jesus
+preserved in the gospels was against the subjugation of man by man. 
+And still more distinctly was Christianity opposed to such outrages
+upon human dignity as the gladiatorial combats in the arena.
+
+
+THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST
+THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST
+
+_(Sixth Century Ivory Panel in the British Museum)_
+
+
+Throughout the first two centuries after Christ, the Christian religion
+spread throughout the Roman Empire, weaving together an ever-growing
+multitude of converts into a new community of ideas and will.  The
+attitude of the emperors varied between hostility and toleration. 
+There were attempts to suppress this new faith in both the second and
+third centuries; and finally in 303 and the following years a great
+persecution under the Emperor Diocletian.  The considerable
+accumulations of Church property were seized, all bibles and religious
+writings were confiscated and destroyed, Christians were put out of the
+protection of the law and many executed.  The destruction of the books
+is particularly notable.  It shows how the power of the written word in
+holding together the new faith was appreciated by the authorities. 
+These “book religions,” Christianity and Judaism, were religions that
+educated. Their continued existence depended very largely on people
+being able to read and understand their doctrinal ideas.  The older
+religions had made no such appeal to the personal intelligence.  In the
+ages of barbaric confusion that were now at hand in western Europe it
+was the Christian church that was mainly instrumental in preserving the
+tradition of learning.
+
+The persecution of Diocletian failed completely to suppress the growing
+Christian community.  In many provinces it was ineffective because the
+bulk of the population and many of the officials were Christian.  In
+317 an edict of toleration was issued by the associated Emperor
+Galerius, and in 324 Constantine the Great, a friend and on his
+deathbed a baptized convert to Christianity, became sole ruler of the
+Roman world.  He abandoned all divine pretensions and put Christian
+symbols on the shields and banners of his troops.
+
+In a few years Christianity was securely established as the official
+religion of the empire.  The competing religions disappeared or were
+absorbed with extraordinary celerity, and in 300 Theodosius the Great
+caused the great statue of Jupiter Serapis at Alexandria to be
+destroyed.  From the outset of the fifth century onward the only
+priests or temples in the Roman Empire were Christian priests and
+temples.
+
+
+
+
+XXXIX
+THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST
+
+
+Throughout the third century the Roman Empire, decaying socially and
+disintegrating morally, faced the barbarians. The emperors of this
+period were fighting military autocrats, and the capital of the empire
+shifted with the necessities of their military policy. Now the imperial
+headquarters would be at Milan in north Italy, now in what is now
+Serbia at Sirmium or Nish, now in Nicomedia in Asia Minor. Rome halfway
+down Italy was too far from the centre of interest to be a convenient
+imperial seat. It was a declining city. Over most of the empire peace
+still prevailed and men went about without arms. The armies continued
+to be the sole repositories of power; the emperors, dependent on their
+legions, became more and more autocratic to the rest of the empire and
+their state more and more like that of the Persian and other oriental
+monarchs. Diocletian assumed a royal diadem and oriental robes.
+
+All along the imperial frontier, which ran roughly along the Rhine and
+Danube, enemies were now pressing.  The Franks and other German tribes
+had come up to the Rhine.  In north Hungary were the Vandals; in what
+was once Dacia and is now Roumania, the Visigoths or West Goths. 
+Behind these in south Russia were the East Goths or Ostrogoths, and
+beyond these again in the Volga region the Alans.  But now Mongolian
+peoples were forcing their way towards Europe.  The Huns were already
+exacting tribute from the Alans and Ostrogoths and pushing them to the
+west.
+
+In Asia the Roman frontiers were crumpling back under the push of a
+renascent Persia.  This new Persia, the Persia of the Sassenid kings,
+was to be a vigorous and on the whole a successful rival of the Roman
+Empire in Asia for the next three centuries.
+
+A glance at the map of Europe will show the reader the peculiar
+weakness of the empire.  The river Danube comes down to within a couple
+of hundred miles of the Adriatic Sea in the region of what is now
+Bosnia and Serbia. It makes a square re-entrant angle there.  The
+Romans never kept their sea communications in good order, and this two
+hundred mile strip of land was their line of communication between the
+western Latin-speaking part of the empire and the eastern
+Greek-speaking portion.  Against this square angle of the Danube the
+barbarian pressure was greatest.  When they broke through there it was
+inevitable that the empire should fall into two parts.
+
+
+Map: The Empire and the Barbarians
+
+A more vigorous empire might have thrust forward and reconquered Dacia,
+but the Roman Empire lacked any such vigour.  Constantine the Great was
+certainly a monarch of great devotion and intelligence.  He beat back a
+raid of the Goths from just these vital Balkan regions, but he had no
+force to carry the frontier across the Danube.  He was too pre-occupied
+with the internal weaknesses of the empire.  He brought the solidarity
+and moral force of Christianity to revive the spirit of the declining
+empire, and he decided to create a new permanent capital at Byzantium
+upon the Hellespont.  This new-made Byzantium, which was re-christened
+Constantinople in his honour, was still building when he died.  Towards
+the end of his reign occurred a remarkable transaction.  The Vandals,
+being pressed by the Goths, asked to be received into the Roman Empire.
+ They were assigned lands in Pannonia, which is now that part of
+Hungary west of the Danube, and their fighting men became nominally
+legionaries.  But these new legionaries remained under their own
+chiefs.  Rome failed to digest them.
+
+Constantine died working to reorganize his great realm, and soon the
+frontiers were ruptured again and the Visigoths came almost to
+Constantinople. They defeated the Emperor Valens at Adrianople and made
+a settlement in what is now Bulgaria, similar to the settlement of the
+Vandals in Pannonia. Nominally they were subjects of the emperor,
+practically they were conquerors.
+
+
+CONSTANTINE’S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE
+CONSTANTINE’S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE
+
+_Photo:  Sebah & Foaillier_
+
+
+From 379 to 395 A.D. reigned the Emperor Theodosius the Great, and
+while he reigned the empire was still formally intact.  Over the armies
+of Italy and Pannonia presided Stilicho, a Vandal, over the armies in
+the Balkan peninsula, Alaric, a Goth.  When Theodosius died at the
+close of the fourth century he left two sons. Alaric supported one of
+these, Arcadius, in Constantinople, and Stilicho the other, Honorius,
+in Italy.  In other words Alaric and Stilicho fought for the empire
+with the princes as puppets.  In the course of their struggle Alaric
+marched into Italy and after a short siege took Rome (410 A.D.).
+
+The opening half of the fifth century saw the whole of the Roman Empire
+in Europe the prey of robber armies of barbarians.  It is difficult to
+visualize the state of affairs in the world at that time.  Over France,
+Spain, Italy and the Balkan peninsula, the great cities that had
+flourished under the early empire still stood, impoverished, partly
+depopulated and falling into decay.  Life in them must have been
+shallow, mean and full of uncertainty.  Local officials asserted their
+authority and went on with their work with such conscience as they had,
+no doubt in the name of a now remote and inaccessible emperor.  The
+churches went on, but usually with illiterate priests.  There was
+little reading and much superstition and fear.  But everywhere except
+where looters had destroyed them, books and pictures and statuary and
+such-like works of art were still to be found.
+
+The life of the countryside had also degenerated.  Everywhere this
+Roman world was much more weedy and untidy than it had been.  In some
+regions war and pestilence had brought the land down to the level of a
+waste.  Roads and forests were infested with robbers.  Into such
+regions the barbarians marched, with little or no opposition, and set
+up their chiefs as rulers, often with Roman official titles.  If they
+were half civilized barbarians they would give the conquered districts
+tolerable terms, they would take possession of the towns, associate and
+intermarry, and acquire (with an accent) the Latin speech; but the
+Jutes, the Angles and Saxons who submerged the Roman province of
+Britain were agriculturalists and had no use for towns, they seem to
+have swept south Britain clear of the Romanized population and they
+replaced the language by their own Teutonic dialects, which became at
+last English.
+
+
+BASE OF THE “OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,” CONSTANTINOPLE
+BASE OF THE “OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,” CONSTANTINOPLE
+
+The obelisk of Thothmes, taken from Egypt to Constantinople by
+Theodosius and placed upon the pedestal her shown; an interesting
+example of early Byzantine art.  The complete obelisk is seen on page
+239.
+
+_Photo:  Sebah & Foaillier_
+
+
+It is impossible in the space at our disposal to trace the movements of
+all the various German and Slavonic tribes as they went to and fro in
+the disorganized empire in search of plunder and a pleasant home.  But
+let the Vandals serve as an example.  They came into history in east
+Germany.  They settled as we have told in Pannonia.  Thence they moved
+somewhen about 425 A.D. through the intervening provinces to Spain. 
+There they found Visigoths from South Russia and other German tribes
+setting up dukes and kings.  From Spain the Vandals under Genseric
+sailed for North Africa (429), captured Carthage (439), and built a
+fleet.  They secured the mastery of the sea and captured and pillaged
+Rome (455), which had recovered very imperfectly from her capture and
+looting by Alaric half a century earlier.  Then the Vandals made
+themselves masters of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia and most of the other
+islands of the western Mediterranean.  They made, in fact, a sea empire
+very similar in its extent to the sea empire of Carthage seven hundred
+odd years before.  They were at the climax of their power about 477. 
+They were a mere handful of conquerors holding all this country.  In
+the next century almost all their territory had been reconquered for
+the empire of Constantinople during a transitory blaze of energy under
+Justinian I.
+
+The story of the Vandals is but one sample of a host of similar
+adventures.  But now there was coming into the European world the least
+kindred and most redoubtable of all these devastators, the Mongolian
+Huns or Tartars, a yellow people active and able, such as the western
+world had never before encountered.
+
+
+
+
+XL
+THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE
+
+
+This appearance of a conquering Mongolian people in Europe may be taken
+to mark a new stage in human history. Until the last century or so
+before the Christian era, the Mongol and the Nordic peoples had not
+been in close touch. Far away in the frozen lands beyond the northern
+forests the Lapps, a Mongolian people, had drifted westward as far as
+Lapland, but they played no part in the main current of history. For
+thousands of years the western world carried on the dramatic interplay
+of the Aryan, Semitic and fundamental brunette peoples with very little
+interference (except for an Ethiopian invasion of Egypt or so) either
+from the black peoples to the south or from the Mongolian world in the
+far East.
+
+It is probable that there were two chief causes for the new westward
+drift of the nomadic Mongolians.  One was the consolidation of the
+great empire of China, its extension northward and the increase of its
+population during the prosperous period of the Han dynasty.  The other
+was some process of climatic change; a lesser rainfall that abolished
+swamps and forests perhaps, or a greater rainfall that extended grazing
+over desert steppes, or even perhaps both these processes going on in
+different regions but which anyhow facilitated a westward migration.  A
+third contributary cause was the economic wretchedness, internal decay
+and falling population of the Roman Empire.  The rich men of the later
+Roman Republic, and then the tax-gatherers of the military emperors had
+utterly consumed its vitality. So we have the factors of thrust, means
+and opportunity. There was pressure from the east, rot in the west and
+an open road.
+
+The Hun had reached the eastern boundaries of European Russia by the
+first century A.D., but it was not until the fourth and fifth centuries
+A.D. that these horsemen rose to predominance upon the steppes.  The
+fifth century was the Hun’s century. The first Huns to come into Italy
+were mercenary bands in the pay of Stilicho the Vandal, the master of
+Honorius. Presently they were in possession of Pannonia, the empty nest
+of the Vandals.
+
+By the second quarter of the fifth century a great war chief had arisen
+among the Huns, Attila.  We have only vague and tantalizing glimpses of
+his power.  He ruled not only over the Huns but over a conglomerate of
+tributary Germanic tribes; his empire extended from the Rhine cross the
+plains into Central Asia.  He exchanged ambassadors with China.  His
+head camp was in the plain of Hungary east of the Danube. There he was
+visited by an envoy from Constantinople, Priscus, who has left us an
+account of his state.  The way of living of these Mongols was very like
+the way of living of the primitive Aryans they had replaced.  The
+common folk were in huts and tents; the chiefs lived in great stockaded
+timber halls.  There were feasts and drinking and singing by the bards.
+ The Homeric heroes and even the Macedonian companions of Alexander
+would probably have felt more at home in the camp-capital of Attila
+than they would have done in the cultivated and decadent court of
+Theodosius II, the son of Arcadius, who was then reigning in
+Constantinople.
+
+For a time it seemed as though the nomads under the leadership of the
+Huns and Attila would play the same part towards the Græco-Roman
+civilization of the Mediterranean countries that the barbaric Greeks
+had played long ago to the Ægean civilization.  It looked like history
+repeating itself upon a larger stage.  But the Huns were much more
+wedded to the nomadic life than the early Greeks, who were rather
+migratory cattle farmers than true nomads.  The Huns raided and
+plundered but did not settle.
+
+For some years Attila bullied Theodosius as he chose.  His armies
+devastated and looted right down to the walls of Constantinople, Gibbon
+says that he totally destroyed no less than seventy cities in the
+Balkan peninsula, and Theodosius bought him off by payments of tribute
+and tried to get rid of him for good by sending secret agents to
+assassinate him.  In 451 Attila turned his attention to the remains of
+the Latin- speaking half of the empire and invaded Gaul.  Nearly every
+town in northern Gaul was sacked.  Franks, Visigoths and the imperial
+forces united against him and he was defeated at Troyes in a vast
+dispersed battle in which a multitude of men, variously estimated as
+between 150,000 and 300,000, were killed. This checked him in Gaul, but
+it did not exhaust his enormous military resources.  Next year he came
+into Italy by way of Venetia, burnt Aquileia and Padua and looted
+Milan.
+
+
+HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF
+HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF
+
+_(In the British Museum)_
+
+
+Numbers of fugitives from these north Italian towns and particularly
+from Padua fled to islands in the lagoons at the head of the Adriatic
+and laid there the foundations of the city state of Venice, which was
+to become one of the greatest or the trading centres in the middle
+ages.
+
+In 453 Attila died suddenly after a great feast to celebrate his
+marriage to a young woman, and at his death this plunder confederation
+of his fell to pieces.  The actual Huns disappear from history, mixed
+into the surrounding more numerous Aryan-speaking populations.  But
+these great Hun raids practically consummated the end of the Latin
+Roman Empire.  After his death ten different emperors ruled in Rome in
+twenty years, set up by Vandal and other mercenary troops.  The Vandals
+from Carthage took and sacked Rome in 455.  Finally in 476 Odoacer, the
+chief of the barbarian troops, suppressed a Pannonian who was figuring
+as emperor under the impressive name of Romulus Augustulus, and
+informed the Court of Constantinople that there was no longer an
+emperor in the west.  So ingloriously the Latin Roman Empire came to an
+end.  In 493 Theodoric the Goth became King of Rome.
+
+All over western and central Europe now barbarian chiefs were reigning
+as kings, dukes and the like, practically independent but for the most
+part professing some sort of shadowy allegiance to the emperor.  There
+were hundreds and perhaps thousands of such practically independent
+brigand rulers.  In Gaul, Spain and Italy and in Dacia the Latin speech
+still prevailed in locally distorted forms, but in Britain and east of
+the Rhine languages of the German group (or in Bohemia a Slavonic
+language, Czech) were the common speech.  The superior clergy and a
+small remnant of other educated men read and wrote Latin.  Everywhere
+life was insecure and property was held by the strong arm.  Castles
+multiplied and roads fell into decay.  The dawn of the sixth century
+was an age of division and of intellectual darkness throughout the
+western world.  Had it not been for the monks and Christian
+missionaries Latin learning might have perished altogether.
+
+Why had the Roman Empire grown and why had it so completely decayed? 
+It grew because at first the idea of citizenship held it together. 
+Throughout the days of the expanding republic, and even into the days
+of the early empire there remained a great number of men conscious of
+Roman citizenship, feeling it a privilege and an obligation to be a
+Roman citizen, confident of their rights under the Roman law and
+willing to make sacrifices in the name of Rome.  The prestige of Rome
+as of something just and great and law- upholding spread far beyond the
+Roman boundaries.  But even as early as the Punic wars the sense of
+citizenship was being undermined by the growth of wealth and slavery. 
+Citizenship spread indeed but not the idea of citizenship.
+
+The Roman Empire was after all a very primitive organization; it did
+not educate, did not explain itself to its increasing multitudes of
+citizens, did not invite their co-operation in its decisions.  There
+was no network of schools to ensure a common understanding, no
+distribution of news to sustain collective activity.  The adventurers
+who struggled for power from the days of Marius and Sulla onward had no
+idea of creating and calling in public opinion upon the imperial
+affairs.  The spirit of citizenship died of starvation and no one
+observed it die.  All empires, all states, all organizations of human
+society are, in the ultimate, things of understanding and will.  There
+remained no will for the Roman Empire in the World and so it came to an
+end.
+
+But though the Latin-speaking Roman Empire died in the fifth century,
+something else had been born within it that was to avail itself
+enormously of its prestige and tradition, and that was the
+Latin-speaking half of the Catholic Church. This lived while the empire
+died because it appealed to the minds and wills of men, because it had
+books and a great system of teachers and missionaries to hold it
+together, things stronger than any law or legions.  Throughout the
+fourth and fifth centuries A.D. while the empire was decaying,
+Christianity was spreading to a universal dominion in Europe.  It
+conquered its conquerors, the barbarians.  When Attila seemed disposed
+to march on Rome, the patriarch of Rome intercepted him and did what no
+armies could do, turning him back by sheer moral force.
+
+The Patriarch or Pope of Rome claimed to be the head of the entire
+Christian church.  Now that there were no more emperors, he began to
+annex imperial titles and claims.  He took the title of _pontifex
+maximus_, head sacrificial priest of the Roman dominion, the most
+ancient of all the titles that the emperors had enjoyed.
+
+
+
+
+XLI
+THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES
+
+
+The Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire showed much more
+political tenacity than the western half. It weathered the disasters of
+the fifth century A.D., which saw a complete and final breaking up of
+the original Latin Roman power. Attila bullied the Emperor Theodosius
+II and sacked and raided almost to the walls of Constantinople, but
+that city remained intact. The Nubians came down the Nile and looted
+Upper Egypt, but Lower Egypt and Alexandria were left still fairly
+prosperous. Most of Asia Minor was held against the Sassanid Persians.
+
+The sixth century, which was an age of complete darkness for the West,
+saw indeed a considerable revival of the Greek power.  Justinian I
+(527-565) was a ruler of very great ambition and energy, and he was
+married to the Empress Theodora, a woman of quite equal capacity who
+had begun life as an actress.  Justinian reconquered North Africa from
+the Vandals and most of Italy from the Goths.  He even regained the
+south of Spain.  He did not limit his energies to naval and military
+enterprises.  He founded a university, built the great church of Sta.
+Sophia in Constantinople and codified the Roman law.  But in order to
+destroy a rival to his university foundation he closed the schools of
+philosophy in Athens, which had been going on in unbroken continuity
+from the days of Plato, that is to say for nearly a thousand years.
+
+From the third century onwards the Persian Empire had been the
+steadfast rival of the Byzantine.  The two empires kept Asia Minor,
+Syria and Egypt in a state of perpetual unrest and waste.  In the first
+century A.D., these lands were still at a high level of civilization,
+wealthy and with an abundant population, but the continual coming and
+going of armies, massacres, looting and war taxation wore them down
+steadily until only shattered and ruinous cities remained upon a
+countryside of scattered peasants.  In this melancholy process of
+impoverishment and disorder lower Egypt fared perhaps less badly than
+the rest of the world.  Alexandria, like Constantinople, continued a
+dwindling trade between the east and the west.
+
+
+THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE
+THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE
+
+The obelisk of Theodosius in in the foreground statue on left
+
+_Photo:  Sebah & Foaillier_
+
+
+Science and political philosophy seemed dead now in both these warring
+and decaying empires.  The last philosophers of Athens, until their
+suppression, preserved the texts of the great literature of the past
+with an infinite reverence and want of understanding.  But there
+remained no class of men in the world, no free gentlemen with bold and
+independent habits of thought, to carry on the tradition of frank
+statement and enquiry embodied in these writings.  The social and
+political chaos accounts largely for the disappearance of this class,
+but there was also another reason why the human intelligence was
+sterile and feverish during this age.  In both Persia and Byzantium it
+was all age of intolerance.  Both empires were religious empires in a
+new way, in a way that greatly hampered the free activities of the
+human mind.
+
+
+THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIA
+THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIA
+
+_Photo:  Sebah & Foaillier_
+
+
+Of course the oldest empires in the world were religious empires,
+centring upon the worship of a god or of a god-king. Alexander was
+treated as a divinity and the Cæsars were gods in so much as they had
+altars and temples devoted to them and the offering of incense was made
+a test of loyalty to the Roman state.  But these older religions were
+essentially religions of act and fact.  They did not invade the mind. 
+If a man offered his sacrifice and bowed to the god, he was left not
+only to think but to say practically whatever he liked about the
+affair.  But the new sort of religions that had come into the world,
+and particularly Christianity, turned inward.  These new faiths
+demanded not simply conformity but understanding belief.  Naturally
+fierce controversy ensued upon the exact meaning of the things
+believed.  These new religions were creed religions.  The world was
+confronted with a new word, Orthodoxy, and with a stern resolve to keep
+not only acts but speech and private thought within the limits of a set
+teaching.  For to hold a wrong opinion, much more to convey it to other
+people, was no longer regarded as an intellectual defect but a moral
+fault that might condemn a soul to everlasting destruction.
+
+
+THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS COURT
+THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS COURT
+
+_Photo:  Alinari_
+
+THE ROCK HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA
+THE ROCK HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+Both Ardashir I who founded the Sassanid dynasty in the third century
+A.D., and Constantine the Great who reconstructed the Roman Empire in
+the fourth, turned to religious organizations for help, because in
+these organizations they saw a new means of using and controlling the
+wills of men.  And already before the end of the fourth century both
+empires were persecuting free talk and religious innovation.  In Persia
+Ardashir found the ancient Persian religion of Zoroaster (or
+Zarathushtra) with its priests and temples and a sacred fire that burnt
+upon its altars, ready for his purpose as a state religion.  Before the
+end of the third century Zoroastrianism was persecuting Christianity,
+and in 277 A.D. Mani, the founder of a new faith, the Manichæans, was
+crucified and his body flayed. Constantinople, on its side, was busy
+hunting out Christian heresies.  Manichæan ideas infected Christianity
+and had to be fought with the fiercest methods; in return ideas from
+Christianity affected the purity of the Zoroastrian doctrine. All ideas
+became suspect.  Science, which demands before all things the free
+action of an untroubled mind, suffered a complete eclipse throughout
+this phase of intolerance.
+
+War, the bitterest theology, and the usual vices of mankind constituted
+Byzantine life of those days.  It was picturesque, it was romantic; it
+had little sweetness or light.  When Byzantium and Persia were not
+fighting the barbarians from the north, they wasted Asia Minor and
+Syria in dreary and destructive hostilities.  Even in close alliance
+these two empires would have found it a hard task to turn back the
+barbarians and recover their prosperity.  The Turks or Tartars first
+come into history as the allies first of one power and then of another.
+ In the sixth century the two chief antagonists were Justinian and
+Chosroes I; in the opening of the seventh the Emperor Heraclius was
+pitted against Chosroes II (580).
+
+At first and until after Heraclius had become Emperor (610) Chosroes II
+carried all before him.  He took Antioch, Damascus and Jerusalem and
+his armies reached Chalcedon, which is in Asia Minor over against
+Constantinople.  In 619 he conquered Egypt.  Then Heraclius pressed a
+counter attack home and routed a Persian army at Nineveh (627),
+although at that time there were still Persian troops at Chalcedon.  In
+628 Chosroes II was deposed and murdered by his son, Kavadh, and an
+inconclusive peace was made between the two exhausted empires.
+
+Byzantium and Persia had fought their last war.  But few people as yet
+dreamt of the storm that was even then gathering in the deserts to put
+an end for ever to this aimless, chronic struggle.
+
+While Heraclius was restoring order in Syria a message reached him.  It
+had been brought in to the imperial outpost at Bostra south of
+Damascus; it was in Arabic, an obscure Semitic desert language, and it
+was read to the Emperor, if it reached him at all, by an interpreter. 
+It was from someone who called himself “Muhammad the Prophet of God.” 
+It called upon the Emperor to acknowledge the One True God and to serve
+him.  What the Emperor said is not recorded.
+
+A similar message came to Kavadh at Ctesiphon.  He was annoyed, tore up
+the letter, and bade the messenger begone.
+
+This Muhammad, it appeared, was a Bedouin leader whose headquarters
+were in the mean little desert town of Medina. He was preaching a new
+religion of faith in the One True God.
+
+“Even so, O Lord!” he said; “rend thou his Kingdom from Kavadh.”
+
+
+
+
+XLII
+THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA
+
+
+Throughout the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, there was a
+steady drift of Mongolian peoples westward. The Huns of Attila were
+merely precursors of this advance, which led at last to the
+establishment of Mongolian peoples in Finland, Esthonia, Hungary and
+Bulgaria, where their descendants, speaking languages akin to Turkish,
+survive to this day. The Mongolian nomads were, in fact, playing a role
+towards the Aryanized civilizations of Europe and Persia and India that
+the Aryans had played to the Ægean and Semitic civilizations ten or
+fifteen centuries before.
+
+In Central Asia the Turkish peoples had taken root in what is now
+Western Turkestan, and Persia already employed many Turkish officials
+and Turkish mercenaries.  The Parthians had gone out of history,
+absorbed into the general population of Persia.  There were no more
+Aryan nomads in the history of Central Asia; Mongolian people had
+replaced them.  The Turks became masters of Asia from China to the
+Caspian.
+
+The same great pestilence at the end of the second century A.D. that
+had shattered the Roman Empire had overthrown the Han dynasty in China.
+ Then came a period of division and of Hunnish conquests from which
+China arose refreshed, more rapidly and more completely than Europe was
+destined to do.  Before the end of the sixth century China was reunited
+under the Suy dynasty, and this by the time of Heraclius gave place to
+the Tang dynasty, whose reign marks another great period of prosperity
+for China.
+
+
+CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG DYNASTY, 616-906
+CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG DYNASTY, 616-906
+
+Specimens in glazed earthenware, in brown, green and buff, discovered
+in tombs in China
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+Throughout the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries China was the most
+secure and civilized country in the world.  The Han dynasty had
+extended her boundaries in the north; the Suy and Tang dynasties now
+spread her civilization to the south, and China began to assume the
+proportions she has to-day.  In Central Asia indeed she reached much
+further, extending at last, through tributary Turkish tribes, to Persia
+and the Caspian Sea.
+
+The new China that had arisen was a very different land from the old
+China of the Hans.  A new and more vigorous literary school appeared,
+there was a great poetic revival; Buddhism had revolutionized
+philosophical and religious thought. There were great advances in
+artistic work, in technical skill and in all the amenities of life. 
+Tea was first used, paper manufactured and wood-block printing began. 
+Millions of people indeed were leading orderly, graceful and kindly
+lives in China during these centuries when the attenuated populations
+of Europe and Western Asia were living either in hovels, small walled
+cities or grim robber fortresses.  While the mind of the west was black
+with theological obsessions, the mind of China was open and tolerant
+and enquiring.
+
+One of the earliest monarchs of the Tang dynasty was Tai- tsung, who
+began to reign in 627, the year of the victory of Heraclius at Nineveh.
+ He received an embassy from Heraclius, who was probably seeking an
+ally in the rear of Persia.  From Persia itself came a party of
+Christian missionaries (635). They were allowed to explain their creed
+to Tai-tsung and he examined a Chinese translation of their Scriptures.
+ He pronounced this strange religion acceptable, and gave permission
+for the foundation of a church and monastery.
+
+To this monarch also (in 628) came messengers from Muhammad. They came
+to Canton on a trading ship.  They had sailed the whole way from Arabia
+along the Indian coasts.  Unlike Heraclius and Kavadh, Tai-Tsung gave
+these envoys a courteous hearing.  He expressed his interest in their
+theological ideas and assisted them to build a mosque in Canton, a
+mosque which survives, it is said, to this day, the oldest mosque in
+the world.
+
+
+
+
+XLIII
+MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM
+
+
+A prophetic amateur of history surveying the world in the opening of
+the seventh century might have concluded very reasonably that it was
+only a question of a few centuries before the whole of Europe and Asia
+fell under Mongolian domination. There were no signs of order or union
+in Western Europe, and the Byzantine and Persian Empires were
+manifestly bent upon a mutual destruction. India also was divided and
+wasted. On the other hand China was a steadily expanding empire which
+probably at that time exceeded all Europe in population, and the
+Turkish people who were growing to power in Central Asia were disposed
+to work in accord with China. And such a prophecy would not have been
+an altogether vain one. A time was to come in the thirteenth century
+when a Mongolian overlord would rule from the Danube to the Pacific,
+and Turkish dynasties were destined to reign over the entire Byzantine
+and Persian Empires, over Egypt and most of India.
+
+Where our prophet would have been most likely to have erred would have
+been in under-estimating the recuperative power of the Latin end of
+Europe and in ignoring the latent forces of the Arabian desert.  Arabia
+would have seemed what it had been for times immemorial, the refuge of
+small and bickering nomadic tribes.  No Semitic people had founded an
+empire now for more than a thousand years.
+
+Then suddenly the Bedouin flared out for a brief century of splendour. 
+They spread their rule and language from Spain to the boundaries of
+China.  They gave the world a new culture. They created a religion that
+is still to this day one of the most vital forces in the world.
+
+The man who fired this Arab flame appears first in history as the young
+husband of the widow of a rich merchant of the town of Mecca, named
+Muhammad.  Until he was forty he did very little to distinguish himself
+in the world.  He seems to have taken considerable interest in
+religious discussion.  Mecca was a pagan city at that time worshipping
+in particular a black stone, the Kaaba, of great repute throughout all
+Arabia and a centre of pilgrimages; but there were great numbers of
+Jews in the country—indeed all the southern portion of Arabia professed
+the Jewish faith—and there were Christian churches in Syria.
+
+About forty Muhammad began to develop prophetic characteristics like
+those of the Hebrew prophets twelve hundred years before him.  He
+talked first to his wife of the One True God, and of the rewards and
+punishments of virtue and wickedness.  There can be no doubt that his
+thoughts were very strongly influenced by Jewish and Christian ideas. 
+He gathered about him a small circle of believers and presently began
+to preach in the town against the prevalent idolatry. This made him
+extremely unpopular with his fellow townsmen because the pilgrimages to
+the Kaaba were the chief source of such prosperity as Mecca enjoyed. 
+He became bolder and more definite in his teaching, declaring himself
+to be the last chosen prophet of God entrusted with a mission to
+perfect religion.  Abraham, he declared, and Jesus Christ were his
+forerunners.  He had been chosen to complete and perfect the revelation
+of God’s will.
+
+He produced verses which he said had been communicated to him by an
+angel, and he had a strange vision in which he was taken up through the
+Heavens to God and instructed in his mission.
+
+
+AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT
+AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+As his teaching increased in force the hostility of his fellow townsmen
+increased also.  At last a plot was made to kill him; but he escaped
+with his faithful friend and disciple, Abu Bekr, to the friendly town
+of Medina which adopted his doctrine.  Hostilities followed between
+Mecca and Medina which ended at last in a treaty.  Mecca was to adopt
+the worship of the One True God and accept Muhammad as his prophet,
+_but the adherents of the new faith were still to make the pilgrimage
+to Mecca_ just as they had done when they were pagans.  So Muhammad
+established the One True God in Mecca without injuring its pilgrim
+traffic.  In 629 Muhammad returned to Mecca as its master, a year after
+he had sent out these envoys of his to Heraclius, Tai-tsung, Kavadh and
+all the rulers of the earth.
+
+
+LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND
+LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+Then for four years more until his death in 632, Muhammad spread his
+power over the rest of Arabia.  He married a number of wives in his
+declining years, and his life on the whole was by modern standards
+unedifying.  He seems to have been a man compounded of very
+considerable vanity, greed, cunning, self-deception and quite sincere
+religious passion. He dictated a book of injunctions and expositions,
+the Koran, which he declared was communicated to him from God. 
+Regarded as literature or philosophy the Koran is certainly unworthy of
+its alleged Divine authorship.
+
+Yet when the manifest defects of Muhammad’s life and writings have been
+allowed for, there remains in Islam, this faith he imposed upon the
+Arabs, much power and inspiration. One is its uncompromising
+monotheism; its simple enthusiastic faith in the rule and fatherhood of
+God and its freedom from theological complications.  Another is its
+complete detachment from the sacrificial priest and the temple.  It is
+an entirely prophetic religion, proof against any possibility of
+relapse towards blood sacrifices.  In the Koran the limited and
+ceremonial nature of the pilgrimage to Mecca is stated beyond the
+possibility of dispute, and every precaution was taken by Muhammad to
+prevent the deification of himself after his death.  And a third
+element of strength lay in the insistence of Islam upon the perfect
+brotherhood and equality before God of all believers, whatever their
+colour, origin or status.
+
+These are the things that made Islam a power in human affairs.  It has
+been said that the true founder of the Empire of Islam was not so much
+Muhammad as his friend and helper, Abu Bekr.  If Muhammad, with his
+shifty character, was the mind and imagination of primitive Islam, Abu
+Bekr was its conscience and its will.  Whenever Muhammad wavered Abu
+Bekr sustained him.  And when Muhammad died, Abu Bekr became Caliph (=
+successor), and with that faith that moves mountains, he set himself
+simply and sanely to organize the subjugation of the whole world to
+Allah—with little armies of 3,000 or 4,000 Arabs—according to those
+letters the prophet had written from Medina in 628 to all the monarchs
+of the world.
+
+
+
+
+XLIV
+THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS
+
+
+There follows the most amazing story of conquest in the whole history
+of our race. The Byzantine army was smashed at the battle of the Yarmuk
+(a tributary of the Jordan) in 634; and the Emperor Heraclius, his
+energy sapped by dropsy and his resources exhausted by the Persian war,
+saw his new conquests in Syria, Damascus, Palmyra, Antioch, Jerusalem
+and the rest fall almost without resistance to the Moslim. Large
+elements in the population went over to Islam. Then the Moslim turned
+east. The Persians had found an able general in Rustam; they had a
+great host with a force of elephants; and for three days they fought
+the Arabs at Kadessia (637) and broke at last in headlong rout.
+
+The conquest of all Persia followed, and the Moslem Empire pushed far
+into Western Turkestan and eastward until it met the Chinese.  Egypt
+fell almost without resistance to the new conquerors, who full of a
+fanatical belief in the sufficiency of the Koran, wiped out the
+vestiges of the book-copying industry of the Alexandria Library.  The
+tide of conquest poured along the north coast of Africa to the Straits
+of Gibraltar and Spain.  Spain was invaded in 710 and the Pyrenees
+Mountains were reached in 720.  In 732 the Arab advance had reached the
+centre of France, but here it was stopped for good at the battle of
+Poitiers and thrust back as far as the Pyrenees again.  The conquest of
+Egypt had given the Moslim a fleet, and for a time it looked as though
+they would take Constantinople.  They made repeated sea attacks between
+672 and 718 but the great city held out against them.
+
+
+Map: The Growth of the Moslem Power in 25 Years
+
+
+Map: The Moslem Empire, 750 A.D.
+
+The Arabs had little political aptitude and no political experience,
+and this great empire with its capital now at Damascus, which stretched
+from Spain to China, was destined to break up very speedily. From the
+very beginning doctrinal differences undermined its unity.  But our
+interest here lies not with the story of its political disintegration
+but with its effect upon the human mind and upon the general destinies
+of our race.  The Arab intelligence had been flung across the world
+even more swiftly and dramatically than had the Greek a thousand years
+before.  The intellectual stimulation of the whole world west of China,
+the break-up of old ideas and development of new ones, was enormous.
+
+In Persia this fresh excited Arabic mind came into contact not only
+with Manichæan, Zoroastrian and Christian doctrine, but with the
+scientific Greek literature, preserved not only in Greek but in Syrian
+translations.  It found Greek learning in Egypt also. Every-where, and
+particularly in Spain, it discovered an active Jewish tradition of
+speculation and discussion.  In Central Asia it met Buddhism and the
+material achievements of Chinese civilization.  It learnt the
+manufacture of paper—which made printed books possible—from the
+Chinese.  And finally it came into touch with Indian mathematics and
+philosophy.
+
+
+JERUSALEM, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR
+JERUSALEM, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+Very speedily the intolerant self-sufficiency of the early days of
+faith, which made the Koran seem the only possible book, was dropped.
+Learning sprang up everywhere in the footsteps of the Arab conquerors. 
+By the eighth century there was an educational organization throughout
+the whole “Arabized” world.  In the ninth learned men in the schools of
+Cordoba in Spain were corresponding with learned men in Cairo, Bagdad,
+Bokhara and Samarkand.  The Jewish mind assimilated very readily with
+the Arab, and for a time the two Semitic races worked together through
+the medium of Arabic.  Long after the political break-up and
+enfeeblement of the Arabs, this intellectual community of the
+Arab-speaking world endured.  It was still producing very considerable
+results in the thirteenth century.
+
+
+VIEW OF CAIRO MOSQUES
+VIEW OF CAIRO MOSQUES
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+So it was that the systematic accumulation and criticism of facts which
+was first begun by the Greeks was resumed in this astonishing
+renascence of the Semitic world.  The seed of Aristotle and the museum
+of Alexandria that had lain so long inactive and neglected now
+germinated and began to grow towards fruition.  Very great advances
+were made in mathematical, medical and physical science.  The clumsy
+Roman numerals were ousted by the Arabic figures we use to this day and
+the zero sign was first employed.  The very name algebra is Arabic.  So
+is the word chemistry.  The names of such stars as Algol, Aldebaran and
+Boötes preserve the traces of Arab conquests in the sky.  Their
+philosophy was destined to reanimate the medieval philosophy of France
+and Italy and the whole Christian world.
+
+The Arab experimental chemists were called alchemists, and they were
+still sufficiently barbaric in spirit to keep their methods and results
+secret as far as possible.  They realized from the very beginning what
+enormous advantages their possible discoveries might give them, and
+what far-reaching consequences they might have on human life.  They
+came upon many metallurgical and technical devices of the utmost value,
+alloys and dyes, distilling, tinctures and essences, optical glass; but
+the two chief ends they sought, they sought in vain.  One was “the
+philosopher’s stone”—a means of changing the metallic elements one into
+another and so getting a control of artificial gold, and the other was
+the _elixir vitœ_, a stimulant that would revivify age and prolong life
+indefinitely.  The crabbed patient experimenting of these Arab
+alchemists spread into the Christian world.  The fascination of their
+enquiries spread.  Very gradually the activities of these alchemists
+became more social and co-operative.  They found it profitable to
+exchange and compare ideas.  By insensible gradations the last of the
+alchemists became the first of the experimental philosophers.
+
+The old alchemists sought the philosopher’s stone which was to
+transmute base metals to gold, and an elixir of immortality; they found
+the methods of modern experimental science which promise in the end to
+give man illimitable power over the world and over his own destiny.
+
+
+
+
+XLV
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM
+
+
+It is worth while to note the extremely shrunken dimensions of the
+share of the world remaining under Aryan control in the seventh and
+eighth centuries. A thousand years before, the Aryan-speaking races
+were triumphant over all the civilized world west of China. Now the
+Mongol had thrust as far as Hungary, nothing of Asia remained under
+Aryan rule except the Byzantine dominions in Asia Minor, and all Africa
+was lost and nearly all Spain. The great Hellenic world had shrunken to
+a few possessions round the nucleus of the trading city of
+Constantinople, and the memory of the Roman world was kept alive by the
+Latin of the western Christian priests. In vivid contrast to this tale
+of retrogression, the Semitic tradition had risen again from
+subjugation and obscurity after a thousand years of darkness.
+
+Yet the vitality of the Nordic peoples was not exhausted. Confined now
+to Central and North-Western Europe and terribly muddled in their
+social and political ideas, they were nevertheless building up
+gradually and steadily a new social order and preparing unconsciously
+for the recovery of a power even more extensive than that they had
+previously enjoyed.
+
+We have told how at the beginning of the sixth century there remained
+no central government in Western Europe at all. That world was divided
+up among numbers of local rulers holding their own as they could.  This
+was too insecure a state of affairs to last; a system of co-operation
+and association grew up in this disorder, the feudal system, which has
+left its traces upon European life up to the present time.  This feudal
+system was a sort of crystallization of society about power. 
+Everywhere the lone man felt insecure and was prepared to barter a
+certain amount of his liberty for help and protection.  He sought a
+stronger man as his lord and protector; he gave him military services
+and paid him dues, and in return he was confirmed in his possession of
+what was his.  His lord again found safety in vassalage to a still
+greater lord.  Cities also found it convenient to have feudal
+protectors, and monasteries and church estates bound themselves by
+similar ties.  No doubt in many cases allegiance was claimed before it
+was offered; the system grew downward as well as upward.  So a sort of
+pyramidal system grew up, varying widely in different localities,
+permitting at first a considerable play of violence and private warfare
+but making steadily for order and a new reign of law.  The pyramids
+grew up until some became recognizable as kingdoms.  Already by the
+early sixth century a Frankish kingdom existed under its founder Clovis
+in what is now France and the Netherlands, and presently Visigothic and
+Lombard and Gothic kingdoms were in existence.
+
+The Moslim when they crossed the Pyrenees in 720 found this Frankish
+kingdom under the practical rule of Charles Martel, the Mayor of the
+Palace of a degenerate descendant of Clovis, and experienced the
+decisive defeat of Poitiers (732) at his hands.  This Charles Martel
+was practically overlord of Europe north of the Alps from the Pyrenees
+to Hungary.  He ruled over a multitude of subordinate lords speaking
+French- Latin, and High and Low German languages.  His son Pepin
+extinguished the last descendants of Clovis and took the kingly state
+and title.  His grandson Charlemagne, who began to reign in 768, found
+himself lord of a realm so large that he could think of reviving the
+title of Latin Emperor.  He conquered North Italy and made himself
+master of Rome.
+
+
+Map: Area more or less under Frankish dominion in the time of Charles
+Martel
+
+Approaching the story of Europe as we do from the wider horizons of a
+world history we can see much more distinctly than the mere nationalist
+historian how cramping and disastrous this tradition of the Latin Roman
+Empire was.  A narrow intense struggle for this phantom predominance
+was to consume European energy for more than a thousand years. Through
+all that period it is possible to trace certain unquenchable
+antagonisms; they run through the wits of Europe like the obsessions of
+a demented mind.  One driving force was this ambition of successful
+rulers, which Charlemagne (Charles the Great) embodied, to become
+Cæsar.  The realm of Charlemagne consisted of a complex of feudal
+German states at various stages of barbarism.  West of the Rhine, most
+of these German peoples had learnt to speak various Latinized dialects
+which fused at last to form French.  East of the Rhine, the racially
+similar German peoples did not lose their German speech.  On account of
+this, communication was difficult between these two groups of barbarian
+conquerors and a split easily brought about.  The split was made the
+more easy by the fact that the Frankish usage made it seem natural to
+divide the empire of Charlemagne among his sons at his death.  So one
+aspect of the history of Europe from the days of Charlemagne onwards is
+a history of first this monarch and his family and then that,
+struggling to a precarious headship of the kings, princes, dukes,
+bishops and cities of Europe, while a steadily deepening antagonism
+between the French and German speaking elements develops in the medley.
+ There was a formality of election for each emperor; and the climax of
+his ambition was to struggle to the possession of that worn-out,
+misplaced capital Rome and to a coronation there.
+
+The next factor in the European political disorder was the resolve of
+the Church at Rome to make no temporal prince but the Pope of Rome
+himself emperor in effect.  He was already pontifex maximus; for all
+practical purposes he held the decaying city; if he had no armies he
+had at least a vast propaganda organization in his priests throughout
+the whole Latin world; if he had little power over men’s bodies he held
+the keys of heaven and hell in their imaginations and could exercise
+much influence upon their souls.  So throughout the middle ages while
+one prince manœuvred against another first for equality, then for
+ascendancy, and at last for the supreme prize, the Pope of Rome,
+sometimes boldly, sometimes craftily, sometimes feebly—for the Popes
+were a succession of oldish men and the average reign of a Pope was not
+more than two years—manœuvred for the submission of all the princes to
+himself as the ultimate overlord of Christendom.
+
+But these antagonisms of prince against prince and of Emperor against
+Pope do not by any means exhaust the factors of the European confusion.
+ There was still an Emperor in Constantinople speaking Greek and
+claiming the allegiance of all Europe.  When Charlemagne sought to
+revive the empire, it was merely the Latin end of the empire he
+revived.  It was natural that a sense of rivalry between Latin Empire
+and Greek Empire should develop very readily.  And still more readily
+did the rivalry of Greek-speaking Christianity and the newer
+Latin-speaking version develop.  The Pope of Rome claimed to be the
+successor of St. Peter, the chief of the apostles of Christ, and the
+head of the Christian community everywhere.  Neither the emperor nor
+the patriarch in Constantinople were disposed to acknowledge this
+claim.  A dispute about a fine point in the doctrine of the Holy
+Trinity consummated a long series of dissensions in a final rupture in
+1054.  The Latin Church and the Greek Church became and remained
+thereafter distinct and frankly antagonistic. This antagonism must be
+added to the others in our estimate of the conflicts that wasted Latin
+Christendom in the middle ages.
+
+
+STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE IN FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS
+STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE IN FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS
+The figure is entirely imaginary and romantic.  There is no
+contemporary portrait of Charlemagne
+
+_Photo:  Rischgitz_
+
+
+Upon this divided world of Christendom rained the blows of three sets
+of antagonists.  About the Baltic and North Seas remained a series of
+Nordic tribes who were only very slowly and reluctantly Christianized;
+these were the Northmen.  They had taken to the sea and piracy, and
+were raiding all the Christian coasts down to Spain.  They had pushed
+up the Russian rivers to the desolate central lands and brought their
+shipping over into the south-flowing rivers.  They had come out upon
+the Caspian and Black Seas as pirates also.  They set up principalities
+in Russia; they were the first people to be called Russians.  These
+Northmen Russians came near to taking Constantinople.  England in the
+early ninth century was a Christianized Low German country under a
+king, Egbert, a protégé and pupil of Charlemagne.  The Northmen wrested
+half the kingdom from his successor Alfred the Great (886), and finally
+under Canute (1016) made themselves masters of the whole land.  Under
+Rolph the Ganger (912) another band of Northmen conquered the north of
+France, which became Normandy.
+
+Canute ruled not only over England but over Norway and Denmark, but his
+brief empire fell to pieces at his death through that political
+weakness of the barbaric peoples—division among a ruler’s sons.  It is
+interesting to speculate what might have happened if this temporary
+union of the Northmen had endured.  They were a race of astonishing
+boldness and energy.  They sailed in their galleys even to Iceland and
+Greenland.  They were the first Europeans to land on American soil. 
+Later on Norman adventurers were to recover Sicily from the Saracens
+and sack Rome.  It is a fascinating thing to imagine what a great
+northern sea-faring power might have grown out of Canute’s kingdom,
+reaching from America to Russia.
+
+To the east of the Germans and Latinized Europeans was a medley of Slav
+tribes and Turkish peoples.  Prominent among these were the Magyars or
+Hungarians who were coming westward throughout the eighth and ninth
+centuries.  Charlemagne held them for a time, but after his death they
+established themselves in what is now Hungary; and after the fashion of
+their kindred predecessors, the Huns, raided every summer into the
+settled parts of Europe.  In 938 they went through Germany into France,
+crossed the Alps into North Italy, and so came home, burning, robbing
+and destroying.
+
+Finally pounding away from the south at the vestiges of the Roman
+Empire were the Saracens.  They had made themselves largely masters of
+the sea; their only formidable adversaries upon the water were the
+Northmen, the Russian Northmen out of the Black Sea and the Northmen of
+the west.
+
+
+Map: Europe at the death of Charlemagne—814
+
+Hemmed in by these more vigorous and aggressive peoples, amidst forces
+they did not understand and dangers they could not estimate,
+Charlemagne and after him a series of other ambitious spirits took up
+the futile drama of restoring the Western Empire under the name of the
+Holy Roman Empire.  From the time of Charlemagne onward this idea
+obsessed the political life of Western Europe, while in the East the
+Greek half of the Roman power decayed and dwindled until at last
+nothing remained of it at all but the corrupt trading city of
+Constantinople and a few miles of territory about it. Politically the
+continent of Europe remained traditional and uncreative from the time
+of Charlemagne onward for a thousand years.
+
+The name of Charlemagne looms large in European history but his
+personality is but indistinctly seen.  He could not read nor write, but
+he had a considerable respect for learning; he liked to be read aloud
+to at meals and he had a weakness for theological discussion.  At his
+winter quarters at Aix-la- Chapelle or Mayence he gathered about him a
+number of learned men and picked up much from their conversation.  In
+the summer he made war, against the Spanish Saracens, against the Slavs
+and Magyars, against the Saxons, and other still heathen German tribes.
+ It is doubtful whether the idea of becoming Cæsar in succession to
+Romulus Augustulus occurred to him before his acquisition of North
+Italy, or whether it was suggested to him by Pope Leo III, who was
+anxious to make the Latin Church independent of Constantinople.
+
+There were the most extraordinary manœuvres at Rome between the Pope
+and the prospective emperor in order to make it appear or not appear as
+if the Pope gave him the imperial crown.  The Pope succeeded in
+crowning his visitor and conqueror by surprise in St. Peter’s on
+Christmas Day 800 A.D.  He produced a crown, put it on the head of
+Charlemagne and hailed him Cæsar and Augustus.  There was great
+applause among the people. Charlemagne was by no means pleased at the
+way in which the thing was done, it rankled in his mind as a defeat;
+and he left the most careful instructions to his son that he was not to
+let the Pope crown him emperor; he was to seize the crown into his own
+hands and put it on his own head himself.  So at the very outset of
+this imperial revival we see beginning the age-long dispute of Pope and
+Emperor for priority.  But Louis the Pious, the son of Charlemagne,
+disregarded his father’s instructions and was entirely submissive to
+the Pope.
+
+The empire of Charlemagne fell apart at the death of Louis the Pious
+and the split between the French-speaking Franks and the
+German-speaking Franks widened.  The next emperor to arise was Otto,
+the son of a certain Henry the Fowler, a Saxon, who had been elected
+King of Germany by an assembly of German princes and prelates in 919. 
+Otto descended upon Rome and was crowned emperor there in 962.  This
+Saxon line came to an end early in the eleventh century and gave place
+to other German rulers.  The feudal princes and nobles to the west who
+spoke various French dialects did not fall under the sway of these
+German emperors after the Carlovingian line, the line that is descended
+from Charlemagne, had come to an end, and no part of Britain ever came
+into the Holy Roman Empire.  The Duke of Normandy, the King of France
+and a number of lesser feudal rulers remained outside.  In 987 the
+Kingdom of France passed out of the possession of the Carlovingian line
+into the hands of Hugh Capet, whose descendants were still reigning in
+the eighteenth century.  At the time of Hugh Capet the King of France
+ruled only a comparatively small territory round Paris.
+
+In 1066 England was attacked almost simultaneously by an invasion of
+the Norwegian Northmen under King Harold Hardrada and by the Latinized
+Northmen under the Duke of Normandy. Harold King of England defeated
+the former at the battle of Stamford Bridge, and was defeated by the
+latter at Hastings. England was conquered by the Normans, and so cut
+off from Scandinavian, Teutonic and Russian affairs, and brought into
+the most intimate relations and conflicts with the French. For the next
+four centuries the English were entangled in the conflicts of the
+French feudal princes and wasted upon the fields of France.
+
+
+
+
+XLVI
+THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION
+
+
+It is interesting to note that Charlemagne corresponded with the Caliph
+Haroun-al-Raschid, the Haroun-al-Raschid of the _Arabian Nights_. It is
+recorded that Haroun-al-Raschid sent ambassadors from Bagdad—which had
+now replaced Damascus as the Moslem capital—with a splendid tent, a
+water clock, an elephant and the keys of the Holy Sepulchre. This
+latter present was admirably calculated to set the Byzantine Empire and
+this new Holy Roman Empire by the ears as to which was the proper
+protector of the Christians in Jerusalem.
+
+These presents remind us that while Europe in the ninth century was
+still a weltering disorder of war and pillage, there flourished a great
+Arab Empire in Egypt and Mesopotamia, far more civilized than anything
+Europe could show.  Here literature and science still lived; the arts
+flourished, and the mind of man could move without fear or
+superstition.  And even in Spain and North Africa where the Saracenic
+dominions were falling into political confusion there was a vigorous
+intellectual life.  Aristotle was read and discussed by these Jews and
+Arabs during these centuries of European darkness.  They guarded the
+neglected seeds of science and philosophy.
+
+North-east of the Caliph’s dominions was a number of Turkish tribes. 
+They had been converted to Islam, and they held the faith much more
+simply and fiercely than the actively intellectual Arabs and Persians
+to the south.  In the tenth century the Turks were growing strong and
+vigorous while the Arab power was divided and decaying.  The relations
+of the Turks to the Empire of the Caliphate became very similar to the
+relations of the Medes to the last Babylonian Empire fourteen centuries
+before.  In the eleventh century a group of Turkish tribes, the Seljuk
+Turks, came down into Mesopotamia and made the Caliph their nominal
+ruler but really their captive and tool.  They conquered Armenia.  Then
+they struck at the remnants of the Byzantine power in Asia Minor.  In
+1071 the Byzantine army was utterly smashed at the battle of Melasgird,
+and the Turks swept forward until not a trace of Byzantine rule
+remained in Asia. They took the fortress of Nicæa over against
+Constantinople, and prepared to attempt that city.
+
+The Byzantine emperor, Michael VII, was overcome with terror. He was
+already heavily engaged in warfare with a band of Norman adventurers
+who had seized Durazzo, and with a fierce Turkish people, the
+Petschenegs, who were raiding over the Danube.  In his extremity he
+sought help where he could, and it is notable that he did not appeal to
+the western emperor but to the Pope of Rome as the head of Latin
+Christendom.  He wrote to Pope Gregory VII, and his successor Alexius
+Comnenus wrote still more urgently to Urban II.
+
+
+CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRAL
+CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRAL
+
+_Photo:  Mansell_
+
+
+This was not a quarter of a century from the rupture of the Latin and
+Greek churches.  That controversy was still vividly alive in men’s
+minds, and this disaster to Byzantium must have presented itself to the
+Pope as a supreme opportunity for reasserting the supremacy of the
+Latin Church over the dissentient Greeks.  Moreover this occasion gave
+the Pope a chance to deal with two other matters that troubled western
+Christendom very greatly.  One was the custom of “private war” which
+disordered social life, and the other was the superabundant fighting
+energy of the Low Germans and Christianized Northmen and particularly
+of the Franks and Normans.  A religious war, the Crusade, the War of
+the Cross, was preached against the Turkish captors of Jerusalem, and a
+truce to all warfare amongst Christians (1095).  The declared object of
+this war was the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre from the unbelievers. 
+A man called Peter the Hermit carried on a popular propaganda
+throughout France and Germany on broadly democratic lines. He went clad
+in a coarse garment, barefooted on an ass, he carried a huge cross and
+harangued the crowd in street or market-place or church.  He denounced
+the cruelties practised upon the Christian pilgrims by the Turks, and
+the shame of the Holy Sepulchre being in any but Christian hands.  The
+fruits of centuries of Christian teaching became apparent in the
+response.  A great wave of enthusiasm swept the western world, and
+popular Christendom discovered itself.
+
+
+VIEW OF CAIRO
+VIEW OF CAIRO
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+Such a widespread uprising of the common people in relation to a single
+idea as now occurred was a new thing in the history of our race.  There
+is nothing to parallel it in the previous history of the Roman Empire
+or of India or China. On a smaller scale, however, there had been
+similar movements among the Jewish people after their liberation from
+the Babylonian captivity, and later on Islam was to display a parallel
+susceptibility to collective feeling.  Such movements were certainly
+connected with the new spirit that had come into life with the
+development of the missionary- teaching religions.  The Hebrew
+prophets, Jesus and his disciples, Mani, Muhammad, were all exhorters
+of men’s individual souls.  They brought the personal conscience face
+to face with God.  Before that time religion had been much more a
+business of fetish, of pseudoscience, than of conscience.  The old kind
+of religion turned upon temple, initiated priest and mystical
+sacrifice, and ruled the common man like a slave by fear.  The new kind
+of religion made a man of him.
+
+The preaching of the First Crusade was the first stirring of the common
+people in European history.  It may be too much to call it the birth of
+modern democracy, but certainly at that time modern democracy stirred. 
+Before very long we shall find it stirring again, and raising the most
+disturbing social and religious questions.
+
+Certainly this first stirring of democracy ended very pitifully and
+lamentably.  Considerable bodies of common people, crowds rather than
+armies, set out eastward from France and the Rhineland and Central
+Europe without waiting for leaders or proper equipment to rescue the
+Holy Sepulchre. This was the “people’s crusade.”  Two great mobs
+blundered into Hungary, mistook the recently converted Magyars for
+pagans, committed atrocities and were massacred. A third multitude with
+a similarly confused mind, after a great pogrom of the Jews in the
+Rhineland, marched eastward, and was also destroyed in Hungary.  Two
+other huge crowds, under the leadership of Peter the Hermit himself,
+reached Constantinople, crossed the Bosphorus, and were massacred
+rather than defeated by the Seljuk Turks.  So began and ended this
+first movement of the European people, as people.
+
+Next year (1097) the real fighting forces crossed the Bosphorus. 
+Essentially they were Norman in leadership and spirit.  They stormed
+Nicæa, marched by much the same route as Alexander had followed
+fourteen centuries before, to Antioch.  The siege of Antioch kept them
+a year, and in June 1099 they invested Jerusalem.  It was stormed after
+a month’s siege.  The slaughter was terrible.  Men riding on horseback
+were splashed by the blood in the streets.  At nightfall on July 15th
+the Crusaders had fought their way into the Church of the Holy
+Sepulchre and overcome all opposition there: blood-stained, weary and
+“sobbing from excess of joy” they knelt down in prayer.
+
+
+THE HORSES OF S. MARK, VENICE
+THE HORSES OF S. MARK, VENICE
+Originally on the arch of Trajan at Constantinople, the Doge Dandalo V
+took them after the Fourth Crusade, to Venice, whence Napoleon I
+removed them to Paris, but in 1815 they were returned to Venice. 
+During the Great War of 1914-18 they were hidden away for fear of air
+raids.
+
+_Photo:  D. McLeish_
+
+
+Immediately the hostility of Latin and Greek broke out again. The
+Crusaders were the servants of the Latin Church, and the Greek
+patriarch of Jerusalem found himself in a far worse case under the
+triumphant Latins than under the Turks.  The Crusaders discovered
+themselves between Byzantine and Turk and fighting both.  Much of Asia
+Minor was recovered by the Byzantine Empire, and the Latin princes were
+left, a buffer between Turk and Greek, with Jerusalem and a few small
+principalities, of which Edessa was one of the chief, in Syria.  Their
+grip even on these possessions was precarious, and in 1144 Edessa fell
+to the Moslim, leading to an ineffective Second Crusade, which failed
+to recover Edessa but saved Antioch from a similar fate.
+
+In 1169 the forces of Islam were rallied under a Kurdish adventurer
+named Saladin who had made himself master of Egypt.  He preached a Holy
+War against the Christians, recaptured Jerusalem in 1187, and so
+provoked the Third Crusade.  This failed to recover Jerusalem.  In the
+Fourth Crusade (1202-4) the Latin Church turned frankly upon the Greek
+Empire, and there was not even a pretence of fighting the Turks.  It
+started from Venice and in 1204 it stormed Constantinople. The great
+rising trading city of Venice was the leader in this adventure, and
+most of the coasts and islands of the Byzantine Empire were annexed by
+the Venetians.  A “Latin” emperor (Baldwin of Flanders) was set up in
+Constantinople and the Latin and Greek Church were declared to be
+reunited.  The Latin emperors ruled in Constantinople from 1204 to 1261
+when the Greek world shook itself free again from Roman predominance.
+
+The twelfth century then and the opening of the thirteenth was the age
+of papal ascendancy just as the eleventh was the age of the ascendancy
+of the Seljuk Turks and the tenth the age of the Northmen.  A united
+Christendom under the rule of the Pope came nearer to being a working
+reality than it ever was before or after that time.
+
+
+A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA
+A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+In those centuries a simple Christian faith was real and widespread
+over great areas of Europe.  Rome itself had passed through some dark
+and discreditable phases; few writers can be found to excuse the lives
+of Popes John XI and John XII in the tenth century; they were
+abominable creatures; but the heart and body of Latin Christendom had
+remained earnest and simple; the generality of the common priests and
+monks and nuns had lived exemplary and faithful lives.  Upon the wealth
+of confidence such lives created rested the power of the church.  Among
+the great Popes of the past had been Gregory the Great, Gregory I
+(590-604) and Leo III (795-816) who invited Charlemagne to be Cæsar and
+crowned him in spite of himself.  Towards the close of the eleventh
+century there arose a great clerical statesman, Hildebrand, who ended
+his life as Pope Gregory VII (1073- 1085).  Next but one after him came
+Urban II (1087-1099), the Pope of the First Crusade.  These two were
+the founders of this period of papal greatness during which the Popes
+lorded it over the Emperors.  From Bulgaria to Ireland and from Norway
+to Sicily and Jerusalem the Pope was supreme.  Gregory VII obliged the
+Emperor Henry IV to come in penitence to him at Canossa and to await
+forgiveness for three days and nights in the courtyard of the castle,
+clad in sackcloth and barefooted to the snow.  In 1176 at Venice the
+Emperor Frederick (Frederick Barbarossa), knelt to Pope Alexander III
+and swore fealty to him.
+
+The great power of the church in the beginning of the eleventh century
+lay in the wills and consciences of men.  It failed to retain the moral
+prestige on which its power was based.  In the opening decades of the
+fourteenth century it was discovered that the power of the Pope had
+evaporated. What was it that destroyed the naive confidence of the
+common people of Christendom in the church so that they would no longer
+rally to its appeal and serve its purposes?
+
+The first trouble was certainly the accumulation of wealth by the
+church.  The church never died, and there was a frequent disposition on
+the part of dying childless people to leave lands to the church. 
+Penitent sinners were exhorted to do so.  Accordingly in many European
+countries as much as a fourth of the land became church property.  The
+appetite for property grows with what it feeds upon.  Already in the
+thirteenth century it was being said everywhere that the priests were
+not good men, that they were always hunting for money and legacies.
+
+The kings and princes disliked this alienation of property very
+greatly.  In the place of feudal lords capable of military support,
+they found their land supporting abbeys and monks and nuns.  And these
+lands were really under foreign dominion.  Even before the time of Pope
+Gregory VII there had been a struggle between the princes and the
+papacy over the question of “investitures,” the question that is of who
+should appoint the bishops.  If that power rested with the Pope and not
+the King, then the latter lost control not only of the consciences of
+his subjects but of a considerable part of his dominions.  For also the
+clergy claimed exemption from taxation.  They paid their taxes to Rome.
+ And not only that, but the church also claimed the right to levy a tax
+of one-tenth upon the property of the layman in addition to the taxes
+he paid his prince.
+
+The history of nearly every country in Latin Christendom tells of the
+same phase in the eleventh century, a phase of struggle between monarch
+and Pope on the issue of investitures and generally it tells of a
+victory for the Pope.  He claimed to be able to excommunicate the
+prince, to absolve his subjects from their allegiance to him, to
+recognize a successor.  He claimed to be able to put a nation under an
+interdict, and then nearly all priestly functions ceased except the
+sacraments of baptism, confirmation and penance; the priests could
+neither hold the ordinary services, marry people, nor bury the dead. 
+With these two weapons it was possible for the twelfth century Popes to
+curb the most recalcitrant princes and overawe the most restive
+peoples.  These were enormous powers, and enormous powers are only to
+be used on extraordinary occasions.  The Popes used them at last with a
+frequency that staled their effect.  Within thirty years at the end of
+the twelfth century we find Scotland, France and England in turn under
+an interdict.  And also the Popes could not resist the temptation to
+preach crusades against offending princes—until the crusading spirit
+was extinct.
+
+It is possible that if the Church of Rome had struggled simply against
+the princes and had had a care to keep its hold upon the general mind,
+it might have achieved a permanent dominion over all Christendom.  But
+the high claims of the Pope were reflected as arrogance in the conduct
+of the clergy.  Before the eleventh century the Roman priests could
+marry; they had close ties with the people among whom they lived; they
+were indeed a part of the people.  Gregory VII made them celibates; he
+cut the priests off from too great an intimacy with the laymen in order
+to bind them more closely to Rome, but indeed he opened a fissure
+between the church and the commonalty.  The church had its own law
+courts. Cases involving not merely priests but monks, students,
+crusaders, widows, orphans and the helpless were reserved for the
+clerical courts, and so were all matters relating to wills, marriages
+and oaths and all cases of sorcery, heresy and blasphemy.  Whenever the
+layman found himself in conflict with the priest he had to go to a
+clerical court.  The obligations of peace and war fell upon his
+shoulders alone and left the priest free.  It is no great wonder that
+jealousy and hatred of the priests grew up in the Christian world.
+
+Never did Rome seem to realize that its power was in the consciences of
+common men.  It fought against religious enthusiasm, which should have
+been its ally, and it forced doctrinal orthodoxy upon honest doubt and
+aberrant opinion. When the church interfered in matters of morality it
+had the common man with it, but not when it interfered in matters of
+doctrine.  When in the south of France Waldo taught a return to the
+simplicity of Jesus in faith and life, Innocent III preached a crusade
+against the Waldenses, Waldo’s followers, and permitted them to be
+suppressed with fire, sword, rape and the most abominable cruelties. 
+When again St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) taught the imitation of
+Christ and a life of poverty and service, his followers, the
+Franciscans, were persecuted, scourged, imprisoned and dispersed.  In
+1318 four of them were burnt alive at Marseilles.  On the other hand
+the fiercely orthodox order of the Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic
+(1170-1221) was strongly supported by Innocent III, who with its
+assistance set up an organization, the Inquisition, for the hunting of
+heresy and the affliction of free thought.
+
+So it was that the church by excessive claims, by unrighteous
+privileges, and by an irrational intolerance destroyed that free faith
+of the common man which was the final source of all its power.  The
+story of its decline tells of no adequate foemen from without but
+continually of decay from within.
+
+
+
+
+XLVII
+RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM
+
+
+One very great weakness of the Roman Church in its struggle to secure
+the headship of all Christendom was the manner in which the Pope was
+chosen.
+
+If indeed the papacy was to achieve its manifest ambition and establish
+one rule and one peace throughout Christendom, then it was vitally
+necessary that it should have a strong, steady and continuous
+direction.  In those great days of its opportunity it needed before all
+things that the Popes when they took office should be able men in the
+prime of life, that each should have his successor-designate with whom
+he could discuss the policy of the church, and that the forms and
+processes of election should be clear, definite, unalterable and
+unassailable.  Unhappily none of these things obtained.  It was not
+even clear who could vote in the election of a Pope, nor whether the
+Byzantine or Holy Roman Emperor had a voice in the matter.  That very
+great papal statesman Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII, 1073-1085) did much
+to regularize the election.  He confined the votes to the Roman
+cardinals and he reduced the Emperor’s share to a formula of assent
+conceded to him by the church, but he made no provision for a
+successor-designate and he left it possible for the disputes of the
+cardinals to keep the See vacant, as in some cases it was kept vacant,
+for a year or more.
+
+
+MILAN CATHEDRALA COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA
+MILAN CATHEDRALA COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA
+View showing the exquisite carvings characteristic of the 98 spires of
+the edifice
+
+
+The consequences of this want of firm definition are to be seen in the
+whole history of the papacy up to the sixteenth century.  From quite
+early times onward there were disputed elections and two or more men
+each claiming to be Pope.  The church would then be subjected to the
+indignity of going to the Emperor or some other outside arbiter to
+settle the dispute.  And the career of everyone of the great Popes
+ended in a note of interrogation.  At his death the church might be
+left headless and as ineffective as a decapitated body.  Or he might be
+replaced by some old rival eager only to discredit and undo his work. 
+Or some enfeebled old man tottering on the brink of the grave might
+succeed him.
+
+It was inevitable that this peculiar weakness of the papal organization
+should attract the interference of the various German princes, the
+French King, and the Norman and French Kings who ruled in England; that
+they should all try to influence the elections, and have a Pope in
+their own interest established in the Lateran Palace at Rome.  And the
+more powerful and important the Pope became in European affairs, the
+more urgent did these interventions become. Under the circumstances it
+is no great wonder that many of the Popes were weak and futile.  The
+astonishing thing is that many of them were able and courageous men.
+
+One of the most vigorous and interesting of the Popes of this great
+period was Innocent III (1198-1216) who was so fortunate as to become
+Pope before he was thirty-eight.  He and his successors were pitted
+against an even more interesting personality, the Emperor Frederick II;
+_Stupor mundi_ he was called, the Wonder of the world.  The struggle of
+this monarch against Rome is a turning place in history.  In the end
+Rome defeated him and destroyed his dynasty, but he left the prestige
+of the church and Pope so badly wounded that its wounds festered and
+led to its decay.
+
+Frederick was the son of the Emperor Henry VI and his mother was the
+daughter of Roger I, the Norman King of Sicily.  He inherited this
+kingdom in 1198 when he was a child of four years.  Innocent III had
+been made his guardian.  Sicily in those days had been but recently
+conquered by the Normans; the Court was half oriental and full of
+highly educated Arabs; and some of these were associated in the
+education of the young king.  No doubt they were at some pains to make
+their point of view clear to him.  He got a Moslem view of Christianity
+as well as a Christian view of Islam, and the unhappy result of this
+double system of instruction was a view, exceptional in that age of
+faith, that all religions were impostures.  He talked freely on the
+subject; his heresies and blasphemies are on record.
+
+As the young man grew up he found himself in conflict with his
+guardian.  Innocent III wanted altogether too much from his ward.  When
+the opportunity came for Frederick to succeed as Emperor, the Pope
+intervened with conditions.  Frederick must promise to put down heresy
+in Germany with a strong hand. Moreover he must relinquish his crown in
+Sicily and South Italy, because otherwise he would be too strong for
+the Pope.  And the German clergy were to be freed from all taxation. 
+Frederick agreed but with no intention of keeping his word.  The Pope
+had already induced the French King to make war upon his own subjects
+in France, the cruel and bloody crusade against the Waldenses; he
+wanted Frederick to do the same thing in Germany.  But Frederick being
+far more of a heretic than any of the simple pietists who had incurred
+the Pope’s animosity, lacked the crusading impulse.  And when Innocent
+urged him to crusade against the Moslim and recover Jerusalem he was
+equally ready to promise and equally slack in his performance.
+
+
+A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS
+A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS
+From the Church of S. Pedro at Ocana, Spain
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+Having secured the imperial crown Frederick II stayed in Sicily, which
+he greatly preferred to Germany as a residence, and did nothing to
+redeem any of his promises to Innocent III, who died baffled in 1216.
+
+Honorius III, who succeeded Innocent, could do no better with
+Frederick, and Gregory IX (1227) came to the papal throne evidently
+resolved to settle accounts with this young man at any cost.  He
+excommunicated him.  Frederick II was denied all the comforts of
+religion.  In the half-Arab Court of Sicily this produced singularly
+little discomfort.  And also the Pope addressed a public letter to the
+Emperor reciting his vices (which were indisputable), his heresies, and
+his general misconduct.  To this Frederick replied in a document of
+diabolical ability.  It was addressed to all the princes of Europe, and
+it made the first clear statement of the issue between the Pope and the
+princes.  He made a shattering attack upon the manifest ambition of the
+Pope to become the absolute ruler of all Europe.  He suggested a union
+of princes against this usurpation.   He directed the attention of the
+princes specifically to the wealth of the church.
+
+Having fired off this deadly missile Frederick resolved to perform his
+twelve-year-old promise and go upon a crusade. This was the Sixth
+Crusade (1228).  It was as a crusade, farcical.  Frederick II went to
+Egypt and met and discussed affairs with the Sultan.  These two
+gentlemen, both of sceptical opinions, exchanged congenial views, made
+a commercial convention to their mutual advantage, and agreed to
+transfer Jerusalem to Frederick.  This indeed was a new sort of
+crusade, a crusade by private treaty.  Here was no blood splashing the
+conqueror, no “weeping with excess of joy.”  As this astonishing
+crusader was an excommunicated man, he had to be content with a purely
+secular coronation as King of Jerusalem, taking the crown from the
+altar with his own hand—for all the clergy were bound to shun him.  He
+then returned to Italy, chased the papal armies which had invaded his
+dominions back to their own territories, and obliged the Pope to grant
+him absolution from his excommunication.  So a prince might treat the
+Pope in the thirteenth century, and there was now no storm of popular
+indignation to avenge him.  Those days were past.
+
+In 1239 Gregory IX resumed his struggle with Frederick, excommunicated
+him for a second time, and renewed that warfare of public abuse in
+which the papacy had already suffered severely.  The controversy was
+revived after Gregory IX was dead, when Innocent IV was Pope; and again
+a devastating letter, which men were bound to remember, was written by
+Frederick against the church.  He denounced the pride and irreligion of
+the clergy, and ascribed all the corruptions of the time to their pride
+and wealth.  He proposed to his fellow princes a general confiscation
+of church property—for the good of the church.  It was a suggestion
+that never afterwards left the imagination of the European princes.
+
+We will not go on to tell of his last years.  The particular events of
+his life are far less significant than its general atmosphere.  It is
+possible to piece together something of his court life in Sicily.  He
+was luxurious in his way of living, and fond of beautiful things.  He
+is described as licentious.  But it is clear that he was a man of very
+effectual curiosity and inquiry.  He gathered Jewish and Moslem as well
+as Christian philosophers at his court, and he did much to irrigate the
+Italian mind with Saracenic influences.  Through him the Arabic
+numerals and algebra were introduced to Christian students, and among
+other philosophers at his court was Michael Scott, who translated
+portions of Aristotle and the commentaries thereon of the great Arab
+philosopher Averroes (of Cordoba).  In 1224 Frederick founded the
+University of Naples, and he enlarged and enriched the great medical
+school at Salerno University. He also founded a zoological garden.  He
+left a book on hawking, which shows him to have been an acute observer
+of the habits of birds, and he was one of the first Italians to write
+Italian verse.  Italian poetry was indeed born at his court.  He has
+been called by an able writer, “the first of the moderns,” and the
+phrase expresses aptly the unprejudiced detachment of his intellectual
+side.
+
+A still more striking intimation of the decay of the living and
+sustaining forces of the papacy appeared when presently the Popes came
+into conflict with the growing power of the French King.  During the
+lifetime of the Emperor Frederick II, Germany fell into disunion, and
+the French King began to play the rôle of guard, supporter and rival to
+the Pope that had hitherto fallen to the Hohenstaufen Emperors.  A
+series of Popes pursued the policy of supporting the French monarchs. 
+French princes were established in the kingdom of Sicily and Naples,
+with the support and approval of Rome, and the French Kings saw before
+them the possibility of restoring and ruling the Empire of Charlemagne.
+ When, however, the German interregnum after the death of Frederick II,
+the last of the Hohenstaufens, came to all end and Rudolf of Habsburg
+was elected first Habsburg Emperor (1273), the policy of Rome began to
+fluctuate between France and Germany, veering about with the sympathies
+of each successive Pope.  In the East in 1261 the Greeks recaptured
+Constantinople from the Latin emperors, and the founder of the new
+Greek dynasty, Michael Palæologus, Michael VIII, after some unreal
+tentatives of reconciliation with the Pope, broke away from the Roman
+communion altogether, and with that, and the fall of the Latin kingdoms
+in Asia, the eastward ascendancy of the Popes came to an end.
+
+
+COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY
+COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY
+
+
+In 1294 Boniface VIII became Pope.  He was an Italian, hostile to the
+French, and full of a sense of the great traditions and mission of
+Rome.  For a time he carried things with a high hand.  In 1300 he held
+a jubilee, and a vast multitude of pilgrims assembled in Rome.  “So
+great was the influx of money into the papal treasury, that two
+assistants were kept busy with the rakes collecting the offerings that
+were deposited at the tomb of St. Peter.” [1] But this festival was a
+delusive triumph.  Boniface came into conflict with the French King in
+1302, and in 1303, as he was about to pronounce sentence of
+excommunication against that monarch, he was surprised and arrested in
+his own ancestral palace at Anagni, by Guillaume de Nogaret.  This
+agent from the French King forced an entrance into the palace, made his
+way into the bedroom of the frightened Pope—he was lying in bed with a
+cross in his hands—and heaped threats and insults upon him.  The Pope
+was liberated a day or so later by the townspeople, and returned to
+Rome; but there he was seized upon and again made prisoner by the
+Orsini family, and in a few weeks’ time the shocked and disillusioned
+old man died a prisoner in their hands.
+
+
+COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY
+COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY
+This series is from casts in the Victoria and Albert Museum of the
+original brass statuettes in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam
+
+
+The people of Anagni did resent the first outrage, and rose against
+Nogaret to liberate Boniface, but then Anagni was the Pope’s native
+town.  The important point to note is that the French King in this
+rough treatment of the head of Christendom was acting with the full
+approval of his people; he had summoned a council of the Three Estates
+of France (lords, church and commons) and gained their consent before
+proceeding to extremities.  Neither in Italy, Germany nor England was
+there the slightest general manifestation of disapproval at this free
+handling of the sovereign pontiff. The idea of Christendom had decayed
+until its power over the minds of men had gone.
+
+Throughout the fourteenth century the papacy did nothing to recover its
+moral sway.  The next Pope elected, Clement V, was a Frenchman, the
+choice of King Philip of France.  He never came to Rome.  He set up his
+court in the town of Avignon, which then belonged not to France but to
+the papal See, though embedded in French territory, and there his
+successors remained until 1377, when Pope Gregory XI returned to the
+Vatican palace in Rome.  But Gregory XI did not take the sympathies of
+the whole church with him.  Many of the cardinals were of French origin
+and their habits and associations were rooted deep at Avignon.  When in
+1378 Gregory XI died, and an Italian, Urban VI, was elected, these
+dissentient cardinals declared the election invalid, and elected
+another Pope, the anti-Pope, Clement VII.  This split is called the
+Great Schism.  The Popes remained in Rome, and all the anti-French
+powers, the Emperor, the King of England, Hungary, Poland and the North
+of Europe were loyal to them. The anti-Popes, on the other hand,
+continued in Avignon, and were supported by the King of France, his
+ally the King of Scotland, Spain, Portugal and various German princes. 
+Each Pope excommunicated and cursed the adherents of his rival
+(1378-1417).
+
+Is it any wonder that presently all over Europe people began to think
+for themselves in matters of religion?
+
+The beginnings of the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which we have
+noted in the preceding chapters, were but two among many of the new
+forces that were arising in Christendom, either to hold or shatter the
+church as its own wisdom might decide. Those two orders the church did
+assimilate and use, though with a little violence in the case of the
+former.  But other forces were more frankly disobedient and critical. 
+A century and a half later came Wycliffe (1320-1384). He was a learned
+Doctor at Oxford.  Quite late in his life he began a series of
+outspoken criticisms of the corruption of the clergy and the unwisdom
+of the church.  He organized a number of poor priests, the Wycliffites,
+to spread his ideas throughout England; and in order that people should
+judge between the church and himself, he translated the Bible into
+English.  He was a more learned and far abler man than either St.
+Francis or St. Dominic.  He had supporters in high places and a great
+following among the people; and though Rome raged against him, and
+ordered his imprisonment, he died a free man.  But the black and
+ancient spirit that was leading the Catholic Church to its destruction
+would not let his bones rest in the grave.  By a decree of the Council
+of Constance in 1415, his remains were ordered to be dug up and burnt,
+an order which was carried out at the command of Pope Martin V by
+Bishop Fleming in 1428.  This desecration was not the act of some
+isolated fanatic; it was the official act of the church.
+
+
+[1] J. H. Robinson.
+
+
+
+
+XLVIII
+THE MONGOL CONQUESTS
+
+
+But in the thirteenth century, while this strange and finally
+ineffectual struggle to unify Christendom under the rule of the Pope
+was going on in Europe, far more momentous events were afoot upon the
+larger stage of Asia. A Turkish people from the country to the north of
+China rose suddenly to prominence in the world’s affairs, and achieved
+such a series of conquests as has no parallel in history. These were
+the Mongols. At the opening of the thirteenth century they were a horde
+of nomadic horsemen, living very much as their predecessors, the Huns,
+had done, subsisting chiefly upon meat and mare’s milk and living in
+tents of skin. They had shaken themselves free from Chinese dominion,
+and brought a number of other Turkish tribes into a military
+confederacy. Their central camp was at Karakorum in Mongolia.
+
+At this time China was in a state of division.  The great dynasty of
+Tang had passed into decay by the tenth century, and after a phase of
+division into warring states, three main empires, that of Kin in the
+north with Pekin as its capital and that of Sung in the south with a
+capital at Nankin, and Hsia in the centre, remain.  In 1214 Jengis
+Khan, the leader of the Mongol confederates, made war on the Kin Empire
+and captured Pekin (1214).  He then turned westward and conquered
+Western Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, India down to Lahore, and South
+Russia as far as Kieff.  He died master of a vast empire that reached
+from the Pacific to the Dnieper.
+
+His successor, Ogdai Khan, continued this astonishing career of
+conquest.  His armies were organized to a very high level of
+efficiency; and they had with them a new Chinese invention, gunpowder,
+which they used in small field guns. He completed the conquest of the
+Kin Empire and then swept his hosts right across Asia to Russia (1235),
+an altogether amazing march.  Kieff was destroyed in 1240, and nearly
+all Russia became tributary to the Mongols.  Poland was ravaged, and a
+mixed army of Poles and Germans was annihilated at the battle of
+Liegnitz in Lower Silesia in 1241.  The Emperor Frederick II does not
+seem to have made any great efforts to stay the advancing tide.
+
+
+Map: The Ottoman Empire before 1453
+
+“It is only recently,” says Bury in his notes to Gibbon’s _Decline and
+Fall of the Roman Empire_, “that European history has begun to
+understand that the successes of the Mongol army which overran Poland
+and occupied Hungary in the spring of A.D. 1241 were won by consummate
+strategy and were not due to a mere overwhelming superiority of
+numbers.  But this fact has not yet become a matter of common
+knowledge; the vulgar opinion which represents the Tartars as a wild
+horde carrying all before them solely by their multitude, and galloping
+through Eastern Europe without a strategic plan, rushing at all
+obstacles and overcoming them by mere weight, still prevails. . . .
+
+“It was wonderful how punctually and effectually the arrangements were
+carried out in operations extending from the Lower Vistula to
+Transylvania.  Such a campaign was quite beyond the power of any
+European army of the time, and it was beyond the vision of any European
+commander. There was no general in Europe, from Frederick II downward,
+who was not a tyro in strategy compared to Subutai.  It should also be
+noticed that the Mongols embarked upon the enterprise with full
+knowledge of the political situation of Hungary and the condition of
+Poland—they had taken care to inform themselves by a well-organized
+system of spies; on the other hand, the Hungarians and the Christian
+powers, like childish barbarians, knew hardly anything about their
+enemies.”
+
+
+Map: The Empire of Jengis Khan at his death (1227)
+
+But though the Mongols were victorious at Liegnitz, they did not
+continue their drive westward.  They were getting into woodlands and
+hilly country, which did not suit their tactics; and so they turned
+southward and prepared to settle in Hungary, massacring or assimilating
+the kindred Magyar, even as these had previously massacred and
+assimilated the mixed Scythians and Avars and Huns before them.  From
+the Hungarian plain they would probably have made raids west and south
+as the Hungarians had done in the ninth century, the Avars in the
+seventh and eighth and the Huns in the fifth. But Ogdai died suddenly,
+and in 1242 there was trouble about the succession, and recalled by
+this, the undefeated hosts of Mongols began to pour back across Hungary
+and Roumania towards the east.
+
+Thereafter the Mongols concentrated their attention upon their Asiatic
+conquests.  By the middle of the thirteenth century they had conquered
+the Sung Empire.  Mangu Khan succeeded Ogdai Khan as Great Khan in
+1251, and made his brother Kublai Khan governor of China.  In 1280
+Kublai Khan had been formally recognized Emperor of China, and so
+founded the Yuan dynasty which lasted until 1368.  While the last ruins
+of the Sung rule were going down in China, another brother of Mangu,
+Hulagu, was conquering Persia and Syria. The Mongols displayed a bitter
+animosity to Islam at this time, and not only massacred the population
+of Bagdad when they captured that city, but set to work to destroy the
+immemorial irrigation system which had kept Mesopotamia incessantly
+prosperous and populous from the early days of Sumeria.  From that time
+until our own Mesopotamia has been a desert of ruins, sustaining only a
+scanty population.  Into Egypt the Mongols never penetrated; the Sultan
+of Egypt completely defeated an army of Hulagu’s in Palestine in 1260.
+
+After that disaster the tide of Mongol victory ebbed.  The dominions of
+the Great Khan fell into a number of separate states.  The eastern
+Mongols became Buddhists, like the Chinese; the western became Moslim. 
+The Chinese threw off the rule of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, and set up
+the native Ming dynasty which flourished from 1368 to 1644.  The
+Russians remained tributary to the Tartar hordes upon the south-east
+steppes until 1480, when the Grand Duke of Moscow repudiated his
+allegiance and laid the foundation of modern Russia.
+
+
+TARTAR HORSEMEN
+TARTAR HORSEMEN
+_(From a Chinese Print in the British Museum) _
+
+
+In the fourteenth century there was a brief revival of Mongol vigour
+under Timurlane, a descendant of Jengis Khan.  He established himself
+in Western Turkestan, assumed the title of Grand Khan in 1369, and
+conquered from Syria to Delhi.  He was the most savage and destructive
+of all the Mongol conquerors.  He established an empire of desolation
+that did not survive his death.  In 1505, however, a descendant of this
+Timur, an adventurer named Baber, got together an army with guns and
+swept down upon the plains of India.  His grandson Akbar (1556-1605)
+completed his conquests, and this Mongol (or “Mogul” as the Arabs
+called it) dynasty ruled in Delhi over the greater part of India until
+the eighteenth century.
+
+
+Map: The Ottoman Empire at the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1566
+A.D.
+
+One of the consequences of the first great sweep of Mongol conquest in
+the thirteenth century was to drive a certain tribe of Turks, the
+Ottoman Turks, out of Turkestan into Asia Minor.  They extended and
+consolidated their power in Asia Minor, crossed the Dardanelles and
+conquered Macedonia, Serbia and Bulgaria, until at last Constantinople
+remained like an island amongst the Ottoman dominions.  In 1453 the
+Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad II, took Constantinople, attacking it from the
+European side with a great number of guns.  This event caused intense
+excitement in Europe and there was talk of a crusade, but the day of
+the crusades was past.
+
+In the course of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Sultans conquered
+Bagdad, Hungary, Egypt and most of North Africa, and their fleet made
+them masters of the Mediterranean.  They very nearly took Vienna, and
+they exacted it tribute from the Emperor.  There were but two items to
+offset the general ebb of Christian dominion in the fifteenth century. 
+One was the restoration of the independence of Moscow (1480); the other
+was the gradual reconquest of Spain by the Christians. In 1492,
+Granada, the last Moslem state in the peninsula, fell to King Ferdinand
+of Aragon and his Queen Isabella of Castile.
+
+But it was not until as late as 1571 that the naval battle of Lepanto
+broke the prick of the Ottomans, and restored the Mediterranean waters
+to Christian ascendancy.
+
+
+
+
+XLIX
+THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS
+
+
+Throughout the twelfth century there were many signs that the European
+intelligence was recovering courage and leisure, and preparing to take
+up again the intellectual enterprises of the first Greek scientific
+enquiries and such speculations as those of the Italian Lucretius. The
+causes of this revival were many and complex. The suppression of
+private war, the higher standards of comfort and security that followed
+the crusades, and the stimulation of men’s minds by the experiences of
+these expeditions were no doubt necessary preliminary conditions. Trade
+was reviving; cities were recovering ease and safety; the standard of
+education was arising in the church and spreading among laymen. The
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were a period of growing,
+independent or quasi-independent cities; Venice, Florence, Genoa,
+Lisbon, Paris, Bruges, London, Antwerp, Hamburg, Nuremberg, Novgorod,
+Wisby and Bergen for example. They were all trading cities with many
+travellers, and where men trade and travel they talk and think. The
+polemics of the Popes and princes, the conspicuous savagery and
+wickedness of the persecution of heretics, were exciting men to doubt
+the authority of the church and question and discuss fundamental
+things.
+
+We have seen how the Arabs were the means of restoring Aristotle to
+Europe, and how such a prince as Frederick II acted as a channel
+through which Arabic philosophy and science played upon the renascent
+European mind.  Still more influential in the stirring up of men’s
+ideas were the Jews.  Their very existence was a note of interrogation
+to the claims of the church.  And finally the secret, fascinating
+enquiries of the alchemists were spreading far and wide and setting men
+to the petty, furtive and yet fruitful resumption of experimental
+science.
+
+And the stir in men’s minds was by no means confined now to the
+independent and well educated.  The mind of the common man was awake in
+the world as it had never been before in all the experience of mankind.
+ In spite of priest and persecution, Christianity does seem to have
+carried a mental ferment wherever its teaching reached.  It established
+a direct relation between the conscience of the individual man and the
+God of Righteousness, so that now if need arose he had the courage to
+form his own judgment upon prince or prelate or creed.
+
+As early as the eleventh century philosophical discussion had begun
+again in Europe, and there were great and growing universities at
+Paris, Oxford, Bologna and other centres. There medieval “schoolmen”
+took up again and thrashed out a series of questions upon the value and
+meaning of words that were a necessary preliminary to clear thinking in
+the scientific age that was to follow.  And standing by himself because
+of his distinctive genius was Roger Bacon (circa 1210 to circa 1293), a
+Franciscan of Oxford, the father of modern experimental science.  His
+name deserves a prominence in our history second only to that of
+Aristotle.
+
+His writings are one long tirade against ignorance.  He told his age it
+was ignorant, an incredibly bold thing to do. Nowadays a man may tell
+the world it is as silly as it is solemn, that all its methods are
+still infantile and clumsy and its dogmas childish assumptions, without
+much physical danger; but these peoples of the middle ages when they
+were not actually being massacred or starving or dying of pestilence,
+were passionately convinced of the wisdom, the completeness and
+finality of their beliefs, and disposed to resent any reflections upon
+them very bitterly.  Roger Bacon’s writings were like a flash of light
+in a profound darkness.  He combined his attack upon the ignorance of
+his times with a wealth of suggestion for the increase of knowledge. 
+In his passionate insistence upon the need of experiment and of
+collecting knowledge, the spirit of Aristotle lives again in him. 
+“Experiment, experiment,” that is the burthen of Roger Bacon.
+
+Yet of Aristotle himself Roger Bacon fell foul.  He fell foul of him
+because men, instead of facing facts boldly, sat in rooms and pored
+over the bad Latin translations which were then all that was available
+of the master. “If I had my way,” he wrote, in his intemperate fashion,
+“I should burn all the books of Aristotle, for the study of them can
+only lead to a loss of time, produce error, and increase ignorance,” a
+sentiment that Aristotle would probably have echoed could he have
+returned to a world in which his works were not so much read as
+worshipped—and that, as Roger Bacon showed, in these most abominable
+translations.
+
+
+AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS
+AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS
+_(From an old print) _
+
+
+Throughout his books, a little disguised by the necessity of seeming to
+square it all with orthodoxy for fear of the prison and worse, Roger
+Bacon shouted to mankind, “Cease to be ruled by dogmas and authorities;
+_look at the world!_” Four chief sources of ignorance he denounced;
+respect for authority, custom, the sense of the ignorant crowd, and the
+vain, proud unteachableness of our dispositions.  Overcome but these,
+and a world of power would open to men: —
+
+“Machines for navigating are possible without rowers, so that great
+ships suited to river or ocean, guided by one man, may be borne with
+greater speed than if they were full of men.  Likewise cars may be made
+so that without a draught animal they may be moved _cum impetu
+inœstimable_, as we deem the scythed chariots to have been from which
+antiquity fought.  And flying machines are possible, so that a man may
+sit in the middle turning some device by which artificial wings may
+beat the air in the manner of a flying bird.”
+
+So Roger Bacon wrote, but three more centuries were to elapse before
+men began any systematic attempts to explore the hidden stores of power
+and interest he realized so clearly existed beneath the dull surface of
+human affairs.
+
+But the Saracenic world not only gave Christendom the stimulus of its
+philosophers and alchemists; it also gave it paper.  It is scarcely too
+much to say that paper made the intellectual revival of Europe
+possible.  Paper originated in China, where its use probably goes back
+to the second century B.C.  In 751 the Chinese made an attack upon the
+Arab Moslems in Samarkand; they were repulsed, and among the prisoners
+taken from them were some skilled papermakers, from whom the art was
+learnt.  Arabic paper manuscripts from the ninth century onward still
+exist. The manufacture entered Christendom either through Greece or by
+the capture of Moorish paper-mills during the Christian reconquest of
+Spain.  But under the Christian Spanish the product deteriorated sadly.
+ Good paper was not made in Christian Europe until the end of the
+thirteenth century, and then it was Italy which led the world.  Only by
+the fourteenth century did the manufacture reach Germany, and not until
+the end of that century was it abundant and cheap enough for the
+printing of books to be a practicable business proposition.  Thereupon
+printing followed naturally and necessarily, for printing is the most
+obvious of inventions, and the intellectual life of the world entered
+upon a new and far more vigorous phase.  It ceased to be a little
+trickle from mind to mind; it became a broad flood, in which thousands
+and presently scores and hundreds of thousands of minds participated.
+
+One immediate result of this achievement of printing was the appearance
+of an abundance of Bibles in the world.  Another was a cheapening of
+school-books.  The knowledge of reading spread swiftly.  There was not
+only a great increase of books in the world, but the books that were
+now made were plainer to read and so easier to understand.  Instead of
+toiling at a crabbed text arid then thinking over its significance,
+readers now could think unimpeded as they read.  With this increase in
+the facility of reading, the reading public grew. The book ceased to be
+a highly decorated toy or a scholar’s mystery.  People began to write
+books to be read as well as looked at by ordinary people.  They wrote
+in the ordinary language and not in Latin.  With the fourteenth century
+the real history of the European literature begins.
+
+So far we have been dealing only with the Saracenic share in the
+European revival.  Let us turn now to the influence of the Mongol
+conquests.  They stimulated the geographical imagination of Europe
+enormously.  For a time under the Great Khan, all Asia and Western
+Europe enjoyed an open intercourse; all the roads were temporarily
+open, and representatives of every nation appeared at the court of
+Karakorum.  The barriers between Europe and Asia set up by the
+religious feud of Christianity and Islam were lowered. Great hopes were
+entertained by the papacy for the conversion of the Mongols to
+Christianity.  Their only religion so far had been Shumanism, a
+primitive paganism.  Envoys of the Pope, Buddhist priests from India,
+Parisian and Italian and Chinese artificers, Byzantine and Armenian
+merchants, mingled with Arab officials and Persian and Indian
+astronomers and mathematicians at the Mongol court.  We hear too much
+in history of the campaigns and massacres of the Mongols, and not
+enough of their curiosity and desire for learning.  Not perhaps as an
+originative people, but as transmitters of knowledge and method their
+influence upon the world’s history has been very great.  And everything
+one can learn of the vague and romantic personalities of Jengis or
+Kublai tends to confirm the impression that these men were at least as
+understanding and creative monarchs as either that flamboyant but
+egotistical figure Alexander the Great or that raiser of political
+ghosts, that energetic but illiterate theologian Charlemagne.
+
+One of the most interesting of these visitors to the Mongol Court was a
+certain Venetian, Marco Polo, who afterwards set down his story in a
+book.  He went to China about 1272 with his father and uncle, who had
+already once made the journey. The Great Khan had been deeply impressed
+by the elder Polos; they were the first men of the “Latin” peoples he
+had seen; and he sent them back with enquiries for teachers and learned
+men who could explain Christianity to him, and for various other
+European things that had aroused his curiosity.  Their visit with Marco
+was their second visit.
+
+
+ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA
+ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA
+Note evidence in attire of knowledge of early European explorers
+
+_(In the British Museum) _
+
+
+The three Polos started by way of Palestine and not by the Crimea, as
+in their previous expedition.  They had with them a gold tablet and
+other indications from the Great Khan that must have greatly
+facilitated their journey.  The Great Khan had asked for some oil from
+the lamp that burns in the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem; and so thither
+they first went, and then by way of Cilicia into Armenia.  They went
+thus far north because the Sultan of Egypt was raiding the Mongol
+domains at this time.  Thence they came by way of Mesopotamia to Ormuz
+on the Persian Gulf, as if they contemplated a sea voyage.  At Ormuz
+they met merchants from India.  For some reason they did not take ship,
+but instead turned northward through the Persian deserts, and so by way
+of Balkh over the Pamir to Kashgar, and by way of Kotan and the Lob Nor
+into the Hwang-ho valley and on to Pekin.  At Pekin was the Great Khan,
+and they were hospitably entertained.
+
+
+ANOTHER ANCIENT NEGRO BRONZE OF A EUROPEAN
+ANOTHER ANCIENT NEGRO BRONZE OF A EUROPEAN
+
+_(In the British Museum) _
+
+
+Marco particularly pleased Kublai; he was young and clever, and it is
+clear he had mastered the Tartar language very thoroughly.  He was
+given an official position and sent on several missions, chiefly in
+south-west China.  The tale he had to tell of vast stretches of smiling
+and prosperous country, “all the way excellent hostelries for
+travellers,” and “fine vineyards, fields, and gardens,” of “many
+abbeys” of Buddhist monks, of manufactures of “cloth of silk and gold
+and many fine taffetas,” a “constant succession of cities and
+boroughs,” and so on, first roused the incredulity and then fired the
+imagination of all Europe.  He told of Burmah, and of its great armies
+with hundreds of elephants, and how these animals were defeated by the
+Mongol bowmen, and also of the Mongol conquest of Pegu.  He told of
+Japan, and greatly exaggerated the amount of gold in that country.  For
+three years Marco ruled the city of Yang-chow as governor, and he
+probably impressed the Chinese inhabitants as being little more of a
+foreigner than any Tartar would have been.  He may also have been sent
+on a mission to India.  Chinese records mention a certain Polo attached
+to the imperial council in 1277, a very valuable confirmation of the
+general truth of the Polo story.
+
+The publication of Marco Polo’s travels produced a profound effect upon
+the European imagination.  The European literature, and especially the
+European romance of the fifteenth century, echoes with the names in
+Marco Polo’s story, with Cathay (North China) and Cambulac (Pekin) and
+the like.
+
+
+EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP
+EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP
+
+_(In the British Museum) _
+
+
+Two centuries later, among the readers of the Travels of Marco Polo was
+a certain Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, who conceived the
+brilliant idea of sailing westward round the world to China.  In
+Seville there is a copy of the Travels with marginal notes by Columbus.
+There were many reasons why the thought of a Genoese should be turned
+in this direction.  Until its capture by the Turks in 1453
+Constantinople had been an impartial trading mart between the Western
+world and the East, and the Genoese had traded there freely.  But the
+“Latin” Venetians, the bitter rivals of the Genoese, had been the
+allies and helpers of the Turks against the Greeks, and with the coming
+of the Turks Constantinople turned an unfriendly face upon Genoese
+trade.  The long forgotten discovery that the world was round had
+gradually resumed its sway over men’s minds.  The idea of going
+westward to China was therefore a fairly obvious one.  It was
+encouraged by two things.  The mariner’s compass had now been invented
+and men were no longer left to the mercy of a fine night and the stars
+to determine the direction in which they were sailing, and the Normans,
+Catalonians and Genoese and Portuguese had already pushed out into the
+Atlantic as far as the Canary Isles, Madeira and the Azores.
+
+Yet Columbus found many difficulties before he could get ships to put
+his idea to the test.  He went from one European Court to another. 
+Finally at Granada, just won from the Moors, he secured the patronage
+of Ferdinand and Isabella, and was able to set out across the unknown
+ocean in three small ships.  After a voyage of two months and nine days
+he came to a land which he believed to be India, but which was really a
+new continent, whose distinct existence the old world had never
+hitherto suspected.  He returned to Spain with gold, cotton, strange
+beasts and birds, and two wild- eyed painted Indians to be baptized. 
+They were called Indians because, to the end of his days, he believed
+that this land he had found was India.  Only in the course of several
+years did men begin to realize that the whole new continent of America
+was added to the world’s resources.
+
+The success of Columbus stimulated overseas enterprise enormously.  In
+1497 the Portuguese sailed round Africa to India, and in 1515 there
+were Portuguese ships in Java.  In 1519 Magellan, a Portuguese sailor
+in Spanish employment, sailed out of Seville westward with five ships,
+of which one, the _Vittoria_, came back up the river to Seville in
+1522, the first ship that had ever circumnavigated the world.
+Thirty-one men were aboard her, survivors of two-hundred-and- eighty
+who had started.  Magellan himself had been killed in the Philippine
+Isles.
+
+Printed paper books, a new realization of the round world as a thing
+altogether attainable, a new vision of strange lands, strange animals
+and plants, strange manners and customs, discoveries overseas and in
+the skies and in the ways and materials of life burst upon the European
+mind. The Greek classics, buried and forgotten for so long, were
+speedily being printed and studied, and were colouring men’s thoughts
+with the dreams of Plato and the traditions of an age of republican
+freedom and dignity.  The Roman dominion had first brought law and
+order to Western Europe, and the Latin Church had restored it; but
+under both Pagan and Catholic Rome curiosity and innovation were
+subordinate to and restrained by organization.  The reign of the Latin
+mind was now drawing to an end.  Between the thirteenth and the
+sixteenth century the European Aryans, thanks to the stimulating
+influence of Semite and Mongol and the rediscovery of the Greek
+classics, broke away from the Latin tradition and rose again to the
+intellectual and material leadership of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+L
+THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH
+
+
+The Latin Church itself was enormously affected by this mental rebirth.
+It was dismembered; and even the portion that survived was extensively
+renewed.
+
+We have told how nearly the church came to the autocratic leadership of
+all Christendom in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and how in the
+fourteenth and fifteenth its power over men’s minds and affairs
+declined.  We have described how popular religious enthusiasm which had
+in earlier ages been its support and power was turned against it by its
+pride, persecutions and centralization, and how the insidious
+scepticism of Frederick II bore fruit in a growing insubordination of
+the princes.  The Great Schism had reduced its religious and political
+prestige to negligible proportions.  The forces of insurrection struck
+it now from both sides.
+
+The teachings of the Englishman Wycliffe spread widely throughout
+Europe.  In 1398 a learned Czech, John Huss, delivered a series of
+lectures upon Wycliffe’s teachings in the university of Prague.  This
+teaching spread rapidly beyond the educated class and aroused great
+popular enthusiasm.  In 1414-18 a Council of the whole church was held
+at Constance to settle the Great Schism.  Huss was invited to this
+Council under promise of a safe conduct from the emperor, seized, put
+on trial for heresy and burnt alive (1415).  So far from tranquillizing
+the Bohemian people, this led to an insurrection of the Hussites in
+that country, the first of a series of religious wars that inaugurated
+the break-up of Latin Christendom.  Against this insurrection Pope
+Martin V, the Pope specially elected at Constance as the head of a
+reunited Christendom, preached a Crusade.
+
+Five Crusades in all were launched upon this sturdy little people and
+all of them failed.  All the unemployed ruffianism of Europe was turned
+upon Bohemia in the fifteenth century, just as in the thirteenth it had
+been turned upon the Waldenses.  But the Bohemian Czechs, unlike the
+Waldenses, believed in armed resistance.  The Bohemian Crusade
+dissolved and streamed away from the battlefield at the sound of the
+Hussites’ waggons and the distant chanting of their troops; it did not
+even wait to fight (battle of Domazlice, 1431).  In 1436 an agreement
+was patched up with the Hussites by a new Council of the church at
+Basle in which many of the special objections to Latin practice were
+conceded.
+
+
+PORTRAIT OF LUTHER
+PORTRAIT OF LUTHER
+
+_(From an early German engraving in the British Museum) _
+
+
+In the fifteenth century a great pestilence had produced much social
+disorganization throughout Europe.  There had been extreme misery and
+discontent among the common people, and peasant risings against the
+landlords and the wealthy in England and France.  After the Hussite
+Wars these peasant insurrections increased in gravity in Germany and
+took on a religious character.  Printing came in as an influence upon
+this development.  By the middle of the fifteenth century there were
+printers at work with movable type in Holland and the Rhineland.  The
+art spread to Italy and England, where Caxton was printing in
+Westminster in 1477.  The immediate consequence was a great increase
+and distribution of Bibles, and greatly increased facilities for
+widespread popular controversies.  The European world became a world of
+readers, to an extent that had never happened to any community in the
+past.  And this sudden irrigation of the general mind with clearer
+ideas and more accessible information occurred just at a time when the
+church was confused and divided and not in a position to defend itself
+effectively, and when many princes were looking for means to weaken its
+hold upon the vast wealth it claimed in their dominions.
+
+In Germany the attack upon the church gathered round the personality of
+an ex-monk, Martin Luther (1483-1546), who appeared in Wittenberg in
+1517 offering disputations against various orthodox doctrines and
+practices.  At first he disputed in Latin in the fashion of the
+Schoolmen.  Then he took up the new weapon of the printed word and
+scattered his views far and wide in German addressed to the ordinary
+people.  An attempt was made to suppress him as Huss had been
+suppressed, but the printing press had changed conditions and he had
+too many open and secret friends among the German princes for this fate
+to overtake him.
+
+For now in this age of multiplying ideas and weakened faith there were
+many rulers who saw their advantage in breaking the religious ties
+between their people and Rome.  They sought to make themselves in
+person the heads of a more nationalized religion.  England, Scotland,
+Sweden, Norway, Denmark, North Germany and Bohemia, one after another,
+separated themselves from the Roman Communion.  They have remained
+separated ever since.
+
+
+A MAJOLICA DISH PAINTED IN COLOURS
+A MAJOLICA DISH PAINED IN COLOURS
+An allegory of the Church triumphant over heretics and infidels. 
+Italian (Urbino), dated 1543
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+The various princes concerned cared very little for the moral and
+intellectual freedom of their subjects.  They used the religious doubts
+and insurgence of their peoples to strengthen them against Rome, but
+they tried to keep a grip upon the popular movement as soon as that
+rupture was achieved and a national church set up under the control of
+the crown.  But there has always been a curious vitality in the
+teaching of Jesus, a direct appeal to righteousness and a man’s
+self-respect over every loyalty and every subordination, lay or
+ecclesiastical.  None of these princely churches broke off without also
+breaking off a number of fragmentary sects that would admit the
+intervention of neither prince nor Pope between a man and his God.  In
+England and Scotland, for example, there was a number of sects who now
+held firmly to the Bible as their one guide in life and belief.  They
+refused the disciplines of a state church.  In England these
+dissentients were the Non- conformists, who played a very large part in
+the polities of that country in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries.  In England they carried their objection to a princely head
+to the church so far as to decapitate King Charles I (1649), and for
+eleven prosperous years England was a republic under Non- conformist
+rule.
+
+The breaking away of this large section of Northern Europe from Latin
+Christendom is what is generally spoken of as the Reformation.  But the
+shock and stress of these losses produced changes perhaps as profound
+in the Roman Church itself.  The church was reorganized and a new
+spirit came into its life.  One of the dominant figures in this revival
+was a young Spanish soldier, Inigo Lopez de Recalde, better known to
+the world as St. Ignatius of Loyola.  After some romantic beginnings he
+became a priest (1538) and was permitted to found the Society of Jesus,
+a direct attempt to bring the generous and chivalrous traditions of
+military discipline into the service of religion.  This Society of
+Jesus, the Jesuits, became one of the greatest teaching and missionary
+societies the world has ever seen.  It carried Christianity to India,
+China and America.  It arrested the rapid disintegration of the Roman
+Church.  It raised the standard of education throughout the whole
+Catholic world; it raised the level of Catholic intelligence and
+quickened the Catholic conscience everywhere; it stimulated Protestant
+Europe to competitive educational efforts.  The vigorous and aggressive
+Roman Catholic Church we know to-day is largely the product of this
+Jesuit revival.
+
+
+
+
+LI
+THE EMPEROR CHARLES V
+
+
+The Holy Roman Empire came to a sort of climax in the reign of the
+Emperor Charles V. He was one of the most extraordinary monarchs that
+Europe has ever seen. For a time he had the air of being the greatest
+monarch since Charlemagne.
+
+His greatness was not of his own making.  It was largely the creation
+of his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I (1459- 1519).  Some
+families have fought, others have intrigued their way to world power;
+the Habsburgs married their way. Maximilian began his career with
+Austria, Styria, part of Alsace and other districts, the original
+Habsburg patrimony; he married—the lady’s name scarcely matters to
+us—the Netherlands and Burgundy.  Most of Burgundy slipped from him
+after his first wife’s death, but the Netherlands he held.  Then he
+tried unsuccessfully to marry Brittany.  He became Emperor in
+succession to his father, Frederick III, in 1493, and married the duchy
+of Milan. Finally he married his son to the weak-minded daughter of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, the Ferdinand and Isabella of Columbus, who not
+only reigned over a freshly united Spain and over Sardinia and the
+kingdom of the two Sicilies, but over all America west of Brazil.  So
+it was that this Charles V, his grandson, inherited most of the
+American continent and between a third and a half of what the Turks had
+left of Europe.  He succeeded to the Netherlands in 1506.  When his
+grandfather Ferdinand died in 1516, he became practically king of the
+Spanish dominions, his mother being imbecile; and his grandfather
+Maximilian dying in 1519, he was in 1520 elected Emperor at the still
+comparatively tender age of twenty.
+
+He was a fair young man with a not very intelligent face, a thick upper
+lip and a long clumsy chin.  He found himself in a world of young and
+vigorous personalities.  It was an age of brilliant young monarchs. 
+Francis I had succeeded to the French throne in 1515 at the age of
+twenty-one, Henry VIII had become King of England in 1509 at eighteen. 
+It was the age of Baber in India (1526-1530) and Suleiman the
+Magnificent in Turkey (1520), both exceptionally capable monarchs, and
+the Pope Leo X (1513) was also a very distinguished Pope.  The Pope and
+Francis I attempted to prevent the election of Charles as Emperor
+because they dreaded the concentration of so much power in the hands of
+one man.  Both Francis I and Henry VIII offered themselves to the
+imperial electors.  But there was now a long established tradition of
+Habsburg Emperors (since 1273), and some energetic bribery secured the
+election for Charles.
+
+At first the young man was very much a magnificent puppet in the hands
+of his ministers.  Then slowly he began to assert himself and take
+control.  He began to realize something of the threatening complexities
+of his exalted position.  It was a position as unsound as it was
+splendid.
+
+From the very outset of his reign he was faced by the situation created
+by Luther’s agitations in Germany. The Emperor had one reason for
+siding with the reformers in the opposition of the Pope to his
+election.  But he had been brought up in Spain, that most Catholic of
+countries, and he decided against Luther.  So he came into conflict
+with the Protestant princes and particularly the Elector of Saxony. He
+found himself in the presence of an opening rift that was to split the
+outworn fabric of Christendom into two contending camps.  His attempts
+to close that rift were strenuous and honest and ineffective.  There
+was an extensive peasant revolt in Germany which interwove with the
+general political and religious disturbance.  And these internal
+troubles were complicated by attacks upon the Empire from east and west
+alike.  On the west of Charles was his spirited rival, Francis I; to
+the east was the ever advancing Turk, who was now in Hungary, in
+alliance with Francis and clamouring for certain arrears of tribute
+from the Austrian dominions.  Charles had the money and army of Spain
+at his disposal, but it was extremely difficult to get any effective
+support in money from Germany.  His social and political troubles were
+complicated by financial distresses.  He was forced to ruinous
+borrowing.
+
+
+THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN
+THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN
+
+_(In the Gallery del Prado, Madrid)
+
+Photo:  Anderson_
+
+
+On the whole, Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII, was successful
+against Francis I and the Turk.  Their chief battlefield was North
+Italy; the generalship was dull on both sides; their advances and
+retreats depended mainly on the arrival of reinforcements.  The German
+army invaded France, failed to take Marseilles, fell back into Italy,
+lost Milan, and was besieged in Pavia.  Francis I made a long and
+unsuccessful siege of Pavia, was caught by fresh German forces,
+defeated, wounded and taken prisoner.  But thereupon the Pope and Henry
+VIII, still haunted by the fear of his attaining excessive power,
+turned against Charles.  The German troops in Milan, under the
+Constable of Bourbon, being unpaid, forced rather than followed their
+commander into a raid upon Rome.  They stormed the city and pillaged it
+(1527).  The Pope took refuge in the Castle of St. Angelo while the
+looting and slaughter went on.  He bought off the German troops at last
+by the payment of four hundred thousand ducats.  Ten years of such
+confused fighting impoverished all Europe.  At last the Emperor found
+himself triumphant in Italy.  In 1530, he was crowned by the Pope—he
+was the last German Emperor to be so crowned—at Bologna.
+
+Meanwhile the Turks were making great headway in Hungary. They had
+defeated and killed the king of Hungary in 1526, they held Buda-Pesth,
+and in 1529 Suleiman the Magnificent very nearly took Vienna.  The
+Emperor was greatly concerned by these advances, and did his utmost to
+drive back the Turks, but he found the greatest difficulty in getting
+the German princes to unite even with this formidable enemy upon their
+very borders.  Francis I remained implacable for a time, and there was
+a new French war; but in 1538 Charles won his rival over to a more
+friendly attitude after ravaging the south of France.  Francis and
+Charles then formed an alliance against the Turk.  But the Protestant
+princes, the German princes who were resolved to break away from Rome,
+had formed a league, the Schmalkaldic League, against the Emperor, and
+in the place of a great campaign to recover Hungary for Christendom
+Charles had to turn his mind to the gathering internal struggle in
+Germany.  Of that struggle he saw only the opening war.  It was a
+struggle, a sanguinary irrational bickering of princes, for ascendancy,
+now flaming into war and destruction, now sinking back to intrigues and
+diplomacies; it was a snake’s sack of princely policies that was to go
+on writhing incurably right into the nineteenth century and to waste
+and desolate Central Europe again and again.
+
+The Emperor never seems to have grasped the true forces at work in
+these gathering troubles.  He was for his time and station an
+exceptionally worthy man, and he seems to have taken the religious
+dissensions that were tearing Europe into warring fragments as genuine
+theological differences.  He gathered diets and councils in futile
+attempts at reconciliation.  Formulæ and confessions were tried over. 
+The student of German history must struggle with the details of the
+Religious Peace of Nuremberg, the settlement at the Diet of Ratisbon,
+the Interim of Augsburg, and the like.  Here we do but mention them as
+details in the worried life of this culminating Emperor.  As a matter
+of fact, hardly one of the multifarious princes and rulers in Europe
+seems to have been acting in good faith.  The widespread religious
+trouble of the world, the desire of the common people for truth and
+social righteousness, the spreading knowledge of the time, all those
+things were merely counters in the imaginations of princely diplomacy. 
+Henry VIII of England, who had begun his career with a book against
+heresy, and who had been rewarded by the Pope with the title of
+“Defender of the Faith,” being anxious to divorce his first wife in
+favour of a young lady named Anne Boleyn, and wishing also to loot the
+vast wealth of the church in England, joined the company of Protestant
+princes in 1530. Sweden, Denmark and Norway had already gone over to
+the Protestant side.
+
+The German religious war began in 1546, a few months after the death of
+Martin Luther.  We need not trouble about the incidents of the
+campaign.  The Protestant Saxon army was badly beaten at Lochau.  By
+something very like a breach of faith Philip of Hesse, the Emperor’s
+chief remaining antagonist, was caught and imprisoned, and the Turks
+were bought off by the promise of an annual tribute.  In 1547, to the
+great relief of the Emperor, Francis I died.  So by 1547 Charles got to
+a kind of settlement, and made his last efforts to effect peace where
+there was no peace.  In 1552 all Germany was at war again, only a
+precipitate flight from Innsbruck saved Charles from capture, and in
+1552, with the treaty of Passau, came another unstable equilibrium ....
+
+Such is the brief outline of the politics of the Empire for thirty-two
+years.  It is interesting to note how entirely the European mind was
+concentrated upon the struggle for European ascendancy.  Neither Turks,
+French, English nor Germans had yet discovered any political interest
+in the great continent of America, nor any significance in the new sea
+routes to Asia.  Great things were happening in America; Cortez with a
+mere handful of men had conquered the great Neolithic empire of Mexico
+for Spain, Pizarro had crossed the Isthmus of Panama (1530) and
+subjugated another wonder-land, Peru.  But as yet these events meant no
+more to Europe than a useful and stimulating influx of silver to the
+Spanish treasury.
+
+It was after the treaty of Passau that Charles began to display his
+distinctive originality of mind.  He was now entirely bored and
+disillusioned by his imperial greatness. A sense of the intolerable
+futility of these European rivalries came upon him.  He had never been
+of a very sound constitution, he was naturally indolent and he was
+suffering greatly from gout.  He abdicated.  He made over all his
+sovereign rights in Germany to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain and the
+Netherlands he resigned to his son Philip. Then in a sort of
+magnificent dudgeon he retired to a monastery at Yuste, among the oak
+and chestnut forests in the hills to the north of the Tagus valley. 
+There he died in 1558.
+
+Much has been written in a sentimental vein of this retirement, this
+renunciation of the world by this tired majestic Titan, world-weary,
+seeking in an austere solitude his peace with God.  But his retreat was
+neither solitary nor austere; he had with him nearly a hundred and
+fifty attendants: his establishment had all the splendour and
+indulgences without the fatigues or a court, and Philip II was a
+dutiful son to whom his father’s advice was a command.
+
+
+INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH ALTAR
+INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH ALTAR
+
+_Photo:  Alinari_
+
+
+And if Charles had lost his living interest in the administration of
+European affairs, there were other motives of a more immediate sort to
+stir him.  Says Prescott: “In the almost daily correspondence between
+Quixada, or Gaztelu, and the Secretary of State at Valladolid, there is
+scarcely a letter that does not turn more or less on the Emperor’s
+eating or his illness.  The one seems naturally to follow, like a
+running commentary, on the other.  It is rare that such topics have
+formed the burden of communications with the department of state.  It
+must have been no easy matter for the secretary to preserve his gravity
+in the perusal of despatches in which politics and gastronomy were so
+strangely mixed together.  The courier from Valladolid to Lisbon was
+ordered to make a detour, so as to take Jarandilla in his route, and
+bring supplies to the royal table.  On Thursdays he was to bring fish
+to serve for the jour maigre that was to follow.  The trout in the
+neighbourhood Charles thought too small, so others of a larger size
+were to be sent from Valladolid.  Fish of every kind was to his taste,
+as, indeed, was anything that in its nature or habits at all approached
+to fish.  Eels, frogs, oysters, occupied an important place in the
+royal bill of fare.  Potted fish, especially anchovies, found great
+favour with him; and he regretted that he had not brought a better
+supply of these from the Low Countries.  On an eel-pasty he
+particularly doted.” ... [1]
+
+In 1554 Charles had obtained a bull from Pope Julius III granting him a
+dispensation from fasting, and allowing him to break his fast early in
+the morning even when he was to take the sacrament.
+
+Eating and doctoring! it was a return to elemental things. He had never
+acquired the habit of reading, but he would be read aloud to at meals
+after the fashion of Charlemagne, and would make what one narrator
+describes as a “sweet and heavenly commentary.”  He also amused himself
+with mechanical toys, by listening to music or sermons, and by
+attending to the imperial business that still came drifting in to him. 
+The death of the Empress, to whom he was greatly attached, had turned
+his mind towards religion, which in his case took a punctilious and
+ceremonial form; every Friday in Lent he scourged himself with the rest
+of the monks with such good will as to draw blood.  These exercises and
+the gout released a bigotry in Charles that had hitherto been
+restrained by considerations of policy.  The appearance of Protestant
+teaching close at hand in Valladolid roused him to fury.  “Tell the
+grand inquisitor and his council from me to be at their posts, and to
+lay the axe at the root of the evil before it spreads further.” . .. He
+expressed a doubt whether it would not be well, in so black an affair,
+to dispense with the ordinary course of justice, and to show no mercy;
+“lest the criminal, if pardoned, should have the opportunity of
+repeating his crime.”  He recommended, as an example, his own mode or
+proceeding in the Netherlands, “where all who remained obstinate in
+their errors were burned alive, and those who were admitted to
+penitence were beheaded.”
+
+And almost symbolical of his place and role in history was his
+preoccupation with funerals.  He seems to have had an intuition that
+something great was dead in Europe and sorely needed burial, that there
+was a need to write Finis, overdue.  He not only attended every actual
+funeral that was celebrated at Yuste, but he had services conducted for
+the absent dead, he held a funeral service in memory of his wife on the
+anniversary of her death, and finally he celebrated his own obsequies.
+
+“The chapel was hung with black, and the blaze of hundreds of
+wax-lights was scarcely sufficient to dispel the darkness.  The
+brethren in their conventual dress, and all the Emperor’s household
+clad in deep mourning, gathered round a huge catafalque, shrouded also
+in black, which had been raised in the centre of the chapel.  The
+service for the burial of the dead was then performed; and, amidst the
+dismal wail of the monks, the prayers ascended for the departed spirit,
+that it might be received into the mansions of the blessed.  The
+sorrowful attendants were melted to tears, as the image of their
+master’s death was presented to their minds—or they were touched, it
+may be, with compassion by this pitiable display of weakness.  Charles,
+muffled in a dark mantle, and bearing a lighted candle in his hand,
+mingled with his household, the spectator of his own obsequies; and the
+doleful ceremony was concluded by his placing the taper in the hands of
+the priest, in sign of his surrendering up his soul to the Almighty.”
+
+Within two months of this masquerade he was dead.  And the brief
+greatness of the Holy Roman Empire died with him.  His realm was
+already divided between his brother and his son. The Holy Roman Empire
+struggled on indeed to the days of Napoleon I but as an invalid and
+dying thing.  To this day its unburied tradition still poisons the
+political air.
+
+
+[1] Prescott’s Appendix to Robertson’s _History of Charles V_.
+
+
+
+
+LII
+THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND MONARCHY AND PARLIAMENTS AND
+REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE
+
+
+The Latin Church was broken, the Holy Roman Empire was in extreme
+decay; the history of Europe from the opening of the sixteenth century
+onward is a story of peoples feeling their way darkly to some new
+method of government, better adapted to the new conditions that were
+arising. In the Ancient World, over long periods of time, there had
+been changes of dynasty and even changes of ruling race and language,
+but the form of government through monarch and temple remained fairly
+stable, and still more stable was the ordinary way of living. In this
+modern Europe since the sixteenth century the dynastic changes are
+unimportant, and the interest of history lies in the wide and
+increasing variety of experiments in political and social organization.
+
+The political history of the world from the sixteenth century onward
+was, we have said, an effort, a largely unconscious effort, of mankind
+to adapt its political and social methods to certain new conditions
+that had now arisen.  The effort to adapt was complicated by the fad
+that the conditions themselves were changing with a steadily increasing
+rapidity. The adaptation, mainly unconscious and almost always
+unwilling (for man in general hates voluntary change), has lagged more
+and more behind the alterations in conditions. From the sixteenth
+century onward the history of mankind is a story of political and
+social institutions becoming more and more plainly misfits, less
+comfortable and more vexatious, and of the slow reluctant realization
+of the need for a conscious and deliberate reconstruction of the whole
+scheme of human societies in the face of needs and possibilities new to
+all the former experiences of life.
+
+What are these changes in the conditions of human life that have
+disorganized that balance of empire, priest, peasant and trader, with
+periodic refreshment by barbaric conquest, that has held human affairs
+in the Old World in a sort of working rhythm for more than a hundred
+centuries?
+
+They are manifold and various, for human affairs are multitudinously
+complex; but the main changes seem all to turn upon one cause, namely
+the growth and extension of a knowledge of the nature of things,
+beginning first of all in small groups of intelligent people and
+spreading at first slowly, and in the last five hundred years very
+rapidly, to larger and larger proportions of the general population.
+
+But there has also been a great change in human conditions due to a
+change in the spirit of human life.  This change has gone on side by
+side with the increase and extension of knowledge, and is subtly
+connected with it.  There has been an increasing disposition to treat a
+life based on the common and more elementary desires and gratifications
+as unsatisfactory, and to seek relationship with and service and
+participation in a larger life.  This is the common characteristic of
+all the great religions that have spread throughout the world in the
+last twenty odd centuries, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam alike. 
+They have had to do with the spirit of man in a way that the older
+religions did not have to do.  They are forces quite different in their
+nature and effect from the old fetishistic blood-sacrifice religions of
+priest and temple that they have in part modified and in part replaced.
+ They have gradually evolved a self-respect in the individual and a
+sense of participation and responsibility in the common concerns of
+mankind that did not exist among the populations of the earlier
+civilizations.
+
+The first considerable change in the conditions of political and social
+life was the simplification and extended use of writing in the ancient
+civilizations which made larger empires and wider political
+understandings practicable and inevitable.  The next movement forward
+came with the introduction of the horse, and later on of the camel as a
+means of transport, the use of wheeled vehicles, the extension of roads
+and the increased military efficiency due to the discovery of
+terrestrial iron.  Then followed the profound economic disturbances due
+to the device of coined money and the change in the nature of debt,
+proprietorship and trade due to this convenient but dangerous
+convention. The empires grew in size and range, and men’s ideas grew
+likewise to correspond with these things.  Came the disappearance of
+local gods, the age of theocrasia, and the teaching of the great world
+religions.  Came also the beginnings of reasoned and recorded history
+and geography, the first realization by man of his profound ignorance,
+and the first systematic search for knowledge.
+
+For a time the scientific process which began so brilliantly in Greece
+and Alexandria was interrupted.  The raids of the Teutonic barbarians,
+the westward drive of the Mongolian peoples, convulsive religious
+reconstruction and great pestilences put enormous strains upon
+political and social order.  When civilization emerged again from this
+phase of conflict and confusion, slavery was no longer the basis of
+economic life; and the first paper-mills were preparing a new medium
+for collective information and co-operation in printed matter. 
+Gradually at this point and that, the search for knowledge, the
+systematic scientific process, was resumed.
+
+And now from the sixteenth century onward, as an inevitable by-product
+of systematic thought, appeared a steadily increasing series of
+inventions and devices affecting the intercommunication and interaction
+of men with one another. They all tended towards wider range of action,
+greater mutual benefits or injuries, and increased co-operation, and
+they came faster and faster.  Men’s minds had not been prepared for
+anything of the sort, and until the great catastrophes at the beginning
+of the twentieth century quickened men’s minds, the historian has very
+little to tell of any intelligently planned attempts to meet the new
+conditions this increasing flow of inventions was creating. The history
+of mankind for the last four centuries is rather like that of an
+imprisoned sleeper, stirring clumsily and uneasily while the prison
+that restrains and shelters him catches fire, not waking but
+incorporating the crackling and warmth of the fire with ancient and
+incongruous dreams, than like that of a man consciously awake to danger
+and opportunity.
+
+Since history is the story not of individual lives but of communities,
+it is inevitable that the inventions that figure most in the historical
+record are inventions affecting communications.  In the sixteenth
+century the chief new things that we have to note are the appearance of
+printed paper and the sea-worthy, ocean-going sailing ship using the
+new device of the mariner’s compass.  The former cheapened, spread, and
+revolutionized teaching, public information and discussion, and the
+fundamental operations of political activity.  The latter made the
+round world one.  But almost equally important was the increased
+utilization and improvement of guns and gunpowder which the Mongols had
+first brought westward in the thirteenth century.  This destroyed the
+practical immunity of barons in their castles and of walled cities. 
+Guns swept away feudalism.  Constantinople fell to guns. Mexico and
+Peru fell before the terror of the Spanish guns.
+
+
+CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO BECOMES AUTOCRAT OF THE
+ENGLISH REPUBLIC
+CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO BECOMES AUTOCRAT OF THE
+ENGLISH REPUBLIC
+
+_(From a contemporary satirical print in the British Museum)_
+
+
+The seventeenth century saw the development of systematic scientific
+publication, a less conspicuous but ultimately far more pregnant
+innovation.  Conspicuous among the leaders in this great forward step
+was Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) afterwards Lord Verulam, Lord
+Chancellor of England.  He was the pupil and perhaps the mouthpiece of
+another Englishman; Dr. Gilbert, the experimental philosopher of
+Colchester (1540-1603).  This second Bacon, like the first, preached
+observation and experiment, and he used the inspiring and fruitful form
+of a Utopian story, _The New Atlantis_, to express his dream of a great
+service of scientific research.
+
+Presently arose the Royal Society of London, the Florentine Society,
+and later other national bodies for the encouragement of research and
+the publication and exchange of knowledge.  These European scientific
+societies became fountains not only of countless inventions but also of
+a destructive criticism of the grotesque theological history of the
+world that had dominated and crippled human thought for many centuries.
+
+Neither the seventeenth nor the eighteenth century witnessed any
+innovations so immediately revolutionary in human conditions as printed
+paper and the ocean-going ship, but there was a steady accumulation of
+knowledge and scientific energy that was to bear its full fruits in the
+nineteenth century.  The exploration and mapping of the world went on.
+Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand appeared on the map.  In Great Britain
+in the eighteenth century coal coke began to be used for metallurgical
+purposes, leading to a considerable cheapening of iron and to the
+possibility of casting and using it in larger pieces than had been
+possible before, when it had been smelted with wood charcoal.  Modern
+machinery dawned.
+
+Like the trees of the celestial city, science bears bud and flower and
+fruit at the same time and continuously.  With the onset of the
+nineteenth century the real fruition of science—which indeed henceforth
+may never cease—began.  First came steam and steel, the railway, the
+great liner, vast bridges and buildings, machinery of almost limitless
+power, the possibility of a bountiful satisfaction of every material
+human need, and then, still more wonderful, the hidden treasures of
+electrical science were opened to men ....
+
+We have compared the political and social life of man from the
+sixteenth century onward to that of a sleeping prisoner who lies and
+dreams while his prison burns about him.  In the sixteenth century the
+European mind was still going on with its Latin Imperial dream, its
+dream of a Holy Roman Empire, united under a Catholic Church.  But just
+as some uncontrollable element in our composition will insist at times
+upon introducing into our dreams the most absurd and destructive
+comments, so thrust into this dream we find the sleeping face and
+craving stomach of the Emperor Charles V, while Henry VIII of England
+and Luther tear the unity of Catholicism to shreds.
+
+
+THE COURT AT VERSAILLES
+THE COURT AT VERSAILLES
+
+_(From the print after Watteau in the British Museum)_
+
+
+In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the dream turned to
+personal monarchy.  The history of nearly all Europe during this period
+tells with variations the story of an attempt to consolidate a
+monarchy, to make it absolute and to extend its power over weaker
+adjacent regions, and of the steady resistance, first of the landowners
+and then with the increase of foreign trade and home industry, of the
+growing trading and moneyed class, to the exaction and interference of
+the crown.  There is no universal victory of either side; here it is
+the King who gets the upper hand while there it is the man of private
+property who beats the King.  In one case we find a King becoming the
+sun and centre of his national world, while just over his borders a
+sturdy mercantile class maintains a republic.  So wide a range of
+variation shows how entirely experimental, what local accidents, were
+all the various governments of this period.
+
+A very common figure in these national dramas is the King’s minister,
+often in the still Catholic countries a prelate, who stands behind the
+King, serves him and dominates him by his indispensable services.
+
+Here in the limits set to us it is impossible to tell these various
+national dramas in detail.  The trading folk of Holland went Protestant
+and republican, and cast off the rule of Philip II of Spain, the son of
+the Emperor Charles V.  In England Henry VIII and his minister Wolsey,
+Queen Elizabeth and her minister Burleigh, prepared the foundations of
+an absolutism that was wrecked by the folly of James I and Charles I. 
+Charles I was beheaded for treason to his people (1649), a new turn in
+the political thought of Europe.  For a dozen years (until 1660)
+Britain was a republic; and the crown was an unstable power, much
+overshadowed by Parliament, until George III (1760-1820) made a
+strenuous and partly successful effort to restore its predominance. 
+The King of France, on the other hand, was the most successful of all
+the European Kings in perfecting monarchy.  Two great ministers,
+Richelieu (1585-1642) and Mazarin (1602-1661), built up the power of
+the crown in that country, and the process was aided by the long reign
+and very considerable abilities of King Louis XIV, “the Grand Monarque”
+(1643-1715).
+
+Louis XIV was indeed the pattern King of Europe.  He was, within his
+limitations, an exceptionally capable King; his ambition was stronger
+than his baser passions, and he guided his country towards bankruptcy
+through the complication of a spirited foreign policy with an elaborate
+dignity that still extorts our admiration.  His immediate desire was to
+consolidate and extend France to the Rhine and Pyrenees, and to absorb
+the Spanish Netherlands; his remoter view saw the French Kings as the
+possible successors of Charlemagne in a recast Holy Roman Empire.  He
+made bribery a state method almost more important than warfare. 
+Charles II of England was in his pay, and so were most of the Polish
+nobility, presently to be described.  His money, or rather the money of
+the tax- paying classes in France, went everywhere.  But his prevailing
+occupation was splendour.  His great palace at Versailles with its
+salons, its corridors, its mirrors, its terraces and fountains and
+parks and prospects, was the envy and admiration of the world.
+
+
+THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
+THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
+
+_(From Callot’s “Miseres de la Guerre”) _
+
+
+He provoked a universal imitation.  Every king and princelet in Europe
+was building his own Versailles as much beyond his means as his
+subjects and credits would permit.  Everywhere the nobility rebuilt or
+extended their chateaux to the new pattern.  A great industry of
+beautiful and elaborate fabrics and furnishings developed.  The
+luxurious arts flourished everywhere; sculpture in alabaster, faience,
+gilt woodwork, metal work, stamped leather, much music, magnificent
+painting, beautiful printing and bindings, fine crockery, fine
+vintages.  Amidst the mirrors and fine furniture went a strange race of
+“gentlemen” in tall powdered wigs, silks and laces, poised upon high
+red heels, supported by amazing canes; and still more wonderful
+“ladies,” under towers of powdered hair and wearing vast expansions of
+silk and satin sustained on wire. Through it all postured the great
+Louis, the sun of his world, unaware of the meagre and sulky and bitter
+faces that watched him from those lower darknesses to which his
+sunshine did not penetrate.
+
+
+Map: Central Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648
+
+The German people remained politically divided throughout this period
+of the monarchies and experimental governments, and a considerable
+number of ducal and princely courts aped the splendours of Versailles
+on varying scales. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-48), a devastating
+scramble among the Germans, Swedes and Bohemians for fluctuating
+political advantages, sapped the energies of Germany for a century.  A
+map must show the crazy patchwork in which this struggle ended, a map
+of Europe according to the peace of Westphalia (1648).  One sees a
+tangle of principalities, dukedoms, free states and the like, some
+partly in and partly out of the Empire.  Sweden’s arm, the reader will
+note, reached far into Germany; and except for a few islands of
+territory within the imperial boundaries France was still far from the
+Rhine.  Amidst this patchwork the Kingdom of Prussia—it became a
+Kingdom in 1701—rose steadily to prominence and sustained a series of
+successful wars. Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-86) had his
+Versailles at Potsdam, where his court spoke French, read French
+literature and rivalled the culture of the French King.
+
+In 1714 the Elector of Hanover became King of England, adding one more
+to the list of monarchies half in and half out of the empire.
+
+The Austrian branch of the descendants of Charles V retained the title
+of Emperor; the Spanish branch retained Spain.  But now there was also
+an Emperor of the East again.  After the fall of Constantinople (1453),
+the grand duke of Moscow, Ivan the Great (1462-1505), claimed to be
+heir to the Byzantine throne and adopted the Byzantine double-headed
+eagle upon his arms.  His grandson, Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible
+(1533-1584), assumed the imperial title of Cæsar (Tsar).  But only in
+the latter half of the seventeenth century did Russia cease to seem
+remote and Asiatic to the European mind.  The Tsar Peter the Great
+(1682-1725) brought Russia into the arena of Western affairs.  He built
+a new capital for his empire, Petersburg upon the Neva, that played the
+part of a window between Russia and Europe, and he set up his
+Versailles at Peterhof eighteen miles away, employing a French
+architect who gave him a terrace, fountains, cascades, picture gallery,
+park and all the recognized appointments of Grand Monarchy. In Russia
+as in Prussia French became the language of the court.
+
+Unhappily placed between Austria, Prussia and Russia was the Polish
+kingdom, an ill-organized state of great landed proprietors too jealous
+of their own individual grandeur to permit more than a nominal kingship
+to the monarch they elected.  Her fate was division among these three
+neighbours, in spite of the efforts of France to retain her as an
+independent ally.  Switzerland at this time was a group of republican
+cantons; Venice was a republic; Italy like so much of Germany was
+divided among minor dukes and princes.  The Pope ruled like a prince in
+the papal states, too fearful now of losing the allegiance of the
+remaining Catholic princes to interfere between them and their subjects
+or to remind the world of the commonweal of Christendom. There remained
+indeed no common political idea in Europe at all; Europe was given over
+altogether to division and diversity.
+
+All these sovereign princes and republics carried on schemes of
+aggrandizement against each other.  Each one of them pursued a “foreign
+policy” of aggression against its neighbours and of aggressive
+alliances.  We Europeans still live to-day in the last phase of this
+age of the multifarious sovereign states, and still suffer from the
+hatreds, hostilities and suspicions it engendered.  The history of this
+time becomes more and more manifestly “gossip,” more and more unmeaning
+and wearisome to a modern intelligence.  You are told of how this war
+was caused by this King’s mistress, and how the jealousy of one
+minister for another caused that.  A tittle-tattle of bribes and
+rivalries disgusts the intelligent student.  The more permanently
+significant fact is that in spite of the obstruction of a score of
+frontiers, reading and thought still spread and increased and
+inventions multiplied.  The eighteenth century saw the appearance of a
+literature profoundly sceptical and critical of the courts and policies
+of the time.  In such a book as Voltaire’s _Candide_ we have the
+expression of an infinite weariness with the planless confusion of the
+European world.
+
+
+
+
+LIII
+THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS
+
+
+While Central Europe thus remained divided and confused, the Western
+Europeans and particularly the Dutch, the Scandinavians, the Spanish,
+the Portuguese, the French and the British were extending the area of
+their struggles across the seas of all the world. The printing press
+had dissolved the political ideas of Europe into a vast and at first
+indeterminate fermentation, but that other great innovation, the
+ocean-going sailing ship, was inexorably extending the range of
+European experience to the furthermost limits of salt water.
+
+The first overseas settlements of the Dutch and Northern Atlantic
+Europeans were not for colonization but for trade and mining.  The
+Spaniards were first in the field; they claimed dominion over the whole
+of this new world of America. Very soon however the Portuguese asked
+for a share.  The Pope—it was one of the last acts of Rome as mistress
+of the world—divided the new continent between these two first-comers,
+giving Portugal Brazil and everything else east of a line 370 leagues
+west of the Cape Verde islands, and all the rest to Spain (1494).  The
+Portuguese at this time were also pushing overseas enterprise southward
+and eastward.  In 1497 Vasco da Gama had sailed from Lisbon round the
+Cape to Zanzibar and then to Calicut in India.  In 1515 there were
+Portuguese ships in Java and the Moluccas, and the Portuguese were
+setting up and fortifying trading stations round and about the coasts
+of the Indian Ocean.  Mozambique, Goa, and two smaller possessions in
+India, Macao in China and a part of Timor are to this day Portuguese
+possessions.
+
+The nations excluded from America by the papal settlement paid little
+heed to the rights of Spain and Portugal.  The English, the Danes and
+Swedes, and presently the Dutch, were soon staking out claims in North
+America and the West Indies, and his Most Catholic Majesty of France
+heeded the papal settlement as little as any Protestant.  The wars of
+Europe extended themselves to these claims and possessions.
+
+
+Map: Central Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648
+
+In the long run the English were the most successful in this scramble
+for overseas possessions. The Danes and Swedes were too deeply
+entangled in the complicated affairs of Germany to sustain effective
+expeditions abroad.  Sweden was wasted upon the German battlefields by
+a picturesque king, Gustavus Adolphus, the Protestant “Lion of the
+North.”  The Dutch were the heirs of such small settlements as Sweden
+made in America, and the Dutch were too near French aggressions to hold
+their own against the British.  In the far East the chief rivals for
+empire were the British, Dutch and French, and in America the British,
+French and Spanish.  The British had the supreme advantage of a water
+frontier, the “silver streak” of the English Channel, against Europe. 
+The tradition of the Latin Empire entangled them least.
+
+
+EUROPEANS TIGER HUNTING IN INDIA
+EUROPEANS TIGER HUNTING IN INDIA
+
+_(From the engraving of the picture by Zoffany in the British Museum)_
+
+
+France has always thought too much in terms of Europe. Throughout the
+eighteenth century she was wasting her opportunities of expansion in
+West and East alike in order to dominate Spain, Italy and the German
+confusion.  The religious and political dissensions of Britain in the
+seventeenth century had driven many of the English to seek a permanent
+home in America.  They struck root and increased and multiplied, giving
+the British a great advantage in the American struggle.  In 1756 and
+1760 the French lost Canada to the British and their American
+colonists, and a few years later the British trading company found
+itself completely dominant over French, Dutch and Portuguese in the
+peninsula of India.  The great Mongol Empire of Baber, Akbar and their
+successors had now far gone in decay, and the story of its practical
+capture by a London trading company, the British East India Company, is
+one of the most extraordinary episodes in the whole history of
+conquest.
+
+
+THE LAST EFFORT AND FALL OF TIPPOO SULTAN
+THE LAST EFFORT AND FALL OF TIPPOO SULTAN
+
+_(From the engraving of the picture by Singleton in the British
+Museum)_
+
+
+This East India Company had been originally at the time of its
+incorporation under Queen Elizabeth no more than a company of sea
+adventurers.  Step by step they had been forced to raise troops and arm
+their ships.  And now this trading company, with its tradition of gain,
+found itself dealing not merely in spices and dyes and tea and jewels,
+but in the revenues and territories of princes and the destinies of
+India.  It had come to buy and sell, and it found itself achieving a
+tremendous piracy.  There was no one to challenge its proceedings.  Is
+it any wonder that its captains and commanders and officials, nay, even
+its clerks and common soldiers, came back to England loaded with
+spoils?
+
+Men under such circumstances, with a great and wealthy land at their
+mercy, could not determine what they might or might not do.  It was a
+strange land to them, with a strange sunlight; its brown people seemed
+a different race, outside their range of sympathy; its mysterious
+temples sustained fantastic standards of behaviour.  Englishmen at home
+were perplexed when presently these generals and officials came back to
+make dark accusations against each other of extortions and cruelties. 
+Upon Clive Parliament passed a vote of censure.  He committed suicide
+in 1774.  In 1788 Warren Hastings, a second great Indian administrator,
+was impeached and acquitted (1792).  It was a strange and unprecedented
+situation in the world’s history.  The English Parliament found itself
+ruling over a London trading company, which in its turn was dominating
+an empire far greater and more populous than all the domains of the
+British crown.  To the bulk of the English people India was a remote,
+fantastic, almost inaccessible land, to which adventurous poor young
+men went out, to return after many years very rich and very choleric
+old gentlemen.  It was difficult for the English to conceive what the
+life of these countless brown millions in the eastern sunshine could
+be.  Their imaginations declined the task.  India remained romantically
+unreal.  It was impossible for the English, therefore, to exert any
+effective supervision and control over the company’s proceedings.
+
+And while the Western European powers were thus fighting for these
+fantastic overseas empires upon every ocean in the world, two great
+land conquests were in progress in Asia. China had thrown off the
+Mongol yoke in 1360, and flourished under the great native dynasty of
+the Mings until 1644.  Then the Manchus, another Mongol people,
+reconquered China and remained masters of China until 1912.  Meanwhile
+Russia was pushing East and growing to greatness in the world’s
+affairs.  The rise of this great central power of the old world, which
+is neither altogether of the East nor altogether of the West, is one of
+the utmost importance to our human destiny.  Its expansion is very
+largely due to the appearance of a Christian steppe people, the
+Cossacks, who formed a barrier between the feudal agriculture of Poland
+and Hungary to the west and the Tartar to the east.  The Cossacks were
+the wild east of Europe, and in many ways not unlike the wild west of
+the United States in the middle nineteenth century. All who had made
+Russia too hot to hold them, criminals as well as the persecuted
+innocent, rebellious serfs, religious secretaries, thieves, vagabonds,
+murderers, sought asylum in the southern steppes and there made a fresh
+start and fought for life and freedom against Pole, Russian and Tartar
+alike. Doubtless fugitives from the Tartars to the east also
+contributed to the Cossack mixture.  Slowly these border folk were
+incorporated in the Russian imperial service, much as the highland
+clans of Scotland were converted into regiments by the British
+government.  New lands were offered them in Asia.  They became a weapon
+against the dwindling power of the Mongolian nomads, first in Turkestan
+and then across Siberia as far as the Amur.
+
+The decay of Mongol energy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
+is very difficult to explain.  Within two or three centuries from the
+days of Jengis and Timurlane Central Asia had relapsed from a period of
+world ascendancy to extreme political impotence.  Changes of climate,
+unrecorded pestilences, infections of a malarial type, may have played
+their part in this recession—which may be only a temporary recession
+measured by the scale of universal history—of the Central Asian
+peoples.  Some authorities think that the spread of Buddhist teaching
+from China also had a pacifying influence upon them.  At any rate, by
+the sixteenth century the Mongol, Tartar and Turkish peoples were no
+longer pressing outward, but were being invaded, subjugated and pushed
+back both by Christian Russia in the west and by China in the east.
+
+All through the seventeenth century the Cossacks were spreading
+eastward from European Russia, and settling wherever they found
+agricultural conditions.  Cordons of forts and stations formed a moving
+frontier to these settlements to the south, where the Turkomans were
+still strong and active; to the north-east, however, Russia had no
+frontier until she reached right to the Pacific....
+
+
+
+
+LIV
+THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The third quarter of the eighteenth century thus saw the remarkable and
+unstable spectacle of a Europe divided against itself, and no longer
+with any unifying political or religious idea, yet through the immense
+stimulation of men’s imaginations by the printed book, the printed map,
+and the opportunity of the new ocean-going shipping, able in a
+disorganized and contentious manner to dominate all the coasts of the
+world. It was a planless, incoherent ebullition of enterprise due to
+temporary and almost accidental advantages over the rest of mankind. By
+virtue of these advantages this new and still largely empty continent
+of America was peopled mainly from Western European sources, and South
+Africa and Australia and New Zealand marked down as prospective homes
+for a European population.
+
+The motive that had sent Columbus to America and Vasco da Gama to India
+was the perennial first motive of all sailors since the beginning of
+things—trade.  But while in the already populous and productive East
+the trade motive remained dominant, and the European settlements
+remained trading settlements from which the European inhabitants hoped
+to return home to spend their money, the Europeans in America, dealing
+with communities at a very much lower level of productive activity,
+found a new inducement for persistence in the search for gold and
+silver.  Particularly did the mines of Spanish America yield silver. 
+The Europeans had to go to America not simply as armed merchants but as
+prospectors, miners, searchers after natural products, and presently as
+planters.  In the north they sought furs.  Mines and plantations
+necessitated settlements.  They obliged people to set up permanent
+overseas homes.  Finally in some cases, as when the English Puritans
+went to New England in the early seventeenth 336}century to escape
+religious persecution, when in the eighteenth Oglethorpe sent people
+from the English debtors’ prisons to Georgia, and when in the end of
+the eighteenth the Dutch sent orphans to the Cape of Good Hope, the
+Europeans frankly crossed the seas to find new homes for good.  In the
+nineteenth century, and especially after the coming of the steamship,
+the stream of European emigration to the new empty lands of America and
+Australia rose for some decades to the scale of a great migration.
+
+So there grew up permanent overseas populations of Europeans, and the
+European culture was transplanted to much larger areas than those in
+which it had been developed.  These new communities bringing a
+ready-made civilization with them to these new lands grew up, as it
+were, unplanned and unperceived; the statecraft of Europe did not
+foresee them, and was unprepared with any ideas about their treatment. 
+The politicians and ministers of Europe continued to regard them as
+essentially expeditionary establishments, sources of revenue,
+“possessions” and “dependencies,” long after their peoples had
+developed a keen sense of their separate social life.  And also they
+continued to treat them as helplessly subject to the mother country
+long after the population had spread inland out of reach of any
+effectual punitive operations from the sea.
+
+Because until right into the nineteenth century, it must be remembered,
+the link of all these overseas empires was the oceangoing sailing ship.
+ On land the swiftest thing was still the horse, and the cohesion and
+unity of political systems on land was still limited by the limitations
+of horse communications.
+
+Now at the end of the third quarter of the eighteenth century the
+northern two-thirds of North America was under the British crown. 
+France had abandoned America.  Except for Brazil, which was Portuguese,
+and one or two small islands and areas in French, British, Danish and
+Dutch hands, Florida, Louisiana, California and all America to the
+south was Spanish.  It was the British colonies south of Maine and Lake
+Ontario that first demonstrated the inadequacy of the sailing ship to
+hold overseas populations together in one political system.
+
+These British colonies were very miscellaneous in their origin and
+character.  There were French, Swedish and Dutch settlements as well as
+British; there were British Catholics in Maryland and British
+ultra-Protestants in New England, and while the New Englanders farmed
+their own land and denounced slavery, the British in Virginia and the
+south were planters employing a swelling multitude of imported negro
+slaves.  There was no natural common unity in such states.  To get from
+one to the other might mean a coasting voyage hardly less tedious than
+the transatlantic crossing.  But the union that diverse origin and
+natural conditions denied the British Americans was forced upon them by
+the selfishness and stupidity of the British government in London. 
+They were taxed without any voice in the spending of the taxes; their
+trade was sacrificed to British interests; the highly profitable slave
+trade was maintained by the British government in spite of the
+opposition of the Virginians who—though quite willing to hold and use
+slaves—feared to be swamped by an ever-growing barbaric black
+population.
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+_(From a painting by Gilbert Stuart)_
+
+
+Britain at that time was lapsing towards an intenser form of monarchy,
+and the obstinate personality of George III (1760- 1820) did much to
+force on a struggle between the home and the colonial governments.
+
+The conflict was precipitated by legislation which favoured the London
+East India Company at the expense of the American shipper.  Three
+cargoes of tea which were imported under the new conditions were thrown
+overboard in Boston harbour by a band of men disguised as Indians
+(1773).  Fighting only began in 1775 when the British government
+attempted to arrest two of the American leaders at Lexington near
+Boston.  The first shots were fired in Lexington by the British; the
+first fighting occurred at Concord.
+
+
+THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON
+THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON
+
+_(From the engraving of the picture by John Trumbull in the British
+Museum)_
+
+
+So the American War of Independence began, though for more than a year
+the colonists showed themselves extremely unwilling to sever their
+links with the mother land.  It was not until the middle of 1776 that
+the Congress of the insurgent states issued “The Declaration of
+Independence.”  George Washington, who like many of the leading
+colonists of the time had had a military training in the wars against
+the French, was made commander-in-chief.  In 1777 a British general,
+General Burgoyne, in an attempt to reach New York from Canada, was
+defeated at Freemans Farm and obliged to surrender at Saratoga.  In the
+same year the French and Spanish declared war upon Great Britain,
+greatly hampering her sea communications.  A second British army under
+General Cornwallis was caught in the Yorktown peninsula in Virginia and
+obliged to capitulate in 1781.  In 1783 peace was made in Paris, and
+the Thirteen Colonies from Maine to Georgia became a union of
+independent sovereign States.  So the United States of America came
+into existence.  Canada remained loyal to the British flag.
+
+
+Map: The United States, showing extent of settlement in 1790
+
+For four years these States had only a very feeble central government
+under certain Articles of Confederation, and they seemed destined to
+break up into separate independent communities.  Their immediate
+separation was delayed by the hostility of the British and a certain
+aggressiveness on the part of the French which brought home to them the
+immediate dangers of division.  A Constitution was drawn up and
+ratified in 1788 establishing a more efficient Federal government with
+a President holding very considerable powers, and the weak sense of
+national unity was invigorated by a second war with Britain in 1812. 
+Nevertheless the area covered by the States was so wide and their
+interests so diverse at that time, that—given only the means of
+communication then available—a disintegration of the Union into
+separate states on the European scale of size was merely a question of
+time.  Attendance at Washington meant a long, tedious and insecure
+journey for the senators and congressmen of the remoter districts, and
+the mechanical impediments to the diffusion of a common education and a
+common literature and intelligence were practically insurmountable. 
+Forces were at work in the world however that were to arrest the
+process of differentiation altogether.  Presently came the river
+steamboat and then the railway and the telegraph to save the United
+States from fragmentation, and weave its dispersed people together
+again into the first of great modern nations.
+
+Twenty-two years later the Spanish colonies in America were to follow
+the example of the Thirteen and break their connection with Europe. 
+But being more dispersed over the continent and separated by great
+mountainous chains and deserts and forests and by the Portuguese Empire
+of Brazil, they did not achieve a union among themselves.  They became
+a constellation of republican states, very prone at first to wars among
+themselves and to revolutions.
+
+Brazil followed a rather different line towards the inevitable
+separation.  In 1807 the French armies under Napoleon had occupied the
+mother country of Portugal, and the monarchy had fled to Brazil.  From
+that time on until they separated, Portugal was rather a dependency of
+Brazil than Brazil of Portugal.  In 1822 Brazil declared itself a
+separate Empire under Pedro I, a son of the Portuguese King. But the
+new world has never been very favourable to monarchy. In 1889 the
+Emperor of Brazil was shipped off quietly to Europe, and the United
+States of Brazil fell into line with the rest of republican America.
+
+
+
+
+LV
+THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY IN FRANCE
+
+
+Britain had hardly lost the Thirteen Colonies in America before a
+profound social and political convulsion at the very heart of Grand
+Monarchy was to remind Europe still more vividly of the essentially
+temporary nature of the political arrangements of the world.
+
+We have said that the French monarchy was the most successful of the
+personal monarchies in Europe.  It was the envy and model of a
+multitude of competing and minor courts.  But it flourished on a basis
+of injustice that led to its dramatic collapse.  It was brilliant and
+aggressive, but it was wasteful of the life and substance of its common
+people.  The clergy and nobility were protected from taxation by a
+system of exemption that threw the whole burden of the state upon the
+middle and lower classes.  The peasants were ground down by taxation;
+the middle classes were dominated and humiliated by the nobility.
+
+In 1787 this French monarchy found itself bankrupt and obliged to call
+representatives of the different classes of the realm into consultation
+upon the perplexities of defective income and excessive expenditure. 
+In 1789 the States General, a gathering of the nobles, clergy and
+commons, roughly equivalent to the earlier form of the British
+Parliament, was called together at Versailles.  It had not assembled
+since 1610.  For all that time France had been an absolute monarchy. 
+Now the people found a means of expressing their long fermenting
+discontent.  Disputes immediately broke out between the three estates,
+due to the resolve of the Third Estate, the Commons, to control the
+Assembly.  The Commons got the better of these disputes and the States
+General became a National Assembly, clearly resolved to keep the crown
+in order, as the British Parliament kept the British crown in order. 
+The king (Louis XVI) prepared for a struggle and brought up troops from
+the provinces.  Whereupon Paris and France revolted.
+
+The collapse of the absolute monarchy was very swift.  The grim-looking
+prison of the Bastille was stormed by the people of Paris, and the
+insurrection spread rapidly throughout France.  In the east and
+north-west provinces many chateaux belonging to the nobility were burnt
+by the peasants, their title-deeds carefully destroyed, and the owners
+murdered or driven away.  In a month the ancient and decayed system of
+the aristocratic order had collapsed.  Many of the leading princes and
+courtiers of the queen’s party fled abroad. A provisional city
+government was set up in Paris and in most of the other large cities,
+and a new armed force, the National Guard, a force designed primarily
+and plainly to resist the forces of the crown, was brought into
+existence by these municipal bodies.  The National Assembly found
+itself called upon to create a new political and social system for a
+new age.
+
+It was a task that tried the powers of that gathering to the utmost. 
+It made a great sweep of the chief injustices of the absolutist regime;
+it abolished tax exemptions, serfdom, aristocratic titles and
+privileges and sought to establish a constitutional monarchy in Paris. 
+The king abandoned Versailles and its splendours and kept a diminished
+state in the palace of the Tuileries in Paris.
+
+For two years it seemed that the National Assembly might struggle
+through to an effective modernized government.  Much of its work was
+sound and still endures, if much was experimental and had to be undone.
+ Much was ineffective. There was a clearing up of the penal code;
+torture, arbitrary imprisonment and persecutions for heresy were
+abolished.  The ancient provinces of France, Normandy, Burgundy and the
+like gave place to eighty departments.  Promotion to the highest ranks
+in the army was laid open to men of every class.  An excellent and
+simple system of law courts was set up, but its value was much vitiated
+by having the judges appointed by popular election for short periods of
+time.  This made the crowd a sort of final court of appeal, and the
+judges, like the members of the Assembly, were forced to play to the
+gallery.  And the whole vast property of the church was seized and
+administered by the state; religious establishments not engaged in
+education or works of charity were broken up, and the salaries of the
+clergy made a charge upon the nation.  This in itself was not a bad
+thing for the lower clergy in France, who were often scandalously
+underpaid in comparison with the richer dignitaries.  But in addition
+the choice of priests and bishops was made elective, which struck at
+the very root idea of the Roman Church, which centred everything upon
+the Pope, and in which all authority is from above downward. 
+Practically the National Assembly wanted at one blow to make the church
+in France Protestant, in organization if not in doctrine.  Everywhere
+there were disputes and conflicts between the state priests created by
+the National Assembly and the recalcitrant (non-juring) priests who
+were loyal to Rome.
+
+In 1791 the experiment of Constitutional monarchy in France was brought
+to an abrupt end by the action of the king and queen, working in
+concert with their aristocratic and monarchist friends abroad.  Foreign
+armies gathered on the Eastern frontier and one night in June the king
+and queen and their children slipped away from the Tuileries and fled
+to join the foreigners and the aristocratic exiles.  They were caught
+at Varennes and brought back to Paris, and an France flamed up into a
+passion of patriotic republicanism.  A Republic was proclaimed, open
+war with Austria and Prussia ensued, and the king was tried and
+executed (January, 1793) on the model already set by England, for
+treason to his people.
+
+And now followed a strange phase in the history of the French people. 
+There arose a great flame of enthusiasm for France and the Republic. 
+There was to be an end to compromise at home and abroad; at home
+royalists and every form of disloyalty were to be stamped out; abroad
+France was to be the protector and helper of all revolutionaries.  All
+Europe, all the world, was to become Republican.  The youth of France
+poured into the Republican armies; a new and wonderful song spread
+through the land, a song that still warms the blood like wine, the
+Marseillaise.  Before that chant and the leaping columns of French
+bayonets and their enthusiastically served guns the foreign armies
+rolled back; before the end of 1792 the French armies had gone far
+beyond the utmost achievements of Louis XIV; everywhere they stood on
+foreign soil. They were in Brussels, they had overrun Savoy, they had
+raided to Mayence; they had seized the Scheldt from Holland. Then the
+French Government did an unwise thing.  It had been exasperated by the
+expulsion of its representative from England upon the execution of
+Louis, and it declared war against England.  It was an unwise thing to
+do, because the revolution which had given France a new enthusiastic
+infantry and a brilliant artillery released from its aristocratic
+officers and many cramping conditions had destroyed the discipline of
+the navy, and the English were supreme upon the sea.  And this
+provocation united all England against France, whereas there had been
+at first a very considerable liberal movement in Great Britain in
+sympathy with the revolution.
+
+
+THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI
+THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI
+
+_(From a print in the British Museum)_
+
+
+Of the fight that France made in the next few years against a European
+coalition we cannot tell in any detail.  She drove the Austrians for
+ever out of Belgium, and made Holland a republic.  The Dutch fleet,
+frozen in the Texel, surrendered to a handful of cavalry without firing
+its guns. For some time the French thrust towards Italy was hung up,
+and it was only in 1796 that a new general, Napoleon Bonaparte, led the
+ragged and hungry republican armies in triumph across Piedmont to
+Mantua and Verona.  Says C. F. Atkinson,  [1] “What astonished the
+Allies most of all was the number and the velocity of the Republicans. 
+These improvised armies had in fact nothing to delay them.  Tents were
+unprocurable for want of money, untransportable for want of the
+enormous number of wagons that would have been required, and also
+unnecessary, for the discomfort that would have caused wholesale
+desertion in professional armies was cheerfully borne by the men of
+1793- 94.   Supplies for armies of then unheard-of size could not be
+carried in convoys, and the French soon became familiar with ‘living on
+the country.’  Thus 1793 saw the birth of the modern system of
+war—rapidity of movement, full development of national strength,
+bivouacs, requisitions and force as against cautious manœuvring, small
+professional armies, tents and full rations, and chicane. The first
+represented the decision-compelling spirit, the second the spirit of
+risking little to gain a little ... .”
+
+And while these ragged hosts of enthusiasts were chanting the
+Marseillaise and fighting for _la France_, manifestly never quite clear
+in their minds whether they were looting or liberating the countries
+into which they poured, the republican enthusiasm in Paris was spending
+itself in a far less glorious fashion.  The revolution was now under
+the sway of a fanatical leader, Robespierre.  This man is difficult to
+judge; he was a man of poor physique, naturally timid, and a prig.  But
+he had that most necessary gift for power, faith. He set himself to
+save the Republic as he conceived it, and he imagined it could be saved
+by no other man than he.  So that to keep in power was to save the
+Republic.  The living spirit of the Republic, it seemed, had sprung
+from a slaughter of royalists and the execution of the king.  There
+were insurrections; one in the west, in the district of La Vendée,
+where the people rose against the conscription and against the
+dispossession of the orthodox clergy, and were led by noblemen and
+priests; one in the south, where Lyons and Marseilles had risen and the
+royalists of Toulon had admitted an English and Spanish garrison.  To
+which there seemed no more effectual reply than to go on killing
+royalists.
+
+The Revolutionary Tribunal went to work, and a steady slaughtering
+began.  The invention of the guillotine was opportune to this mood. 
+The queen was guillotined, most of Robespierre’s antagonists were
+guillotined, atheists who argued that there was no Supreme Being were
+guillotined; day by day, week by week, this infernal new machine
+chopped off heads and more heads and more.  The reign of Robespierre
+lived, it seemed, on blood; and needed more and more, as an opium-taker
+needs more and more opium.
+
+
+THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE, OCTOBER 16, 1793
+THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE, OCTOBER 16, 1793
+
+_(From a print in the British Museum)_
+
+
+Finally in the summer of 1794 Robespierre himself was overthrown and
+guillotined.  He was succeeded by a Directory of five men which carried
+on the war of defence abroad and held France together at home for five
+years.  Their reign formed a curious interlude in this history of
+violent changes.  They took things as they found them.  The
+propagandist zeal of the revolution carried the French armies into
+Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, south Germany and north Italy. 
+Everywhere kings were expelled and republics set up. But such
+propagandist zeal as animated the Directorate did not prevent the
+looting of the treasures of the liberated peoples to relieve the
+financial embarrassment of the French Government.  Their wars became
+less and less the holy wars of freedom, and more and more like the
+aggressive wars of the ancient regime.  The last feature of Grand
+Monarchy that France was disposed to discard was her tradition of
+foreign policy.  One discovers it still as vigorous under the
+Directorate as if there had been no revolution.
+
+Unhappily for France and the world a man arose who embodied in its
+intensest form this national egotism of the French. He gave that
+country ten years of glory and the humiliation of a final defeat.  This
+was that same Napoleon Bonaparte who had led the armies of the
+Directory to victory in Italy.
+
+Throughout the five years of the Directorate he had been scheming and
+working for self-advancement.  Gradually he clambered to supreme power.
+ He was a man of severely limited understanding but of ruthless
+directness and great energy. He had begun life as an extremist of the
+school of Robespierre; he owed his first promotion to that side; but he
+had no real grasp of the new forces that were working in Europe.  His
+utmost political imagination carried him to a belated and tawdry
+attempt to restore the Western Empire.  He tried to destroy the remains
+of the old Holy Roman Empire, intending to replace it by a new one
+centring upon Paris. The Emperor in Vienna ceased to be the Holy Roman
+Emperor and became simply Emperor of Austria.  Napoleon divorced his
+French wife in order to marry an Austrian princess.
+
+He became practically monarch of France as First Consul in 1799, and he
+made himself Emperor of France in 1804 in direct imitation of
+Charlemagne.  He was crowned by the Pope in Paris, taking the crown
+from the Pope and putting it upon his own head himself as Charlemagne
+had directed.  His son was crowned King of Rome.
+
+For some years Napoleon’s reign was a career of victory.  He conquered
+most of Italy and Spain, defeated Prussia and Austria, and dominated
+all Europe west of Russia.  But he never won the command of the sea
+from the British and his fleets sustained a conclusive defeat inflicted
+by the British Admiral Nelson at Trafalgar (1805). Spain rose against
+him in 1808 and a British army under Wellington thrust the French
+armies slowly northward out of the peninsula.  In 1811 Napoleon came
+into conflict with the Tsar Alexander I, and in 1812 he invaded Russia
+with a great conglomerate army of 600,000 men, that was defeated and
+largely destroyed by the Russians and the Russian winter. Germany rose
+against him, Sweden turned against him.  The French armies were beaten
+back and at Fontainebleau Napoleon abdicated (1814).  He was exiled to
+Elba, returned to France for one last effort in 1815 and was defeated
+by the allied British, Belgians and Prussians at Waterloo.  He died a
+British prisoner at St. Helena in 1821.
+
+The forces released by the French revolution were wasted and finished. 
+A great Congress of the victorious allies met at Vienna to restore as
+far as possible the state of affairs that the great storm had rent to
+pieces.  For nearly forty years a sort of peace, a peace of exhausted
+effort, was maintained in Europe.
+
+
+[1] In his article, “French Revolutionary Wars,” in the Encyclopædia
+Britannica.
+
+
+
+
+LVI
+THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL OF NAPOLEON
+
+
+Two main causes prevented that period from being a complete social and
+international peace, and prepared the way for the cycle of wars between
+1854 and 1871. The first of these was the tendency of the royal courts
+concerned, towards the restoration of unfair privilege and interference
+with freedom of thought and writing and teaching. The second was the
+impossible system of boundaries drawn by the diplomatists of Vienna.
+
+The inherent disposition of monarchy to march back towards past
+conditions was first and most particularly manifest in Spain.  Here
+even the Inquisition was restored.  Across the Atlantic the Spanish
+colonies had followed the example of the United States and revolted
+against the European Great Power System, when Napoleon set his brother
+Joseph on the Spanish throne in 1810.  The George Washington of South
+America was General Bolivar.  Spain was unable to suppress this revolt,
+it dragged on much as the United States War of Independence had dragged
+on, and at last the suggestion was made by Austria, in accordance with
+the spirit of the Holy Alliance, that the European monarch should
+assist Spain in this struggle.  This was opposed by Britain in Europe,
+but it was the prompt action of President Monroe of the United States
+in 1823 which conclusively warned off this projected monarchist
+restoration.  He announced that the United States would regard any
+extension of the European system in the Western Hemisphere as a hostile
+act.  Thus arose the Monroe Doctrine, the doctrine that there must be
+no extension of extra- American government in America, which has kept
+the Great Power system out of America for nearly a hundred years and
+permitted the new states of Spanish America to work out their destinies
+along their own lines.
+
+But if Spanish monarchism lost its colonies, it could at least, under
+the protection of the Concert of Europe, do what it chose in Europe.  A
+popular insurrection in Spain was crushed by a French army in 1823,
+with a mandate from a European congress, and simultaneously Austria
+suppressed a revolution in Naples.
+
+In 1824 Louis XVIII died, and was succeeded by Charles X. Charles set
+himself to destroy the liberty of the press and universities, and to
+restore absolute government; the sum of a billion francs was voted to
+compensate the nobles for the chateau burnings and sequestrations of
+1789.  In 1830 Paris rose against this embodiment of the ancient
+regime, and replaced him by Louis Philippe, the son of that Philip,
+Duke of Orleans, who was executed during the Terror.  The other
+continental monarchies, in face of the open approval of the revolution
+by Great Britain and a strong liberal ferment in Germany and Austria,
+did not interfere in this affair.  After all, France was still a
+monarchy.  This man Louis Philippe (1830-48) remained the
+constitutional King of France for eighteen years.
+
+Such were the uneasy swayings of the peace of the Congress of Vienna,
+which were provoked by the reactionary proceedings of the monarchists. 
+The stresses that arose from the unscientific boundaries planned by the
+diplomatists at Vienna gathered force more deliberately, but they were
+even more dangerous to the peace of mankind.  It is extraordinarily
+inconvenient to administer together the affairs of peoples speaking
+different languages and so reading different literatures and having
+different general ideas, especially if those differences are
+exacerbated by religious disputes. Only some strong mutual interest,
+such as the common defensive needs of the Swiss mountaineers, can
+justify a close linking of peoples of dissimilar languages and faiths;
+and even in Switzerland there is the utmost local autonomy. When, as in
+Macedonia, populations are mixed in a patchwork of villages and
+districts, the cantonal system is imperatively needed.  But if the
+reader will look at the map of Europe as the Congress of Vienna drew
+it, he will see that this gathering seems almost as if it had planned
+the maximum of local exasperation.
+
+It destroyed the Dutch Republic, quite needlessly, it lumped together
+the Protestant Dutch with the French-speaking Catholics of the old
+Spanish (Austrian) Netherlands, and set up a kingdom of the
+Netherlands.  It handed over not merely the old republic of Venice, but
+all of North Italy as far as Milan to the German-speaking Austrians. 
+French-speaking Savoy it combined with pieces of Italy to restore the
+kingdom of Sardinia.  Austria and Hungary, already a sufficiently
+explosive mixture of discordant nationalities, Germans, Hungarians,
+Czecho-Slovaks, Jugo-Slavs, Roumanians, and now Italians, was made
+still more impossible by confirming Austria’s Polish acquisitions of
+1772 and 1795.  The Catholic and republican-spirited Polish people were
+chiefly given over to the less civilized rule of the Greek-orthodox
+Tsar, but important districts went to Protestant Prussia. The Tsar was
+also confirmed in his acquisition of the entirely alien Finns.  The
+very dissimilar Norwegian and Swedish peoples were bound together under
+one king.  Germany, the reader will see, was left in a particularly
+dangerous state of muddle.  Prussia and Austria were both partly in and
+partly out of a German confederation, which included a multitude of
+minor states.  The King of Denmark came into the German confederation
+by virtue of certain German-speaking possessions in Holstein. 
+Luxembourg was included in the German confederation, though its ruler
+was also King of the Netherlands, and though many of its peoples talked
+French.
+
+Here was a complete disregard of the fact that the people who talk
+German and base their ideas on German literature, the people who talk
+Italian and base their ideas on Italian literature, and the people who
+talk Polish and base their ideas on Polish literature, will all be far
+better off and most helpful and least obnoxious to the rest of mankind
+if they conduct their own affairs in their own idiom within the
+ring-fence of their own speech.  Is it any wonder that one of the most
+popular songs in Germany during this period declared that wherever the
+German tongue was spoken, there was the German Fatherland!
+
+
+PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION)
+PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION)
+
+_(From a print in the British Museum)_
+
+
+In 1830 French-speaking Belgium, stirred up by the current revolution
+in France, revolted against its Dutch association in the kingdom of the
+Netherlands.  The powers, terrified at the possibilities of a republic
+or of annexation to France, hurried in to pacify this situation, and
+gave the Belgians a monarch, Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg Gotha.  There
+were also ineffectual revolts in Italy and Germany in 1830, and a much
+more serious one in Russian Poland.  A republican government held out
+in Warsaw for a year against Nicholas I (who succeeded Alexander in
+1825), and was then stamped out of existence with great violence and
+cruelty.  The Polish language was banned, and the Greek Orthodox church
+was substituted for the Roman Catholic as the state religion ....
+
+
+Map: Europe after the Congress of Vienna
+
+In 1821 there was an insurrection of the Greeks against the Turks.  For
+six years they fought a desperate war, while the governments of Europe
+looked on.  Liberal opinion protested against this inactivity;
+volunteers from every European country joined the insurgents, and at
+last Britain, France and Russia took joint action.  The Turkish fleet
+was destroyed by the French and English at the battle of Navarino
+(1827), and the Tsar invaded Turkey.  By the treaty of Adrianople
+(1829) Greece was declared free, but she was not permitted to resume
+her ancient republican traditions.  A German king was found for Greece,
+one Prince Otto of Bavaria, and Christian governors were set up in the
+Danubian provinces (which are now Roumania) and Serbia (a part of the
+Jugo-Slav region).  Much blood had still to run however before the Turk
+was altogether expelled from these lands.
+
+
+
+
+LVII
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+
+Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the opening
+years of the nineteenth century, while these conflicts of the powers
+and princes were going on in Europe, and the patchwork of the treaty of
+Westphalia (1648) was changing kaleidoscopically into the patchwork of
+the treaty of Vienna (1815), and while the sailing ship was spreading
+European influence throughout the world, a steady growth of knowledge
+and a general clearing up of men’s ideas about the world in which they
+lived was in progress in the European and Europeanized world.
+
+It went on disconnected from political life, and producing throughout
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries no striking immediate results
+in political life.  Nor was it affecting popular thought very
+profoundly during this period. These reactions were to come later, and
+only in their full force in the latter half of the nineteenth century. 
+It was a process that went on chiefly in a small world of prosperous
+and independent-spirited people.  Without what the English call the
+“private gentleman,” the scientific process could not have begun in
+Greece, and could not have been renewed in Europe.  The universities
+played a part but not a leading part in the philosophical and
+scientific thought of this period.  Endowed learning is apt to be timid
+and conservative learning, lacking in initiative and resistent to
+innovation, unless it has the spur of contact with independent minds.
+
+We have already noted the formation of the Royal Society in 1662 and
+its work in realizing the dream of Bacon’s _New Atlantis_.  Throughout
+the eighteenth century there was much clearing up of general ideas
+about matter and motion, much mathematical advance, a systematic
+development of the use of optical glass in microscope and telescope, a
+renewed energy in classificatory natural history, a great revival of
+anatomical science.  The science of geology—foreshadowed by Aristotle
+and anticipated by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)—began its great task
+of interpreting the Record of the Rocks.
+
+
+EARLY ROLLING STOCK ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY IN THE
+FIRST DAYS OF THE RAILWAY
+EARLY ROLLING STOCK ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY IN THE
+FIRST DAYS OF THE RAILWAY
+
+
+The progress of physical science reacted upon metallurgy. Improved
+metallurgy, affording the possibility of a larger and bolder handling
+of masses of metal and other materials, reacted upon practical
+inventions.  Machinery on a new scale and in a new abundance appeared
+to revolutionize industry.
+
+In 1804 Trevithick adapted the Watt engine to transport and made the
+first locomotive.  In 1825 the first railway, between Stockton and
+Darlington, was opened, and Stephenson’s “Rocket,” with a thirteen-ton
+train, got up to a speed of forty-four miles per hour.  From 1830
+onward railways multiplied.  By the middle of the century a network of
+railways had spread all over Europe.
+
+
+EARLY TRAVELLING ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY, 1833
+EARLY TRAVELLING ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY, 1833
+
+
+Here was a sudden change in what had long been a fixed condition of
+human life, the maximum rate of land transport. After the Russian
+disaster, Napoleon travelled from near Vilna to Paris in 312 hours. 
+This was a journey of about 1,400 miles.  He was travelling with every
+conceivable advantage, and he averaged under 5 miles an hour.  An
+ordinary traveller could not have done this distance in twice the time.
+ These were about the same maximum rates of travel as held good between
+Rome and Gaul in the first century A.D.  Then suddenly came this
+tremendous change.  The railways reduced this journey for any ordinary
+traveller to less than forty-eight hours.  That is to say, they reduced
+the chief European distances to about a tenth of what they had been. 
+They made it possible to carry out administrative work in areas ten
+times as great as any that had hitherto been workable under one
+administration.  The full significance of that possibility in Europe
+still remains to be realized.  Europe is still netted in boundaries
+drawn in the horse and road era.  In America the effects were
+immediate.  To the United States of America, sprawling westward, it
+meant the possibility of a continuous access to Washington, however far
+the frontier travelled across the continent.  It meant unity, sustained
+on a scale that would otherwise have been impossible.
+
+
+THE STEAMBOAT: CLERMONT, 1807, U.S.A.
+THE STEAMBOAT: _CLERMONT_, 1807, U.S.A.
+
+
+The steamboat was, if anything, a little ahead of the steam engine in
+its earlier phases.  There was a steamboat, the _Charlotte Dundas_, on
+the Firth of Clyde Canal in 1802, and in 1807 an American named Fulton
+had a steamer, the Clermont, with British-built engines, upon the
+Hudson River above New York.  The first steamship to put to sea was
+also an American, the Phœnix, which went from New York (Hoboken) to
+Philadelphia.  So, too, was the first ship using steam (she also had
+sails) to cross the Atlantic, the Savannah (1819).  All these were
+paddle-wheel boats and paddle-wheel boats are not adapted to work in
+heavy seas. The paddles smash too easily, and the boat is then
+disabled. The screw steamship followed rather slowly.  Many
+difficulties had to be surmounted before the screw was a practicable
+thing.  Not until the middle of the century did the tonnage of
+steamships upon the sea begin to overhaul that of sailing ships.  After
+that the evolution in sea transport was rapid.  For the first time men
+began to cross the seas and oceans with some certainty as to the date
+of their arrival.  The transatlantic crossing, which had been an
+uncertain adventure of several weeks—which might stretch to months—was
+accelerated, until in 1910 it was brought down, in the case of the
+fastest boats, to under five days, with a practically notifiable hour
+of arrival.
+
+Concurrently with the development of steam transport upon land and sea
+a new and striking addition to the facilities of human intercourse
+arose out of the investigations of Volta, Galvani and Faraday into
+various electrical phenomena.  The electric telegraph came into
+existence in 1835.  The first underseas cable was laid in 1851 between
+France and England. In a few years the telegraph system had spread over
+the civilized world, and news which had hitherto travelled slowly from
+point to point became practically simultaneous throughout the earth.
+
+These things, the steam railway and the electric telegraph, were to the
+popular imagination of the middle nineteenth century the most striking
+and revolutionary of inventions, but they were only the most
+conspicuous and clumsy first fruits of a far more extensive process. 
+Technical knowledge and skill were developing with an extraordinary
+rapidity, and to an extraordinary extent measured by the progress of
+any previous age.  Far less conspicuous at first in everyday life, but
+finally far more important, was the extension of man’s power over
+various structural materials.  Before the middle of the eighteenth
+century iron was reduced from its ores by means of wood charcoal, was
+handled in small pieces, and hammered and wrought into shape. It was
+material for a craftsman.  Quality and treatment were enormously
+dependent upon the experience and sagacity of the individual
+iron-worker.  The largest masses of iron that could be dealt with under
+those conditions amounted at most (in the sixteenth century) to two or
+three tons.  (There was a very definite upward limit, therefore, to the
+size of cannon.)  The blast-furnace rose in the eighteenth century and
+developed with the use of coke.  Not before the eighteenth century do
+we find rolled sheet iron (1728) and rolled rods and bars (1783). 
+Nasmyth’s steam hammer came as late as 1838.
+
+The ancient world, because of its metallurgical inferiority, could not
+use steam.  The steam engine, even the primitive pumping engine, could
+not develop before sheet iron was available.  The early engines seem to
+the modern eye very pitiful and clumsy bits of ironmongery, but they
+were the utmost that the metallurgical science of the time could do. As
+late as 1856 came the Bessemer process, and presently (1864) the
+open-hearth process, in which steel and every sort of iron could be
+melted, purified and cast in a manner and upon a scale hitherto unheard
+of.  To-day in the electric furnace one may see tons of incandescent
+steel swirling about like boiling milk in a saucepan.  Nothing in the
+previous practical advances of mankind is comparable in its
+consequences to the complete mastery over enormous masses of steel and
+iron and over their texture and quality which man has now achieved. 
+The railways and early engines of all sorts were the mere first
+triumphs of the new metallurgical methods.  Presently came ships of
+iron and steel, vast bridges, and a new way of building with steel upon
+a gigantic scale.  Men realized too late that they had planned their
+railways with far too timid a gauge, that they could have organized
+their travelling with far more steadiness and comfort upon a much
+bigger scale.
+
+Before the nineteenth century there were no ships in the world much
+over 2,000 tons burthen; now there is nothing wonderful about a
+50,000-ton liner.  There are people who sneer at this kind of progress
+as being a progress in “mere size,” but that sort of sneering merely
+marks the intellectual limitations of those who indulge in it.  The
+great ship or the steel-frame building is not, as they imagine, a
+magnified version of the small ship or building of the past; it is a
+thing different in kind, more lightly and strongly built, of finer and
+stronger materials; instead of being a thing of precedent and
+rule-of-thumb, it is a thing of subtle and intricate calculation.  In
+the old house or ship, matter was dominant—the material and its needs
+had to be slavishly obeyed; in the new, matter had been captured,
+changed, coerced.  Think of the coal and iron and sand dragged out of
+the banks and pits, wrenched, wrought, molten and cast, to be flung at
+last, a slender glittering pinnacle of steel and glass, six hundred
+feet above the crowded city!
+
+We have given these particulars of the advance in man’s knowledge of
+the metallurgy of steel and its results by way of illustration.  A
+parallel story could be told of the metallurgy of copper and tin, and
+of a multitude of metals, nickel and aluminium to name but two, unknown
+before the nineteenth century dawned.  It is in this great and growing
+mastery over substances, over different sorts of glass, over rocks and
+plasters and the like, over colours and textures, that the main
+triumphs of the mechanical revolution have thus far been achieved.  Yet
+we are still in the stage of the first fruits in the matter.  We have
+the power, but we have still to learn how to use our power.  Many of
+the first employments of these gifts of science have been vulgar,
+tawdry, stupid or horrible.  The artist and the adaptor have still
+hardly begun to work with the endless variety of substances now at
+their disposal.
+
+Parallel with this extension of mechanical possibilities the new
+science of electricity grew up.  It was only in the eighties of the
+nineteenth century that this body of enquiry began to yield results to
+impress the vulgar mind.  Then suddenly came electric light and
+electric traction, and the transmutation of forces, the possibility of
+sending power, that could be changed into mechanical motion or light or
+heat as one chose, along a copper wire, as water is sent along a pipe,
+began to come through to the ideas of ordinary people....
+
+The British and French were at first the leading peoples in this great
+proliferation of knowledge; but presently the Germans, who had learnt
+humility under Napoleon, showed such zeal and pertinacity in scientific
+enquiry as to overhaul these leaders.  British science was largely the
+creation of Englishmen and Scotchmen working outside the ordinary
+centres of erudition.
+
+
+EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL
+EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL
+
+_In the Ipswich Museum_
+
+MODEL OF ARKWRIGHT’S SPINNING JENNY, 1769
+MODEL OF ARKWRIGHT’S SPINNING JENNY, 1769
+
+_From the specifications in the Patent Office_
+
+
+The universities of Britain were at this time in a state of educational
+retrogression, largely given over to a pedantic conning of the Latin
+and Greek classics.  French education, too, was dominated by the
+classical tradition of the Jesuit schools, and consequently it was not
+difficult for the Germans to organize a body of investigators, small
+indeed in relation to the possibilities of the case, but large in
+proportion to the little band of British and French inventors and
+experimentalists.  And though this work of research and experiment was
+making Britain and France the most rich and powerful countries in the
+world, it was not making scientific and inventive men rich and
+powerful.  There is a necessary unworldliness about a sincere
+scientific man; he is too preoccupied with his research to plan and
+scheme how to make money out of it.  The economic exploitation of his
+discoveries falls very easily and naturally, therefore, into the hands
+of a more acquisitive type; and so we find that the crops of rich men
+which every fresh phase of scientific and technical progress has
+produced in Great Britain, though they have not displayed quite the
+same passionate desire to insult and kill the goose that laid the
+national golden eggs as the scholastic and clerical professions, have
+been quite content to let that profitable creature starve.  Inventors
+and discoverers came by nature, they thought, for cleverer people to
+profit by.
+
+In this matter the Germans were a little wiser.  The German “learned”
+did not display the same vehement hatred of the new learning.  They
+permitted its development. The German business man and manufacturer
+again had not quite the same contempt for the man of science as had his
+British competitor.  Knowledge, these Germans believed, might be a
+cultivated crop, responsive to fertilizers.  They did concede,
+therefore, a certain amount of opportunity to the scientific mind;
+their public expenditure on scientific work was relatively greater, and
+this expenditure was abundantly rewarded.  By the latter half of the
+nineteenth century the German scientific worker had made German a
+necessary language for every science student who wished to keep abreast
+with the latest work in his department, and in certain branches, and
+particularly in chemistry, Germany acquired a very great superiority
+over her western neighbours.  The scientific effort of the sixties and
+seventies in Germany began to tell after the eighties, and the German
+gained steadily upon Britain and France in technical and industrial
+prosperity.
+
+A fresh phase in the history of invention opened when in the eighties a
+new type of engine came into use, an engine in which the expansive
+force of an explosive mixture replaced the expansive force of steam. 
+The light, highly efficient engines that were thus made possible were
+applied to the automobile, and developed at last to reach such a pitch
+of lightness and efficiency as to render flight—long known to be
+possible—a practical achievement.  A successful flying machine—but not
+a machine large enough to take up a human body—was made by Professor
+Langley of the Smithsonian Institute of Washington as early as 1897. 
+By 1909 the aeroplane was available for human locomotion.  There had
+seemed to be a pause in the increase of human speed with the perfection
+of railways and automobile road traction, but with the flying machine
+came fresh reductions in the effective distance between one point of
+the earth’s surface and another.  In the eighteenth century the
+distance from London to Edinburgh was an eight days’ journey; in 1918
+the British Civil Air Transport Commission reported that the journey
+from London to Melbourne, halfway round the earth, would probably in a
+few years’ time be accomplished in that same period of eight days.
+
+
+AN EARLY WEAVING MACHINE
+AN EARLY WEAVING MACHINE
+
+_From an engraving by W. Hincks in the British Museum_
+
+
+Too much stress must not be laid upon these striking reductions in the
+time distances of one place from another. They are merely one aspect of
+a much profounder and more momentous enlargement of human possibility. 
+The science of agriculture and agricultural chemistry, for instance,
+made quite parallel advances during the nineteenth century.  Men learnt
+so to fertilize the soil as to produce quadruple and quintuple the
+crops got from the same area in the seventeenth century.  There was a
+still more extraordinary advance in medical science; the average
+duration of life rose, the daily efficiency increased, the waste of
+life through ill-health diminished.
+
+Now here altogether we have such a change in human life as to
+constitute a fresh phase of history.  In a little more than a century
+this mechanical revolution has been brought about. In that time man
+made a stride in the material conditions of his life vaster than he had
+done during the whole long interval between the palæolithic stage and
+the age of cultivation, or between the days of Pepi in Egypt and those
+of George III.  A new gigantic material framework for human affairs has
+come into existence.  Clearly it demands great readjustments of our
+social, economical and political methods.  But these readjustments have
+necessarily waited upon the development of the mechanical revolution,
+and they are still only in their opening stage to-day.
+
+
+
+
+LVIII
+THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
+
+
+There is a tendency in many histories to confuse together what we have
+here called the mechanical revolution, which was an entirely new thing
+in human experience arising out of the development of organized
+science, a new step like the invention of agriculture or the discovery
+of metals, with something else, quite different in its origins,
+something for which there was already an historical precedent, the
+social and financial development which is called the _industrial
+revolution_. The two processes were going on together, they were
+constantly reacting upon each other, but they were in root and essence
+different. There would have been an industrial revolution of sorts if
+there had been no coal, no steam, no machinery; but in that case it
+would probably have followed far more closely upon the lines of the
+social and financial developments of the later years of the Roman
+Republic. It would have repeated the story of dispossessed free
+cultivators, gang labour, great estates, great financial fortunes, and
+a socially destructive financial process. Even the factory method came
+before power and machinery. Factories were the product not of
+machinery, but of the “division of labour.” Drilled and sweated workers
+were making such things as millinery cardboard boxes and furniture, and
+colouring maps and book illustrations and so forth, before even
+water-wheels had been used for industrial purposes. There were
+factories in Rome in the days of Augustus. New books, for instance,
+were dictated to rows of copyists in the factories of the book-sellers.
+The attentive student of Defoe and of the political pamphlets of
+Fielding will realize that the idea of herding poor people into
+establishments to work collectively for their living was already
+current in Britain before the close of the seventeenth century. There
+are intimations of it even as early as More’s _Utopia_ (1516). It was a
+social and not a mechanical development.
+
+Up to past the middle of the eighteenth century the social and economic
+history of western Europe was in fact retreading the path along which
+the Roman state had gone in the last three centuries B.C.  But the
+political disunions of Europe, the political convulsions against
+monarchy, the recalcitrance of the common folk and perhaps also the
+greater accessibility of the western European intelligence to
+mechanical ideas and inventions, turned the process into quite novel
+directions.  Ideas of human solidarity, thanks to Christianity, were
+far more widely diffused in the newer European world, political power
+was not so concentrated, and the man of energy anxious to get rich
+turned his mind, therefore, very willingly from the ideas of the slave
+and of gang labour to the idea of mechanical power and the machine.
+
+The mechanical revolution, the process of mechanical invention and
+discovery, was a new thing in human experience and it went on
+regardless of the social, political, economic and industrial
+consequences it might produce.  The industrial revolution, on the other
+hand, like most other human affairs, was and is more and more
+profoundly changed and deflected by the constant variation in human
+conditions caused by the mechanical revolution.  And the essential
+difference between the amassing of riches, the extinction of small
+farmers and small business men, and the phase of big finance in the
+latter centuries of the Roman Republic on the one hand, and the very
+similar concentration of capital in the eighteenth and nineteenth
+centuries on the other, lies in the profound difference in the
+character of labour that the mechanical revolution was bringing about. 
+The power of the old world was human power; everything depended
+ultimately upon the driving power of human muscle, the muscle of
+ignorant and subjugated men.  A little animal muscle, supplied by draft
+oxen, horse traction and the like, contributed.  Where a weight had to
+be lifted, men lifted it; where a rock had to be quarried, men chipped
+it out; where a field had to be ploughed, men and oxen ploughed it; the
+Roman equivalent of the steamship was the galley with its bank of
+sweating rowers.  A vast proportion of mankind in the early
+civilizations were employed in purely mechanical drudgery. At its
+onset, power-driven machinery did not seem to promise any release from
+such unintelligent toil.  Great gangs of men were employed in
+excavating canals, in making railway cuttings and embankments, and the
+like.  The number of miners increased enormously.  But the extension of
+facilities and the output of commodities increased much more.  And as
+the nineteenth century went on, the plain logic of the new situation
+asserted itself more clearly.  Human beings were no longer wanted as a
+source of mere indiscriminated power.  What could be done mechanically
+by a human being could be done faster and better by a machine.  The
+human being was needed now only where choice and intelligence had to be
+exercised.  Human beings were wanted only as human beings.  The drudge,
+on whom all the previous civilizations had rested, the creature of mere
+obedience, the man whose brains were superfluous, had become
+unnecessary to the welfare of mankind.
+
+
+INCIDENT IN THE DAYS OF THE SLAVE TRADE
+INCIDENT IN THE DAYS OF THE SLAVE TRADE
+
+_From a print after Morland in the British Museum_
+
+
+This was as true of such ancient industries as agriculture and mining
+as it was of the newest metallurgical processes. For ploughing, sowing
+and harvesting, swift machines came forward to do the work of scores of
+men.  The Roman civilization was built upon cheap and degraded human
+beings; modern civilization is being rebuilt upon cheap mechanical
+power.  For a hundred years power has been getting cheaper and labour
+dearer.  If for a generation or so machinery has had to wait its turn
+in the mine, it is simply because for a time men were cheaper than
+machinery.
+
+
+EARLY FACTORY, IN COLEBROOKDALE
+EARLY FACTORY, IN COLEBROOKDALE
+
+_From a print the British Museum_
+
+
+Now here was a change-over of quite primary importance in human
+affairs.  The chief solicitude of the rich and of the ruler in the old
+civilization had been to keep up a supply of drudges.  As the
+nineteenth century went on, it became more and more plain to the
+intelligent directive people that the common man had now to be
+something better than a drudge.  He had to be educated—if only to
+secure “industrial efficiency.”  He had to understand what he was
+about. From the days of the first Christian propaganda, popular
+education had been smouldering in Europe, just as it had smouldered in
+Asia wherever Islam has set its foot, because of the necessity of
+making the believer understand a little of the belief by which he is
+saved, and of enabling him to read a little in the sacred books by
+which his belief is conveyed. Christian controversies, with their
+competition for adherents, ploughed the ground for the harvest of
+popular education.  In England, for instance, by the thirties and
+forties of the nineteenth century, the disputes of the sects and the
+necessity of catching adherents young had produced a series of
+competing educational organizations for children, the church “National”
+schools, the dissenting “British” schools, and even Roman Catholic
+elementary schools.  The second half of the nineteenth century was a
+period of rapid advance in popular education throughout all the
+Westernized world.  There was no parallel advance in the education of
+the upper classes—some advance, no doubt, but nothing to correspond—and
+so the great gulf that had divided that world hitherto into the readers
+and the non-reading mass became little more than a slightly perceptible
+difference in educational level.  At the back of this process was the
+mechanical revolution, apparently regardless of social conditions, but
+really insisting inexorably upon the complete abolition of a totally
+illiterate class throughout the world.
+
+The economic revolution of the Roman Republic had never been clearly
+apprehended by the common people of Rome.  The ordinary Roman citizen
+never saw the changes through which he lived, clearly and
+comprehensively as we see them.  But the industrial revolution, as it
+went on towards the end of the nineteenth century, was more and more
+distinctly _seen_ as one whole process by the common people it was
+affecting, because presently they could read and discuss and
+communicate, and because they went about and saw things as no
+commonalty had ever done before.
+
+
+
+
+LIX
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS
+
+
+The institutions and customs and political ideas of the ancient
+civilizations grew up slowly, age by age, no man designing and no man
+foreseeing. It was only in that great century of human adolescence, the
+sixth century B.C., that men began to think clearly about their
+relations to one another, and first to question and first propose to
+alter and rearrange the established beliefs and laws and methods of
+human government.
+
+We have told of the glorious intellectual dawn of Greece and
+Alexandria, and how presently the collapse of the slave- holding
+civilizations and the clouds of religious intolerance and absolutist
+government darkened the promise of that beginning.  The light of
+fearless thinking did not break through the European obscurity again
+effectually until the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.  We have tried
+to show something of the share of the great winds of Arab curiosity and
+Mongol conquest in this gradual clearing of the mental skies of Europe.
+ And at first it was chiefly material knowledge that increased.  The
+first fruits of the recovered manhood of the race were material
+achievements and material power.  The science of human relationship, of
+individual and social psychology, of education and of economics, are
+not only more subtle and intricate in themselves but also bound up
+inextricably with much emotional matter.  The advances made in them
+have been slower and made against greater opposition.  Men will listen
+dispassionately to the most diverse suggestions about stars or
+molecules, but ideas about our ways of life touch and reflect upon
+everyone about us.
+
+And just as in Greece the bold speculations of Plato came before
+Aristotle’s hard search for fact, so in Europe the first political
+enquiries of the new phase were put in the form of “Utopian” stories,
+directly imitated from Plato’s _Republic_ and his _Laws_.  Sir Thomas
+More’s _Utopia_ is a curious imitation of Plato that bore fruit in a
+new English poor law.  The Neapolitan Campanella’s _City of the Sun_
+was more fantastic and less fruitful.
+
+By the end of the seventeenth century we find a considerable and
+growing literature of political and social science was being produced. 
+Among the pioneers in this discussion was John Locke, the son of an
+English republican, an Oxford scholar who first directed his attention
+to chemistry and medicine.  His treatises on government, toleration and
+education show a mind fully awake to the possibilities of social
+reconstruction.  Parallel with and a little later than John Locke in
+England, Montesquieu (1689-1755) in France subjected social, political
+and religious institutions to a searching and fundamental analysis.  He
+stripped the magical prestige from the absolutist monarchy in France. 
+He shares with Locke the credit for clearing away many of the false
+ideas that had hitherto prevented deliberate and conscious attempts to
+reconstruct human society.
+
+The generation that followed him in the middle and later decades of the
+eighteenth century was boldly speculative upon the moral and
+intellectual clearings he had made.  A group of brilliant writers, the
+“Encyclopædists,” mostly rebel spirits from the excellent schools of
+the Jesuits, set themselves to scheme out a new world (1766). Side by
+side with the Encyclopædists were the Economists or Physiocrats, who
+were making bold and crude enquiries into the production and
+distribution of food and goods.  Morelly, the author of the _Code de La
+Nature_, denounced the institution of private property and proposed a
+communistic organization of society.  He was the precursor of that
+large and various school of collectivist thinkers in the nineteenth
+century who are lumped together as Socialists.
+
+What is Socialism?  There are a hundred definitions of Socialism and a
+thousand sects of Socialists.  Essentially Socialism is no more and no
+less than a criticism of the idea of property in the light of the
+public good.  We may review the history of that idea through the ages
+very briefly.  That and the idea of internationalism are the two
+cardinal ideas upon which most of our political life is turning.
+
+
+CARL MARX
+CARL MARX
+
+_Photo:  Linde & Co._
+
+
+The idea of property arises out of the combative instincts of the
+species.  Long before men were men, the ancestral ape was a proprietor.
+ Primitive property is what a beast will fight for.  The dog and his
+bone, the tigress and her lair, the roaring stag and his herd, these
+are proprietorship blazing. No more nonsensical expression is
+conceivable in sociology than the term “primitive communism.”  The Old
+Man of the family tribe of early palæolithic times insisted upon his
+proprietorship in his wives and daughters, in his tools, in his visible
+universe.  If any other man wandered into his visible universe he
+fought him, and if he could he slew him. The tribe grew in the course
+of ages, as Atkinson showed convincingly in his _Primal Law_, by the
+gradual toleration by the Old Man of the existence of the younger men,
+and of their proprietorship in the wives they captured from outside the
+tribe, and in the tools and ornaments they made and the game they slew.
+ Human society grew by a compromise between this one’s property and
+that.  It was a compromise with instinct which was forced upon men by
+the necessity of driving some other tribe out of its visible universe. 
+If the hills and forests and streams were not _your_ land or _my_ land,
+it was because they had to be our land.  Each of us would have
+preferred to have it _my_ land, but that would not work.  In that case
+the other fellows would have destroyed us.  Society, therefore, is from
+its beginning a _mitigation of ownership_. Ownership in the beast and
+in the primitive savage was far more intense a thing than it is in the
+civilized world to- day.  It is rooted more strongly in our instincts
+than in our reason.
+
+In the natural savage and in the untutored man to-day there is no
+limitation to the sphere of ownership.  Whatever you can fight for, you
+can own; women-folk, spared captive, captured beast, forest glade,
+stone-pit or what not.  As the community grew, a sort of law came to
+restrain internecine fighting, men developed rough-and-ready methods of
+settling proprietorship.  Men could own what they were the first to
+make or capture or claim.  It seemed natural that a debtor who could
+not pay should become the property of his creditor. Equally natural was
+it that after claiming a patch of land a man should exact payments from
+anyone who wanted to use it. It was only slowly, as the possibilities
+of organized life dawned on men, that this unlimited property in
+anything whatever began to be recognized as a nuisance.  Men found
+themselves born into a universe all owned and claimed, nay! they found
+themselves born owned and claimed.  The social struggles of the earlier
+civilization are difficult to trace now, but the history we have told
+of the Roman Republic shows a community waking up to the idea that
+debts may become a public inconvenience and should then be repudiated,
+and that the unlimited ownership of land is also an inconvenience.  We
+find that later Babylonia severely limited the rights of property in
+slaves.  Finally, we find in the teaching of that great revolutionist,
+Jesus of Nazareth, such an attack upon property as had never been
+before.  Easier it was, he said, for a camel to go through the eye of a
+needle than for the owner of great possessions to enter the kingdom of
+heaven.  A steady, continuous criticism of the permissible scope of
+property seems to have been going on in the world for the last
+twenty-five or thirty centuries.  Nineteen hundred years after Jesus of
+Nazareth we find all the world that has come under the Christian
+teaching persuaded that there could be no property in human beings. 
+And also the idea that a man may “do what he likes with his own” was
+very much shaken in relation to other sorts of property.
+
+But this world of the closing eighteenth century was still only in the
+interrogative stage in this matter.  It had got nothing clear enough,
+much less settled enough, to act upon. One of its primary impulses was
+to protect property against the greed and waste of kings and the
+exploitation of noble adventurers.  It was largely to protect private
+property from taxation that the French Revolution began.  But the
+equalitarian formulæ of the Revolution carried it into a criticism of
+the very property it had risen to protect.  How can men be free and
+equal when numbers of them have no ground to stand upon and nothing to
+eat, and the owners will neither feed nor lodge them unless they toil? 
+Excessively—the poor complained.
+
+To which riddle the reply of one important political group was to set
+about “dividing up.”  They wanted to intensify and universalize
+property.  Aiming at the same end by another route, there were the
+primitive socialists—or, to be more exact, communists—who wanted to
+“abolish” private property altogether. The state (a democratic state
+was of course understood) was to own all property.
+
+It is paradoxical that different men seeking the same ends of liberty
+and happiness should propose on the one hand to make property as
+absolute as possible, and on the other to put an end to it altogether. 
+But so it was.  And the clue to this paradox is to be found in the fact
+that ownership is not one thing but a multitude of different things.
+
+It was only as the nineteenth century developed that men began to
+realize that property was not one simple thing, but a great complex of
+ownerships of different values and consequences, that many things (such
+as one’s body, the implements of an artist, clothing, toothbrushes) are
+very profoundly and incurably one’s personal property, and that there
+is a very great range of things, railways, machinery of various sorts,
+homes, cultivated gardens, pleasure boats, for example, which need each
+to be considered very particularly to determine how far and under what
+limitations it may come under private ownership, and how far it falls
+into the public domain and may be administered and let out by the state
+in the collective interest.  On the practical side these questions pass
+into politics, and the problem of making and sustaining efficient state
+administration.  They open up issues in social psychology, and interact
+with the enquiries of educational science.  The criticism of property
+is still a vast and passionate ferment rather than a science.  On the
+one hand are the Individualists, who would protect and enlarge our
+present freedoms with what we possess, and on the other the Socialists
+who would in many directions pool our ownerships and restrain our
+proprietory acts.  In practice one will find every gradation between
+the extreme individualist, who will scarcely tolerate a tax of any sort
+to support a government, and the communist who would deny any
+possessions at all.  The ordinary socialist of to-day is what is called
+a collectivist; he would allow a considerable amount of private
+property but put such affairs as education, transport, mines,
+land-owning, most mass productions of staple articles, and the like,
+into the hands of a highly organized state.  Nowadays there does seem
+to be a gradual convergence of reasonable men towards a moderate
+socialism scientifically studied and planned.  It is realized more and
+more clearly that the untutored man does not co-operate easily and
+successfully in large undertakings, and that every step towards a more
+complex state and every function that the state takes over from private
+enterprise, necessitates a corresponding educational advance and the
+organization of a proper criticism and control.  Both the press and the
+political methods of the contemporary state are far too crude for any
+large extension of collective activities.
+
+But for a time the stresses between employer and employed and
+particularly between selfish employers and reluctant workers, led to a
+world-wide dissemination of the very harsh and elementary form of
+communism which is associated with the name of Marx.  Marx based his
+theories on a belief that men’s minds are limited by their economic
+necessities, and that there is a necessary conflict of interests in our
+present civilization between the prosperous and employing classes of
+people and the employed mass.  With the advance in education
+necessitated by the mechanical revolution, this great employed majority
+will become more and more class-conscious and more and more solid in
+antagonism to the (class- conscious) ruling minority.  In some way the
+class-conscious workers would seize power, he prophesied, and
+inaugurate a new social state.  The antagonism, the insurrection, the
+possible revolution are understandable enough, but it does not follow
+that a new social state or anything but a socially destructive process
+will ensue.  Put to the test in Russia, Marxism, as we shall note
+later, has proved singularly uncreative.
+
+
+SCIENCE IN THE COAL MINE
+SCIENCE IN THE COAL MINE
+
+Portable Electric Loading Conveyor
+_Photo:  Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, Columbus, Ohio_
+
+
+Marx sought to replace national antagonism by class antagonisms;
+Marxism has produced in succession a First, a Second and a Third
+Workers’ International.  But from the starting point of modern
+individualistic thought it is also possible to reach international
+ideas.  From the days of that great English economist, Adam Smith,
+onward there has been an increasing realization that for world-wide
+prosperity free and unencumbered trade about the earth is needed.  The
+individualist with his hostility to the state is hostile also to
+tariffs and boundaries and all the restraints upon free act and
+movement that national boundaries seem to justify. It is interesting to
+see two lines of thought, so diverse in spirit, so different in
+substance as this class-war socialism of the Marxists and the
+individualistic free-trading philosophy of the British business men of
+the Victorian age heading at last, in spite of these primary
+differences, towards the same intimations of a new world-wide treatment
+of human affairs outside the boundaries and limitations of any existing
+state.  The logic of reality triumphs over the logic of theory.  We
+begin to perceive that from widely divergent starting points
+individualist theory and socialist theory are part of a common search,
+a search for more spacious social and political ideas and
+interpretations, upon which men may contrive to work together, a search
+that began again in Europe and has intensified as men’s confidence in
+the ideas of the Holy Roman Empire and in Christendom decayed, and as
+the age of discovery broadened their horizons from the world of the
+Mediterranean to the whole wide world.
+
+To bring this description of the elaboration and development of social,
+economic and political ideas right down to the discussions of the
+present day, would be to introduce issues altogether too controversial
+for the scope and intentions of this book.  But regarding these things,
+as we do here, from the vast perspectives of the student of world
+history, we are bound to recognize that this reconstruction of these
+directive ideas in the human mind is still an unfinished task—we cannot
+even estimate yet how unfinished the task may be.  Certain common
+beliefs do seem to be emerging, and their influence is very perceptible
+upon the political events and public acts of to-day; but at present
+they are not clear enough nor convincing enough to compel men
+definitely and systematically towards their realization.  Men’s acts
+waver between tradition and the new, and on the whole they rather
+gravitate towards the traditional.  Yet, compared with the thought of
+even a brief lifetime ago, there does seem to be an outline shaping
+itself of a new order in human affairs.  It is a sketchy outline,
+vanishing into vagueness at this point and that, and fluctuating in
+detail and formulæ, yet it grows steadfastly clearer, and its main
+lines change less and less.
+
+
+CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL OF THE FORTH BRIDGE
+CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL OF THE FORTH BRIDGE
+
+_Photo:  Baker & Hurtzig_
+
+
+It is becoming plainer and plainer each year that in many respects and
+in an increasing range of affairs, mankind is becoming one community,
+and that it is more and more necessary that in such matters there
+should be a common world-wide control.  For example, it is steadily
+truer that the whole planet is now one economic community, that the
+proper exploitation of its natural resources demands one comprehensive
+direction, and that the greater power and range that discovery has
+given human effort makes the present fragmentary and contentious
+administration of such affairs more and more wasteful and dangerous. 
+Financial and monetary expedients also become world-wide interests to
+be dealt with successfully only on world-wide lines.  Infectious
+diseases and the increase and migrations of population are also now
+plainly seen to be world-wide concerns.  The greater power and range of
+human activities has also made war disproportionately destructive and
+disorganizing, and, even as a clumsy way of settling issues between
+government and government and people and people, ineffective.  All
+these things clamour for controls and authorities of a greater range
+and greater comprehensiveness than any government that has hitherto
+existed.
+
+But it does not follow that the solution of these problems lies in some
+super-government of all the world arising by conquest or by the
+coalescence of existing governments.  By analogy with existing
+institutions men have thought of the Parliament of Mankind, of a World
+Congress, of a President or Emperor of the Earth.  Our first natural
+reaction is towards some such conclusion, but the discussion and
+experiences of half a century of suggestions and attempts has on the
+whole discouraged belief in that first obvious idea.  Along that line
+to world unity the resistances are too great.  The drift of thought
+seems now to be in the direction of a number of special committees or
+organizations, with world-wide power delegated to them by existing
+governments in this group of matters or that, bodies concerned with the
+waste or development of natural wealth, with the equalization of labour
+conditions, with world peace, with currency, population and health, and
+so forth.
+
+The world may discover that all its common interests are being managed
+as one concern, while it still fails to realize that a world government
+exists.  But before even so much human unity is attained, before such
+international arrangements can be put above patriotic suspicions and
+jealousies, it is necessary that the common mind of the race should be
+possessed of that idea of human unity, and that the idea of mankind as
+one family should be a matter of universal instruction and
+understanding.
+
+For a score of centuries or more the spirit of the great universal
+religions has been struggling to maintain and extend that idea of a
+universal human brotherhood, but to this day the spites, angers and
+distrusts of tribal, national and racial friction obstruct, and
+successfully obstruct, the broader views and more generous impulses
+which would make every man the servant of all mankind.  The idea of
+human brotherhood struggles now to possess the human soul, just as the
+idea of Christendom struggled to possess the soul of Europe in the
+confusion and disorder of the sixth and seventh centuries of the
+Christian era.  The dissemination and triumph of such ideas must be the
+work of a multitude of devoted and undistinguished missionaries, and no
+contemporary writer can presume to guess how far such work has gone or
+what harvest it may be preparing.
+
+Social and economic questions seem to be inseparably mingled with
+international ones.  The solution in each case lies in an appeal to
+that same spirit of service which can enter and inspire the human
+heart.  The distrust, intractability and egotism of nations reflects
+and is reflected by the distrust, intractability and egotism of the
+individual owner and worker in the face of the common good. 
+Exaggerations of possessiveness in the individual are parallel and of a
+piece with the clutching greed of nations and emperors.  They are
+products of the same instinctive tendencies, and the same ignorances
+and traditions.  Internationalism is the socialism of nations.  No one
+who has wrestled with these problems can feel that there yet exists a
+sufficient depth and strength of psychological science and a
+sufficiently planned-out educational method and organization for any
+real and final solution of these riddles of human intercourse and
+cooperation.  We are as incapable of planning a really effective peace
+organization of the world to-day as were men in 1820 to plan an
+electric railway system, but for all we know the thing is equally
+practicable and may be as nearly at hand.
+
+No man can go beyond his own knowledge, no thought can reach beyond
+contemporary thought, and it is impossible for us to guess or foretell
+how many generations of humanity may have to live in war and waste and
+insecurity and misery before the dawn of the great peace to which all
+history seems to be pointing, peace in the heart and peace in the
+world, ends our night of wasteful and aimless living.  Our proposed
+solutions are still vague and crude.  Passion and suspicion surround
+them.  A great task of intellectual reconstruction is going on, it is
+still incomplete, and our conceptions grow clearer and more
+exact—slowly, rapidly, it is hard to tell which.  But as they grow
+clearer they will gather power over the minds and imaginations of men. 
+Their present lack of grip is due to their lack of assurance and exact
+rightness. They are misunderstood because they are variously and
+confusingly presented.  But with precision and certainty the new vision
+of the world will gain compelling power.  It may presently gain power
+very rapidly.  And a great work of educational reconstruction will
+follow logically and necessarily upon that clearer understanding.
+
+
+
+
+LX
+THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+The region of the world that displayed the most immediate and striking
+results from the new inventions in transport was North America.
+Politically the United States embodied, and its constitution
+crystallized, the liberal ideas of the middle eighteenth century. It
+dispensed with state-church or crown, it would have no titles, it
+protected property very jealously as a method of freedom, and—the exact
+practice varied at first in the different states—it gave nearly every
+adult male citizen a vote. Its method of voting was barbarically crude,
+and as a consequence its political life fell very soon under the
+control of highly organized party machines, but that did not prevent
+the newly emancipated population developing an energy, enterprise and
+public spirit far beyond that of any other contemporary population.
+
+Then came that acceleration of locomotion to which we have already
+called attention.  It is a curious thing that America, which owes most
+to this acceleration in locomotion, has felt it least.  The United
+States have taken the railway, the river steamboat, the telegraph and
+so forth as though they were a natural part of their growth.  They were
+not. These things happened to come along just in time to save American
+unity.  The United States of to-day were made first by the river
+steamboat, and then by the railway.  Without these things, the present
+United States, this vast continental nation, would have been altogether
+impossible. The westward flow of population would have been far more
+sluggish.  It might never have crossed the great central plains.  It
+took nearly two hundred years for effective settlement to reach from
+the coast to Missouri, much less than halfway across the continent. 
+The first state established beyond the river was the steamboat state of
+Missouri in 1821.  But the rest of the distance to the Pacific was done
+in a few decades.
+
+If we had the resources of the cinema it would be interesting to show a
+map of North America year by year from 1600 onward, with little dots to
+represent hundreds of people, each dot a hundred, and stars to
+represent cities of a hundred thousand people.
+
+For two hundred years the reader would see that stippling creeping
+slowly along the coastal districts and navigable waters, spreading
+still more gradually into Indiana, Kentucky and so forth.  Then
+somewhere about 1810 would come a change. Things would get more lively
+along the river courses.  The dots would be multiplying and spreading. 
+That would be the steamboat.  The pioneer dots would be spreading soon
+over Kansas and Nebraska from a number of jumping-off places along the
+great rivers.
+
+Then from about 1850 onward would come the black lines of the railways,
+and after that the little black dots would not simply creep but run. 
+They would appear now so rapidly, it would be almost as though they
+were being put on by some sort of spraying machine.  And suddenly here
+and then there would appear the first stars to indicate the first great
+cities of a hundred thousand people.  First one or two and then a
+multitude of cities—each like a knot in the growing net of the
+railways.
+
+The growth of the United States is a process that has no precedent in
+the world’s history; it is a new kind of occurrence.  Such a community
+could not have come into existence before, and if it had, without
+railways it would certainly have dropped to pieces long before now. 
+Without railways or telegraph it would be far easier to administer
+California from Pekin than from Washington.  But this great population
+of the United States of America has not only grown outrageously; it has
+kept uniform.  Nay, it has become more uniform.  The man of San
+Francisco is more like the man of New York to-day than the man of
+Virginia was like the man of New England a century ago.  And the
+process of assimilation goes on unimpeded.  The United States is being
+woven by railway, by telegraph, more and more into one vast unity,
+speaking, thinking and acting harmoniously with itself.  Soon aviation
+will be helping in the work.
+
+This great community of the United States is an altogether new thing in
+history.  There have been great empires before with populations
+exceeding 100 millions, but these were associations of divergent
+peoples; there has never been one single people on this scale before. 
+We want a new term for this new thing.  We call the United States a
+country just as we call France or Holland a country.  But the two
+things are as different as an automobile and a one-horse shay.  They
+are the creations of different periods and different conditions; they
+are going to work at a different pace and in an entirely different way.
+ The United States in scale and possibility is halfway between a
+European state and a United States of all the world.
+
+But on the way to this present greatness and security the American
+people passed through one phase of dire conflict. The river steamboats,
+the railways, the telegraph, and their associate facilities, did not
+come soon enough to avert a deepening conflict of interests and ideas
+between the southern and northern states of the Union.  The former were
+slave-holding states; the latter, states in which all men were free. 
+The railways and steamboats at first did but bring into sharper
+conflict an already established difference between the two sections of
+the United States.  The increasing unification due to the new means of
+transport made the question whether the southern spirit or the northern
+should prevail an ever more urgent one.  There was little possibility
+of compromise.  The northern spirit was free and individualistic; the
+southern made for great estates and a conscious gentility ruling over a
+dusky subject multitude.
+
+Every new territory that was organized into a state as the tide of
+population swept westward, every new incorporation into the fast
+growing American system, became a field of conflict between the two
+ideas, whether it should become a state of free citizens, or whether
+the estate and slavery system should prevail.  From 1833 an American
+anti-slavery society was not merely resisting the extension of the
+institution but agitating the whole country for its complete abolition.
+ The issue flamed up into open conflict over the admission of Texas to
+the Union.  Texas had originally been a part of the republic of Mexico,
+but it was largely colonized by Americans from the slave-holding
+states, and it seceded from Mexico, established its independence in
+1835, and was annexed to the United States in 1844.  Under the Mexican
+law slavery had been forbidden in Texas, but now the South claimed
+Texas for slavery and got it.
+
+Meanwhile the development of ocean navigation was bringing a growing
+swarm of immigrants from Europe to swell the spreading population of
+the northern states, and the raising of Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota and
+Oregon, all northern farm lands, to state level, gave the anti-slavery
+North the possibility of predominance both in the Senate and the House
+of Representatives.  The cotton- growing South, irritated by the
+growing threat of the Abolitionist movement, and fearing this
+predominance in Congress, began to talk of secession from the Union.
+Southerners began to dream of annexations to the south of them in
+Mexico and the West Indies, and of great slave state, detached from the
+North and reaching to Panama.
+
+The return of Abraham Lincoln as an anti-extension President in 1860
+decided the South to split the Union.  South Carolina passed an
+“ordinance of secession” and prepared for war.  Mississippi, Florida,
+Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas joined her, and a convention met
+at Montgomery in Alabama, elected Jefferson Davis president of the
+“Confederated States” of America, and adopted a constitution
+specifically upholding “the institution of negro slavery.”
+
+
+ONE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN RIVER STEAMERS
+ONE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN RIVER STEAMERS
+
+
+Abraham Lincoln was, it chanced, a man entirely typical of the new
+people that had grown up after the War of Independence.  His early
+years had been spent as a drifting particle in the general westward
+flow of the population.  He was born in Kentucky (1809), was taken to
+Indiana as a boy and later on to Illinois.  Life was rough in the
+backwoods of Indiana in those days; the house was a mere log cabin in
+the wilderness, and his schooling was poor and casual.  But his mother
+taught him to read early, and he became a voracious reader.  At
+seventeen he was a big athletic youth, a great wrestler and runner.  He
+worked for a time as clerk in a store, went into business as a
+storekeeper with a drunken partner, and contracted debts that he did
+not fully pay off for fifteen years.  In 1834, when he was still only
+five and twenty, he was elected member of the House of Representatives
+for the State of Illinois.  In Illinois particularly the question of
+slavery flamed because the great leader of the party for the extension
+of slavery in the national Congress was Senator Douglas of Illinois. 
+Douglas was a man of great ability and prestige, and for some years
+Lincoln fought against him by speech and pamphlet, rising steadily to
+the position of his most formidable and finally victorious antagonist. 
+Their culminating struggle was the presidential campaign of 1860, and
+on the fourth of March, 1861, Lincoln was inaugurated President, with
+the southern states already in active secession from the rule of the
+federal government at Washington, and committing acts of war.
+
+This civil war in America was fought by improvised armies that grew
+steadily from a few score thousands to hundreds of thousands—until at
+last the Federal forces exceeded a million men; it was fought over a
+vast area between New Mexico and the eastern sea, Washington and
+Richmond were the chief objectives.  It is beyond our scope here to
+tell of the mounting energy of that epic struggle that rolled to and
+fro across the hills and woods of Tennessee and Virginia and down the
+Mississippi.  There was a terrible waste and killing of men.  Thrust
+was followed by counter thrust; hope gave way to despondency, and
+returned and was again disappointed. Sometimes Washington seemed within
+the Confederate grasp; again the Federal armies were driving towards
+Richmond.  The Confederates, outnumbered and far poorer in resources,
+fought under a general of supreme ability, General Lee.  The
+generalship of the Union was far inferior.  Generals were dismissed,
+new generals appointed; until at last, under Sherman and Grant, came
+victory over the ragged and depleted South.  In October, 1864, a
+Federal army under Sherman broke through the Confederate left and
+marched down from Tennessee through Georgia to the coast, right across
+the Confederate country, and then turned up through the Carolinas,
+coming in upon the rear of the Confederate armies.  Meanwhile Grant
+held Lee before Richmond until Sherman closed on him.  On April 9th,
+1865, Lee and his army surrendered at Appomattox Court House, and
+within a month all the remaining secessionist armies had laid down
+their arms and the Confederacy was at an end.
+
+
+ABRAHAM LINCOLN
+ABRAHAM LINCOLN
+
+
+This four years’ struggle had meant an enormous physical and moral
+strain for the people of the United States.  The principle of state
+autonomy was very dear to many minds, and the North seemed in effect to
+be forcing abolition upon the South.  In the border states brothers and
+cousins, even fathers and sons, would take opposite sides and find
+themselves in antagonistic armies.  The North felt its cause a
+righteous one, but for great numbers of people it was not a full-bodied
+and unchallenged righteousness.  But for Lincoln there was no doubt. 
+He was a clear-minded man in the midst of much confusion.  He stood for
+union; he stood for the wide peace of America.  He was opposed to
+slavery, but slavery he held to be a secondary issue; his primary
+purpose was that the United States should not be torn into two
+contrasted and jarring fragments.
+
+When in the opening stages of the war Congress and the Federal generals
+embarked upon a precipitate emancipation, Lincoln opposed and mitigated
+their enthusiasm.  He was for emancipation by stages and with
+compensation.  It was only in January, 1865, that the situation had
+ripened to a point when Congress could propose to abolish slavery for
+ever by a constitutional amendment, and the war was already over before
+this amendment was ratified by the states.
+
+As the war dragged on through 1862 and 1863, the first passions and
+enthusiasms waned, and America learnt all the phases of war weariness
+and war disgust.  The President found himself with defeatists,
+traitors, dismissed generals, tortuous party politicians, and a
+doubting and fatigued people behind him and uninspired generals and
+depressed troops before him; his chief consolation must have been that
+Jefferson Davis at Richmond could be in little better case. The English
+government misbehaved, and permitted the Confederate agents in England
+to launch and man three swift privateer ships—the _Alabama_ is the best
+remembered of them—which chased United States shipping from the seas. 
+The French army in Mexico was trampling the Monroe Doctrine in the
+dirt.  Came subtle proposals from Richmond to drop the war, leave the
+issues of the war for subsequent discussion, and turn, Federal and
+Confederate in alliance, upon the French in Mexico.  But Lincoln would
+not listen to such proposals unless the supremacy of the Union was
+maintained.  The Americans might do such things as one people but not
+as two.
+
+He held the United States together through long weary months of
+reverses and ineffective effort, through black phases of division and
+failing courage; and there is no record that he ever faltered from his
+purpose.  There were times when there was nothing to be done, when he
+sat in the White House silent and motionless, a grim monument of
+resolve; times when he relaxed his mind by jesting and broad anecdotes.
+
+He saw the Union triumphant.  He entered Richmond the day after its
+surrender, and heard of Lee’s capitulation. He returned to Washington,
+and on April 11th made his last public address.  His theme was
+reconciliation and the reconstruction of loyal government in the
+defeated states. On the evening of April 14th he went to Ford’s theatre
+in Washington, and as he sat looking at the stage, he was shot in the
+back of the head and killed by an actor named Booth who had some sort
+of grievance against him, and who had crept into the box unobserved. 
+But Lincoln’s work was done; the Union was saved.
+
+At the beginning of the war there was no railway to the Pacific coast;
+after it the railways spread like a swiftly growing plant until now
+they have clutched and held and woven all the vast territory of the
+United States into one indissoluble mental and material unity—the
+greatest real community—until the common folk of China have learnt to
+read—in the world.
+
+
+
+
+LXI
+THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE
+
+
+WE have told how after the convulsion of the French Revolution and the
+Napoleonic adventure, Europe settled down again for a time to an
+insecure peace and a sort of modernized revival of the political
+conditions of fifty years before.  Until the middle of the century the
+new facilities in the handling of steel and the railway and steamship
+produced no marked political consequences.  But the social tension due
+to the development of urban industrialism grew. France remained a
+conspicuously uneasy country.  The revolution of 1830 was followed by
+another in 1848.  Then Napoleon III, a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte,
+became first President, and then (in 1852) Emperor.
+
+He set about rebuilding Paris, and changed it from a picturesque
+seventeenth century insanitary city into the spacious Latinized city of
+marble it is to-day.  He set about rebuilding France, and made it into
+a brilliant-looking modernized imperialism.  He displayed a disposition
+to revive that competitiveness of the Great Powers which had kept
+Europe busy with futile wars during the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries.  The Tsar Nicholas I of Russia (1825- 1856) was also
+becoming aggressive and pressing southward upon the Turkish Empire with
+his eyes on Constantinople.
+
+After the turn of the century Europe broke out into a fresh cycle of
+wars.  They were chiefly “balance-of- power” and ascendancy wars. 
+England, France and Sardinia assailed Russia in the Crimean war in
+defence of Turkey; Prussia (with Italy as an ally) and Austria fought
+for the leadership of Germany, France liberated North Italy from
+Austria at the price of Savoy, and Italy gradually unified itself into
+one kingdom.  Then Napoleon III was so ill advised as to attempt
+adventures in Mexico, during the American Civil War; he set up an
+Emperor Maximilian there and abandoned him hastily to his fate—he was
+shot by the Mexicans—when the victorious Federal Government showed its
+teeth.
+
+
+Map of Europe, 1848-1871
+
+In 1870 came a long-pending struggle for predominance in Europe between
+France and Prussia.  Prussia had long foreseen and prepared for this
+struggle, and France was rotten with financial corruption.  Her defeat
+was swift and dramatic. The Germans invaded France in August, one great
+French army under the Emperor capitulated at Sedan in September,
+another surrendered in October at Metz, and in January 1871, Paris,
+after a siege and bombardment, fell into German hands.  Peace was
+signed at Frankfort surrendering the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine
+to the Germans.  Germany, excluding Austria, was unified as an empire,
+and the King of Prussia was added to the galaxy of European Cæsars, as
+the German Emperor.
+
+For the next forty-three years Germany was the leading power upon the
+European continent.  There was a Russo-Turkish war in 1877-8, but
+thereafter, except for certain readjustments in the Balkans, European
+frontiers remained uneasily stable for thirty years.
+
+
+
+
+LXII
+THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY
+
+
+The end of the eighteenth century was a period of disrupting empires
+and disillusioned expansionists. The long and tedious journey between
+Britain and Spain and their colonies in America prevented any really
+free coming and going between the home land and the daughter lands, and
+so the colonies separated into new and distinct communities, with
+distinctive ideas and interests and even modes of speech. As they grew
+they strained more and more at the feeble and uncertain link of
+shipping that had joined them. Weak trading-posts in the wilderness,
+like those of France in Canada, or trading establishments in great
+alien communities, like those of Britain in India, might well cling for
+bare existence to the nation which gave them support and a reason for
+their existence. That much and no more seemed to many thinkers in the
+early part of the nineteenth century to be the limit set to overseas
+rule. In 1820 the sketchy great European “empires” outside of Europe
+that had figured so bravely in the maps of the middle eighteenth
+century, had shrunken to very small dimensions. Only the Russian
+sprawled as large as ever across Asia.
+
+The British Empire in 1815 consisted of the thinly populated coastal
+river and lake regions of Canada, and a great hinterland of wilderness
+in which the only settlements as yet were the fur-trading stations of
+the Hudson Bay Company, about a third of the Indian peninsula, under
+the rule of the East India Company, the coast districts of the Cape of
+Good Hope inhabited by blacks and rebellious-spirited Dutch settlers; a
+few trading stations on the coast of West Africa, the rock of
+Gibraltar, the island of Malta, Jamaica, a few minor slave-labour
+possessions in the West Indies, British Guiana in South America, and,
+on the other side of the world, two dumps for convicts at Botany Bay in
+Australia and in Tasmania.  Spain retained Cuba and a few settlements
+in the Philippine Islands.  Portugal had in Africa some vestiges of her
+ancient claims.  Holland had various islands and possessions in the
+East Indies and Dutch Guiana, and Denmark an island or so in the West
+Indies.  France had one or two West Indian islands and French Guiana. 
+This seemed to be as much as the European powers needed, or were likely
+to acquire of the rest of the world.  Only the East India Company
+showed any spirit of expansion.
+
+While Europe was busy with the Napoleonic wars the East India Company,
+under a succession of Governors-General, was playing much the same role
+in India that had been played before by Turkoman and such-like invaders
+from the north.  And after the peace of Vienna it went on, levying its
+revenues, making wars, sending ambassadors to Asiatic powers, a quasi-
+independent state, however, with a marked disposition to send wealth
+westward.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail how the British Company made its way
+to supremacy sometimes as the ally of this power, sometimes as that,
+and finally as the conqueror of all.  Its power spread to Assam, Sind,
+Oudh.  The map of India began to take on the outlines familiar to the
+English schoolboy of to-day, a patchwork of native states embraced and
+held together by the great provinces under direct British rule. . . .
+
+In 1859, following upon a serious mutiny of the native troops in India,
+this empire of the East India Company was annexed to the British Crown.
+ By an Act entitled _An Act for the Better Government of India_, the
+Governor-General became a Viceroy representing the Sovereign, and the
+place of the Company was taken by a Secretary of State for India
+responsible to the British Parliament.  In 1877, Lord Beaconsfield, to
+complete the work, caused Queen Victoria to be proclaimed Empress of
+India.
+
+Upon these extraordinary lines India and Britain are linked at the
+present time.  India is still the empire of the Great Mogul, but the
+Great Mogul has been replaced by the “crowned republic” of Great
+Britain.  India is an autocracy without an autocrat.  Its rule combines
+the disadvantage of absolute monarchy with the impersonality and
+irresponsibility of democratic officialdom.  The Indian with a
+complaint to make has no visible monarch to go to; his Emperor is a
+golden symbol; he must circulate pamphlets in England or inspire a
+question in the British House of Commons.  The more occupied Parliament
+is with British affairs, the less attention India will receive, and the
+more she will be at the mercy of her small group of higher officials.
+
+
+RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE GORGE, VICTORIA FALLS, OF THE ZAMBESI, SOUTHERN
+RHODESIA
+RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE GORGE, VICTORIA FALLS, OF THE ZAMBESI, SOUTHERN
+RHODESIA
+
+_Photo:  British South African Co._
+
+
+Apart from India, there was no great expansion of any European Empire
+until the railways and the steamships were in effective action.  A
+considerable school of political thinkers in Britain was disposed to
+regard overseas possessions as a source of weakness to the kingdom. 
+The Australian settlements developed slowly until in 1842 the discovery
+of valuable copper mines, and in 1851 of gold, gave them a new
+importance.  Improvements in transport were also making Australian wool
+an increasingly marketable commodity in Europe.  Canada, too, was not
+remarkably progressive until 1849; it was troubled by dissensions
+between its French and British inhabitants, there were several serious
+revolts, and it was only in 1867 that a new constitution creating a
+Federal Dominion of Canada relieved its internal strains.  It was the
+railway that altered the Canadian outlook.  It enabled Canada, just as
+it enabled the United States, to expand westward, to market its corn
+and other produce in Europe, and in spite of its swift and extensive
+growth, to remain in language and sympathy and interests one community.
+ The railway, the steamship and the telegraph cable were indeed
+changing all the conditions of colonial development.
+
+Before 1840, English settlements had already begun in New Zealand, and
+a New Zealand Land Company had been formed to exploit the possibilities
+of the island.  In 1840 New Zealand also was added to the colonial
+possessions of the British Crown.
+
+Canada, as we have noted, was the first of the British possessions to
+respond richly to the new economic possibilities that the new methods
+of transport were opening. Presently the republics of South America,
+and particularly the Argentine Republic, began to feel in their cattle
+trade and coffee growing the increased nearness of the European market.
+ Hitherto the chief commodities that had attracted the European powers
+into unsettled and barbaric regions had been gold or other metals,
+spices, ivory, or slaves.  But in the latter quarter of the nineteenth
+century the increase of the European populations was obliging their
+governments to look abroad for staple foods; and the growth of
+scientific industrialism was creating a demand for new raw materials,
+fats and greases of every kind, rubber, and other hitherto disregarded
+substances.  It was plain that Great Britain and Holland and Portugal
+were reaping a great and growing commercial advantage from their very
+considerable control of tropical and sub-tropical products.  After 1871
+Germany, and presently France and later Italy, began to look for
+unannexed raw-material areas, or for Oriental countries capable of
+profitable modernization.
+
+So began a fresh scramble all over the world, except in the American
+region where the Monroe Doctrine now barred such adventures, for
+politically unprotected lands.
+
+Close to Europe was the continent of Africa, full of vaguely known
+possibilities.  In 1850 it was a continent of black mystery; only Egypt
+and the coast were known.  Here we have no space to tell the amazing
+story of the explorers and adventurers who first pierced the African
+darkness, and of the political agents, administrators, traders,
+settlers and scientific men who followed in their track.  Wonderful
+races of men like the pygmies, strange beasts like the okapi,
+marvellous fruits and flowers and insects, terrible diseases,
+astounding scenery of forest and mountain, enormous inland seas and
+gigantic rivers and cascades were revealed; a whole new world.  Even
+remains (at Zimbabwe) of some unrecorded and vanished civilization, the
+southward enterprise of an early people, were discovered. Into this new
+world came the Europeans, and found the rifle already there in the
+hands of the Arab slave-traders, and negro life in disorder.
+
+
+Map: The British Empire in 1815
+
+By 1900, in half a century, all Africa was mapped, explored, estimated
+and divided between the European powers.  Little heed was given to the
+welfare of the natives in this scramble.  The Arab slaver was indeed
+curbed rather than expelled, but the greed for rubber, which was a wild
+product collected under compulsion by the natives in the Belgian Congo,
+a greed exacerbated by the clash of inexperienced European
+administrators with the native population, led to horrible atrocities. 
+No European power has perfectly clean hands in this matter.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail how Great Britain got possession of
+Egypt in 1883 and remained there in spite of the fact that Egypt was
+technically a part of the Turkish Empire, nor how nearly this scramble
+led to war between France and Great Britain in 1898, when a certain
+Colonel Marchand, crossing Central Africa from the west coast, tried at
+Fashoda to seize the Upper Nile.
+
+Nor can we tell how the British Government first let the Boers, or
+Dutch settlers, of the Orange River district and the Transvaal set up
+independent republics in the inland parts of South Africa, and then
+repented and annexed the Transvaal Republic in 1877; nor how the
+Transvaal Boers fought for freedom and won it after the battle of
+Majuba Hill (1881).  Majuba Hill was made to rankle in the memory of
+the English people by a persistent press campaign.  A war with both
+republics broke out in 1899, a three years’ war enormously costly to
+the British people, which ended at last in the surrender of the two
+republics.
+
+Their period of subjugation was a brief one.  In 1907, after the
+downfall of the imperialist government which had conquered them, the
+Liberals took the South African problem in hand, and these former
+republics became free and fairly willing associates with Cape Colony
+and  Natal in a Confederation of all the states of South Africa as one
+self- governing republic under the British Crown.
+
+In a quarter of a century the partition of Africa was completed.  There
+remained unannexed three comparatively small countries: Liberia, a
+settlement of liberated negro slaves on the west coast; Morocco, under
+a Moslem Sultan; and Abyssinia, a barbaric country, with an ancient and
+peculiar form of Christianity, which had successfully maintained its
+independence against Italy at the battle of Adowa in 1896.
+
+
+
+
+LXIII
+EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA AND THE RISE OF JAPAN
+
+
+It is difficult to believe that any large number of people really
+accepted this headlong painting of the map of Africa in European
+colours as a permanent new settlement of the worlds affairs, but it is
+the duty of the historian to record that it was so accepted. There was
+but a shallow historical background to the European mind in the
+nineteenth century, and no habit of penetrating criticism. The quite
+temporary advantages that the mechanical revolution in the west had
+given the Europeans over the rest of the old world were regarded by
+people, blankly ignorant of such events as the great Mongol conquests,
+as evidences of a permanent and assured European leadership of mankind.
+They had no sense of the transferability of science and its fruits.
+They did not realize that Chinamen and Indians could carry on the work
+of research as ably as Frenchmen or Englishmen. They believed that
+there was some innate intellectual drive in the west, and some innate
+indolence and conservatism in the east, that assured the Europeans a
+world predominance for ever.
+
+The consequence of this infatuation was that the various European
+foreign offices set themselves not merely to scramble with the British
+for the savage and undeveloped regions of the world’s surface, but also
+to carve up the populous and civilized countries of Asia as though
+these people also were no more than raw material for exploitation. The
+inwardly precarious but outwardly splendid imperialism of the British
+ruling class in India, and the extensive and profitable possessions of
+the Dutch in the East Indies, filled the rival Great Powers with dreams
+of similar glories in Persia, in the disintegrating Ottoman Empire, and
+in Further India, China and Japan.
+
+In 1898 Germany seized Kiau Chau in China.  Britain responded by
+seizing Wei-hai-wei, and the next year the Russians took possession of
+Port Arthur.  A flame of hatred for the Europeans swept through China. 
+There were massacres of Europeans and Christian converts, and in 1900
+an attack upon and siege of the European legations in Pekin.  A
+combined force of Europeans made a punitive expedition to Pekin,
+rescued the legations, and stole an enormous amount of valuable
+property.  The Russians then seized Manchuria, and in 1904, the British
+invaded Tibet....
+
+But now a new Power appeared in the struggle of the Great Powers,
+Japan.  Hitherto Japan has played but a small part in this history; her
+secluded civilization has not contributed very largely to the general
+shaping of human destinies; she has received much, but she has given
+little.  The Japanese proper are of the Mongolian race.  Their
+civilization, their writing and their literary and artistic traditions
+are derived from the Chinese.  Their history is an interesting and
+romantic one; they developed a feudal system and a system of chivalry
+in the earlier centuries of the Christian era; their attacks upon Korea
+and China are an Eastern equivalent of the English wars in France. 
+Japan was first brought into contact with Europe in the sixteenth
+century; in 1542 some Portuguese reached it in a Chinese junk, and in
+1549 a Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, began his teaching there. 
+For a time Japan welcomed European intercourse, and the Christian
+missionaries made a great number of converts.  A certain William Adams
+became the most trusted European adviser of the Japanese, and showed
+them how to build big ships.  There were voyages in Japanese-built
+ships to India and Peru.  Then arose complicated quarrels between the
+Spanish Dominicans, the Portuguese Jesuits, and the English and Dutch
+Protestants, each warning the Japanese against the political designs of
+the others.  The Jesuits, in a phase of ascendancy, persecuted and
+insulted the Buddhists with great acrimony.  In the end the Japanese
+came to the conclusion that the Europeans were an intolerable nuisance,
+and that Catholic Christianity in particular was a mere cloak for the
+political dreams of the Pope and the Spanish monarchy—already in
+possession of the Philippine Islands; there was a great persecution of
+the Christians, and in 1638 Japan was absolutely closed to Europeans,
+and remained closed for over 200 years.  During those two centuries the
+Japanese were as completely cut off from the rest of the world as
+though they lived upon another planet.  It was forbidden to build any
+ship larger than a mere coasting boat. No Japanese could go abroad, and
+no European enter the country.
+
+
+JAPANESE SOLDIER ON THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+JAPANESE SOLDIER ON THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+For two centuries Japan remained outside the main current of history. 
+She lived on in a state of picturesque feudalism in which about five
+per cent of the population, the _samurai_, or fighting men, and the
+nobles and their families, tyrannized without restraint over the rest
+of the population.  Meanwhile the great world outside went on to wider
+visions and new powers.  Strange shipping became more frequent, passing
+the Japanese headlands; sometimes ships were wrecked and sailors
+brought ashore.  Through the Dutch settlement in the island of Deshima,
+their one link with the outer universe, came warnings that Japan was
+not keeping pace with the power of the Western world.  In 1837 a ship
+sailed into Yedo Bay flying a strange flag of stripes and stars, and
+carrying some Japanese sailors she had picked up far adrift in the
+Pacific.  She was driven off by cannon shot.  This flag presently
+reappeared on other ships.  One in 1849 came to demand the liberation
+of eighteen shipwrecked American sailors.  Then in 1853 came four
+American warships under Commodore Perry, and refused to be driven away.
+ He lay at anchor in forbidden waters, and sent messages to the two
+rulers who at that time shared the control of Japan.  In 1854 he
+returned with ten ships, amazing ships propelled by steam, and equipped
+with big guns, and he made proposals for trade and intercourse that the
+Japanese had no power to resist.  He landed with a guard of 500 men to
+sign the treaty. Incredulous crowds watched this visitation from the
+outer world, marching through the streets.
+
+Russia, Holland and Britain followed in the wake of America. A great
+nobleman whose estates commanded the Straits of Shimonoseki saw fit to
+fire on foreign vessels, and a bombardment by a fleet of British,
+French, Dutch and American warships destroyed his batteries and
+scattered his swordsmen. Finally an allied squadron (1865), at anchor
+off Kioto, imposed a ratification of the treaties which opened Japan to
+the world.
+
+The humiliation of the Japanese by these events was intense. With
+astonishing energy and intelligence they set themselves to bring their
+culture and organization to the level of the European Powers.  Never in
+all the history of mankind did a nation make such a stride as Japan
+then did.  In 1866 she was a medieval people, a fantastic caricature of
+the extremest romantic feudalism; in 1899 hers was a completely
+Westernized people, on a level with the most advanced European Powers.
+She completely dispelled the persuasion that Asia was in some
+irrevocable way hopelessly behind Europe.  She made all European
+progress seem sluggish by comparison.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail of Japan’s war with China in 1894-95.
+ It demonstrated the extent of her Westernization.  She had an
+efficient Westernized army and a small but sound fleet.  But the
+significance of her renascence, though it was appreciated by Britain
+and the United States, who were already treating her as if she were a
+European state, was not understood by the other Great Powers engaged in
+the pursuit of new Indias in Asia.  Russia was pushing down through
+Manchuria to Korea.  France was already established far to the south in
+Tonkin and Annam, Germany was prowling hungrily on the look-out for
+some settlement.  The three Powers combined to prevent Japan reaping
+any fruits from the Chinese war.  She was exhausted by the struggle,
+and they threatened her with war.
+
+
+A STREET IN TOKIO
+A STREET IN TOKIO
+
+
+Japan submitted for a time and gathered her forces.  Within ten years
+she was ready for a struggle with Russia, which marks an epoch in the
+history of Asia, the close of the period of European arrogance.  The
+Russian people were, of course, innocent and ignorant of this trouble
+that was being made for them halfway round the world, and the wiser
+Russian statesmen were against these foolish thrusts; but a gang of
+financial adventurers, including the Grand Dukes, his cousins,
+surrounded the Tsar.  They had gambled deeply in the prospective
+looting of Manchuria and China, and they would suffer no withdrawal. 
+So there began a transportation of great armies of Japanese soldiers
+across the sea to Port Arthur and Korea, and the sending of endless
+trainloads of Russian peasants along the Siberian railway to die in
+those distant battlefields.
+
+The Russians, badly led and dishonestly provided, were beaten on sea
+and land alike.  The Russian Baltic Fleet sailed round Africa to be
+utterly destroyed in the Straits of Tshushima. A revolutionary movement
+among the common people of Russia, infuriated by this remote and
+reasonless slaughter, obliged the Tsar to end the war (1905); he
+returned the southern half of Saghalien, which had been seized by
+Russia in 1875, evacuated Manchuria, resigned Korea to Japan.  The
+European invasion of Asia was coming to an end and the retraction of
+Europe’s tentacles was beginning.
+
+
+
+
+LXIV
+THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914
+
+
+We may note here briefly the varied nature of the constituents of the
+British Empire in 1914 which the steamship and railway had brought
+together. It was and is a quite unique political combination; nothing
+of the sort has ever existed before.
+
+First and central to the whole system was the “crowned republic” of the
+United British Kingdom, including (against the will of a considerable
+part of the Irish people) Ireland.  The majority of the British
+Parliament, made up of the three united parliaments of England and
+Wales, Scotland and Ireland, determines the headship, the quality and
+policy of the ministry, and determines it largely on considerations
+arising out of British domestic politics.  It is this ministry which is
+the effective supreme government, with powers of peace and war, over
+all the rest of the empire.
+
+Next in order of political importance to the British States were the
+“crowned republics” of Australia, Canada, Newfoundland (the oldest
+British possession, 1583), New Zealand and South Africa, all
+practically independent and self-governing states in alliance with
+Great Britain, but each with a representative of the Crown appointed by
+the Government in office;
+
+Next the Indian Empire, an extension of the Empire of the Great Mogul
+with its dependent and “protected” states reaching now from Beluchistan
+to Burma, and including Aden, in all of which empire the British Crown
+and the India Office (under Parliamentary control) played the role of
+the original Turkoman dynasty;
+
+Then the ambiguous possession of Egypt, still nominally a part of the
+Turkish Empire and still retaining its own monarch, the Khedive, but
+under almost despotic British official rule;
+
+
+Map: OVERSEAS EMPIRES of EUROPEAN POWERS, January 1914
+
+Then the still more ambiguous “Anglo-Egyptian” Sudan province, occupied
+and administered jointly by the British and by the (British controlled)
+Egyptian Government;
+
+Then a number of partially self-governing communities, some British in
+origin and some not, with elected legislatures and an appointed
+executive, such as Malta, Jamaica, the Bahamas and Bermuda;
+
+Then the Crown colonies, in which the rule of the British Home
+Government (through the Colonial Office) verged on autocracy, as in
+Ceylon, Trinidad and Fiji (where there was an appointed council), and
+Gibraltar and St. Helena (where there was a governor);
+
+
+GIBRALTAR
+GIBRALTAR
+
+_Photo:  C. Sinclair_
+
+
+Then great areas of (chiefly) tropical lands, raw-product areas, with
+politically weak and under-civilized native communities which were
+nominally protectorates, and administered either by a High Commissioner
+set over native chiefs (as in Basutoland) or over a chartered company
+(as in Rhodesia).  In some cases the Foreign Office, in some cases the
+Colonial Office, and in some cases the India Office, has been concerned
+in acquiring the possessions that fell into this last and least
+definite class of all, but for the most part the Colonial Office was
+now responsible for them.
+
+It will be manifest, therefore, that no single office and no single
+brain had ever comprehended the British Empire as a whole.  It was a
+mixture of growths and accumulations entirely different from anything
+that has ever been called an empire before.  It guaranteed a wide peace
+and security; that is why it was endured and sustained by many men of
+the “subject” races—in spite of official tyrannies and insufficiencies,
+and of much negligence on the part of the “home” public. Like the
+Athenian Empire, it was an overseas empire; its ways were sea ways, and
+its common link was the British Navy. Like all empires, its cohesion
+was dependent physically upon a method of communication; the
+development of seamanship, ship-building and steamships between the
+sixteenth and nineteenth centuries had made it a possible and
+convenient Pax—the “Pax Britannica,” and fresh developments of air or
+swift land transport might at any time make it inconvenient.
+
+
+STREET IN HONG KONG
+STREET IN HONG KONG
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+
+
+LXV
+THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18
+
+
+The progress in material science that created this vast
+steamboat-and-railway republic of America and spread this precarious
+British steamship empire over the world, produced quite other effects
+upon the congested nations upon the continent of Europe. They found
+themselves confined within boundaries fixed during the
+horse-and-high-road period of human life, and their expansion overseas
+had been very largely anticipated by Great Britain. Only Russia had any
+freedom to expand eastward; and she drove a great railway across
+Siberia until she entangled herself in a conflict with Japan, and
+pushed south-eastwardly towards the borders of Persia and India to the
+annoyance of Britain. The rest of the European Powers were in a state
+of intensifying congestion. In order to realize the full possibilities
+of the new apparatus of human life they had to rearrange their affairs
+upon a broader basis, either by some sort of voluntary union or by a
+union imposed upon them by some predominant power. The tendency of
+modern thought was in the direction of the former alternative, but all
+the force of political tradition drove Europe towards the latter.
+
+The downfall of the “empire” of Napoleon III, the establishment of the
+new German Empire, pointed men’s hopes and fears towards the idea of a
+Europe consolidated under German auspices.  For thirty-six years of
+uneasy peace the polities of Europe centred upon that possibility.
+France, the steadfast rival of Germany for European ascendancy since
+the division of the empire of Charlemagne, sought to correct her own
+weakness by a close alliance with Russia, and Germany linked herself
+closely with the Austrian Empire (it had ceased to be the Holy Roman
+Empire in the days of Napoleon I) and less successfully with the new
+kingdom of Italy.  At first Great Britain stood as usual half in and
+half out of continental affairs.  But she was gradually forced into a
+close association with the Franco-Russian group by the aggressive
+development of a great German navy.  The grandiose imagination of the
+Emperor William II (1888-1918) thrust Germany into premature overseas
+enterprise that ultimately brought not only Great Britain but Japan and
+the United States into the circle of her enemies.
+
+
+BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD
+BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD
+The crew came out for a breath of fresh air during a lull
+
+_Photo:  British Official_
+
+
+All these nations armed.  Year after year the proportion of national
+production devoted to the making of guns, equipment, battleships and
+the like, increased. Year after year the balance of things seemed
+trembling towards war, and then war would be averted.  At last it came.
+Germany and Austria struck at France and Russia and Serbia; the German
+armies marching through Belgium, Britain immediately came into the war
+on the side of Belgium, bringing in Japan as her ally, and very soon
+Turkey followed on the German side.  Italy entered the war against
+Austria in 1915, and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in the October
+of that year.  In 1916 Rumania, and in 1917 the United States and China
+were forced into war against Germany.  It is not within the scope of
+this history to define the exact share of blame for this vast
+catastrophe.  The more interesting question is not why the Great War
+was begun but why the Great War was not anticipated and prevented.  It
+is a far graver thing for mankind that scores of millions of people
+were too “patriotic,” stupid, or apathetic to prevent this disaster by
+a movement towards European unity upon frank and generous lines, than
+that a small number of people may have been active in bringing it
+about.
+
+
+THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH TOWN)
+THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH TOWN)
+To show the complete destructiveness of modern war
+
+_Photo:  Topical_
+
+
+THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR
+THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR
+Wire entanglements in the foreground
+
+_Photo:  Photopress_
+
+
+It is impossible within the space at our command here to trace the
+intricate details of the war.  Within a few months it became apparent
+that the progress of modern technical science had changed the nature of
+warfare very profoundly.  Physical science gives power, power over
+steel, over distance, over disease; whether that power is used well or
+ill depends upon the moral and political intelligence of the world. 
+The governments of Europe, inspired by antiquated policies of hate and
+suspicion, found themselves with unexampled powers both of destruction
+and resistance in their hands.  The war became a consuming fire round
+and about the world, causing losses both to victors and vanquished out
+of all proportion to the issues involved.  The first phase of the war
+was a tremendous rush of the Germans upon Paris and an invasion of East
+Prussia by the Russians.  Both attacks were held and turned.  Then the
+power of the defensive developed; there was a rapid elaboration of
+trench warfare until for a time the opposing armies lay entrenched in
+long lines right across Europe, unable to make any advance without
+enormous losses.  The armies were millions strong, and behind them
+entire populations were organized for the supply of food and munitions
+to the front.  Then was a cessation of nearly every sort of productive
+activity except such as contributed to military operations.  All the
+able-bodied manhood of Europe was drawn into the armies or navies or
+into the improvised factories that served them.  There was an enormous
+replacement of men by women in industry. Probably more than half the
+people in the belligerent countries of Europe changed their employment
+altogether during this stupendous struggle.  They were socially
+uprooted and transplanted.  Education and normal scientific work were
+restricted or diverted to immediate military ends, and the distribution
+of news was crippled and corrupted by military control and “propaganda”
+activities.
+
+The phase of military deadlock passed slowly into one of aggression
+upon the combatant populations behind the fronts by the destruction of
+food supplies and by attacks through the air.  And also there was a
+steady improvement in the size and range of the guns employed and of
+such ingenious devices as poison-gas shells and the small mobile forts
+known as tanks, to break down the resistance of troops in the trenches.
+ The air offensive was the most revolutionary of all the new methods. 
+It carried warfare from two dimensions into three.  Hitherto in the
+history of mankind war had gone on only where the armies marched and
+met.  Now it went on everywhere.  First the Zeppelin and then the
+bombing aeroplane carried war over and past the front to an ever-
+increasing area of civilian activities beyond.  The old distinction
+maintained in civilized warfare between the civilian and combatant
+population disappeared.  Everyone who grew food, or who sewed a
+garment, everyone who felled a tree or repaired a house, every railway
+station and every warehouse was held to be fair game for destruction. 
+The air offensive increased in range and terror with every month in the
+war.  At last great areas of Europe were in a state of siege and
+subject to nightly raids.  Such exposed cities as London and Paris
+passed sleepless night after sleepless night while the bombs burst, the
+anti-aircraft guns maintained an intolerable racket, and the fire
+engines and ambulances rattled headlong through the darkened and
+deserted streets. The effects upon the minds and health of old people
+and of young children were particularly distressing and destructive.
+
+Pestilence, that old follower of warfare, did not arrive until the very
+end of the fighting in 1918.  For four years medical science staved off
+any general epidemic; then came a great outbreak of influenza about the
+world which destroyed many millions of people.  Famine also was staved
+off for some time.  By the beginning of 1918 however most of Europe was
+in a state of mitigated and regulated famine.  The production of food
+throughout the world had fallen very greatly through the calling off of
+peasant mankind to the fronts, and the distribution of such food as was
+produced was impeded by the havoc wrought by the submarine, by the
+rupture of customary routes through the closing of frontiers, and by
+the disorganization of the transport system of the world. The various
+governments took possession of the dwindling food supplies, and, with
+more or less success, rationed their populations.  By the fourth year
+the whole world was suffering from shortages of clothing and housing
+and of most of the normal gear of life as well as of food.  Business
+and economic life were profoundly disorganized.  Every-one was worried,
+and most people were leading lives of unwonted discomfort.
+
+The actual warfare ceased in November, 1918.  After a supreme effort in
+the spring of 1918 that almost carried the Germans to Paris, the
+Central Powers collapsed.  They had come to an end of their spirit and
+resources.
+
+
+
+
+LXVI
+THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA
+
+
+But a good year and more before the collapse of the Central Powers the
+half oriental monarchy of Russia, which had professed to be the
+continuation of the Byzantine Empire, had collapsed. The Tsardom had
+been showing signs of profound rottenness for some years before the
+war; the court was under the sway of a fantastic religious impostor,
+Rasputin, and the public administration, civil and military, was in a
+state of extreme inefficiency and corruption. At the outset of the war
+there was a great flare of patriotic enthusiasm in Russia. A vast
+conscript army was called up, for which there was neither adequate
+military equipment nor a proper supply of competent officers, and this
+great host, ill supplied and badly handled, was hurled against the
+German and Austrian frontiers.
+
+There can be no doubt that the early appearance of Russian armies in
+East Prussia in September, 1914, diverted the energies and attention of
+the Germans from their first victorious drive upon Paris.  The
+sufferings and deaths of scores of thousands of ill-led Russian
+peasants saved France from complete overthrow in that momentous opening
+campaign, and made all western Europe the debtors of that great and
+tragic people.  But the strain of the war upon this sprawling,
+ill-organized empire was too heavy for its strength.  The Russian
+common soldiers were sent into battle without guns to support them,
+without even rifle ammunition; they were wasted by their officers and
+generals in a delirium of militarist enthusiasm.  For a time they
+seemed to be suffering mutely as the beasts suffer; but there is a
+limit to the endurance even of the most ignorant.  A profound disgust
+for Tsardom was creeping through these armies of betrayed and wasted
+men.  From the close of 1915 onward Russia was a source of deepening
+anxiety to her Western Allies.  Throughout 1916 she remained largely on
+the defensive, and there were rumours of a separate peace with Germany.
+
+On December 29th, 1916, the monk Rasputin was murdered at a dinner
+party in Petrograd, and a belated attempt was made to put the Tsardom
+in order.  By March things were moving rapidly; food riots in Petrograd
+developed into a revolutionary insurrection; there was an attempted
+suppression of the Duma, the representative body, there were attempted
+arrests of liberal leaders, the formation of a provisional government
+under Prince Lvoff, and an abdication (March 15th) by the Tsar.  For a
+time it seemed that a moderate and controlled revolution might be
+possible—perhaps under a new Tsar.  Then it became evident that the
+destruction of popular confidence in Russia had gone too far for any
+such adjustments. The Russian people were sick to death of the old
+order of things in Europe, of Tsars and wars and of Great Powers; it
+wanted relief, and that speedily, from unendurable miseries.  The
+Allies had no understanding of Russian realities; their diplomatists
+were ignorant of Russian, genteel persons with their attention directed
+to the Russian Court rather than to Russia, they blundered steadily
+with the new situation.  There was little goodwill among these
+diplomatists for republicanism, and a manifest disposition to embarrass
+the new government as much as possible.  At the head of the Russian
+republican government was an eloquent and picturesque leader, Kerensky,
+who found himself assailed by the forces of a profounder revolutionary
+movement, the “social revolution,” at home and cold-shouldered by the
+Allied governments abroad.  His Allies would neither let him give the
+Russian peasants the land for which they craved nor peace beyond their
+frontiers.  The French and the British press pestered their exhausted
+ally for a fresh offensive, but when presently the Germans made a
+strong attack by sea and land upon Riga, the British Admiralty quailed
+before the prospect of a Baltic expedition in relief.  The new Russian
+Republic had to fight unsupported.  In spite of their naval
+predominance and the bitter protests of the great English admiral, Lord
+Fisher (1841-1920), it is to be noted that the British and their
+Allies, except for some submarine attacks, left the Germans the
+complete mastery of the Baltic throughout the war.
+
+The Russian masses, however, were resolute to end the war.  At any
+cost.  There had come into existence in Petrograd a body representing
+the workers and common soldiers, the Soviet, and this body clamoured
+for an international conference of socialists at Stockholm.  Food riots
+were occurring in Berlin at this time, war weariness in Austria and
+Germany was profound, and there can be little doubt, in the light of
+subsequent events, that such a conference would have precipitated a
+reasonable peace on democratic lines in 1917 and a German revolution. 
+Kerensky implored his Western allies to allow this conference to take
+place, but, fearful of a worldwide outbreak of socialism and
+republicanism, they refused, in spite of the favourable response of a
+small majority of the British Labour Party.  Without either moral or
+physical help from the Allies, the unhappy “moderate” Russian Republic
+still fought on and made a last desperate offensive effort in July.  It
+failed after some preliminary successes, and there came another great
+slaughtering of Russians.
+
+The limit of Russian endurance was reached.  Mutinies broke out in the
+Russian armies, and particularly upon the northern front, and on
+November 7th, 1917, Kerensky’s government was overthrown and power was
+seized by the Soviets, dominated by the Bolshevik socialists under
+Lenin, and pledged to make peace regardless of the Western powers.  On
+March 2nd, 1918, a separate peace between Russia and Germany was signed
+at Brest-Litovsk.
+
+
+A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE
+A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE
+A wooden house has been demolished for firewood
+
+_By courtesy of Messrs. Hodder & Stoughton_
+
+
+It speedily became evident that these Bolshevik socialists were men of
+a very different quality from the rhetorical constitutionalists and
+revolutionaries of the Kerensky phase.  They were fanatical Marxist
+communists.  They believed that their accession to power in Russia was
+only the opening of a world-wide social revolution, and they set about
+changing the social and economic order with the thoroughness of perfect
+faith and absolute inexperience.  The western European and the American
+governments were themselves much too ill-informed and incapable to
+guide or help this extraordinary experiment, and the press set itself
+to discredit and the ruling classes to wreck these usurpers upon any
+terms and at any cost to themselves or to Russia.  A propaganda of
+abominable and disgusting inventions went on unchecked in the press of
+the world; the Bolshevik leaders were represented as incredible
+monsters glutted with blood and plunder and living lives of sensuality
+before which the realities of the Tsarist court during the Rasputin
+regime paled to a white purity.  Expeditions were launched at the
+exhausted country, insurgents and raiders were encouraged, armed and
+subsidized, and no method of attack was too mean or too monstrous for
+the frightened enemies of the Bolshevik regime.  In 1919, the Russian
+Bolsheviks, ruling a country already exhausted and disorganized by five
+years of intensive warfare, were fighting a British Expedition at
+Archangel, Japanese invaders in Eastern Siberia, Roumanians with French
+and Greek contingents in the south, the Russian Admiral Koltchak in
+Siberia and General Deniken, supported by the French fleet, in the
+Crimea.  In July of that year an Esthonian army, under General
+Yudenitch, almost got to Petersburg.  In 1920 the Poles, incited by the
+French, made a new attack on Russia; and a new reactionary raider,
+General Wrangel, took over the task of General Deniken in invading and
+devastating his own country.  In March, 1921, the sailors at Cronstadt
+revolted.  The Russian Government under its president, Lenin, survived
+all these various attacks.  It showed an amazing tenacity, and the
+common people of Russia sustained it unswervingly under conditions of
+extreme hardship.  By the end of 1921 both Britain and Italy had made a
+sort of recognition of the communist rule.
+
+But if the Bolshevik Government was successful in its struggle against
+foreign intervention and internal revolt, it was far less happy in its
+attempts to set up a new social order based upon communist ideas in
+Russia.  The Russian peasant is a small land-hungry proprietor, as far
+from communism in his thoughts and methods as a whale is from flying;
+the revolution gave him the land of the great landowners but could not
+make him grow food for anything but negotiable money, and the
+revolution, among other things, had practically destroyed the value of
+money. Agricultural production, already greatly disordered by the
+collapse of the railways through war-strain, shrank to a mere
+cultivation of food by the peasants for their own consumption.  The
+towns starved.  Hasty and ill-planned attempts to make over industrial
+production in accordance with communist ideas were equally
+unsuccessful.  By 1920 Russia presented the unprecedented spectacle of
+a modern civilization in complete collapse.  Railways were rusting and
+passing out of use, towns were falling into ruin, everywhere there was
+an immense mortality.  Yet the country still fought with its enemies at
+its gates.  In 1921 came a drought and a great famine among the peasant
+cultivators in the war-devastated south-east provinces.  Millions of
+people starved.
+
+But the question of the distresses and the possible recuperation of
+Russia brings us too close to current controversies to be discussed
+here.
+
+
+
+
+LXVII
+THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD
+
+
+The scheme and scale upon which this History is planned do not permit
+us to enter into the complicated and acrimonious disputes that centre
+about the treaties, and particularly of the treaty of Versailles, which
+concluded the Great War. We are beginning to realize that that
+conflict, terrible and enormous as it was, ended nothing, began nothing
+and settled nothing. It killed millions of people; it wasted and
+impoverished the world. It smashed Russia altogether. It was at best an
+acute and frightful reminder that we were living foolishly and
+confusedly without much plan or foresight in a dangerous and
+unsympathetic universe. The crudely organized egotisms and passions of
+national and imperial greed that carried mankind into that tragedy,
+emerged from it sufficiently unimpaired to make some other similar
+disaster highly probable so soon as the world has a little recovered
+from its war exhaustion and fatigue. Wars and revolutions make nothing;
+their utmost service to mankind is that, in a very rough and painful
+way, they destroy superannuated and obstructive things. The great war
+lifted the threat of German imperialism from Europe, and shattered the
+imperialism of Russia. It cleared away a number of monarchies. But a
+multitude of flags still waves in Europe, the frontiers still
+exasperate, great armies accumulate fresh stores of equipment.
+
+The Peace Conference at Versailles was a gathering very ill adapted to
+do more than carry out the conflicts and defeats of the war to their
+logical conclusions.  The Germans, Austrians, Turks and Bulgarians were
+permitted no share in its deliberations; they were only to accept the
+decisions it dictated to them.  From the point of view of human welfare
+the choice of the place of meeting was particularly unfortunate.  It
+was at Versailles in 1871 that, with every circumstance of triumphant
+vulgarity, the new German Empire had been proclaimed.  The suggestion
+of a melodramatic reversal of that scene, in the same Hall of Mirrors,
+was overpowering.
+
+Whatever generosities had appeared in the opening phases of the Great
+War had long been exhausted.  The populations of the victorious
+countries were acutely aware of their own losses and sufferings, and
+entirely regardless of the fact that the defeated had paid in the like
+manner.  The war had arisen as a natural and inevitable consequence of
+the competitive nationalisms of Europe and the absence of any Federal
+adjustment of these competitive forces; war is the necessary logical
+consummation of independent sovereign nationalities living in too small
+an area with too powerful an armament; and if the great war had not
+come in the form it did it would have come in some similar form—just as
+it will certainly return upon a still more disastrous scale in twenty
+or thirty years’ time if no political unification anticipates and
+prevents it.  States organized for war will make wars as surely as hens
+will lay eggs, but the feeling of these distressed and war-worn
+countries disregarded this fact, and the whole of the defeated peoples
+were treated as morally and materially responsible for all the damage,
+as they would no doubt have treated the victor peoples had the issue of
+war been different.  The French and English thought the Germans were to
+blame, the Germans thought the Russians, French and English were to
+blame, and only an intelligent minority thought that there was anything
+to blame in the fragmentary political constitution of Europe.  The
+treaty of Versailles was intended to be exemplary and vindictive; it
+provided tremendous penalties for the vanquished; it sought to provide
+compensations for the wounded and suffering victors by imposing
+enormous debts upon nations already bankrupt, and its attempts to
+reconstitute international relations by the establishment of a League
+of Nations against war were manifestly insincere and inadequate.
+
+
+PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT
+PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT
+
+_(Photo taken by another ’plane by the Central Aerophoto Co.)_
+
+
+So far as Europe was concerned it is doubtful if there would have been
+any attempt whatever to organize international relations for a
+permanent peace.  The proposal of the League of Nations was brought
+into practical politics by the President of the United States of
+America, President Wilson.  Its chief support was in America.  So far
+the United States, this new modern state, had developed no distinctive
+ideas of international relationship beyond the Monroe Doctrine, which
+protected the new world from European interference. Now suddenly it was
+called upon for its mental contribution to the vast problem of the
+time.  It had none.  The natural disposition of the American people was
+towards a permanent world peace.  With this however was linked a strong
+traditional distrust of old-world polities and a habit of isolation
+from old-world entanglements. The Americans had hardly begun to think
+out an American solution of world problems when the submarine campaign
+of the Germans dragged them into the war on the side of the anti-German
+allies. President Wilson’s scheme of a League of Nations was an attempt
+at short notice to create a distinctively American world project.  It
+was a sketchy, inadequate and dangerous scheme.  In Europe however it
+was taken as a matured American point of view. The generality of
+mankind in 1918-19 was intensely weary of war and anxious at almost any
+sacrifice to erect barriers against its recurrence, but there was not a
+single government in the old world willing to waive one iota of its
+sovereign independence to attain any such end.  The public utterances
+of President Wilson leading up to the project of a World League of
+Nations seemed for a time to appeal right over the heads of the
+governments to the peoples of the world; they were taken as expressing
+the ripe intentions of America, and the response was enormous. 
+Unhappily President Wilson had to deal with governments and not with
+peoples; he was a man capable of tremendous flashes of vision and yet
+when put to the test egotistical and limited, and the great wave of
+enthusiasm he evoked passed and was wasted.
+
+Says Dr. Dillon in his book, _The Peace Conference:_ “Europe, when the
+President touched its shores, was as clay ready for the creative
+potter.  Never before were the nations so eager to follow a Moses who
+would take them to the long-promised land where wars are prohibited and
+blockades unknown.  And to their thinking he was just that great
+leader.  In France men bowed down before him with awe and affection. 
+Labour leaders in Paris told me that they shed tears of joy in his
+presence, and that their comrades would go through fire and water to
+help him to realize his noble schemes.  To the working classes in Italy
+his name was a heavenly clarion at the sound of which the earth would
+be renewed. The Germans regarded him and his doctrine as their
+sheet-anchor of safety.  The fearless Herr Muehlon said: ‘If President
+Wilson were to address the Germans and pronounce a severe sentence upon
+them, they would accept it with resignation and without a murmur and
+set to work at once.’  In German-Austria his fame was that of a
+saviour, and the mere mention of his name brought balm to the suffering
+and surcease of sorrow to the afflicted ... .”
+
+Such were the overpowering expectations that President Wilson raised.
+How completely he disappointed them and how weak and futile was the
+League of Nations he made is too long and too distressful a story to
+tell here. He exaggerated in his person our common human tragedy, he
+was so very great in his dreams and so incapable in his performance.
+America dissented from the acts of its President and would not join the
+League Europe accepted from him. There was a slow realization on the
+part of the American people that it had been rushed into something for
+which it was totally unprepared. There was a corresponding realization
+on the part of Europe that America had nothing ready to give to the old
+world in its extremity. Born prematurely and crippled at its birth,
+that League has become indeed, with its elaborate and unpractical
+constitution and its manifest limitations of power, a serious obstacle
+in the way of any effective reorganization of international
+relationships. The problem would be a clearer one if the League did not
+yet exist. Yet that world-wide blaze of enthusiasm that first welcomed
+the project, that readiness of men everywhere round and about the
+earth, of men, that is, as distinguished from governments, for a world
+control of war, is a thing to be recorded with emphasis in any history.
+Behind the short-sighted governments that divide and mismanage human
+affairs, a real force for world unity and world order exists and grows.
+
+From 1918 onward the world entered upon an age of conferences.  Of
+these the Conference at Washington called by President Harding (1921)
+has been the most successful and suggestive.  Notable, too, is the
+Genoa Conference (1922) for the appearance of German and Russian
+delegates at its deliberations.  We will not discuss this long
+procession of conferences and tentatives in any detail.  It becomes
+more and more clearly manifest that a huge work of reconstruction has
+to be done by mankind if a crescendo of such convulsions and world
+massacres as that of the great war is to be averted.  No such hasty
+improvisation as the League of Nations, no patched-up system of
+Conferences between this group of states and that, which change nothing
+with an air of settling everything, will meet the complex political
+needs of the new age that lies before us.  A systematic development and
+a systematic application of the sciences of human relationship, of
+personal and group psychology, of financial and economic science and of
+education, sciences still only in their infancy, is required.  Narrow
+and obsolete, dead and dying moral and political ideas have to be
+replaced by a clearer and a simpler conception of the common origins
+and destinies of our kind.
+
+
+A PEACEFUL GARDEN IN ENGLAND
+A PEACEFUL GARDEN IN ENGLAND
+Given wisdom, all mankind might live in such gardens
+
+
+But if the dangers, confusions and disasters that crowd upon man in
+these days are enormous beyond any experience of the past, it is
+because science has brought him such powers as he never had before. And
+the scientific method of fearless thought, exhaustively lucid
+statement, and exhaustively criticized planning, which has given him
+these as yet uncontrollable powers, gives him also the hope of
+controlling these powers.  Man is still only adolescent.  His troubles
+are not the troubles of senility and exhaustion but of increasing and
+still undisciplined strength.  When we look at all history as one
+process, as we have been doing in this book, when we see the steadfast
+upward struggle of life towards vision and control, then we see in
+their true proportions the hopes and dangers of the present time.  As
+yet we are hardly in the earliest dawn of human greatness.  But in the
+beauty of flower and sunset, in the happy and perfect movement of young
+animals and in the delight of ten thousand various landscapes, we have
+some intimations of what life can do for us, and in some few works of
+plastic and pictorial art, in some great music, in a few noble
+buildings and happy gardens, we have an intimation of what the human
+will can do with material possibilities.  We have dreams; we have at
+present undisciplined but ever increasing power.  Can we doubt that
+presently our race will more than realize our boldest imaginations,
+that it will achieve unity and peace, that it will live, the children
+of our blood and lives will live, in a world made more splendid and
+lovely than any palace or garden that we know, going on from strength
+to strength in an ever widening circle of adventure and achievement?
+What man has done, the little triumphs of his present state, and all
+this history we have told, form but the prelude to the things that man
+has got to do.
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
+
+About the year 1000 B.C. the Aryan peoples were establishing themselves
+in the peninsulas of Spain, Italy and the Balkans, and they were
+established in North India; Cnossos was already destroyed and the
+spacious times of Egypt, of Thothmes III, Amenophis III and Rameses II
+were three or four centuries away. Weak monarchs of the XXIst Dynasty
+were ruling in the Nile Valley. Israel was united under her early
+kings; Saul or David or possibly even Solomon may have been reigning.
+Sargon I (2750 B.C.) of the Akkadian Sumerian Empire was a remote
+memory in Babylonian history, more remote than is Constantine the Great
+from the world of the present day. Hammurabi had been dead a thousand
+years. The Assyrians were already dominating the less military
+Babylonians. In 1100 B.C. Tiglath Pileser I had taken Babylon. But
+there was no permanent conquest; Assyria and Babylonia were still
+separate empires. In China the new Chow dynasty was flourishing.
+Stonehenge in England was already some hundreds of years old.
+
+The next two centuries saw a renascence of Egypt under the XXIInd
+Dynasty, the splitting up of the brief little Hebrew kingdom of
+Solomon, the spreading of the Greeks in the Balkans, South Italy and
+Asia Minor, and the days of Etruscan predominance in Central Italy.  We
+begin our list of ascertainable dates with
+
+B.C. 800. The building of Carthage.
+
+ 790. The Ethiopian conquest of Egypt (founding the XXVth Dynasty).
+
+  776. First Olympiad.
+
+  753. Rome built.
+
+  745. Tiglath Pileser III conquered Babylonia and founded the New
+  Assyrian Empire.
+
+  722. Sargon II armed the Assyrians with iron weapons.
+
+  721. He deported the Israelites.
+
+  680. Esarhaddon took Thebes in Egypt (overthrowing the Ethiopian
+  XXVth Dynasty).
+
+  664. Psammetichus I restored the freedom of Egypt and founded the
+  XXVIth Dynasty (to 610).
+
+  608. Necho of Egypt defeated Josiah, king of Judah, at the battle of
+  Megiddo.
+
+  606. Capture of Nineveh by the Chaldeans and Medes.
+
+Foundation of the Chaldean Empire.
+
+  604. Necho pushed to the Euphrates and was overthrown by
+  Nebuchadnezzar II.
+
+ (Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews to Babylon.)
+
+  550. Cyrus the Persian succeeded Cyaxares the Mede.
+
+Cyrus conquered Crœsus.
+
+Buddha lived about this time.
+
+ So also did Confucius and Lao Tse.
+
+  539. Cyrus took Babylon and founded the Persian Empire.
+
+  521. Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, ruled from the Hellespont to the
+  Indus.
+
+His expedition to Scythia.
+
+  490. Battle of Marathon.
+
+  480. Battles of Thermopylï and Salamis.
+
+  479. The battles of Platea and Mycale completed the repulse of
+  Persia.
+
+  474. Etruscan fleet destroyed by the Sicilian Greeks.
+
+  431. Peloponnesian War began (to 404)
+
+  401. Retreat of the Ten Thousand.
+
+  359. Philip became king of Macedonia.
+
+  338. Battle of Chïronia.
+
+  336. Macedonian troops crossed into Asia.  Philip murdered.
+
+  334. Battle of the Granicus.
+
+  333. Battle of Issus.
+
+  331. Battle of Arbela.
+
+  330. Darius III killed.
+
+  323. Death of Alexander the Great.
+
+  321. Rise of Chandragupta in the Punjab.
+
+The Romans completely beaten by the Samnites at the battle of the
+Caudine Forks.
+
+  281. Pyrrhus invaded Italy.
+
+    280. Battle of Heraclea.
+
+    279. Battle of Ausculum.
+
+    278. Gauls raided into Asia Minor and settled in Galatia.
+
+    275. Pyrrhus left Italy.
+
+    264. First Punic War. (Asoka began to reign in Behar—to 227.)
+
+    260. Battle of Mylï.
+
+    256. Battle of Ecnomus.
+
+    246. Shi-Hwang-ti became King of Ts’in.
+
+    220. Shi-Hwang-ti became Emperor of China.
+
+    214. Great Wall of China begun.
+
+    210. Death of Shi-Hwang-ti.
+
+    202. Battle of Zama.
+
+    146. Carthage destroyed.
+
+    133. Attalus bequeathed Pergamum to Rome.
+
+    102. Marius drove back Germans.
+
+    100. Triumph of Marius. (Chinese conquering the Tarim valley.)
+
+    89. All Italians became Roman citizens.
+
+    73. The revolt of the slaves under Spartacus.
+
+    71. Defeat and end of Spartacus.
+
+    66. Pompey led Roman troops to the Caspian and Euphrates.  He
+    encountered the Alani.
+
+    48. Julius Cïsar defeated Pompey at Pharsalos.
+
+    44. Julius Cïsar assassinated.
+
+    27. Augustus Cïsar princeps (until 14 A.D.).
+
+    4. True date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+    A.D. Christian Era began.
+
+    14. Augustus died.  Tiberius emperor.
+
+    30. Jesus of Nazareth crucified.
+
+    41. Claudius (the first emperor of the legions) made emperor by
+    pretorian guard after murder of Caligula.
+
+    68. Suicide of Nero. (Galba, Otho, Vitellus, emperors in
+    succession.)
+
+    69. Vespasian.
+
+    102. Pan Chau on the Caspian Sea.
+
+    117. Hadrian succeeded Trajan.  Roman Empire at its greatest
+    extent.
+
+    138. (The Indo-Scythians at this time were destroying the last
+    traces of Hellenic rule in India.)
+
+    161. Marcus Aurelius succeeded Antoninus Pius.
+
+    164. Great plague began, and lasted to the death of M. Aurelius
+    (180). This also devastated all Asia.
+
+(Nearly a century of war and disorder began in the Roman Empire.)
+
+    220. End of the Han dynasty.  Beginning of four hundred years of
+    division in China.
+
+    227. Ardashir I (first Sassanid shah) put an end to Arsacid line in
+    Persia.
+
+    242. Mani began his teaching.
+
+    247. Goths crossed Danube in a great raid.
+
+    251. Great victory of Goths.  Emperor Decius killed.
+
+    260. Sapor I, the second Sassanid shah, took Antioch, captured the
+    Emperor Valerian, and was cut up on his return from Asia Minor by
+    Odenathus of Palmyra.
+
+    277. Mani crucified in Persia.
+
+  284. Diocletian became emperor.
+
+  303. Diocletian persecuted the Christians.
+
+  311. Galerius abandoned the persecution of the Christians.
+
+  312. Constantine the Great became emperor.
+
+  323. Constantine presided over the Council of Nicïa.
+
+  337. Constantine baptized on his deathbed.
+
+  361-3. Julian the Apostate attempted to substitute Mithraism for
+  Christianity.
+
+  392. Theodosius the Great emperor of east and west.
+
+  395. Theodosius the Great died.  Honorius and Arcadius redivided the
+  empire with Stilicho and Alaric as their masters and protectors.
+
+  410. The Visigoths under Alaric captured Rome.
+
+  425. Vandals settling in south of Spain.  Huns in Pannonia, Goths in
+  Dalmatia.  Visigoths and Suevi in Portugal and North Spain. English
+  invading Britain.
+
+  439. Vandals took Carthage.
+
+  451. Attila raided Gaul and was defeated by Franks, Alemanni and
+  Romans at Troyes.
+
+  453. Death of Attila.
+
+  455. Vandals sacked Rome.
+
+  470. Odoacer, king of a medley of Teutonic tribes, informed
+  Constantinople that there was no emperor in the West.  End of the
+  Western Empire.
+
+  493. Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, conquered Italy and became King of
+  Italy, but was nominally subject to Constantinople.  (Gothic kings in
+  Italy.  Goths settled on special confiscated lands as a garrison.)
+
+  527. Justinian emperor.
+
+  529. Justinian closed the schools at Athens, which had flourished
+  nearly a thousand years.  Belisarius (Justinian’s general) took
+  Naples.
+
+  531. Chosroes I began to reign.
+
+  543. Great plague in Constantinople.
+
+  553. Goths expelled from Italy by Justinian.  Justinian died.  The
+  Lombards conquered most of North Italy (leaving Ravenna and Rome
+  Byzantine).
+
+  570. Muhammad born.
+
+  579. Chosroes I died.
+
+(The Lombards dominant in Italy.)
+
+  590. Plague raged in Rome.  Chosroes II began to reign.
+
+  610. Heraclius began to reign.
+
+  619. Chosroes II held Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus, and armies on
+  Hellespont.  Tang dynasty began in China.
+
+  622. The Hegira.
+
+  627. Great Persian defeat at Nineveh by Heraclius.  Tai-tsung became
+  Emperor of China.
+
+  628. Kavadh II murdered and succeeded his father, Chosroes II.
+
+Muhammad wrote letters to all the rulers of the earth.
+
+  629. Muhammad returned to Mecca.
+
+  632. Muhammad died. Abu Bekr Caliph.
+
+  634. Battle of the Yarmuk.  Moslems took Syria.  Omar second Caliph.
+
+  635. Tai-tsung received Nestorian missionaries.
+
+  637. Battle of Kadessia.
+
+  638. Jerusalem surrendered to the Caliph Omar.
+
+  642. Heraclius died.
+
+  643. Othman third Caliph.
+
+  655. Defeat of the Byzantine fleet by the Moslems.
+
+  668. The Caliph Moawija attacked Constantinople by sea.
+
+  687. Pepin of Hersthal, mayor of the palace, reunited Austrasia and
+  Neustria.
+
+  711. Moslem army invaded Spain from Africa.
+
+  715. The domains of the Caliph Walid I extended from the Pyrenees to
+  China.
+
+  717-18. Suleiman, son and successor of Walid, failed to take
+  Constantinople.
+
+  732. Charles Martel defeated the Moslems near Poitiers.
+
+  751. Pepin crowned King of the French.
+
+  768. Pepin died.
+
+  771. Charlemagne sole king.
+
+  774. Charlemagne conquered Lombardy.
+
+  786. Haroun-al-Raschid Abbasid Caliph in Bagdad (to 809).
+
+  795. Leo III became Pope (to 816).
+
+  800. Leo crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West.
+
+  802. Egbert, formerly an English refugee at the court of Charlemagne,
+  established himself as King of Wessex.
+
+  810. Krum of Bulgaria defeated and killed the Emperor Nicephorus.
+
+  814. Charlemagne died.
+
+  828. Egbert became first King of England.
+
+  843. Louis the Pious died, and the Carlovingian Empire went to
+  pieces. Until 962 there was no regular succession of Holy Roman
+  Emperors, though the title appeared intermittently.
+
+  850. About this time Rurik (a Northman) became ruler of Novgorod and
+  Kieff.
+
+  852. Boris first Christian King of Bulgaria (to 884).
+
+  865. The fleet of the Russians (Northmen) threatened Constantinople.
+
+  904. Russian (Northmen) fleet off Constantinople.
+
+  912. Rolf the Ganger established himself in Normandy.
+
+  919. Henry the Fowler elected King of Germany.
+
+  936. Otto I became King of Germany in succession to his father, Henry
+  the Fowler.
+
+  941. Russian fleet again threatened Constantinople.
+
+  962. Otto I, King of Germany, crowned Emperor (first Saxon Emperor)
+  by John XII.
+
+  987. Hugh Capet became King of France.  End of the Carlovingian line
+  of French kings.
+
+  1016. Canute became King of England, Denmark and Norway.
+
+  1043. Russian fleet threatened Constantinople.
+
+  1066. Conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy.
+
+  1071. Revival of Islam under the Seljuk Turks.  Battle of Melasgird.
+
+  1073. Hildebrand became Pope (Gregory VII) to 1085.
+
+  1084. Robert Guiscard, the Norman, sacked Rome.
+
+  1087-99. Urban II Pope.
+
+  1095. Urban II at Clermont summoned the First Crusade.
+
+  1096. Massacre of the People’s Crusade.
+
+  1099. Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem.
+
+  1147. The Second Crusade.
+
+  1169. Saladin Sultan of Egypt.
+
+  1176. Frederick Barbarossa acknowledged supremacy of the Pope
+  (Alexander III) at Venice.
+
+  1187. Saladin captured Jerusalem.
+
+  1189. The Third Crusade.
+
+  1198. Innocent III Pope (to 1216).  Frederick II (aged four), King of
+  Sicily, became his ward.
+
+  1202. The Fourth Crusade attacked the Eastern Empire.
+
+  1204. Capture of Constantinople by the Latins.
+
+  1214. Jengis Khan took Pekin.
+
+  1226. St. Francis of Assisi died. (The Franciscans.)
+
+  1227. Jengis Khan died.  Khan from the Caspian to the Pacific, and
+  was succeeded by Ogdai Khan.
+
+  1228. Frederick II embarked upon the Sixth Crusade, and acquired
+  Jerusalem.
+
+  1240. Mongols destroyed Kieff. Russia tributary to the Mongols.
+
+  1241. Mongol victory in Liegnitz in Silesia.
+
+  1250. Frederick II, the last Hohenstaufen Emperor, died.  German
+  interregnum until 1273.
+
+  1251. Mangu Khan became Great Khan.  Kublai Khan governor of China.
+
+  1258. Hulagu Khan took and destroyed Bagdad.
+
+  1260. Kublai Khan became Great Khan.
+
+  1261. The Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latins.
+
+  1273. Rudolf of Habsburg elected Emperor.  The Swiss formed their
+  Everlasting League.
+
+  1280. Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty in China.
+
+  1292. Death of Kublai Khan.
+
+  1293. Roger Bacon, the prophet of experimental science, died.
+
+  1348. The Great Plague, the Black Death.
+
+  1360. In China the Mongol (Yuan) dynasty fell, and was succeeded by
+  the Ming dynasty (to 1644).
+
+  1377. Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome.
+
+  1378. The Great Schism.  Urban VI in Rome, Clement VII at Avignon.
+
+  1398. Huss preached Wycliffism at Prague.
+
+  1414-18. The Council of Constance.
+
+Huss burnt (1415).
+
+  1417. The Great Schism ended.
+
+  1453. Ottoman Turks under Muhammad II took Constantinople.
+
+  1480. Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow, threw off the Mongol
+  allegiance.
+
+  1481. Death of the Sultan Muhammad II while preparing for the
+  conquest of Italy.
+
+  1486. Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+  1492. Columbus crossed the Atlantic to America.
+
+  1498. Maximilian I became Emperor.
+
+  1498. Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape to India.
+
+  1499. Switzerland became an independent republic.
+
+  1500. Charles V born.
+
+  1509. Henry VIII King of England.
+
+  1513. Leo X Pope.
+
+  1515. Francis I King of France.
+
+  1520. Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan (to 1566), who ruled from
+  Bagdad to Hungary.  Charles V Emperor.
+
+  1525. Baber won the battle of Panipat, captured Delhi, and founded
+  the Mogul Empire.
+
+  1527. The German troops in Italy, under the Constable of Bourbon,
+  took and pillaged Rome.
+
+  1529. Suleiman besieged Vienna.
+
+  1530. Charles V crowned by the Pope.
+
+Henry VIII began his quarrel with the Papacy.
+
+  1539. The Society of Jesus founded.
+
+  1546. Martin Luther died.
+
+  1547. Ivan IV (the Terrible) took the Title of Tsar of Russia.
+
+  1556. Charles V abdicated.  Akbar, Great Mogul (to 1605).  Ignatius
+  of Loyola died.
+
+  1558. Death of Charles V.
+
+  1566. Suleiman the Magnificent died.
+
+  1603. James I King of England and Scotland.
+
+  1620. _Mayflower_ expedition founded New Plymouth.  First negro
+  slaves landed at Jamestown (Va.).
+
+  1625. Charles I of England.
+
+  1626. Sir Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam) died.
+
+  1643. Louis XIV began his reign of seventy-two year’s.
+
+  1644. The Manchus ended the Ming dynasty.
+
+  1648. Treaty of Westphalia.  There-by Holland and Switzerland were
+  recognized as free republics and Prussia became important.  The
+  treaty gave a complete victory neither to the Imperial Crown nor to
+  the Princes.
+
+War of the Fronde; it ended in the complete victory of the French
+crown.
+
+  1649. Execution of Charles I of England.
+
+  1658. Aurungzeb Great Mogul.  Cromwell died.
+
+  1660. Charles II of England.
+
+  1674. Nieuw Amsterdam finally became British by treaty and was
+  renamed New York.
+
+  1683. The last Turkish attack on Vienna defeated by John III of
+  Poland.
+
+  1689. Peter the Great of Russia. (To 1725.)
+
+  1701. Frederick I first King of Prussia.
+
+  1707. Death of Aurungzeb.  The empire of the Great Mogul
+  disintegrated.
+
+  1713. Frederick the Great of Prussia born.
+
+  1715. Louis XV of France.
+
+  1755-63. Britain and France struggled for America and India.  France
+  in alliance with Austria and Russia against Prussia and Britain
+  (1756-63); the Seven Years’ War.
+
+  1759. The British general, Wolfe, took Quebec.
+
+  1760. George III of Britain.
+
+  1763. Peace of Paris; Canada ceded to Britain.  British dominant in
+  India.
+
+  1769. Napoleon Bonaparte born.
+
+  1774. Louis XVI began his reign.
+
+  1776. Declaration of Independence by the United States of America.
+
+  1783. Treaty of Peace between Britain and the new United States of
+  America.
+
+  1787. The Constitutional Convention of Philadelphia set up the
+  Federal Government of the United States.  France discovered to be
+  bankrupt.
+
+  1788. First Federal Congress of the United States at New York.
+
+  1789. The French States-General assembled.  Storming of the Bastille.
+
+  1791. Flight to Varennes.
+
+  1792. France declared war on Austria.  Prussia declared war on
+  France. Battle of Valmy.  France became a republic.
+
+  1793. Louis XVI beheaded.
+
+  1794. Execution of Robespierre and end of the Jacobin republic.
+
+  1795. The Directory.  Bonaparte suppressed a revolt and went to Italy
+  as commander-in-chief.
+
+  1798. Bonaparte went to Egypt.  Battle of the Nile.
+
+  1799. Bonaparte returned to France.  He became First Consul with
+  enormous powers.
+
+  1804. Bonaparte became Emperor.  Francis II took the title of Emperor
+  of Austria in 1805, and in 1806 he dropped the title of Holy Roman
+  Emperor.  So the “Holy Roman Empire” came to an end.
+
+  1806. Prussia overthrown at Jena.
+
+  1808. Napoleon made his brother Joseph King of Spain.
+
+  1810. Spanish America became republican.
+
+  1812. Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow.
+
+  1814. Abdication of Napoleon.  Louis XVIII.
+
+  1824. Charles X of France.
+
+  1825. Nicholas I of Russia.  First railway, Stockton to Darlington.
+
+  1827. Battle of Navarino.
+
+  1829. Greece independent.
+
+  1830. A year of disturbance.  Louis Philippe ousted Charles X. 
+  Belgium broke away from Holland.  Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became
+  king of this new country, Belgium.  Russian Poland revolted
+  ineffectually.
+
+  1835. The word “socialism” first used.
+
+  1837. Queen Victoria.
+
+  1840. Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
+
+  1852. Napoleon III Emperor of the French.
+
+1854-56. Crimean War.
+
+  1856. Alexander II of Russia.
+
+  1861. Victor Emmanuel First King of Italy.  Abraham Lincoln became
+  President, U. S. A.  The American Civil War began.
+
+  1865. Surrender of Appomattox Court House.  Japan opened to the
+  world.
+
+  1870. Napoleon III declared war against Prussia.
+
+  1871. Paris surrendered (January).  The King of Prussia became
+  “German Emperor.”  The Peace of Frankfort.
+
+  1878. The Treaty of Berlin.  The Armed Peace of forty-six years began
+  in western Europe.
+
+  1888. Frederick II (March), William II (June), German Emperors.
+
+  1912. China became a republic.
+
+  1914. The Great War in Europe began.
+
+  1917. The two Russian revolutions.  Establishment of the Bolshevik
+  regime in Russia.
+
+  1918. The Armistice.
+
+  1920. First meeting of the League of Nations, from which Germany,
+  Austria, Russia and Turkey were excluded and at which the United
+  States was not represented.
+
+  1921. The Greeks, in complete disregard of the League of Nations,
+  make war upon the Turks.
+
+  1922. Great defeat of the Greeks in Asia Minor by the Turks.
+
+
+INDEX
+
+A
+
+Abolitionist movement,384
+
+Abraham the Patriarch, 116
+
+Abu Bekr", 249, 252, 431
+
+Abyssinia, 398
+
+Actium, battle of, 195
+
+Adam and Eve, 116
+
+Adams, William, 400
+
+Aden, 405
+
+Adowa, battle of, 398
+
+Adrianople, 229
+
+Adrianople, Treaty of, 353
+
+Adriatic Sea, 178, 228
+
+Ægatian Isles, 182
+
+Ægean peoples, 92, 94, 100, 108, 117, 174
+
+Æolic Greeks, 108, 130
+
+Aeroplanes, 4, 363, 413
+
+Æschylus, 139
+
+Afghanistan, 163
+
+Africa, 72, 92, 122, 123, 182, 253, 258, 302
+
+Africa, Central, 397
+
+Africa, North, 65, 94, 180, 192, 232, 292, 394, 397, 431
+
+Africa, South, 72, 335, 398, 405
+
+Africa, West, 393
+
+“Age of Confusion,” the, 168, 173
+
+Agriculturalists, primitive, 66, 68
+
+Agriculture, 203; slaves in, 203
+
+Ahab, 119
+
+Air-breathing vertebrata, 23, 24
+
+Air-raids, 413
+
+Aix-la-Chapelle, 265
+
+Akbar, 292, 332, 433
+
+Akkadian and Akkadians, 90, 122, 429
+
+Alabama, 385
+
+_Alabama_, the, 388
+
+Alani, 227, 430
+
+Alaric, 230, 232, 431
+
+Albania, 179
+
+Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Prince Consort), 434
+
+Alchemists, 257, 294
+
+Aldebaran, 257
+
+Alemanni, 200, 431
+
+Alexander I. Tsar, 348
+
+Alexander II of Russia, 435
+
+Alexander III, Pope, 274, 432
+
+Alexander the Great, 142, 146 _et seq._, 163, 186, 240, 299, 430
+
+Alexandretta, 147
+
+Alexandria, 147, 151, 209, 222, 239
+
+Alexandria, library at, 151
+
+Alexandria, museum of, 150, 180
+
+Alexius Comnenus, 268
+
+Alfred the Great, 26
+
+Algæ, 13
+
+Algebra, 257, 282
+
+Algiers, 185
+
+Algol, 257
+
+Allah, 252
+
+Alligators, 28
+
+Alphabets, 79, 127
+
+Alps, the, 37, 197
+
+Alsace, 200, 309, 391
+
+Aluminium, 360
+
+Amenophis III, 96, 429
+
+Amenophis IV, 96
+
+America, 263, 302, 309, 314, 324, 335, 336, 442-23, 434
+
+America, North, 12, 330, 336, 382
+
+American Civil War, 386, 435
+
+American civilizations, primitive, 73 _et seq._
+
+American warships in Japanese waters, 402
+
+Ammonites, 30, 36
+
+Amorites, 90
+
+Amos, the prophet, 124
+
+Amphibia, 24
+
+Amphitheatres, 208
+
+Amur, 334
+
+Anagni, 284
+
+Anatomy, 24, 355
+
+Anaxagoras, 138
+
+Anaximander of Miletus, 132
+
+Andes, 37
+
+Angles, 230
+
+Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 405
+
+Animals, (_See_ Mammalia)
+
+Annam, 402
+
+Anti-aircraft guns, 413
+
+Antigonus, 149
+
+Antioch, 243, 271, 431
+
+Antiochus III, 183
+
+Anti-Slavery Society, 384
+
+Antoninus Pius, 195, 430
+
+Antony, Mark, 194
+
+Antwerp, 294
+
+Anubis, 210
+
+Apes, 43, 44; anthropoid, 45
+
+Apis, 209, 211
+
+Apollonius, 151
+
+Appian Way, 191
+
+Appomattox Court House, 338, 435
+
+Aquileia, 235
+
+Arabia, 77, 88, 91, 122, 123, 248
+
+Arabic figures, 257
+
+Arabic language, 243
+
+Arabs, 253 _et seq._, 294; culture of, 267
+
+Arbela, battle of, 147, 431
+
+Arcadius, 230, 431
+
+Archangel, 419
+
+Archimedes, 151
+
+Ardashir I, 241, 430
+
+Argentine Republic, 396
+
+Arians, 224
+
+Aristocracy, 130
+
+Aristotle, 142, 144, 146, 256, 282, 294, 295, 356, 370
+
+Armadillo, 74
+
+Armenia, 192, 268, 287, 299
+
+Armenians, 100, 108
+
+Armistice, the, 435
+
+Arno, the, 178
+
+Arsacid dynasty, 199, 431
+
+Artizans, 152
+
+Aryan language, 95, 100, 106
+
+Aryans, 95, 104 _et seq._, 122, 128, 151, 174, 176, 185, 197, 198, 233,
+303, 429
+
+Ascalon, 117
+
+Asceticism, 158-60, 213
+
+Ashdod, 117
+
+Asia, 72, 197, 227, 287, 298, 329 _et seq._, 333, 399 _et seq._, 403
+_et seq._, 430
+
+Asia, Central, 108, 122, 134, 148, 185, 245-47, 255, 334
+
+Asia Minor, 92, 94, 108, 127, 134, 148, 180, 192-93, 238, 243, 258,
+271, 292, 429, 430, 431
+
+Asia, Western, 65
+
+Asoka, King, 163 _et seq._, 180, 430
+
+Assam, 394
+
+Asses, 77, 83, 102, 112
+
+Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus), 97, 98, 109, 110
+
+Assyria, 109, 115, 119, 121, 122, 429
+
+Assyrians, 84, 96, 97, 98, 108, 429
+
+Astronomy, early, 70, 74
+
+Athanasian Creed, 224
+
+Athenians, 135
+
+Athens, 129, 135-36, 139, 150, 185, 204, 431
+
+Athens, schools of philosophy in, 238
+
+Atkinson, C. F., 345
+
+Atkinson, J. J., 61, 373
+
+Atlantic, 122, 302
+
+Attalus, 430
+
+Attila, 234, 235, 238, 431
+
+Augsburg, Interim of, 313
+
+Augustus Cæsar, Roman Emperor, 195, 214
+
+Aurelian, Emperor, 200
+
+Aurochs, 197
+
+Aurungzeb, 434
+
+Ausculum, battle of, 178, 430
+
+Australia, 72, 322, 336, 395, 405
+
+Austrasia, 431
+
+Austria, 309, 327, 347-48, 349-52, 390, 411, 434
+
+Austrian Empire, 409
+
+Austrians, 344, 351
+
+Automobiles, 362
+
+Avars, 289
+
+Avebury, 106
+
+Averroes, 282
+
+Avignon, 285, 433
+
+Axis of earth, 1, 2
+
+Azilian age, 57, 65
+
+Azilian rock pictures, 57, 78
+
+Azoic rocks, 11
+
+Azores, 302
+
+B
+
+Baber, 290, 310, 332, 433
+
+Baboons, 43
+
+Babylon, 90, 94, 96, 97, 101, 102, 111, 112, 114, 115- 16, 119, 121,
+122, 134, 147, 148, 373, 429
+
+Babylonian calendar, 68
+
+Babylonian Empire, 90, 91, 109, 110
+
+Babylonians, 108
+
+Bacon, Roger, 293-97, 433
+
+Bacon, Sir Francis, 321, 355, 433
+
+Bagdad, 256, 267, 290, 292, 432, 433
+
+Bahamas, 407
+
+Baldwin of Flanders, 272
+
+Balkan peninsula, 108, 200, 230, 392, 429
+
+Balkh, 299
+
+Balloons, altitude attained by, 4
+
+Baltic, 415
+
+Baltic Fleet, Russian, 404
+
+Baluchistan, 405
+
+Barbarians, 227 _et seq._, 230, 320
+
+Barbarossa. Frederick, (_See_ Frederick I)
+
+Bards, 106, 234
+
+Barrows, 104
+
+Barter, 83, 102
+
+Basketwork, 65
+
+Basle, Council of, 305
+
+Basque race, 92, 107
+
+Bastille, 342, 434
+
+Basutoland, 407
+
+Beaconsfield, Lord, 394
+
+Bedouins, 122, 248
+
+Beetles, 26
+
+Behar, 180, 430
+
+Behring Straits, 52, 71, 73
+
+Bel Marduk, 109, 111, 112, 114
+
+Belgium, 185, 344, 347, 352, 411, 434
+
+Belisarius, 421
+
+Belshazzar, 112
+
+Beluchistan, 149
+
+Benares, 156, 160
+
+Beneventum, 179
+
+Berbers, 71, 92
+
+Bergen, 294
+
+Berlin, Treaty of, 435
+
+Bermuda, 407
+
+Bessemer process, 359
+
+Beth-shan, 118
+
+Bible, 1, 68, 100, 112, 115, 116, 119, 121, 122, 184, 286, 298, 306-07
+(_Cf._ Hebrew Bible)
+
+Birds, flight of, 4; the earliest , 31; development of , 32
+
+Bison, 56
+
+Black Death, the, 433
+
+Black Sea, 71, 94-95, 108, 129, 200
+
+Blood sacrifice, 167, 186, 212 (_See also_ Sacrifice)
+
+Boats, 91, 136
+
+Boer republic, 187
+
+Boers, 398
+
+Bohemia, 236, 306
+
+Bohemians, 304-05, 326
+
+Bokhara, 256
+
+Boleyn, Anne, 313
+
+Bolivar, General, 349
+
+Bologna, 295, 312
+
+Bolsheviks (and Bolshevism), 417-19, 435
+
+Bone carvings, 53
+
+Bone implements, 45, 46
+
+Boniface VIII, Pope, 283-84
+
+“Book religions,” 226
+
+Books, 153, 298, 302
+
+Boötes, 257
+
+Boris, King of Bulgaria, 432
+
+Bosnia, 228
+
+Bosphorus, 135
+
+Boston, 337-38
+
+Bostra, 243
+
+Botany Bay, 393
+
+Bourbon, Constable of, 312, 433
+
+Bowmen, 145, 155, 300
+
+Brahmins and Brahminism, 165, 166
+
+Brain, 42
+
+Brazil, 329, 336, 340
+
+Breathing, 24
+
+Brest-Litovsk, 417
+
+Britain, 106, 122, 174, 185, 203, 236, 349, 353, 402, 431, 434, (_See
+also_ England, Great Britain)
+
+British, 329, 331
+
+British Civil Air Transport Commission, 363
+
+British East Indian Company, (_See_ East India Company)
+
+British Empire, 407;  (in 1815) 393; (in 1914) 405
+
+British Guianu. 393
+
+British Navy, 408
+
+“British schools,” the, 369
+
+Brittany, 309
+
+Broken Hill, South Africa, 52
+
+Bronze, 80, 87, 102, 104
+
+Bruges, 294
+
+Brussels, 344
+
+Brythonic Celts, 107
+
+Buda-Pesth, 312
+
+Buddha, 133, 156, 172, 213 429; life of 158; his teaching 161-62
+
+Buddhism (and Buddhists), 166, 172, 222, 255, 290, 319, 334, 400, (_See
+also_ Buddha)
+
+Bulgaria, 135, 229, 245, 292, 411, 432
+
+Bull fights, Cretan, 93
+
+Burgoyne, General, 338
+
+Burgundy, 309, 342
+
+Burial, early, 102, 104
+
+Burleigh. Lord, 324
+
+Burma, 166, 300, 405
+
+Burning the dead, 104
+
+Bury, J. B., 288
+
+Bushmen, 54
+
+Byzantine Army, 253
+
+Byzantine Empire, 238, 271-72
+
+Byzantine fleet, 431
+
+Byzantium, 228, 243, 267, 268, (_See also_ Constantinople)
+
+C
+
+Cabul, 148
+
+Cæsar, Augustus, 430
+
+Cæsar, Julius, 187, 192, 193, 194, 195, 430
+
+Cæsar, title, etc., 212, 223, 240, 327
+
+Cainozoic period, 37 _et seq._
+
+Cairo, 256
+
+Calendar, 68
+
+Calicut, 329
+
+California, 336, 383
+
+Caligula, 195, 430
+
+Caliphs, 252
+
+“Cambulac,” 300
+
+Cambyses, 112, 134
+
+Camels, 42, 102, 112, 196, 319
+
+Campanella, 371
+
+Canaan, 116
+
+Canada, 332, 396, 405, 434
+
+Canary Islands, 302
+
+Cannæ, 182
+
+Canossa, 274
+
+Canton, 247
+
+Canute, 263, 432
+
+Cape Colony, 398
+
+Cape of Good Hope, 336, 393, 433
+
+Capet, Hugh, 266, 432
+
+Carboniferous age.  (_See_ Coal swamps)
+
+Cardinals, 277 _et seq._
+
+Caria, 98
+
+Carians, 94
+
+Caribou, 73
+
+Carlovingian Empire, 432
+
+Carnac, 106
+
+Carolinas, 388
+
+Carrhæ, 194
+
+Carthage, 92, 122, 123, 134, 176, 179, 182, 183, 185, 232, 429- 30, 431
+
+Carthaginians, 179, 182
+
+Caspian Sea, 71, 88, 108, 148, 193, 197, 430
+
+Caste, 157, 165
+
+Catalonians, 302
+
+“Cathay,” 300
+
+Catholicism, 237, 337, 351. (_See also_ Papacy, Roman Catholic)
+
+Cato, 187
+
+Cattle, 77, 83
+
+Caudine Forks, 430
+
+Cavalry, 145, 148, 178
+
+Cave drawings, 53, 56, 57
+
+Caxton, William, 306
+
+Celibacy, 275
+
+Celts, 106, 107, 193
+
+Centipedes, 23
+
+Ceylon, 165, 407
+
+Chæronia, battle of, 145, 146, 430
+
+Chalcedon, 243
+
+Chaldean Empire, 109
+
+Chaldeans, 109, 110-11, 115, 429
+
+Chandragupta, 163, 430
+
+Chariots, 96, 100, 101-02, 112, 119, 145, 148
+
+Charlemagne, 259, 261, 264-65, 272, 309, 432
+
+Charles I, King of England, 308, 314, 433
+
+Charles II, King of England, 324, 434
+
+Charles V, Emperor, 309, 310, 314, 316, 433
+
+Charles X, King of France, 350, 434
+
+Charles the Great, (_See_ Charlemagne)
+
+_Charlotte Dundas_, steamboat, 357
+
+Chelonia, 27
+
+Chemists, Arab, 257.  (_Cf._ Alchemists)
+
+Cheops, 83
+
+Chephren, 83
+
+China, 76, 84, 103, 166, 167 _et seq._, 173, 174, 233, 245 _et seq._,
+248, 287, 290, 297, 333, 399- 400, 402-03, 411, 429-31, 432, 433, 435. 
+(_See also_ Chow, Han, Kin, Ming, Shang, Sung, Suy, Ts’in, and Yuan
+dynasties)
+
+China, culture and civilization in, 247
+
+China, Empire of, 196 _et seq._
+
+China, Great Wall of, 173, 430
+
+China, North, 173
+
+Chinese picture writing, 79, 167
+
+Chosroes I, 243, 431
+
+Chosroes II, 243, 431
+
+Chow dynasty, 168, 173, 429
+
+Christ.  (_See_ Jesus)
+
+Christian conception of Jesus, 214
+
+Christianity (and Christians), 224, 255, 272, 295, 319, 400, 431
+
+Christianity, doctrinal, development of, 222 _et seq._
+
+Christianity, spirit of, 224
+
+Chronicles, book of, 116, 119
+
+Chronology, primitive, 68
+
+Ch’u, 173
+
+Church, the, 68
+
+Cicero, 193
+
+Cilicia, 299
+
+Cimmerians, 100
+
+Circumcision, 70
+
+Circumnavigation, 302
+
+Cities, Sumerian, 78
+
+Citizenship, 187 _et seq._, 236, 237
+
+City states, Greek, 129 _et seq._, Chinese, 168
+
+Civilization, 100
+
+Civilization, Hellenic, 139, 150 _et seq._
+
+Civilization, Japanese, 400
+
+Civilization, pre-historic, 71
+
+Civilization, primitive, 76, 167
+
+Civilization, Roman, 185
+
+Claudius, Emperor, 195, 430
+
+Clay documents, 77, 80, 111
+
+Clement V, Pope, 285
+
+Clement VII, Pope, 285, 433
+
+Cleopatra, 194
+
+Clermont, 432
+
+_Clermont_, steamboat, 358
+
+Climate, changes of, 21, 37
+
+Clive, 333
+
+Clothing, 77
+
+Clothing of Cretan women, 93
+
+Clouds, 8
+
+Clovis, 259
+
+Clyde, Firth of, 357
+
+Cnossos (Crete), 92, 94, 95, 101, 108, 127, 429
+
+Coal, 26
+
+Coal swamps, the age of, 21 _et seq._
+
+Coinage, 114, 176, 201, 319
+
+Coke, 322
+
+Collectivists, 375
+
+Colonies, 394 _et seq._, 407
+
+Columbus, Christopher, 300-01 _et seq._, 335, 433
+
+Communism (and Communists), 374-75, 417
+
+Comnenus, Alexius.  (_See_ Alexius)
+
+Comparative anatomy, science of, 25, (_Cf._ Anatomy)
+
+Concord, Mass., 338
+
+Confederated States of America, 385
+
+Confucius, 133, 168 _et seq._, 173, 429
+
+Congo, 397
+
+Conifers, 26, 36
+
+Constance, Council of, 286, 304, 433
+
+Constantine the Great, 187, 226, 228, 229, 241, 429, 431
+
+Constantinople, 229, 238, 239, 243, 253, 258, 263- 64, 270 _et seq._,
+272, 283, 292, 301, 321, 327, 431, 432, 433.  (_See also_ Byzantium)
+
+Consuls, Roman, 193
+
+Copper, 74, 80, 102, 360, 395
+
+Cordoba, 256
+
+Corinth, 129
+
+Cornwallis, General, 338
+
+Corsets, 93
+
+Corsica, 182, 185, 232
+
+Cortez, 314
+
+Cossacks, 334
+
+Cotton fabrics, 102
+
+Couvade, the, 70
+
+Crabs, 23
+
+Crassus, 192, 194, 199
+
+Creation of the world, story of, 1, 116
+
+Creed religions, 240
+
+Cretan script, 94
+
+Crete, 92, 108
+
+Crimea, 419
+
+Crimean War, 390, 434
+
+Crocodiles, 28
+
+Crœsus, 111, 429
+
+Cro-Magnon race, 51, 54, 65
+
+Cromwell, Oliver, 434
+
+Cronstadt, 419
+
+Crucifixion, 204
+
+Crusades, 267 _et seq._, 281, 304-05, 432
+
+Crustacea, 13
+
+Ctesiphon, 244
+
+Cuba, 393
+
+Cultivation, the beginnings of, 65 _et seq._
+
+Culture, Heliolithic, 69
+
+Culture, Japanese, 402
+
+Cuneiform, 78
+
+Currents, 18
+
+Cyaxares, 109-10, 429
+
+Cycads, 26, 36
+
+Cyrus the Persian, 111, 116, 121, 123, 134, 429
+
+Czech language, 236
+
+Czecho-Slovaks, 351
+
+Czechs, 304
+
+D
+
+Dacia, 195, 200, 203, 227, 236
+
+Dædalus, 94
+
+Dalmatia, 431
+
+Damascus, 243, 253, 431
+
+Danes, 329, 330
+
+Danube, 135, 200, 227, 430
+
+Dardanelles, 136, 147, 292
+
+Darius I, 112, 134, 135, 136, 429
+
+Darius III, 147, 148, 430
+
+Darlington, 356, 434
+
+David, King, 118-19, 429
+
+Da Vinci, Leonardo, 356
+
+Davis, Jefferson, 385, 388
+
+Dawn Man.  (_See_ Eoanthropus)
+
+Dead, burning the, 104; burial of (_See_ Burial)
+
+Debtors’ prisons, 336
+
+Deciduous trees, 36
+
+Decius, Emperor, 200, 432
+
+Declaration of Independence, 334, 434
+
+_Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (Gibbon’s), 288-89
+
+Deer, 42, 56
+
+Defender of the Faith, title of, 313
+
+Defoe, Daniel, 365
+
+Delhi, 292, 433
+
+Democracy, 131, 132, 270
+
+Deniken, General, 419
+
+Denmark, 306, 313, 394, 432
+
+Deshima, 401
+
+Devonian system, 19
+
+Diaz, 433
+
+Dictator, Roman, 194
+
+Dillon, Dr., 424
+
+Dinosaurs, 28, 31, 36
+
+Diocletian, Emperor, 224, 226, 227
+
+Dionysius, 170
+
+Diplodocus Carnegii, measurement of, 28
+
+Diseases, infectious, 379
+
+Ditchwater, animal and plant life in, 13
+
+Dogs, 42
+
+Domazlice, battle of, 305
+
+Dominic, St., 276
+
+Dominician Order, 276, 285, 400
+
+Dorian Greeks, 108, 130
+
+Douglas, Senator, 386
+
+Dover, Straits of, 193
+
+Dragon flies, 23
+
+Drama, Greek, 139
+
+Dravidian civilization, 108
+
+Dravidians, 71
+
+Duck-billed platypus, 34
+
+Duma, the, 416
+
+Durazzo, 268
+
+Dutch, 329, 331, 332, 399
+
+Dutch Guiana, 394
+
+Dutch Republic, 350
+
+Dyeing, 75
+
+E
+
+Earth, the, shape of, 1; rotation of, 1; distance from the sun, 2; age
+and origin of, 5; surface of, 21
+
+Earthquakes, 95
+
+East India Company, 332, 337, 393, 394
+
+East Indies, 394, 399
+
+Ebro, 182
+
+Ecbatana, 109, 114
+
+Echidna, the, 34
+
+Eclipses, 8
+
+Ecnomus, battle of, 181, 430
+
+Economists, French, 371
+
+Edessa, 271
+
+Education, 294, 361, 368, 369
+
+Egbert, King of Wessex, 263, 432
+
+Egg-laying mammals, 34
+
+Eggs, 24, 26, 31, 102
+
+Egypt (and Egyptians), 71, 78, 90, 91, 62, 96, 98, 100- 101, 115, 119,
+121, 122, 123, 124, 134, 138, 147, 174, 208, 209, 210, 238, 253, 267,
+290, 292, 396, 398, 405, 429, 431, 434
+
+Egyptian script, 78, 79
+
+Elamites, 88, 90, 174
+
+Elba, 348
+
+Electric light, 360
+
+Electric traction, 360
+
+Electricity, 322, 358, 360
+
+Elephants, 42, 127, 149, 178, 181, 253, 300
+
+Elixir of life, 257
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 324, 332
+
+Emigration, 336
+
+Emperor, title of, 327
+
+Employer and employed, 375
+
+“Encyclopædists,” the, 371
+
+England (and English), 306, 390, 431
+
+England, Norman Conquest of, 266
+
+England, overseas possessions, 330
+
+English Channel, 331
+
+English language, 95
+
+Entelodonts, 42
+
+Eoanthropus, 47
+
+Eoliths, 45
+
+Ephesus, 149
+
+Ephthalites, 199
+
+Epics, 106, 127, 129, 131
+
+Epirus, 131, 178, 179
+
+Epistles, the, 222
+
+Eratosthenes, 151
+
+Erech, Sumerian city of, 78
+
+Esarhaddon, 429
+
+Essenes, 213
+
+Esthonia, 245
+
+Esthonians, 419
+
+Ethiopian dynasty, 429
+
+Ethiopians, 96, 233
+
+Etruscans, 94, 100, 176, 430
+
+Euclid, 151
+
+Euphrates, 77, 110, 127, 129, 174, 196, 429, 430
+
+Euripides, 139
+
+Europe, 200
+
+Europe, Central, 329
+
+Europe, Concert of, 350
+
+Europe, Western, 53, 298
+
+European overseas populations, 336
+
+Europeans, intellectual revival of, 294 _et seq._
+
+Europeans, North Atlantic, 329
+
+Europeans, Western, 329
+
+Everlasting League, 433
+
+Evolution, 16, 42
+
+Excommunication, 275, 281, 285
+
+Execution. Greek method of, 140
+
+Ezekiel, 124
+
+F
+
+Factory system, 365
+
+Family groups, 61
+
+Famine, 420
+
+Faraday, 358
+
+Fashoda, 398
+
+Fatherhood of God, the, 215, 224, 251
+
+Fear, 61
+
+Feathers, 32
+
+Ferdinand of Aragon, King, 293, 302, 309
+
+Ferns, 23, 26
+
+Fertilizers, 363
+
+Fetishism, 63, 64
+
+Feudal system, 258, 400, 401, 402
+
+Fielding, Henry, 365
+
+Fiji, 407
+
+Finance, 134
+
+Finland, 245
+
+Finns, 351
+
+Fish, the age of, 16 _et seq._; the first known vertebrata, 19;
+evolution of, 30
+
+Fisher, Lord, 416
+
+Fishing, 57
+
+Fleming, Bishop, 286
+
+Flint implements, 44, 47
+
+Flood, story of the, 91, 116
+
+Florence, 294
+
+Florentine Society, 322
+
+Florida, 336, 385
+
+Flying machines, 94, 363
+
+Fontainebleau, 348
+
+Food, rationing of, 414
+
+Food riots, 417
+
+Forests, 56, 197
+
+Fossils, 13, 43.  (_Cf._ Rocks)
+
+Fowl, the domestic, 88, 102
+
+France, 106, 185, 230, 259, 263, 312, 336, 342, 353, 390, 391, 394,
+396, 402, 409, 411, 434
+
+Francis I, King of France, 310, 312, 313, 433
+
+Francis II, Emperor of Austria, 434
+
+Francis of Assisi, St., 276, 432
+
+Franciscan Order, 276, 285, 432
+
+Frankfort, Peace of, 391, 435
+
+Franks, 200, 227, 235, 259, 265, 431
+
+Frazer, Sir J. G., 66
+
+Frederick I (Barbarossa), 274, 432
+
+Frederick I, King of Prussia, 434
+
+Frederick II, German Emperor, 279, 280, 288 _et seq._, 289, 294, 304,
+435
+
+Frederick II, King of Sicily, 432
+
+Frederick the Great of Prussia, 437, 434
+
+Freeman’s Farm, 338
+
+French, 329, 331, 332, 419
+
+French Guiana, 394
+
+French language, 203, 327, 328, 419
+
+French Revolution, 342 _et seq._, 374
+
+Frogs, 24
+
+Fronde, war of the, 434
+
+Fulton, Robert, 358
+
+Furnace, blast, 359; electric, 359
+
+Furs, 335
+
+G
+
+Galatia, 430
+
+Galatians, 193
+
+Galba, 430
+
+Galerius, Emperor, 226, 431
+
+Galleys, 91, 92, 181, 263
+
+Galvani, 258
+
+Gamma, Vasco da, 329, 335, 433
+
+Ganges, 156
+
+Gath, 117
+
+Gaul, 203, 235, 236, 357, 431
+
+Gauls, 154, 178, 179, 180, 182, 193, 430
+
+Gautama.  (_See_ Buddha)
+
+Gaza, 117, 147
+
+Gaztelu, 314
+
+Genoa (and Genoese), 294, 300, 301, 302
+
+Genoa Conference, 425
+
+Genseric, 232
+
+Geology, 11 _et seq._, 356
+
+George III, King of England, 324, 337, 434
+
+Georgia, 336, 339, 385, 387
+
+German Empire, 409
+
+German language, 95, 236, 260
+
+Germans, 268, 288, 310, 351, 360- 61, 362
+
+Germany, 197, 326, 347, 348, 362, 390, 396, 402, 409, 410, 411
+
+Germany, North, 306
+
+Gibbon, E., 234, 288
+
+Gibraltar, 71, 92, 94, 253, 393, 407
+
+Gigantosaurus, measurement of, 28
+
+Gilbert, Dr., 322
+
+Gilboa, Mount, 118
+
+Gills, 24
+
+Giraffes, 42
+
+Gizeh, pyramids at, 83
+
+Glacial Ages, 22, 37, 44
+
+Gladiators, 205
+
+Glass, 102
+
+Glyptodon, 74
+
+Goa, 329
+
+Goats, 77
+
+God, idea of one true, 249
+
+God of Judaism, 123, 209, 213, 214, 215
+
+Godfrey of Bouillon, 432
+
+Gods, 111, 123, 129, 165, 184, 186, 201 _et seq._, 208 _et seq._, 240
+
+Goidelic Celts, 106
+
+Gold, 74, 80, 83, 102, 300, 395
+
+_Golden Bough_, Frazer’s, 66
+
+Good Hope, Cape of.  (_See_ Cape)
+
+Gospels, the, 214 _et seq._, 222
+
+Gothic kingdom, 259
+
+Gothland, 197, 200
+
+Goths, 181, 200, 227, 228, 430, 431
+
+Granada, 293, 301
+
+Granicus, battle of the, 146, 430
+
+Grant, General, 387, 388
+
+Graphite, 15
+
+Grass, 37, 51
+
+Great Britain, 396, 410
+
+Great Mogul, Empire of, 394, 434
+
+Great Powers, 399 _et seq._
+
+Great Schism.  (_See_ Papal schism)
+
+Great War, the, 411 _et seq. _, 421, 435
+
+Greece, 92, 94, 108, 127, 139 _et seq._, 145 _et seq._, 434
+
+Greece, war with Persia, 134 _et seq._
+
+Greek language, 95, 202, 203
+
+Greeks, 92, 100, 101, 108, 122 _et seq._, 135, 150, 174, 186, 271, 272,
+301, 353, 419, 429, 430, 433
+
+Greenland, 263
+
+Gregory I, Pope, 263
+
+Gregory VII, Pope (Hildebrand), 268, 272, 274, 275, 278, 432
+
+Gregory IX, Pope, 281
+
+Gregory XI, Pope, 285, 433
+
+Gregory the Great, 272
+
+Grimaldi race, 51, 54, 65
+
+Guillotine, the, 346
+
+Guiscard, Robert, 432
+
+Gunpowder, 287, 321
+
+Guns, 321, 413
+
+Gustavus Adolphus, 331
+
+Gymnastic displays, Cretan, 93
+
+H
+
+Habsburgs, 283, 309, 310
+
+Hadrian, 174, 430
+
+Halicarnassus, 138
+
+Hamburg, 294
+
+Hamitic people, 71
+
+Hammurabi, 90, 92, 104, 429
+
+Han dynasty, 196, 200, 245, 430
+
+Hannibal, 182
+
+Hanover, Elector of, 327
+
+Harding, President, 425
+
+Harold Hardrada, 266
+
+Harold, King of England, 266
+
+Haroun-al-Raschid, 267, 432
+
+Hastings, battle of, 266
+
+Hastings, Warren, 333
+
+Hatasu, Queen of Egypt, 96
+
+Hathor, 209
+
+Heaven, Kingdom of, 216, 217
+
+Hebrew Bible, 1, 115, 116.  (_Cf._ Bible)
+
+Hebrew literature, 100
+
+Hebrews, 100, 115.  (_See also_ Jews)
+
+Hegira, 431
+
+Heidelberg man, 45
+
+Heliolithic culture, 69, 71, 167, 174
+
+Heliolithic peoples, 107
+
+Hellenic tribes, 100.  (_See also_ Greeks)
+
+Hellespont, 430, 431
+
+Helots, 130, 203
+
+Hen.  (_See_ Fowl)
+
+Henry IV, King, 274
+
+Henry VI, Emperor, 279
+
+Henry VIII, King of England, 310, 312, 313, 324, 433
+
+Henry the Fowler, 265, 432
+
+Heraclea, battle of, 178, 430
+
+Heraclitus of Ephesus, 132, 156, 161
+
+Heraclius, Emperor, 243, 247, 253, 431
+
+Herat, 148
+
+Herbivorous reptiles, 28
+
+Hercules, Pillars of, (_See_ Gibraltar)
+
+Hero, 151, 152
+
+Herodotus, 138, 139
+
+Herophilus, 151
+
+Hiero, 182
+
+Hieroglyphics, 79, 124
+
+Hildebrand. (_See_ Gregory VII)
+
+Himalayas, the, 37
+
+Hipparchus, 151
+
+Hippopotamus, 43
+
+Hiram, King of Sidon, 118, 119, 122
+
+_History of Charles V_, 316
+
+Hittites, 96, 97, 98, 108
+
+Hohenstaufens, 283
+
+Holland, 306, 344, 347, 394, 396, 402, 433, 434
+
+Holstein, 351
+
+Holy Alliance, 349
+
+Holy Roman Empire, 264, 309, 317, 323, 347, 377, 409, 432, 434
+
+Homer, 129
+
+Honorius, 230, 431
+
+Honorius III, Pope, 281
+
+Horse, 51, 56, 94, 96, 97, 112, 167, 319, 336; evolution of the, 42
+
+Horsetails, 23
+
+Horus, 209, 210, 211
+
+Hottentots, 54
+
+Hsia, 287
+
+Hudson Bay Company, 393
+
+Hudson River, 358
+
+Hulagu Khan, 290, 433
+
+Human sacrifice, 182, 186. (_Cf._ Blood Sacrifice, Sacrifice)
+
+Hungarians, 263, 289, 351
+
+Hungary, 185, 203, 227, 245, 258, 263, 289, 290, 292, 310, 312, 351
+
+Hungary, plain of, 234
+
+Huns, 88, 167, 168, 174, 197, 198, 227, 232, 233, 245, 263, 289, 431
+
+Hunting, 56
+
+Huss, John, 304, 433
+
+Hussites, 305
+
+Hwang-ho river, 173
+
+Hwang-ho valley, 300
+
+Hyksos, 90, 96
+
+Hyracodons, 42
+
+Hystaspes, 430
+
+I
+
+Iberians, 71, 92
+
+Ice age, 43.  (_Cf._ Glacial ages)
+
+Iceland, 263
+
+Ichthyosaurs, 29, 36
+
+Ignatius of Loyola, St., 308, 434
+
+_Iliad_, 127
+
+Illinois, 386
+
+Illyria, 179, 182
+
+Immolation of human beings, 102
+
+Immortality, idea of, 210, 211, 224
+
+Imperialism, 399
+
+Implements, 46, 48, 56, 57, 65, 87
+
+Implements, use of, by animals, 44, 45
+
+India, 71, 84, 104, 108, 122, 149, 156, 163, 164, 196, 199, 287, 302,
+335, 394- 95, 399, 409, 433, 434
+
+Indian Empire, 405
+
+Indian Ocean, 329
+
+Indiana, 383, 386
+
+Individualists, 375 _et seq._
+
+Individuality in reproduction, 16 _et seq._
+
+Indo-Scythians, 199, 430
+
+Indus, 149, 429
+
+Industrial revolution, 365 _et seq._
+
+Infantry, 178
+
+Influenza, 414
+
+Innocent III, Pope, 276, 279, 280, 432
+
+Innocent IV, Pope, 281
+
+Innsbruck, 313
+
+Inquisition, the, 276, 349
+
+Insects, 26, 31
+
+Interdicts, papal, 275
+
+Interglacial period, 44
+
+Internationalism, 380
+
+Invertebrata, 13
+
+Investitures, 275
+
+Ionic Greeks, 108, 130
+
+Iowa, 385
+
+Ireland, 106, 405
+
+Iron, 80, 87, 94, 97, 102, 104, 168, 319, 321, 358, 359
+
+Irrigation, 290
+
+Isabella of Castile, Queen, 293, 302, 309
+
+Isaiah, 125, 133, 156
+
+Isis, 209, 210, 211, 212
+
+Islam, 251, 252, 432
+
+Islamism, 267, 319.  (_See also_ Moslem, Muhammedanism)
+
+Isocrates, 145
+
+Israel, judges of, 118
+
+Israel, kings of, 118, 119, 121
+
+Issus, battle of, 147, 430
+
+Italian language, 203
+
+Italians, 107, 351
+
+Italica, 202
+
+Italy, 94, 108, 129, 134, 176, 180, 230, 236, 312, 327, 347, 390, 396,
+409, 411, 429, 431, 434
+
+Italy, Central, 429
+
+Italy, North, 263, 312, 351, 390, 429, 431
+
+Italy, South, 429
+
+Ivan III (the Great), 327, 433
+
+Ivan IV (the Terrible), 327, 433
+
+J
+
+Jacobin republic, 434
+
+Jamaica, 393, 407
+
+James I, King of England and Scotland, 324, 433
+
+Jamestown (Va.), 433
+
+Japan, 166, 300, 399, 400-01 _et seq._, 409, 410, 435
+
+Japanese, 419
+
+Jarandilla, 315
+
+Java, 302, 329
+
+Jaw-bone, Heidelberg, 45-46; Piltdown, 46
+
+Jehovah, 125
+
+Jena, 434
+
+Jengis Khan, 287, 298, 334, 432
+
+Jerusalem, 115, 116, 119, 121, 123, 124, 184, 215, 243, 267, 271, 272,
+299, 431, 432
+
+Jerusalem, Temple of, 119, 184
+
+Jesuits, 308, 400, 433
+
+Jesus, life and teaching of, 214 _et seq._, 224, 270, 306, 374, 430
+
+Jews, 123, 124, 147, 184, 213, 215, 255, 256, 270, 294
+
+Jews, early history of, 115 _et seq._
+
+Jews, literature of, 115
+
+Jewish religion and sacred books, 116
+
+John III of Poland, 434
+
+John XI, Pope, 272
+
+John XII, Pope, 272, 432
+
+Joppa, 117
+
+Joseph, King of Spain, 349, 434
+
+Josiah, King of Judah, 110, 115, 116, 429
+
+Judah, 115, 119
+
+Judah, kings of, 119
+
+Judea, 115, 183, 214
+
+Judea, priests and prophets in, 122 _et seq._
+
+Judges, book of, 117
+
+Judges of Israel, 118
+
+Jugo-Slavia, 354
+
+Jugo-Slavs, 351
+
+Jugurtha, 192
+
+Julian the Apostate, 431
+
+Julius III, 316
+
+Junks, Chinese, 400
+
+Jupiter (god), 211, 212
+
+Jupiter (planet), 2, 3
+
+Jupiter Capitolinus, 184
+
+Jupiter Serapis, 226
+
+Justinian I, 232, 238, 243, 431
+
+Jutes, 230
+
+K
+
+Kaaba, the, 249
+
+Kadessia, battle of, 253, 431
+
+Kalinga, 163
+
+Kansas, 383
+
+Karakorum, 287, 298
+
+Karnak, 101
+
+Kashgar, 300
+
+Kashmir, Buddhists in, 165
+
+Kavadh, 243, 244, 431
+
+Kentucky, 383, 386
+
+Kerensky, 416, 417
+
+Khans, 287 _et seq._
+
+Khyber Pass, 148, 199
+
+Kiau Chau, 400
+
+Kieff, 287, 432
+
+Kin dynasty, 287
+
+Kings, book of, 119
+
+Kioto, 402
+
+Ki-wi, the, 32
+
+Koltchak, Admiral, 419
+
+Koran, the, 251, 255
+
+Korea, 400, 402
+
+Kotan, 300
+
+Krum of Bulgaria, 432
+
+Kublai Khan, 290, 298, 300, 433
+
+Kushan dynasty, 199
+
+L
+
+Labyrinth, Cretan, 127
+
+Lahore, 287
+
+Lake Ontario, 336
+
+Land scorpions, 23
+
+Langley, Professor, 363
+
+Languages of mankind, 94, 95, 100, 106, 107, 108, 134, 145, 156, 176,
+201, 202, 203, 230, 236, 243, 245, 259, 325, 328
+
+Lao Tse, 133, 170 _et seq._, 222, 429
+
+Lapland, 233
+
+Latin Emperor, 259
+
+Latin language, 201, 202, 203, 236, 259.  (_Cf._ also Languages)
+
+Latins, the, 271, 272, 432
+
+Law, 238
+
+_Laws_, Plato’s, 142
+
+League of Nations, 422, 423, 424, 425, 435
+
+Learning, 255
+
+Lee, General, 387, 389
+
+Legionaries, 229
+
+Lemurs, 43
+
+Lenin, 417, 419
+
+Leo III, Pope, 265, 272, 432
+
+Leo X, Pope, 310, 312, 433
+
+Leonidas, 136
+
+Leopold I, 353
+
+Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 434
+
+Lepanto, battle of, 293
+
+Lepidus, 194
+
+Lexington, 338
+
+Liberia, 398
+
+Libraries, 151, 164, 170
+
+Liegnitz, battle of, 288, 289, 433
+
+Life, beginnings of, the Record of the Rocks, 11 _et seq._; progressive
+nature of, 16; of what it consists, 16; theory of Natural Selection,
+18; a teachable type: advent of, 39
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, 385, 386, 388, 389, 435; assassination of, 389
+
+Linen, 102
+
+Lions, 42, 127
+
+Lisbon, 294, 315, 329
+
+Literary criticism, evolution of, 205
+
+Literature, European, 298
+
+Literature, pre-historic, 115
+
+Lizards, 27, 28
+
+Llamas, 42
+
+Lob Nor, 300
+
+Lochau, battle of, 313
+
+Locke, John, 371
+
+Logic, science of, 144
+
+Lombard kingdom, 259
+
+Lombards, 431
+
+Lombardy, 431
+
+London, 294, 413
+
+Lopez de Recalde, Inigo, 308, (_See also_ Ignatius of Loyola)
+
+Lorraine, 391
+
+Louis XIV, 324, 433
+
+Louis XV, 434
+
+Louis XVI, 342, 343, 434
+
+Louis XVIII, 350, 434
+
+Louis Philippe, 350, 434
+
+Louis the Pious, 265, 432
+
+Louisiana, 336, 385
+
+Lu, state of, 170
+
+Lucretius, 294
+
+Lucullus, 192
+
+Lunar month, 68
+
+Lung, the, 24
+
+Luther, Martin, 306, 310, 433
+
+Luxembourg, 351
+
+Luxor, 101
+
+Lvoff, Prince, 416
+
+Lyceum, Athens, 142, 144
+
+Lydia, 98, 134
+
+Lydians, 94
+
+Lyons, 345
+
+M
+
+Macao, 329
+
+Macaulay, Lord, 187
+
+Maccabeans, 184
+
+Macedonia and Macedonians, 131, 135, 139, 145, 179, 292, 350
+
+Machinery, 322, 356
+
+Madeira, 122, 302
+
+Madras, 163
+
+Magellan, Ferdinand, 302
+
+Magic, 172
+
+Magna Græcia, 129, 178
+
+Magnesia, battle of, 183
+
+Magyars, 263, 264, 270, 289
+
+Mahaffy, Professor, 151
+
+Maine, 336, 339
+
+Majuba Hill, battle of, 398
+
+Malta, 393, 407
+
+Mammals, the earliest, 33; viviparous, 33; egg-laying, 34; the Age of,
+37 _et seq. _
+
+Mammoth, 43, 49
+
+Man, brotherhood of, 216, 224, 380
+
+Man, 43; Heidelberg, 45; Eoanthropus, 47; Neanderthal, 47, 48 _et
+seq._; earliest known, 53 _et seq._
+
+Manchu, 333, 433
+
+Manchuria, 197, 400, 402, 403, 404
+
+Mangu Khan, 290, 433
+
+Mani, 241, 270, 430, 431
+
+Manichæans, 243, 255
+
+Mankind, racial divisions of, 54, 71
+
+Mantua, 345
+
+Maoris, 71
+
+Marathon, 136
+
+Marathon, battle of, 430
+
+Marchand, Colonel, 398
+
+Marcus Aurelius, 174, 430
+
+Marie Antoinette, 343, 346
+
+Mariner’s compass, 302, 320
+
+Marius, 191, 192, 237, 430
+
+“Marriage of East and West,” 149
+
+Mars (planet), 2, 3
+
+Marseillaise, the, 343, 345
+
+Marseilles, 129, 182, 312, 345
+
+Martel, Charles, 259, 432
+
+Marlin V, Pope, 286, 304
+
+Marx, 376
+
+Maryland, 337
+
+Mas d’Azil cave, 57
+
+Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 390, 391
+
+Maximilian I, Emperor, 309, 433
+
+Maya writing, 74, 75
+
+Mayence, 265, 344
+
+_Mayflower_ expedition, 433
+
+Mazarin, Cardinal, 324
+
+Mecca, 248, 249, 251, 431
+
+Mechanical revolution, 256 _et seq._, 366, 369
+
+Medes, 100, 108, 109, 115, 122, 134, 155, 174, 429
+
+Media, rebellion in, 136
+
+Median Empire, 109, 110, 112
+
+Medicine man, the, 64
+
+Medina, 249
+
+Mediterranean, 71, 91, 176, 292, 293; valley, 71
+
+“Mediterranean” people, pre-Greek, 130
+
+Megatherium, 74
+
+Megiddo, battle of, 110, 115, 429
+
+Melasgird, battle of, 268, 432
+
+Mentality, primitive, 60, _et seq._
+
+Mercury (planet), 2, 3
+
+Mesopotamia, 77, 80, 96, 100, 109, 127, 174, 267, 290, 299
+
+Mesozoic period, 27; land life of, 28; sea life of, 30; scarcity of
+bird and mammal life in, 32, 34; its difference from Cainozoic period,
+38
+
+Messina, 179, 180
+
+Messina, Straits of, 179
+
+Metallurgy, 356, 359, 360
+
+Metals, transmutation of, 257
+
+Meteoric iron, 80, 94
+
+Metz, 391
+
+Mexico, 74, 76, 324, 321, 384, 385, 389, 399
+
+Michael VII, Emperor, 268
+
+Michael VIII.  (_See_ Palæologus)
+
+Microscope, 355
+
+Midianites, 117
+
+Milan, 227, 235, 309, 312, 351
+
+Miletus, 129
+
+Millipedes, 23
+
+Milton, 129
+
+Ming dynasty, 290, 333, 433
+
+Mining, 335
+
+Minnesota, 385
+
+Minos, 92, 95, 127, 131
+
+Missionaries, 236, 247, 380, 400, 431
+
+Mississippi (state), 385
+
+Mississippi River, 386
+
+Missouri, 382
+
+Mithraism, 211, 212, 213, 222, 431
+
+Mithras, 211, 213
+
+Mnemonics, Chinese and Peruvian method of, 76
+
+Moabites, 117
+
+Moawija, Caliph, 431
+
+Mogul dynasty, 292, 433
+
+Moluccas, 329
+
+Monarchy, 323, 341, 347
+
+Monasticism, 213, 236
+
+Money, 114, 176, 201, 319
+
+Mongol conquests, influence of, 298
+
+Mongol Court, the, 299
+
+Mongol Empire, 332
+
+Mongolia, 197
+
+Mongolian language, 108
+
+Mongolian peoples, 72, 73, 88, 167, 197, 227, 232, 233 _et seq._, 245,
+258, 287 _et seq._, 298, 320, 333, 400, 433
+
+Mongoloid tribes, 69
+
+Monkeys, 43, 45
+
+Monotheism, 251. (_See also_ Muhammad)
+
+Monroe doctrine, 349, 389, 396, 423
+
+Monroe, President, 349
+
+Montesquieu, 371
+
+Montgomery, 385
+
+Month, the lunar, 68
+
+Moon, the, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 68
+
+Moorish paper-mills, 297
+
+More, Sir Thomas, 365, 371
+
+Morelly, 371
+
+Morocco, 185, 398
+
+Mortillet, 57
+
+Moscow, 293, 434
+
+Moscow, Grand Duke of, 290
+
+Moses, 116
+
+Moslem Empire, 253
+
+Moslems, 297, 431, 432
+
+Moslim, the, 253, 269, 271, 290
+
+Mososaurs, 29
+
+Moses, 23
+
+Mounds, Neolithic, 70
+
+Mountains, 197
+
+Mozambique, 329
+
+Muehlon, Herr, 424
+
+Muhammad, prophet, 243, 247, 248 _et seq._, 270, 431
+
+Muhammad II, Sultan, 292, 433
+
+Mules, 102
+
+Mummies, 70
+
+Munitions, 412
+
+Musk ox, 43
+
+Mycalæ, battle of, 136, 430
+
+Mycenæ, 92, 108
+
+Mycerinus, 83
+
+Mylæ, battle of, 181, 430
+
+N
+
+Nabonidus, 111, 112
+
+Nankin, 173
+
+Naples, 178, 350, 431
+
+Napoleon Bonaparte, 345, 347, 348, 356, 434
+
+Napoleon III, 390, 434, 435
+
+Nasmyth, 359
+
+Natal, 398
+
+“National schools,” 369
+
+Natural history, father of, 144
+
+Natural Selection, theory of, 17
+
+Nautilus, the pearly, 39
+
+Navarino, battle of, 353, 434
+
+Neanderthaler Man, 47, 48 _et seq._
+
+Nebraska, 383
+
+Nebuchadnezzar II (the Great), 102, 110, 115, 429
+
+Nebulæ, 4, 5
+
+Necho II, 109, 110, 115, 122, 147, 429
+
+Needles, bone, 57
+
+Negroid tribes, 72, 88
+
+Nelson, Horatio, 348
+
+Neolithic age, 59, 65
+
+Neolithic civilizations, primitive, 71 _et seq._
+
+Neptune (planet), 2, 3
+
+Nero, 195, 430
+
+Nestorian missionaries, 431.  (_Cf._ Missionaries)
+
+Netherlands, 259, 309, 351
+
+Neustria, 431
+
+Neva, 327
+
+New Assyrian Empire, 97
+
+_New Atlantis, The_, 322, 355
+
+New England, 335, 337
+
+New Mexico, 433
+
+New Plymouth, 433
+
+Newts, 24
+
+New York, 358, 434
+
+New Zealand, 322, 396, 405
+
+Newfoundland, 405
+
+Nicæa, 268, 270
+
+Nicæa, Council of, 431
+
+Nicephorus, Emperor, 432
+
+Nicholas I, Tsar, 351, 390, 434
+
+Nicholas II, Tsar, 416
+
+Nickel, 360
+
+Nicomedia, 227
+
+Nieuw Amsterdam, 434.  (_Cf._ New York)
+
+Nile, 83, 100, 129, 398; valley 90, 429
+
+Nile, battle of the, 434
+
+Nineveh, 94, 97, 101, 109, 114, 243, 429, 431
+
+Nippur, 78
+
+Nirvana, 161
+
+Nish, 227
+
+Noah’s Ark, 91
+
+Nogaret, Guillaume de, 284
+
+Nomadic peoples, primitive, 84 _et seq._, (_Cf._ Nomads)
+
+Nomads, 122, 155, 167, 168, 174, 198-200, 233-34, 245, 287, 334
+
+Nonconformity, 307, 308
+
+Nordic race, 72, 88, 104, 108, 134, 154, 155, 174, 178, 185, 197, 200,
+233, 258, 261
+
+Normandy, 263, 342, 432
+
+Normandy, Duke of, 266
+
+Normans, 263, 266, 279, 302
+
+Northmen, 263, 264, 266, 268, 432
+
+Norway, 306, 313, 432
+
+Norwegians, 351
+
+Novgorod, 294, 432
+
+Nubians, 238
+
+Numerals, Arabic, 282
+
+Numidia, 191
+
+Numidians, 182
+
+Nuremberg, 294
+
+Nuremberg, Peace of, 313
+
+O
+
+Ocean dredgings, deepest, 4
+
+Ocean liners, 322, 336
+
+Octavian. (_See_ Augustus)
+
+Odenathus of Palmyra, 431
+
+Odoacer, 236, 431
+
+_Odyssey_, 127
+
+Ogdai Khan, 287, 289, 432
+
+Oglethorpe, 336
+
+Okapi, 397
+
+“Old Man,” 372, 373
+
+Old Testament, 115, 116
+
+Olympiad, first, 176, 429
+
+Olympian games, 131
+
+Olympias, Queen, 146
+
+Omar, Caliph, 431
+
+Open-hearth process, 359
+
+Orange River, 398
+
+“Ordinance of secession,” 385
+
+Oregon, 385
+
+Organic Evolution, 16
+
+Ormuz, 299
+
+Orsini family, 284
+
+Orthodoxy, 240
+
+Osiris, 200, 210, 211
+
+Ostrogoths, 227, 431
+
+Othman, 432
+
+Otho, 430
+
+Otto I, King of Germany, 265, 432
+
+Otto of Bavaria, Prince, 354
+
+Ottoman Empire, 202.  (_See also_ Turkey, Turks)
+
+Oudh, 394
+
+Ownership, 373, 374, 375
+
+Oxen, 49, 104, 112
+
+Oxford, 295
+
+P
+
+Padua, 235
+
+Pæstum, 176
+
+Palæologus, Michael (Michael VIII), 283
+
+Palæolithic age, 13, 59, 66 (note)
+
+Palermo, 181
+
+Palestine, 290, 299
+
+Pamirs, 196, 300
+
+Panama, 385
+
+Panama, Isthmus of, 314
+
+Pan Chau, 197, 430
+
+Panipat, battle of, 433
+
+Pannonia, 203, 229, 232, 234, 431
+
+Papacy (including Popes), 237, 261, 265, 277 _et seq._, 329 _et seq._,
+343
+
+Papal schism (the Great Schism), 285, 394, 433
+
+Paper, 153, 236, 255, 297, 320, 322
+
+Papyrus, 78, 153
+
+Parables, 216
+
+_Paradise Lost_, 129
+
+Parchment, 153
+
+Paris, 294, 295, 342, 350, 356, 390, 391, 412, 413, 415, 435
+
+Paris, Peace of, 338, 434
+
+Parthian dynasty, 202
+
+Parthians, 155, 192, 194, 198, 199, 245
+
+Passau, Treaty of, 314
+
+Patricians, Roman, 176, 188
+
+Paul, St., 202, 223
+
+Pavia, siege of, 312
+
+_Peace Conference_, Dr. Dillon’s, 434
+
+Peasant revolts, 305, 310
+
+Peculium, 206
+
+Pedro I, 340
+
+Pegu, 300
+
+Pekin, 173, 287, 300, 383, 400, 432
+
+Peloponnesian War, 139, 145, 430
+
+Pentateuch, the, 116
+
+“People’s crusade,” the, 270, 432.  (_Cf._ Crusades)
+
+Pepi II, 83
+
+Pepin I, 259
+
+Pepin of Hersthal, 431
+
+Pergamum, 154, 180, 183, 430
+
+Pericles, 139, 140
+
+Perry, Commodore, 402
+
+Persepolis, 114, 148, 155
+
+Persia, 77, 134 _et seq._, 165, 185, 192, 227, 243, 253, 255, 287, 399,
+409, 430, 431
+
+Persian Empire, 112, 134, 238, 429
+
+Persian Gulf, 77, 78, 91, 299
+
+Persian language, 95
+
+Persians, 100, 108, 109, 115, 155, 174, 431
+
+Peru, 74, 75, 314, 321
+
+Pestilence, 305, 320, 334, 413, 430, 431, 433
+
+Peter the Great, 327, 434
+
+Peter the Hermit, 269, 270
+
+Peterhof, 327
+
+Petersburg, 127, 419. (_See also_ Petrograd)
+
+Petrograd, 416, 417.  (_See also_ Petersburg)
+
+Petschenegs, 268
+
+Phalanx, 145, 178
+
+Pharaohs, the, 90, 96, 119, 131, 150, 188
+
+Pharsalos, 430
+
+Philadelphia, 358, 434
+
+Philip, Duke of Orleans, 350
+
+Philip, King of France, 285
+
+Philip II, King of Spain, 314, 324
+
+Philip of Hesse, 313
+
+Philip of Macedon, 145, 146, 430
+
+Philippine Islands, 302, 393, 400
+
+Philistines, 100, 117
+
+Philosopher’s stone, 257
+
+Philosophers and Philosophy, 133, 139, 152, 168, 239, 294, 295
+
+Phœnicians, 92, 94, 107, 123, 147
+
+_Phœnix_, steamship, 358
+
+Phrygians, 100, 108
+
+Physiocrats, 371
+
+Picture writing, 56, 57, 78, 79, 167
+
+Piedmont, 345
+
+Pirates and Piracy, 92, 179, 180, 200, 263
+
+Pithecanthropus erectus, 45
+
+Pizarro, 314
+
+Plague, (_See_ Pestilence)
+
+Planetoids, 2
+
+Planets, 2
+
+Plant lice, 13
+
+Plants, 22, 23, 36
+
+Platea, battle of, 136, 430
+
+Plato, 140, 142, 144, 170, 370- 71
+
+Platypus, duck-billed, 34
+
+Plebeians, Roman, 176, 177, 187-88
+
+Plesiosaurs, 29, 30, 36
+
+Poison-gas, 413
+
+Poitiers, 432
+
+Poitiers, battle of, 253, 259
+
+Poland, 288, 327, 353, 434
+
+Poles, 288, 419
+
+Political experiment, age of, 318 _et seq._
+
+Political ideas, development of, 370 _et seq._
+
+Political science, founder of, 144
+
+Political worship, 412
+
+Polo, Marco, 299-300
+
+Polynesian races, 71
+
+Pompey the Great, 192, 193, 196, 198, 430
+
+Pontifex maximus, 237, 261
+
+Popes.  (_See_ Papacy)
+
+Population, 379, 383
+
+Port Arthur, 400, 403
+
+Portugal, 340, 394, 396, 431
+
+Portuguese, 302, 329, 332, 400
+
+Porus, King, 149
+
+Potato, 76
+
+Potsdam, 327
+
+Pottery, 75, 87X
+
+Prague, 433
+
+Prescott, 314
+
+Priestcraft (including Priests), 64, 68, 69, 74, 75, 77, 83, 111, 114
+_et seq._, 122, 131, 132, 167, 174, 275, 277
+
+_Primal Law_, 61
+
+Primates, 43.  (_Cf._ Mammalia)
+
+Printing, 80, 153, 247, 255, 298, 302, 305, 306, 320, 322, 329
+
+Priscus, 234
+
+Property, 274, 372, 374, 375
+
+Prophet, Muhammad as, 249
+
+Prophets, Jewish, 118, 122 _et seq._
+
+Proprietorship, 373
+
+Protestantism, 316, 324, 327, 351, 400
+
+Proverbs, book of, 116
+
+Prussia, 327, 348, 351, 390, 391, 392, 434, 435
+
+Prussia, East, 412, 415
+
+Psalms, 116
+
+Psammetichus I, 109, 429
+
+Psycho-analvsis, 69
+
+Pterodactyls, 28, 29, 31, 36
+
+Ptolemy I, 149, 150, 151, 186, 211
+
+Ptolemy II, 151, 186
+
+Punic language, 203
+
+Punic Wars, 180 _et seq._, 187, 188, 430
+
+Punjab, 163, 199
+
+Puritans, 335
+
+Pygmies, 397
+
+Pyramids, 69, 83, 100
+
+Pyrenees, 253, 432
+
+Pyrrhus, 178, 179, 430
+
+Q
+
+Quebec, 434
+
+Quinqueremes, 180
+
+Quixada, 314
+
+R
+
+Races of mankind, 71 _et seq._
+
+Railways, 322, 350, 357, 382, 383, 384, 389, 395, 396, 409, 434
+
+Rain, 9, 10
+
+Rameses II, 96, 147, 429
+
+Rasputin, 415, 416
+
+Ratisbon, Diet of, 313
+
+Ravenna, 431
+
+Reading, 176
+
+Rebus, 79
+
+Red deer, 56
+
+Red Sea, 91, 118, 122, 196
+
+Reformation, the, 308
+
+Reindeer, 43, 49, 51, 56, 73
+
+Religion, and the creation of the world, 1; and organic evolution, 16;
+primitive, 61, 64
+
+Religions, 172, 222 _et seq._, 240 _et seq._, 319.  (_Cf._ Buddhism,
+Christianity, etc.)
+
+Religious developments under the Roman Empire, 208 _et seq._
+
+Religious wars, 270, 304, 313.  (_Cf._ Crusades)
+
+Reptiles, the age of, 26 _et seq._; mental life of, 38
+
+Reproduction, 17 _et seq._
+
+_Republic_, Plato’s, 142
+
+Republic, the Assimilative, 187
+
+Republics, 187 _et seq._, 236, 308, 324, 328, 340, 343, 344, 416, 433,
+434, 435
+
+Republicans, the first, 131
+
+Retreat of the Ten Thousand, 150
+
+Revolution, 342 _et seq._, 349 _et seq._, 390, 404, 416, 435
+
+Rhine, 200, 227
+
+Rhine languages, 236
+
+Rhineland, 270, 306
+
+Rhinoceros, 43, 49
+
+Rhodes, 108
+
+Rhodesia, 407
+
+Rhodesian man, 52
+
+Richelieu, Cardinal, 324
+
+Richmond, U.S.A., 386, 388, 389
+
+Roads, 114, 187
+
+Robertson, 316
+
+Robespierre, 345, 346, 434
+
+Robinson, J. H., 284
+
+“Rocket,” Stephenson’s, 356
+
+Rock pictures, 57, 78
+
+Rocks as record of beginnings of life, 11 _et seq._
+
+S
+
+Sabellians, 224
+
+Sabre-toothed tiger, 43
+
+Sacrifice, 102, 103, 167, 174, 182, 186, 211, 212.  (_Cf._ also Blood
+sacrifice, Human sacrifice)
+
+Sagas, 106
+
+Saghalien, 404
+
+Sailing ships, 91, 336
+
+St. Angelo, castle of, 312
+
+St. Helena, 407
+
+St. Sophia, church of, 238
+
+Saladin, 272, 432
+
+Salamis, battle of, 180, 430
+
+Salamis, bay of, 136
+
+Salerno, 282
+
+Samarkand, 256, 297
+
+Samnites, 430
+
+Samos, 129
+
+Samson, 116
+
+Samurai, 401
+
+San Francisco, 383
+
+Sandstones, 26
+
+Sanskrit, 95, 107, 156
+
+Sapor I, 430
+
+Saracens, 264, 265, 297
+
+Saratoga, 338
+
+Sardanapalus (Assurbanipal), 98, 109, 111
+
+Sardinia, 182, 185, 232, 309, 351, 390
+
+Sardis, 98
+
+Sargon I, 90, 92, 109, 122, 429
+
+Sargon II, 97, 109, 429
+
+Sarmatians, 100
+
+Sassanid dynasty, 227, 241, 430
+
+Saturn (planet), 2, 3
+
+Saul, King of Israel, 118, 429
+
+Saul of Tarsus.  (_See_ Paul, St.)"
+
+_Savannah_, steamship, 258
+
+Savoy, 334, 351, 390
+
+Saxons, 230, 265
+
+Saxony, Elector of, 310
+
+Scandinavians, 329
+
+Scarabeus beetle, 209
+
+Scheldt, 344
+
+Schmalkaldic League, 312
+
+Science, 144
+
+Science and religion, 243
+
+Science, exploitation of, 362
+
+Science, physical, 412
+
+Scientific societies, 322
+
+Scipio Africanus, 182, 187
+
+Scorpion, sea, 13, 18, 23
+
+Scotland, 306, 307
+
+Scott, Michael, 282
+
+Scythia, 429
+
+Scythians, 100, 108, 134, 135
+
+Sea trade, 91
+
+Sea worms, 13
+
+Seasons, the, 68
+
+Seaweed, 13
+
+Sedan, 391
+
+Seed-bearing trees, 26
+
+Seleucid dynasty, 183, 186, 196, 199
+
+Seleucus I, 149, 163
+
+Seljuks, 267, 268, 272, 432
+
+Semites and Semitic peoples, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 107, 115 , 122, 134,
+174, 233, 256, 258
+
+Semitic language, 202, 243
+
+Sennacherib, 97
+
+Serapeum, 211, 213
+
+Serapis, 211, 212
+
+Serbia, 179, 200, 227, 228, 292, 354, 411
+
+Serfdom, 207
+
+Seven Years’ War, 434
+
+Severus, Septimius, 202
+
+Seville, 202, 213, 302
+
+Shang dynasty, 103, 168
+
+Sheep, 77
+
+Shell necklaces, 56
+
+Shellfish, 13
+
+Shells, as protection against drying, 18
+
+Sherman, General, 387, 388
+
+Shi Hwang-ti, 173, 180, 430
+
+Shimonoseki, Straits of, 402
+
+Shipbuilding, 359, 360, 400
+
+Ships, 91, 119, 122, 149, 180, 196, 320, 322, 336
+
+Shishak, 119
+
+Shrubs, 16
+
+Shumanism, 298
+
+Siam, 166
+
+Siberia, 334
+
+Siberia, Eastern, 419
+
+Siberian railway, 403, 409
+
+Sicilies, Two, 287
+
+Sicily, 108, 122, 129, 134, 178, 179, 182, 185, 188, 323, 263, 279, 280
+
+Sidon, 92, 122, 123, 134, 147
+
+Silurian system, 19
+
+Silver, 80, 102, 335
+
+Sind, 394
+
+Sirmium, 227
+
+Skins, use of; for clothing, 56 for writing, 75; inflated as boats, 91
+
+Skull, Rhodesian, 52
+
+Slavery (and slaves), 94, 102 , 188, 191, 194, 203 _et seq._, 236, 320,
+337, 373, 374, 384-86, 388, 430, 433
+
+Slavonic language, 236
+
+Slavs, 263, 265
+
+Smelting, 87, 104, 322
+
+Smith, Adam, 377
+
+Smith, Eliot, 69
+
+Snakes, 27, 28
+
+Social reform, 125
+
+Socialism, 371, 416, 417, 434
+
+Socialists, 375 _et seq._
+
+Socialists, primitive, 374
+
+Society, primitive, 60
+
+Socrates, 140
+
+Solomon, King, 119, 122, 127, 429
+
+Solomon’s temple, 119
+
+Sophists, 140
+
+Sophocles, 139
+
+South Carolina, 385
+
+Soviets, 417
+
+Space, the world in, 1 _et seq._
+
+Spain, 93, 106, 122, 123, 180, 185, 230, 232, 236, 253, 255, 256, 309,
+348, 349, 350, 393, 429, 431; relics of first true man in, 53
+
+Spain, North, 431
+
+Spanish, 329, 331
+
+Spanish language, 203
+
+Sparta, 129, 130, 136, 203
+
+Spartacus, 191, 192, 203, 430
+
+Spartans, 136
+
+Species, generation of, 17; new, 36
+
+Speech, primitive human, 63
+
+Spiders, 23
+
+Spiral nebulæ, 5
+
+Spores, 24
+
+Stagira, 142
+
+Stamford Bridge, battle of, 286
+
+Stars, 68, 257
+
+State, modern idea of a, 375
+
+State ownership, 374
+
+States General, the, 341, 434
+
+
+Steamboat, 340, 357 _et seq._, 374, 382, 395, 396
+
+Steam engine, 151, 152, 359
+
+Steam hammer, 359
+
+Steam power, 322
+
+Steel, 322, 359-60
+
+Stephenson, George, 356
+
+Stilicho, 230, 234, 431
+
+Stockholm, 417
+
+Stockton, 356, 434
+
+Stone age, 53, 59
+
+Stone implements, 45, 65
+
+Stonehenge, 106, 429
+
+Story-telling, primitive, 62
+
+Styria, 309
+
+Submarine campaign, 423
+
+Subutai, 289
+
+Sudan, the, 405
+
+Suevi, 431
+
+Suleiman the Magnificent, 310, 312, 432, 433
+
+Sulla, 192, 237
+
+Sumeria and Sumerians, 77, 78 _et seq._, 87, 88, 90, 91, 122
+
+Sumerian Empire, 429
+
+Sumerian language and writing, 77, 78, 79
+
+Sun, the, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10
+
+Sun worship, 211
+
+Sung dynasty, 290
+
+Susa, 114, 135, 148, 149, 155
+
+Suy dynasty, 245
+
+Swastika, 70
+
+Sweden, 306, 313, 348
+
+Swedes, 326, 329, 330, 351
+
+Swimming bladder, 24
+
+Switzerland, 327, 347, 350, 433
+
+Syracuse, 151, 154, 170, 178
+
+Syria, 88, 91, 115, 119, 122, 138, 238, 243, 249, 290, 431
+
+Syrians, 96, 98
+
+T
+
+_Tabus_, the, 61
+
+Tadpoles, 26
+
+Tagus valley, 314
+
+Tai-Tsung, 247, 431
+
+Tang dynasty, 200, 245, 247, 287, 431
+
+“Tanks,” 413
+
+Taoism, 174, 222.  (_See also_ Lao Tse)
+
+Taranto, 178
+
+Tarentum, 178
+
+Tarim valley, 430
+
+Tartars, 167, 197, 232, 243, 288, 290, 334
+
+Tasmania, 59, 322, 393
+
+Tattooing, 70
+
+Taxation, 271, 337
+
+Tea, 247, 337
+
+Teeth, 19, 20
+
+Telamon, battle of, 182
+
+Telegraph, electric, 340, 358, 382, 384, 396
+
+Telescope, 355
+
+Temples, 77, 83, 101, 129, 131, 167, 174, 184, 186, 211, 212, 213, 240
+
+Tennessee, 386
+
+Testament, Old, 115, 116
+
+Teutons, 431
+
+Texas, 384, 385
+
+Texel, 344
+
+Thales, 131, 161
+
+Thebes, 101, 102, 129, 136
+
+Theocrasia, 209
+
+Theodora, Empress, 238
+
+Theodoric the Goth, 236, 431
+
+Theodosius II, 234, 238
+
+Theodosius the Great, 226, 229, 431
+
+Thermopylæ, battle of, 136, 430
+
+Thessaly, 145, 178
+
+Thirty Years’ War, 326
+
+Thothmes III, 96, 127, 147, 429
+
+Thought and research, 140
+
+Thought, primitive, 60 _et seq._
+
+Thrace, 135
+
+Three Estates, council of the, 285
+
+Three Teachings, the, 170
+
+Tiberius Cæsar, 195, 214, 430
+
+Tibet, 196, 400
+
+Tides, 18
+
+Tigers, 42, 43
+
+Tiglath Pileser I, 97, 429
+
+Tiglath Pileser III, 97, 108, 109, 429
+
+Tigris, 77, 84
+
+Time, 5, 6
+
+Timor, 329
+
+Timurlane, 290, 334
+
+Tin, 360
+
+Tiryns, 108
+
+Titanotherium, the, 39, 42
+
+Tonkin, 402
+
+Tortoises, 27, 28
+
+Toulon, 345
+
+Trade, early, 83, 88
+
+Trade, Grecian, 129
+
+Trade routes, 119
+
+Traders, 132, 335
+
+Traders, sea, 92
+
+Trafalgar, battle of, 348
+
+Trajan, 195, 430
+
+Transport, 319, 358, 382
+
+Transvaal, 398
+
+Transylvania, 195
+
+Trasimere, Lake, 182
+
+Trench warfare, 412
+
+Trevithick, 356
+
+Tribal life, 61
+
+Trilobites, 13
+
+Trinidad, 407
+
+Trinil, Java, 45
+
+Trinitarians, 224
+
+Trinity, doctrine of the, 224, 261
+
+Triremes, 180
+
+Triumvirates, 194
+
+Trojans, 94
+
+Troy, 92, 127
+
+Troyes, battle of, 235, 431
+
+Tsar, title of, 327
+
+Tshushima, Straits of, 404
+
+Ts’i, 173
+
+Ts’in, 173, 431
+
+Tuileries, 342, 343
+
+Tunis, 185
+
+Turkestan, 77, 108, 148, 196, 197, 198, 199, 245, 253, 287, 290, 292,
+334
+
+Turkey, 390, 411
+
+Turkoman dynasty, 405
+
+Turkomans, 334
+
+Turks, 167, 197, 243, 245, 263, 267, 287, 292, 310, 312, 334, 353, 354,
+434
+
+Turtles, 27, 28
+
+Tushratta, king of Mitanni, 97
+
+Twelve tribes, the, 116
+
+Tyrannosaurus, 28
+
+Tyre, 92, 118, 119, 122, 123, 134, 147
+
+U
+
+Uintatheres, 42
+
+Uncleanness, 68
+
+United States, 357, 410, 411, 422, 434; Declaration of Independence,
+338; treaty with Britain, 339; expansion of, 382 _et seq._
+
+Universities, 295, 304, 355, 361
+
+Uranus, 2, 3
+
+Urban II, Pope, 268, 272, 432
+
+Urban VI, Pope, 285, 433
+
+Utopias, 140, 142, 144
+
+V
+
+Valens, Emperor, 229
+
+Valerian, 430
+
+Valladolid, 314, 315, 316
+
+Valmy, battle of, 434
+
+Vandals, 227, 229, 230, 232, 431
+
+Varennes, 343, 434
+
+Vassalage, 259
+
+Vatican, 265, 266, 272, 285
+
+Vedas, 106
+
+Vegetation of Mesozoic period, 28
+
+Veii, 177, 178
+
+Vendée, 345
+
+Venetia, 235
+
+Venetians, 301
+
+Venice, 235, 272, 274, 294, 327, 351, 432
+
+Venus (goddess), 213
+
+Venus (planet), 2, 3
+
+Verona, 345
+
+Versailles, 325, 327, 341, 342
+
+Versailles, Peace Conference of, 421
+
+Versailles, Treaty of, 421, 422
+
+Vertebrata, 19; ancestors of, 20
+
+Verulam, Lord, (_See_ Bacon, Sir Francis)
+
+Vespasian, 430
+
+Vesuvius, 191
+
+Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, 435
+
+Victoria, Queen, 394, 434
+
+Vienna, 292, 312, 433, 434
+
+Vienna, Congress of, 348, 349, 350
+
+Vienna, Treaty of, 355
+
+Vilna, 356
+
+Vindhya Mountains, 159
+
+Virginia, 337, 383, 386
+
+Visigoths, 227, 229, 232, 235, 259, 431.  (_Cf._ Goths)
+
+Vitellus, 430
+
+_Vittoria_, ship, 302
+
+Viviparous mammals, 33
+
+Vivisection, Herophilus and, 151
+
+Volcanoes, 37
+
+Volga, 200, 227
+
+Volta, 358
+
+Voltaire, 328
+
+Votes, 382
+
+W
+
+Waldenses, 276, 280, 305
+
+Waldo, 276
+
+Walid I, 432
+
+War and Warfare, 96, 344, 390, 422
+
+War of American Independence, 338 _et seq._
+
+Warsaw, 353
+
+Washington, 340, 357, 383, 386, 389
+
+Washington, Conference of, 425
+
+Washington, George, 338
+
+Waterloo, battle of, 348
+
+Watt engine, 356
+
+Weapons, 100, 106
+
+Weaving, 65, 75
+
+Wei-hai-wei, 400
+
+Wellington, Duke of, 348
+
+West Indies, 330, 385, 393, 394
+
+Western Empire, 431
+
+Westminster, 306
+
+Westphalia, Peace of, 326, 355, 433
+
+Wheat, 66, 104
+
+White Huns.  (_See_ Ephthalites)
+
+William Duke of Normandy (William I), 432
+
+William II, German Emperor, 410, 435
+
+Wilson, President, 422, 423, 424
+
+Wings, birds’, 32
+
+Wisby, 294
+
+Wisconsin, 385
+
+“Wisdom lovers,” the first, 133
+
+Witchcraft, 68
+
+Wittenberg, 306
+
+Wolfe, General, 434
+
+Wolsey, Cardinal, 324
+
+Wood blocks for printing, 247
+
+Wool, 102, 395
+
+Workers’ Internationals, 377
+
+World, The, creation of, 1; in time, 5 _et seq._
+
+Wrangel, General, 419
+
+Writing, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 94, 124, 176; dawn of, 57
+
+Wycliffe, John, and his followers, 286, 304, 433
+
+X
+
+Xavier, Francis, 400
+
+Xenophon, 150
+
+Xerxes, 136, 138, 147, 150
+
+Y
+
+Yang-Chow, 300
+
+Yang-tse-Kiang, 173
+
+Yangtse valley, 173
+
+Yarmuk, battle of, the, 253, 431
+
+Yedo Bay, 401
+
+Yorktown, 338
+
+Yuan dynasty, 290, 433
+
+Yucatan, 74
+
+Yudenitch, General, 419
+
+Yuste, 314, 317
+
+Z
+
+Zama, battle of, 182, 430
+
+Zanzibar, 329
+
+Zarathustra, 241
+
+Zeppelins, 413
+
+Zero sign, 257
+
+Zeus, 211
+
+Zimbabwe, 397
+
+Zoophytes, fossilized, 13
+
+Zoroaster (and Zoroastrianism), 241, 243, 255
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD ***
+
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diff --git a/35461-0.zip b/35461-0.zip
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+<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells</title>
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+<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
+are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Short History of the World</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: H. G. Wells</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: March 2, 2011 [eBook #35461]<br />
+[Most recently updated: October 27, 2021]</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Donald F. Behan</div>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD ***</div>
+
+<h1>A SHORT<br />
+HISTORY OF THE WORLD</h1>
+
+<h2>By H. G. WELLS</h2>
+
+<h3>New York<br />
+THE MACMILLAN &amp; COMPANY<br />
+1922</h3>
+
+<h5>
+<i>Copyright 1922<br /></i>
+</h5>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pv"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+CONTENTS
+</h2>
+
+<table width="70%">
+
+<tbody><tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">CHAPTER&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">Page</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chap0">A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">I.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapI">THE WORLD IN SPACE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">II. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapII">THE WORLD IN TIME</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">III. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapIII">THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">IV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapIV">THE AGE OF FISHES</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">V. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapV">THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">VI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapVI">THE AGE OF REPTILES</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">VII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapVII">THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">VIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapVIII">THE AGE OF MAMMALS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 37</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">IX. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapIX">MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 43</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">X. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapX">THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 48</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXI">THE FIRST TRUE MEN</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 53</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXII">PRIMITIVE THOUGHT</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXIII">THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 65</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XIV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXIV">PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 71</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXV">SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 77</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XVI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXVI">PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 84</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XVII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXVII">THE FIRST SEA-GOING PEOPLES</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 91</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XVIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXVIII">EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ 96</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XIX. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXIX">THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+104</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XX. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXX">THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF
+ DARIUS I</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+109</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXI">THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+115</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXII">PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+122</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXIII">THE GREEKS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+127</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXIV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXIV">THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+134</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXV">THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+139</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXVI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXVI">THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+145</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXVII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXVII">THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+150</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXVIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXVIII">THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+156</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXIX. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXIX">KING ASOKA</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+163</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXX. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXX">CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+167</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXXI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXXI">ROME COMES INTO HISTORY</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+174</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXXII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXXII">ROME AND CARTHAGE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+180</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXXIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXXIII">THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+185</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXXIV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXXIV">BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+196</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXXV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXXV">THE COMMON MAN&rsquo;S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY
+ ROMAN EMPIRE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+201</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXXVI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXXVI">RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN
+ EMPIRE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+208</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXXVII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXXVII">THE TEACHING OF JESUS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+214</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXXVIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXXVIII">THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+222</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XXXIX. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXXXIX">THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND
+ WEST</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+227</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XL. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXL">THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+233</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XLI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXLI">THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+238</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XLII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXLII">THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+245</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XLIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXLIII">MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+248</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XLIV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXLIV">THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+253</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XLV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXV">THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+258</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XLVI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXLVI">THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+267</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XLVII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXLVII">RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+277</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XLVIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXLVIII">THE MONGOL CONQUESTS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+287</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">XLIX. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapXLIX">THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+294</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">L. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapL">THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+304</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLI">THE EMPEROR CHARLES V</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+309</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLII">THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND
+ MONARCHY AND PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+318</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLIII">THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND
+ OVERSEAS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+329</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LIV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLIV">THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+335</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLV">THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF
+	MONARCHY IN FRANCE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+341</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LVI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLVI">THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL
+ OF NAPOLEON</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+349</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LVII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLVII">THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+355</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LVIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLVIII">THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+365</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LIX. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLIX">THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL
+ IDEAS</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+370</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LX. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLX">THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+382</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LXI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLXI">THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+390</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LXII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLXII">THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF THE STEAMSHIP AND
+ RAILWAY</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+393</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LXIII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLXIII">EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA, AND THE RISE OF
+ JAPAN</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+399</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LXIV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLXIV">THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+405</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LXV. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLXV">THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT WAR
+ OF 1914-18</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+409</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LXVI. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLXVI">THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+415</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">LXVII. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#chapLXVII">THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE
+ WORLD</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+421</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#CHRON">CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+429</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a>
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+439</td>
+</tr>
+
+</tbody></table>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pxi"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<h2>
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+</h2>
+
+<table width="70%">
+
+<tbody><tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">Page</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-2">Luminous Spiral Clouds of Matter</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-3">Nebula seen Edge-on</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-6">The Great Spiral Nebula</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-7">A Dark Nebula</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-8">Another Spiral Nebula</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-9">Landscape before Life</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-12">Marine Life in the Cambrian Period</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-13">Fossil Trilobite</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-14">Early Palæozoic Fossils of various Species of
+ Lingula</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-15">Fossilized Footprints of a Labyrinthodont,
+ Cheirotherium</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-17">Pterichthys Milleri</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-18">Fossil of Cladoselache</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-19">Sharks and Ganoids of the Devonian Period</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-22">A Carboniferous Swamp</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-23">Skull of a Labyrinthodont, Capitosaurus</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-24">Skeleton of a Labyrinthodont: The Eryops</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-27">A Fossil Ichthyosaurus</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-28">A Pterodactyl</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-29">The Diplodocus</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-32">Fossil of Archeopteryx</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">32</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-33">Hesperornis in its Native Seas</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-34">The Ki-wi</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">34</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-35">Slab of Marl Rich in Cainozoic Fossils</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">35</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-38">Titanotherium Robustum</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">38</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-4001">Skeleton of Giraffe-camel</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">40</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-4002">Skeleton of Early Horse</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">40</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-41">Comparative Sizes of Brains of Rhinoceros and
+ Dinoceras</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">41</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-44">A Mammoth</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">44</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-45">Flint Implements from Piltdown Region</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">45</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-461">A Pithecanthropean Man</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">46</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-462">The Heidelberg Man</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">46</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-47">The Piltdown Skull</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">47</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-49">A Neanderthaler</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">49</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-50">Europe and Western Asia 50,000 years ago</a><br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-51">Comparison of Modern Skull and Rhodesian
+ Skull</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">51</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-54">Altamira Cave Paintings</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">54</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-55">Later Palæolithic Carvings</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">55</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-57">Bust of Cro-magnon Man</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">57</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-58">Later Palæolithic Art</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">58</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-62">Relics of the Stone Age</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">62</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-63">Gray&rsquo;s Inn Lane Flint Implement</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">63</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-63">Somaliland Flint Implement</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">63</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-67">Neolithic Flint Implement</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">67</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-68">Australian Spearheads</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">68</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-69">Neolithic Pottery</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">69</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-72">Relationship of Human Races</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  72</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-73">A Maya Stele</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">73</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-75">European Neolithic Warrior</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-78">Babylonian Brick</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">78</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-79">Egyptian Cylinder Seals of First Dynasty</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">79</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-80">The Sakhara Pyramids</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">80</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-81">The Pyramid of Cheops: Scene from Summit</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">81</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-82">The Temple of Hathor</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">82</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-85">Pottery and Implements of the Lake
+ Dwellers</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">85</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-861">A Lake Village</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">86</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-872">Flint Knives of 4500 <small>B.C.</small>
+ </a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">87</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-862">Egyptian Wall Paintings of Nomads</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">87</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-88">Egyptian Peasants Going to Work</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">88</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-89">Stele of Naram Sin</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">89</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-93">The Treasure House at Mycenæ</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">93</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-95">The Palace at Cnossos</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">95</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-97">Temple at Abu Simbel</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">97</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-98">Avenue of Sphinxes at Karnak</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">98</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-99">The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">99</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-101">Frieze of Slaves</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">101</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-103">The Temple of Horus, Edfu</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">103</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-105">Archaic Amphora</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">105</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-107">The Mound of Nippur</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">107</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-110">Median and Chaldean Empires</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  110</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-111">The Empire of Darius</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  111</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-112">A Persian Monarch</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">112</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-1131">The Ruins of Persepolis</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">113</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-1132">The Great Porch of Xerxes</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">113</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-117">The Land of the Hebrews</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  117</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-118">Nebuchadnezzar&rsquo;s Mound at Babylon</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">118</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-120">The Ishtar Gateway, Babylon</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">120</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-124">Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">124</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-125">Captive Princes making Obeisance</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">125</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-128">Statue of Meleager</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">128</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-130">Ruins of Temple of Zeus</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">130</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-132">The Temple of Neptune, Pæstum</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">132</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-135">Greek Ships on Ancient Pottery</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">135</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-137">The Temple of Corinth</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">137</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-138">The Temple of Neptune at Cape Sunium</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">138</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-140">Frieze of the Parthenon, Athens</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">140</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-1411">The Acropolis, Athens</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">141</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-1412">Theatre at Epidauros, Greece</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">141</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-142">The Caryatides of the Erechtheum</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">142</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-143">Athene of the Parthenon</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">143</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-146">Alexander the Great</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">146</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-147">Alexander&rsquo;s Victory at Issus</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">147</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-148">The Apollo Belvedere</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">148</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-152">Aristotle</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">152</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-153">Statuette of Maitreya</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">153</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-154">The Death of Buddha</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">154</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-158">Tibetan Buddha</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">158</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-159">A Burmese Buddha</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">159</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-160">The Dham&#234;kh Tower, Sarnath</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">160</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-164">A Chinese Buddhist Apostle</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">164</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-1651">The Court of Asoka</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">165</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-1652">Asoka Panel from Bharhut</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">165</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-166">The Pillar of Lions (Asokan) </a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">166</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-169">Confucius</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">169</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-171">The Great Wall of China</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">171</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-172">Early Chinese Bronze Bell</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">172</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-175">The Dying Gaul</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">175</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-177">Ancient Roman Cisterns at Carthage</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">177</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-181">Hannibal</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">181</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-183">Roman Empire and its Alliances, 150
+ <small>B.C.</small></a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  183</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-188">The Forum, Rome</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">188</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-189">Ruined Coliseum in Tunis</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">189</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-190">Roman Arch at Ctesiphon</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">190</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-193">The Column of Trajan, Rome</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">193</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-197">Glazed Jar of Han Dynasty</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">197</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-198">Vase of Han Dynasty</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">198</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-199">Chinese Vessel in Bronze</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">199</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-202">A Gladiator (contemporary representation)</a><br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">202</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-204">A Street in Pompeii</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">204</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-2061">The Coliseum, Rome</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">206</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-2062">Interior of Coliseum</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">206</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-210">Mithras Sacrificing a Bull</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">210</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-211">Isis and Horus</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">211</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-212">Bust of Emperor Commodus</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">212</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-216">Early Portrait of Jesus Christ</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">216</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-217">Road from Nazareth to Tiberias</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">217</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-218">David&rsquo;s Tower and Wall of Jerusalem</a>
+<br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">218</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-219">A Street in Jerusalem</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">219</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-223">The Peter and Paul Mosaic at Rome</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">223</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-225">Baptism of Christ (Ivory Panel) </a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">225</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-228">Roman Empire and the Barbarians</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  228</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-229">Constantine&rsquo;s Pillar,
+ Constantinople</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">229</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-231">The Obelisk of Theodosius, Constantinople</a><br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">231</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-235">Head of Barbarian Chief</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">235</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-239">The Church of S. Sophia, Constantinople</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">239</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-240">Roof-work in S. Sophia</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">240</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-241">Justinian and his Court</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">241</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-242">The Rock-hewn Temple at Petra</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">242</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-246">Chinese Earthenware of Tang Dynasty</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">246</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-250">At Prayer in the Desert</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">	250</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-251">Looking Across the Sea of Sand</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">251</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-2541">Growth of Moslem Power</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  254</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-2542">The Moslem Empire</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  254</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-255">The Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">255</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-256">Cairo Mosques</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">256</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-260">Frankish Dominions of Martel</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  260</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-262">Statue of Charlemagne</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">262</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-264">Europe at Death of Charlemagne</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  264</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-268">Crusader Tombs, Exeter Cathedral</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">268</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-269">View of Cairo</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">269</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-271">The Horses of S. Mark, Venice</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">271</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-273">Courtyard in the Alhambra</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">273</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-278">Milan Cathedral (showing spires) </a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">278</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-280">A Typical Crusader</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">280</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-283">Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes) </a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">283</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-284">Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes) </a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">284</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-288">The Empire of Jengis Khan</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  288</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-289">Ottoman Empire before 1453</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  289</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-291">Tartar Horsemen</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">291</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-292">Ottoman Empire, 1566</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  292</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-296">An Early Printing Press</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">296</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-299">Ancient Bronze from Benin</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">299</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-300">Negro Bronze-work</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">300</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-301">Early Sailing Ship (Italian Engraving) </a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">301</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-305">Portrait of Martin Luther</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">305</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-307">The Church Triumphant (Italian Majolica work,
+ 1543)
+</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">307</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-311">Charles V (the Titian Portrait) </a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">311</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-315">S. Peter&rsquo;s, Rome: the High Altar</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">315</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-321">Cromwell Dissolves the Long Parliament</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">321</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-323">The Court at Versailles</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">323</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-325">Sack of a Village, French Revolution</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">325</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-326">Central Europe after Peace of Westphalia,
+ 1648</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  326</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-330">European Territory in America, 1750</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  330</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-331">Europeans Tiger Hunting in India</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">331</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-332">Fall of Tippoo Sultan</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">332</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-337">George Washington</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">337</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-338">The Battle of Bunker Hill</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">338</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-339">The U.S.A., 1790</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">339</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-344">The Trial of Louis XVI</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">344</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-346">Execution of Marie Antoinette</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">346</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-352">Portrait of Napoleon</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">352</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-353">Europe after the Congress of Vienna</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  353</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-3561">Early Rolling Stock, Liverpool and Manchester
+ Railway</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">356</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-3562">Passenger Train in 1833</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">356</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-357">The Steamboat <i>Clermont</i></a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">357</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-3611">Eighteenth Century Spinning Wheel</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">361</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-3612">Arkwright&rsquo;s Spinning Jenny</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">361</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-363">An Early Weaving Machine</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">363</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-367">An Incident of the Slave Trade</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">367</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-368">Early Factory, in Colebrookdale</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">368</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-372">Carl Marx</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">372</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-376">Electric Conveyor, in Coal Mine</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">376</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-378">Constructional Detail, Forth Bridge</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">378</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-385">American River Steamer</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">385</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-387">Abraham Lincoln</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">387</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-391">Europe, 1848-71</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  391</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-395">Victoria Falls, Zambesi</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">395</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-397">The British Empire, 1815</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  397</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-401">Japanese Soldier, Eighteenth Century</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">401</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-403">A Street in Tokio</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">403</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-406">Overseas Empires of Europe, 1914</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i>  406</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-407">Gibraltar</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">407</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-408">Street in Hong Kong</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">408</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-410">British Tank in Battle</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">410</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-411">The Ruins of Ypres</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">411</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-412">Modern War: War Entanglements</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">412</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-418">A View in Petersburg under Bolshevik Rule</a><br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">418</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-423">Passenger Aeroplane in Flight</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">423</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<a href="#img-426">A Peaceful Garden in England</a> <br />
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">426</td>
+</tr>
+
+</tbody></table>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P1"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap0"></a>A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD</h2>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chapI"></a>I<br />
+THE WORLD IN SPACE</h2>
+
+<p>
+The story of our world is a story that is still very imperfectly known. A
+couple of hundred years ago men possessed the history of little more than the
+last three thousand years. What happened before that time was a matter of
+legend and speculation.  Over a large part of the civilized world it was
+believed and taught that the world had been created suddenly in 4004
+<small>B.C.</small>, though authorities differed as to whether this had
+occurred in the spring or autumn of that year. This fantastically precise
+misconception was based upon a too literal interpretation of the Hebrew Bible,
+and upon rather arbitrary theological assumptions connected therewith.  Such
+ideas have long since been abandoned by religious teachers, and it is
+universally recognized that the universe in which we live has to all
+appearances existed for an enormous period of time and possibly for endless
+time.  Of course there may be deception in these appearances, as a room may be
+made to seem endless by putting mirrors facing each other at either end. But
+that the universe in which we live has existed only for six or seven thousand
+years may be regarded as an altogether exploded idea.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The earth, as everybody knows nowadays, is a spheroid, a sphere
+slightly compressed, orange fashion, with a diameter of nearly 8,000
+miles.  Its spherical shape has been known at least to a limited
+number of intelligent people for nearly 2,500 years, but before that
+time it was supposed to be flat, and various ideas which now seem
+fantastic were entertained about its relations to the sky and the
+stars and planets.  We know now that it rotates upon its <span class
+="pagenum"><a name="P2"></a></span>axis (which is about 24 miles
+shorter than its equatorial diameter) every twenty-four hours, and
+that this is the cause of the alternations of day and night, that it
+circles about the sun in a slightly distorted and slowly variable
+oval path in a year. Its distance from the sun varies between
+ninety-one and a half millions at its nearest and ninety-four and a
+half million miles.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-2"></a>
+<img src="images/img-2.jpg"
+alt="LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER" width="498"
+height="731" />
+<p class="caption">
+&ldquo;LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER&rdquo;
+<br />
+<small>(Nebula photographed 1910)
+<br />
+<i>Photo: G. W. Ritchey</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+About the earth circles a smaller sphere, the moon, at an average
+ distance  of 239,000 miles. Earth and moon are not the only bodies
+ to travel round  the sun.  There are also the planets, Mercury and
+ Venus, at distances of  thirty-six and sixty-seven millions of
+ miles; and beyond the circle of the  earth and disregarding a belt
+ of numerous smaller bodies, the planetoids,  there are Mars,
+ Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune at mean distances of
+ 141, 483, 886, 1,782, and 1,793 millions of miles respectively.
+  These figures in <span class="pagenum"><a name="P3"></a></span>
+millions of miles are very difficult for the mind to grasp.  It may
+ help the reader&rsquo;s imagination if we reduce the sun and
+ planets to a smaller, more conceivable scale.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-3"></a>
+<img src="images/img-3.jpg" alt="THE
+ NEBULA SEEN EDGE ON" width="486" height="803" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE NEBULA SEEN EDGE-ON
+<br />
+Note the central core which, through millions of years, is cooling to
+solidity
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo: G. W. Ritchey</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+If, then, we represent our earth as a little ball of one inch
+ diameter,  the sun would be a big globe nine feet across and 323
+ yards away, that  is about a fifth of a mile, four or five
+ minutes&rsquo; walking.  The  moon would be a small pea two feet
+ and a half from the world.  Between earth and sun there would be
+ the two inner planets, Mercury and Venus,  at distances of one
+ hundred and twenty-five and two hundred and fifty  yards from the
+ sun. All round and about these bodies there would be  emptiness
+ until you came to Mars, a hundred and seventy-five feet beyond the
+ earth; Jupiter <span class="pagenum"><a name="P4"></a></span>
+nearly a mile away, a foot in diameter; Saturn, a little smaller,
+ two miles off; Uranus four miles off and Neptune six miles off.
+  Then nothingness and nothingness except for small particles and
+ drifting scraps of attenuated vapour for thousands of miles.  The
+ nearest star to earth on this scale would be 40,000 miles away.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These figures will serve perhaps to give one some conception of the
+ immense emptiness of space in which the drama of life goes on.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For in all this enormous vacancy of space we know certainly of life
+ only  upon the surface of our earth. It does not penetrate much
+ more than three miles down into the 4,000 miles that separate us
+ from the centre of our globe, and it does not reach more than five
+ miles above its surface.  Apparently all the limitlessness of space
+ is otherwise empty and dead.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The deepest ocean dredgings go down to five miles. The highest
+ recorded flight of an aeroplane is little more than four miles.
+  Men have reached to seven miles up in balloons, but at a cost of
+ great suffering.  No bird can fly so high as five miles, and small
+ birds and insects which have been carried up by aeroplanes drop off
+ insensible far below that level.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P5"></a></span><a name="chapII"></a>II<br />
+THE WORLD IN TIME</h2>
+
+<p>
+In the last fifty years there has been much very fine and interesting
+speculation on the part of scientific men upon the age and origin of our earth.
+Here we cannot pretend to give even a summary of such speculations because they
+involve the most subtle mathematical and physical considerations. The truth is
+that the physical and astronomical sciences are still too undeveloped as yet to
+make anything of the sort more than an illustrative guesswork. The general
+tendency has been to make the estimated age of our globe longer and longer. It
+now seems probable that the earth has had an independent existence as a
+spinning planet flying round and round the sun for a longer period than
+2,000,000,000 years. It may have been much longer than that. This is a length
+of time that absolutely overpowers the imagination.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Before that vast period of separate existence, the sun and earth and
+the other planets that circulate round the sun may have been a great
+swirl of diffused matter in space.  The telescope reveals to us in
+various parts of the heavens luminous spiral clouds of matter, the
+spiral nebulæ, which appear to be in rotation about a centre.
+  It is supposed by many astronomers that the sun and its planets
+ were once such a spiral, and that their matter has undergone
+ concentration into its present form. Through majestic æons
+ that concentration went on until in that vast remoteness of the
+ past for which we have given figures, the world and its moon were
+ distinguishable.  They were spinning then much faster than they are
+ spinning now; they were at a lesser distance from the sun; they
+ travelled round it very much faster, and they were probably
+ incandescent or molten at the surface.  The sun itself was a much
+ greater blaze in the heavens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P6"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-6"></a>
+<img src="images/img-6.jpg" alt="THE
+ GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA" width="466" height="596" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo: G. W. Ritchey</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+If we could go back through that infinitude of time and see the
+ earth in this earlier stage of its history, we should behold a
+ scene more like the interior of a blast furnace or the surface of a
+ lava flow before it cools and cakes over than any other
+ contemporary scene.  No water would be visible because all the
+ water there was would still be superheated steam in a stormy
+ atmosphere of sulphurous and metallic vapours.  Beneath this
+ would swirl and boil an ocean of molten rock substance.  Across a
+ sky of fiery clouds the glare of the hurrying sun
+and moon would sweep swiftly like hot breaths of flame.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P7"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-7"></a>
+<img src="images/img-7.jpg" alt="A
+ DARK NEBULA" width="502" height="681" />
+<p class="caption">
+A DARK NEBULA<br />
+<i>Taken in 1920 with the aid of the largest telescope in the world.
+One of the first photographs taken by the Mount Wilson telescope.</i>
+<br />
+There are dark nebulæ and bright nebulæ.  Prof. Henry
+ Norris Russell, against the British theory, holds that the dark
+ nebulæ preceded the bright nebulæ.
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo: Prof. Hale</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Slowly by degrees as one million of years followed another,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P8"></a></span> this fiery scene
+would lose its eruptive incandescence.  The vapours in the sky would
+rain down and become less dense overhead; great slaggy cakes of
+solidifying rock would appear upon the surface of the molten sea,
+and sink under it, to be replaced by other floating masses.  The
+sun and moon growing now each more distant and each smaller, would
+rush with diminishing swiftness across the heavens. The moon now,
+because of its smaller size, would be already cooled far below
+incandescence, and would be alternately obstructing and reflecting
+the sunlight in a series of eclipses and full moons.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-8"></a>
+<img src="images/img-8.jpg"
+ alt="ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA" width="657" height="450" />
+<p class="caption">
+ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo: G. W. Ritchey</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P9"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And so with a tremendous slowness through the vastness of time, the
+earth would grow more and more like the earth on which we live, until
+at last an age would come when, in the cooling air, steam would begin
+to condense into clouds, and the first rain would fall hissing upon
+the first rocks below.  For endless millenia the greater part of the
+earth&rsquo;s water would still be vaporized in the atmosphere, but
+there would now be hot streams running over the crystallizing
+rocks below and pools and lakes into which these streams would be
+carrying detritus and depositing sediment.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-9"></a>
+<img src="images/img-9.jpg"
+ alt="LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE" width="677" height="482" />
+<p class="caption">
+LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE<br />
+&ldquo;Great lava-like masses of rock without traces of soil&rdquo;
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+At last a condition of things must have been attained in which a
+man might have stood up on earth and looked about him and lived.
+If we could have visited the earth at that time we should have
+stood on great lava-like masses of rock without a trace of soil
+or touch of living vegetation, under a storm-rent sky.  Hot and
+violent winds, exceeding the fiercest tornado that ever blows,
+and downpours of rain such as our milder, slower earth to-day
+knows nothing of, might have assailed us.  The water of the
+downpour would have rushed by us, muddy with the spoils of the
+rocks, coming together into torrents, cutting deep gorges and
+canyons as they hurried past to deposit their sediment in the
+earliest seas.  Through the clouds we should have glimpsed a great
+sun moving visibly across the sky, and in its wake and in the wake
+of the moon would have come a diurnal tide of earthquake and
+upheaval. And
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P10"></a></span>
+
+the moon, which nowadays keeps one constant face to earth, would
+then have been rotating visibly and showing the side it now hides
+so inexorably.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The earth aged.  One million years followed another, and the day
+lengthened, the sun grew more distant and milder, the moon&rsquo;s
+pace in the sky slackened; the intensity of rain and storm
+diminished and the water in the first seas increased and ran
+together into the ocean garment our planet henceforth wore.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But there was no life as yet upon the earth; the seas were lifeless,
+and the rocks were barren.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P11"></a></span><a name="chapIII"></a>III<br />
+THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE</h2>
+
+<p>
+As everybody knows nowadays, the knowledge we possess of life before
+the beginnings of human memory and tradition is derived from the
+markings and fossils of living things in the stratified rocks. We
+find preserved in shale and slate, limestone, and sandstone, bones,
+shells, fibres, stems, fruits, footmarks, scratchings and the like,
+side by side with the ripple marks of the earliest tides and the
+pittings of the earliest rain-falls. It is by the sedulous
+examination of this Record of the Rocks that the past history of the
+earth&rsquo;s life has been pieced together.  That much nearly
+everybody knows to-day.  The sedimentary rocks do not lie neatly
+stratum above stratum; they have been crumpled, bent, thrust about,
+distorted and mixed together like the leaves of a library that has
+been repeatedly looted and burnt, and it is only as a result of many
+devoted lifetimes of work that the record has been put into order
+and read.  The whole compass of time represented by the record of
+the rocks is now estimated as 1,600,000,000 years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The earliest rocks in the record are called by geologists the Azoic
+ rocks, because they show no traces of life.  Great areas of these
+ Azoic rocks lie uncovered in North America, and they are of such a
+ thickness that geologists consider that they represent a period of
+ at least half of the 1,600,000,000 which they assign to the whole
+ geological record.  Let me repeat this profoundly significant fact.
+  Half the great interval of time since land and sea were first
+ distinguishable on earth has left us no traces of life.  There are
+ ripplings and rain marks still to be found in these rocks, but no
+ marks nor vestiges of any living thing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P12"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-12"></a>
+<img src="images/img-12.jpg"
+alt="MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD" width="552" 
+ height="705" />
+<p class="caption">
+MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD<br />
+1 and 8, Jellyfishes;  2, Hyolithes (swimming snail);  3,
+ Humenocaris;  4, Protospongia; 5, Lampshells (Obolella);  6,
+ Orthoceras;  7, Trilobite (Paradoxides) &mdash; see fossil on page 13;
+  9, Coral (Archæocyathus);  10, Bryograptus;  11, Trilobite
+ (Olenellus); 12, Palesterina
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Then, as we come up the record, signs of past life appear and
+ increase.  The age of the world&rsquo;s history in which we find
+ these past <span class="pagenum"><a name="P13"></a></span>
+traces is called by geologists the Lower Palæozoic age.
+ The first indications that life was astir are vestiges of
+ comparatively simple and lowly things: the shells of small
+ shellfish, the stems and flowerlike heads of zoophytes, seaweeds
+ and the tracks and remains of sea worms and crustacea.  Very early
+ appear certain creatures rather like plant-lice, crawling creatures
+ which could roll themselves up into balls as the plant-lice do, the
+ trilobites.  Later by a few million years or so come certain sea
+ scorpions, more mobile and powerful creatures than the world had
+ ever seen before.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-13"></a>
+<img src="images/img-13.jpg"
+alt="FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY MAGNIFIED)" width="338" 
+ height="457" />
+<p class="caption">
+FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY MAGNIFIED)
+<br /><small><i>Photo: John J. Ward, F.E.S.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+None of these creatures were of very great size.  Among the largest
+ were certain of the sea scorpions, which measured nine feet in
+ length.  There are no signs whatever of land life of any sort,
+ plant or animal; there are no fishes nor any vertebrated creatures
+ in this part of the record.  Essentially all the plants and
+ creatures which have left us their traces from this period of the
+ earth&rsquo;s history are shallow-water and intertidal beings.  If
+ we wished to parallel the flora and fauna of the Lower
+ Palæozoic rocks on the earth to-day, we should do it best,
+ except in the matter of size, by taking a drop of water from a rock
+ pool or scummy ditch and examining it under a microscope.  The
+ little crustacea, the small shellfish, the zoophytes and algæ
+ we should find there would display a quite striking resemblance to
+ these clumsier, larger prototypes that once were the crown of life
+ upon our planet.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-14"></a>
+<img src="images/img-14.jpg"
+alt="EARLY PALÆOLITHIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF
+ LINGULA" width="625"
+ height="608" />
+<p class="caption">
+EARLY PALÆOLITHIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF
+ LINGULA
+<br />
+Species of this most ancient genus of shellfish still live to-day
+<br />
+<small><i>(In Natural History Museum, London)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It is well, however, to bear in mind that the Lower Palæozoic
+ rocks probably do not give us anything at all representative of the
+ first beginnings of life on our planet. Unless a creature has bones
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P14"></a></span>or other hard
+ parts, unless it wears a shell or is big enough and heavy enough to
+ make characteristic footprints and trails in mud, it is unlikely to
+ leave any fossilized traces of its existence behind.  To-day there
+ are hundreds of thousands of species of small soft-bodied creatures
+ in our world which it is inconceivable can ever leave any mark for
+ future geologists to discover.  In the world&rsquo;s past, millions
+ of millions of species of such creatures may have lived and
+ multiplied and flourished and passed away without a trace
+ remaining.  The waters of the warm and shallow lakes and seas of
+ the so-called Azoic period may have teemed with an infinite variety
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P15"></a></span>of lowly,
+ jelly-like, shell-less and boneless creatures, and a multitude of
+ green scummy plants may have spread over the sunlit intertidal
+ rocks and beaches.  The Record of the Rocks is no more a complete
+ record of life in the past than the books of a bank are a record of
+ the existence of everybody in the neighbourhood.  It is only when a
+ species begins to secrete a shell or a spicule or a carapace or a
+ lime-supported stem, and so put by something for the future, that
+ it goes upon the Record.  But in rocks of an age prior to those
+ which bear any fossil traces, graphite, a form of uncombined
+ carbon, is sometimes found, and some authorities consider that it
+ may have been separated out from combination through the vital
+ activities of unknown living things.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-15"></a>
+<img src="images/img-15.jpg"
+alt=" FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT CHEIROTHERIUM" width="670"
+ height="345" />
+<p class="caption">
+FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT CHEIROTHERIUM
+<br />
+<small><i>(In Natural History Museum, London)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P16"></a></span><a name="chapIV"></a>IV<br />
+THE AGE OF FISHES</h2>
+
+<p>
+In the days when the world was supposed to have endured for only a
+ few thousand years, it was supposed that the different species of
+ plants and animals were fixed and final; they had all been created
+ exactly as they are to-day, each species by itself.  But as men
+ began to discover and study the Record of the Rocks this belief
+ gave place to the suspicion that many species had changed and
+ developed slowly through the course of ages, and this again
+ expanded into a belief in what is called Organic Evolution, a
+ belief that all species of life upon earth, animal and vegetable
+ alike, are descended by slow continuous processes of change from
+ some very simple ancestral form of life, some almost structureless
+ living substance, far back in the so-called Azoic seas.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This question of Organic Evolution, like the question of the age of
+ the earth, has in the past been the subject of much bitter
+ controversy.  There was a time when a belief in organic evolution
+ was for rather obscure reasons supposed to be incompatible with
+ sound Christian, Jewish and Moslem doctrine.  That time has passed,
+ and the men of the most orthodox Catholic, Protestant, Jewish and
+ Mohammedan belief are now free to accept this newer and broader
+ view of a common origin of all living things.  No life seems to
+ have happened suddenly upon earth.  Life grew and grows.  Age by
+ age through gulfs of time at which imagination reels, life has been
+ growing from a mere stirring in the intertidal slime towards
+ freedom, power and consciousness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Life consists of individuals. These individuals are definite things,
+ they are not like the lumps and masses, nor even the limitless and
+ motionless crystals, of non-living matter, and they have two
+ characteristics no dead matter possesses.  They can assimilate
+ other matter into themselves and make it part of themselves, and
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P17"></a></span>they can
+ reproduce themselves.  They eat and they breed.  They can give rise
+ to other individuals, for the most part like themselves, but always
+ also a little different from themselves.  There is a specific and
+ family resemblance between an individual and its offspring, and
+ there is an individual difference between every parent and every
+ offspring it produces, and this is true in every species and at
+ every stage of life.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-17"></a>
+<img src="images/img-17.jpg"
+alt="SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION
+ SHOWING BODY ARMOUR" width="327"
+ height="758" />
+<p class="caption">
+SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION
+ SHOWING BODY ARMOUR
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Now scientific men are not able to explain to us either why
+ offspring should resemble nor why they should differ from their
+ parents.  But seeing that offspring do at once resemble and differ,
+ it is a matter rather of common sense than of scientific knowledge
+ that, if the conditions under which a species live are changed, the
+ species should undergo some correlated changes.  Because in any
+ generation of the species there must be a number of individuals
+ whose individual differences make them better adapted to the new
+ conditions under which the species has to live, and a number whose
+ individuals whose individual differences make it rather harder for
+ them to live.  And on the whole the former sort will live longer,
+ bear more offspring, and reproduce themselves more abundantly than
+ the latter, and so generation by generation the average of the
+ species will change in the favourable direction.  This process,
+ which is called Natural Selection, is not so much a scientific
+ theory as a necessary deduction
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P18"></a></span>from the facts
+ of reproduction and individual difference.  There may be many
+ forces at work varying, destroying and preserving species, about
+ which science may still be unaware or undecided, but the man who
+ can deny the operation of this process of natural selection upon
+ life since its beginning must be either ignorant of the elementary
+ facts of life or incapable of ordinary thought.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many scientific men have speculated about the first beginning of
+ life and their speculations are often of great interest, but there
+ is absolutely no definite knowledge and no convincing guess yet of
+ the way in which life began.  But nearly all authorities are agreed
+ that it probably began upon mud or sand in warm sunlit shallow
+ brackish water, and that it spread up the beaches to the intertidal
+ lines and out to the open waters.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-18"></a>
+<img src="images/img-18.jpg"
+alt="FOSSIL OF THE CLADOSELACHE, A DEVONIAN SHARK" width="316"
+ height="563" />
+<p class="caption">
+FOSSIL OF THE CLADOSELACHE, A DEVONIAN SHARK
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+That early world was a world of strong tides and currents.  An
+ incessant destruction of individuals must have been going on
+ through their being swept up the beaches and dried, or by their
+ being swept out to sea and sinking down out of reach of air and
+ sun.  Early conditions favoured the development of every tendency
+ to root and hold on, every tendency to form an outer skin and
+ casing to protect the stranded individual from immediate
+ desiccation.  From the very earliest any tendency to sensitiveness
+ to taste would turn the individual in the direction of food, and
+ any sensitiveness to light would assist it to struggle back out of
+ the darkness of the sea deeps and caverns or to wriggle back out of
+ the excessive glare of the dangerous shallows.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Probably the first shells and body armour of living things were
+ protections against drying rather than against active enemies.
+  But tooth and claw come early into our earthly history.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have already noted the size of the earlier water scorpions.  For
+ long ages such creatures were the supreme lords of life. Then <span
+ class="pagenum"><a name="P19"></a></span>in a division of these
+ Palæozoic rocks called the Silurian division, which many
+ geologists now suppose to be as old as five hundred million years,
+ there appears a new type of being, equipped with eyes and teeth and
+ swimming powers of an altogether more powerful kind.  These were
+ the first known backboned animals, the earliest fishes, the first
+ known Vertebrata.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-19"></a>
+<img src="images/img-19.jpg"
+alt="SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD" width="459"
+ height="665" />
+<p class="caption">
+SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD
+<br />
+<small><i>By Alice Woodward</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+These fishes increase greatly in the next division of rocks, the
+ rocks known as the Devonian system.  They are so prevalent that
+ this period of the Record of the Rocks has been called the Age of
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P20"></a></span>Fishes.  Fishes
+ of a pattern now gone from the earth, and fishes allied to the
+ sharks and sturgeons of to-day, rushed through the waters, leapt in
+ the air, browsed among the seaweeds, pursued and preyed upon one
+ another, and gave a new liveliness to the waters of the world.
+  None of these were excessively big by our present standards.  Few
+ of them were more than two or three feet long, but there were
+ exceptional forms which were as long as twenty feet.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We know nothing from geology of the ancestors of these fishes.  They
+ do not appear to be related to any of the forms that preceded them.
+  Zoologists have the most interesting views of their ancestry, but
+ these they derive from the study of the development of the eggs of
+ their still living relations, and from other sources.  Apparently
+ the ancestors of the vertebrata were soft-bodied and perhaps quite
+ small swimming creatures who began first to develop hard parts as
+ teeth round and about their mouths.  The teeth of a skate or
+ dogfish cover the roof and floor of its mouth and pass at the lip
+ into the flattened toothlike scales that encase most of its body.
+  As the fishes develop these teeth scales in the geological record,
+ they swim out of the hidden darkness of the past into the light,
+ the first vertebrated animals visible in the record.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P21"></a></span><a name="chapV"></a>V<br />
+THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS</h2>
+
+<p>
+The land during this Age of Fishes was apparently quite lifeless. Crags and
+uplands of barren rock lay under the sun and rain. There was no real
+soil&mdash;for as yet there were no earthworms which help to make a soil, and
+no plants to break up the rock particles into mould; there was no trace of moss
+or lichen. Life was still only in the sea.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Over this world of barren rock played great changes of climate.
+  The causes of these changes of climate were very complex and they
+ have still to be properly estimated.  The changing shape of the
+ earth&rsquo;s orbit, the gradual shifting of the poles of rotation,
+ changes in the shapes of the continents, probably even fluctuations
+ in the warmth of the sun, now conspired to plunge great areas of
+ the earth&rsquo;s surface into long periods of cold and ice and now
+ again for millions of years spread a warm or equable climate over
+ this planet.  There seem to have been phases of great internal
+ activity in the world&rsquo;s history, when in the course of a few
+ million years accumulated upthrusts would break out in lines of
+ volcanic eruption and upheaval and rearrange the mountain and
+ continental outlines of the globe, increasing the depth of the sea
+ and the height of the mountains and exaggerating the extremes of
+ climate.  And these would be followed by vast ages of comparative
+ quiescence, when frost, rain and river would wear down the mountain
+ heights and carry great masses of silt to fill and raise the sea
+ bottoms and spread the seas, ever shallower and wider, over more
+ and more of the land.  There have been &ldquo;high and deep&rdquo;
+ ages in the world&rsquo;s history and &ldquo;low and level&rdquo;
+ ages.  The reader must dismiss from his mind any idea that the
+ surface of the earth has been growing steadily cooler since its
+ crust grew solid.  After that much cooling had been achieved, the
+ internal temperature ceased to affect surface
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P22"></a></span>conditions.
+ There are traces of periods of superabundant ice and snow, of
+ &ldquo;Glacial Ages,&rdquo; that is, even in the Azoic period.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was only towards the close of the Age of Fishes, in a period of
+ extensive shallow seas and lagoons, that life spread itself out in
+ any effectual way from the waters on to the land.  No doubt the
+ earlier types of the forms that now begin to appear in great
+ abundance had already been developing in a rare and obscure manner
+ for many scores of millions of years.  But now came their
+ opportunity.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-22"></a>
+<img src="images/img-22.jpg"
+alt="A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP" width="450"
+ height="634" />
+<p class="caption">
+A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP
+<br />
+<small><i>A Coal Seam in the Making</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Plants no doubt preceded animal forms in this invasion of the land,
+ but the animals probably followed up the plant emigration
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P23"></a></span>very closely.
+  The first problem that the plant had to solve was the problem of
+ some sustaining stiff support to hold up its fronds to the sunlight
+ when the buoyant water was withdrawn; the second was the problem of
+ getting water from the swampy ground below to the tissues of the
+ plant, now that it was no longer close at hand.  The two problems
+ were solved by the development of woody tissue which both sustained
+ the plant and acted as water carrier to the leaves.  The Record of
+ the Rocks is suddenly crowded by a vast variety of woody swamp
+ plants, many of them of great size, big tree mosses, tree ferns,
+ gigantic horsetails and the like.  And with these, age by age,
+ there crawled out of the water a great variety of animal forms.
+  There were centipedes and millipedes; there were the first
+ primitive insects; there were creatures related to the ancient king
+ crabs and sea scorpions which became the earliest spiders and land
+ scorpions, and presently there were vertebrated animals.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-23"></a>
+<img src="images/img-23.jpg"
+alt="SKULL OF A LABYRINTHODONT, CAPITOSAURUS" width="383"
+ height="468" />
+<p class="caption">
+SKULL OF A LABYRINTHODONT, CAPITOSAURUS
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Some of the earlier insects were very large. There were dragon flies
+ in this period with wings that spread out to twenty-nine inches.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In various ways these new orders and genera had adapted themselves
+ to breathing air.  Hitherto all animals had breathed air dissolved
+ in water, and that indeed is what all animals still have to do.
+  But now in divers fashions the animal kingdom was acquiring the
+ power of supplying its own moisture where it was needed.  A man
+ with a perfectly dry lung would suffocate to-day;
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P24"></a></span>his lung
+ surfaces must be moist in order that air may pass through them
+ into his blood.  The adaptation to air breathing consists in all
+ cases either in the development of a cover to the old-fashioned
+ gills to stop evaporation, or in the development of tubes or other
+ new breathing organs lying deep inside the body and moistened by a
+ watery secretion.  The old gills with which the ancestral fish of
+ the vertebrated line had breathed were inadaptable to breathing
+ upon land, and in the case of this division of the animal kingdom
+ it is the swimming bladder of the fish which becomes a new,
+ deep-seated breathing organ, the lung.  The kind of animals known
+ as amphibia, the frogs and newts of to-day, begin their lives in
+ the water and breathe by gills; and subsequently the lung,
+ developing in the same way as the swimming bladder of many fishes
+ do, as a baglike outgrowth from the throat, takes over the business
+ of breathing, the animal comes out on land, and the gills dwindle
+ and the gill slits disappear.  (All except an outgrowth of one gill
+ slit, which becomes the passage of the ear and ear-drum.)  The
+ animal can now live only in the air, but it must return at least to
+ the edge of the water to lay its eggs and reproduce its kind.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-24"></a>
+<img src="images/img-24.jpg"
+alt="SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT: THE ERYOPS" width="670"
+ height="243" />
+<p class="caption">
+SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT: THE ERYOPS
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+All the air-breathing vertebrata of this age of swamps and plants
+ belonged to the class amphibia.  They were nearly all of them forms
+ related to the newts of to-day, and some of them attained a
+ considerable size.  They were land animals, it is true, but they
+ were land animals needing to live in and near moist and swampy
+ places, and all the great trees of this period were equally
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P25"></a></span>amphibious in
+ their habits.  None of them had yet developed fruits and seeds of a
+ kind that could fall on land and develop with the help only of such
+ moisture as dew and rain could bring.  They all had to shed their
+ spores in water, it would seem, if they were to germinate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is one of the most beautiful interests of that beautiful science,
+ comparative anatomy, to trace the complex and wonderful adaptations
+ of living things to the necessities of existence in air.  All
+ living things, plants and animals alike, are primarily water
+ things.  For example all the higher vertebrated animals above the
+ fishes, up to and including man, pass through a stage in their
+ development in the egg or before birth in which they have gill
+ slits which are obliterated before the young emerge.  The bare,
+ water-washed eye of the fish is protected in the higher forms from
+ drying up by eyelids and glands which secrete moisture.  The weaker
+ sound vibrations of air necessitate an ear-drum.  In nearly every
+ organ of the body similar modifications and adaptations are to be
+ detected, similar patchings-up to meet aerial conditions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This Carboniferous age, this age of the amphibia, was an age of life
+ in the swamps and lagoons and on the low banks among these waters.
+  Thus far life had now extended.  The hills and high lands were
+ still quite barren and lifeless.  Life had learnt to breathe air
+ indeed, but it still had its roots in its native water; it still
+ had to return to the water to reproduce its kind.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P26"></a></span><a name="chapVI"></a>VI<br />
+THE AGE OF REPTILES</h2>
+
+<p>
+The abundant life of the Carboniferous period was succeeded by a vast cycle of
+dry and bitter ages.  They are represented in the Record of the Rocks by thick
+deposits of sandstones and the like, in which fossils are comparatively few.
+The temperature of the world fluctuated widely, and there were long periods of
+glacial cold. Over great areas the former profusion of swamp vegetation ceased,
+and, overlaid by these newer deposits, it began that process of compression and
+mineralization that gave the world most of the coal deposits of to-day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it is during periods of change that life undergoes its most
+rapid modifications, and under hardship that it learns its hardest
+lessons.  As conditions revert towards warmth and moisture again we
+find a new series of animal and plant forms established,  We find in
+the record the remains of vertebrated animals that laid eggs which,
+instead of hatching out tadpoles which needed to live for a time in
+water, carried on their development before hatching to a stage so
+nearly like the adult form that the young could live in air from the
+first moment of independent existence.  Gills had been cut out
+altogether, and the gill slits only appeared as an embryonic phase.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These new creatures without a tadpole stage were the Reptiles.
+  Concurrently there had been a development of seed-bearing trees,
+which could spread their seed, independently of swamp or lakes.
+  There were now palmlike cycads and many tropical conifers, though as
+yet there were no flowering plants and no grasses.  There was a
+great number of ferns.  And there was now also an increased variety
+of insects.  There were beetles, though bees and butterflies had yet
+to come.  But all the fundamental forms of a new real land fauna and
+flora had been laid down during these vast ages of severity.  <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P27"></a></span>This new land life
+needed only the opportunity of favourable conditions to flourish and
+prevail.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-27"></a>
+<img src="images/img-27.jpg"
+alt="A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD" width="674"
+ height="368" />
+<p class="caption">
+A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD
+<br />
+<small>Found in the Lower Lias in Somersetshire
+<br />
+<i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Age by age and with abundant fluctuations that mitigation came.  The
+still incalculable movements of the earth&rsquo;s crust, the changes
+in its orbit, the increase and diminution of the mutual inclination
+of orbit and pole, worked together to produce a great spell of
+widely diffused warm conditions.  The period lasted altogether, it
+is now supposed, upwards of two hundred million years.  It is called
+the Mesozoic period, to distinguish it from the altogether vaster
+Palæozoic and Azoic periods (together fourteen hundred
+millions) that preceded it, and from the Cainozoic or new life
+period that intervened between its close and the present time, and
+it is also called the Age of Reptiles because of the astonishing
+predominance and variety of this form of life.  It came to an end
+some eighty million  years ago.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the world to-day the genera of Reptiles are comparatively few and
+their distribution is very limited.  They are more various, it is
+true, than are the few surviving members of the order of the
+amphibia which once in the Carboniferous period ruled the world.  We
+still have the snakes, the turtles and tortoises (the Chelonia),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P28"></a></span>the alligators
+and crocodiles, and the lizards.  Without exception they are
+creatures requiring warmth all the year round; they cannot stand
+exposure to cold, and it is probable that all the reptilian beings
+of the Mesozoic suffered under the same limitation.  It was a
+hothouse fauna, living amidst a hothouse flora.  It endured no
+frosts.  But the world had at least attained a real dry land fauna
+and flora as distinguished from the mud and swamp fauna and flora of
+the previous heyday of life upon earth.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-28"></a>
+<img src="images/img-28.jpg"
+alt="A PTERODACTYL" width="661"
+ height="265" />
+<p class="caption">
+A PTERODACTYL
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+All the sorts of reptile we know now were much more abundantly
+represented then, great turtles and tortoises, big crocodiles and
+many lizards and snakes, but in addition there was a number of
+series of wonderful creatures that have now vanished altogether from
+the earth.  There was a vast variety of beings called the Dinosaurs.
+  Vegetation was now spreading over the lower levels of the world,
+reeds, brakes of fern and the like; and browsing upon this abundance
+came a multitude of herbivorous reptiles, which increased in size as
+the Mesozoic period rose to its climax.  Some of these beasts
+exceeded in size any other land animals that have ever lived; they
+were as large as whales.  The <i>Diplodocus Carnegii</i> for example
+measured eighty-four feet from snout to tail; the Gigantosaurus was
+even greater; it measured a hundred feet.  Living upon these
+monsters was a swarm of carnivorous Dinosaurs of a corresponding
+size.  One of these, the Tyrannosaurus, is figured and described in
+many books as the last word in reptilian frightfulness.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P29"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-29"></a>
+<img src="images/img-29.jpg"
+alt="A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS, OVER EIGHTY
+ FEET FROM SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP" width="665"
+ height="445" />
+<p class="caption">
+A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS, OVER EIGHTY FEET
+ FROM SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+While these great creatures pastured and pursued amidst the fronds
+and evergreens of the Mesozoic jungles, another now vanished tribe
+of reptiles, with a bat-like development of the fore limbs, pursued
+insects and one another, first leapt and parachuted and presently
+flew amidst the fronds and branches of the forest trees.  These were
+the Pterodactyls. These were the first flying creatures with
+backbones; they mark a new achievement in the growing powers of
+vertebrated life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Moreover some of the reptiles were returning to the sea waters.
+  Three groups of big swimming beings had invaded the sea from which
+their ancestors had come: the Mososaurs, the Plesiosaurs, and
+Ichthyosaurs.  Some of these again approached the proportions of our
+present whales.  The Ichthyosaurs seem to have been quite seagoing
+creatures, but the Plesiosaurs were a type of animal that has no
+cognate form to-day.  The body was stout and big with paddles,
+adapted either for swimming or crawling through marshes, or along
+the bottom of shallow waters.  The comparatively small <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P30"></a></span>head was poised on a
+vast snake of neck, altogether outdoing the neck of the swan.
+  Either the Plesiosaur swam and searched for food under the water and
+fed as the swan will do, or it lurked under water and snatched at
+passing fish or beast.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Such was the predominant land life throughout the Mesozoic age.  It
+was by our human standards an advance upon anything that had
+preceded it.  It had produced land animals greater in size, range,
+power and activity, more &ldquo;vital&rdquo; as people say, than
+anything the world had seen before.  In the seas there had been no
+such advance but a great proliferation of new forms of life.  An
+enormous variety of squid-like creatures with chambered shells, for
+the most part coiled, had appeared in the shallow seas, the
+Ammonites.  They had had predecessors in the Palæozoic seas,
+but now was their age of glory.  To-day they have left no survivors
+at all; their nearest relation is the pearly Nautilus, an inhabitant
+of tropical waters.  And a new and more prolific type of fish with
+lighter, finer scales than the plate-like and tooth-like coverings
+that had hitherto prevailed, became and has since remained
+predominant in the seas and rivers.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P31"></a></span><a name="chapVII"></a>VII<br />
+THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS</h2>
+
+<p>
+In a few paragraphs a picture of the lush vegetation and swarming reptiles of
+that first great summer of life, the Mesozoic period, has been sketched.  But
+while the Dinosaurs lorded it over the hot selvas and marshy plains and the
+Pterodactyls filled the forests with their flutterings and possibly with
+shrieks and croakings as they pursued the humming insect life of the still
+flowerless shrubs and trees, some less conspicuous and less abundant forms upon
+the margins of this abounding life were acquiring certain powers and learning
+certain lessons of endurance, that were to be of the utmost value to their race
+when at last the smiling generosity of sun and earth began to fade.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A group of tribes and genera of hopping reptiles, small creatures of
+ the dinosaur type, seem to have been pushed by competition and the
+ pursuit of their enemies towards the alternatives of extinction or
+ adaptation to colder conditions in the higher hills or by the sea.
+    Among these distressed tribes there was developed a new type of
+ scale&mdash;scales that were elongated into quill-like forms and
+ that presently branched into the crude beginnings of feathers.
+    These quill-like scales layover one another and formed a
+ heat-retaining covering more efficient than any reptilian covering
+ that had hitherto existed.  So they permitted an invasion of colder
+ regions that were otherwise uninhabited.  Perhaps simultaneously
+ with these changes there arose in these creatures a greater
+ solicitude for their eggs.  Most reptiles are apparently quite
+ careless about their eggs, which are left for sun and season to
+ hatch.  But some of the varieties upon this new branch of the tree
+ of life were acquiring a habit of guarding their eggs and keeping
+ them warm with the warmth of their bodies.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With these adaptations to cold other internal modifications <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P32"></a></span>were going on that made
+these creatures, the primitive birds, warm-blooded and independent
+of basking.  The very earliest birds seem to have been seabirds
+living upon fish, and their fore limbs were not wings but paddles
+rather after the penguin type.  That peculiarly primitive bird, the
+New Zealand Ki-Wi, has feathers of a very simple sort, and neither
+flies nor appears to be descended from flying ancestors.  In the
+development of the birds, feathers came before wings.  But once the
+feather was developed the possibility of making a light spread of
+feathers led inevitably to the wing.  We know of the fossil remains
+of one bird at least which had reptilian teeth in its jaw and a long
+reptilian tail, but which also had a true bird&rsquo;s wing and
+which certainly flew and held its own among the pterodactyls of the
+Mesozoic time.  Nevertheless birds were neither varied nor abundant
+in Mesozoic times.  If a man could go back to typical Mesozoic
+country, he might walk for days and never see or hear such a thing
+as a bird, though he would see a great abundance of pterodactyls and
+insects among the fronds and reeds.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-32"></a>
+<img src="images/img-32.jpg"
+alt="FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST BIRDS"
+ width="446" height="565" />
+<p class="caption">
+FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST BIRDS
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+And another thing he would probably never see, and that would be any
+sign of a mammal.  Probably the first mammals were in <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P33"></a></span>existence millions of
+years before the first thing one could call a bird, but they were
+altogether too small and obscure and remote for attention.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-33"></a>
+<img src="images/img-33.jpg"
+alt="HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS"
+width="500" height="741" />
+<p class="caption">
+HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The earliest mammals, like the earliest birds, were creatures driven
+by competition and pursuit into a life of hardship and adaptation to
+cold.  With them also the scale became quill-like, and was developed
+into a heat-retaining covering; and they too underwent
+modifications, similar in kind though different in detail, to become
+warm-blooded and independent of basking.  Instead of feathers they
+developed hairs, and instead of guarding and incubating their eggs
+they kept them warm and safe by retaining them inside their bodies
+until they were almost mature.  Most of them became altogether
+vivaparous and brought their young into the world alive.  And even
+after their young were born they tended to maintain a protective and
+nutritive association with them.  Most <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P34"></a></span>but not all mammals to-day have mammæ
+and suckle their young.  Two mammals still live which lay eggs and
+which have not proper mammæ, though they nourish their young by
+a nutritive secretion of the under skin; these are the duck-billed
+platypus and the echidna.  The echidna lays leathery eggs and then
+puts them into a pouch under its belly, and so carries them about
+warm and safe until they hatch.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But just as a visitor to the Mesozoic world might have searched for
+days and weeks before finding a bird, so, unless he knew exactly
+where to go and look, he might have searched in vain for any traces
+of a mammal.  Both birds and mammals would have seemed very
+eccentric and secondary and unimportant creatures in Mesozoic times.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-34"></a>
+<img src="images/img-34.jpg"
+alt="THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND"
+width="506" height="595" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND<br />
+<small><i>Photo: Autotype Fine Art Co.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P35"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-35"></a>
+<img src="images/img-35.jpg"
+alt="SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL"
+ width="600" height="784" />
+<p class="caption">
+SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL<br />
+<small>Discovered in Greece; it is rich in fossilized bones of early
+mammals</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Age of Reptiles lasted, it is now guessed, eighty million years.
+  Had any quasi-human intelligence been watching the world through
+that inconceivable length of time, how safe and eternal the sunshine
+and abundance must have seemed, how assured the wallowing prosperity
+of the dinosaurs and the flapping abundance of the flying lizards!
+And then the mysterious rhythms and accumulating forces of the
+universe began to turn against that quasi-eternal stability.  That
+run of luck <span class="pagenum"><a name="P36"></a></span>for
+ life was running out.  Age by age, myriad of years after myriad of
+ years, with halts no doubt and retrogressions, came a change
+ towards hardship and extreme conditions, came great alterations of
+ level and great redistributions of mountain and sea.  We find one
+ thing in the Record of the Rocks during the decadence of the long
+ Mesozoic age of prosperity that is very significant of steadily
+ sustained changes of condition, and that is a violent fluctuation
+ of living forms and the appearance of new and strange species.
+  Under the gathering threat of extinction the older orders and
+ genera are displaying their utmost capacity for variation and
+ adaptation.  The Ammonites for example in these last pages of the
+ Mesozoic chapter exhibit a multitude of fantastic forms.  Under
+ settled conditions there is no encouragement for novelties; they do
+ not develop, they are suppressed; what is best adapted is already
+ there.  Under novel conditions it is the ordinary type that
+ suffers, and the novelty that may have a better chance to survive
+ and establish itself....
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There comes a break in the Record of the Rocks that may represent
+several million years.  There is a veil here still, over even the
+outline of the history of life.  When it lifts again, the Age of
+Reptiles is at an end; the Dinosaurs, the Plesiosaurs and
+Ichthyosaurs, the Pterodactyls, the innumerable genera and species
+of Ammonite have all gone absolutely.  In all their stupendous
+variety they have died out and left no descendants.  The cold has
+killed them.  All their final variations were insufficient; they had
+never hit upon survival conditions.  The world had passed through a
+phase of extreme conditions beyond their powers of endurance, a slow
+and complete massacre of Mesozoic life has occurred, and we find now
+a new scene, a new and hardier flora, and a new and hardier fauna in
+possession of the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is still a bleak and impoverished scene with which this new
+volume of the book of life begins. The cycads and tropical conifers
+have given place very largely to trees that shed their leaves to
+avoid destruction by the snows of winter and to flowering plants and
+shrubs, and where there was formerly a profusion of reptiles, an
+increasing variety of birds and mammals is entering into their
+inheritance.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P37"></a></span><a name="chapVIII"></a>VIII<br />
+THE AGE OF MAMMALS</h2>
+
+<p>
+The opening of the next great period in the life of the earth, the Cainozoic
+period, was a period of upheaval and extreme volcanic activity. Now it was that
+the vast masses of the Alps and Himalayas and the mountain backbone of the
+Rockies and Andes were thrust up, and that the rude outlines of our present
+oceans and continents appeared. The map of the world begins to display a first
+dim resemblance to the map of to-day. It is estimated now that between forty
+and eighty million years have elapsed from the beginnings of the Cainozoic
+period to the present time.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At the outset of the Cainozoic period the climate of the
+world was austere.  It grew generally warmer until a fresh
+phase of great abundance was reached, after which conditions
+grew hard again and the earth passed into a series of
+extremely cold cycles, the Glacial Ages, from which
+apparently it is now slowly emerging.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But we do not know sufficient of the causes of climatic
+change at present to forecast the possible fluctuations of
+climatic conditions that lie before us.  We may be moving
+towards increasing sunshine or lapsing towards another
+glacial age; volcanic activity and the upheaval of mountain
+masses may be increasing or diminishing; we do not know; we
+lack sufficient science.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the opening of this period the grasses appear; for the
+first time there is pasture in the world; and with the full
+development of the once obscure mammalian type, appear a
+number of interesting grazing animals and of carnivorous
+types which prey upon these.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At first these early mammals seem to differ only in a few
+characters from the great herbivorous and carnivorous
+reptiles that ages before had flourished and then vanished
+from the earth.  A <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P38"></a></span>careless observer might suppose that
+in this second long age of warmth and plenty that was now
+beginning, nature was merely repeating the first, with
+herbivorous and carnivorous mammals to parallel the
+herbivorous and carnivorous dinosaurs, with birds replacing
+pterodactyls and so on.  But this would be an altogether
+superficial comparison.  The variety of the universe is
+infinite and incessant; it progresses eternally; history
+never repeats itself and no parallels are precisely true.
+  The differences between the life of the Cainozoic and
+Mesozoic periods are far profounder than the resemblances.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-38"></a>
+<img src="images/img-38.jpg"
+alt="A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD" width="600"
+ height="417" />
+<p class="caption">
+A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD
+<br />
+<small>The Titanotherum (Brontops) Robustum</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The most fundamental of all these differences lies in the
+mental life of the two periods.  It arises essentially out of
+the continuing contact of parent and offspring which
+distinguishes mammalian and in a lesser degree bird life,
+from the life of the reptile.  With very few exceptions the
+reptile abandons its egg to hatch alone.  The young reptile
+has no knowledge whatever of its parent; its mental life,
+such as it is, begins and ends with its own experiences.
+  <span class="pagenum"><a name="P39"></a></span>It may
+tolerate the existence of its fellows but it has no
+communication with them; it never imitates, never learns from
+them, is incapable of concerted action with them.  Its life
+is that of an isolated individual.  But with the suckling and
+cherishing of young which was distinctive of the new
+mammalian and avian strains arose the possibility of learning
+by imitation, of communication, by warning cries and other
+concerted action, of mutual control and instruction.  A
+teachable type of life had come into the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The earliest mammals of the Cainozoic period are but little
+superior in brain size to the more active carnivorous
+dinosaurs, but as we read on through the record towards
+modern times we find, in every tribe and race of the
+mammalian animals, a steady universal increase in brain
+capacity.  For instance we find at a comparatively early
+stage that rhinoceros-like beasts appear.  There is a
+creature, the Titanotherium, which lived in the earliest
+division of this period.  It was probably very like a modern
+rhinoceros in its habits and needs.  But its brain capacity
+was not one tenth that of its living successor.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The earlier mammals probably parted from their offspring as
+soon as suckling was over, but, once the capacity for mutual
+understanding has arisen, the advantages of continuing the
+association are very great; and we presently find a number of
+mammalian species displaying the beginnings of a true social
+life and keeping together in herds, packs and flocks,
+watching each other, imitating each other, taking warning
+from each other&rsquo;s acts and cries.  This is something
+that the world had not seen before among vertebrated animals.
+  Reptiles and fish may no doubt be found in swarms and
+shoals; they have been hatched in quantities and similar
+conditions have kept them together, but in the case of the
+social and gregarious mammals the association arises not
+simply from a community of external forces, it is sustained
+by an inner impulse.  They are not merely like one another
+and so found in the same places at the same times; they like
+one another and so they keep together.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P40"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-4001"></a>
+<img src="images/img-4001.jpg"
+alt="STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI--A GIRAFFE-CAMEL" width="500"
+ height="443" />
+<p class="caption">
+STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI&mdash;A GIRAFFE-CAMEL
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-4002"></a>
+<img src="images/img-4002.jpg"
+alt="SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS&mdash;EARLY HORSE" width="550"
+ height="307" />
+<p class="caption">
+SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS--EARLY HORSE
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+This difference between the reptile world and the world of
+our human minds is one our sympathies seem unable to pass.
+  We cannot conceive in ourselves the swift uncomplicated
+urgency of a reptile&rsquo;s instinctive motives, its
+appetites, fears and hates.  We <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P41"></a></span>cannot understand them in their
+simplicity because all our motives are complicated;
+our&rsquo;s are balances and resultants and not simple
+urgencies.  But the mammals and birds have self-restraint and
+consideration for other individuals, a social appeal, a self-
+control that is, at its lower level, after our own fashion.
+  We can in consequence establish relations with almost all
+sorts of them.  When they suffer they utter cries and make
+movements that rouse our feelings.  We can make understanding
+pets of them with a mutual recognition.  They can be tamed to
+self-restraint towards us, domesticated and taught.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-41"></a>
+<img src="images/img-41.jpg"
+alt="COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND DINOCERAS"
+width="600" height="434" />
+<p class="caption">
+COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND DINOCERAS
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+That unusual growth of brain which is the central fact of
+Cainozoic times marks a new communication and interdependence
+of individuals.  It foreshadows the development of human
+societies of which we shall soon be telling.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the Cainozoic period unrolled, the resemblance of its
+flora and fauna to the plants and animals that inhabit the
+world to-day <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P42"></a></span>increased.  The big clumsy
+Uintatheres and Titanotheres, the Entelodonts and Hyracodons,
+big clumsy brutes like nothing living, disappeared.  On the
+other hand a series of forms led up by steady degrees from
+grotesque and clumsy predecessors to the giraffes, camels,
+horses, elephants, deer, dogs and lions and tigers of the
+existing world.  The evolution of the horse is particularly
+legible upon the geological record.  We have a fairly
+complete series of forms from a small tapir-like ancestor in
+the early Cainozoic.  Another line of development that has
+now been pieced together with some precision is that of the
+llamas and camels.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P43"></a></span><a name="chapIX"></a>IX<br />
+MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN</h2>
+
+<p>
+Naturalists divide the class <i>Mammalia</i> into a number of orders. At the
+head of these is the order <i>Primates</i>, which includes the lemurs, the
+monkeys, apes and man. Their classification was based originally upon
+anatomical resemblances and took no account of any mental qualities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now the past history of the Primates is one very difficult to
+decipher in the geological record.  They are for the most
+part animals which live in forests like the lemurs and
+monkeys or in bare rocky places like the baboons.  They are
+rarely drowned and covered up by sediment, nor are most of
+them very numerous species, and so they do not figure so
+largely among the fossils as the ancestors of the horses,
+camels and so forth do.  But we know that quite early in the
+Cainozoic period, that is to say some forty million years ago
+or so, primitive monkeys and lemuroid creatures had appeared,
+poorer in brain and not so specialized as their later
+successors.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The great world summer of the middle Cainozoic period drew at
+last to an end.  It was to follow those other two great
+summers in the history of life, the summer of the Coal Swamps
+and the vast summer of the Age of Reptiles.  Once more the
+earth spun towards an ice age.  The world chilled, grew
+milder for a time and chilled again.  In the warm past
+hippopotami had wallowed through a lush sub-tropical
+vegetation, and a tremendous tiger with fangs like sabres,
+the sabre-toothed tiger, had hunted its prey where now the
+journalists of Fleet Street go to and fro.  Now came a
+bleaker age and still bleaker ages.  A great weeding and
+extinction of species occurred.  A woolly rhinoceros, adapted
+to a cold climate, and the mammoth, a big woolly cousin of
+the elephants, the Arctic musk ox and the reindeer passed
+across the scene.  Then century by century the Arctic ice
+cap, the wintry death of the great Ice Age, crept <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P44"></a></span>southward.  In
+England it came almost down to the Thames, in America it
+reached Ohio.  There would be warmer spells of a few thousand
+years and relapses towards a bitterer cold.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Geologists talk of these wintry phases as the First, Second,
+Third and Fourth Glacial Ages, and of the interludes as
+Interglacial periods.  We live to-day in a world that is
+still impoverished and scarred by that terrible winter.  The
+First Glacial Age was coming on 600,000 years ago; the Fourth
+Glacial Age reached its bitterest some fifty thousand years
+ago.  And it was amidst the snows of this long universal
+winter that the first man-like beings lived upon our planet.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-44"></a>
+<img src="images/img-44.jpg"
+alt="A MAMMOTH"
+width="600" height="429" />
+<p class="caption">
+A MAMMOTH
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+By the middle Cainozoic period there have appeared various
+apes with many quasi-human attributes of the jaws and leg
+bones, but it is only as we approach these Glacial Ages that
+we find traces of creatures that we can speak of as
+&ldquo;almost human.&rdquo;  These traces are not bones but
+implements.  In Europe, in deposits of this period, between
+half a million and a million years old, we find flints <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P45"></a></span>and stones that
+have evidently been chipped intentionally by some handy
+creature desirous of hammering, scraping or fighting with the
+sharpened edge.  These things have been called
+&ldquo;Eoliths&rdquo; (dawn stones).  In Europe there are no
+bones nor other remains of the creature which made these
+objects, simply the objects themselves.  For all the
+certainty we have it may have been some entirely un-human but
+intelligent monkey.  But at Trinil in Java, in accumulations
+of this age, a piece of a skull and various teeth and bones
+have been found of a sort of ape man, with a brain case
+bigger than that of any living apes, which seems to have
+walked erect.  This creature is now called <i>Pithecanthropus
+erectus</i>, the walking ape man, and the little trayful of
+its bones is the only help our imaginations have as yet in
+figuring to, ourselves the makers of the Eoliths.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-45"></a>
+<img src="images/img-45.jpg"
+alt="FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN PILTDOWN REGION" width="250"
+ height="467" />
+<p class="caption">
+FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN PILTDOWN REGION
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It is not until we come to sands that are almost a quarter of
+a million years old that we find any other particle of a sub-
+human being.  But there are plenty of implements, and they
+are steadily improving in quality as we read on through the
+record.  They are no longer clumsy Eoliths; they are now
+shapely instruments made with considerable skill.  <i>And
+they are much bigger than the similar implements afterwards
+made by true man.</i>  Then, in a sandpit at Heidelberg,
+appears a single quasi-human jaw-bone, a clumsy jaw-bone,
+absolutely chinless, far heavier than a true human jaw-bone
+and narrower, so that it is improbable the creature&rsquo;s
+tongue could have moved about for articulate speech.  On the
+strength of this jaw-bone, scientific men suppose this
+creature to have been a heavy, almost human monster, possibly
+with huge limbs and hands, possibly with a thick felt of
+hair, and they call it the Heidelberg Man.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P46"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-461"></a>
+<img src="images/img-461.jpg"
+alt="A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS BY
+ PROF. RUTOT" width="400"
+ height="425" />
+<p class="caption">
+A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS BY PROF.
+ RUTOT
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+This jaw-bone is, I think, one of the most tormenting objects in the
+world to our human curiosity.  To see it is like looking
+through a defective glass into the past and catching just one
+blurred and tantalizing glimpse of this Thing, shambling
+through the bleak wilderness, clambering to avoid the sabre-
+toothed tiger, watching the woolly rhinoceros in the woods.
+  Then before we can scrutinize the monster, he vanishes.  Yet
+the soil is littered abundantly with the indestructible
+implements he chipped out for his uses.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-462"></a>
+<img src="images/img-462.jpg"
+alt="THE HEIDELBERG MAN" width="400"
+ height="431" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE HEIDELBERG MAN
+<br />
+<small>The Heidelberg Man, as modelled under the supervision of
+ Prof. Rutot</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Still more fascinatingly enigmatical are the remains of a
+creature found at Piltdown in Sussex in a deposit that may
+indicate an age between a hundred and a hundred and fifty
+thousand years ago, though some authorities would put these
+particular remains back in time to before the Heidelberg jaw-
+bone. Here there <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P47"></a></span>are the remains of a thick sub-human
+skull much larger than any existing ape&rsquo;s, and a
+chimpanzee-like jaw-bone which may or may not belong to it,
+and, in addition, a bat-shaped piece of elephant bone
+evidently carefully manufactured, through which a hole had
+apparently been bored.  There is also the thigh-bone of a
+deer with cuts upon it like a tally.  That is all.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-47"></a>
+<img src="images/img-47.jpg"
+alt="THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ORIGINAL FRAGMENT"
+ width="300" height="341" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ORIGINAL FRAGMENT
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+What sort of beast was this creature which sat and bored
+holes in bones?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Scientific men have named him Eoanthropus, the Dawn Man.  He
+stands apart from his kindred; a very different being either
+from the Heidelberg creature or from any living ape.  No
+other vestige like him is known.  But the gravels and
+deposits of from one hundred thousand years onward are
+increasingly rich in implements of flint and similar stone.
+  And these implements are no longer rude
+&ldquo;Eoliths.&rdquo; The archæologists are presently
+able to distinguish scrapers, borers, knives, darts, throwing
+stones and hand axes ....
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We are drawing very near to man.  In our next section we
+shall have to describe the strangest of all these precursors
+of humanity, the Neanderthalers, the men who were almost, but
+not quite, true men.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it may be well perhaps to state quite clearly here that
+no scientific man supposes either of these creatures, the
+Heidelberg Man or <i>Eoanthropus</i>, to be direct ancestors
+of the men of to-day.  These are, at the closest, related
+forms.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P48"></a></span><a name="chapX"></a>X<br />
+THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN</h2>
+
+<p>
+About fifty or sixty thousand years ago, before the climax of the Fourth
+Glacial Age, there lived a creature on earth so like a man that until a few
+years ago its remains were considered to be altogether human. We have skulls
+and bones of it and a great accumulation of the large implements it made and
+used. It made fires. It sheltered in caves from the cold. It probably dressed
+skins roughly and wore them. It was right-handed as men are.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yet now the ethnologists tell us these creatures were not
+true men.  They were of a different species of the same
+genus.  They had heavy protruding jaws and great brow ridges
+above the eyes and very low foreheads.  Their thumbs were not
+opposable to the fingers as men&rsquo;s are; their necks were
+so poised that they could not turn back their heads and look
+up to the sky.  They probably slouched along, head down and
+forward.  Their chinless jaw-bones resemble the Heidelberg
+jaw-bone and are markedly unlike human jaw-bones.  And there
+were great differences from the human pattern in their teeth.
+  Their cheek teeth were more complicated in structure than
+ours, more complicated and not less so; they had not the long
+fangs of our cheek teeth; and also these quasi-men had not
+the marked canines (dog teeth) of an ordinary human being.
+  The capacity of their skulls was quite human, but the brain
+was bigger behind and lower in front than the human brain.
+  Their intellectual faculties were differently arranged.  They
+were not ancestral to the human line. Mentally and physically
+they were upon a different line from the human line.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Skulls and bones of this extinct species of man were found at
+Neanderthal among other places, and from that place these
+strange proto-men have been christened Neanderthal Men, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P49"></a></span>Neanderthalers. They must have
+endured in Europe for many hundreds or even thousands of
+years.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-49"></a>
+<img src="images/img-49.jpg"
+alt="THE NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT"
+ width="450" height="450" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+At that time the climate and geography of our world was very
+different from what they are at the present time. Europe for
+example was covered with ice reaching as far south as the
+Thames and into Central Germany and Russia; there was no
+Channel separating Britain from France; the Mediterranean and
+the Red Sea were great valleys, with perhaps a chain of lakes
+in their deeper portions, and a great inland sea spread from
+the present Black Sea across South Russia and far into
+Central Asia.  Spain and all of Europe not actually under ice
+consisted of bleak uplands under a harder climate than that
+of Labrador, and it was only when North Africa was reached
+that one would have found a temperate climate.  Across the
+cold steppes of Southern Europe with its sparse arctic
+vegetation, drifted such hardy creatures as the woolly
+mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros, great oxen and reindeer, no
+doubt following the vegetation northward in spring and
+southward in autumn.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P50"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-50"></a>
+<img src="images/img-50.jpg"
+alt="Map: Possible Outline of Europe and Western Asia at the Maximum
+ of the Fourth Ice Age (about 50,000 years ago)"
+ width="600" height="434" />
+<p class="caption">
+&nbsp;
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Such was
+the scene through which the Neanderthaler wandered, gathering
+such subsistence as he could from small game or fruits and
+berries and roots.  Possibly he was mainly a vegetarian,
+chewing twigs and roots.  His level elaborate teeth suggest a
+largely vegetarian dietary.  But we also find the long marrow
+bones of great animals in his caves, cracked to extract the
+marrow.  His weapons could not have been of much avail in
+open conflict with great beasts, but it is supposed that he
+attacked them with spears at difficult river crossings and
+even constructed pitfalls for them.  Possibly he followed the
+herds and preyed upon any dead that were killed in fights,
+and perhaps he played the part of jackal to the sabre-toothed
+tiger which still survived in his day.  Possibly in the
+bitter hardships of the Glacial Ages this creature had taken
+to attacking animals after long ages of vegetarian
+adaptation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We cannot guess what this Neanderthal man looked like. He may
+have been very hairy and very unhuman-looking indeed.  It is
+even doubtful if he went erect.  He may have used his
+knuckles as well as his feet to hold himself up. Probably he
+went about <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P51"></a></span>alone or in small family groups.  It
+is inferred from the structure of his jaw that he was
+incapable of speech as we understand it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For thousands of years these Neanderthalers were the highest
+animals that the European area had ever seen; and then some
+thirty or thirty-five thousand years ago as the climate grew
+warmer a race of kindred beings, more intelligent, knowing
+more, talking and co-operating together, came drifting into
+the Neanderthaler&rsquo;s world from the south.  They ousted
+the Neanderthalers from their caves and squatting places;
+they hunted the same food; they probably made war upon their
+grisly predecessors and killed them off.  These newcomers
+from the south or the east&mdash;for at present we do not
+know their region of origin&mdash;who at last drove the
+Neanderthalers out of existence altogether, were beings of
+our own blood and kin, the first True Men.  Their brain-cases
+and thumbs and necks and teeth were anatomically the same as
+our own.  In a cave at Cro-Magnon and in another at Grimaldi,
+a number of skeletons have been found, the earliest truly
+human remains that are so far known.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So it is our race comes into the Record of the Rocks, and the
+story of mankind begins.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-51"></a>
+<img src="images/img-51.jpg"
+alt="COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN SKULL"
+ width="600" height="287" />
+<p class="caption">
+COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN SKULL
+<br />
+<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The world was growing liker our own in those days though the
+climate was still austere.  The glaciers of the Ice Age were
+receding in Europe; the reindeer of France and Spain
+presently gave way to great herds of horses as grass
+increased upon the steppes, and the <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P52"></a></span>mammoth became more and more rare in
+southern Europe and finally receded northward altogether ....
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We do not know where the True Men first originated.  But in
+the summer of 1921, an extremely interesting skull was found
+together with pieces of a skeleton at Broken Hill in South
+Africa, which seems to be a relic of a third sort of man,
+intermediate in its characteristics between the Neanderthaler
+and the human being.  The brain-case indicates a brain bigger
+in front and smaller behind than the Neanderthaler&rsquo;s,
+and the skull was poised erect upon the backbone in a quite
+human way.  The teeth also and the bones are quite human.
+  But the face must have been ape-like with enormous brow
+ridges and a ridge along the middle of the skull.  The
+creature was indeed a true man, so to speak, with an ape-
+like, Neanderthaler face.  This Rhodesian Man is evidently
+still closer to real men than the Neanderthal Man.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This Rhodesian skull is probably only the second of what in
+the end may prove to be a long list of finds of sub-human
+species which lived on the earth in the vast interval of time
+between the beginnings of the Ice Age and the appearance of
+their common heir, and perhaps their common exterminator, the
+True Man.  The Rhodesian skull itself may not be very
+ancient.  Up to the time of publishing this book there has
+been no exact determination of its probable age. It may be
+that this sub-human creature survived in South Africa until
+quite recent times.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P53"></a></span><a name="chapXI"></a>XI<br />
+THE FIRST TRUE MEN</h2>
+
+<p>
+The earliest signs and traces at present known to science, of a humanity which
+is indisputably kindred with ourselves, have been found in western Europe and
+particularly in France and Spain. Bones, weapons, scratchings upon bone and
+rock, carved fragments of bone, and paintings in caves and upon rock surfaces
+dating. it is supposed. from 30,000 years ago or more, have been discovered in
+both these countries. Spain is at present the richest country in the world in
+these first relics of our real human ancestors.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of course our present collections of these things are the
+merest beginnings of the accumulations we may hope for in the
+future, when there are searchers enough to make a thorough
+examination of all possible sources and when other countries
+in the world, now inaccessible to archæologists, have
+been explored in some detail.  The greater part of Africa and
+Asia has never even been traversed yet by a trained observer
+interested in these matters and free to explore, and we must
+be very careful therefore not to conclude that the early true
+men were distinctively inhabitants of western Europe or that
+they first appeared in that region.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Asia or Africa or submerged beneath the sea of to-day
+there may be richer and much earlier deposits of real human
+remains than anything that has yet come to light.  I write in
+Asia or Africa, and I do not mention America because so far
+there have been no finds at all of any of the higher
+Primates, either of great apes, sub-men, Neanderthalers nor
+early true men.  This development of life seems to have been
+an exclusively old world development, and it was only
+apparently at the end of the Old Stone Age that human beings
+first made their way across the land connexion that is now
+cut by Behring Straits, into the American continent.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P54"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-54"></a>
+<img src="images/img-54.jpg"
+alt="ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA, NORTH SPAIN"
+ width="600" height="372" />
+<p class="caption">
+ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA, NORTH SPAIN
+<br />
+<small>The Walls of the Caves are covered in these representations
+ of Bulls, etc., painted in the soft tones of red shaded to black.
+  They may be fifteen or twenty thousand years old</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+These first real human beings we know of in Europe appear already
+to have belonged to one or other of at least two very
+distinct races. One of these races was of a very high type
+indeed; it was tall and big brained.  One of the
+women&rsquo;s skulls found exceeds in capacity that of the
+average man of to-day.  One of the men&rsquo;s skeletons is
+over six feet in height.  The physical type resembled that of
+the North American Indian.  From the Cro-Magnon cave in which
+the first skeletons were found these people have been called
+Cro-Magnards.  They were savages, but savages of a high
+order. The second race, the race of the Grimaldi cave
+remains, was distinctly negroid in its characters.  Its
+nearest living affinities are the Bushmen and Hottentots of
+South Africa.  It is interesting to find at the very outset
+of the known human story, that mankind was already racially
+divided into at least two main varieties; and one is tempted
+to such unwarrantable guesses as that the former race was
+probably brownish rather than black and that it came from the
+East or North, and that the latter was blackish rather than
+brown and came from the equatorial south.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P55"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-55"></a>
+<img src="images/img-55.jpg"
+alt="BONE CARVINGS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD"
+ width="550" height="739" />
+<p class="caption">
+BONE CARVINGS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD
+<br />
+<small>(1 and 2) Mammoth tusk carved to shape of Reindeer, (3)
+ Dagger Handle representing Mammoth, and (4) Bone engraved with
+ Horses&rsquo; Heads
+<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P56"></a></span>
+And these
+savages of perhaps forty thousand years ago were so human
+that they pierced shells to make necklaces, painted
+themselves, carved images of bone and stone, scratched
+figures on rocks and bones, and painted rude but often very
+able sketches of beasts and the like upon the smooth walls of
+caves and upon inviting rock surfaces.  They made a great
+variety of implements, much smaller in scale and finer than
+those of the Neanderthal men.  We have now in our museums
+great quantities of their implements, their statuettes, their
+rock drawings and the like.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The earliest of them were hunters.  Their chief pursuit was
+the wild horse, the little bearded pony of that time.  They
+followed it as it moved after pasture.  And also they
+followed the bison.  They knew the mammoth, because they have
+left us strikingly effective pictures of that creature.  To
+judge by one rather ambiguous drawing they trapped and killed
+it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+They hunted with spears and throwing stones.  They do not
+seem to have had the bow, and it is doubtful if they had yet
+learnt to tame any animals.  They had no dogs.  There is one
+carving of a horse&rsquo;s head and one or two drawings that
+suggest a bridled horse, with a twisted skin or tendon round
+it.  But the little horses of that age and region could not
+have carried a man, and if the horse was domesticated it was
+used as a led horse.  It is doubtful and improbable that they
+had yet learnt the rather unnatural use of animal&rsquo;s
+milk as food.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+They do not seem to have erected any buildings though they
+may have had tents of skins, and though they made clay
+figures they never rose to the making of pottery.  Since they
+had no cooking implements their cookery must have been
+rudimentary or nonexistent.  They knew nothing of cultivation
+and nothing of any sort of basket work or woven cloth. Except
+for their robes of skin or fur they were naked painted
+savages.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These earliest known men hunted the open steppes of Europe
+for a hundred centuries perhaps, and then slowly drifted and
+changed before a change of climate.  Europe, century by
+century, was growing milder and damper. Reindeer receded
+northward and eastward, and bison and horse followed.  The
+steppes gave way to forests, and red deer took the place of
+horse and bison. There is a <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P57"></a></span>change in the character of the
+implements with this change in their application.  River and
+lake fishing becomes of great importance to men, and fine
+implements of bone increased.  &ldquo;The bone needles of
+this age,&rdquo; says de Mortillet, &ldquo;are much superior
+to those of later, even historical times, down to the
+Renaissance.  The Romans, for example, never had needles
+comparable to those of this epoch.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-57"></a>
+<img src="images/img-57.jpg"
+alt="THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN"
+ width="400" height="487" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Almost fifteen or twelve thousand years ago a fresh people
+drifted into the south of Spain, and left very remarkable
+drawings of themselves upon exposed rock faces there.  These
+were the Azilians (named from the Mas d&rsquo;Azil cave).
+  They had the bow; they seem to have worn feather headdresses;
+they drew vividly; but also they had reduced their drawings
+to a sort of symbolism&mdash;a man for instance would be
+represented by a vertical dab with two or three horizontal
+dabs&mdash;that suggest the dawn of the writing idea.
+  Against hunting sketches there are often marks like tallies.
+  One drawing shows two men smoking out a bees&rsquo; nest.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P58"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-58"></a>
+<img src="images/img-58.jpg"
+alt="FIGHT OF BOWMEN"
+ width="580" height="736" />
+<p class="caption">
+Among the most recent discoveries of Palæolithic Art are these
+ specimens found in 1920 in Spain.  They are probably ten or twelve
+ thousand years old
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P59"></a></span>These are the
+latest of the men that we call Palæolithic (Old Stone
+Age) because they had only chipped implements.  By ten or
+twelve thousand years a new sort of life has dawned in
+Europe, men have learnt not only to chip but to polish and
+grind stone implements, and they have begun cultivation.  The
+Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) was beginning.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is interesting to note that less than a century ago there
+still survived in a remote part of the world, in Tasmania, a
+race of human beings at a lower level of physical and
+intellectual development than any of these earliest races of
+mankind who have left traces in Europe.  These people had
+long ago been cut off by geographical changes from the rest
+of the species, and from stimulation and improvement.  They
+seem to have degenerated rather than developed.  They lived a
+base life subsisting upon shellfish and small game.  They had
+no habitations but only squatting places.  They were real men
+of our species, but they had neither the manual dexterity nor
+the artistic powers of the first true men.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P60"></a></span><a name="chapXII"></a>XII<br />
+PRIMITIVE THOUGHT</h2>
+
+<p>
+And now let us indulge in a very interesting speculation; how did it feel to be
+a man in those early days of the human adventure? How did men think and what
+did they think in those remote days of hunting and wandering four hundred
+centuries ago before seed time and harvest began. Those were days long before
+the written record of any human impressions, and we are left almost entirely to
+inference and guesswork in our answers to these questions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sources to which scientific men have gone in their
+attempts to reconstruct that primitive mentality are very
+various.  Recently the science of psycho-analysis, which
+analyzes the way in which the egotistic and passionate
+impulses of the child are restrained, suppressed, modified or
+overlaid, to adapt them to the needs of social life, seems to
+have thrown a considerable amount of light upon the history
+of primitive society; and another fruitful source of
+suggestion has been the study of the ideas and customs of
+such contemporary savages as still survive.  Again there is a
+sort of mental fossilization which we find in folk-lore and
+the deep-lying irrational superstitions and prejudices that
+still survive among modern civilized people.  And finally we
+have in the increasingly numerous pictures, statues,
+carvings, symbols and the like, as we draw near to our own
+time, clearer and clearer indications of what man found
+interesting and worthy of record and representation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Primitive man probably thought very much as a child thinks,
+that is to say in a series of imaginative pictures.  He
+conjured up images or images presented themselves to his
+mind, and he acted in accordance with the emotions they
+aroused.  So a child or an uneducated person does to-day.
+  Systematic thinking is apparently a comparatively late
+development in human experience; it has not <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P61"></a></span>played any great
+part in human life until within the last three thousand
+years.  And even to-day those who really control and order
+their thoughts are but a small minority of mankind.  Most of
+the world still lives by imagination and passion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Probably the earliest human societies, in the opening stages
+of the true human story, were small family groups.  Just as
+the flocks and herds of the earlier mammals arose out of
+families which remained together and multiplied, so probably
+did the earliest tribes.  But before this could happen a
+certain restraint upon the primitive egotisms of the
+individual had to be established.  The fear of the father and
+respect for the mother had to be extended into adult life,
+and the natural jealousy of the old man of the group for the
+younger males as they grew up had to be mitigated.  The
+mother on the other hand was the natural adviser and
+protector of the young.  Human social life grew up out of the
+reaction between the crude instinct of the young to go off
+and pair by themselves as they grew up, on the one hand, and
+the dangers and disadvantages of separation on the other.  An
+anthropological writer of great genius, J. J. Atkinson, in
+his <i>Primal Law</i>, has shown how much of the customary
+law of savages, the <i>Tabus</i>, that are so remarkable a
+fact in tribal life, can be ascribed to such a mental
+adjustment of the needs of the primitive human animal to a
+developing social life, and the later work of the psycho-
+analysts has done much to confirm his interpretation of these
+possibilities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some speculative writers would have us believe that respect
+and fear of the Old Man and the emotional reaction of the
+primitive savage to older protective women, exaggerated in
+dreams and enriched by fanciful mental play, played a large
+part in the beginnings of primitive religion and in the
+conception of gods and goddesses.  Associated with this
+respect for powerful or helpful personalities was a dread and
+exaltation of such personages after their deaths, due to
+their reappearance in dreams.  It was easy to believe they
+were not truly dead but only fantastically transferred to a
+remoteness of greater power.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The dreams, imaginations and fears of a child are far more
+vivid and real than those of a modern adult, and primitive
+man was always something of a child. He was nearer to the
+animals <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P62"></a></span>also, and he could suppose them to
+have motives and reactions like his own.  He could imagine
+animal helpers, animal enemies, animal gods.  One needs to
+have been an imaginative child oneself to realize again how
+important, significant, portentous or friendly, strangely
+shaped rocks, lumps of wood, exceptional trees or the like
+may have appeared to the men of the Old Stone Age, and how
+dream and fancy would create stories and legends about such
+things that would become credible as they told them.  Some of
+these stories would be good enough to remember and tell
+again.  The women would tell them to the children and so
+establish a tradition.  To this day most imaginative children
+invent long stories in which some favourite doll or animal or
+some fantastic semi-human being figures as the hero, and
+primitive man probably did the same&mdash;with a much
+stronger disposition to believe his hero real.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-62"></a>
+<img src="images/img-62.jpg"
+alt="RELICS OF THE STONE AGE"
+ width="400" height="350" />
+<p class="caption">
+RELICS OF THE STONE AGE
+<br />
+<small>Chert implements from Somaliland.  In general form they are
+ similar to those found in Western and Northern Europe
+<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+For the very earliest of the true men that we know of were
+probably quite talkative beings.  In that way they have
+differed from the Neanderthalers and had an advantage over
+them.  The Neanderthaler may have been a dumb animal. Of
+course the primitive <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P63"></a></span>human speech was probably a very
+scanty collection of names, and may have been eked out with
+gestures and signs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is no sort of savage so low as not to have a kind of
+science of cause and effect.  But primitive man was not very
+critical in his associations of cause with effect; he very
+easily connected an effect with something quite wrong as its
+cause. &ldquo;You do so and so,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;and so
+and so happens.&rdquo;  You give a child a poisonous berry
+and it dies.  You eat the heart of a valiant enemy and you
+become strong.  There we have two bits of cause and effect
+association, one true one false.  We call the system of cause
+and effect in the mind of a savage, Fetish; but Fetish is
+simply savage science.  It differs from modern science in
+that it is totally unsystematic and uncritical and so more
+frequently wrong.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-63"></a>
+<img src="images/img-63.jpg"
+alt="WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE"
+ width="550" height="442" />
+<p class="caption">
+WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE
+<br />
+<small>On the left is a flint implement excavated in Gray&rsquo;s
+ Inn Lane, London; on the right one of similar form chipped by
+ primitive men of Somaliland
+<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In many cases it is not difficult to link cause and effect,
+in <span class="pagenum"><a name="P64"></a></span>many
+others erroneous ideas were soon corrected by experience; but
+there was a large series of issues of very great importance
+to primitive man, where he sought persistently for causes and
+found explanations that were wrong but not sufficiently wrong
+nor so obviously wrong as to be detected.  It was a matter of
+great importance to him that game should be abundant or fish
+plentiful and easily caught, and no doubt he tried and
+believed in a thousand charms, incantations and omens to
+determine these desirable results.  Another great concern of
+his was illness and death.  Occasionally infections crept
+through the land and men died of them.  Occasionally men were
+stricken by illness and died or were enfeebled without any
+manifest cause.  This too must have given the hasty,
+emotional mind of primitive man much feverish exercise.
+  Dreams and fantastic guesses made him blame this, or appeal
+for help to that man or beast or thing.  He had the
+child&rsquo;s aptitude for fear and panic.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quite early in the little human tribe, older, steadier minds
+sharing the fears, sharing the imaginations, but a little
+more forceful than the others, must have asserted themselves,
+to advise, to prescribe, to command. This they declared
+unpropitious and that imperative, this an omen of good and
+that an omen of evil.  The expert in Fetish, the Medicine
+Man, was the first priest.  He exhorted, he interpreted
+dreams, he warned, he performed the complicated hocus pocus
+that brought luck or averted calamity.  Primitive religion
+was not so much what we now call religion as practice and
+observance, and the early priest dictated what was indeed an
+arbitrary primitive practical science.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P65"></a></span><a name="chapXIII"></a>XIII<br />
+THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION</h2>
+
+<p>
+We are still very ignorant about the beginnings of cultivation and settlement
+in the world although a vast amount of research and speculation has been given
+to these matters in the last fifty years. All that we can say with any
+confidence at present is that somewhen about 15,000 and 12,000
+<small>B.C.</small> while the Azilian people were in the south of Spain and
+while the remnants of the earlier hunters were drifting northward and eastward,
+somewhere in North Africa or Western Asia or in that great Mediterranean valley
+that is now submerged under the waters of the Mediterranean sea, there were
+people who, age by age, were working out two vitally important things; they
+were beginning cultivation and they were domesticating animals. They were also
+beginning to make, in addition to the chipped implements of their hunter
+forebears, implements of polished stone. They had discovered the possibility of
+basketwork and roughly woven textiles of plant fibre, and they were beginning
+to make a rudely modelled pottery.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+They were entering upon a new phase in human culture, the
+Neolithic phase (New Stone Age) as distinguished from the
+Palæolithic (Old Stone) phase of the Cro-Magnards, the
+Grimaldi people, the Azilians and their like.  [<a
+name="chapXIIIfn1text"></a><a href="#chapXIIIfn1">1</a>]
+Slowly these Neolithic people spread over the warmer parts of
+the world; and the arts they had mastered, the plants and
+animals they had learnt to use, spread by imitation and
+acquisition even more widely than they did.  By 10,000
+ <small>B.C.</small>, most of mankind was at the Neolithic
+level.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P66"></a></span>Now the
+ploughing of land, the sowing of seed, the reaping of
+harvest, threshing and grinding, may seem the most obviously
+reasonable steps to a modern mind just as to a modern mind it
+is a commonplace that the world is round.  What else could
+you do? people will ask.  What else can it be?  But to the
+primitive man of twenty thousand years ago neither of the
+systems of action and reasoning that seem so sure and
+manifest to us to-day were at all obvious.  He felt his way
+to effectual practice through a multitude of trials and
+misconceptions, with fantastic and unnecessary elaborations
+and false interpretations at every turn.  Somewhere in the
+Mediterranean region, wheat grew wild; and man may have
+learnt to pound and then grind up its seeds for food long
+before he learnt to sow.  He reaped before he sowed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And it is a very remarkable thing that throughout the world
+wherever there is sowing and harvesting there is still
+traceable the vestiges of a strong primitive association of
+the idea of sowing with the idea of a blood sacrifice, and
+primarily of the sacrifice of a human being.  The study of
+the original entanglement of these two things is a profoundly
+attractive one to the curious mind; the interested reader
+will find it very fully developed in that monumental work,
+Sir J. G. Frazer&rsquo;s <i>Golden Bough</i>.  It was an
+entanglement, we must remember, in the childish, dreaming,
+myth-making primitive mind; no reasoned process will explain
+it.  But in that world of 12,000 to 20,000 years ago, it
+would seem that whenever seed time came round to the
+Neolithic peoples there was a human sacrifice.  And it was
+not the sacrifice of any mean or outcast person; it was the
+sacrifice usually of a chosen youth or maiden, a youth more
+often who was treated with profound deference and even
+worship up to the moment of his immolation.  He was a sort of
+sacrificial god-king, and all the details of his killing had
+become a ritual directed by the old, knowing men and
+sanctioned by the accumulated usage of ages.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P67"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-67"></a>
+<img src="images/img-67.jpg"
+alt="NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS"
+ width="450" height="556" />
+<p class="caption">
+NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS
+<br />
+<small><i>Brit. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+At first primitive men, with only a very rough idea of the
+seasons, must have found great difficulty in determining when
+was the propitious moment for the seed-time sacrifice and the
+sowing.  There is some reason for supposing that there was an
+early stage in human experience when men had no idea of a
+year. The first <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P68"></a></span>chronology was in lunar months; it
+is supposed that the years of the Biblical patriarchs are
+really moons, and the Babylonian calendar shows distinct
+traces of an attempt to reckon seed time by taking thirteen
+lunar months to see it round. This lunar influence upon the
+calendar reaches down to our own days. If usage did not dull
+our sense of its strangeness we should think it a very
+remarkable thing indeed that the Christian Church does not
+commemorate the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Christ on the
+proper anniversaries but on dates that vary year by year with
+the phases of the moon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It may be doubted whether the first agriculturalists made any
+observation of the stars.  It is more likely that stars were
+first observed by migratory herdsmen, who found them a
+convenient mark of direction.  But once their use in
+determining seasons was realized, their importance to
+agriculture became very great.  The seed-time sacrifice was
+linked up with the southing or northing of some prominent
+star.  A myth and worship of that star was for primitive man
+an almost inevitable consequence.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-68"></a>
+<img src="images/img-68.jpg"
+alt="NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY"
+ width="150" height="624" />
+<p class="caption">
+NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY
+<br />
+<small>Spearheads, exactly as in the true Neolithic days, but made
+ recently by Australian Natives,
+<br />
+(1) Made from a telegraph insulator;
+<br />
+(2) from a piece of broken bottle glass.
+<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It is easy to see how important the man of knowledge and
+experience, the man who knew about the blood sacrifice and
+the stars, became in this early Neolithic world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The fear of uncleanness and pollution, and the methods of
+cleansing that were advisable, constituted another source of
+power for the knowledgeable men and women. For there have
+always been witches as well as wizards, and priestesses as
+well as priests.  The early priest was really not so much a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P69"></a></span>religious
+man as a man of applied science.  His science was generally
+empirical and often bad; he kept it secret from the
+generality of men very jealously; but that does not alter the
+fact that his primary function was knowledge and that his
+primary use was a practical use.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-69"></a>
+<img src="images/img-69.jpg"
+alt="SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY"
+ width="300" height="241" />
+<p class="caption">
+SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY
+<br />
+<small>Dug up at Mortlake from the Thames Bed
+<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Twelve or fifteen thousand years ago, in all the warm and
+fairly well-watered parts of the Old World these Neolithic
+human communities, with their class and tradition of priests
+and priestesses and their cultivated fields and their
+development of villages and little walled cities, were
+spreading.  Age by age a drift and exchange of ideas went on
+between these communities.  Eliot Smith and Rivers have used
+the term &ldquo;Heliolithic culture&rdquo; for the culture of
+these first agricultural peoples.  &ldquo;Heliolithic&rdquo;
+(Sun and Stone) is not perhaps the best possible word to use
+for this, but until scientific men give us a better one we
+shall have to use it.  Originating somewhere in the
+Mediterranean and western Asiatic area, it spread age by age
+eastward and from island to island across the Pacific until
+it may even have reached America and mingled with the more
+primitive ways of living of the Mongoloid immigrants coming
+down from the North.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Wherever the brownish people with the Heliolithic culture
+went they took with them all or most of a certain group of
+curious ideas and practices.  Some of them are such queer
+ideas that they call for the explanation of the mental
+expert.  They made pyramids <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P70"></a></span>and great mounds, and set up great
+circles of big stones, perhaps to facilitate the astronomical
+observation of the priests; they made mummies of some or all
+of their dead; they tattooed and circumcized; they had the
+old custom, known as the <i>couvade</i>, of sending the
+<i>father</i> to bed and rest when a child was born, and they
+had as a luck symbol the well-known Swastika.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If we were to make a map of the world with dots to show how
+far these group practices have left their traces, we should
+make a belt along the temperate and sub-tropical coasts of
+the world from Stonehenge and Spain across the world to
+Mexico and Peru.  But Africa below the equator, north central
+Europe, and north Asia would show none of these dottings;
+there lived races who were developing along practically
+independent lines.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="chapXIIIfn1"></a>
+[<a href="#chapXIIIfn1text">1</a>] The term Palæolithic
+we may note is also used to cover the Neanderthaler and even
+the Eolithic implements.  The pre-human age is called the
+&ldquo;Older Palæolithic;&rdquo; the age of true men
+using unpolished stones in the &ldquo;Newer
+Palæolithic.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P71"></a></span><a name="chapXIV"></a>XIV<br />
+PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS</h2>
+
+<p>
+About 10,000 <small>B.C.</small> the geography of the world was very similar in
+its general outline to that of the world to-day. It is probable that by that
+time the great barrier across the Straits of Gibraltar that had hitherto banked
+back the ocean waters from the Mediterranean valley had been eaten through, and
+that the Mediterranean was a sea following much the same coastlines as it does
+now. The Caspian Sea was probably still far more extensive than it is at
+present, and it may have been continuous with the Black Sea to the north of the
+Caucasus Mountains. About this great Central Asian sea lands that are now
+steppes and deserts were fertile and habitable. Generally it was a moister and
+more fertile world. European Russia was much more a land of swamp and lake than
+it is now, and there may still have been a land connexion between Asia and
+America at Behring Straits.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It would have been already possible at that time to have
+distinguished the main racial divisions of mankind as we know
+them to-day.  Across the warm temperate regions of this
+rather warmer and better-wooded world, and along the coasts,
+stretched the brownish peoples of the Heliolithic culture,
+the ancestors of the bulk of the living inhabitants of the
+Mediterranean world, of the Berbers, the Egyptians and of
+much of the population of South and Eastern Asia.  This great
+race had of course a number of varieties.  The Iberian or
+Mediterranean or &ldquo;dark-white&rdquo; race of the
+Atlantic and Mediterranean coast, the &ldquo;Hamitic&rdquo;
+peoples which include the Berbers and Egyptians, the
+Dravidians; the darker people of India, a multitude of East
+Indian people, many Polynesian races and the Maoris are all
+divisions of various value of this great main mass of
+humanity.  Its western varieties are whiter than its eastern.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the forests of central and northern Europe a more blonde
+variety <span class="pagenum"><a name="P72"></a></span>of
+men with blue eyes was becoming distinguishable, branching
+off from the main mass of brownish people, a variety which
+many people now speak of as the Nordic race.  In the more
+open regions of northeastern Asia was another differentiation
+of this brownish humanity in the direction of a type with
+more oblique eyes, high cheek-bones, a yellowish skin, and
+very straight black hair, the Mongolian peoples.  In South
+Africa, Australia, in many tropical islands in the south of
+Asia were remains of the early negroid peoples. The central
+parts of Africa were already a region of racial intermixture.
+  Nearly all the coloured races of Africa to-day seem to be
+blends of the brownish peoples of the north with a negroid
+substratum.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-72"></a>
+<img src="images/img-72.jpg"
+alt="A Diagrammatic Summary of Current Ideas of the Relationship of
+ Human Races"
+ width="600" height="421" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+We have to remember that human races can all interbreed
+freely and that they separate, mingle and reunite as clouds
+do.  Human races do not branch out like trees with branches
+that never come together again.  It is a thing we need to
+bear constantly in mind, this remingling of races at any
+opportunity.  It will save us from many cruel delusions and
+prejudices if we do so.  People will use such a word as race
+in the loosest manner, and base the most preposterous
+generalizations upon it.  They will speak of a
+&ldquo;British&rdquo; <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P73"></a></span>race or of a &ldquo;European&rdquo;
+race.  But nearly all the European nations are confused
+mixtures of brownish, dark-white, white and Mongolian
+elements.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-73"></a>
+<img src="images/img-73.jpg"
+alt="A MAYA STELE"
+ width="600" height="653" />
+<p class="caption">
+A MAYA STELE
+<br />
+<small>Showing a worshipper and a Serpent God.  Note the grotesque
+ faces in the writing
+<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It was at the Neolithic phase of human development that
+peoples of the Mongolian breed first made their way into
+America.  Apparently they came by way of Behring Straits and
+spread southward.  They found caribou, the American reindeer,
+in the north and great <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P74"></a></span>herds of bison in the south.  When
+they reached South America there were still living the
+Glyptodon, a gigantic armadillo, and the Megatherium, a
+monstrous clumsy sloth as high as an elephant.  They probably
+exterminated the latter beast, which was as helpless as it
+was big.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The greater portion of these American tribes never rose above
+a hunting nomadic Neolithic life.  They never discovered the
+use of iron, and their chief metal possessions were native
+gold and copper.  But in Mexico, Yucatan and Peru conditions
+existed favourable to settled cultivation, and here about
+1000 <small>B.C.</small> or so arose very
+interesting civilizations of a parallel but different type
+from the old-world civilization.  Like the much earlier
+primitive civilizations of the old world these communities
+displayed a great development of human sacrifice about the
+processes of seed time and harvest; but while in the old
+world, as we shall see, these primary ideas were ultimately
+mitigated, complicated and overlaid by others, in America
+they developed and were elaborated, to a very high degree of
+intensity.  These American civilized countries were
+essentially priest-ruled countries; their war chiefs and
+rulers were under a rigorous rule of law and omen.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These priests carried astronomical science to a high level of
+accuracy.  They knew their year better than the Babylonians
+of whom we shall presently tell.  In Yucatan they had a kind
+of writing, the Maya writing, of the most curious and
+elaborate character.  So far as we have been able to decipher
+it, it was used mainly for keeping the exact and complicated
+calendars upon which the priests expended their intelligence.
+  The art of the Maya civilization came to a climax about 700
+or 800 <small>A.D.</small>  The sculptured work of
+these people amazes the modern observer by its great plastic
+power and its frequent beauty, and perplexes him by a
+grotesqueness and by a sort of insane conventionality and
+intricacy outside the circle of his ideas.  There is nothing
+quite like it in the old world.  The nearest approach, and
+that is a remote one, is found in archaic Indian carvings.
+  Everywhere there are woven feathers and serpents twine in and
+out.  Many Maya inscriptions resemble a certain sort of
+elaborate drawing made by lunatics in European asylums, more
+than any other old-world work.  It is as if the Maya mind
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P75"></a></span>had
+developed upon a different line from the old-world mind, had
+a different twist to its ideas, was not, by old-world
+standards, a rational mind at all.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This linking of these aberrant American civilizations to the
+idea of a general mental aberration finds support in their
+extraordinary obsession by the shedding of human blood.  The
+Mexican civilization in particular ran blood; it offered
+thousands of human victims yearly.  The cutting open of
+living victims, the tearing out of the still beating heart,
+was an act that dominated the minds and lives of these
+strange priesthoods.  The public life, the national
+festivities all turned on this fantastically horrible act.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-75"></a>
+<img src="images/img-75.jpg"
+alt="NEOLITHIC WARRIOR"
+ width="350" height="481" />
+<p class="caption">
+NEOLITHIC WARRIOR
+<br />
+<small>Modelled from drawing by Prof. Rutot</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The ordinary existence of the common people in these
+communities was very like the ordinary existence of any other
+barbaric peasantry.  Their pottery, weaving and dyeing was
+very good.  The Maya writing was not only carven on stone but
+written and painted upon skins and the like.  The European
+and American museums contain many enigmatical Maya
+manuscripts of which at present little has been deciphered
+except the dates.  In Peru there were beginnings of a similar
+writing but they were superseded by a method of keeping
+records by knotting <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P76"></a></span>cords.  A similar method of
+mnemonics was in use in China thousands of years ago.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the old world before 4000 or 5000
+ <small>B.C.</small>, that is to say three or four thousand years
+earlier, there were primitive civilizations not unlike these
+American civilizations; civilizations based upon a temple,
+having a vast quantity of blood sacrifices and with an
+intensely astronomical priesthood.  But in the old world the
+primitive civilizations reacted upon one another and
+developed towards the conditions of our own world.  In
+America these primitive civilizations never progressed beyond
+this primitive stage.  Each of them was in a little world of
+its own.  Mexico it seems knew little or nothing of Peru,
+until the Europeans came to America.  The potato, which was
+the principal food stuff in Peru, was unknown in Mexico.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Age by age these peoples lived and marvelled at their gods
+and made their sacrifices and died.  Maya art rose to high
+levels of decorative beauty.  Men made love and tribes made
+war.  Drought and plenty, pestilence and health, followed one
+another.  The priests elaborated their calendar and their
+sacrificial ritual through long centuries, but made little
+progress in other directions.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P77"></a></span><a name="chapXV"></a>XV<br />
+SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING</h2>
+
+<p>
+The old world is a wider, more varied stage than the new. By 6000 or 7000
+<small>B.C.</small> there were already quasi-civilized communities almost at
+the Peruvian level, appearing in various fertile regions of Asia and in the
+Nile valley. At that time north Persia and western Turkestan and south Arabia
+were all more fertile than they are now, and there are traces of very early
+communities in these regions. It is in lower Mesopotamia however and in Egypt
+that there first appear cities, temples, systematic irrigation, and evidences
+of a social organization rising above the level of a mere barbaric
+village-town. In those days the Euphrates and Tigris flowed by separate mouths
+into the Persian Gulf, and it was in the country between them that the
+Sumerians built their first cities. About the same time, for chronology is
+still vague, the great history of Egypt was beginning.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These Sumerians appear to have been a brownish people with
+prominent noses.  They employed a sort of writing that has
+been deciphered, and their language is now known.  They had
+discovered the use of bronze and they built great tower-like
+temples of sun-dried brick. The clay of this country is very
+fine; they used it to write upon, and so it is that their
+inscriptions have been preserved to us.  They had cattle,
+sheep, goats and asses, but no horses.  They fought on foot,
+in close formation, carrying spears and shields of skin.
+  Their clothing was of wool and they shaved their heads.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Each of the Sumerian cities seems generally to have been an
+independent state with a god of its own and priests of its
+own.  But sometimes one city would establish an ascendancy
+over others and exact tribute from their population.  A very
+ancient inscription <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P78"></a></span>at Nippur records the
+&ldquo;empire,&rdquo; the first recorded empire, of the
+Sumerian city of Erech.  Its god and its priest-king claimed
+an authority from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-78"></a>
+<img src="images/img-78.jpg"
+alt="BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200
+ B.C."
+ width="480" height="456" />
+<p class="caption">
+BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200 <small>B.C.</small>
+<br />
+<small>Note the cuneiform characters of the inscription, which
+ records the building of a temple to a Sun God</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+At first writing was merely an abbreviated method of
+pictorial record.  Even before Neolithic times men were
+beginning to write.  The Azilian rock pictures to which we
+have already referred show the beginning of the process.
+  Many of them record hunts and expeditions, and in most of
+these the human figures are plainly drawn.  But in some the
+painter would not bother with head and limbs; he just
+indicated men by a vertical and one or two transverse
+strokes.  From this to a conventional condensed picture
+writing was an easy transition.  In Sumeria, where the
+writing was done on clay with a stick, the dabs of the
+characters soon became unrecognizably unlike the things they
+stood for, but in Egypt where men painted on walls and on
+strips of the papyrus reed (the first paper) the likeness to
+the thing imitated remained.  From the fact that the wooden
+styles used in Sumeria made wedge-shaped marks, the Sumerian
+writing is called cuneiform (= wedge-shaped).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P79"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-79"></a>
+<img src="images/img-79.jpg"
+alt="EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY"
+ width="400" height="535" />
+<p class="caption">
+EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY
+<br />
+<small>Recovered from the Tombs at Abydos in 1921 by the British
+ School of Archæology.  They give evidence of early form of
+ block printing</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+An important step towards writing was made when pictures were
+used to indicate not the thing represented but some similar
+thing.  In the rebus dear to children of a suitable age, this
+is still done to-day.  We draw a camp with tents and a bell,
+and the child is delighted to guess that this is the Scotch
+name Campbell.  The Sumerian language was a language made up
+of accumulated syllables rather like some contemporary
+Amerindian languages, and it lent itself very readily to this
+syllabic method of writing words expressing ideas that could
+not be conveyed by pictures directly.  Egyptian writing
+underwent parallel developments.  Later on, when foreign
+peoples with less distinctly syllabled methods of speech were
+to learn and use these picture scripts they were to make
+those further modifications and simplifications that
+developed at last into alphabetical writing.  All the true
+alphabets of the later world derived from a mixture of the
+Sumerian cuneiform and the Egyptian hieroglyphic (priest
+writing).  Later in China there was to develop a
+conventionalized picture writing, but in China it never got
+to the alphabetical stage.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P80"></a></span>The
+invention of writing was of very great importance in the
+development of human societies.  It put agreements, laws,
+commandments on record.  It made the growth of states larger
+than the old city states possible.  It made a continuous
+historical consciousness possible.  The command of the priest
+or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice
+and could survive his death.  It is interesting to note that
+in ancient Sumeria seals were greatly used.  A king or a
+nobleman or a merchant would have his seal often very
+artistically carved, and would impress it on any clay
+document he wished to authorize.  So close had civilization
+got to printing six thousand years ago.  Then the clay was
+dried hard and became permanent.  For the reader must
+remember that in the land of Mesopotamia for countless years,
+letters, records and accounts were all written on
+comparatively indestructible tiles.  To that fact we owe a
+great wealth of recovered knowledge.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-80"></a>
+<img src="images/img-80.jpg"
+alt="THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS"
+ width="600" height="363" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS
+<br />
+<small>The Pyramid to the right, the step Pyramid, is the oldest
+ stone building in the world
+<br />
+<i>Photo: F. Boyer</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Bronze, copper, gold, silver and, as a precious rarity,
+meteoric iron were known in both Sumeria and Egypt at a very
+early stage.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P81"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-81"></a>
+<img src="images/img-81.jpg"
+alt="VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS"
+ width="600" height="795" />
+<p class="caption">
+VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS
+<br />
+<small>Showing how these great monuments dominate the plain
+<br />
+<i>Photo: D. McLeish</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P82"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-82"></a>
+<img src="images/img-82.jpg"
+alt="THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH"
+ width="600" height="796" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo: D. McLeish</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Daily life in those first city lands of the old world must
+have been <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P83"></a></span>very similar in both Egypt and
+Sumeria.  And except for the asses and cattle in the streets
+it must have been not unlike the life in the Maya cities of
+America three or four thousand years later.  Most of the
+people in peace time were busy with irrigation and
+cultivation&mdash;except on days of religious festivity.
+  They had no money and no need for it.  They managed their
+small occasional trades by barter.  The princes and rulers
+who alone had more than a few possessions used gold and
+silver bars and precious stones for any incidental act of
+trade.  The temple dominated life; in Sumeria it was a great
+towering temple that went up to a roof from which the stars
+were observed; in Egypt it was a massive building with only a
+ground floor. In Sumeria the priest ruler was the greatest,
+most splendid of beings.  In Egypt however there was one who
+was raised above the priests; he was the living incarnation
+of the chief god of the land, the Pharaoh, the god king.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There were few changes in the world in those days;
+men&rsquo;s days were sunny, toilsome and conventional.  Few
+strangers came into the land and such as did fared
+uncomfortably.  The priest directed life according to
+immemorial rules and watched the stars for seed time and
+marked the omens of the sacrifices and interpreted the
+warnings of dreams.  Men worked and loved and died, not
+unhappily, forgetful of the savage past of their race and
+heedless of its future.  Sometimes the ruler was benign.
+  Such was Pepi II, who reigned in Egypt for ninety years.
+  Sometimes he was ambitious and took men&rsquo;s sons to be
+soldiers and sent them against neighbouring city states to
+war and plunder, or he made them toil to build great
+buildings.  Such were Cheops and Chephren and Mycerinus, who
+built those vast sepulchral piles, the pyramids at Gizeh.
+  The largest of these is 450 feet high and the weight of stone
+in it is 4,883,000 tons.  All this was brought down the Nile
+in boats and lugged into place chiefly by human muscle.  Its
+erection must have exhausted Egypt more than a great war
+would have done.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P84"></a></span><a name="chapXVI"></a>XVI<br />
+PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES</h2>
+
+<p>
+It was not only in Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley that men were settling down
+to agriculture and the formation of city states in the centuries between 6000
+and 8000 <small>B.C.</small> Wherever there were possibilities of irrigation
+and a steady all-the-year-round food supply men were exchanging the
+uncertainties and hardships of hunting and wandering for the routines of
+settlement. On the upper Tigris a people called the Assyrians were founding
+cities; in the valleys of Asia Minor and on the Mediterranean shores and
+islands, there were small communities growing up to civilization. Possibly
+parallel developments of human life were already going on in favourable regions
+of India, and China. In many parts of Europe where there were lakes well
+stocked with fish, little communities of men had long settled in dwellings
+built on piles over the water, and were eking out agriculture by fishing and
+hunting. But over much larger areas of the old world no such settlement was
+possible. The land was too harsh, too thickly wooded or too arid, or the
+seasons too uncertain for mankind, with only the implements and science of that
+age to take root.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For settlement under the conditions of the primitive
+civilizations men needed a constant water supply and warmth
+and sunshine.  Where these needs were not satisfied, man
+could live as a transient, as a hunter following his game, as
+a herdsman following the seasonal grass, but he could not
+settle.  The transition from the hunting to the herding life
+may have been very gradual.  From following herds of wild
+cattle or (in Asia) wild horses, men may have come to an idea
+of property in them, have learnt to pen them into valleys,
+have fought for them against wolves, wild dogs and other
+predatory beasts.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P85"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-85"></a>
+<img src="images/img-85.jpg"
+alt="POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS"
+ width="540" height="724" />
+<p class="caption">
+POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS
+<br />
+<small><i>Brit. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P86"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-861"></a>
+<img src="images/img-861.jpg"
+alt="A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE"
+ width="600" height="344" />
+<p class="caption">
+A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE
+<br />
+<small>These Borneo dwellings are practically counterparts of the
+ homes of European neolithic communities 6000 <small>B.C.</small>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+So while the
+primitive civilizations of the cultivators were growing up
+chiefly in the great river valleys, a different way of
+living, the nomadic life, a life in constant movement to and
+fro from winter pasture to summer pasture, was also growing
+up.  The nomadic peoples were on the whole hardier than the
+agriculturalists; they were less prolific and numerous, they
+had no permanent temples and no highly organized priesthood;
+they had less gear; but the reader must not suppose that
+theirs was necessarily a less highly developed way of living
+on that account.  In many ways this free life was a fuller
+life than that of the tillers of the soil.  The individual
+was more self-reliant; less of a unit in a crowd.  The leader
+was more important; the medicine man perhaps less so.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-862"></a>
+<img src="images/img-862.jpg"
+alt="NOMADS IN EGYPT"
+ width="600" height="161" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P87"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-871"></a>
+<img src="images/img-871.jpg"
+alt="NOMADS IN EGYPT"
+ width="452" height="161" />
+<p class="caption">
+NOMADS IN EGYPT
+<br />
+<small>Egyptian wall painting in a tomb near ancient Beni Hassan,
+ middle Egypt.  It depicts the arrival of a tribe of Semitic Nomads
+ in Egypt about the year of 1895 <small>B.C.</small></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Moving over large stretches of country the nomad took a wider view
+of life.  He touched on the confines of this settled land and
+that.  He was used to the sight of strange faces.  He had to
+scheme and treat for pasture with competing tribes.  He knew
+more of minerals than the folk upon the plough lands because
+he went over mountain passes and into rocky places.  He may
+have been a better metallurgist.  Possibly bronze and much
+more probably iron smelting were nomadic discoveries.  Some
+of the earliest implements of iron reduced from its ores have
+been found in Central Europe far away from the early
+civilizations.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-872"></a>
+<img src="images/img-872.jpg"
+alt="FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 B.C."
+ width="350" height="523" />
+<p class="caption">
+FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 <small>B.C.</small>
+<br />
+<small>Excavated 1922 by the British School of Archæology in
+ Egypt from First Dynasty Tombs</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+On the other hand the settled folk had their textiles and
+their pottery and made many desirable things.  It was
+inevitable that as the two sorts of life, the agricultural
+and the nomadic differentiated, a certain amount of looting
+and trading should develop between the two.  In Sumeria
+particularly which had deserts and seasonal <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P88"></a></span>country on
+either hand it must have been usual to have the nomads
+camping close to the cultivated fields, trading and stealing
+and perhaps tinkering, as gipsies do to this day.  (But hens
+they would not steal, because the domestic fowl&mdash;an
+Indian jungle fowl originally was not domesticated by man
+until about 1000 <small>B.C.</small>)  They would
+bring precious stones and things of metal and leather.  If
+they were hunters they would bring skins.  They would get in
+exchange pottery and beads and glass, garments and suchlike
+manufactured things.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-88"></a>
+<img src="images/img-88.jpg"
+alt="EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK"
+ width="400" height="239" />
+<p class="caption">
+EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK
+<br />
+<small>From an ancient and curiously painted model in the British
+ Museum</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Three main regions and three main kinds of wandering and
+imperfectly settled people there were in those remote days of
+the first civilizations in Sumeria and early Egypt.  Away in
+the forests of Europe were the blonde Nordic peoples, hunters
+and herdsmen, a lowly race.  The primitive civilizations saw
+very little of this race before 1500
+ <small>B.C.</small>  Away on the steppes of eastern Asia various
+Mongolian tribes, the Hunnish peoples, were domesticating the
+horse and developing a very wide sweeping habit of seasonal
+movement between their summer and winter camping places.
+  Possibly the Nordic and Hunnish peoples were still separated
+from one another by the swamps of Russia and the greater
+Caspian Sea of that time.  For very much of Russia there was
+swamp and lake.  In the deserts, which were growing more arid
+now, of Syria and Arabia, tribes of a dark white or brownish
+people, the Semitic tribes, were driving flocks of sheep and
+goats and asses from pasture to pasture.  It was these
+Semitic shepherds and certain more negroid people from
+southern Persia, the Elamites, who were the first nomads to
+come into close contact with the early civilizations.  They
+came <span class="pagenum"><a name="P90"></a></span>as
+ traders and as raiders.  Finally there arose leaders among them
+ with bolder imaginations, and they became conquerors.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P89"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-89"></a>
+<img src="images/img-89.jpg"
+alt="STELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD"
+ width="502" height="691" />
+<p class="caption">
+STELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD
+<br />
+<small>This monarch, son of Sargon I, was a great architecht as well
+ as a famous conqueror.  Discovered in 1898 among the ruins of Susa,
+ Persia</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+About 2750 <small>B.C.</small> a great Semitic
+leader, Sargon, had conquered the whole Sumerian land and was
+master of all the world from the Persian Gulf to the
+Mediterranean Sea.  He was an illiterate barbarian and his
+people, the Akkadians, learnt the Sumerian writing and
+adopted the Sumerian language as the speech of the officials
+and the learned.  The empire he founded decayed after two
+centuries, and after one inundation of Elamites a fresh
+Semitic people, the Amorites, by degrees established their
+rule over Sumeria.  They made their capital in what had
+hitherto been a small up-river town, Babylon, and their
+empire is called the first Babylonian Empire.  It was
+consolidated by a great king called Hammurabi (circa 2100
+<small>B.C.</small>) who made the earliest code of
+laws yet known to history.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The narrow valley of the Nile lies less open to nomadic
+invasion than Mesopotamia, but about the time of Hammurabi
+occurred a successful Semitic invasion of Egypt and a line of
+Pharaohs was set up, the Hyksos or &ldquo;shepherd
+kings,&rdquo; which lasted for several centuries.  These
+Semitic conquerors never assimilated themselves with the
+Egyptians; they were always regarded with hostility as
+foreigners and barbarians; and they were at last expelled by
+a popular uprising about 1600 <small>B.C.</small>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But the Semites had come into Sumeria for good and all, the
+two races assimilated and the Babylonian Empire became
+Semitic in its language and character.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P91"></a></span><a name="chapXVII"></a>XVII<br />
+THE FIRST SEAGOING PEOPLES</h2>
+
+<p>
+The earliest boats and ships must have come into use some twenty-five or thirty
+thousand years ago. Man was probably paddling about on the water with a log of
+wood or an inflated skin to assist him, at latest in the beginnings of the
+Neolithic period. A basketwork boat covered with skin and caulked was used in
+Egypt and Sumeria from the beginnings of our knowledge. Such boats are still
+used there. They are used to this day in Ireland and Wales and in Alaska;
+sealskin boats still make the crossing of Behring Straits. The hollow log
+followed as tools improved. The building of boats and then ships came in a
+natural succession.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Perhaps the legend of Noah&rsquo;s Ark preserves the memory
+of some early exploit in shipbuilding, just as the story of
+the Flood, so widely distributed among the peoples of the
+world, may be the tradition of the flooding of the
+Mediterranean basin.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There were ships upon the Red Sea long before the pyramids
+were built, and there were ships on the Mediterranean and
+Persian Gulf by 7000 <small>B.C.</small>  Mostly
+these were the ships of fishermen, but some were already
+trading and pirate ships&mdash;for knowing what we do of
+mankind we may guess pretty safely that the first sailors
+plundered where they could and traded where they had to do
+so.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The seas on which these first ships adventured were inland
+seas on which the wind blew fitfully and which were often at
+a dead calm for days together, so that sailing did not
+develop beyond an accessory use.  It is only in the last four
+hundred years that the well-rigged, ocean-going, sailing ship
+has developed.  The ships of the ancient world were
+essentially rowing ships which hugged the shore and went into
+harbour at the first sign of rough weather.  As ships grew
+into big galleys they caused a demand for war captives as
+galley slaves.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have already noted the appearance of the Semitic people as
+wanderers and nomads in the region of Syria and Arabia, and
+how they conquered Sumeria and set up first the Akkadian and
+then the first Babylonian Empire.  In the west these same
+Semitic peoples <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P92"></a></span>were taking to the sea.  They set up
+a string of harbour towns along the Eastern coast of the
+Mediterranean, of which Tyre and Sidon were the chief; and by
+the time of Hammurabi in Babylon, they had spread as traders,
+wanderers and colonizers over the whole Mediterranean basin.
+  These sea Semites were called the Phœnicians, They
+settled largely in Spain, pushing back the old Iberian Basque
+population and sending coasting expeditions through the
+straits of Gibraltar; and they set up colonies upon the north
+coast of Africa.  Of Carthage, one of these Phœnician
+cities, we shall have much more to tell later.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But the Phœnicians were not the first people to have
+galleys in the Mediterranean waters.  There was already a
+series of towns and cities among the islands and coasts of
+that sea belonging to a race or races apparently connected by
+blood and language with the Basques to the west and the
+Berbers and Egyptians to the south, the Ægean peoples.
+These peoples must not be confused with the Greeks, who come
+much later into our story; they were pre-Greek, but they had
+cities in Greece and Asia Minor; Mycenæ and Troy for
+example, and they had a great and prosperous establishment at
+Cnossos in Crete.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is only in the last half century that the industry of
+excavating archæologists has brought the extent and
+civilization of the Ægean peoples to our knowledge.
+  Cnossos has been most thoroughly explored; it was happily not
+succeeded by any city big enough to destroy its ruins, and so
+it is our chief source of information about this once almost
+forgotten civilization.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The history of Cnossos goes back as far as the history of
+Egypt; the two countries were trading actively across the sea
+by 4000 <small>B.C.</small>  By 2500 <small>B.C.</small>,
+ that is between the time of Sargon I and
+Hammurabi, Cretan civilization was at its zenith.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cnossos was not so much a town as a great palace for the
+Cretan monarch and his people.  It was not even fortified.
+  It was only fortified later as the Phœnicians grew
+strong, and as a new and more terrible breed of pirates, the
+Greeks, came upon the sea from the north.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-93"></a>
+<img src="images/img-93.jpg"
+alt="THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCENÆ"
+ width="500" height="698" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCENÆ
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The monarch was called Minos, as the Egyptian monarch was
+called Pharaoh; and he kept his state in a palace fitted with
+running water, with bathrooms and the like conveniences such
+as we know of in no other ancient remains.  There he held
+great festivals and shows.  There was bull-fighting,
+singularly like the bull-fighting that <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P93"></a></span>still survives
+in Spain; there was resemblance even in the costumes of the
+bull-fighters; and there were gymnastic displays.  The
+women&rsquo;s clothes were remarkably modern in spirit; they
+wore corsets and flounced dresses.  The pottery, the textile
+manufactures, the sculpture, painting, jewellery, ivory,
+metal and inlay work of these <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P94"></a></span>Cretans was often astonishingly
+beautiful.  And they had a system of writing, but that still
+remains to be deciphered.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This happy and sunny and civilized life lasted for some score
+of centuries.  About 2000 <small>B.C.</small>
+Cnossos and Babylon abounded in comfortable and cultivated
+people who probably led very pleasant lives.  They had shows
+and they had religious festivals, they had domestic slaves to
+look after them and industrial slaves to make a profit for
+them.  Life must have seemed very secure in Cnossos for such
+people, sunlit and girdled by the blue sea.  Egypt of course
+must have appeared rather a declining country in those days
+under the rule of her half-barbaric shepherd kings, and if
+one took an interest in politics one must have noticed how
+the Semitic people seemed to be getting everywhere, ruling
+Egypt, ruling distant Babylon, building Nineveh on the upper
+Tigris, sailing west to the Pillars of Hercules (the straits
+of Gibraltar) and setting up their colonies on those distant
+coasts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There were some active arid curious minds in Cnossos, because
+later on the Greeks told legends of a certain skilful Cretan
+artificer, Dædalus, who attempted to make some sort of
+flying machine, perhaps a glider, which collapsed and fell
+into the sea.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is interesting to note some of the differences as well as
+the resemblances between the life of Cnossos and our own.  To
+a Cretan gentleman of 2500 <small>B.C.</small> iron
+was a rare metal which fell out of the sky and was curious
+rather than useful&mdash;for as yet only meteoric iron was
+known, iron had not been obtained from its ores.  Compare
+that with our modern state of affairs pervaded by iron
+everywhere.  The horse again would be a quite legendary
+creature to our Cretan, a sort of super-ass which lived in
+the bleak northern lands far away beyond the Black Sea.
+  Civilization for him dwelt chiefly in Ægean Greece and
+Asia Minor, where Lydians and Carians and Trojans lived a
+life and probably spoke languages like his own.  There were
+Phœnicians and Ægeans settled in Spain and North
+Africa, but those were very remote regions to his
+imagination.  Italy was still a desolate land covered with
+dense forests; the brown-skinned Etruscans had not yet gone
+there from Asia Minor.  And one day perhaps this Cretan
+gentleman went down to the harbour and saw a captive who
+attracted his attention because he was very fair-complexioned
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P95"></a></span>and had
+blue eyes.  Perhaps our Cretan tried to talk to him and was
+answered in an unintelligible gibberish.  This creature came
+from somewhere beyond the Black Sea and seemed to be an
+altogether benighted savage.  But indeed he was an Aryan
+tribesman, of a race and culture of which we shall soon have
+much to tell, and the strange gibberish he spoke was to
+differentiate some day into Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin,
+German, English and most of the chief languages of the world.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-95"></a>
+<img src="images/img-95.jpg"
+alt="THE PALACE AT CNOSSOS"
+ width="600" height="429" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE PALACE AT CNOSSOS
+<br />
+<small>The painted walls of the Throne Room
+<br />
+<i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Such was Cnossos at its zenith, intelligent, enterprising,
+bright and happy.  But about 1400 <small>B.C.</small>
+ disaster came perhaps very suddenly upon its
+prosperity.  The palace of Minos was destroyed, and its ruins
+have never been rebuilt or inhabited from that day to this.
+  We do not know how this disaster occurred.  The excavators
+note what appears to be scattered plunder and the marks of
+the fire.  But the traces of a very destructive earthquake
+have also been found.  Nature alone may have destroyed
+Cnossos, or the Greeks may have finished what the earthquake
+began.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P96"></a></span><a name="chapXVIII"></a>XVIII<br />
+EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA</h2>
+
+<p>
+The Egyptians had never submitted very willingly to the rule of their Semitic
+shepherd kings and about 1600 <small>A.D.</small> a vigorous patriotic movement
+expelled these foreigners. Followed a new phase or revival for Egypt, a period
+known to Egyptologists as the New Empire. Egypt, which had not been closely
+consolidated before the Hyksos invasion, was now a united country; and the
+phase of subjugation and insurrection left her full of military spirit. The
+Pharaohs became aggressive conquerors. They had now acquired the war horse and
+the war chariot, which the Hyksos had brought to them. Under Thothmes III and
+Amenophis III Egypt had extended her rule into Asia as far as the Euphrates.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We are entering now upon a thousand years of warfare between
+the once quite separated civilizations of Mesopotamia and the
+Nile.  At first Egypt was ascendant.  The great dynasties,
+the Seventeenth Dynasty, which included Thothmes III and
+Amenophis III and IV and a great queen Hatasu, and the
+Nineteenth, when Rameses II, supposed by some to have been
+the Pharaoh of Moses, reigned for sixty-seven years, raised
+Egypt to high levels of prosperity.  In between there were
+phases of depression for Egypt, conquest by the Syrians and
+later conquest by the Ethiopians from the South.  In
+Mesopotamia Babylon ruled, then the Hittites and the Syrians
+of Damascus rose to a transitory predominance; at one time
+the Syrians conquered Egypt; the fortunes of the Assyrians of
+Nineveh ebbed and flowed; sometimes the city was a conquered
+city; sometimes the Assyrians ruled in Babylon and assailed
+Egypt.  Our space is too limited here to tell of the comings
+and goings of the armies of the Egyptians and of the various
+Semitic powers of Asia Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia.  They
+were armies now provided with vast droves of war chariots,
+for the horse&mdash;still used only for <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P97"></a></span>war and
+glory&mdash;had spread by this time into the old
+civilizations from Central Asia.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-97"></a>
+<img src="images/img-97.jpg"
+alt="TEMPLE AT ABU SIMBEL"
+ width="600" height="428" />
+<p class="caption">
+TEMPLE AT ABU SIMBEL
+<br />
+<small>Showing the statues of Rameses II at entrance</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Great conquerors appear in the dim light of that distant time
+and pass, Tushratta, King of Mitanni, who captured Nineveh,
+Tiglath Pileser I of Assyria who conquered Babylon.  At last
+the Assyrians became the greatest military power of the time.
+  Tiglath Pileser III conquered Babylon in 745
+ <small>B.C.</small> and founded what historians call the New
+Assyrian Empire.  Iron had also come now into civilization
+out of the north; the Hittites, the precursors of the
+Armenians, had it first and communicated its use to the
+Assyrians, and an Assyrian usurper, Sargon II, armed his
+troops with it.  Assyria became the first power to expound
+the doctrine of blood and iron.  Sargon&rsquo;s son
+Sennacherib led an army to the borders of Egypt, and was
+defeated not by military strength but by the plague.
+  Sennacherib&rsquo;s grandson Assurbanipal (who is also known
+in history <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P98"></a></span>by his Greek name of Sardanapalus)
+did actually conquer Egypt in 670
+ <small>B.C.</small>  But Egypt was already a conquered country
+then under an Ethiopian dynasty.  Sardanapalus simply
+replaced one conqueror by another.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-98"></a>
+<img src="images/img-98.jpg"
+alt="AVENUE OF SPHINXES"
+ width="550" height="435" />
+<p class="caption">
+AVENUE OF SPHINXES
+<br />
+<small>Leading from the Nile to the great Temple of Karnak
+<br />
+<i>Photo: D. McLeish</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+If one had a series of political maps of this long period of
+history, this interval of ten centuries, we should have Egypt
+expanding and contracting like an amœba under a
+microscope, and we should see these various Semitic states of
+the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Hittites and the Syrians
+coming and going, eating each other up and disgorging each
+other again.  To the west of Asia Minor there would be little
+Ægean states like Lydia, whose capital was Sardis, and
+Caria.  But after about 1200 <small>B.C.</small> and
+perhaps earlier, a new set of names would come into the map
+of the ancient world from <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P100"></a></span>the north-east and from the north-
+west.  These would be the names of certain barbaric tribes,
+armed with iron weapons and using horse-chariots, who were
+becoming a great affliction to the Ægean and Semitic
+civilizations on the northern borders.  They all spoke
+variants of what once must have been the same language,
+Aryan.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P99"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-99"></a>
+<img src="images/img-99.jpg"
+alt="THE GREAT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK"
+ width="600" height="827" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE GREAT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo: D. McLeish</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Round the north-east of the Black and Caspian Seas were
+coming the Medes and Persians.  Confused with these in the
+records of the time were Scythians and Samatians.  From
+north-east or north-west came the Armenians, from the north-
+west of the sea-barrier through the Balkan peninsula came
+Cimmerians, Phrygians and the Hellenic tribes whom now we
+call the Greeks.  They were raiders and robbers and
+plunderers of cities, these Ayrans, east and west alike.
+  They were all kindred and similar peoples, hardy herdsmen who
+had taken to plunder.  In the east they were still only
+borderers and raiders, but in the west they were taking
+cities and driving out the civilized Ægean populations.
+  The Ægean peoples were so pressed that they were seeking
+new homes in lands beyond the Aryan range.  Some were seeking
+a settlement in the delta of the Nile and being repulsed by
+the Egyptians; some, the Etruscans, seem to have sailed from
+Asia Minor to found a state in the forest wildernesses of
+middle Italy; some built themselves cities upon the south-
+east coasts of the Mediterranean and became later that people
+known in history as the Philistines.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of these Aryans who came thus rudely upon the scene of the
+ancient civilizations we will tell more fully in a later
+section.  Here we note simply all this stir and emigration
+amidst the area of the ancient civilizations, that was set up
+by the swirl of the gradual and continuous advance of these
+Aryan barbarians out of the northern forests and wildernesses
+between 1600 and 600 <small>B.C.</small>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And in a section to follow we must tell also of a little
+Semitic people, the Hebrews, in the hills behind the
+Phœnician and Philistine coasts, who began to be of
+significance in the world towards the end of this period.
+  They produced a literature of very great importance in
+subsequent history, a collection of books, histories, poems,
+books of wisdom and prophetic works, the Hebrew Bible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Mesopotamia and Egypt the coming of the Aryans did not
+cause fundamental changes until after 600
+ <small>B.C.</small>  The flight of the <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P101"></a></span>Ægeans before the Greeks and
+even the destruction of Cnossos must have seemed a very
+remote disturbance to both the citizens of Egypt and of
+Babylon.  Dynasties came and went in these cradle states of
+civilization, but the main tenor of human life went on, with
+a slow increase in refinement and complexity age by age.  In
+Egypt the accumulated monuments of more ancient
+times&mdash;the pyramids were already in their third thousand
+of years and a show for visitors just as they are to-
+day&mdash;were supplemented by fresh and splendid buildings,
+more particularly in the time of the seventeenth and
+nineteenth dynasties.  The great temples at Karnak and Luxor
+date from this time.  All the chief monuments of Nineveh, the
+great temples, the winged bulls with human heads, the reliefs
+of kings and chariots and lion hunts, were done in these
+centuries between 1600 and 600 <small>B.C.</small>,
+and this period also covers most of the splendours of
+Babylon.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-101"></a>
+<img src="images/img-101.jpg"
+alt="FRIEZE SHOWING EGYPTIAN FEMALE SLAVES CARRYING LUXURIOUS FOODS"
+ width="600" height="203" />
+<p class="caption">
+FRIEZE SHOWING EGYPTIAN FEMALE SLAVES CARRYING LUXURIOUS FOODS
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo: Jacques Boyer</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Both from Mesopotamia and Egypt we now have abundant public
+records, business accounts, stories, poetry and private
+correspondence.  We know that life, for prosperous and
+influential people in such cities as Babylon and the Egyptian
+Thebes, was already almost as refined and as luxurious as
+that of comfortable and prosperous people to-day.  Such
+people lived an orderly and ceremonious life in beautiful and
+beautifully furnished and decorated houses, wore richly
+decorated clothing and lovely jewels; they had feasts and
+festivals, entertained one another with music and dancing,
+were waited upon by highly trained servants, were cared for
+by doctors and dentists.  They did not travel very much or
+very far, but boating <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P102"></a></span>excursions were a common summer
+pleasure both on the Nile and on the Euphrates.  The beast of
+burthen was the ass; the horse was still used only in
+chariots for war and upon occasions of state.  The mule was
+still novel and the camel, though it was known in
+Mesopotamia, had not been brought into Egypt.  And there were
+few utensils of iron; copper and bronze remained the
+prevailing metals.  Fine linen and cotton fabrics were known
+as well as wool.  But there was no silk yet.  Glass was known
+and beautifully coloured, but glass things were usually
+small.  There was no clear glass and no optical use of glass.
+  People had gold stoppings in their teeth but no spectacles on
+their noses.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+One odd contrast between the life of old Thebes or Babylon
+and modern life was the absence of coined money.  Most trade
+was still done by barter.  Babylon was financially far ahead
+of Egypt.  Gold and silver were used for exchange and kept in
+ingots; and there were bankers, before coinage, who stamped
+their names and the weight on these lumps of precious metal.
+  A merchant or traveller would carry precious stones to sell
+to pay for his necessities.  Most servants and workers were
+slaves who were paid not money but in kind.  As money came in
+slavery declined.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A modern visitor to these crowning cities of the ancient
+world would have missed two very important articles of diet;
+there were no hens and no eggs.  A French cook would have
+found small joy in Babylon.  These things came from the East
+somewhere about the time of the last Assyrian empire.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Religion like everything else had undergone great refinement.
+Human sacrifice for instance had long since disappeared;
+animals or bread dummies had been substituted for the victim.
+  (But the Phœnicians and especially the citizens of
+Carthage, their greatest settlement in Africa, were accused,
+later of immolating human beings.)  When a great chief had
+died in the ancient days it had been customary to sacrifice
+his wives and slaves and break spear and bow at his tomb so
+that he should not go unattended and unarmed in the spirit
+world.  In Egypt there survived of this dark tradition the
+pleasant custom of burying small models of house and shop and
+servants and cattle with the dead, models that give us to-day
+the liveliest realization of the safe and cultivated life of
+these ancient people, three thousand years and more ago.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P103"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-103"></a>
+<img src="images/img-103.jpg"
+alt="THE TEMPLE OF HORUS AT EDFU"
+ width="600" height="421" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE TEMPLE OF HORUS AT EDFU
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Such was the ancient world before the coming of the Aryans out of
+ the northern forests and plains.  In India and China there were
+parallel developments.  In the great valleys of both these
+regions agricultural city states of brownish peoples were
+growing up, but in India they do not seem to have advanced or
+coalesced so rapidly as the city states of Mesopotamia or
+Egypt.  They were nearer the level of the ancient Sumerians
+or of the Maya civilization of America.  Chinese history has
+still to be modernized by Chinese scholars and cleared of
+much legendary matter.  Probably China at this time was in
+advance of India.  Contemporary with the seventeenth dynasty
+in Egypt, there was a dynasty of emperors in China, the Shang
+dynasty, priest emperors over a loose-knit empire of
+subordinate kings.  The chief duty of these early emperors
+was to perform the seasonal sacrifices.  Beautiful bronze
+vessels from the time of the Shang dynasty still exist, and
+their beauty and workmanship compel us to recognize that many
+centuries of civilization must have preceded their
+manufacture.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P104"></a></span><a name="chapXIX"></a>XIX<br />
+THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS</h2>
+
+<p>
+Four thousand years ago, that is to say about 2000 <small>B.C.</small>, central
+and south-eastern Europe and central Asia were probably warmer, moister and
+better wooded than they are now. In these regions of the earth wandered a group
+of tribes mainly of the fair and blue-eyed Nordic race, sufficiently in touch
+with one another to speak merely variations of one common language from the
+Rhine to the Caspian Sea. At that time they may not have been a very numerous
+people, and their existence was unsuspected by the Babylonians to whom
+Hammurabi was giving laws, or by the already ancient and cultivated land of
+Egypt which was tasting in those days for the first time the bitterness of
+foreign conquest.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These Nordic people were destined to play a very important
+part indeed in the world&rsquo;s history.  They were a people
+of the parklands and the forest clearings; they had no horses
+at first but they had cattle; when they wandered they put
+their tents and other gear on rough ox waggons; when they
+settled for a time they may have made huts of wattle and mud.
+  They burnt their important dead; they did not bury them
+ceremoniously as the brunette peoples did.  They put the
+ashes of their greater leaders in urns and then made a great
+circular mound about them.  These mounds are the &ldquo;round
+barrows&rdquo; that occur all over north Europe.  The
+brunette people, their predecessors, did not burn their dead
+but buried them in a sitting position in elongated mounds;
+the &ldquo;long barrows.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Aryans raised crops of wheat, ploughing with oxen, but
+they did not settle down by their crops; they would reap and
+move on.  They had bronze, and somewhen about 1500
+ <small>B.C.</small> they acquired iron.  They may have been the
+discoverers of iron smelting.  And somewhen vaguely about
+that time they also got the horse&mdash;which to begin with
+they used only for draught purposes.  Their social life did
+not centre upon a temple like that of the more settled people
+round the Mediterranean, and their chief men were leaders
+rather than priests.  They had an aristocratic social order
+rather than a <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P106"></a></span>divine and regal order; from a
+very early stage they distinguished certain families as
+leaderly and noble.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P105"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-105"></a>
+<img src="images/img-105.jpg"
+alt="A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA"
+ width="360" height="687" />
+<p class="caption">
+A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA
+<br />
+<small>Compare the horses and other animals with the Altamira
+ drawing on p. 54, and also with the Greek frieze, p. 140</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+They were a very vocal people.  They enlivened their
+wanderings by feasts, at which there was much drunkenness and
+at which a special sort of man, the bards, would sing and
+recite.  They had no writing until they had come into contact
+with civilization, and the memories of these bards were their
+living literature.  This use of recited language as an
+entertainment did much to make it a fine and beautiful
+instrument of expression, and to that no doubt the subsequent
+predominance of the languages derived from Aryan is, in part,
+to be ascribed.  Every Aryan people had its legendary history
+crystallized in bardic recitations, epics, sagas and vedas,
+as they were variously called.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The social life of these people centred about the households
+of their leading men.  The hall of the chief where they
+settled for a time was often a very capacious timber
+building.  There were no doubt huts for herds and outlying
+farm buildings; but with most of the Aryan peoples this hall
+was the general centre, everyone went there to feast and hear
+the bards and take part in games and discussions.  Cowsheds
+and stabling surrounded it.  The chief and his wife and so
+forth would sleep on a dais or in an upper gallery; the
+commoner sort slept about anywhere, as people still do in
+Indian households.  Except for weapons, ornaments, tools and
+suchlike personal possessions there was a sort of patriarchal
+communism in the tribe.  The chief owned the cattle and
+grazing lands in the common interest; forest and rivers were
+the wild.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This was the fashion of the people who were increasing and
+multiplying over the great spaces of central Europe and west
+central Asia during the growth of the great civilization of
+Mesopotamia and the Nile, and whom we find pressing upon the
+heliolithic peoples everywhere in the second millennium
+before Christ.  They were coming into France and Britain and
+into Spain.  They pushed westward in two waves.  The first of
+these people who reached Britain and Ireland were armed with
+bronze weapons.  They exterminated or subjugated the people
+who had made the great stone monuments of Carnac in Brittany
+and Stonehenge and Avebury in England.  They reached Ireland.
+  They are called the Goidelic Celts. The <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P107"></a></span>second wave of
+a closely kindred people, perhaps intermixed with other
+racial elements, brought iron with it into Great Britain, and
+is known as the wave of Brythonic Celts.  From them the Welsh
+derive their language.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-107"></a>
+<img src="images/img-107.jpg"
+alt="THE MOUND OF NIPPUR"
+ width="450" height="633" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE MOUND OF NIPPUR
+<br />
+<small>The site of a city which recent excavations have proved to
+ date from at least as early as 5000 <small>B.C.</small>, and
+ probably 1000 years earlier
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Underwood &#38; Underwood</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Kindred Celtic peoples were pressing southward into Spain and
+coming into contact not only with the heliolithic Basque
+people who still occupied the country but with the Semitic
+Phœnician colonies of the sea coast.  A closely allied
+series of tribes, the Italians, were making their way down
+the still wild and wooded Italian peninsula.  They did not
+always conquer.  In the eighth century
+ <small>B.C.</small>  Rome appears in history, a trading town on
+the Tiber, inhabited by Aryan Latins but under the rule of
+Etruscan nobles and kings.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At the other extremity of the Aryan range there was a similar
+progress southward of similar tribes.  Aryan peoples,
+speaking Sanskrit, had come down through the western passes
+into North <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P108"></a></span>India long before 1000
+ <small>B.C.</small>  There they came into contact with a
+primordial brunette civilization, the Dravidian civilization,
+and learnt much from it.  Other Aryan tribes seem to have
+spread over the mountain masses of Central Asia far to the
+east of the present range of such peoples.  In Eastern
+Turkestan there are still fair, blue-eyed Nordic tribes, but
+now they speak Mongolian tongues.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Between the Black and Caspian Seas the ancient Hittites had
+been submerged and &ldquo;Aryanized&rdquo; by the Armenians
+before 1000 <small>B.C.</small>, and the Assyrians
+and Babylonians were already aware of a new and formidable
+fighting barbarism on the north-eastern frontiers, a group of
+tribes amidst which the Scythians, the Medes and the Persians
+remain as outstanding names.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it was through the Balkan peninsula that Aryan tribes
+made their first heavy thrust into the heart of the old-world
+civilization.  They were already coming southward and
+crossing into Asia Minor many centuries before 1000
+ <small>B.C.</small>  First came a group of tribes of whom
+the Phrygians were the most conspicuous, and then in
+succession the Æolic, the Ionic and the Dorian Greeks.
+  By 1000 <small>B.C.</small> they had wiped out the
+ancient Ægean civilization both in the mainland of
+Greece and in most of the Greek islands; the cities of
+Mycenæ and Tiryns were obliterated and Cnossos was
+nearly forgotten.  The Greeks had taken to the sea before
+1000 <small>A.D.</small>, they had settled in Crete
+and Rhodes, and they were founding colonies in Sicily and the
+south of Italy after the fashion of the Phœnician
+trading cities that were dotted along the Mediterranean
+coasts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So it was, while Tiglath Pileser III and Sargon II and
+Sardanapalus were ruling in Assyria and fighting with
+Babylonia and Syria and Egypt, the Aryan peoples were
+learning the methods of civilization and making it over for
+their own purposes in Italy and Greece and north Persia.  The
+theme of history from the ninth century <small>B.C.</small>
+<small>A.D.</small> onward for six centuries is the story of how
+these Aryan peoples grew to power and enterprise and how at
+last they subjugated the whole Ancient World, Semitic,
+Ægean and Egyptian alike.  In form the Aryan peoples
+were altogether victorious; but the struggle of Aryan,
+Semitic and Egyptian ideas and methods was continued long
+after the sceptre was in Aryan hands.  It is indeed a
+struggle that goes on through all the rest of history and
+still in a manner continues to this day.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P109"></a></span><a name="chapXX"></a>XX<br />
+THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I</h2>
+
+<p>
+We have already mentioned how Assyria became a great military power under
+Tiglath Pileser III and under the usurper Sargon II. Sargon was not this
+man&rsquo;s original name; he adopted it to flatter the conquered Babylonians
+by reminding them of that ancient founder of the Akkadian Empire, Sargon I, two
+thousand years before his time. Babylon, for all that it was a conquered city,
+was of greater population and importance than Nineveh, and its great god Bel
+Marduk and its traders and priests had to be treated politely. In Mesopotamia
+in the eighth century <small>B.C.</small> <small>A.D.</small> we are already
+far beyond the barbaric days when the capture of a town meant loot and
+massacre. Conquerors sought to propitiate and win the conquered. For a century
+and a half after Sargon the new Assyrian empire endured and, as we have noted,
+Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus) held at least lower Egypt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But the power and solidarity of Assyria waned rapidly.  Egypt
+by an effort threw off the foreigner under a Pharoah
+Psammetichus I, and under Necho II attempted a war of
+conquest in Syria.  By that time Assyria was grappling with
+foes nearer at hand, and could make but a poor resistance.  A
+Semitic people from south-east Mesopotamia, the Chaldeans,
+combined with Aryan Medes and Persians from the north-east
+against Nineveh, and in 606 <small>B.C.</small>&mdash;for now we
+ are coming down to exact chronology&mdash;took that city.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There was a division of the spoils of Assyria.  A Median
+Empire was set up in the north under Cyaxares.   It included
+Nineveh, and its capital was Ecbatana.  Eastward it reached
+to the borders of India.  To the south of this in a great
+crescent was a new Chaldean Empire, the Second Babylonian
+Empire, which rose to a very great degree of wealth and power
+under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar the Great (the
+Nebuchadnezzar of the Bible). The last great days, the <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P110"></a></span>greatest days
+of all, for Babylon began.  For a time the two Empires
+remained at peace, and the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar was
+married to Cyaxares.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Meanwhile Necho II was pursuing his easy conquests in Syria.
+  He had defeated and slain King Josiah of Judah, a small
+country of which there is more to tell presently, at the
+battle of Megiddo in 608 <small>B.C.</small>, and he
+pushed on to the Euphrates to encounter not a decadent
+Assyria but a renascent Babylonia.  The Chaldeans dealt very
+vigorously with the Egyptians.  Necho was routed and driven
+back to Egypt, and the Babylonian frontier pushed down to the
+ancient Egyptian boundaries.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-110"></a>
+<img src="images/img-110.jpg"
+alt="Map showing the relation of the Median and Second Babylonian
+(Chaldæan) Empires in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar the Great"
+ width="575" height="469" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+From 606 until 589 <small>B.C.</small> the Second
+Babylonian Empire flourished insecurely.  It flourished so
+long as it kept the peace with the stronger, hardier Median
+Empire to the north.  And during these sixty-seven years not
+only life but learning flourished in the ancient city.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-111"></a>
+<img src="images/img-111.jpg"
+alt="Map: The Empire of Darius (tribute-paying countries) at its
+greatest extent"
+ width="600" height="435" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Even under the Assyrian monarchs and especially under
+Sardanapalus, Babylon had been a scene of great intellectual
+activity.  <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P111"></a></span>Sardanapalus, though an Assyrian,
+had been quite Babylon-ized.  He made a library, a library
+not of paper but of the clay tablets that were used for
+writing in Mesopotamia since early Sumerian days.  His
+collection has been unearthed and is perhaps the most
+precious store of historical material in the world.  The last
+of the Chaldean line of Babylonian monarchs, Nabonidus, had
+even keener literary tastes.  He patronized antiquarian
+researches, and when a date was worked out by his
+investigators for the accession of Sargon I he commemorated
+the fact by inscriptions.  But there were many signs of
+disunion in his empire, and he sought to centralize it by
+bringing a number of the various local gods to Babylon and
+setting up temples to them there.  This device was to be
+practised quite successfully by the Romans in later times,
+but in Babylon it roused the jealousy of the powerful
+priesthood of Bel Marduk, the dominant god of the
+Babylonians.  They cast about for a possible alternative to
+Nabonidus and found it in Cyrus the Persian, the ruler of the
+adjacent Median Empire.  Cyrus had already distinguished
+himself by conquering Croesus, the rich king of Lydia in
+Eastern Asia Minor.  <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P112"></a></span>He came up against Babylon, there
+was a battle outside the walls, and the gates of the city
+were opened to him (538 <small>B.C.</small>).  His
+soldiers entered the city without fighting.  The crown prince
+Belshazzar, the son of Nabonidus, was feasting, the Bible
+relates, when a hand appeared and wrote in letters of fire
+upon the wall these mystical words:  <i>&ldquo;Mene, Mene,
+Tekel, Upharsin,&rdquo;</i> which was interpreted by the
+prophet Daniel, whom he summoned to read the riddle, as
+&ldquo;God has numbered thy kingdom and finished it; thou art
+weighed in the balance and found wanting and thy kingdom is
+given to the Medes and Persians.&rdquo;  Possibly the priests
+of Bel Marduk knew something about that writing on the wall.
+  Belshazzar was killed that night, says the Bible.  Nabonidus
+was taken prisoner, and the occupation of the city was so
+peaceful that the services of Bel Marduk continued without
+intermission.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-112"></a>
+<img src="images/img-112.jpg"
+alt="PERSIAN MONARCH"
+ width="180" height="349" />
+<p class="caption">
+PERSIAN MONARCH
+<br />
+<small>From the ruins of Persepolis
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Miss F. Biggs</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Thus it was the Babylonian and Median empires were united.
+  Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, subjugated Egypt.  Cambyses went
+mad and was accidentally killed, and was presently succeeded
+by Darius the Mede, Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, one of
+the chief councillors of Cyrus.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P113"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-1131"></a>
+<img src="images/img-1131.jpg"
+alt="THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS"
+ width="600" height="440" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS
+<br />
+<small>The capital city of the Persian Empire; burnt by Alexander
+ the Great
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Major W. F. P. Rodd</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-1132"></a>
+<img src="images/img-1132.jpg"
+alt="THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS"
+ width="600" height="459" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS
+<br />
+<small>
+<i>Photo:  Major W. F. P. Rodd</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Persian Empire of Darius I, the first of the new Aryan
+empires in the seat of the old civilizations, was the
+greatest empire the world had hitherto seen.  It included all
+Asia Minor and Syria, all the old Assyrian and Babylonian
+empires, Egypt, the Caucasus and Caspian regions, Media,
+Persia, and it extended into India as far as the Indus.  Such
+an empire was possible because the horse and rider and the
+chariot and the made-road had now been brought into the
+world.  Hitherto the ass and ox and the camel for desert use
+had afforded the swiftest method of <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P114"></a></span>transport.  Great arterial roads
+were made by the Persian rulers to hold their new empire, and
+post horses were always in waiting for the imperial messenger
+or the traveller with an official permit.  Moreover the world
+was now beginning to use coined money, which greatly
+facilitated trade and intercourse.  But the capital of this
+vast empire was no longer Babylon.  In the long run the
+priesthood of Bel Marduk gained nothing by their treason.
+Babylon though still important was now a declining city, and
+the great cities of the new empire were Persepolis and Susa
+and Ecbatana.  The capital was Susa.  Nineveh was already
+abandoned and sinking into ruins.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P115"></a></span><a name="chapXXI"></a>XXI<br />
+THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS</h2>
+
+<p>
+And now we can tell of the Hebrews, a Semitic people, not so important in their
+own time as in their influence upon the later history of the world. They were
+settled in Judea long before 1000 <small>B.C.</small>, and their capital city
+after that time was Jerusalem. Their story is interwoven with that of the great
+empires on either side of them, Egypt to the south and the changing empires of
+Syria, Assyria and Babylon to the north. Their country was an inevitable high
+road between these latter powers and Egypt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Their importance in the world is due to the fact that they
+produced a written literature, a world history, a collection
+of laws, chronicles, psalms, books of wisdom, poetry and
+fiction and political utterances which became at last what
+Christians know as the Old Testament, the Hebrew Bible.  This
+literature appears in history in the fourth or fifth century
+<small>B.C.</small>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Probably this literature was first put together in Babylon.
+  We have already told how the Pharaoh, Necho II, invaded the
+Assyrian Empire while Assyria was fighting for life against
+Medes, Persians and Chaldeans.  Josiah King of Judah opposed
+him, and was defeated and slain at Megiddo (608
+ <small>B.C.</small>).  Judah became a tributary to Egypt, and
+when Nebuchadnezzar the Great, the new Chaldean king in
+Babylon, rolled back Necho into Egypt, he attempted to manage
+Judah by setting up puppet kings in Jerusalem.  The
+experiment failed, the people massacred his Babylonian
+officials, and he then determined to break up this little
+state altogether, which had long been playing off Egypt
+against the northern empire.  Jerusalem was sacked and burnt,
+and the remnant of the people was carried off captive to
+Babylon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P116"></a></span>There
+they remained until Cyrus took Babylon (538
+ <small>B.C.</small>).  He then collected them together and sent
+them back to resettle their country and rebuild the walls and
+temple of Jerusalem.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Before that time the Jews do not seem to have been a very
+civilized or united people.  Probably only a very few of them
+could read or write.  In their own history one never hears of
+the early books of the Bible being read; the first mention of
+a book is in the time of Josiah.  The Babylonian captivity
+civilized them and consolidated them.  They returned aware of
+their own literature, an acutely self-conscious and political
+people.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Their Bible at that time seems to have consisted only of the
+Pentateuch, that is to say the first five books of the Old
+Testament as we know it.  In addition, as separate books they
+already had many of the other books that have since been
+incorporated with the Pentateuch into the present Hebrew
+Bible, Chronicles, the Psalms and Proverbs for example.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The accounts of the Creation of the World, of Adam and Eve
+and of the Flood, with which the Bible begins, run closely
+parallel with similar Babylonian legends; they seem to have
+been part of the common beliefs of all the Semitic peoples.
+  So too the stories of Moses and of Samson have Sumerian and
+Babylonian parallels.  But with the story of Abraham and
+onward begins something more special to the Jewish race.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Abraham may have lived as early as the days of Hammurabi in
+Babylon.  He was a patriarchal Semitic nomad.  To the book of
+Genesis the reader must go for the story of his wanderings
+and for the stories of his sons and grandchildren and how
+they became captive in the Land of Egypt.  He travelled
+through Canaan, and the God of Abraham, says the Bible story,
+promised this smiling land of prosperous cities to him and to
+his children.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And after a long sojourn in Egypt and after fifty years of
+wandering in the wilderness under the leadership of Moses,
+the children of Abraham, grown now to a host of twelve
+tribes, invaded the land of Canaan from the Arabian deserts
+to the East.  They may have done this somewhen between 1600
+<small>B.C.</small> and 1300 <small>B.C.</small>;
+ there are no Egyptian records of Moses nor
+of Canaan at this time to help out the story.  But at any
+rate they did not succeed in conquering any <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P117"></a></span>more than the
+hilly backgrounds of the promised land.  The coast was now in
+the hands, not of the Canaanites but of newcomers, those
+Ægean peoples, the Philistines; and their cities, Gaza,
+Gath, Ashdod, Ascalon and Joppa successfully withstood the
+Hebrew attack.  For many generations the children of Abraham
+remained an obscure people of the hilly back country engaged
+in incessant bickerings with the Philistines and with the
+kindred tribes about them, the Moabites, the Midianites and
+so forth.  The reader will find in the book of Judges a
+record of their struggles and disasters during this period.
+  For very largely it is a record of disasters and failures
+frankly told.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-117"></a>
+<img src="images/img-117.jpg"
+alt="Map: The Land of the Hebrews"
+ width="500" height="813" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P118"></a></span>For most
+of this period the Hebrews were ruled, so far as there was
+any rule among them, by priestly judges selected by the
+elders of the people, but at last somewhen towards 1000
+<small>B.C.</small> they chose themselves a king, Saul, to
+lead them in battle.  But Saul&rsquo;s leading was no great
+improvement upon the leading of the Judges; he perished under
+the hail of Philistine arrows at the battle of Mount Gilboa,
+his armour went into the temple of the Philistine Venus, and
+his body was nailed to the walls of Beth-shan.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-118"></a>
+<img src="images/img-118.jpg"
+alt="MOUND AT BABYLON"
+ width="450" height="626" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE MOUND AT BABYLON
+<br />
+<small>Beneath which are the remains of a great palace of
+ Nebuchadnezzar
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Underwood &#38; Underwood</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+His successor David was more successful and more politic.
+  With David dawned the only period of prosperity the Hebrew
+peoples were ever to know.  It was based on a close alliance
+with the Phœnician city of Tyre, whose King Hiram seems
+to have been a man of very great intelligence and enterprise.
+  He wished to secure a trade route to the Red Sea through the
+Hebrew hill country.  Normally Phœnician trade went to
+the Red Sea by Egypt, but Egypt was in a state of profound
+disorder at this <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P119"></a></span>time; there may have been other
+obstructions to Phœnician trade along this line, and at
+any rate Hiram established the very closest relations both
+with David and with his son and successor Solomon.  Under
+Hiram&rsquo;s auspices the walls, palace and temple of
+Jerusalem arose, and in return Hiram built and launched his
+ships on the Red Sea.  A very considerable trade passed
+northward and southward through Jerusalem.  And Solomon
+achieved a prosperity and magnificence unprecedented in the
+experience of his people.  He was even given a daughter of
+Pharaoh in marriage.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it is well to keep the proportion of things in mind.  At
+the climax of his glories Solomon was only a little
+subordinate king in a little city.  His power was so
+transitory that within a few years of his death, Shishak the
+first Pharaoh of the twenty-second dynasty, had taken
+Jerusalem and looted most of its splendours.  The account of
+Solomon&rsquo;s magnificence given in the books of Kings and
+Chronicles is questioned by many critics.  They say that it
+was added to and exaggerated by the patriotic pride of later
+writers.  But the Bible account read carefully is not so
+overwhelming as it appears at the first reading.
+  Solomon&rsquo;s temple, if one works out the measurements,
+would go inside a small suburban church, and his fourteen
+hundred chariots cease to impress us when we learn from an
+Assyrian monument that his successor Ahab sent a contingent
+of two thousand to the Assyrian army.  It is also plainly
+manifest from the Bible narrative that Solomon spent himself
+in display and overtaxed and overworked his people.  At his
+death the northern part of his kingdom broke off from
+Jerusalem and became the independent kingdom of Israel.
+  Jerusalem remained the capital city of Judah.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P120"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-120"></a>
+<img src="images/img-120.jpg"
+alt="THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON"
+ width="600" height="824" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON
+<br />
+<small>The bulls are in richly coloured enamel on baked brick
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Underwood &#38; Underwood</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The prosperity of the Hebrew people was short-lived.  Hiram
+died, and the help of Tyre ceased to strengthen Jerusalem.
+  Egypt grew strong again.  The history of the kings of Israel
+and the kings of Judah becomes a history of two little states
+ground between, first, Syria, then Assyria and then Babylon
+to the north and Egypt to the south.  It is a tale of
+disasters and of deliverances that only delayed disaster.  It
+is a tale of barbaric kings ruling a barbaric people. In 721
+<small>B.C.</small> the kingdom of Israel was swept
+away into captivity by the Assyrians and its people utterly
+lost to history.  Judah struggled <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P121"></a></span>on until in 604 <small>B.C.</small>,
+ as we have told, it shared the fate of
+Israel.  There may be details open to criticism in the Bible
+story of Hebrew history from the days of the Judges onward,
+but on the whole it is evidently a true story which squares
+with all that has been learnt in the excavation of Egypt and
+Assyria and Babylon during the past century.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was in Babylon that the Hebrew people got their history
+together and evolved their tradition.  The people who came
+back to Jerusalem at the command of Cyrus were a very
+different people in spirit and knowledge from those who had
+gone into captivity.  They had learnt civilization.  In the
+development of their peculiar character a very great part was
+played by certain men, a new sort of men, the Prophets, to
+whom we must now direct our attention.  These Prophets mark
+the appearance of new and remarkable forces in the steady
+development of human society.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P122"></a></span><a name="chapXXII"></a>XXII<br />
+PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA</h2>
+
+<p>
+The fall of Assyria and Babylon were only the first of a series of disasters
+that were to happen to the Semitic peoples. In the seventh century
+<small>B.C.</small> it would have seemed as though the whole civilized world
+was to be dominated by Semitic rulers. They ruled the great Assyrian empire and
+they had conquered Egypt; Assyria, Babylon, Syria were all Semitic, speaking
+languages that were mutually intelligible. The trade of the world was in
+Semitic hands. Tyre, Sidon, the great mother cities of the Phœnician coast, had
+thrown out colonies that grew at last to even greater proportion in Spain,
+Sicily and Africa. Carthage, founded before 800 <small>B.C.</small>, had risen
+to a population of more than a million. It was for a time the greatest city on
+earth. Its ships went to Britain and out into the Atlantic. They may have
+reached Madeira. We have already noted how Hiram co-operated with Solomon to
+build ships on the Red Sea for the Arabian and perhaps for the Indian trade. In
+the time of the Pharaoh Necho, a Phœnician expedition sailed completely round
+Africa.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At that time the Aryan peoples were still barbarians.  Only
+the Greeks were reconstructing a new civilization of the
+ruins of the one they had destroyed, and the Medes were
+becoming &ldquo;formidable,&rdquo; as an Assyrian inscription
+calls them, in central Asia.  In 800
+ <small>B.C.</small> no one could have prophesied that before the
+third century <small>B.C.</small> every trace of
+Semitic dominion would be wiped out by Aryan-speaking
+conquerors, and that everywhere the Semitic peoples would be
+subjects or tributaries or scattered altogether.  Everywhere
+except in the northern deserts of Arabia, where the Bedouin
+adhered steadily to the nomadic way of life, the ancient way
+of life of the Semites before Sargon I and his Akkadians went
+down to conquer Sumeria.  But the Arab Bedouin were never
+conquered by Aryan masters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P123"></a></span>Now of
+all these civilized Semites who were beaten and overrun in
+these five eventful centuries one people only held together
+and clung to its ancient traditions and that was this little
+people, the Jews, who were sent back to build their city of
+Jerusalem by Cyrus the Persian.  And they were able to do
+this, because they had got together this literature of
+theirs, their Bible, in Babylon.  It is not so much the Jews
+who made the Bible as the Bible which made the Jews.  Running
+through this Bible were certain ideas, different from the
+ideas of the people about them, very stimulating and
+sustaining ideas, to which they were destined to cling
+through five and twenty centuries of hardship, adventure and
+oppression.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Foremost of these Jewish ideas was this, that their God was
+invisible and remote, an invisible God in a temple not made
+with hands, a Lord of Righteousness throughout the earth.
+  All other peoples had national gods embodied in images that
+lived in temples.  If the image was smashed and the temple
+razed, presently that god died out.  But this was a new idea,
+this God of the Jews, in the heavens, high above priests and
+sacrifices.  And this God of Abraham, the Jews believed, had
+chosen them to be his peculiar people, to restore Jerusalem
+and make it the capital of Righteousness in the World.  They
+were a people exalted by their sense of a common destiny.
+  This belief saturated them all when they returned to
+Jerusalem after the captivity in Babylon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Is it any miracle that in their days of overthrow and
+subjugation many Babylonians and Syrians and so forth and
+later on many Phœnicians, speaking practically the same
+language and having endless customs, habits, tastes and
+traditions in common, should be attracted by this inspiring
+cult and should seek to share in its fellowship and its
+promise?  After the fall of Tyre, Sidon, Carthage and the
+Spanish Phœnician cities, the Phœnicians suddenly
+vanish from history; and as suddenly we find, not simply in
+Jerusalem but in Spain, Africa, Egypt, Arabia, the East,
+wherever the Phœnicians had set their feet, communities
+of Jews.  And they were all held together by the Bible and by
+the reading of the Bible.  Jerusalem was from the first only
+their nominal capital; their real city was this book of
+books.  This is a new sort of thing in history.  It is
+something of which the seeds were sown long before, when the
+Sumerians <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P124"></a></span>and Egyptians began to turn their
+hieroglyphics into writing.  The Jews were a new thing, a
+people without a king and presently without a temple (for as
+we shall tell Jerusalem itself was broken up in 70
+ <small>A.D.</small>), held together and consolidated out of
+heterogeneous elements by nothing but the power of the
+written word.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And this mental welding of the Jews was neither planned nor
+foreseen nor done by either priests or statesmen.  Not only a
+new kind of community but a new kind of man comes into
+history with the development of the Jews.  In the days of
+Solomon the Hebrews looked like becoming a little people just
+like any other little people of that time clustering around
+court and temple, ruled by the wisdom of the priest and led
+by the ambition of the king.  But already, the reader may
+learn from the Bible, this new sort of man of which we speak,
+the Prophet, was in evidence.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As troubles thicken round the divided Hebrews the importance
+of these Prophets increases.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-124"></a>
+<img src="images/img-124.jpg"
+alt="THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II"
+ width="600" height="305" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II
+<br />
+<small>This obelisk (in the British Museum) of the King of Assyria
+ mentions, in cuneiform, &ldquo;Jehu the son of Omri.&rdquo;  Panel
+ showing Jewish captives bringing tribute
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+What were these Prophets?  They were men of the most diverse
+origins.  The Prophet Ezekiel was of the priestly caste and
+the Prophet Amos wore the goatskin mantle of a shepherd, but
+all had this in common, that they gave allegiance to no one
+but to the God of Righteousness and that they spoke directly
+to the people.  They <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P125"></a></span>came without licence or
+consecration.  &ldquo;Now the word of the Lord came unto
+me;&rdquo; that was the formula.  They were intensely
+political.  They exhorted the people against Egypt,
+&ldquo;that broken reed,&rdquo; or against Assyria or
+Babylon; they denounced the indolence of the priestly order
+or the flagrant sins of the King.  Some of them turned their
+attention to what we should now call &ldquo;social
+reform.&rdquo;  The rich were &ldquo;grinding the faces of
+the poor,&rdquo; the luxurious were consuming the
+children&rsquo;s bread; wealthy people made friends with and
+imitated the splendours and vices of foreigners; and this was
+hateful to Jehovah, the God of Abraham, who would certainly
+punish this land.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-125"></a>
+<img src="images/img-125.jpg"
+alt="ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK"
+ width="600" height="260" />
+<p class="caption">
+ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK
+<br />
+<small>Captive Princes making obeisance to Shalmaneser II
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+These fulminations were written down and preserved and
+studied.  They went wherever the Jews went, and wherever they
+went they spread a new religious spirit.  They carried the
+common man past priest and temple, past court and king and
+brought him face to face with the Rule of Righteousness.
+  That is their supreme importance in the history of mankind.
+  In the great utterances of Isaiah the prophetic voice rises
+to a pitch of splendid anticipation and foreshadows the whole
+earth united and at peace under one God.  Therein the Jewish
+prophecies culminate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All the Prophets did not speak in this fashion, and the
+intelligent reader of the prophetic books will find much hate
+in them, much prejudice, and much that will remind him of the
+propaganda pamphlets <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P126"></a></span>of the present time.  Nevertheless
+it is the Hebrew Prophets of the period round and about the
+Babylonian captivity who mark the appearance of a new power
+in the world, the power of individual moral appeal, of an
+appeal to the free conscience of mankind against the fetish
+sacrifices and slavish loyalties that had hitherto bridled
+and harnessed our race.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P127"></a></span><a name="chapXXIII"></a>XXIII<br />
+THE GREEKS</h2>
+
+<p>
+Now while after Solomon (whose reign was probably about 960
+<small>B.C.</small>) the divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah were suffering
+destruction and deportation, and while the Jewish people were developing their
+tradition in captivity in Babylon, another great power over the human mind, the
+Greek tradition, was also arising. While the Hebrew prophets were working out a
+new sense of direct moral responsibility between the people and an eternal and
+universal God of Right, the Greek philosophers were training the human mind in
+a new method and spirit of intellectual adventure.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Greek tribes as we have told were a branch of the Aryan-
+speaking stem. They had come down among the Ægean cities
+and islands some centuries before 1000
+ <small>B.C.</small>  They were probably already in southward
+movement before the Pharaoh Thothmes hunted his first
+elephants beyond the conquered Euphrates.  For in those days
+there were elephants in Mesopotamia and lions in Greece.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is possible that it was a Greek raid that burnt Cnossos,
+but there are no Greek legends of such a victory though there
+are stories of Minos and his palace (the Labyrinth) and of
+the skill of the Cretan artificers.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P128"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-128"></a>
+<img src="images/img-128.jpg"
+alt="STATUE OF MELEAGER"
+ width="460" height="743" />
+<p class="caption">
+STATUE OF MELEAGER
+<br />
+<small>Note the progress in plastic power from the earlier wooden
+ statue on left
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Sebah &#38; Foaillier</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Like most of the Aryans these Greeks had singers and reciters
+whose performances were an important social link, and these
+handed down from the barbaric beginnings of their people two
+great epics, the <i>Iliad</i>, telling how a league of Greek
+tribes besieged and took and sacked the town of Troy in Asia
+Minor, and the <i>Odyssey</i>, being a long adventure story
+of the return of the sage captain, Odysseus, from Troy to his
+own island.  These epics were written down somewhen in the
+eighth or seventh century <small>B.C.</small>, when
+the Greeks had acquired the use of an alphabet from their
+more civilized neighbours, but they <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P129"></a></span>are supposed to have been in
+existence very much earlier.  Formerly they were ascribed to
+a particular blind bard, Homer, who was supposed to have sat
+down and composed them as Milton composed Paradise Lost.
+  Whether there really was such a poet, whether he composed or
+only wrote down and polished these epics and so forth, is a
+favourite quarrelling ground for the erudite.  We need not
+concern ourselves with such bickerings here.  The thing that
+matters from our point of view is that the Greeks were in
+possession of their epics in the eighth century
+ <small>B.C.</small>, and that they were a common possession and a
+link between their various tribes, giving them a sense of
+fellowship as against the outer barbarians.  They were a
+group of kindred peoples linked by the spoken and afterwards
+by the written word, and sharing common ideals of courage and
+behaviour.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The epics showed the Greeks a barbaric people without iron,
+without writing, and still not living in cities.  They seem
+to have lived at first in open villages of huts around the
+halls of their chiefs outside the ruins of the Ægean
+cities they had destroyed.  Then they began to wall their
+cities and to adopt the idea of temples from the people they
+had conquered.  It has been said that the cities of the
+primitive civilizations grew up about the altar of some
+tribal god, and that the wall was added; in the cities of the
+Greeks the wall preceded the temple.  They began to trade and
+send out colonies.  By the seventh century
+ <small>B.C.</small> a new series of cities had grown up in the
+valleys and islands of Greece, forgetful of the Ægean
+cities and civilization that had preceded them; Athens,
+Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Samos, Miletus among the chief.
+  There were already Greek settlements along the coast of the
+Black Sea and in Italy and Sicily.  The heel and toe of Italy
+was called Magna Græcia.  Marseilles was a Greek town
+established on the site of an earlier Phœnician colony.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now countries which are great plains or which have as a chief
+means of transport some great river like the Euphrates or
+Nile tend to become united under some common rule.  The
+cities of Egypt and the cities of Sumeria, for example, ran
+together under one system of government. But the Greek
+peoples were cut up among islands and mountain valleys; both
+Greece and Magna Græcia are very mountainous; and the
+tendency was all the other way.  When the <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P130"></a></span>Greeks come
+into history they are divided up into a number of little
+states which showed no signs of coalescence.  They are
+different even in race.  Some consist chiefly of citizens of
+this or that Greek tribe, Ionic, Æolian or Doric; some
+have a mingled population of Greeks and descendants of the
+pre-Greek &ldquo;Mediterranean&rdquo; folk; some have an
+unmixed free citizenship of Greeks lording it over an
+enslaved conquered population like the &ldquo;Helots&rdquo;
+in Sparta.  In some the old leaderly Aryan families have
+become a close aristocracy; in some there is a democracy of
+all the Aryan citizens; in some there are elected or even
+hereditary kings, in some usurpers or tyrants.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-130"></a>
+<img src="images/img-130.jpg"
+alt="RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA"
+ width="600" height="421" />
+<p class="caption">
+RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  Fred Boissonnas</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+And the same geographical conditions that kept the Greek
+states divided and various, kept them small.  The largest
+states were smaller than many English counties, and it is
+doubtful if the population of any of their cities ever
+exceeded a third of a million.  Few came up even to 50,000.
+  There were unions of interest and sympathy but no
+coalescences.  Cities made leagues and alliances as <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P131"></a></span>trade
+increased, and small cities put themselves under the
+protection of great ones.  Yet all Greece was held together
+in a certain community of feeling by two things, by the epics
+and by the custom of taking part every fourth year in the
+athletic contests at Olympia.  This did not prevent wars and
+feuds, but it mitigated something of the savagery of war
+between them, and a truce protected all travellers to and
+from the games.  As time went on the sentiment of a common
+heritage grew and the number of states participating in the
+Olympic games increased until at last not only Greeks but
+competitors from the closely kindred countries of Epirus and
+Macedonia to the north were admitted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Greek cities grew in trade and importance, and the
+quality of their civilization rose steadily in the seventh
+and sixth centuries <small>B.C.</small>  Their
+social life differed in many interesting points from the
+social life of the Ægean and river valley civilizations.
+  They had splendid temples but the priesthood was not the
+great traditional body it was in the cities of the older
+world, the-repository of all knowledge, the storehouse of
+ideas.  They had leaders and noble families, but no quasi-
+divine monarch surrounded by an elaborately organized court.
+  Rather their organization was aristocratic, with leading
+families which kept each other in order.  Even their so-
+called &ldquo;democracies&rdquo; were aristocratic; every
+citizen had a share in public affairs and came to the
+assembly in a democracy, <i>but everybody was not a
+citizen</i>.  The Greek democracies were not like our modern
+&ldquo;democracies&rdquo; in which everyone has a vote.  Many
+of the Greek democracies had a few hundred or a few thousand
+citizens and then many thousands of slaves, freedmen and so
+forth, with no share in public affairs.  Generally in Greece
+affairs were in the hands of a community of substantial men.
+  Their kings and their tyrants alike were just men set in
+front of other men or usurping a leadership; they were not
+quasi-divine overmen like Pharaoh or Minos or the monarchs of
+Mesopotamia.  Both thought and government therefore had a
+freedom under Greek conditions such as they had known in none
+of the older civilizations.  The Greeks had brought down into
+cities the individualism, the personal initiative of the
+wandering life of the northern parklands.  They were the
+first republicans of importance in history.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P132"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-132"></a>
+<img src="images/img-132.jpg"
+alt="THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), PÆSTUM, SICILY"
+ width="600" height="453" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), PÆSTUM, SICILY
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  Alinari</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+And we find that as they emerge from a condition of barbaric warfare
+a new thing becomes apparent in their intellectual life.  We
+find men who are not priests seeking and recording knowledge
+and enquiring into the mysteries of life and being, in a way
+that has hitherto been the sublime privilege of priesthood or
+the presumptuous amusement of kings.  We find already in the
+sixth century <small>B.C.</small>&mdash;perhaps
+while Isaiah was still prophesying in Babylon&mdash;such men
+as Thales and Anaximander of Miletus and Heraclitus of
+Ephesus, who were what we should now call independent
+gentlemen, giving their minds to shrewd questionings of the
+world in which we live, asking what its real nature was,
+whence it came and what its destiny might be, and refusing
+all ready-made or evasive answers.  Of these questionings of
+the universe by the Greek mind, we shall have more to say a
+little later in this history.  These Greek enquirers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P133"></a></span> who
+begin to be remarkable in the sixth century
+ <small>B.C.</small> are the first philosophers, the first
+&ldquo;wisdom-lovers,&rdquo; in the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And it may be noted here how important a century this sixth
+century <small>B.C.</small> was in the history of
+humanity.  For not only were these Greek philosophers
+beginning the research for clear ideas about this universe
+and man&rsquo;s place in it and Isaiah carrying Jewish
+prophecy to its sublimest levels, but as we shall tell later
+Gautama Buddha was then teaching in India and Confucius and
+Lao Tse in China. From Athens to the Pacific the human mind
+was astir.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P134"></a></span><a name="chapXXIV"></a>XXIV<br />
+THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS</h2>
+
+<p>
+While the Greeks in the cities in Greece, South Italy and Asia Minor were
+embarking upon free intellectual enquiry and while in Babylon and Jerusalem the
+last of the Hebrew prophets were creating a free conscience for mankind, two
+adventurous Aryan peoples, the Medes and the Persians, were in possession of
+the civilization of the ancient world and were making a great empire, the
+Persian empire, which was far larger in extent than any empire the world had
+seen hitherto. Under Cyrus, Babylon and the rich and ancient civilization of
+Lydia had been added to the Persian rule; the Phœnician cities of the Levant
+and all the Greek cities in Asia Minor had been made tributary, Cambyses had
+subjected Egypt, and Darius I, the Mede, the third of the Persian rulers (521
+<small>B.C.</small>), found himself monarch as it seemed of all the world. His
+couriers rode with his decrees from the Dardanelles to the Indus and from Upper
+Egypt to Central Asia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Greeks in Europe, it is true, Italy, Carthage, Sicily and
+the Spanish Phœnician settlements, were not under the
+Persian Peace; but they treated it with respect and the only
+people who gave any serious trouble were the old parent
+hordes of Nordic people in South Russia and Central Asia, the
+Scythians, who raided the northern and north-eastern borders.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of course the population of this great Persian empire was not
+a population of Persians, The Persians were only the small
+conquering minority of this enormous realm.  The rest of the
+population was what it had been before the Persians came from
+time immemorial, only that Persian was the administrative
+language.  Trade and finance were still largely Semitic, Tyre
+and Sidon as of old were the great Mediterranean ports and
+Semitic shipping plied upon the seas.  But many of these
+Semitic merchants and business people as <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P135"></a></span>they went from
+place to place already found a sympathetic and convenient
+common history in the Hebrew tradition and the Hebrew
+scriptures.  A new element which was increasing rapidly in
+this empire was the Greek element.  The Greeks were becoming
+serious rivals to the Semites upon the sea, and their
+detached and vigorous intelligence made them useful and,
+unprejudiced officials.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-135"></a>
+<img src="images/img-135.jpg"
+alt="FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY"
+ width="600" height="226" />
+<p class="caption">
+FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY
+<br />
+<small>Showing Greek merchant vesselswith sails and oars
+ statue on left
+<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It was on account of the Scythians that Darius I invaded
+Europe.  He wanted to reach South Russia, the homeland of the
+Scythian horsemen.  He crossed the Bosphorus with a great
+army and marched through Bulgaria to the Danube, crossed this
+by a bridge of boats and pushed far northward.  His army
+suffered terribly.  It was largely an infantry force and the
+mounted Scythians rode all round it, cut off its supplies,
+destroyed any stragglers and never came to a pitched battle.
+  Darius was forced into an inglorious retreat.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He returned himself to Susa but he left an army in Thrace and
+Macedonia, and Macedonia submitted to Darius.  Insurrections
+of the Greek cities in Asia followed this failure, and the
+European Greeks were drawn into the contest.  Darius resolved
+upon the subjugation of the Greeks in Europe.  With the
+Phœnician fleet at his disposal he was able to subdue
+one island after another, and finally in 490
+ <small>B.C.</small> he made his main attack upon Athens.  A
+considerable Armada sailed from the ports of Asia Minor and
+the eastern Mediterranean, and the expedition landed its
+troops at Marathon to the north of Athens.  There they were
+met and signally defeated by the Athenians.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P136"></a></span>An
+extraordinary thing happened at this time.  The bitterest
+rival of Athens in Greece was Sparta, but now Athens appealed
+to Sparta, sending a herald, a swift runner, imploring the
+Spartans not to let Greeks become slaves to barbarians.  This
+runner (the prototype of all &ldquo;Marathon&rdquo; runners)
+did over a hundred miles of broken country in less than two
+days.  The Spartans responded promptly and generously; but
+when, in three days, the Spartan force reached Athens, there
+was nothing for it to do but to view the battlefield and the
+bodies of the defeated Persian soldiers.  The Persian fleet
+had returned to Asia.  So ended the first Persian attack on
+Greece.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The next was much more impressive.  Darius died soon after
+the news of his defeat at Marathon reached him, and for four
+years his son and successor, Xerxes, prepared a host to crush
+the Greeks.  For a time terror united all the Greeks.  The
+army of Xerxes was certainly the greatest that had hitherto
+been assembled in the world.  It was a huge assembly of
+discordant elements.  It crossed the Dardanelles, 480
+ <small>B.C.</small>, by a bridge of boats; and along the
+coast as it advanced moved an equally miscellaneous fleet
+carrying supplies.  At the narrow pass of Thermopylæ a
+small force of 1400 men under the Spartan Leonidas resisted
+this multitude, and after a fight of unsurpassed heroism was
+completely destroyed.  Every man was killed.  But the losses
+they inflicted upon the Persians were enormous, and the army
+of Xerxes pushed on to Thebes and Athens in a chastened mood.
+  Thebes surrendered and made terms.  The Athenians abandoned
+their city and it was burnt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Greece seemed in the hands of the conqueror, but again came
+victory against the odds and all expectations.  The Greek
+fleet, though not a third the size of the Persian, assailed
+it in the bay of Salamis and destroyed it.  Xerxes found
+himself and his immense army cut off from supplies and his
+heart failed him.  He retreated to Asia with one half of his
+army, leaving the rest to be defeated at Platea (479
+ <small>B.C.</small>) what time the remnants of the Persian
+fleet were hunted down by the Greeks and destroyed at
+Mycalæ in Asia Minor.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P137"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-137"></a>
+<img src="images/img-137.jpg"
+alt="ALL THAT REMAINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF CORINTH"
+ width="500" height="712" />
+<p class="caption">
+ALL THAT REMAINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF CORINTH
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  Fred Boissonnas</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Persian danger was at an end.  Most of the Greek cities
+in Asia became free.  All this is told in great detail and
+with much picturesqueness in the first of written histories,
+the <i>History</i> of <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P138"></a></span>Herodotus.  This Herodotus was
+born about 484 <small>B.C.</small> in the Ionian
+city of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, and he visited Babylon
+and Egypt in his search for exact particulars.  From
+Mycalæ onward Persia sank into a confusion of dynastic
+troubles.  Xerxes was murdered in 465 <small>B.C.</small>
+ and rebellions in Egypt, Syria and Media
+broke up the brief order of that mighty realm.  The history
+of Herodotus lays stress on the weakness of Persia.  This
+history is indeed what we should now call
+propaganda&mdash;propaganda for Greece to unite and conquer
+Persia.  Herodotus makes one character, Aristagoras, go to
+the Spartans with a map of the known world and say to them:
+&ldquo;These Barbarians are not valiant in fight.  You on the
+other hand have now attained the utmost skill in war .... No
+other nations in the world have what they possess: gold,
+silver, bronze, embroidered garments, beasts and slaves.
+<i>All this you might have for yourselves, if you so
+desired</i>.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-138"></a>
+<img src="images/img-138.jpg"
+alt="THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM"
+ width="600" height="440" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  Fred Boissonnas</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P139"></a></span><a name="chapXXV"></a>XXV<br />
+THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE</h2>
+
+<p>
+The century and a half that followed the defeat of Persia was one of very great
+splendour for the Greek civilization. True that Greece was torn by a desperate
+struggle for ascendancy between Athens, Sparta and other states (the
+Peloponnesian War 431 to 404 <small>B.C.</small>) and that in 338
+<small>B.C.</small> the Macedonians became virtually masters of Greece;
+nevertheless during this period the thought and the creative and artistic
+impulse of the Greeks rose to levels that made their achievement a lamp to
+mankind for all the rest of history.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The head and centre of this mental activity was Athens.  For
+over thirty years (466 to 428 <small>B.C.</small>)
+Athens was dominated by a man of great vigour and liberality
+of mind, Pericles, who set himself to rebuild the city from
+the ashes to which the Persians had reduced it. The beautiful
+ruins that still glorify Athens to-day are chiefly the
+remains of this great effort.  And he did not simply rebuild
+a material Athens.  He rebuilt Athens intellectually.  He
+gathered about him not only architects and sculptors but
+poets, dramatists, philosophers and teachers.  Herodotus came
+to Athens to recite his history (438 <small>B.C.</small>).
+ Anaxagoras came with the beginnings of a
+scientific description of the sun and stars.  Æschylus,
+Sophocles and Euripides one after the other carried the Greek
+drama to its highest levels or beauty and nobility.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The impetus Pericles gave to the intellectual life of Athens
+lived on after his death, and in spite of the fact that the
+peace of Greece was now broken by the Peloponnesian War and a
+long and wasteful struggle for &ldquo;ascendancy&rdquo; was
+beginning.  Indeed the darkling of the political horizon
+seems for a time to have quickened rather than discouraged
+men&rsquo;s minds.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Already long before the time of Pericles the peculiar freedom
+of Greek institutions had given great importance to skill in
+discussion.  <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P140"></a></span>Decision rested neither with king
+nor with priest but in the assemblies of the people or of
+leading men.  Eloquence and able argument became very
+desirable accomplishments therefore, and a class of teachers
+arose, the Sophists, who undertook to strengthen young men in
+these arts.  But one cannot reason without matter, and
+knowledge followed in the wake of speech.  The activities and
+rivalries of these Sophists led very naturally to an acute
+examination of style, of methods of thought and of the
+validity of arguments.  When Pericles died a certain Socrates
+was becoming prominent as an able and destructive critic of
+bad argument&mdash;and much of the teaching of the Sophists
+was bad argument.  A group of brilliant young men gathered
+about Socrates.  In the end Socrates was executed for
+disturbing people&rsquo;s minds (399 <small>B.C.</small>),
+ he was condemned after the dignified
+fashion of the Athens of those days to drink in his own house
+and among his own friends a poisonous draught made from
+hemlock, but the disturbance of people&rsquo;s minds went on
+in spite of his condemnation. His young men carried on his
+teaching.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-140"></a>
+<img src="images/img-140.jpg"
+alt="PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS"
+ width="450" height="335" />
+<p class="caption">
+PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS
+<br />
+<small>A specimen of Grecian sculpture in its finest expression.
+  Compare the advance of art with that seen in the animals shown on
+ p. 105
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Fred Boissonnas</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P141"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-1411"></a>
+<img src="images/img-1411.jpg"
+alt="THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS"
+ width="600" height="424" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS
+<br />
+<small>The marvellous group of Temples and monuments built under the
+ inspriration of Pericles
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Fred Boissonnas</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-1412"></a>
+<img src="images/img-1412.jpg"
+alt="THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE"
+ width="600" height="405" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE
+<br />
+<small>A wonderfully preserved specimen showing the vast auditorium
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Fred Boissonnas</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Chief among these young men was Plato (427 to 347
+ <small>B.C.</small>) who presently began to teach philosophy in
+the grove of the Academy.  His teaching fell into two main
+divisions, an examination of the foundations and methods of
+human thinking and an examination of political institutions.
+  He was the first man to write a Utopia, that is to say the
+plan of a community different from and better than any <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P142"></a></span>existing
+community.  This shows an altogether unprecedented boldness
+in the human mind which had hitherto accepted social
+traditions and usages with scarcely a question.  Plato said
+plainly to mankind: &ldquo;Most of the social and political
+ills from which you suffer are under your control, given only
+the will and courage to change them.  You can live in another
+and a wiser fashion if you choose to think it out and work it
+out.  You are not awake to your own power.&rdquo;  That is a
+high adventurous teaching that has still to soak in to the
+common intelligence of our race.  One of his earliest works
+was the Republic, a dream of a communist aristocracy; his
+last unfinished work was the Laws, a scheme of regulation for
+another such Utopian state.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-142"></a>
+<img src="images/img-142.jpg"
+alt="THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM"
+ width="600" height="418" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM
+<br />
+<small>The ancient sanctuary on the Acropolis at Athens
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Fred Boissonnas</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P143"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-143"></a>
+<img src="images/img-143.jpg"
+alt="ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON"
+ width="450" height="698" />
+<p class="caption">
+ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON
+<br /><small><i>Photo:  Alinart</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The criticism of methods of thinking and methods of
+government was carried on after Plato&rsquo;s death by
+Aristotle, who had been his pupil and who taught in the
+Lyceum.  Aristotle came from the city of Stagira in
+Macedonia, and his father was court physician to the
+Macedonian king.  For a time Aristotle was tutor to
+Alexander, <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P144"></a></span>the king&rsquo;s son, who was
+destined to achieve very great things of which we shall soon
+be telling.  Aristotle&rsquo;s work upon methods of thinking
+carried the science of Logic to a level at which it remained
+for fifteen hundred years or more, until the mediæval
+schoolmen took up the ancient questions again.  He made no
+Utopias.  Before man could really control his destiny as
+Plato taught, Aristotle perceived that he needed far more
+knowledge and far more accurate knowledge than he possessed.
+  And so Aristotle began that systematic collection of
+knowledge which nowadays we call Science.  He sent out
+explorers to collect <i>facts</i>.  He was the father of
+natural history.  He was the founder of political science.
+  His students at the Lyceum examined and compared the
+constitutions of 158 different states ....
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Here in the fourth century <small>B.C.</small> we
+find men who are practically &ldquo;modern thinkers.&rdquo;
+The child-like, dream-like methods of primitive thought had
+given way to a disciplined and critical attack upon the
+problems of life.  The weird and monstrous symbolism and
+imagery of the gods and god monsters, and all the taboos and
+awes and restraints that have hitherto encumbered thinking
+are here completely set aside.  Free, exact and systematic
+thinking has begun.  The fresh and unencumbered mind of these
+newcomers out of the northern forests has thrust itself into
+the mysteries of the temple and let the daylight in.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P145"></a></span><a name="chapXXVI"></a>XXVI<br />
+THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT</h2>
+
+<p>
+From 431 to 404 <small>B.C.</small> the Peloponnesian War wasted Greece.
+Meanwhile to the north of Greece, the kindred country of Macedonia was rising
+slowly to power and civilization. The Macedonians spoke a language closely akin
+to Greek, and on several occasions Macedonian competitors had taken part in the
+Olympic games. In 359 <small>B.C.</small> a man of very great abilities and
+ambition became king of this little country&mdash;Philip. Philip had previously
+been a hostage in Greece; he had had a thoroughly Greek education and he was
+probably aware of the ideas of Herodotus&mdash;which had also been developed by
+the philosopher Isocrates&mdash;of a possible conquest of Asia by a
+consolidated Greece.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He set himself first to extend and organize his own realm and
+to remodel his army.  For a thousand years now the charging
+horse-chariot had been the decisive factor in battles, that
+and the close-fighting infantry.  Mounted horsemen had also
+fought, but as a cloud of skirmishers, individually and
+without discipline.  Philip made his infantry fight in a
+closely packed mass, the Macedonian phalanx, and he trained
+his mounted gentlemen, the knights or companions, to fight in
+formation and so invented cavalry.  The master move in most
+of his battles and in the battles of his son Alexander was a
+cavalry charge.  The phalanx <i>held</i> the enemy infantry
+in front while the cavalry swept away the enemy horse on his
+wings and poured in on the flank and rear of his infantry.
+  Chariots were disabled by bowmen, who shot the horses.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With this new army Philip extended his frontiers through
+Thessaly to Greece; and the battle of Chæronia (338
+<small>B.C.</small>), fought against Athens and her
+allies, put all Greece at his feet.  At last the dream of
+Herodotus was bearing fruit.  A congress of all the Greek
+states appointed Philip captain-general of the Græco-
+Macedonian confederacy <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P146"></a></span>against Persia, and in 336
+ <small>B.C.</small> his advanced guard crossed into Asia
+upon this long premeditated adventure.  But he never followed
+it.  He was assassinated; it is believed at the instigation
+of his queen Olympias, Alexander&rsquo;s mother.  She was
+jealous because Philip had married a second wife.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-146"></a>
+<img src="images/img-146.jpg"
+alt="BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT"
+ width="350" height="524" />
+<p class="caption">
+BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
+<br /><small><i>(As in the British Museum)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+But Philip had taken unusual pains with his son&rsquo;s
+education.  He had not only secured Aristotle, the greatest
+philosopher in the world, as this boy&rsquo;s tutor, but he
+had shared his ideas with him and thrust military experience
+upon him.  At Chæronia Alexander, who was then only
+eighteen years old, had been in command of the cavalry.  And
+so it was possible for this young man, who was still only
+twenty years old at the time of his accession, to take up his
+father&rsquo;s task at once and to proceed successfully with
+the Persian adventure.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 334 <small>B.C.</small>&mdash;for two years were
+needed to establish and confirm his position in Macedonia and
+Greece&mdash;he crossed into Asia, defeated a not very much
+bigger Persian army at the battle of the Granicus and
+captured a number of cities in Asia Minor.  He kept along the
+sea-coast.  It was necessary for him to reduce and garrison
+all the coast towns as he advanced because the Persians had
+control of the fleets of Tyre and Sidon and so had command of
+the sea.  <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P147"></a></span>Had he left a hostile port in his
+rear the Persians might have landed forces to raid his
+communications and cut him off. At  Issus (333 <small>B.C.</small>)
+ he met and smashed a vast conglomerate host
+under Darius III.  Like the host of Xerxes that had crossed
+the Dardanelles a century and a half before, it was an
+incoherent accumulation of contingents and it was encumbered
+with a multitude of court officials, the harem of Darius and
+many camp followers.  Sidon surrendered to Alexander but Tyre
+resisted obstinately.  Finally that great city was stormed
+and plundered and destroyed.  Gaza also was stormed, and
+towards the end of 332 <small>B.C.</small> the
+conqueror entered Egypt and took over its rule from the
+Persians.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-147"></a>
+<img src="images/img-147.jpg"
+alt="ALEXANDER&rsquo;S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS"
+ width="600" height="288" />
+<p class="caption">
+ALEXANDER&rsquo;S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS
+<br /><small><i>(From the Pompeian Mosaic)</i>
+<br />
+Alexander charges in on the left, Darius is in the chariot to the
+ right</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+At Alexandretta and at Alexandria in Egypt he built great
+cities, accessible from the land and so incapable of revolt.
+  To these the trade of the Phœnician cities was diverted.
+  The Phœnicians of the western Mediterranean suddenly
+disappear from history&mdash;and as immediately the Jews of
+Alexandria and the other new trading cities created by
+Alexander appear.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 331 <small>B.C.</small> Alexander marched out of
+Egypt upon Babylon as Thothmes and Rameses and Necho had done
+before him.  But he marched by way of Tyre.  At Arbela near
+the ruins of Nineveh, <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P148"></a></span>which was already a forgotten
+city, he met Darius and fought the decisive battle of the
+war.  The Persian chariot charge failed, a Macedonian cavalry
+charge broke up the great composite host and the phalanx
+completed the victory.  Darius led the retreat.  He made no
+further attempt to resist the invader but fled northward into
+the country of the Medes.  Alexander marched on to Babylon,
+still prosperous and important, and then to Susa and
+Persepolis.  There after a drunken festival he burnt down the
+palace of Darius, the king of kings.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-148"></a>
+<img src="images/img-148.jpg"
+alt="THE APOLLO BELVEDERE"
+ width="450" height="582" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE APOLLO BELVEDERE
+<br />
+<small><i>(In the Vatican Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Thence Alexander presently made a military parade of central
+Asia, going to the utmost bounds of the Persian empire.  At
+first he turned northward.  Darius was pursued; and he was
+overtaken at dawn dying in his chariot, having been murdered
+by his own people.  He was still living when the foremost
+Greeks reached him.  Alexander came up to find him dead.
+  Alexander skirted the Caspian Sea, he went up into the
+mountains of western Turkestan, he came down by Herat (which
+he founded) and Cabul and the Khyber Pass into <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P149"></a></span>India.  He
+fought a great battle on the Indus with an Indian king,
+Porus, and here the Macedonian troops met elephants for the
+first time and defeated them.  Finally he built himself
+ships, sailed down to the mouth of the Indus, and marched
+back by the coast of Beluchistan, reaching Susa again in 324
+<small>B.C.</small> after an absence of six years.
+  He then prepared to consolidate and organize this vast empire
+he had won.  He sought to win over his new subjects.  He
+assumed the robes and tiara of a Persian monarch, and this
+roused the jealousy of his Macedonian commanders.  He had
+much trouble with them.  He arranged a number of marriages
+between these Macedonian officers and Persian and Babylonian
+women: the &ldquo;Marriage of the East and West.&rdquo;  He
+never lived to effect the consolidation he had planned.  A
+fever seized him after a drinking bout in Babylon and he died
+in 323 <small>B.C.</small>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Immediately this vast dominion fell to pieces.  One of his
+generals, Seleucus, retained most of the old Persian empire
+from the Indus to Ephesus; another, Ptolemy, seized Egypt,
+and Antigonus secured Macedonia.  The rest of the empire
+remained unstable, passing under the control of a succession
+of local adventurers.  Barbarian raids began from the north
+and grew in scope and intensity.  Until at last, as we shall
+tell, a new power, the power of the Roman republic, came out
+of the west to subjugate one fragment after another and weld
+them together into a new and more enduring empire.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P150"></a></span><a name="chapXXVII"></a>XXVII<br />
+THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA</h2>
+
+<p>
+Before the time of Alexander Greeks had already been spreading as merchants,
+artists, officials, mercenary soldiers, over most of the Persian dominions. In
+the dynastic disputes that followed the death of Xerxes, a band of ten thousand
+Greek mercenaries played a part under the leadership of Xenophon. Their return
+to Asiatic Greece from Babylon is described in his <i>Retreat of the Ten
+Thousand</i>, one of the first war stories that was ever written by a general
+in command. But the conquests of Alexander and the division of his brief empire
+among his subordinate generals, greatly stimulated this permeation of the
+ancient world by the Greeks and their language and fashions and culture. Traces
+of this Greek dissemination are to be found far away in central Asia and in
+north-west India. Their influence upon the development of Indian art was
+profound.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For many centuries Athens retained her prestige as a centre
+of art and culture; her schools went on indeed to 529
+ <small>A.D.</small>, that is to say for nearly a thousand
+years; but the leadership in the intellectual activity of the
+world passed presently across the Mediterranean to
+Alexandria, the new trading city that Alexander had founded.
+  Here the Macedonian general Ptolemy had become Pharaoh, with
+a court that spoke Greek.  He had become an intimate of
+Alexander before he became king, and he was deeply saturated
+with the ideas of Aristotle.  He set himself, with great
+energy and capacity, to organize knowledge and investigation.
+  He also wrote a history of Alexander&rsquo;s campaigns which,
+unhappily, is lost to the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Alexander had already devoted considerable sums to finance
+the enquiries of Aristotle, but Ptolemy I was the first
+person to make a permanent endowment of science.  He set up a
+foundation in Alexandria which was formerly dedicated to the
+Muses, the Museum <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P151"></a></span>of Alexandria.  For two or three
+generations the scientific work done at Alexandria was
+extraordinarily good.  Euclid, Eratosthenes who measured the
+size of the earth and came within fifty miles of its true
+diameter, Apollonius who wrote on conic sections, Hipparchus
+who made the first star map and catalogue, and Hero who
+devised the first steam engine are among the greater stars of
+an extraordinary constellation of scientific pioneers.
+  Archimedes came from Syracuse to Alexandria to study, and was
+a frequent correspondent of the Museum.  Herophilus was one
+of the greatest of Greek anatomists, and is said to have
+practised vivisection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For a generation or so during the reigns of Ptolemy I and
+Ptolemy II there was such a blaze of knowledge and discovery
+at Alexandria as the world was not to see again until the
+sixteenth century <small>A.D.</small>  But it did
+not continue.  There may have been several causes of this
+decline.  Chief among them, the late Professor Mahaffy
+suggested, was the fact that the Museum was a
+&ldquo;royal&rdquo; college and all its professors and
+fellows were appointed and paid by Pharaoh.  This was all
+very well when Pharaoh was Ptolemy I, the pupil and friend of
+Aristotle.  But as the dynasty of the Ptolemies went on they
+became Egyptianized, they fell under the sway of Egyptian
+priests and Egyptian religious developments, they ceased to
+follow the work that was done, and their control stifled the
+spirit of enquiry altogether.  The Museum produced little
+good work after its first century of activity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ptolemy I not only sought in the most modern spirit to
+organize the finding of fresh knowledge.  He tried also to
+set up an encyclopædic storehouse of wisdom in the
+Library of Alexandria.  It was not simply a storehouse, it
+was also a book-copying and book-selling organization.  A
+great army of copyists was set to work perpetually
+multiplying copies of books.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Here then we have the definite first opening up of the
+intellectual process in which we live to-day; here we have
+the systematic gathering and distribution of knowledge.  The
+foundation of this Museum and Library marks one of the great
+epochs in the history of mankind.  It is the true beginning
+of Modern History.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-152"></a>
+<img src="images/img-152.jpg"
+alt="ARISTOTLE"
+ width="400" height="533" />
+<p class="caption">
+ARISTOTLE
+<br /><small>From Herculaneum, probably Fourth Century <small>B.C.
+</small>
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Dr. Singer</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Both the work of research and the work of dissemination went
+on under serious handicaps.  One of these was the great
+social gap that <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P152"></a></span>separated the philosopher, who was
+a gentleman, from the trader and the artisan.  There were
+glass workers and metal workers in abundance in those days,
+but they were not in mental contact with the thinkers.  The
+glass worker was making the most beautifully coloured beads
+and phials and so forth, but he never made a Florentine flask
+or a lens.  Clear glass does not seem to have interested him.
+  The metal worker made weapons and jewellery but he never made
+a chemical balance.  The philosopher speculated loftily about
+atoms and the nature of things, but he had no practical
+experience of enamels and pigments and philters and so forth.
+  He was not interested in substances.  So Alexandria in its
+brief day of opportunity produced no microscopes and no
+chemistry.  And though Hero invented a steam engine it was
+never set either to pump or drive a boat or do any useful
+thing.  There were few practical applications of science
+except in the realm of medicine, and the progress of science
+was not stimulated and sustained by the interest and
+excitement of practical applications.  There was nothing to
+keep the work going therefore when the intellectual curiosity
+of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P153"></a></span>II was withdrawn.  The discoveries
+of the Museum went on record in obscure manuscripts and
+never, until the revival of scientific curiosity at the
+Renascence, reached out to the mass of mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nor did the Library produce any improvements in book making.
+  That ancient world had no paper made in definite sizes from
+rag pulp.  Paper was a Chinese invention and it did not reach
+the western world until the ninth century
+ <small>A.D.</small>  The only book materials were parchment and
+strips of the papyrus reed joined edge to edge.  These strips
+were kept on rolls which were very unwieldy to wind to and
+fro and read, and very inconvenient for reference.  It was
+these things that prevented the development of paged and
+printed books.  Printing itself was known in the world it
+would seem as early as the Old Stone Age; there were seals in
+ancient Sumeria; but without abundant paper there was little
+advantage in printing books, an improvement that may further
+have been resisted by trades unionism on the part of the
+copyists employed.  Alexandria produced abundant books but
+not cheap books, and it never spread knowledge into the
+population of the ancient world below the level of a wealthy
+and influential class.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-153"></a>
+<img src="images/img-153.jpg"
+alt="STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME"
+ width="150" height="421" />
+<p class="caption">
+STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME
+<br /><small>A Græco-Buddhist sculpture of the Third Century
+ <small>A.D.</small>
+<br />
+<i>(From Malakand, N. W. Province, now in the India Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+So it was that this blaze of intellectual enterprise never
+reached beyond a small circle of people in touch with the
+group of philosophers collected by the first two Ptolemies.
+  It was like the light in a dark lantern which is shut off
+from the world at large.  Within the blaze may be blindingly
+bright, but nevertheless it is unseen.  The rest of the world
+went on its old ways unaware that the seed of scientific
+knowledge that was one day to revolutionize it altogether had
+been sown.  Presently a darkness of bigotry fell even upon
+<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P154"></a></span>Alexandria. Thereafter for a
+thousand years of darkness the seed that Aristotle had sown
+lay hidden.  Then it stirred and began to germinate.  In a
+few centuries it had become that widespread growth of
+knowledge and clear ideas that is now changing the whole of
+human life.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-154"></a>
+<img src="images/img-154.jpg"
+alt="THE DEATH OF BUDDHA"
+ width="450" height="308" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE DEATH OF BUDDHA
+<br /><small>Græco-Buddhist carving from Sivat Valley, N. W.
+ Province, probably <small>A.D.</small> 350
+<br />
+<i>India Mus.</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Alexandria was not the only centre of Greek intellectual
+activity in the third century <small>B.C.</small>
+There were many other cities that displayed a brilliant
+intellectual life amidst the disintegrating fragments of the
+brief empire of Alexander.  There was, for example, the Greek
+city of Syracuse in Sicily, where thought and science
+flourished for two centuries; there was Pergamum in Asia
+Minor, which also had a great library.  But this brilliant
+Hellenic world was now stricken by invasion from the north.
+  New Nordic barbarians, the Gauls, were striking down along
+the tracks that had once been followed by the ancestors of
+the Greeks and Phrygians and Macedonians.  They raided,
+shattered and destroyed.  And in the wake of the Gauls came a
+new conquering people out of Italy, the Romans, who gradually
+subjugated all the western half of the vast realm of Darius
+and Alexander.  They were an able but unimaginative people,
+preferring law and profit to either science or art.  <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P155"></a></span>New invaders
+were also coming down out of central Asia to shatter and
+subdue the Seleucid empire and to cut off the western world
+again from India.  These were the Parthians, hosts of mounted
+bowmen, who treated the Græco-Persian empire of
+Persepolis and Susa in the third century
+ <small>B.C.</small> in much the same fashion that the Medes and
+Persians had treated it in the seventh and sixth.  And there
+were now other nomadic peoples also coming out of the
+northeast, peoples who were not fair and Nordic and Aryan-
+speaking but yellow-skinned and black-haired and with a
+Mongolian speech.  But of these latter people we shall tell
+more in a subsequent chapter.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P156"></a></span><a name="chapXXVIII"></a>XXVIII<br />
+THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA</h2>
+
+<p>
+But now we must go back three centuries in our story to tell of a great teacher
+who came near to revolutionizing the religious thought and feeling of all Asia.
+This was Gautama Buddha, who taught his disciples at Benares in India about the
+same time that Isaiah was prophesying among the Jews in Babylon and Heraclitus
+was carrying on his speculative enquiries into the nature of things at Ephesus.
+All these men were in the world at the same time, in the sixth century
+<small>B.C.</small>&mdash;unaware of one another.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This sixth century <small>B.C.</small> was indeed
+one of the most remarkable in all history.
+Everywhere&mdash;for as we shall tell it was also the case in
+China&mdash;men&rsquo;s minds were displaying a new boldness.
+Everywhere they were waking up out of the traditions of
+kingships and priests and blood sacrifices and asking the
+most penetrating questions.  It is as if the race had reached
+a stage of adolescence&mdash;after a childhood of twenty
+thousand years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The early history of India is still very obscure.  Somewhen
+perhaps about 2000 <small>B.C.</small>, an Aryan-
+speaking people came down from the north-west into India
+either in one invasion or in a series of invasions; and was
+able to spread its language and traditions over most of north
+India.  Its peculiar variety of Aryan speech was the
+Sanskrit.  They found a brunette people with a more elaborate
+civilization and less vigour of will, in possession of the
+country of the Indus and Ganges.  But they do not seem to
+have mingled with their predecessors as freely as did the
+Greeks and Persians.  They remained aloof.  When the past of
+India becomes dimly visible to the historian, Indian society
+is already stratified into several layers, with a variable
+number of sub-divisions, which do not eat together nor
+intermarry nor associate freely.  And throughout history this
+<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P157"></a></span>stratification into castes
+continues.  This makes the Indian population something
+different from the simple, freely inter-breeding European or
+Mongolian communities.  It is really a community of
+communities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Siddhattha Gautama was the son of an aristocratic family
+which ruled a small district on the Himalayan slopes.  He was
+married at nineteen to a beautiful cousin.  He hunted and
+played and went about in his sunny world of gardens and
+groves and irrigated rice-fields.  And it was amidst this
+life that a great discontent fell upon him.  It was the
+unhappiness of a fine brain that seeks employment.  He felt
+that the existence he was leading was not the reality of
+life, but a holiday&mdash;a holiday that had gone on too
+long.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sense of disease and mortality, the insecurity and the
+un-satisfactoriness of all happiness, descended upon the mind
+of Gautama.  While he was in this mood he met one of those
+wandering ascetics who already existed in great numbers in
+India.  These men lived under severe rules, spending much
+time in meditation and in religious discussion.  They were
+supposed to be seeking some deeper reality in life, and a
+passionate desire to do likewise took possession of Gautama.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was meditating upon this project, says the story, when the
+news was brought to him that his wife had been delivered of
+his first-born son. &ldquo;This is another tie to
+break,&rdquo; said Gautama.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He returned to the village amidst the rejoicings of his
+fellow clansmen.  There was a great feast and a Nautch dance
+to celebrate the birth of this new tie, and in the night
+Gautama awoke in a great agony of spirit, &ldquo;like a man
+who is told that his house is on fire.&rdquo;  He resolved to
+leave his happy aimless life forthwith.  He went softly to
+the threshold of his wife&rsquo;s chamber, and saw her by the
+light of a little oil lamp, sleeping sweetly, surrounded by
+flowers, with his infant son in her arms.  He felt a great
+craving to take up the child in one first and last embrace
+before he departed, but the fear of waking his wife prevented
+him, and at last he turned away and went out into the bright
+Indian moonshine and mounted his horse and rode off into the
+world.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P158"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-158"></a>
+<img src="images/img-158.jpg"
+alt="TIBETAN BUDDHA"
+ width="600" height="771" />
+<p class="caption">
+TIBETAN BUDDHA
+<br /><small>Gilt Brass Casting in India Museum, showing Gautama
+ Buddha in the &ldquo;earth witness&rdquo; attitude
+<br />
+<i>India Mus.</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Very far he rode that night, and in the morning he stopped
+outside <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P159"></a></span>the lands of his clan, and
+dismounted beside a sandy river.  There he cut off his
+flowing locks with his sword, removed all his ornaments and
+sent them and his horse and sword back to his house.  Going
+on he presently met a ragged man and exchanged clothes with
+him, and so having divested himself of all worldly
+entanglements he was free to pursue his search after wisdom.
+  He made his way southward to a resort of hermits and teachers
+in a hilly spur of the Vindhya Mountains.  There lived a
+number of wise men in a warren of caves, going into the town
+for their simple supplies and imparting their knowledge by
+word of mouth to such as cared to come to them.  Gautama
+became versed in all the metaphysics of his age.  But his
+acute intelligence was dissatisfied with the solutions
+offered him.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-159"></a>
+<img src="images/img-159.jpg"
+alt="A BURMESE BUDDHA"
+ width="430" height="535" />
+<p class="caption">
+A BURMESE BUDDHA
+<br /><small>Marble Figure from Mandalay, eighteenth century work, now
+ in the India Museum
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Indian mind has always been disposed to believe that
+power and knowledge may be obtained by extreme asceticism, by
+fasting, sleeplessness, and self-torment, and these ideas
+Gautama now put to the test.  He betook himself with five
+disciple companions to the jungle and there he gave himself
+up to fasting and terrible penances.  His fame spread,
+&ldquo;like the sound of a great <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P160"></a></span>bell hung in the canopy of the
+skies.&rdquo;  But it brought him no sense of truth achieved.
+  One day he was walking up and down, trying to think in spite
+of his enfeebled state.  Suddenly he fell unconscious.  When
+he recovered, the preposterousness of these semi-magical ways
+to wisdom was plain to him.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-160"></a>
+<img src="images/img-160.jpg"
+alt="THE DHAM&#202;KH TOWER"
+ width="350" height="459" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE DHAM&#202;KH TOWER
+<br /><small>In the Deer Park at Sarnath.  Sixth Century
+ <small>A.D.</small>
+<br />
+<i>(From a Painting in the India Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+He horrified his companions by demanding ordinary food and
+refusing to continue his mortifications.  He had realized
+that whatever truth a man may reach is reached best by a
+nourished brain in a healthy body.  Such a conception was
+absolutely foreign to the ideas of the land and age.  His
+disciples deserted him, and went off in a melancholy state to
+Benares.  Gautama wandered alone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When the mind grapples with a great and intricate problem, it
+makes its advances step by step, with but little realization
+of the gains it has made, until suddenly, with an effect of
+abrupt illumination, it realizes its victory.  So it happened
+to Gautama.  He had seated himself under a great tree by the
+side of a river to eat, when this sense of clear vision came
+to him.  It seemed to him that he saw life plain.  He is said
+to have sat all day and all night in profound thought, and
+then he rose up to impart his vision to the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He went on to Benares and there he sought out and won back
+his lost disciples to his new teaching.  In the King&rsquo;s
+Deer Park at Benares they built themselves huts and set up a
+sort of school to which came many who were seeking after
+wisdom.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The starting point of his teaching was his own question as a
+fortunate <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P161"></a></span>young man, &ldquo;Why am I not
+completely happy?&rdquo;  It was an introspective question.
+  It was a question very different in quality from the frank
+and self-forgetful <i>externalized</i> curiosity with which
+Thales and Heraclitus were attacking the problems of the
+universe, or the equally self-forgetful burthen of moral
+obligation that the culminating prophets were imposing upon
+the Hebrew mind.  The Indian teacher did not forget self, he
+concentrated upon self and sought to destroy it.  All
+suffering, he taught, was due to the greedy desires of the
+individual.  Until man has conquered his personal cravings
+his life is trouble and his end sorrow.  There were three
+principal forms that the craving for life took and they were
+all evil.  The first was the desire of the appetites, greed
+and all forms of sensuousness, the second was the desire for
+a personal and egotistic immortality, the third was the
+craving for personal success, worldliness, avarice and the
+like.  All these forms of desire had to be overcome to escape
+from the distresses and chagrins of life.  When they were
+overcome, when self had vanished altogether, then serenity of
+soul, Nirvana, the highest good was attained.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This was the gist of his teaching, a very subtle and
+metaphysical teaching indeed, not nearly so easy to
+understand as the Greek injunction to see and know fearlessly
+and rightly and the Hebrew command to fear God and accomplish
+righteousness.  It was a teaching much beyond the
+understanding of even Gautama&rsquo;s immediate disciples,
+and it is no wonder that so soon as his personal influence
+was withdrawn it became corrupted and coarsened.  There was a
+widespread belief in India at that time that at long
+intervals Wisdom came to earth and was incarnate in some
+chosen person who was known as the Buddha.  Gautama&rsquo;s
+disciples declared that he was a Buddha, the latest of the
+Buddhas, though there is no evidence that he himself ever
+accepted the title.  Before he was well dead, a cycle of
+fantastic legends began to be woven about him.  The human
+heart has always preferred a wonder story to a moral effort,
+and Gautama Buddha became very wonderful.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yet there remained a substantial gain in the world.  If
+Nirvana was too high and subtle for most men&rsquo;s
+imaginations, if the myth-making impulse in the race was too
+strong for the simple facts of Gautama&rsquo;s life, they
+could at least grasp something of the intention <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P162"></a></span>of what
+Gautama called the Eight-fold way, the Aryan or Noble Path in
+life.  In this there was an insistence upon mental
+uprightness, upon right aims and speech, right conduct and
+honest livelihood.  There was a quickening of the conscience
+and an appeal to generous and self-forgetful ends.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P163"></a></span><a name="chapXXIX"></a>XXIX<br />
+KING ASOKA</h2>
+
+<p>
+For some generations after the death of Gautama, these high and noble Buddhist
+teachings, this first plain teaching that the highest good for man is the
+subjugation of self, made comparatively little headway in the world. Then they
+conquered the imagination of one of the greatest monarchs the world has ever
+seen.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have already mentioned how Alexander the Great came down
+into India and fought with Porus upon the Indus.  It is
+related by the Greek historians that a certain Chandragupta
+Maurya came into Alexander&rsquo;s camp and tried to persuade
+him to go on to the Ganges and conquer all India. Alexander
+could not do this because of the refusal of his Macedonians
+to go further into what was for them an unknown world, and
+later on (303 <small>B.C.</small>) Chandragupta was
+able to secure the help or various hill tribes and realize
+his dream without Greek help. He built up an empire in North
+India and was presently (303 <small>B.C.</small>)
+able to attack Seleucus I in the Punjab and drive the last
+vestige of Greek power out of India. His son extended this
+new empire. His grandson, Asoka, the monarch of whom we now
+have to tell, found himself in 264 <small>B.C.</small>
+ ruling from Afghanistan to Madras.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Asoka was at first disposed to follow the example of his
+father and grandfather and complete the conquest of the
+Indian peninsula.  He invaded Kalinga (255 <small>B.C.</small>), a
+ country on the east coast of Madras, he
+was successful in his military operations and&mdash;alone
+among conquerors&mdash;he was so disgusted by the cruelty and
+horror of war that he renounced it.  He would have no more of
+it.  He adopted the peaceful doctrines of Buddhism and
+declared that henceforth his conquests should be the
+conquests of religion.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-164"></a>
+<img src="images/img-164.jpg"
+alt="A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty)"
+ width="500" height="604" />
+<p class="caption">
+A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty)
+<br />
+<small><i>(From the statue in the British Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+His reign for eight-and-twenty years was one of the brightest
+interludes in the troubled history of mankind.  He organized
+a <span class="pagenum"><a name="P164"></a></span>great
+digging of wells in India and the planting of trees for
+shade.  He founded hospitals and public gardens and gardens
+for the growing of medicinal herbs.  He created a ministry
+for the care of the aborigines and subject races of India.
+  He made provision for the education of women.  He made vast
+benefactions to the Buddhist teaching orders, and tried to
+stimulate them to a better and more energetic criticism of
+their own accumulated literature.  For corruptions and
+superstitious accretions had accumulated very <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P165"></a></span>speedily upon
+the pure and simple teaching of the great Indian master.
+  Missionaries went from Asoka to Kashmir, to Persia, to Ceylon
+and Alexandria.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-1651"></a>
+<img src="images/img-1651.jpg"
+alt="TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA"
+ width="600" height="204" />
+<p class="caption">
+TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA
+<br />
+<small><i>India Mus.</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-1652"></a>
+<img src="images/img-1652.jpg"
+alt="ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUT"
+ width="600" height="291" />
+<p class="caption">
+ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUT
+<br />
+<small><i>India Mus.</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Such was Asoka, greatest of kings.  He was far in advance of
+his age.  He left no prince and no organization of men to
+carry on his work, and within a century of his death the
+great days of his reign had become a glorious memory in a
+shattered and decaying India.  The priestly caste of the
+Brahmins, the highest and most privileged caste in the Indian
+social body, has always been opposed to the frank and open
+teaching of Buddha.  Gradually they undermined the Buddhist
+influence in the land.  The old monstrous gods, the
+innumerable cults of Hinduism, resumed their sway.  Caste
+became <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P166"></a></span>more rigorous and complicated.
+  For long centuries Buddhism and Brahminism flourished side by
+side, and then slowly Buddhism decayed and Brahminism in a
+multitude of forms replaced it.  But beyond the confines of
+India and the realms of caste Buddhism spread&mdash;until it
+had won China and Siam and Burma and Japan, countries in
+which it is predominant to this day.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-166"></a>
+<img src="images/img-166.jpg"
+alt="THE PILLAR OF LIONS"
+ width="400" height="572" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE PILLAR OF LIONS
+<br /><small>Capital of the Pillar (column lying on side) erected in
+ Deer Park in the time of Asoka, where Buddha preached his first
+ sermon
+<br />
+<i>(From a print in the India Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P167"></a></span><a name="chapXXX"></a>XXX<br />
+CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE</h2>
+
+<p>
+We have still to tell of two other great men, Confucius and Lao Tse, who lived
+in that wonderful century which began the adolescence of mankind, the sixth
+century <small>B.C.</small> In this history thus far we have told very little
+of the early story of China. At present that early history is still very
+obscure, and we look to Chinese explorers and archæolologists in the new China
+that is now arising to work out their past as thoroughly as the European past
+has been worked out during the last century. Very long ago the first primitive
+Chinese civilizations arose in the great river valleys out of the primordial
+heliolithic culture. They had, like Egypt and Sumeria, the general
+characteristics of that culture, and they centred upon temples in which priests
+and priest kings offered the seasonal blood sacrifices. The life in those
+cities must have been very like the Egyptian and Sumerian life of six or seven
+thousand years ago and very like the Maya life of Central America a thousand
+years ago.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If there were human sacrifices they had long given way to
+animal sacrifices before the dawn of history.  And a form of
+picture writing was growing up long before a thousand years
+<small>B.C.</small>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And just as the primitive civilizations of Europe and western
+Asia were in conflict with the nomads of the desert and the
+nomads of the north, so the primitive Chinese civilizations
+had a great cloud of nomadic peoples on their northern
+borders.  There was a number of tribes akin in language and
+ways of living, who are spoken of in history in succession as
+the Huns, the Mongols, the Turks and Tartars.  They changed
+and divided and combined and re-combined, just as the Nordic
+peoples in north Europe and central Asia changed and varied
+in name rather than in nature.  These Mongolian nomads had
+horses earlier than the Nordic peoples, and it may <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P168"></a></span>be that in the
+region of the Altai Mountains they made an independent
+discovery of iron somewhen after 1000 <small>B.C.</small>
+  And just as in the western case so ever and
+again these eastern nomads would achieve a sort of political
+unity, and become the conquerors and masters and revivers of
+this or that settled and civilized region.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is quite possible that the earliest civilization of China
+was not Mongolian at all any more than the earliest
+civilization of Europe and western Asia was Nordic or
+Semitic.  It is quite possible that the earliest civilization
+of China was a brunette civilization and of a piece with the
+earliest Egyptian, Sumerian and Dravidian civilizations, and
+that when the first recorded history of China began there had
+already been conquests and intermixture.  At any rate we find
+that by 1750 <small>B.C.</small> China was already a
+vast system of little kingdoms and city states, all
+acknowledging a loose allegiance and paying more or less
+regularly, more or less definite feudal dues to one great
+priest emperor, the &ldquo;Son of Heaven.&rdquo;  The
+&ldquo;Shang&rdquo; dynasty came to an end in 1125
+ <small>B.C.</small>  A &ldquo;Chow&rdquo; dynasty succeeded
+&ldquo;Shang,&rdquo; and maintained China in a relaxing unity
+until the days of Asoka in India and of the Ptolemies in
+Egypt.  Gradually China went to pieces during that long
+&ldquo;Chow&rdquo; period.  Hunnish peoples came down and set
+up principalities; local rulers discontinued their tribute
+and became independent.  There was in the sixth century
+<small>B.C.</small>, says one Chinese authority, five or
+six thousand practically independent states in China.  It was
+what the Chinese call in their records an &ldquo;Age of
+Confusion.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But this Age of Confusion was compatible with much
+intellectual activity and with the existence of many local
+centres of art and civilized living.  When we know more of
+Chinese history we shall find that China also had her Miletus
+and her Athens, her Pergamum and her Macedonia.  At present
+we must be vague and brief about this period of Chinese
+division simply because our knowledge is not sufficient for
+us to frame a coherent and consecutive story.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P169"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-169"></a>
+<img src="images/img-169.jpg"
+alt="CONFUCIUS"
+ width="450" height="725" />
+<p class="caption">
+CONFUCIUS
+<br /><small>Copy of stone carving in the Temple of Confucius at
+ K&rsquo;iu Fu
+<br />
+<i>(From the records of the Archæological Mission to North
+ China (Chavannes))</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+And just as in divided Greece there were philosophers and in
+shattered and captive Jewry prophets, so in disordered China
+there were philosophers and teachers at this time.  In all
+these cases <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P170"></a></span>insecurity and uncertainty seemed
+to have quickened the better sort of mind.  Confucius was a
+man of aristocratic origin and some official importance in a
+small state called Lu.  Here in a very parallel mood to the
+Greek impulse he set up a sort of Academy for discovering and
+teaching Wisdom.  The lawlessness and disorder of China
+distressed him profoundly.  He conceived an ideal of a better
+government and a better life, and travelled from state to
+state seeking a prince who would carry out his legislative
+and educational ideas.  He never found his prince; he found a
+prince, but court intrigues undermined the influence of the
+teacher and finally defeated his reforming proposals.  It is
+interesting to note that a century and a half later the Greek
+philosopher Plato also sought a prince, and was for a time
+adviser to the tyrant Dionysius who ruled Syracuse in Sicily.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Confucius died a disappointed man.  &ldquo;No intelligent
+ruler arises to take me as his master,&rdquo; he said,
+&ldquo;and my time has come to die.&rdquo;  But his teaching
+had more vitality than he imagined in his declining and
+hopeless years, and it became a great formative influence
+with the Chinese people.  It became one of what the Chinese
+call the Three Teachings, the other two being those of Buddha
+and of Lao Tse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The gist of the teaching of Confucius was the way of the
+noble or aristocratic man.  He was concerned with personal
+conduct as much as Gautama was concerned with the peace of
+self-forgetfulness and the Greek with external knowledge and
+the Jew with righteousness.  He was the most public-minded of
+all great teachers.  He was supremely concerned by the
+confusion and miseries of the world, and he wanted to make
+men noble in order to bring about a noble world.  He sought
+to regulate conduct to an extraordinary extent; to provide
+sound rules for every occasion in life.  A polite, public-
+spirited gentleman, rather sternly self-disciplined, was the
+ideal he found already developing in the northern Chinese
+world and one to which he gave a permanent form.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P171"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-171"></a>
+<img src="images/img-171.jpg"
+alt="THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA"
+ width="600" height="806" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA
+<br /><small>As it crosses the mountains in Manchuria
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Underwood &#38; Underwood</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The teaching of Lao Tse, who was for a long time in charge of
+the imperial library of the Chow dynasty, was much more
+mystical and vague and elusive than that of Confucius.  He
+seems to have preached a stoical indifference to the
+pleasures and powers of the <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P172"></a></span>world and a return to an imaginary
+simple life of the past.  He left writings very contracted in
+style and very obscure.  He wrote in riddles.  After his
+death his teachings, like the teachings of Gautama Buddha,
+were corrupted and overlaid by legends and had the most
+complex and extraordinary observances and superstitious ideas
+grafted upon them.  In China just as in India primordial
+ideas of magic and monstrous legends out of the childish past
+of our race struggled against the new thinking in the world
+and succeeded in plastering it over with grotesque,
+irrational and antiquated observances.  Both Buddhism and
+Taoism (which ascribes itself largely to Lao Tse) as one
+finds them in China now, are religions of monk, temple,
+priest and offering of a type as ancient in form, if not in
+thought, as the sacrificial religions of ancient Sumeria and
+Egypt.  But the teaching <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P173"></a></span>of Confucius was not so overlaid
+because it was limited and plain and straightforward and lent
+itself to no such distortions.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-172"></a>
+<img src="images/img-172.jpg"
+alt="EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL"
+ width="400" height="707" />
+<p class="caption">
+EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL
+<br /><small>Inscribed in archaic characters: &ldquo;made for use by
+ the elder of Hing village in Ting district;&rdquo; latter half of
+ the Chou Dynasty, Sixth Century <small>B.C.</small>
+<br />
+<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+North China, the China of the Hwang-ho River, became
+Confucian in thought and spirit; south China, Yang-tse-Kiang
+China, became Taoist.  Since those days a conflict has always
+been traceable in Chinese affairs between these two spirits,
+the spirit of the north and the spirit of the south, between
+(in latter times) Pekin and Nankin, between the official-
+minded, upright and conservative north, and the sceptical,
+artistic, lax and experimental south.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The divisions of China of the Age of Confusion reached their
+worst stage in the sixth century <small>B.C.</small>
+The Chow dynasty was so enfeebled and so discredited that Lao
+Tse left the unhappy court and retired into private life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Three nominally subordinate powers dominated the situation in
+those days, Ts&rsquo;i and Ts&rsquo;in, both northern powers,
+and Ch&rsquo;u, which was an aggressive military power in the
+Yangtse valley.  At last Ts&rsquo;i and Ts&rsquo;in formed an
+alliance, subdued Ch&rsquo;u and imposed a general treaty of
+disarmament and peace in China.  The power of Ts&rsquo;in
+became predominant.  Finally about the time of Asoka in India
+the Ts&rsquo;in monarch seized upon the sacrificial vessels
+of the Chow emperor and took over his sacrificial duties.
+  His son, Shi-Hwang-ti (king in 246
+ <small>B.C.</small>, emperor in 220
+ <small>B.C.</small>), is called in the Chinese Chronicles
+&ldquo;the First Universal Emperor.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+More fortunate than Alexander, Shi-Hwang-ti reigned for
+thirty-six years as king and emperor.  His energetic reign
+marks the beginning of a new era of unity and prosperity for
+the Chinese people.  He fought vigorously against the Hunnish
+invaders from the northern deserts, and he began that immense
+work, the Great Wall of China, to set a limit to their
+incursions.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P174"></a></span><a name="chapXXXI"></a>XXXI<br />
+ROME COMES INTO HISTORY</h2>
+
+<p>
+The reader will note a general similarity in the history of all these
+civilizations in spite of the effectual separation caused by the great barriers
+of the Indian north-west frontier and of the mountain masses of Central Asia
+and further India. First for thousands of years the heliolithic culture spread
+over all the warm and fertile river valleys of the old world and developed a
+temple system and priest rulers about its sacrificial traditions. Apparently
+its first makers were always those brunette peoples we have spoken of as the
+central race of mankind. Then the nomads came in from the regions of seasonal
+grass and seasonal migrations and superposed their own characteristics and
+often their own language on the primitive civilization. They subjugated and
+stimulated it, and were stimulated to fresh developments and made it here one
+thing and here another. In Mesopotamia it was the Elamite and then the Semite,
+and at last the Nordic Medes and Persians and the Greeks who supplied the
+ferment; over the region of the Ægean peoples it was the Greeks; in India it
+was the Aryan-speakers; in Egypt there was a thinner infusion of conquerors
+into a more intensely saturated priestly civilization; in China, the Hun
+conquered and was absorbed and was followed by fresh Huns. China was Mongolized
+just as Greece and North India were Aryanized and Mesopotamia Semitized and
+Aryanized. Everywhere the nomads destroyed much, but everywhere they brought in
+a new spirit of free enquiry and moral innovation. They questioned the beliefs
+of immemorial ages. They let daylight into the temples. They set up kings who
+were neither priests nor gods but mere leaders among their captains and
+companions.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-175"></a>
+<img src="images/img-175.jpg"
+alt="THE DYING GAUL"
+ width="600" height="777" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE DYING GAUL
+<br /><small>The statue in the National Museum, Rome, depicting a Gaul
+stabbing himself, after killing his wife, in the presence of his
+enemies
+<br />
+<i>Photo: Anderson</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P175"></a></span>
+In the centuries following the sixth century <small>B.C.</small>
+ we find everywhere a great breaking down of
+ancient traditions and a new spirit <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P176"></a></span>of moral and intellectual enquiry
+awake, a spirit never more to be altogether stilled in the
+great progressive movement of mankind.  We find reading and
+writing becoming common and accessible accomplishments among
+the ruling and prosperous minority; they were no longer the
+jealously guarded secret of the priests.  Travel is
+increasing and transport growing easier by reason of horses
+and roads.  A new and easy device to facilitate trade has
+been found in coined money.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Let us now transfer our attention back from China in the
+extreme east of the old world to the western half of the
+Mediterranean.  Here we have to note the appearance of a city
+which was destined to play at last a very great part indeed
+in human affairs, Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Hitherto we have told very little about Italy in our story.
+  It was before 1000 <small>B.C.</small> a land of
+mountain and forest and thinly populated.  Aryan-speaking
+tribes had pressed down this peninsula and formed little
+towns and cities, and the southern extremity was studded with
+Greek settlements.  The noble ruins of Pæstum preserve
+for us to this day something of the dignity and splendour of
+these early Greek establishments.  A non-Aryan people,
+probably akin to the Ægean peoples, the Etruscans, had
+established themselves in the central part of the peninsula.
+  They had reversed the usual process by subjugating various
+Aryan tribes.  Rome, when it comes into the light of history,
+is a little trading city at a ford on the Tiber, with a
+Latin-speaking population ruled over by Etruscan kings.  The
+old chronologies gave 753 <small>B.C.</small> as the
+date of the founding of Rome, half a century later than the
+founding of the great Phœnician city of Carthage and
+twenty-three years after the first Olympiad.  Etruscan tombs
+of a much earlier date than 753 <small>B.C.</small>
+have, however, been excavated in the Roman Forum.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In that red-letter century, the sixth century
+ <small>B.C.</small>, the Etruscan kings were expelled (510
+ <small>B.C.</small>) and Rome became an aristocratic
+republic with a lordly class of &ldquo;patrician&rdquo;
+families dominating a commonalty of &ldquo;plebeians.&rdquo;
+Except that it spoke Latin it was not unlike many
+aristocratic Greek republics.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For some centuries the internal history of Rome was the story
+of a long and obstinate struggle for freedom and a share in
+the government on the part of the plebeians.  It would not be
+difficult to find <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P177"></a></span>Greek parallels to this conflict,
+which the Greeks would have called a conflict of aristocracy
+with democracy.  In the end the plebeians broke down most of
+the exclusive barriers of the old families and established a
+working equality with them.  They destroyed the old
+exclusiveness, and made it possible and acceptable for Rome
+to extend her citizenship by the inclusion of more and more
+&ldquo;outsiders.&rdquo;  For while she still struggled at
+home, she was extending her power abroad.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-177"></a>
+<img src="images/img-177.jpg"
+alt="REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE"
+ width="600" height="480" />
+<p class="caption">
+REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE
+<br /><small>
+<i>Photo:  Underwood &#38; Underwood</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The extension of Roman power began in the fifth century
+ <small>B.C.</small>  Until that time they had waged war,
+and generally unsuccessful war, with the Etruscans.  There
+was an Etruscan fort, Veii, only a few miles from Rome which
+the Romans had never been able to capture.  In 474
+ <small>B.C.</small>, however, a great misfortune came to the
+Etruscans.  Their fleet was destroyed by the Greeks of
+Syracuse in Sicily.  <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P178"></a></span>At the same time a wave of Nordic
+invaders came down upon them from the north, the Gauls.
+  Caught between Roman and Gaul, the Etruscans fell&mdash;and
+disappear from history.  Veii was captured by the Romans, The
+Gauls came through to Rome and sacked the city (390
+ <small>B.C.</small><small>A.D.</small>) but could not capture the
+ Capitol.
+  An attempted night surprise was betrayed by the cackling of
+some geese, and finally the invaders were bought off and
+retired to the north of Italy again.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Gaulish raid seems to have invigorated rather than
+weakened Rome.  The Romans conquered and assimilated the
+Etruscans, and extended their power over all central Italy
+from the Arno to Naples.  To this they had reached within a
+few years of 300 <small>B.C.</small>  Their
+conquests in Italy were going on simultaneously with the
+growth of Philip&rsquo;s power in Macedonia and Greece, and
+the tremendous raid of Alexander to Egypt and the Indus.  The
+Romans had become notable people in the civilized world to
+the east of them by the break-up of Alexander&rsquo;s empire.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To the north of the Roman power were the Gauls; to the south
+of them were the Greek settlements of Magna Græcia, that
+is to say of Sicily and of the toe and heel of Italy.  The
+Gauls were a hardy, warlike people and the Romans held that
+boundary by a line of forts and fortified settlements.  The
+Greek cities in the south headed by Tarentum (now Taranto)
+and by Syracuse in Sicily, did not so much threaten as fear
+the Romans.  They looked about for some help against these
+new conquerors.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have already told how the empire of Alexander fell to
+pieces and was divided among his generals and companions.
+  Among these adventurers was a kinsman of Alexander&rsquo;s
+named Pyrrhus, who established himself in Epirus, which is
+across the Adriatic Sea over against the heel of Italy.  It
+was his ambition to play the part of Philip of Macedonia to
+Magna Græcia, and to become protector and master-general
+of Tarentum, Syracuse and the rest of that part of the world.
+  He had what was then it very efficient modern army; he had an
+infantry phalanx, cavalry from Thessaly&mdash;which was now
+quite as good as the original Macedonian cavalry&mdash;and
+twenty fighting elephants; he invaded Italy and routed the
+Romans in two considerable battles, Heraclea (280
+ <small>B.C.</small>) and Ausculum (279
+ <small>B.C.</small>), and <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P179"></a></span>having driven them north, he
+turned his attention to the subjugation of Sicily.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But this brought against him a more formidable enemy than
+were the Romans at that time, the Phœnician trading city
+of Carthage, which was probably then the greatest city in the
+world.  Sicily was too near Carthage for a new Alexander to
+be welcome there, and Carthage was mindful of the fate that
+had befallen her mother city Tyre half a century before.  So
+she sent a fleet to encourage or compel Rome to continue the
+struggle, and she cut the overseas communications of Pyrrhus.
+  Pyrrhus found himself freshly assailed by the Romans, and
+suffered a disastrous repulse in an attack he had made upon
+their camp at Beneventum between Naples and Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And suddenly came news that recalled him to Epirus.  The
+Gauls were raiding south.  But this time they were not
+raiding down into Italy; the Roman frontier, fortified and
+guarded, had become too formidable for them.  They were
+raiding down through Illyria (which is now Serbia and
+Albania) to Macedonia and Epirus.  Repulsed by the Romans,
+endangered at sea by the Carthaginians, and threatened at
+home by the Gauls, Pyrrhus abandoned his dream of conquest
+and went home (275 <small>B.C.</small>), and the
+power of Rome was extended to the Straits of Messina.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the Sicilian side of the Straits was the Greek city of
+Messina, and this presently fell into the hands of a gang of
+pirates.  The Carthaginians, who were already practically
+overlords of Sicily and allies of Syracuse, suppressed these
+pirates (270 <small>B.C.</small>) and put in a
+Carthaginian garrison there.  The pirates appealed to Rome
+and Rome listened to their complaint.  And so across the
+Straits of Messina the great trading power of Carthage and
+this new conquering people, the Romans, found themselves in
+antagonism, face to face.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P180"></a></span><a name="chapXXXII"></a>XXXII<br />
+ROME AND CARTHAGE</h2>
+
+<p>
+It was in 264 <small>B.C.</small> that the great struggle between Rome and
+Carthage, the Punic Wars, began. In that year Asoka was beginning his reign in
+Behar and Shi- Hwang-ti was a little child, the Museum in Alexandria was still
+doing good scientific work, and the barbaric Gauls were now in Asia Minor and
+exacting a tribute from Pergamum. The different regions of the world were still
+separated by insurmountable distances, and probably the rest of mankind heard
+only vague and remote rumours of the mortal fight that went on for a century
+and a half in Spain, Italy, North Africa and the western Mediterranean, between
+the last stronghold of Semitic power and Rome, this newcomer among
+Aryan-speaking peoples.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That war has left its traces upon issues that still stir the
+world.  Rome triumphed over Carthage, but the rivalry of
+Aryan and Semite was to merge itself later on in the conflict
+of Gentile and Jew.  Our history now is coming to events
+whose consequences and distorted traditions still maintain a
+lingering and expiring vitality in, and exercise a
+complicating and confusing influence upon, the conflicts and
+controversies of to-day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The First Punic War began in 264 <small>B.C.</small>
+about the pirates of Messina.  It developed into a struggle
+for the possession of all Sicily except the dominions of the
+Greek king of Syracuse.  The advantage of the sea was at
+first with the Carthaginians.  They had great fighting ships
+of what was hitherto an unheard-of size, quinqueremes,
+galleys with five banks of oars and a huge ram.  At the
+battle of Salamis, two centuries before, the leading
+battleships had only been triremes with three banks.  But the
+Romans, with extraordinary energy and in spite of the fact
+that they had little naval experience, set themselves to
+outbuild the Carthaginians.  They manned the new navy they
+created chiefly with Greek seamen, and they invented <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P181"></a></span>grappling and
+boarding to make up for the superior seamanship of the enemy.
+  When the Carthaginian came up to ram or shear the oars of the
+Roman, huge grappling irons seized him and the Roman soldiers
+swarmed aboard him.  At Mylæ (260
+ <small>B.C.</small>) and at Ecnomus (256
+ <small>B.C.</small>) the Carthaginians were disastrously beaten.
+  They repulsed a Roman landing near Carthage but were badly
+beaten at Palermo, losing one hundred and four elephants
+there&mdash;to grace such a triumphal procession through the
+Forum as Rome had never seen before.  But after that came two
+Roman defeats and then a Roman recovery.  The last naval
+forces of Carthage were defeated <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P182"></a></span>by it last Roman effort at the
+battle of the Ægatian Isles (241
+ <small>B.C.</small>) and Carthage sued for peace.  All Sicily
+except the dominions of Hiero, king of Syracuse, was ceded to
+the Romans.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-181"></a>
+<img src="images/img-181.jpg"
+alt="HANNIBAL"
+ width="450" height="602" />
+<p class="caption">
+HANNIBAL
+<br /><small>
+Bust in the National Museum at Naples
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Mansell</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+For twenty-two years Rome and Carthage kept the peace.  Both
+had trouble enough at home.  In Italy the Gauls came south
+again, threatened Rome&mdash;<i>which in a state of panic
+offered human sacrifices to the Gods!</i>&mdash;and were
+routed at Telamon.  Rome pushed forward to the Alps, and even
+extended her dominions down the Adriatic coast to Illyria.
+  Carthage suffered from domestic insurrections and from
+revolts in Corsica and Sardinia, and displayed far less
+recuperative power.  Finally, an act of intolerable
+aggression, Rome seized and annexed the two revolting
+islands.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Spain at that time was Carthaginian as far north as the river
+Ebro.  To that boundary the Romans restricted them.  Any
+crossing of the Ebro by the Carthaginians was to be
+considered an act of war against the Romans.  At last in 218
+<small>B.C.</small> the Carthaginians, provoked by
+new Roman aggressions, did cross this river under a young
+general named Hannibal, one of the most brilliant commanders
+in the whole of history.  He marched his army from Spain over
+the Alps into Italy, raised the Gauls against the Romans, and
+carried on the Second Punic War in Italy itself for fifteen
+years.  He inflicted tremendous defeats upon the Romans at
+Lake Trasimere and at Cannæ, and throughout all his
+Italian campaigns no Roman army stood against him and escaped
+disaster.  But a Roman army had landed at Marseilles and cut
+his communications with Spain; he had no siege train, and he
+could never capture Rome.  Finally the Carthaginians,
+threatened by the revolt of the Numidians at home, were
+forced back upon the defence of their own city in Africa, a
+Roman army crossed into Africa, and Hannibal experienced his
+first defeat under its walls at the battle of Zama (202
+ <small>B.C.</small> at the hands of Scipio Africanus the
+Elder.  The battle of Zama ended this Second Punic War.
+  Carthage capitulated; she surrendered Spain and her war
+fleet; she paid an enormous indemnity and agreed to give up
+Hannibal to the vengeance of the Romans.  But Hannibal
+escaped and fled to Asia where later, being in danger of
+falling into the hands of his relentless enemies, he took
+poison and died.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P183"></a></span>For
+fifty-six years Rome and the shorn city of Carthage were at
+peace.  And meanwhile Rome spread her empire over confused
+and divided Greece, invaded Asia Minor, and defeated
+Antiochus III, the Seleucid monarch, at Magnesia in Lydia.
+  She made Egypt, still under the Ptolemies, and Pergamum and
+most of the small states of Asia Minor into
+&ldquo;Allies,&rdquo; or, as we should call them now,
+&ldquo;protected states.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Meanwhile Carthage, subjugated and enfeebled, had been slowly
+regaining something of her former prosperity.  Her recovery
+revived the hate and suspicion of the Romans.  She was
+attacked upon the most shallow and artificial of quarrels
+(149 <small>B.C.</small>), she made an obstinate and
+bitter resistance, stood a long siege and was stormed (146
+<small>B.C.</small>). The street fighting, or
+massacre, lasted six days; it was extraordinarily bloody, and
+when the citadel capitulated only about fifty thousand of the
+Carthaginian population remained alive out of a quarter of a
+million.  They were sold into slavery, and the city was burnt
+and elaborately destroyed.  The blackened ruins were ploughed
+and sown as a sort of ceremonial effacement.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-183"></a>
+<img src="images/img-183.jpg"
+alt="Map: The Extent of the Roman Power &#38; its Alliances about
+ 150 B.C."
+ width="600" height="345" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+So ended the Third Punic War.  Of all the Semitic states and
+cities that had flourished in the world five centuries before
+only one little country remained free under native rulers.
+  This was Judea, which had liberated itself from the Seleucids
+and was under the rule <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P184"></a></span>of the native Maccabean princes.
+  By this time it had its Bible almost complete, and was
+developing the distinctive traditions of the Jewish world as
+we know it now.  It was natural that the Carthaginians,
+Phoenicians and kindred peoples dispersed about the world
+should find a common link in their practically identical
+language and in this literature of hope and courage.  To a
+large extent they were still the traders and bankers of the
+world.  The Semitic world had been submerged rather than
+replaced.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerusalem, which has always been rather the symbol than the
+centre of Judaism, was taken by the Romans in 65
+ <small>B.C.</small>; and after various vicissitudes of quasi-
+independence and revolt was besieged by them in 70
+ <small>A.D.</small> and captured after a stubborn struggle.
+  The Temple was destroyed.  A later rebellion in 132
+ <small>A.D.</small> completed its destruction, and the
+Jerusalem we know to-day was rebuilt later under Roman
+auspices.  A temple to the Roman god, Jupiter Capitolinus,
+stood in the place of the Temple, and Jews were forbidden to
+inhabit the city.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P185"></a></span><a name="chapXXXIII"></a>XXXIII<br />
+THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE</h2>
+
+<p>
+Now this new Roman power which arose to dominate the western world in the
+second and first centuries <small>B.C.</small> was in several respects a
+different thing from any of the great empires that had hitherto prevailed in
+the civilized world. It was not at first a monarchy, and it was not the
+creation of any one great conqueror. It was not indeed the first of republican
+empires; Athens had dominated a group of Allies and dependents in the time of
+Pericles, and Carthage when she entered upon her fatal struggle with Rome was
+mistress of Sardinia and Corsica, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and most of Spain
+and Sicily. But it was the first republican empire that escaped extinction and
+went on to fresh developments.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The centre of this new system lay far to the west of the more
+ancient centres of empire, which had hitherto been the river
+valleys of Mesopotamia and Egypt.  This westward position
+enabled Rome to bring in to civilization quite fresh regions
+and peoples. The Roman power extended to Morocco and Spain,
+and was presently able to thrust north-westward over what is
+now France and Belgium to Britain and north-eastward into
+Hungary and South Russia.  But on the other hand it was never
+able to maintain itself in Central Asia or Persia because
+they were too far from its administrative centres.  It
+included therefore great masses of fresh Nordic Aryan-
+speaking peoples, it presently incorporated nearly all the
+Greek people in the world, and its population was less
+strongly Hamitic and Semitic than that of any preceding
+empire.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For some centuries this Roman Empire did not fall into the
+grooves of precedent that had so speedily swallowed up
+Persian and Greek, and all that time it developed.  The
+rulers of the Medes and Persians became entirely Babylonized
+in a generation or so; they <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P186"></a></span>took over the tiara of the king of
+kings and the temples and priesthoods of his gods; Alexander
+and his successors followed in the same easy path of
+assimilation; the Seleucid monarchs had much the same court
+and administrative methods as Nebuchadnezzar; the Ptolemies
+became Pharaohs and altogether Egyptian.  They were
+assimilated just as before them the Semitic conquerors of the
+Sumerians had been assimilated.  But the Romans ruled in
+their own city, and for some centuries kept to the laws of
+their own nature.  The only people who exercised any great
+mental influence upon them before the second or third century
+<small>A.D.</small> were the kindred and similar
+Greeks.  So that the Roman Empire was essentially a first
+attempt to rule a great dominion upon mainly Aryan lines.  It
+was so far a new pattern in history, it was an expanded Aryan
+republic.  The old pattern of a personal conqueror ruling
+over a capital city that had grown up round the temple of a
+harvest god did not apply to it.  The Romans had gods and
+temples, but like the gods of the Greeks their gods were
+quasi-human immortals, divine patricians.  The Romans also
+had blood sacrifices and even made human ones in times of
+stress, things they may have learnt to do from their dusky
+Etruscan teachers; but until Rome was long past its zenith
+neither priest nor temple played a large part in Roman
+history.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Roman Empire was a growth, an unplanned novel growth; the
+Roman people found themselves engaged almost unawares in a
+vast administrative experiment.  It cannot be called a
+successful experiment.  In the end their empire collapsed
+altogether.  And it changed enormously in form and method
+from century to century.  It changed more in a hundred years
+than Bengal or Mesopotamia or Egypt changed in a thousand.
+  It was always changing.  It never attained to any fixity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a sense the experiment failed.  In a sense the experiment
+remains unfinished, and Europe and America to-day are still
+working out the riddles of world-wide statescraft first
+confronted by the Roman people.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is well for the student of history to bear in mind the
+very great changes not only in political but in social and
+moral matters that went on throughout the period of Roman
+dominion.  There is much too strong a tendency in
+people&rsquo;s minds to think of the Roman <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P187"></a></span>rule as
+something finished and stable, firm, rounded, noble and
+decisive.  Macaulay&rsquo;s <i>Lays of Ancient Rome</i>,
+S.P.Q.R. the elder Cato, the Scipios, Julius Cæsar,
+Diocletian, Constantine the Great, triumphs, orations,
+gladiatorial combats and Christian martyrs are all mixed up
+together in a picture of something high and cruel and
+dignified.  The items of that picture have to be
+disentangled.  They are collected at different points from a
+process of change profounder than that which separates the
+London of William the Conqueror from the London of to-day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We may very conveniently divide the expansion of Rome into
+four stages.  The first stage began after the sack of Rome by
+the Goths in 390 <small>B.C.</small> and went on
+until the end of the First Punic War (240 B.C,).  We may call
+this stage the stage of the Assimilative Republic.  It was
+perhaps the finest, most characteristic stage in Roman
+history.  The age-long dissensions of patrician and plebeian
+were drawing to it close, the Etruscan threat had come to an
+end, no one was very rich yet nor very poor, and most men
+were public-spirited.  It was a republic like the republic of
+the South African Boers before 1900 or like the northern
+states of the American union between 1800 and 1850; a free-
+farmers republic.  At the outset of this stage Rome was a
+little state scarcely twenty miles square.  She fought the
+sturdy but kindred states about her, and sought not their
+destruction but coalescence.  Her centuries of civil
+dissension had trained her people in compromise and
+concessions.  Some of the defeated cities became altogether
+Roman with a voting share in the government, some became
+self-governing with the right to trade and marry in Rome;
+garrisons full of citizens were set up at strategic points
+and colonies of varied privileges founded among the freshly
+conquered people.  Great roads were made.  The rapid
+Latinization of all Italy was the inevitable consequence of
+such a policy.  In 89 <small>B.C.</small> all the
+free inhabitants of Italy became citizens of the city of
+Rome.  Formally the whole Roman Empire became at last an
+extended city.  In 212 <small>A.D.</small> every
+free man in the entire extent of the empire was given
+citizenship; the right, if he could get there, to vote in the
+town meeting in Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This extension of citizenship to tractable cities and to
+whole countries was the distinctive device of Roman
+expansion.  It <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P188"></a></span>reversed the old process of
+conquest and assimilation altogether.  By the Roman method
+the conquerors assimilated the conquered.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-188"></a>
+<img src="images/img-188.jpg"
+alt="THE FORUM AT ROME AS IT IS TO-DAY"
+ width="600" height="448" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE FORUM AT ROME AS IT IS TO-DAY
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+But after the First Punic War and the annexation of Sicily,
+though the old process of assimilation still went on, another
+process arose by its side.  Sicily for instance was treated
+as a conquered prey.  It was declared an &ldquo;estate&rdquo;
+of the Roman people.  Its rich soil and industrious
+population was exploited to make Rome rich.  The patricians
+and the more influential among the plebeians secured the
+major share of that wealth.  And the war also brought in a
+large supply of slaves.  Before the First Punic War the
+population of the republic had been largely a population of
+citizen farmers.  Military service was their privilege and
+liability.  While they were on active service their farms
+fell into debt and a new large-scale slave agriculture grew
+up; when they returned they found their produce in
+competition with slave-grown produce from Sicily and from the
+new estates at home.  Times had changed.  The republic had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P189"></a></span>altered
+its character.  Not only was Sicily in the hands of Rome, the
+common man was in the hands of the rich creditor and the rich
+competitor.  Rome had entered upon its second stage, the
+Republic of Adventurous Rich Men.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For two hundred years the Roman soldier farmers had struggled
+for freedom and a share in the government of their state; for
+a hundred years they had enjoyed their privileges.  The First
+Punic War wasted them and robbed them of all they had won.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-189"></a>
+<img src="images/img-189.jpg"
+alt="RELICS OF ROMAN RULE"
+ width="600" height="443" />
+<p class="caption">
+RELICS OF ROMAN RULE
+<br /><small>
+Ruins of Coliseum in Tunis
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Jacques Boyer</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The value of their electoral privileges had also evaporated.
+  The governing bodies of the Roman republic were two in
+number.  The first and more important was the Senate.  This
+was a body originally of patricians and then of prominent men
+of all sorts, who were summoned to it first by certain
+powerful officials, the consuls and censors.  Like the
+British House of Lords it became a gathering of great
+landowners, prominent politicians, big business men and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P190"></a></span>like.
+  It was much more like the British House of Lords than it was
+like the American Senate.  For three centuries, from the
+Punic Wars onward, it was the centre of Roman political
+thought and purpose.  The second body was the Popular
+Assembly.  This was supposed to be an assembly of <i>all</i>
+the citizens of Rome.  When Rome was a little state twenty
+miles square this was a possible gathering.  When the
+citizenship of Rome had spread beyond the confines in Italy,
+it was an altogether impossible one.  Its meetings,
+proclaimed by horn-blowing from the Capitol and the city
+walls, became more and more a gathering of political hacks
+and city riff-raff.  In the fourth century
+ <small>B.C.</small> the Popular Assembly was a considerable check
+upon the Senate, a competent representation of the claims and
+rights of the common man.  By the end of the Punic Wars it
+was an impotent relic of a vanquished popular control.  No
+effectual legal check remained upon the big men.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-190"></a>
+<img src="images/img-190.jpg"
+alt="THE GREAT ROMAN ARCH AT CTESIPHON NEAR BAGDAD"
+ width="600" height="383" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE GREAT ROMAN ARCH AT CTESIPHON NEAR BAGDAD
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Nothing of the nature of representative government was ever
+introduced into the Roman republic.  No one thought of
+electing delegates to represent the will of the citizens.
+  This is a very important point for the student to grasp.  The
+Popular Assembly <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P191"></a></span>never became the equivalent of the
+American House of Representatives or the British House of
+Commons.  In theory it was all the citizens; in practice it
+ceased to be anything at all worth consideration.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The common citizen of the Roman Empire was therefore in a
+very poor case after the Second Punic War; he was
+impoverished, he had often lost his farm, he was ousted from
+profitable production by slaves, and he had no political
+power left to him to remedy these things.  The only methods
+of popular expression left to a people without any form of
+political expression are the strike and the revolt.  The
+story of the second and first centuries
+ <small>B.C.</small>, so far as internal politics go, is a story
+of futile revolutionary upheaval.  The scale of this history
+will not permit us to tell of the intricate struggles of that
+time, of the attempts to break up estates and restore the
+land to the free farmer, of proposals to abolish debts in
+whole or in part.  There was revolt and civil war.  In 73
+<small>B.C.</small>, the distresses of Italy were
+enhanced by a great insurrection, of the slaves under
+Spartacus.  The slaves of Italy revolted with some effect,
+for among them were the trained fighters of the gladiatorial
+shows.  For two years Spartacus held out in the crater of
+Vesuvius, which seemed at that time to be an extinct volcano.
+  This insurrection was defeated at last and suppressed with
+frantic cruelty.  Six thousand captured Spartacists were
+crucified along the Appian Way, the great highway that runs
+southward out of Rome (71 <small>B.C.</small>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The common man never made head against the forces that were
+subjugating and degrading him.  But the big rich men who were
+overcoming him were even in his defeat preparing a new power
+in the Roman world over themselves and him, the power of the
+army.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Before the Second Punic War the army of Rome was a levy of
+free farmers, who, according to their quality, rode or
+marched afoot to battle.  This was a very good force for wars
+close at hand, but not the sort of army that will go abroad
+and bear long campaigns with patience.  And moreover as the
+slaves multiplied and the estates grew, the supply of free-
+spirited fighting farmers declined.  It was a popular leader
+named Marius who introduced a new factor.  North Africa after
+the overthrow of the Carthaginian civilization had become a
+semi-barbaric kingdom, the kingdom of Numidia.  <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P192"></a></span>The Roman
+power fell into conflict with Jugurtha, king of this state,
+and experienced enormous difficulties in subduing him.
+  Marius was made consul, in a phase of public indignation, to
+end this discreditable war.  This he did by raising <i>paid
+troops</i> and drilling them hard.  Jugurtha was brought in
+chains to Rome (106 <small>B.C.</small>) and Marius,
+when his time of office had expired, held on to his
+consulship illegally with his newly created legions.  There
+was no power in Rome to restrain him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With Marius began the third phase in the development of the
+Roman power, the Republic of the Military Commanders.  For
+now began a period in which the leaders of the paid legions
+fought for the mastery of the Roman world.  Against Marius
+was pitted the aristocratic Sulla who had served under him in
+Africa.  Each in turn made a great massacre of his political
+opponents.  Men were proscribed and executed by the thousand,
+and their estates were sold.  After the bloody rivalry of
+these two and the horror of the revolt of Spartacus, came a
+phase in which Lucullus and Pompey the Great and Crassus and
+Julius Cæsar were the masters of armies and dominated
+affairs.  It was Crassus who defeated Spartacus.  Lucullus
+conquered Asia Minor and penetrated to Armenia, and retired
+with great wealth into private life.  Crassus thrusting
+further invaded Persia and was defeated and slain by the
+Parthians.  After a long rivalry Pompey was defeated by
+Julius Cæsar (48 <small>B.C.</small>) and
+murdered in Egypt, leaving Julius Cæsar sole master of
+the Roman world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The figure of Julius Cæsar is one that has stirred the
+human imagination out of all proportion to its merit or true
+importance.  He has become a legend and a symbol.  For us he
+is chiefly important as marking the transition from the phase
+of military adventurers to the beginning of the fourth stage
+in Roman expansion, the Early Empire.  For in spite of the
+profoundest economic and political convulsions, in spite of
+civil war and social degeneration, throughout all this time
+the boundaries of the Roman state crept outward and continued
+to creep outward to their maximum about 100
+ <small>A.D.</small>  There had been something like an ebb during
+the doubtful phases of the Second Punic War, and again a
+manifest loss of vigour before the reconstruction of the army
+by Marius. The revolt of Spartacus <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P193"></a></span>marked a third phase.  Julius
+Cæsar made his reputation as a military leader in Gaul,
+which is now France and Belgium.  (The chief tribes
+inhabiting this country belonged to the same Celtic people as
+the Gauls who had occupied north Italy for a time, and who
+had afterwards raided into Asia Minor and settled down as the
+Galatians.)  Cæsar drove back a German invasion of Gaul
+and added all that country to the empire, and he twice
+crossed the Straits of Dover into Britain (55 and 54
+ <small>B.C.</small>), where however he made no permanent
+conquest.  Meanwhile Pompey the Great was consolidating Roman
+conquests that reached in the east to the Caspian Sea.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-193"></a>
+<img src="images/img-193.jpg"
+alt="THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME"
+ width="600" height="460" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME
+<br /><small>
+Representing his conquests at Dacia and elsewhere
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+At this time, the middle of the first century
+ <small>B.C.</small>, the Roman Senate was still the nominal
+centre of the Roman government, appointing consuls and other
+officials, granting powers and the like; and a number of
+politicians, among whom Cicero was an outstanding <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P194"></a></span>figure, were
+struggling to preserve the great traditions of republican
+Rome and to maintain respect for its laws.  But the spirit of
+citizenship had gone from Italy with the wasting away of the
+free farmers; it was a land now of slaves and impoverished
+men with neither the understanding nor the desire for
+freedom.  There was nothing whatever behind these republican
+leaders in the Senate, while behind the great adventurers
+they feared and desired to control were the legions.  Over
+the heads of the Senate Crassus and Pompey and Cæsar
+divided the rule of the Empire between them (The First
+Triumvirate).  When presently Crassus was killed at distant
+Carrhæ by the Parthians, Pompey and Cæsar fell out.
+  Pompey took up the republican side, and laws were passed to
+bring Cæsar to trial for his breaches of law and his
+disobedience to the decrees of the Senate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was illegal for a general to bring his troops out of the
+boundary of his command, and the boundary between
+Cæsar&rsquo;s command and Italy was the Rubicon.  In 49
+<small>B.C.</small> he crossed the Rubicon, saying
+&ldquo;The die is cast&rdquo; and marched upon Pompey and
+Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It had been the custom in Rome in the past, in periods of
+military extremity, to elect a &ldquo;dictator&rdquo; with
+practically unlimited powers to rule through the crisis.
+  After his overthrow of Pompey, Cæsar was made dictator
+first for ten years and then (in 45
+ <small>B.C.</small>) for life.  In effect he was made monarch of
+the empire for life.  There was talk of a king, a word
+abhorrent to Rome since the expulsion of the Etruscans five
+centuries before.  Cæsar refused to be king, but adopted
+throne and sceptre.  After his defeat of Pompey, Cæsar
+had gone on into Egypt and had made love to Cleopatra, the
+last of the Ptolemies, the goddess queen of Egypt.  She seems
+to have turned his head very completely.  He had brought back
+to Rome the Egyptian idea of a god-king.  His statue was set
+up in a temple with an inscription &ldquo;To the
+Unconquerable God.&rdquo;  The expiring republicanism of Rome
+flared up in a last protest, and Cæsar was stabbed to
+death in the Senate at the foot of the statue of his murdered
+rival, Pompey the Great.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thirteen years more of this conflict of ambitious
+personalities followed.  There was a second Triumvirate of
+Lepidus, Mark Antony and Octavian Cæsar, the latter the
+nephew of Julius Cæsar.  Octavian like his uncle took
+the poorer, hardier western provinces <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P195"></a></span>where the best
+legions were recruited.  In 31 <small>B.C.</small>,
+he defeated Mark Antony, his only serious rival, at the naval
+battle of Actium, and made himself sole master of the Roman
+world.  But Octavian was a man of different quality
+altogether from Julius Cæsar.  He had no foolish craving
+to be God or King.  He had no queen-lover that he wished to
+dazzle.  He restored freedom to the Senate and people of
+Rome.  He declined to be dictator.  The grateful Senate in
+return gave him the reality instead of the forms of power.
+  He was to be called not King indeed, but
+&ldquo;Princeps&rdquo; and &ldquo;Augustus.&rdquo;  He became
+Augustus Cæsar, the first of the Roman emperors (27
+<small>B.C.</small> to 14 <small>A.D.</small>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was followed by Tiberius Cæsar (14 to 37
+<small>A.D.</small>) and he by others, Caligula, Claudius, Nero
+and so on up to Trajan (98 <small>A.D.</small>),
+Hadrian (117 <small>A.D.</small>), Antonius Pius
+(138 <small>A.D.</small>) and Marcus Aurelius (161-
+180 <small>A.D.</small>).  All these emperors were
+emperors of the legions.  The soldiers made them, and some
+the soldiers destroyed.  Gradually the Senate fades out of
+Roman-history, and the emperor and his administrative
+officials replace it.  The boundaries of the empire crept
+forward now to their utmost limits.  Most of Britain was
+added to the empire, Transylvania was brought in as a new
+province, Dacia; Trajan crossed the Euphrates.  Hadrian had
+an idea that reminds us at once of what had happened at the
+other end of the old world.  Like Shi-Hwang-ti he built walls
+against the northern barbarians; one across Britain and a
+palisade between the Rhine and the Danube.  He abandoned some
+of the acquisitions of Trajan.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The expansion of the Roman Empire was at an end.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P196"></a></span><a name="chapXXXIV"></a>XXXIV<br />
+BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA</h2>
+
+<p>
+The second and first centuries <small>B.C.</small> mark a new phase in the
+history of mankind. Mesopotamia and the eastern Mediterranean are no longer the
+centre of interest. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt were still fertile, populous and
+fairly prosperous, but they were no longer the dominant regions of the world.
+Power had drifted to the west and to the east. Two great empires now dominated
+the world, this new Roman Empire and the renascent Empire of China. Rome
+extended its power to the Euphrates, but it was never able to get beyond that
+boundary. It was too remote. Beyond the Euphrates the former Persian and Indian
+dominions of the Seleucids fell under a number of new masters. China, now under
+the Han dynasty, which had replaced the Ts&rsquo;in dynasty at the death of
+Shi-Hwang-ti, had extended its power across Tibet and over the high mountain
+passes of the Pamirs into western Turkestan. But there, too, it reached its
+extremes. Beyond was too far.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+China at this time was the greatest, best organized and most
+civilized political system in the world.  It was superior in
+area and population to the Roman Empire at its zenith.  It
+was possible then for these two vast systems to flourish in
+the same world at the same time in almost complete ignorance
+of each other.  The means of communication both by sea and
+land was not yet sufficiently developed and organized for
+them to come to a direct clash.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yet they reacted upon each other in a very remarkable way,
+and their influence upon the fate of the regions that lay
+between them, upon central Asia and India, was profound.  A
+certain amount of trade trickled through, by camel caravans
+across Persia, for example, and by coasting ships by way of
+India and the Red Sea.  In 66 <small>B.C.</small>
+Roman troops under Pompey followed in the footsteps of
+Alexander the Great, and marched up the eastern shores of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P197"></a></span>Caspian
+Sea.  In 102 <small>A.D.</small> a Chinese
+expeditionary force under Pan Chau reached the Caspian, and
+sent emissaries to report upon the power of Rome.  But many
+centuries were still to pass before definite knowledge and
+direct intercourse were to link the great parallel worlds of
+Europe and Eastern Asia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To the north of both these great empires were barbaric
+wildernesses.  What is now Germany was largely forest lands;
+the forests extended far into Russia and made a home for the
+gigantic aurochs, a bull of almost elephantine size.  Then to
+the north of the great mountain masses of Asia stretched a
+band of deserts, steppes and then forests and frozen lands.
+  In the eastward lap of the elevated part of Asia was the
+great triangle of Manchuria.  Large parts of these regions,
+stretching between South Russia and Turkestan into Manchuria,
+were and are regions of exceptional climatic insecurity.
+  Their rainfall has varied greatly in the course of a few
+centuries  They are lands treacherous to man.  For years they
+will carry pasture and sustain cultivation, and then will
+come an age of decline in humidity and a cycle of killing
+droughts.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-197"></a>
+<img src="images/img-197.jpg"
+alt="A CHINESE COVERED JAR OF GREEN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE"
+ width="250" height="270" />
+<p class="caption">
+A CHINESE COVERED JAR OF GREEN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE
+<br /><small>
+Han Dynasty (contemporary with the late Roman republic and early
+ Empire)
+<br />
+<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The western part of this barbaric north from the German
+forests to South Russia and Turkestan and from Gothland to
+the Alps was the region of origin of the Nordic peoples and
+of the Aryan speech.  The eastern steppes and deserts of
+Mongolia was the region of origin of the Hunnish or Mongolian
+or Tartar or Turkish peoples&mdash;for all these several
+peoples were akin in language, race, and way of life.  And as
+the Nordic peoples seem to have been continually overflowing
+their own borders and pressing south upon the developing
+civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean coast, so
+the Hunnish <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P198"></a></span>tribes sent their surplus as
+wanderers, raiders and conquerors into the settled regions of
+China.  Periods of plenty in the north would mean an increase
+in population there; a shortage of grass, a spell of cattle
+disease, would drive the hungry warlike tribesmen south.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For a time there were simultaneously two fairly effective
+Empires in the world capable of holding back the barbarians
+and even forcing forward the frontiers of the imperial peace.
+  The thrust of the Han empire from north China into Mongolia
+was strong and continuous.  The Chinese population welled up
+over the barrier of the Great Wall.  Behind the imperial
+frontier guards came the Chinese farmer with horse and
+plough, ploughing up the grass lands and enclosing the winter
+pasture.  The Hunnish peoples raided and murdered the
+settlers, but the Chinese punitive expeditions were too much
+for them.  The nomads were faced with the choice of settling
+down to the plough and becoming Chinese tax-payers or
+shifting in search of fresh summer pastures.  Some took the
+former course and were absorbed.  Some drifted north-eastward
+and eastward over the mountain passes down into western
+Turkestan.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-198"></a>
+<img src="images/img-198.jpg"
+alt="VASE OF BRONZE FORM, UNGLAZED STONEWARE"
+ width="250" height="424" />
+<p class="caption">
+VASE OF BRONZE FORM, UNGLAZED STONEWARE
+<br /><small>
+Han Dynasty (<small>B.C.</small> 206 - <small>A.D.</small> 220)
+<br />
+<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+This westward drive of the Mongolian horsemen was going on
+from 200 <small>B.C.</small> onward.  It was
+producing a westward pressure upon the Aryan tribes, and
+these again were pressing upon the Roman frontiers ready to
+break through directly there was any weakness apparent.  The
+Parthians, who were apparently a Scythian people with some
+Mongolian admixture, came down to the Euphrates by the first
+century <small>B.C.</small>  They fought against
+Pompey the Great in <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P199"></a></span>his eastern raid.  They defeated
+and killed Crassus.  They replaced the Seleucid monarchy in
+Persia by a dynasty of Parthian kings, the Arsacid dynasty.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-199"></a>
+<img src="images/img-199.jpg"
+alt="CHINESE VESSEL IN BRONZE, IN FORM OF A GOOSE"
+ width="600" height="343" />
+<p class="caption">
+CHINESE VESSEL IN BRONZE, IN FORM OF A GOOSE
+<br /><small>
+Dating from before the time of Shi-Hwang-ti.  Such a piece of work
+ indicates a high level of comfort and humour
+<br />
+<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+But for a time the line of least resistance for hungry nomads
+lay neither to the west nor the east but through central Asia
+and then south-eastward through the Khyber Pass into India.
+  It was India which received the Mongolian drive in these
+centuries of Roman and Chinese strength.  A series of raiding
+conquerors poured down through the Punjab into the great
+plains to loot and destroy.  The empire of Asoka was broken
+up, and for a time the history of India passes into darkness.
+  A certain Kushan dynasty founded by the &ldquo;Indo-
+Scythians&rdquo;&mdash;one of the raiding peoples&mdash;ruled
+for a time over North India and maintained a certain order.
+  These invasions went on for several centuries.  For a large
+part of the fifth century <small>A.D.</small> India
+was afflicted by the Ephthalites or White Huns, who levied
+tribute on the small Indian princes and held India in terror.
+  Every summer these Ephthalites pastured in western Turkestan,
+every autumn they came down through the passes to terrorize
+India.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P200"></a></span>In the
+second century <small>A.D.</small> a great
+misfortune came upon the Roman and Chinese empires that
+probably weakened the resistance of both to barbarian
+pressure.  This was a pestilence of unexampled virulence.  It
+raged for eleven years in China and disorganized the social
+framework profoundly.  The Han dynasty fell, and a new age of
+division and confusion began from which China did not fairly
+recover until the seventh century
+ <small>A.D.</small> with the coming of the great Tang dynasty.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The infection spread through Asia to Europe.  It raged
+throughout the Roman Empire from 164 to 180
+ <small>A.D.</small>  It evidently weakened the Roman imperial
+fabric very seriously.  We begin to hear of depopulation in
+the Roman provinces after this, and there was a marked
+deterioration in the vigour and efficiency of government.  At
+any rate we presently find the frontier no longer
+invulnerable, but giving way first in this place and then in
+that.  A new Nordic people, the Goths, coming originally from
+Gothland in Sweden, had migrated across Russia to the Volga
+region and the shores of the Black Sea and taken to the sea
+and piracy.  By the end of the second century they may have
+begun to feel the westward thrust of the Huns.  In 247 they
+crossed the Danube in a great land raid, and defeated and
+killed the Emperor Decius in a battle in what is now Serbia.
+  In 236 another Germanic people, the Franks, had broken bounds
+upon the lower Rhine, and the Alemanni had poured into
+Alsace.  The legions in Gaul beat back their invaders, but
+the Goths in the Balkan peninsula raided again and again.
+  The province of Dacia vanished from Roman history.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A chill had come to the pride and confidence of Rome.  In
+270-275 Rome, which had been an open and secure city for
+three centuries, was fortified by the Emperor Aurelian.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P201"></a></span><a name="chapXXXV"></a>XXXV<br />
+THE COMMON MAN&rsquo;S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE</h2>
+
+<p>
+Before we tell of how this Roman empire which was built up in the two centuries
+<small>B.C.</small>, and which flourished in peace and security from the days
+of Augustus Cæsar onward for two centuries, fell into disorder and was broken
+up, it may be as well to devote some attention to the life of the ordinary
+people throughout this great realm. Our history has come down now to within
+2000 years of our own time; and the life of the civilized people, both under
+the Peace of Rome and the Peace of the Han dynasty, was beginning to resemble
+more and more clearly the life of their civilized successors to-day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the western world coined money was now in common use;
+outside the priestly world there were many people of
+independent means who were neither officials of the
+government nor priests; people travelled about more freely
+than they had ever done before, and there were high roads and
+inns for them. Compared with the past, with the time before
+500 <small>B.C.</small>, life had become much more
+loose. Before that date civilized men had been bound to a
+district or country, had been bound to a tradition and lived
+within a very limited horizon; only the nomads traded and
+travelled.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But neither the Roman Peace nor the Peace of the Han dynasty
+meant a uniform civilization over the large areas they
+controlled.  There were very great local differences and
+great contrasts and inequalities of culture between one
+district and another, just as there are to-day under the
+British Peace in India.  The Roman garrisons and colonies
+were dotted here and there over this great space, worshipping
+Roman gods and speaking the Latin language; but where there
+had been towns and cities before the coming of the Romans,
+they went on, subordinated indeed but managing their own
+affairs, and, for a time at least, worshipping their own gods
+in their own fashion.  Over Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt and the
+Hellenized East <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P202"></a></span>generally, the Latin language
+never prevailed.  Greek ruled there invincibly.  Saul of
+Tarsus, who became the apostle Paul, was a Jew and a Roman
+citizen; but he spoke and wrote Greek and not Hebrew.  Even
+at the court of the Parthian dynasty, which had overthrown
+the Greek Seleucids in Persia, and was quite outside the
+Roman imperial boundaries, Greek was the fashionable
+language.  In some parts of Spain and in North Africa, the
+Carthaginian language also held on for a long time in spite
+of the destruction of Carthage.  Such a town as Seville,
+which had been a prosperous city long before the Roman name
+had been heard of, kept its Semitic goddess and preserved its
+Semitic speech for generations, in spite of a colony of Roman
+veterans at Italica a few miles away.  Septimius Severus, who
+was emperor from 193 to 211 <small>A.D.</small>,
+spoke Carthaginian as his mother speech.  He learnt Latin
+later as a foreign tongue; <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P203"></a></span>and it is recorded that his sister
+never learnt Latin and conducted her Roman household in the
+Punic language.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-202"></a>
+<img src="images/img-202.jpg"
+alt="A Gladiator (contemporary representation)"
+ width="420" height="479" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In such countries as Gaul and Britain and in provinces like
+Dacia (now roughly Roumania) and Pannonia (Hungary south of
+the Danube), where there were no pre-existing great cities
+and temples and cultures, the Roman empire did however
+&ldquo;Latinize.&rdquo;  It civilized these countries for the
+first time.  It created cities and towns where Latin was from
+the first the dominant speech, and where Roman gods were
+served and Roman customs and fashions followed.  The
+Roumanian, Italian, French and Spanish languages, all
+variations and modifications of Latin, remain to remind us of
+this extension of Latin speech and customs.  North-west
+Africa also became at last largely Latin-speaking.  Egypt,
+Greece and the rest of the empire to the east were never
+Latinized.  They remained Egyptian and Greek in culture and
+spirit.  And even in Rome, among educated men, Greek was
+learnt as the language of a gentleman and Greek literature
+and learning were very, properly preferred to Latin.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this miscellaneous empire the ways of doing work and
+business were naturally also very miscellaneous.  The chief
+industry of the settled world was still largely agriculture.
+  We have told how in Italy the sturdy free farmers who were
+the backbone of the early Roman republic were replaced by
+estates worked by slave labour after the Punic wars.  The
+Greek world had had very various methods of cultivation, from
+the Arcadian plan, wherein every free citizen toiled with his
+own hands, to Sparta, wherein it was a dishonour to work and
+where agricultural work was done by a special slave class,
+the Helots.  But that was ancient history now, and over most
+of the Hellenized world the estate system and slave-gangs had
+spread.  The agricultural slaves were captives who spoke many
+different languages so that they could not understand each
+other, or they were born slaves; they had no solidarity to
+resist oppression, no tradition of rights, no knowledge, for
+they could not read nor write.  Although they came to form a
+majority of the country population they never made a
+successful insurrection.  The insurrection of Spartacus in
+the first century <small>B.C.</small> was an
+insurrection of the special slaves who were trained for the
+gladiatorial combats. The agricultural workers in Italy in
+the latter days of <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P204"></a></span>the Republic and the early Empire
+suffered frightful indignities; they would be chained at
+night to prevent escape or have half the head shaved to make
+it difficult.  They had no wives of their own; they could be
+outraged, mutilated and killed by their masters.  A master
+could sell his slave to fight beasts in the arena.  If a
+slave slew his master, all the slaves in his household and
+not merely the murderer were crucified.  In some parts of
+Greece, in Athens notably, the lot of the slave was never
+quite so frightful as this, but it was still detestable.  To
+such a population the barbarian invaders who presently broke
+through the defensive line of the legions, came not as
+enemies but as liberators.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-204"></a>
+<img src="images/img-204.jpg"
+alt="POMPEII"
+ width="420" height="581" />
+<p class="caption">
+POMPEII
+<br /><small>
+&ldquo;Note the ruts in roadway worn by chariot wheels.&rdquo;
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The slave system had spread to most industries and to every
+sort of work that could be done by gangs.  Mines and
+metallurgical operations, the rowing of galleys, road-making
+and big building operations were all largely slave
+occupations.  And almost all domestic service was performed
+by slaves.  There were poor free-men <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P205"></a></span>and there were
+freed-men in the cities and upon the country side, working
+for themselves or even working for wages.  They were
+artizans, supervisors and so forth, workers of a new money-
+paid class working in competition with slave workers; but we
+do not know what proportion they made of the general
+population.  It probably varied widely in different places
+and at different periods.  And there were also many
+modifications of slavery, from the slavery that was chained
+at night and driven with whips to the farm or quarry, to the
+slave whose master found it advantageous to leave him to
+cultivate his patch or work his craft and own his wife like a
+free-man, provided he paid in a satisfactory quittance to his
+owner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There were armed slaves.  At the opening of the period of the
+Punic wars, in 264 <small>B.C.</small>, the Etruscan
+sport of setting slaves to fight for their lives was revived
+in Rome.  It grew rapidly fashionable; and soon every great
+Roman rich man kept a retinue of gladiators, who sometimes
+fought in the arena but whose real business it was to act as
+his bodyguard of bullies.  And also there were learned
+slaves.  The conquests of the later Republic were among the
+highly civilized cities of Greece, North Africa and Asia
+Minor; and they brought in many highly educated captives.
+  The tutor of a young Roman of good family was usually a
+slave.  A rich man would have a Greek slave as librarian, and
+slave secretaries and learned men.  He would keep his poet as
+he would keep a performing dog.  In this atmosphere of
+slavery the traditions of modern literary criticism were
+evolved.  The slaves still boast and quarrel in our reviews.
+  There were enterprising people who bought intelligent boy
+slaves and had them educated for sale.  Slaves were trained
+as book copyists, as jewellers, and for endless skilled
+callings.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P206"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-2061"></a>
+<img src="images/img-2061.jpg"
+alt="THE COLISEUM, ROME"
+ width="600" height="366" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE COLISEUM, ROME
+<br /><small>
+<i>Photo:  Underwood &#38; Underwood</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-2062"></a>
+<img src="images/img-2062.jpg"
+alt="INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AT IT APPEARS TO-DAY"
+ width="600" height="439" />
+<p class="caption">
+INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AT IT APPEARS TO-DAY
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+But there were very considerable changes in the position of a
+slave during the four hundred years between the opening days
+of conquest under the republic of rich men and the days of
+disintegration that followed the great pestilence.  In the
+second century <small>B.C.</small> war-captives were
+abundant, manners gross and brutal; the slave had no rights
+and there was scarcely an outrage the reader can imagine that
+was not practised upon slaves in those days.  But already in
+the first century <small>A.D.</small> there was a
+perceptible improvement in the attitude of the Roman
+civilization towards slavery.  Captives <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P207"></a></span>were not so
+abundant for one thing, and slaves were dearer.  And slave-
+owners began to realize that the profit and comfort they got
+from their slaves increased with the self-respect of these
+unfortunates.  But also the moral tone of the community was
+rising, and a sense of justice was becoming effective.  The
+higher mentality of Greece was qualifying the old Roman
+harshness.  Restrictions upon cruelty were made, a master
+might no longer sell his slave to fight beasts, a slave was
+given property rights in what was called his <i>peculium</i>,
+slaves were paid wages as an encouragement and stimulus, a
+form of slave marriage was recognized.  Very many forms of
+agriculture do not lend themselves to gang working, or
+require gang workers only at certain seasons.  In regions
+where such conditions prevailed the slave presently became a
+serf, paying his owner part of his produce or working for him
+at certain seasons.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When we begin to realize how essentially this great Latin and
+Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the first two centuries
+ <small>A.D.</small> was a slave state and how small was
+the minority who had any pride or freedom in their lives, we
+lay our hands on the clues to its decay and collapse.  There
+was little of what we should call family life, few homes of
+temperate living and active thought and study; schools and
+colleges were few and far between.  The free will and the
+free mind were nowhere to be found.  The great roads, the
+ruins of splendid buildings, the tradition of law and power
+it left for the astonishment of succeeding generations must
+not conceal from us that all its outer splendour was built
+upon thwarted wills, stifled intelligence, and crippled and
+perverted desires.  And even the minority who lorded it over
+that wide realm of subjugation and of restraint and forced
+labour were uneasy and unhappy in their souls; art and
+literature, science and philosophy, which are the fruits of
+free and happy minds, waned in that atmosphere.  There was
+much copying and imitation, an abundance of artistic
+artificers, much slavish pedantry among the servile men of
+learning, but the whole Roman empire in four centuries
+produced nothing to set beside the bold and noble
+intellectual activities of the comparatively little city of
+Athens during its one century of greatness.  Athens decayed
+under the Roman sceptre.  The science of Alexandria decayed.
+The spirit of man, it seemed, was decaying in those days.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P208"></a></span><a name="chapXXXVI"></a>XXXVI<br />
+RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE</h2>
+
+<p>
+The soul of man under that Latin and Greek empire of the first two centuries of
+the Christian era was a worried and frustrated soul. Compulsion and cruelty
+reigned; there were pride and display but little honour; little serenity or
+steadfast happiness. The unfortunate were despised and wretched; the fortunate
+were insecure and feverishly eager for gratifications. In a great number of
+cities life centred on the red excitement of the arena, where men and beasts
+fought and were tormented and slain. Amphitheatres are the most characteristic
+of Roman ruins. Life went on in that key. The uneasiness of men&rsquo;s hearts
+manifested itself in profound religious unrest.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the days when the Aryan hordes first broke in upon the
+ancient civilizations, it was inevitable that the old gods of
+the temples and priesthoods should suffer great adaptations
+or disappear.  In the course of hundreds of generations the
+agricultural peoples of the brunette civilizations had shaped
+their lives and thoughts to the temple-centred life.
+  Observances and the fear of disturbed routines, sacrifices
+and mysteries, dominated their minds.  Their gods seem
+monstrous and illogical to our modern minds because we belong
+to an Aryanized world, but to these older peoples these
+deities had the immediate conviction and vividness of things
+seen in an intense dream.  The conquest of one city state by
+another in Sumeria or early Egypt meant a change or a
+renaming of gods or goddesses, but left the shape and spirit
+of the worship intact.  There was no change in its general
+character.  The figures in the dream changed, but the dream
+went on and it was the same sort of dream.  And the early
+Semitic conquerors were sufficiently akin in spirit to the
+Sumerians to take over the religion of the Mesopotamian
+civilization they subjugated without any profound alteration.
+  Egypt was never <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P209"></a></span>indeed subjugated to the extent of
+a religious revolution.  Under the Ptolemies and under the
+Cæsars, her temples and altars and priesthoods remained
+essentially Egyptian.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So long as conquests went on between people of similar social
+and religious habits it was possible to get over the clash
+between the god of this temple and region and the god of that
+by a process of grouping or assimilation.  If the two gods
+were alike in character they were identified.  It was really
+the same god under another name, said the priests and the
+people.  This fusion of gods is called theocrasia; and the
+age of the great conquests of the thousand years
+ <small>B.C.</small> was an age of theocrasia.  Over wide areas
+the local gods were displaced by, or rather they were
+swallowed up in, a general god.  So that when at last Hebrew
+prophets in Babylon proclaimed one God of Righteousness in
+all the earth men&rsquo;s minds were fully prepared for that
+idea.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But often the gods were too dissimilar for such an
+assimilation, and then they were grouped together in some
+plausible relationship.  A female god - and the Ægean
+world before the coming of the Greek was much addicted to
+Mother Gods&mdash;would be married to a male god, and an
+animal god or a star god would be humanized and the animal or
+astronomical aspect, the serpent or the sun or the star, made
+into an ornament or a symbol.  Or the god of a defeated
+people would become a malignant antagonist to the brighter
+gods.  The history of theology is full of such adaptations,
+compromises and rationalizations of once local gods.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As Egypt developed from city states into one united kingdom
+there was much of this theocrasia.  The chief god so to speak
+was Osiris, a sacrificial harvest god of whom Pharaoh was
+supposed to be the earthly incarnation.  Osiris was
+represented as repeatedly dying and rising again; he was not
+only the seed and the harvest but also by a natural extension
+of thought the means of human immortality.  Among his symbols
+was the wide-winged scarabeus beetle which buries its eggs to
+rise again, and also the effulgent sun which sets to rise.
+  Later on he was to be identified with Apis, the sacred bull.
+  Associated with him was the goddess Isis.  Isis was also
+Hathor, a cow-goddess, and the crescent moon and the Star of
+the sea.  Osiris dies and she bears a child, Horus, who is
+also a <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P210"></a></span>hawk-god and the dawn, and who
+grows to become Osiris again.  The effigies of Isis represent
+her as bearing the infant Horus in her arms and standing on
+the crescent moon.  These are not logical relationships, but
+they were devised by the human mind before the development of
+hard and systematic thinking and they have a dream-like
+coherence.  Beneath this triple group there are other and
+darker Egyptian gods, bad gods, the dog-headed Anubis, black
+night and the like, devourers, tempters, enemies of god and
+man.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-210"></a>
+<img src="images/img-210.jpg"
+alt="MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN"
+ width="600" height="480" />
+<p class="caption">
+MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN
+<br />
+<small><i>(In the British Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Every religious system does in the course of time fit itself
+to the shape of the human soul, and there can be no doubt
+that out of these illogical and even uncouth symbols,
+Egyptian people were able to fashion for themselves ways of
+genuine devotion and consolation.  The desire for immortality
+was very strong in the Egyptian mind, and the religious life
+of Egypt turned on that desire. The Egyptian <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P211"></a></span>religion was
+an immortality religion as no other religion had ever been.
+  As Egypt went down under foreign conquerors and the Egyptian
+gods ceased to have any satisfactory political significance,
+this craving for a life of compensations here-after,
+intensified.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-211"></a>
+<img src="images/img-211.jpg"
+alt="ISIS AND HORUS"
+ width="160" height="232" />
+<p class="caption">
+ISIS AND HORUS
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+After the Greek conquest, the new city of Alexandria became
+the centre of Egyptian religious life, and indeed of the
+religious life of the whole Hellenic world.  A great temple,
+the Serapeum, was set up by Ptolemy I at which a sort of
+trinity of gods was worshipped. These were Serapis (who was
+Osiris-Apis rechristened), Isis and Horus. These were not
+regarded as separate gods but as three aspects of one god,
+and Serapis was identified with the Greek Zeus, the Roman
+Jupiter and the Persian sun-god.  This worship spread
+wherever the Hellenic influence extended, even into North
+India and Western China.  The idea of immortality, an
+immortality of compensations and consolation, was eagerly
+received by a world in which the common life was hopelessly
+wretched.  Serapis was called &ldquo;the saviour of
+souls.&rdquo;  &ldquo;After death,&rdquo; said the hymns of
+that time, &ldquo;we are still in the care of his
+providence.&rdquo;  Isis attracted many devotees.  Her images
+stood in her temples, as Queen of Heaven, bearing the infant
+Horus in her arms.  Candles were burnt before her, votive
+offerings were made to her, shaven priests consecrated to
+celibacy waited on her altar.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The rise of the Roman empire opened the western European
+world to this growing cult.  The temples of Serapis-Isis, the
+chanting of the priests and the hope of immortal life,
+followed the Roman standards to Scotland and Holland.  But
+there were many rivals to the Serapis-Isis religion.
+  Prominent among these was Mithraism.  This was a religion of
+Persian origin, and it centred upon some now forgotten
+mysteries about Mithras sacrificing a sacred and benevolent
+bull.  Here we seem to have something more primordial <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P212"></a></span>than the
+complicated and sophisticated Serapis-Isis beliefs.  We are
+carried back directly to the blood sacrifices of the
+heliolithic stage in human culture.  The bull upon the
+Mithraic monuments always bleeds copiously from a wound in
+its side, and from this blood springs new life.  The votary
+to Mithraism actually bathed in the blood of the sacrificial
+bull.  At his initiation he went beneath a scaffolding upon
+which a bull was killed so that the blood could actually run
+down on him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Both these religions, and the same is true of many other of
+the numerous parallel cults that sought the allegiance of the
+slaves and citizens under the earlier Roman emperors, are
+personal religions.  They aim at personal salvation and
+personal immortality.  The older religions were not personal
+like that; they were social.  The older fashion of divinity
+was god or goddess of the city first or of the state, and
+only secondarily of the individual.  The sacrifices were a
+public and not a private function.  They concerned collective
+practical needs in this world in which we live.  But the
+Greeks first and now the Romans had pushed religion out of
+politics.  Guided by the Egyptian tradition religion had
+retreated to the other world.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-212"></a>
+<img src="images/img-212.jpg"
+alt="BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, A.D. 180-192"
+ width="160" height="225" />
+<p class="caption">
+BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, <small>A.D.</small> 180-192
+<br />
+<small>Represented as the God Mithras, Roman, Circa <small>A.D.
+</small> 190
+<br />
+<i>(In the British Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+These new private immortality religions took all the heart
+and emotion out of the old state religions, but they did not
+actually replace them.  A typical city under the earlier
+Roman emperors would have a number of temples to all sorts of
+gods.  There might be a temple to Jupiter of the Capitol, the
+great god of Rome, and there would probably be one to the
+reigning Cæsar.  For the Cæsars had learnt from the
+Pharaohs the possibility of being gods.  In such temples a
+cold and stately political worship went on; one would go and
+make an offering and burn a pinch of incense to show
+one&rsquo;s loyalty.  But it would be to the temple of Isis,
+the dear Queen of Heaven, one would go with the burthen <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P213"></a></span>of one&rsquo;s
+private troubles for advice and relief.  There might be local
+and eccentric gods.  Seville, for example, long affected the
+worship of the old Carthaginian Venus.  In a cave or an
+underground temple there would certainly be an altar to
+Mithras, attended by legionaries and slaves.  And probably
+also there would be a synagogue where the Jews gathered to
+read their Bible and uphold their faith in the unseen God of
+all the Earth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sometimes there would be trouble with the Jews about the
+political side of the state religion.  They held that their
+God was a jealous God intolerant of idolatry, and they would
+refuse to take part in the public sacrifices to Cæsar.
+  They would not even salute the Roman standards for fear of
+idolatry.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the East long before the time of Buddha there had been
+ascetics, men and women who gave up most of the delights of
+life, who repudiated marriage and property and sought
+spiritual powers and an escape from the stresses and
+mortifications of the world in abstinence, pain and solitude.
+  Buddha himself set his face against ascetic extravagances,
+but many of his disciples followed a monkish life of great
+severity.  Obscure Greek cults practised similar disciplines
+even to the extent of self-mutilation.  Asceticism appeared
+in the Jewish communities of Judea and Alexandria also in the
+first century <small>B.C.</small>  Communities of
+men abandoned the world and gave themselves to austerities
+and mystical contemplation.  Such was the sect of the
+Essenes.  Throughout the first and second centuries
+ <small>A.D.</small> there was an almost world-wide resort
+to such repudiations of life, a universal search for
+&ldquo;salvation&rdquo; from the distresses of the time.  The
+old sense of an established order, the old confidence in
+priest and temple and law and custom, had gone.  Amidst the
+prevailing slavery, cruelty, fear, anxiety, waste, display
+and hectic self-indulgence, went this epidemic of self-
+disgust and mental insecurity, this agonized search for peace
+even at the price of renunciation and voluntary suffering.
+This it was that filled the Serapeum with weeping penitents
+and brought the converts into the gloom and gore of the
+Mithraic cave.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P214"></a></span><a name="chapXXXVII"></a>XXXVII<br />
+THE TEACHING OF JESUS</h2>
+
+<p>
+It was while Augustus Cæsar, the first of the Emperors, was reigning in Rome
+that Jesus who is the Christ of Christianity was born in Judea. In his name a
+religion was to arise which was destined to become the official religion of the
+entire Roman Empire.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now it is on the whole more convenient to keep history and
+theology apart.  A large proportion of the Christian world
+believes that Jesus was an incarnation of that God of all the
+Earth whom the Jews first recognized.  The historian, if he
+is to remain historian, can neither accept nor deny that
+interpretation.  Materially Jesus appeared in the likeness of
+a man, and it is as a man that the historian must deal with
+him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He appeared in Judea in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar.  He
+was a prophet.  He preached after the fashion of the
+preceding Jewish prophets.  He was a man of about thirty, and
+we are in the profoundest ignorance of his manner of life
+before his preaching began.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our only direct sources of information about the life and
+teaching of Jesus are the four Gospels.  All four agree in
+giving us a picture of a very definite personality.  One is
+obliged to say, &ldquo;Here was a man.  This could not have
+been invented.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But just as the personality of Gautama Buddha has been
+distorted and obscured by the stiff squatting figure, the
+gilded idol of later Buddhism, so one feels that the lean and
+strenuous personality of Jesus is much wronged by the
+unreality and conventionality that a mistaken reverence has
+imposed upon his figure in modern Christian art.  Jesus was a
+penniless teacher, who wandered about the dusty sun-bit
+country of Judea, living upon casual gifts of food; yet he is
+always represented clean, combed and sleek, in spotless
+raiment, erect and with something motionless about him as
+though <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P215"></a></span>he was gliding through the air.
+  This alone has made him unreal and incredible to many people
+who cannot distinguish the core of the story from the
+ornamental and unwise additions of the unintelligently
+devout.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We are left, if we do strip this record of these difficult
+accessories, with the figure of a being, very human, very
+earnest and passionate, capable of swift anger, and teaching
+a new and simple and profound doctrine&mdash;namely, the
+universal loving Fatherhood of God and the coming of the
+Kingdom of Heaven.  He was clearly a person&mdash;to use a
+common phrase&mdash;of intense personal magnetism.  He
+attracted followers and filled them with love and courage.
+  Weak and ailing people were heartened and healed by his
+presence.  Yet he was probably of a delicate physique,
+because of the swiftness with which he died under the pains
+of crucifixion.  There is a tradition that he fainted when,
+according to the custom, he was made to bear his cross to the
+place of execution.  He went about the country for three
+years spreading his doctrine and then he came to Jerusalem
+and was accused of trying to set up a strange kingdom in
+Judea; he was tried upon this charge, and crucified together
+with two thieves.  Long before these two were dead his
+sufferings were over.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The doctrine of the Kingdom of Heaven, which was the main
+teaching of Jesus, is certainly one of the most revolutionary
+doctrines that ever stirred and changed human thought.  It is
+small wonder if the world of that time failed to grasp its
+full significance, and recoiled in dismay from even a half
+apprehension of its tremendous challenges to the established
+habits and institutions of mankind.  For the doctrine of the
+Kingdom of Heaven, as Jesus seems to have preached it, was no
+less than a bold and uncompromising demand for a complete
+change and cleansing of the life of our struggling race, an
+utter cleansing, without and within.  To the gospels the
+reader must go for all that is preserved of this tremendous
+teaching; here we are only concerned with the jar of its
+impact upon established ideas.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Jews were persuaded that God, the one God of the whole
+world, was a righteous god, but they also thought of him as a
+trading god who had made a bargain with their Father Abraham
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P216"></a></span>about
+them, a very good bargain indeed for them, to bring them at
+last to predominance in the earth. With dismay and anger they
+heard Jesus sweeping away their dear securities.  God, he
+taught, was no bargainer; there were no chosen people and no
+favourites in the Kingdom of Heaven.  God was the loving
+father of all life, as incapable of showing favour as the
+universal sun.  And all men were brothers&mdash;sinners alike
+and beloved sons alike&mdash;of this divine father.  In the
+parable of the Good Samaritan Jesus cast scorn upon that
+natural tendency we all obey, to glorify our own people and
+to minimize the righteousness of other creeds and other
+races.  In the parable of the labourers he thrust aside the
+obstinate claim of the Jews to have a special claim upon God.
+  All whom God takes into the kingdom, he taught, God serves
+alike; there is no distinction in his treatment, because
+there is no measure to his bounty.  From all moreover, as the
+parable of the buried talent witnesses, and as the incident
+of the widow&rsquo;s mite enforces, he demands the utmost.
+  There are no privileges, no rebates and no excuses in the
+Kingdom of Heaven.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-216"></a>
+<img src="images/img-216.jpg"
+alt="EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS CHRIST IN
+ WHICH THE TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN"
+ width="550" height="428" />
+<p class="caption">
+EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS CHRIST IN WHICH
+ THE TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P217"></a></span>But it
+is not only the intense tribal patriotism of the Jews that
+Jesus outraged.  They were a people of intense family
+loyalty, and he would have swept away all the narrow and
+restrictive family affections in the great flood of the love
+of God.  The whole kingdom of Heaven was to be the family of
+his followers.  We are told that, &ldquo;While he yet talked
+to the people, behold, his mother and his brethren stood
+without, desiring to speak with him.  Then one said unto him,
+Behold, thy mother and thy brethren stand without, desiring
+to speak with thee.  But he answered and said unto him that
+told him, Who is my mother? and who are my brethren? And he
+stretched forth his hands towards his disciples, and said,
+Behold my mother and my brethren!  For whosoever shall do the
+will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother,
+and sister, and mother.?  [<a name="chapXXXVIIfn1text"></a><a
+href="#chapXXXVIIfn1">1</a>]
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-217"></a>
+<img src="images/img-217.jpg"
+alt="THE ROAD FROM NAZARETH TO TIBERIAS"
+ width="600" height="383" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE ROAD FROM NAZARETH TO TIBERIAS
+<br />
+<small>
+<i>Photo:  Fannaway</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+And not only did Jesus strike at patriotism and the bonds of
+family loyalty in the name of God&rsquo;s universal
+fatherhood and brotherhood of all mankind, but it is clear
+that his teaching condemned all the gradations of the
+economic system, all private wealth, and <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P218"></a></span>personal
+advantages.  All men belonged to the kingdom; all their
+possessions belonged to the kingdom; the righteous life for
+all men, the only righteous life, was the service of
+God&rsquo;s will with all that we had, with all that we were.
+  Again and again he denounced private riches and the
+reservation of any private life.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-218"></a>
+<img src="images/img-218.jpg"
+alt="DAVID&rsquo;S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM"
+ width="300" height="404" />
+<p class="caption">
+DAVID&rsquo;S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM
+<br />
+<small>
+<i>Photo:  Fannaway</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;And when he was gone forth into the way, there came
+one running, and kneeled to him, and asked him, Good Master,
+what shall I do that I may inherit eternal life?  And Jesus
+said to him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good but
+one, that is God.  Thou knowest the commandments, Do not
+commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false
+witness, Defraud not, Honour thy father and mother.  And he
+answered and said unto him, Master, all these things have I
+observed from my youth.  Then Jesus beholding him loved him,
+and said unto him, One thing thou lackest; go thy way, sell
+whatsoever thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt
+have treasure in heaven; and come, take up the cross, and
+follow me.  And he was sad at that saying, and went away
+grieved; for he had great possessions.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P219"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-219"></a>
+<img src="images/img-219.jpg"
+alt="A STREET IN JERUSALEM"
+ width="600" height="806" />
+<p class="caption">
+A STREET IN JERUSALEM
+<br />
+<small>Along such a thoroughfare Christ carried his cross to the
+ place of execution
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Fannaway</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;And Jesus looked round about, and saith unto his
+disciples, How hardly shall they that have riches enter into
+the Kingdom of God!  And the disciples were astonished at his
+words.  But Jesus answered again, and saith unto them,
+Children, how hard is it for them that trust in riches to
+enter into the Kingdom of God!  It is <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P220"></a></span>easier for a
+camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man
+to enter into the Kingdom of God.&rdquo;  [<a
+name="chapXXXVIIfn2text"></a><a href="#chapXXXVIIfn2">2</a>]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Moreover, in his tremendous prophecy of this kingdom which
+was to make all men one together in God, Jesus had small
+patience for the bargaining righteousness of formal religion.
+  Another large part of his recorded utterances is aimed
+against the meticulous observance of the rules of the pious
+career.  &ldquo;Then the Pharisees and scribes asked him, Why
+walk not thy disciples according to the tradition of the
+elders, but eat bread with unwashen hands?  He answered and
+said unto them, Well hath Isaiah prophesied of you
+hypocrites, as it is written,
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;This people honoureth me with their lips,
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;But their heart is far from me.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;Howbeit in vain do they worship me,
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;Teaching for doctrines the commandments of men.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;For laying aside the commandment of God, ye hold the
+tradition of men, as the washing of pots and cups: and many
+other such things ye do.  And he said unto them, Full well ye
+reject the commandment of God, that ye may keep your own
+tradition.&rdquo;  [<a name="chapXXXVIIfn3text"></a><a
+href="#chapXXXVIIfn3">3</a>]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was not merely a moral and a social revolution that Jesus
+proclaimed; it is clear from a score of indications that his
+teaching had a political bent of the plainest sort.  It is
+true that he said his kingdom was not of this world, that it
+was in the hearts of men and not upon a throne; but it is
+equally clear that wherever and in what measure his kingdom
+was set up in the hearts of men, the outer world would be in
+that measure revolutionized and made new.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whatever else the deafness and blindness of his hearers may
+have missed in his utterances, it is plain they did not miss
+his resolve to revolutionize the world.  The whole tenor of
+the opposition to him and the circumstances of his trial and
+execution show clearly that to his contemporaries he seemed
+to propose plainly, and did propose plainly, to change and
+fuse and enlarge all human life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In view of what he plainly said, is it any wonder that all
+who were rich and prosperous felt a horror of strange things,
+a swimming of their world at his teaching?  He was dragging
+out all the little private reservations they had made from
+social service into the light <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P221"></a></span>of a universal religious life.  He
+was like some terrible moral huntsman digging mankind out of
+the snug burrows in which they had lived hitherto.  In the
+white blaze of this kingdom of his there was to be no
+property, no privilege, no pride and precedence; no motive
+indeed and no reward but love.  Is it any wonder that men
+were dazzled and blinded and cried out against him?  Even his
+disciples cried out when he would not spare them the light.
+  Is it any wonder that the priests realized that between this
+man and themselves there was no choice but that he or
+priestcraft should perish?  Is it any wonder that the Roman
+soldiers, confronted and amazed by something soaring over
+their comprehension and threatening all their disciplines,
+should take refuge in wild laughter, and crown him with
+thorns and robe him in purple and make a mock Cæsar of
+him?  For to take him seriously was to enter upon a strange
+and alarming life, to abandon habits, to control instincts
+and impulses, to essay an incredible happiness. . . .
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="chapXXXVIIfn1"></a>
+[<a href="#chapXXXVIIfn1text">1</a>] Matt. xii, 46-50.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="chapXXXVIIfn2"></a>
+[<a href="#chapXXXVIIfn2text">2</a>] Mark x, 17-25.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="chapXXXVIIfn3"></a>
+[<a href="#chapXXXVIIfn3text">3</a>] Mark vii, 1-9.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P222"></a></span><a name="chapXXXVIII"></a>XXXVIII<br />
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY</h2>
+
+<p>
+In the four gospels we find the personality and teachings of Jesus but very
+little of the dogmas of the Christian church. It is in the epistles, a series
+of writings by the immediate followers of Jesus, that the broad lines of
+Christian belief are laid down.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Chief among the makers of Christian doctrine was St. Paul.
+  He had never seen Jesus nor heard him preach.  Paul&rsquo;s
+name was originally Saul, and he was conspicuous at first as
+an active persecutor of the little band of disciples after
+the crucifixion.  Then he was suddenly converted to
+Christianity, and he changed his name to Paul.  He was a man
+of great intellectual vigour and deeply and passionately
+interested in the religious movements of the time.  He was
+well versed in Judaism and in the Mithraism and Alexandrian
+religion of the day.  He carried over many of their ideas and
+terms of expression into Christianity.  He did very little to
+enlarge or develop the original teaching of Jesus, the
+teaching of the Kingdom of Heaven.  But he taught that Jesus
+was not only the promised Christ, the promised leader of the
+Jews, but also that his death was a sacrifice, like the
+deaths of the ancient sacrificial victims of the primordial
+civilizations, for the redemption of mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When religions flourish side by side they tend to pick up
+each other&rsquo;s ceremonial and other outward
+peculiarities.  Buddhism, for example, in China has now
+almost the same sort of temples and priests and uses as
+Taoism, which follows in the teachings of Lao Tse.  Yet the
+original teachings of Buddhism and Taoism were almost flatly
+opposed.  And it reflects no doubt or discredit upon the
+essentials of Christian teaching that it took over not merely
+such formal things as the shaven priest, the votive offering,
+the altars, candles, chanting and images of the Alexandrian
+and Mithraic faiths, but adopted even their devotional
+phrases and their theological <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P223"></a></span>ideas.  All these religions were
+flourishing side by side with many less prominent cults.
+  Each was seeking adherents, and there must have been a
+constant going and coming of converts between them.
+  Sometimes one or other would be in favour with the
+government.  But Christianity was regarded with more
+suspicion than its rivals because, like the Jews, its
+adherents would not perform acts of worship to the God
+Cæsar.  This made it a seditious religion, quite apart
+from the revolutionary spirit of the teachings of Jesus
+himself.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-223"></a>
+<img src="images/img-223.jpg"
+alt="MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE, ON GOLD
+ BACKGROUND"
+ width="600" height="562" />
+<p class="caption">
+MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE, ON GOLD
+ BACKGROUND
+<br />
+<small>From the Ninth Century original, in the Church of Sta.
+ Prassede, Rome
+<br />
+<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+St. Paul familiarized his disciples with the idea that Jesus,
+like <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P224"></a></span>Osiris, was a god who died to rise
+again and give men immortality.  And presently the spreading
+Christian community was greatly torn by complicated
+theological disputes about the relationship of this God Jesus
+to God the Father of Mankind.  The Arians taught that Jesus
+was divine, but distant from and inferior to the Father.  The
+Sabellians taught that Jesus was merely an aspect of the
+Father, and that God was Jesus and Father at the same time
+just as a man may be a father and an artificer at the same
+time; and the Trinitarians taught a more subtle doctrine that
+God was both one and three, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.  For
+a time it seemed that Arianism would prevail over its rivals,
+and then after disputes, violence and wars, the Trinitarian
+formula became the accepted formula of all Christendom.  It
+may be found in its completest expression in the Athanasian
+Creed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We offer no comment on these controversies here.  They do not
+sway history as the personal teaching of Jesus sways history.
+  The personal teaching of Jesus does seem to mark a new phase
+in the moral and spiritual life of our race.  Its insistence
+upon the universal Fatherhood of God and the implicit
+brotherhood of all men, its insistence upon the sacredness of
+every human personality as a living temple of God, was to
+have the profoundest effect upon all the subsequent social
+and political life of mankind.  With Christianity, with the
+spreading teachings of Jesus, a new respect appears in the
+world for man as man.  It may be true, as hostile critics of
+Christianity have urged, that St.. Paul preached obedience to
+slaves, but it is equally true that the whole spirit of the
+teachings of Jesus preserved in the gospels was against the
+subjugation of man by man.  And still more distinctly was
+Christianity opposed to such outrages upon human dignity as
+the gladiatorial combats in the arena.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-225"></a>
+<img src="images/img-225.jpg"
+alt="THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST"
+ width="300" height="592" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST
+<br />
+<small><i>(Sixth Century Ivory Panel in the British Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Throughout the first two centuries after Christ, the
+Christian religion spread throughout the Roman Empire,
+weaving together an ever-growing multitude of converts into a
+new community of ideas and will.  The attitude of the
+emperors varied between hostility and toleration.  There were
+attempts to suppress this new faith in both the second and
+third centuries; and finally in 303 and the following years a
+great persecution under the Emperor Diocletian.  The
+considerable accumulations of Church property were <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P225"></a></span>seized, all
+bibles and religious writings were confiscated and destroyed,
+Christians were put out of the protection of the law and many
+executed.  The destruction of the books is particularly
+notable.  It shows how the power of the written word in
+holding together <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P226"></a></span>the new faith was appreciated by
+the authorities.  These &ldquo;book religions,&rdquo;
+Christianity and Judaism, were religions that educated.
+  Their continued existence depended very largely on people
+being able to read and understand their doctrinal ideas.  The
+older religions had made no such appeal to the personal
+intelligence.  In the ages of barbaric confusion that were
+now at hand in western Europe it was the Christian church
+that was mainly instrumental in preserving the tradition of
+learning.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The persecution of Diocletian failed completely to suppress
+the growing Christian community.  In many provinces it was
+ineffective because the bulk of the population and many of
+the officials were Christian.  In 317 an edict of toleration
+was issued by the associated Emperor Galerius, and in 324
+Constantine the Great, a friend and on his deathbed a
+baptized convert to Christianity, became sole ruler of the
+Roman world.  He abandoned all divine pretensions and put
+Christian symbols on the shields and banners of his troops.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a few years Christianity was securely established as the
+official religion of the empire.  The competing religions
+disappeared or were absorbed with extraordinary celerity, and
+in 300 Theodosius the Great caused the great statue of
+Jupiter Serapis at Alexandria to be destroyed.  From the
+outset of the fifth century onward the only priests or
+temples in the Roman Empire were Christian priests and
+temples.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P227"></a></span><a name="chapXXXIX"></a>XXXIX<br />
+THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST</h2>
+
+<p>
+Throughout the third century the Roman Empire, decaying socially and
+disintegrating morally, faced the barbarians. The emperors of this period were
+fighting military autocrats, and the capital of the empire shifted with the
+necessities of their military policy. Now the imperial headquarters would be at
+Milan in north Italy, now in what is now Serbia at Sirmium or Nish, now in
+Nicomedia in Asia Minor. Rome halfway down Italy was too far from the centre of
+interest to be a convenient imperial seat. It was a declining city. Over most
+of the empire peace still prevailed and men went about without arms. The armies
+continued to be the sole repositories of power; the emperors, dependent on
+their legions, became more and more autocratic to the rest of the empire and
+their state more and more like that of the Persian and other oriental monarchs.
+Diocletian assumed a royal diadem and oriental robes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All along the imperial frontier, which ran roughly along the
+Rhine and Danube, enemies were now pressing.  The Franks and
+other German tribes had come up to the Rhine.  In north
+Hungary were the Vandals; in what was once Dacia and is now
+Roumania, the Visigoths or West Goths.  Behind these in south
+Russia were the East Goths or Ostrogoths, and beyond these
+again in the Volga region the Alans.  But now Mongolian
+peoples were forcing their way towards Europe.  The Huns were
+already exacting tribute from the Alans and Ostrogoths and
+pushing them to the west.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Asia the Roman frontiers were crumpling back under the
+push of a renascent Persia.  This new Persia, the Persia of
+the Sassenid kings, was to be a vigorous and on the whole a
+successful rival of the Roman Empire in Asia for the next
+three centuries.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A glance at the map of Europe will show the reader the
+peculiar weakness of the empire.  The river Danube comes down
+to within <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P228"></a></span>a couple of hundred miles of the
+Adriatic Sea in the region of what is now Bosnia and Serbia.
+  It makes a square re-entrant angle there.  The Romans never
+kept their sea communications in good order, and this two
+hundred mile strip of land was their line of communication
+between the western Latin-speaking part of the empire and the
+eastern Greek-speaking portion.  Against this square angle of
+the Danube the barbarian pressure was greatest.  When they
+broke through there it was inevitable that the empire should
+fall into two parts.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-228"></a>
+<img src="images/img-228.jpg"
+alt="Map: The Empire and the Barbarians"
+ width="600" height="344" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+A more vigorous empire might have thrust forward and
+reconquered Dacia, but the Roman Empire lacked any such
+vigour.  Constantine the Great was certainly a monarch of
+great devotion and intelligence.  He beat back a raid of the
+Goths from just these vital Balkan regions, but he had no
+force to carry the frontier across the Danube.  He was too
+pre-occupied with the internal weaknesses of the empire.  He
+brought the solidarity and moral force of Christianity to
+revive the spirit of the declining empire, and he decided to
+create a new permanent capital at Byzantium upon the
+Hellespont.  This new-made Byzantium, which was re-christened
+Constantinople in his honour, was still building when he
+died.  Towards the end of his reign occurred a remarkable
+transaction.  The <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P229"></a></span>Vandals, being pressed by the
+Goths, asked to be received into the Roman Empire.  They were
+assigned lands in Pannonia, which is now that part of Hungary
+west of the Danube, and their fighting men became nominally
+legionaries.  But these new legionaries remained under their
+own chiefs.  Rome failed to digest them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Constantine died working to reorganize his great realm, and
+soon the frontiers were ruptured again and the Visigoths came
+almost to Constantinople. They defeated the Emperor Valens at
+Adrianople and made a settlement in what is now Bulgaria,
+similar to the settlement of the Vandals in Pannonia.
+  Nominally they were subjects of the emperor, practically they
+were conquerors.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-229"></a>
+<img src="images/img-229.jpg"
+alt="CONSTANTINE&rsquo;S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE"
+ width="280" height="667" />
+<p class="caption">
+CONSTANTINE&rsquo;S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  Sebah &#38; Foaillier</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+From 379 to 395 <small>A.D.</small> reigned the
+Emperor Theodosius the Great, and while he reigned the empire
+was still formally intact.  Over the armies of Italy and
+Pannonia presided Stilicho, a Vandal, over the armies in the
+Balkan peninsula, Alaric, a Goth.  When Theodosius died at
+the close of the fourth century he left <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P230"></a></span>two sons.
+  Alaric supported one of these, Arcadius, in Constantinople,
+and Stilicho the other, Honorius, in Italy.  In other words
+Alaric and Stilicho fought for the empire with the princes as
+puppets.  In the course of their struggle Alaric marched into
+Italy and after a short siege took Rome (410
+ <small>A.D.</small>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The opening half of the fifth century saw the whole of the
+Roman Empire in Europe the prey of robber armies of
+barbarians.  It is difficult to visualize the state of
+affairs in the world at that time.  Over France, Spain, Italy
+and the Balkan peninsula, the great cities that had
+flourished under the early empire still stood, impoverished,
+partly depopulated and falling into decay.  Life in them must
+have been shallow, mean and full of uncertainty.  Local
+officials asserted their authority and went on with their
+work with such conscience as they had, no doubt in the name
+of a now remote and inaccessible emperor.  The churches went
+on, but usually with illiterate priests.  There was little
+reading and much superstition and fear.  But everywhere
+except where looters had destroyed them, books and pictures
+and statuary and such-like works of art were still to be
+found.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The life of the countryside had also degenerated.  Everywhere
+this Roman world was much more weedy and untidy than it had
+been.  In some regions war and pestilence had brought the
+land down to the level of a waste.  Roads and forests were
+infested with robbers.  Into such regions the barbarians
+marched, with little or no opposition, and set up their
+chiefs as rulers, often with Roman official titles.  If they
+were half civilized barbarians they would give the conquered
+districts tolerable terms, they would take possession of the
+towns, associate and intermarry, and acquire (with an accent)
+the Latin speech; but the Jutes, the Angles and Saxons who
+submerged the Roman province of Britain were agriculturalists
+and had no use for towns, they seem to have swept south
+Britain clear of the Romanized population and they replaced
+the language by their own Teutonic dialects, which became at
+last English.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P231"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-231"></a>
+<img src="images/img-231.jpg"
+alt="BASE OF THE &ldquo;OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,&rdquo;
+ CONSTANTINOPLE"
+ width="600" height="752" />
+<p class="caption">
+BASE OF THE &ldquo;OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,&rdquo; CONSTANTINOPLE
+<br />
+<small>The obelisk of Thothmes, taken from Egypt to Constantinople
+ by Theodosius and placed upon the pedestal her shown; an
+ interesting example of early Byzantine art.  The complete obelisk
+ is seen on page 239.
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Sebah &#38; Foaillier</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It is impossible in the space at our disposal to trace the
+movements of all the various German and Slavonic tribes as
+they went to and fro in the disorganized empire in search of
+plunder and a pleasant home.  But let the Vandals serve as an
+example.  They came into <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P232"></a></span>history in east Germany.  They
+settled as we have told in Pannonia.  Thence they moved
+somewhen about 425 <small>A.D.</small> through the
+intervening provinces to Spain.  There they found Visigoths
+from South Russia and other German tribes setting up dukes
+and kings.  From Spain the Vandals under Genseric sailed for
+North Africa (429), captured Carthage (439), and built a
+fleet.  They secured the mastery of the sea and captured and
+pillaged Rome (455), which had recovered very imperfectly
+from her capture and looting by Alaric half a century
+earlier.  Then the Vandals made themselves masters of Sicily,
+Corsica, Sardinia and most of the other islands of the
+western Mediterranean.  They made, in fact, a sea empire very
+similar in its extent to the sea empire of Carthage seven
+hundred odd years before.  They were at the climax of their
+power about 477.  They were a mere handful of conquerors
+holding all this country.  In the next century almost all
+their territory had been reconquered for the empire of
+Constantinople during a transitory blaze of energy under
+Justinian I.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The story of the Vandals is but one sample of a host of
+similar adventures.  But now there was coming into the
+European world the least kindred and most redoubtable of all
+these devastators, the Mongolian Huns or Tartars, a yellow
+people active and able, such as the western world had never
+before encountered.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P233"></a></span><a name="chapXL"></a>XL<br />
+THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE</h2>
+
+<p>
+This appearance of a conquering Mongolian people in Europe may be taken to mark
+a new stage in human history. Until the last century or so before the Christian
+era, the Mongol and the Nordic peoples had not been in close touch. Far away in
+the frozen lands beyond the northern forests the Lapps, a Mongolian people, had
+drifted westward as far as Lapland, but they played no part in the main current
+of history. For thousands of years the western world carried on the dramatic
+interplay of the Aryan, Semitic and fundamental brunette peoples with very
+little interference (except for an Ethiopian invasion of Egypt or so) either
+from the black peoples to the south or from the Mongolian world in the far
+East.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is probable that there were two chief causes for the new
+westward drift of the nomadic Mongolians.  One was the
+consolidation of the great empire of China, its extension
+northward and the increase of its population during the
+prosperous period of the Han dynasty.  The other was some
+process of climatic change; a lesser rainfall that abolished
+swamps and forests perhaps, or a greater rainfall that
+extended grazing over desert steppes, or even perhaps both
+these processes going on in different regions but which
+anyhow facilitated a westward migration.  A third
+contributary cause was the economic wretchedness, internal
+decay and falling population of the Roman Empire.  The rich
+men of the later Roman Republic, and then the tax-gatherers
+of the military emperors had utterly consumed its vitality.
+  So we have the factors of thrust, means and opportunity.
+  There was pressure from the east, rot in the west and an open
+road.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Hun had reached the eastern boundaries of European Russia
+by the first century <small>A.D.</small>, but it was
+not until the fourth and <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P234"></a></span>fifth centuries
+ <small>A.D.</small> that these horsemen rose to predominance upon
+the steppes.  The fifth century was the Hun&rsquo;s century.
+  The first Huns to come into Italy were mercenary bands in the
+pay of Stilicho the Vandal, the master of Honorius.
+  Presently they were in possession of Pannonia, the empty nest
+of the Vandals.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+By the second quarter of the fifth century a great war chief
+had arisen among the Huns, Attila.  We have only vague and
+tantalizing glimpses of his power.  He ruled not only over
+the Huns but over a conglomerate of tributary Germanic
+tribes; his empire extended from the Rhine cross the plains
+into Central Asia.  He exchanged ambassadors with China.  His
+head camp was in the plain of Hungary east of the Danube.
+  There he was visited by an envoy from Constantinople,
+Priscus, who has left us an account of his state.  The way of
+living of these Mongols was very like the way of living of
+the primitive Aryans they had replaced.  The common folk were
+in huts and tents; the chiefs lived in great stockaded timber
+halls.  There were feasts and drinking and singing by the
+bards.  The Homeric heroes and even the Macedonian companions
+of Alexander would probably have felt more at home in the
+camp-capital of Attila than they would have done in the
+cultivated and decadent court of Theodosius II, the son of
+Arcadius, who was then reigning in Constantinople.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For a time it seemed as though the nomads under the
+leadership of the Huns and Attila would play the same part
+towards the Græco-Roman civilization of the
+Mediterranean countries that the barbaric Greeks had played
+long ago to the Ægean civilization.  It looked like
+history repeating itself upon a larger stage.  But the Huns
+were much more wedded to the nomadic life than the early
+Greeks, who were rather migratory cattle farmers than true
+nomads.  The Huns raided and plundered but did not settle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For some years Attila bullied Theodosius as he chose.  His
+armies devastated and looted right down to the walls of
+Constantinople, Gibbon says that he totally destroyed no less
+than seventy cities in the Balkan peninsula, and Theodosius
+bought him off by payments of tribute and tried to get rid of
+him for good by sending secret agents to assassinate him.  In
+451 Attila turned his attention to the remains of the Latin-
+speaking half of the empire and invaded <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P235"></a></span>Gaul.  Nearly
+every town in northern Gaul was sacked.  Franks, Visigoths
+and the imperial forces united against him and he was
+defeated at Troyes in a vast dispersed battle in which a
+multitude of men, variously estimated as between 150,000 and
+300,000, were killed. This checked him in Gaul, but it did
+not exhaust his enormous military resources.  Next year he
+came into Italy by way of Venetia, burnt Aquileia and Padua
+and looted Milan.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-235"></a>
+<img src="images/img-235.jpg"
+alt="HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF"
+ width="450" height="600" />
+<p class="caption">
+HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF
+<br />
+<small><i>(In the British Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Numbers of fugitives from these north Italian towns and
+particularly from Padua fled to islands in the lagoons at the
+head of the Adriatic and laid there the foundations of the
+city state of Venice, which was to become one of the greatest
+or the trading centres in the middle ages.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 453 Attila died suddenly after a great feast to celebrate
+his marriage to a young woman, and at his death this plunder
+confederation of his fell to pieces.  The actual Huns
+disappear from history, mixed into the surrounding more
+numerous Aryan-speaking populations.  <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P236"></a></span>But these
+great Hun raids practically consummated the end of the Latin
+Roman Empire.  After his death ten different emperors ruled
+in Rome in twenty years, set up by Vandal and other mercenary
+troops.  The Vandals from Carthage took and sacked Rome in
+455.  Finally in 476 Odoacer, the chief of the barbarian
+troops, suppressed a Pannonian who was figuring as emperor
+under the impressive name of Romulus Augustulus, and informed
+the Court of Constantinople that there was no longer an
+emperor in the west.  So ingloriously the Latin Roman Empire
+came to an end.  In 493 Theodoric the Goth became King of
+Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All over western and central Europe now barbarian chiefs were
+reigning as kings, dukes and the like, practically
+independent but for the most part professing some sort of
+shadowy allegiance to the emperor.  There were hundreds and
+perhaps thousands of such practically independent brigand
+rulers.  In Gaul, Spain and Italy and in Dacia the Latin
+speech still prevailed in locally distorted forms, but in
+Britain and east of the Rhine languages of the German group
+(or in Bohemia a Slavonic language, Czech) were the common
+speech.  The superior clergy and a small remnant of other
+educated men read and wrote Latin.  Everywhere life was
+insecure and property was held by the strong arm.  Castles
+multiplied and roads fell into decay.  The dawn of the sixth
+century was an age of division and of intellectual darkness
+throughout the western world.  Had it not been for the monks
+and Christian missionaries Latin learning might have perished
+altogether.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Why had the Roman Empire grown and why had it so completely
+decayed?  It grew because at first the idea of citizenship
+held it together.  Throughout the days of the expanding
+republic, and even into the days of the early empire there
+remained a great number of men conscious of Roman
+citizenship, feeling it a privilege and an obligation to be a
+Roman citizen, confident of their rights under the Roman law
+and willing to make sacrifices in the name of Rome.  The
+prestige of Rome as of something just and great and law-
+upholding spread far beyond the Roman boundaries.  But even
+as early as the Punic wars the sense of citizenship was being
+undermined by the growth of wealth and slavery.  Citizenship
+spread indeed but not the idea of citizenship.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P237"></a></span>The
+Roman Empire was after all a very primitive organization; it
+did not educate, did not explain itself to its increasing
+multitudes of citizens, did not invite their co-operation in
+its decisions.  There was no network of schools to ensure a
+common understanding, no distribution of news to sustain
+collective activity.  The adventurers who struggled for power
+from the days of Marius and Sulla onward had no idea of
+creating and calling in public opinion upon the imperial
+affairs.  The spirit of citizenship died of starvation and no
+one observed it die.  All empires, all states, all
+organizations of human society are, in the ultimate, things
+of understanding and will.  There remained no will for the
+Roman Empire in the World and so it came to an end.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But though the Latin-speaking Roman Empire died in the fifth
+century, something else had been born within it that was to
+avail itself enormously of its prestige and tradition, and
+that was the Latin-speaking half of the Catholic Church.
+  This lived while the empire died because it appealed to the
+minds and wills of men, because it had books and a great
+system of teachers and missionaries to hold it together,
+things stronger than any law or legions.  Throughout the
+fourth and fifth centuries <small>A.D.</small> while
+the empire was decaying, Christianity was spreading to a
+universal dominion in Europe.  It conquered its conquerors,
+the barbarians.  When Attila seemed disposed to march on
+Rome, the patriarch of Rome intercepted him and did what no
+armies could do, turning him back by sheer moral force.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Patriarch or Pope of Rome claimed to be the head of the
+entire Christian church.  Now that there were no more
+emperors, he began to annex imperial titles and claims.  He
+took the title of <i>pontifex maximus</i>, head sacrificial
+priest of the Roman dominion, the most ancient of all the
+titles that the emperors had enjoyed.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P238"></a></span><a name="chapXLI"></a>XLI<br />
+THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES</h2>
+
+<p>
+The Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire showed much more political
+tenacity than the western half. It weathered the disasters of the fifth century
+<small>A.D.</small>, which saw a complete and final breaking up of the original
+Latin Roman power. Attila bullied the Emperor Theodosius II and sacked and
+raided almost to the walls of Constantinople, but that city remained intact.
+The Nubians came down the Nile and looted Upper Egypt, but Lower Egypt and
+Alexandria were left still fairly prosperous. Most of Asia Minor was held
+against the Sassanid Persians.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sixth century, which was an age of complete darkness for
+the West, saw indeed a considerable revival of the Greek
+power.  Justinian I (527-565) was a ruler of very great
+ambition and energy, and he was married to the Empress
+Theodora, a woman of quite equal capacity who had begun life
+as an actress.  Justinian reconquered North Africa from the
+Vandals and most of Italy from the Goths.  He even regained
+the south of Spain.  He did not limit his energies to naval
+and military enterprises.  He founded a university, built the
+great church of Sta. Sophia in Constantinople and codified
+the Roman law.  But in order to destroy a rival to his
+university foundation he closed the schools of philosophy in
+Athens, which had been going on in unbroken continuity from
+the days of Plato, that is to say for nearly a thousand
+years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the third century onwards the Persian Empire had been
+the steadfast rival of the Byzantine.  The two empires kept
+Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt in a state of perpetual unrest
+and waste.  In the first century
+ <small>A.D.</small>, these lands were still at a high level of
+civilization, wealthy and with an abundant population, but
+the continual coming and going of armies, massacres, looting
+and war taxation wore them down steadily until only shattered
+and ruinous <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P239"></a></span>cities remained upon a countryside
+of scattered peasants.  In this melancholy process of
+impoverishment and disorder lower Egypt fared perhaps less
+badly than the rest of the world.  Alexandria, like
+Constantinople, continued a dwindling trade between the east
+and the west.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-239"></a>
+<img src="images/img-239.jpg"
+alt="THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE"
+ width="600" height="393" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE
+<br />
+<small>The obelisk of Theodosius in in the foreground
+ statue on left
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Sebah &#38; Foaillier</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Science and political philosophy seemed dead now in both
+these warring and decaying empires.  The last philosophers of
+Athens, until their suppression, preserved the texts of the
+great literature of the past with an infinite reverence and
+want of understanding.  But there remained no class of men in
+the world, no free gentlemen with bold and independent habits
+of thought, to carry on the tradition of frank statement and
+enquiry embodied in these writings.  The social and political
+chaos accounts largely for the disappearance of this class,
+but there was also another reason why the human intelligence
+was sterile and feverish during this age.  In both Persia and
+Byzantium it was all age of intolerance.  Both empires were
+religious empires in a new way, in a way that greatly
+hampered the free activities of the human mind.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-240"></a>
+<img src="images/img-240.jpg"
+alt="THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIA"
+ width="480" height="616" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIA
+<br />
+<small>
+<i>Photo:  Sebah &#38; Foaillier</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P240"></a></span>Of
+course the oldest empires in the world were religious
+empires, centring upon the worship of a god or of a god-king.
+  Alexander was treated as a divinity and the Cæsars were
+gods in so much as they had altars and temples devoted to
+them and the offering of incense was made a test of loyalty
+to the Roman state.  But these older religions were
+essentially religions of act and fact.  They did not invade
+the mind.  If a man offered his sacrifice and bowed to the
+god, he was left not only to think but to say practically
+whatever he liked about the affair.  But the new sort of
+religions that had come into the world, and particularly
+Christianity, turned inward.  These new faiths demanded not
+simply conformity but understanding belief.  Naturally fierce
+controversy ensued upon the exact meaning of the things
+believed.  These new religions were creed religions.  The
+world was confronted with a new word, Orthodoxy, and with a
+stern resolve to keep not only acts but speech <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P241"></a></span>and private
+thought within the limits of a set teaching.  For to hold a
+wrong opinion, much more to convey it to other people, was no
+longer regarded as an intellectual defect but a moral fault
+that might condemn a soul to everlasting destruction.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-241"></a>
+<img src="images/img-241.jpg"
+alt="THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS COURT"
+ width="600" height="457" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS COURT
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  Alinari</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P242"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-242"></a>
+<img src="images/img-242.jpg"
+alt="THE ROCK HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA"
+ width="600" height="770" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE ROCK HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA
+<br />
+<small>
+<i>Photo:  Underwood &#38; Underwood</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Both Ardashir I who founded the Sassanid dynasty in the third
+century <small>A.D.</small>, and Constantine the
+Great who reconstructed the Roman Empire in the fourth,
+turned to religious organizations for help, because in these
+organizations they saw a new means of using and controlling
+the wills of men.  And already before the end of the fourth
+century both empires were persecuting free talk and religious
+innovation.  In Persia Ardashir found the ancient Persian
+religion of Zoroaster (or Zarathushtra) with its priests and
+temples and a sacred fire that burnt upon its altars, ready
+for his purpose as a state religion.  Before the end of the
+third century Zoroastrianism was persecuting Christianity,
+and in 277 <small>A.D.</small> Mani, the founder of
+<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P243"></a></span>a new faith,
+the Manichæans, was crucified and his body flayed.
+  Constantinople, on its side, was busy hunting out Christian
+heresies.  Manichæan ideas infected Christianity and had
+to be fought with the fiercest methods; in return ideas from
+Christianity affected the purity of the Zoroastrian doctrine.
+  All ideas became suspect.  Science, which demands before all
+things the free action of an untroubled mind, suffered a
+complete eclipse throughout this phase of intolerance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+War, the bitterest theology, and the usual vices of mankind
+constituted Byzantine life of those days.  It was
+picturesque, it was romantic; it had little sweetness or
+light.  When Byzantium and Persia were not fighting the
+barbarians from the north, they wasted Asia Minor and Syria
+in dreary and destructive hostilities.  Even in close
+alliance these two empires would have found it a hard task to
+turn back the barbarians and recover their prosperity.  The
+Turks or Tartars first come into history as the allies first
+of one power and then of another.  In the sixth century the
+two chief antagonists were Justinian and Chosroes I; in the
+opening of the seventh the Emperor Heraclius was pitted
+against Chosroes II (580).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At first and until after Heraclius had become Emperor (610)
+Chosroes II carried all before him.  He took Antioch,
+Damascus and Jerusalem and his armies reached Chalcedon,
+which is in Asia Minor over against Constantinople.  In 619
+he conquered Egypt.  Then Heraclius pressed a counter attack
+home and routed a Persian army at Nineveh (627), although at
+that time there were still Persian troops at Chalcedon.  In
+628 Chosroes II was deposed and murdered by his son, Kavadh,
+and an inconclusive peace was made between the two exhausted
+empires.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Byzantium and Persia had fought their last war.  But few
+people as yet dreamt of the storm that was even then
+gathering in the deserts to put an end for ever to this
+aimless, chronic struggle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+While Heraclius was restoring order in Syria a message
+reached him.  It had been brought in to the imperial outpost
+at Bostra south of Damascus; it was in Arabic, an obscure
+Semitic desert language, and it was read to the Emperor, if
+it reached him at all, by an interpreter.  It was from
+someone who called himself &ldquo;Muhammad the Prophet of
+God.&rdquo;  It called upon the Emperor to <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P244"></a></span>acknowledge
+the One True God and to serve him.  What the Emperor said is
+not recorded.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A similar message came to Kavadh at Ctesiphon.  He was
+annoyed, tore up the letter, and bade the messenger begone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This Muhammad, it appeared, was a Bedouin leader whose
+headquarters were in the mean little desert town of Medina.
+  He was preaching a new religion of faith in the One True God.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;Even so, O Lord!&rdquo; he said; &ldquo;rend thou his
+Kingdom from Kavadh.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P245"></a></span><a name="chapXLII"></a>XLII<br />
+THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA</h2>
+
+<p>
+Throughout the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, there was a steady
+drift of Mongolian peoples westward. The Huns of Attila were merely precursors
+of this advance, which led at last to the establishment of Mongolian peoples in
+Finland, Esthonia, Hungary and Bulgaria, where their descendants, speaking
+languages akin to Turkish, survive to this day. The Mongolian nomads were, in
+fact, playing a role towards the Aryanized civilizations of Europe and Persia
+and India that the Aryans had played to the Ægean and Semitic civilizations ten
+or fifteen centuries before.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Central Asia the Turkish peoples had taken root in what is
+now Western Turkestan, and Persia already employed many
+Turkish officials and Turkish mercenaries.  The Parthians had
+gone out of history, absorbed into the general population of
+Persia.  There were no more Aryan nomads in the history of
+Central Asia; Mongolian people had replaced them.  The Turks
+became masters of Asia from China to the Caspian.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The same great pestilence at the end of the second century
+<small>A.D.</small> that had shattered the Roman
+Empire had overthrown the Han dynasty in China.  Then came a
+period of division and of Hunnish conquests from which China
+arose refreshed, more rapidly and more completely than Europe
+was destined to do.  Before the end of the sixth century
+China was reunited under the Suy dynasty, and this by the
+time of Heraclius gave place to the Tang dynasty, whose reign
+marks another great period of prosperity for China.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P246"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-246"></a>
+<img src="images/img-246.jpg"
+alt="CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG DYNASTY, 616-906"
+ width="600" height="787" />
+<p class="caption">
+CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG DYNASTY, 616-906
+<br />
+<small>Specimens in glazed earthenware, in brown, green and buff,
+ discovered in tombs in China
+<br />
+<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Throughout the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries China was
+the most secure and civilized country in the world.  The Han
+dynasty had extended her boundaries in the north; the Suy and
+Tang dynasties now spread her civilization to the south, and
+China <span class="pagenum"><a name="P247"></a></span>began to
+ assume the proportions she has to-day.  In Central Asia indeed she
+ reached much further, extending at last, through tributary Turkish
+ tribes, to Persia and the Caspian Sea.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The new China that had arisen was a very different land from
+the old China of the Hans.  A new and more vigorous literary
+school appeared, there was a great poetic revival; Buddhism
+had revolutionized philosophical and religious thought.
+  There were great advances in artistic work, in technical
+skill and in all the amenities of life.  Tea was first used,
+paper manufactured and wood-block printing began.  Millions
+of people indeed were leading orderly, graceful and kindly
+lives in China during these centuries when the attenuated
+populations of Europe and Western Asia were living either in
+hovels, small walled cities or grim robber fortresses.  While
+the mind of the west was black with theological obsessions,
+the mind of China was open and tolerant and enquiring.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+One of the earliest monarchs of the Tang dynasty was Tai-
+tsung, who began to reign in 627, the year of the victory of
+Heraclius at Nineveh.  He received an embassy from Heraclius,
+who was probably seeking an ally in the rear of Persia.  From
+Persia itself came a party of Christian missionaries (635).
+  They were allowed to explain their creed to Tai-tsung and he
+examined a Chinese translation of their Scriptures.  He
+pronounced this strange religion acceptable, and gave
+permission for the foundation of a church and monastery.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To this monarch also (in 628) came messengers from Muhammad.
+  They came to Canton on a trading ship.  They had sailed the
+whole way from Arabia along the Indian coasts.  Unlike
+Heraclius and Kavadh, Tai-Tsung gave these envoys a courteous
+hearing.  He expressed his interest in their theological
+ideas and assisted them to build a mosque in Canton, a mosque
+which survives, it is said, to this day, the oldest mosque in
+the world.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P248"></a></span><a name="chapXLIII"></a>XLIII<br />
+MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM</h2>
+
+<p>
+A prophetic amateur of history surveying the world in the opening of the
+seventh century might have concluded very reasonably that it was only a
+question of a few centuries before the whole of Europe and Asia fell under
+Mongolian domination. There were no signs of order or union in Western Europe,
+and the Byzantine and Persian Empires were manifestly bent upon a mutual
+destruction. India also was divided and wasted. On the other hand China was a
+steadily expanding empire which probably at that time exceeded all Europe in
+population, and the Turkish people who were growing to power in Central Asia
+were disposed to work in accord with China. And such a prophecy would not have
+been an altogether vain one. A time was to come in the thirteenth century when
+a Mongolian overlord would rule from the Danube to the Pacific, and Turkish
+dynasties were destined to reign over the entire Byzantine and Persian Empires,
+over Egypt and most of India.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Where our prophet would have been most likely to have erred
+would have been in under-estimating the recuperative power of
+the Latin end of Europe and in ignoring the latent forces of
+the Arabian desert.  Arabia would have seemed what it had
+been for times immemorial, the refuge of small and bickering
+nomadic tribes.  No Semitic people had founded an empire now
+for more than a thousand years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Then suddenly the Bedouin flared out for a brief century of
+splendour.  They spread their rule and language from Spain to
+the boundaries of China.  They gave the world a new culture.
+  They created a religion that is still to this day one of the
+most vital forces in the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P249"></a></span>The man
+who fired this Arab flame appears first in history as the
+young husband of the widow of a rich merchant of the town of
+Mecca, named Muhammad.  Until he was forty he did very little
+to distinguish himself in the world.  He seems to have taken
+considerable interest in religious discussion.  Mecca was a
+pagan city at that time worshipping in particular a black
+stone, the Kaaba, of great repute throughout all Arabia and a
+centre of pilgrimages; but there were great numbers of Jews
+in the country&mdash;indeed all the southern portion of
+Arabia professed the Jewish faith&mdash;and there were
+Christian churches in Syria.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+About forty Muhammad began to develop prophetic
+characteristics like those of the Hebrew prophets twelve
+hundred years before him.  He talked first to his wife of the
+One True God, and of the rewards and punishments of virtue
+and wickedness.  There can be no doubt that his thoughts were
+very strongly influenced by Jewish and Christian ideas.  He
+gathered about him a small circle of believers and presently
+began to preach in the town against the prevalent idolatry.
+  This made him extremely unpopular with his fellow townsmen
+because the pilgrimages to the Kaaba were the chief source of
+such prosperity as Mecca enjoyed.  He became bolder and more
+definite in his teaching, declaring himself to be the last
+chosen prophet of God entrusted with a mission to perfect
+religion.  Abraham, he declared, and Jesus Christ were his
+forerunners.  He had been chosen to complete and perfect the
+revelation of God&rsquo;s will.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He produced verses which he said had been communicated to him
+by an angel, and he had a strange vision in which he was
+taken up through the Heavens to God and instructed in his
+mission.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P250"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-250"></a>
+<img src="images/img-250.jpg"
+alt="AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT"
+ width="315" height="650" />
+<p class="caption">
+AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT
+<br /><small>
+<i>Photo:  Lehnert &#38; Landrock</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+As his teaching increased in force the hostility of his
+fellow townsmen increased also.  At last a plot was made to
+kill him; but he escaped with his faithful friend and
+disciple, Abu Bekr, to the friendly town of Medina which
+adopted his doctrine.  Hostilities followed between Mecca and
+Medina which ended at last in a treaty.  Mecca was to adopt
+the worship of the One True God and accept Muhammad as his
+prophet, <i>but the adherents of the new faith were still to
+make the pilgrimage to Mecca</i> just as they had done when
+they were pagans.  So Muhammad established the One True God
+in <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P251"></a></span>Mecca without
+injuring its pilgrim traffic.  In 629 Muhammad returned to
+Mecca as its master, a year after he had sent out these
+envoys of his to Heraclius, Tai-tsung, Kavadh and all the
+rulers of the earth.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-251"></a>
+<img src="images/img-251.jpg"
+alt="LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND"
+ width="600" height="301" />
+<p class="caption">
+LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND
+<br /><small>
+<i>Photo:  Lehnert &#38; Landrock</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Then for four years more until his death in 632, Muhammad
+spread his power over the rest of Arabia.  He married a
+number of wives in his declining years, and his life on the
+whole was by modern standards unedifying.  He seems to have
+been a man compounded of very considerable vanity, greed,
+cunning, self-deception and quite sincere religious passion.
+  He dictated a book of injunctions and expositions, the Koran,
+which he declared was communicated to him from God.  Regarded
+as literature or philosophy the Koran is certainly unworthy
+of its alleged Divine authorship.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yet when the manifest defects of Muhammad&rsquo;s life and
+writings have been allowed for, there remains in Islam, this
+faith he imposed upon the Arabs, much power and inspiration.
+  One is its uncompromising monotheism; its simple enthusiastic
+faith in the rule and fatherhood of God and its freedom from
+theological complications.  Another is its complete
+detachment from the sacrificial priest and the temple.  It is
+an entirely prophetic religion, proof against any possibility
+of relapse towards blood sacrifices.  In the Koran the
+limited <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P252"></a></span>and ceremonial nature of the
+pilgrimage to Mecca is stated beyond the possibility of
+dispute, and every precaution was taken by Muhammad to
+prevent the deification of himself after his death.  And a
+third element of strength lay in the insistence of Islam upon
+the perfect brotherhood and equality before God of all
+believers, whatever their colour, origin or status.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These are the things that made Islam a power in human
+affairs.  It has been said that the true founder of the
+Empire of Islam was not so much Muhammad as his friend and
+helper, Abu Bekr.  If Muhammad, with his shifty character,
+was the mind and imagination of primitive Islam, Abu Bekr was
+its conscience and its will.  Whenever Muhammad wavered Abu
+Bekr sustained him.  And when Muhammad died, Abu Bekr became
+Caliph (= successor), and with that faith that moves
+mountains, he set himself simply and sanely to organize the
+subjugation of the whole world to Allah&mdash;with little
+armies of 3,000 or 4,000 Arabs&mdash;according to those
+letters the prophet had written from Medina in 628 to all the
+monarchs of the world.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P253"></a></span><a name="chapXLIV"></a>XLIV<br />
+THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS</h2>
+
+<p>
+There follows the most amazing story of conquest in the whole history of our
+race. The Byzantine army was smashed at the battle of the Yarmuk (a tributary
+of the Jordan) in 634; and the Emperor Heraclius, his energy sapped by dropsy
+and his resources exhausted by the Persian war, saw his new conquests in Syria,
+Damascus, Palmyra, Antioch, Jerusalem and the rest fall almost without
+resistance to the Moslim. Large elements in the population went over to Islam.
+Then the Moslim turned east. The Persians had found an able general in Rustam;
+they had a great host with a force of elephants; and for three days they fought
+the Arabs at Kadessia (637) and broke at last in headlong rout.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The conquest of all Persia followed, and the Moslem Empire
+pushed far into Western Turkestan and eastward until it met
+the Chinese.  Egypt fell almost without resistance to the new
+conquerors, who full of a fanatical belief in the sufficiency
+of the Koran, wiped out the vestiges of the book-copying
+industry of the Alexandria Library.  The tide of conquest
+poured along the north coast of Africa to the Straits of
+Gibraltar and Spain.  Spain was invaded in 710 and the
+Pyrenees Mountains were reached in 720.  In 732 the Arab
+advance had reached the centre of France, but here it was
+stopped for good at the battle of Poitiers and thrust back as
+far as the Pyrenees again.  The conquest of Egypt had given
+the Moslim a fleet, and for a time it looked as though they
+would take Constantinople.  They made repeated sea attacks
+between 672 and 718 but the great city held out against them.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-2541"></a>
+<img src="images/img-2541.jpg"
+alt="Map: The Growth of the Moslem Power in 25 Years"
+ width="600" height="333" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-2542"></a>
+<img src="images/img-2542.jpg"
+alt="Map: The Moslem Empire, 750 A.D."
+ width="600" height="331" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Arabs had little political aptitude and no political
+experience, and this great empire with its capital now at
+Damascus, which stretched from Spain to China, was destined
+to break up very speedily. From the very beginning doctrinal
+differences undermined <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P254"></a></span>its unity.  But our interest here
+lies not with the story of its political disintegration but
+with its effect upon the human mind and upon the general
+destinies of our race.  The Arab intelligence had been flung
+across the world even more swiftly and dramatically than had
+the Greek a thousand years before.  The intellectual
+stimulation of the whole world west of China, the break-up of
+old ideas and development of new ones, was enormous.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P255"></a></span>In
+Persia this fresh excited Arabic mind came into contact not
+only with Manichæan, Zoroastrian and Christian doctrine,
+but with the scientific Greek literature, preserved not only
+in Greek but in Syrian translations.  It found Greek learning
+in Egypt also. Every-where, and particularly in Spain, it
+discovered an active Jewish tradition of speculation and
+discussion.  In Central Asia it met Buddhism and the material
+achievements of Chinese civilization.  It learnt the
+manufacture of paper&mdash;which made printed books
+possible&mdash;from the Chinese.  And finally it came into
+touch with Indian mathematics and philosophy.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-255"></a>
+<img src="images/img-255.jpg"
+alt="JERUSALEM, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR"
+ width="600" height="484" />
+<p class="caption">
+JERUSALEM, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR
+<br /><small>
+<i>Photo:  Lehnert &#38; Landrock</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Very speedily the intolerant self-sufficiency of the early
+days of faith, which made the Koran seem the only possible
+book, was dropped. Learning sprang up everywhere in the
+footsteps of the Arab conquerors.  By the eighth century
+there was an educational <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P256"></a></span>organization throughout the whole
+&ldquo;Arabized&rdquo; world.  In the ninth learned men in
+the schools of Cordoba in Spain were corresponding with
+learned men in Cairo, Bagdad, Bokhara and Samarkand.  The
+Jewish mind assimilated very readily with the Arab, and for a
+time the two Semitic races worked together through the medium
+of Arabic.  Long after the political break-up and
+enfeeblement of the Arabs, this intellectual community of the
+Arab-speaking world endured.  It was still producing very
+considerable results in the thirteenth century.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-256"></a>
+<img src="images/img-256.jpg"
+alt="VIEW OF CAIRO MOSQUES"
+ width="600" height="477" />
+<p class="caption">
+VIEW OF CAIRO MOSQUES
+<br /><small>
+<i>Photo:  Lehnert &#38; Landrock</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+So it was that the systematic accumulation and criticism of
+facts which was first begun by the Greeks was resumed in this
+astonishing renascence of the Semitic world.  The seed of
+Aristotle and the museum of Alexandria that had lain so long
+inactive and neglected now germinated and began to grow
+towards fruition.  Very great advances were made in
+mathematical, medical and physical science.  <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P257"></a></span>The clumsy
+Roman numerals were ousted by the Arabic figures we use to
+this day and the zero sign was first employed.  The very name
+algebra is Arabic.  So is the word chemistry.  The names of
+such stars as Algol, Aldebaran and Bo&#246;tes preserve the
+traces of Arab conquests in the sky.  Their philosophy was
+destined to reanimate the medieval philosophy of France and
+Italy and the whole Christian world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Arab experimental chemists were called alchemists, and
+they were still sufficiently barbaric in spirit to keep their
+methods and results secret as far as possible.  They realized
+from the very beginning what enormous advantages their
+possible discoveries might give them, and what far-reaching
+consequences they might have on human life.  They came upon
+many metallurgical and technical devices of the utmost value,
+alloys and dyes, distilling, tinctures and essences, optical
+glass; but the two chief ends they sought, they sought in
+vain.  One was &ldquo;the philosopher&rsquo;s
+stone&rdquo;&mdash;a means of changing the metallic elements
+one into another and so getting a control of artificial gold,
+and the other was the <i>elixir vitœ</i>, a stimulant
+that would revivify age and prolong life indefinitely.  The
+crabbed patient experimenting of these Arab alchemists spread
+into the Christian world.  The fascination of their enquiries
+spread.  Very gradually the activities of these alchemists
+became more social and co-operative.  They found it
+profitable to exchange and compare ideas.  By insensible
+gradations the last of the alchemists became the first of the
+experimental philosophers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The old alchemists sought the philosopher&rsquo;s stone which
+was to transmute base metals to gold, and an elixir of
+immortality; they found the methods of modern experimental
+science which promise in the end to give man illimitable
+power over the world and over his own destiny.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P258"></a></span><a name="chapXLV"></a>XLV<br />
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM</h2>
+
+<p>
+It is worth while to note the extremely shrunken dimensions of the share of the
+world remaining under Aryan control in the seventh and eighth centuries. A
+thousand years before, the Aryan-speaking races were triumphant over all the
+civilized world west of China. Now the Mongol had thrust as far as Hungary,
+nothing of Asia remained under Aryan rule except the Byzantine dominions in
+Asia Minor, and all Africa was lost and nearly all Spain. The great Hellenic
+world had shrunken to a few possessions round the nucleus of the trading city
+of Constantinople, and the memory of the Roman world was kept alive by the
+Latin of the western Christian priests. In vivid contrast to this tale of
+retrogression, the Semitic tradition had risen again from subjugation and
+obscurity after a thousand years of darkness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yet the vitality of the Nordic peoples was not exhausted.
+  Confined now to Central and North-Western Europe and terribly
+muddled in their social and political ideas, they were
+nevertheless building up gradually and steadily a new social
+order and preparing unconsciously for the recovery of a power
+even more extensive than that they had previously enjoyed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have told how at the beginning of the sixth century there
+remained no central government in Western Europe at all.
+  That world was divided up among numbers of local rulers
+holding their own as they could.  This was too insecure a
+state of affairs to last; a system of co-operation and
+association grew up in this disorder, the feudal system,
+which has left its traces upon European life up to the
+present time.  This feudal system was a sort of
+crystallization of society about power.  Everywhere the lone
+man felt insecure and was prepared to barter a certain amount
+of his liberty for help and protection.  He sought a stronger
+man as his lord and protector; <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P259"></a></span>he gave him military services and
+paid him dues, and in return he was confirmed in his
+possession of what was his.  His lord again found safety in
+vassalage to a still greater lord.  Cities also found it
+convenient to have feudal protectors, and monasteries and
+church estates bound themselves by similar ties.  No doubt in
+many cases allegiance was claimed before it was offered; the
+system grew downward as well as upward.  So a sort of
+pyramidal system grew up, varying widely in different
+localities, permitting at first a considerable play of
+violence and private warfare but making steadily for order
+and a new reign of law.  The pyramids grew up until some
+became recognizable as kingdoms.  Already by the early sixth
+century a Frankish kingdom existed under its founder Clovis
+in what is now France and the Netherlands, and presently
+Visigothic and Lombard and Gothic kingdoms were in existence.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Moslim when they crossed the Pyrenees in 720 found this
+Frankish kingdom under the practical rule of Charles Martel,
+the Mayor of the Palace of a degenerate descendant of Clovis,
+and experienced the decisive defeat of Poitiers (732) at his
+hands.  This Charles Martel was practically overlord of
+Europe north of the Alps from the Pyrenees to Hungary.  He
+ruled over a multitude of subordinate lords speaking French-
+Latin, and High and Low German languages.  His son Pepin
+extinguished the last descendants of Clovis and took the
+kingly state and title.  His grandson Charlemagne, who began
+to reign in 768, found himself lord of a realm so large that
+he could think of reviving the title of Latin Emperor.  He
+conquered North Italy and made himself master of Rome.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-260"></a>
+<img src="images/img-260.jpg"
+alt="Map: Area more or less under Frankish dominion in the time of
+ Charles Martel"
+ width="550" height="507" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Approaching the story of Europe as we do from the wider
+horizons of a world history we can see much more distinctly
+than the mere nationalist historian how cramping and
+disastrous this tradition of the Latin Roman Empire was.  A
+narrow intense struggle for this phantom predominance was to
+consume European energy for more than a thousand years.
+  Through all that period it is possible to trace certain
+unquenchable antagonisms; they run through the wits of Europe
+like the obsessions of a demented mind.  One driving force
+was this ambition of successful rulers, which Charlemagne
+(Charles the Great) embodied, to become Cæsar.  The
+realm of Charlemagne consisted of a complex of feudal German
+states at <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P260"></a></span>various stages of barbarism.  West
+of the Rhine, most of these German peoples had learnt to
+speak various Latinized dialects which fused at last to form
+French.  East of the Rhine, the racially similar German
+peoples did not lose their German speech.  On account of
+this, communication was difficult between these two groups of
+barbarian conquerors and a split easily brought about.  The
+split was made the more easy by the fact that the Frankish
+usage made it seem natural to divide the empire of
+Charlemagne among his sons at his death.  So one aspect of
+the history of Europe from the days of Charlemagne onwards is
+a history of first this monarch and his family and then that,
+struggling to a precarious headship of the kings, princes,
+dukes, bishops and cities of Europe, while a steadily
+deepening antagonism between the French and German speaking
+elements develops in the medley.  There was a formality of
+election for each emperor; and the climax of his ambition was
+to struggle to the possession of that worn-out, misplaced
+capital Rome and to a coronation there.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P261"></a></span>The next
+factor in the European political disorder was the resolve of
+the Church at Rome to make no temporal prince but the Pope of
+Rome himself emperor in effect.  He was already pontifex
+maximus; for all practical purposes he held the decaying
+city; if he had no armies he had at least a vast propaganda
+organization in his priests throughout the whole Latin world;
+if he had little power over men&rsquo;s bodies he held the
+keys of heaven and hell in their imaginations and could
+exercise much influence upon their souls.  So throughout the
+middle ages while one prince manœuvred against another
+first for equality, then for ascendancy, and at last for the
+supreme prize, the Pope of Rome, sometimes boldly, sometimes
+craftily, sometimes feebly&mdash;for the Popes were a
+succession of oldish men and the average reign of a Pope was
+not more than two years&mdash;manœuvred for the
+submission of all the princes to himself as the ultimate
+overlord of Christendom.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But these antagonisms of prince against prince and of Emperor
+against Pope do not by any means exhaust the factors of the
+European confusion.  There was still an Emperor in
+Constantinople speaking Greek and claiming the allegiance of
+all Europe.  When Charlemagne sought to revive the empire, it
+was merely the Latin end of the empire he revived.  It was
+natural that a sense of rivalry between Latin Empire and
+Greek Empire should develop very readily.  And still more
+readily did the rivalry of Greek-speaking Christianity and
+the newer Latin-speaking version develop.  The Pope of Rome
+claimed to be the successor of St. Peter, the chief of the
+apostles of Christ, and the head of the Christian community
+everywhere.  Neither the emperor nor the patriarch in
+Constantinople were disposed to acknowledge this claim.  A
+dispute about a fine point in the doctrine of the Holy
+Trinity consummated a long series of dissensions in a final
+rupture in 1054.  The Latin Church and the Greek Church
+became and remained thereafter distinct and frankly
+antagonistic. This antagonism must be added to the others in
+our estimate of the conflicts that wasted Latin Christendom
+in the middle ages.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P262"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-262"></a>
+<img src="images/img-262.jpg"
+alt="STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE IN FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS"
+ width="600" height="824" />
+<p class="caption">
+STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE IN FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS
+<br /><small>The figure is entirely imaginary and romantic.  There is
+ no contemporary portrait of Charlemagne
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Rischgitz</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Upon this divided world of Christendom rained the blows of
+three sets of antagonists.  About the Baltic and North Seas
+remained a series of Nordic tribes who were only very slowly
+and reluctantly <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P263"></a></span>Christianized; these were the
+Northmen.  They had taken to the sea and piracy, and were
+raiding all the Christian coasts down to Spain.  They had
+pushed up the Russian rivers to the desolate central lands
+and brought their shipping over into the south-flowing
+rivers.  They had come out upon the Caspian and Black Seas as
+pirates also.  They set up principalities in Russia; they
+were the first people to be called Russians.  These Northmen
+Russians came near to taking Constantinople.  England in the
+early ninth century was a Christianized Low German country
+under a king, Egbert, a prot&#233;g&#233; and pupil of
+Charlemagne.  The Northmen wrested half the kingdom from his
+successor Alfred the Great (886), and finally under Canute
+(1016) made themselves masters of the whole land.  Under
+Rolph the Ganger (912) another band of Northmen conquered the
+north of France, which became Normandy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Canute ruled not only over England but over Norway and
+Denmark, but his brief empire fell to pieces at his death
+through that political weakness of the barbaric
+peoples&mdash;division among a ruler&rsquo;s sons.  It is
+interesting to speculate what might have happened if this
+temporary union of the Northmen had endured.  They were a
+race of astonishing boldness and energy.  They sailed in
+their galleys even to Iceland and Greenland.  They were the
+first Europeans to land on American soil.  Later on Norman
+adventurers were to recover Sicily from the Saracens and sack
+Rome.  It is a fascinating thing to imagine what a great
+northern sea-faring power might have grown out of
+Canute&rsquo;s kingdom, reaching from America to Russia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To the east of the Germans and Latinized Europeans was a
+medley of Slav tribes and Turkish peoples.  Prominent among
+these were the Magyars or Hungarians who were coming westward
+throughout the eighth and ninth centuries.  Charlemagne held
+them for a time, but after his death they established
+themselves in what is now Hungary; and after the fashion of
+their kindred predecessors, the Huns, raided every summer
+into the settled parts of Europe.  In 938 they went through
+Germany into France, crossed the Alps into North Italy, and
+so came home, burning, robbing and destroying.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Finally pounding away from the south at the vestiges of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P264"></a></span>Roman
+Empire were the Saracens.  They had made themselves largely
+masters of the sea; their only formidable adversaries upon
+the water were the Northmen, the Russian Northmen out of the
+Black Sea and the Northmen of the west.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-264"></a>
+<img src="images/img-264.jpg"
+alt="Map: Europe at the death of Charlemagne&mdash;814"
+ width="600" height="474" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Hemmed in by these more vigorous and aggressive peoples,
+amidst forces they did not understand and dangers they could
+not estimate, Charlemagne and after him a series of other
+ambitious spirits took up the futile drama of restoring the
+Western Empire under the name of the Holy Roman Empire.  From
+the time of Charlemagne onward this idea obsessed the
+political life of Western Europe, while in the East the Greek
+half of the Roman power decayed and dwindled until at last
+nothing remained of it at all but the corrupt trading city of
+Constantinople and a few miles of territory about it.
+  Politically the continent of Europe remained traditional and
+uncreative from the time of Charlemagne onward for a thousand
+years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P265"></a></span>The name
+of Charlemagne looms large in European history but his
+personality is but indistinctly seen.  He could not read nor
+write, but he had a considerable respect for learning; he
+liked to be read aloud to at meals and he had a weakness for
+theological discussion.  At his winter quarters at Aix-la-
+Chapelle or Mayence he gathered about him a number of learned
+men and picked up much from their conversation.  In the
+summer he made war, against the Spanish Saracens, against the
+Slavs and Magyars, against the Saxons, and other still
+heathen German tribes.  It is doubtful whether the idea of
+becoming Cæsar in succession to Romulus Augustulus
+occurred to him before his acquisition of North Italy, or
+whether it was suggested to him by Pope Leo III, who was
+anxious to make the Latin Church independent of
+Constantinople.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There were the most extraordinary manœuvres at Rome
+between the Pope and the prospective emperor in order to make
+it appear or not appear as if the Pope gave him the imperial
+crown.  The Pope succeeded in crowning his visitor and
+conqueror by surprise in St. Peter&rsquo;s on Christmas Day
+800 <small>A.D.</small>  He produced a crown, put it
+on the head of Charlemagne and hailed him Cæsar and
+Augustus.  There was great applause among the people.
+  Charlemagne was by no means pleased at the way in which the
+thing was done, it rankled in his mind as a defeat; and he
+left the most careful instructions to his son that he was not
+to let the Pope crown him emperor; he was to seize the crown
+into his own hands and put it on his own head himself.  So at
+the very outset of this imperial revival we see beginning the
+age-long dispute of Pope and Emperor for priority.  But Louis
+the Pious, the son of Charlemagne, disregarded his
+father&rsquo;s instructions and was entirely submissive to
+the Pope.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The empire of Charlemagne fell apart at the death of Louis
+the Pious and the split between the French-speaking Franks
+and the German-speaking Franks widened.  The next emperor to
+arise was Otto, the son of a certain Henry the Fowler, a
+Saxon, who had been elected King of Germany by an assembly of
+German princes and prelates in 919.  Otto descended upon Rome
+and was crowned emperor there in 962.  This Saxon line came
+to an end early in the eleventh century and gave place to
+other German rulers.  The feudal princes and nobles to the
+west who spoke various French dialects <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P266"></a></span>did not fall
+under the sway of these German emperors after the
+Carlovingian line, the line that is descended from
+Charlemagne, had come to an end, and no part of Britain ever
+came into the Holy Roman Empire.  The Duke of Normandy, the
+King of France and a number of lesser feudal rulers remained
+outside.  In 987 the Kingdom of France passed out of the
+possession of the Carlovingian line into the hands of Hugh
+Capet, whose descendants were still reigning in the
+eighteenth century.  At the time of Hugh Capet the King of
+France ruled only a comparatively small territory round
+Paris.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1066 England was attacked almost simultaneously by an
+invasion of the Norwegian Northmen under King Harold Hardrada
+and by the Latinized Northmen under the Duke of Normandy.
+Harold King of England defeated the former at the battle of
+Stamford Bridge, and was defeated by the latter at Hastings.
+England was conquered by the Normans, and so cut off from
+Scandinavian, Teutonic and Russian affairs, and brought into
+the most intimate relations and conflicts with the French.
+For the next four centuries the English were entangled in the
+conflicts of the French feudal princes and wasted upon the
+fields of France.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P267"></a></span><a name="chapXLVI"></a>XLVI<br />
+THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION</h2>
+
+<p>
+It is interesting to note that Charlemagne corresponded with the Caliph
+Haroun-al-Raschid, the Haroun-al-Raschid of the <i>Arabian Nights</i>. It is
+recorded that Haroun-al-Raschid sent ambassadors from Bagdad&mdash;which had
+now replaced Damascus as the Moslem capital&mdash;with a splendid tent, a water
+clock, an elephant and the keys of the Holy Sepulchre. This latter present was
+admirably calculated to set the Byzantine Empire and this new Holy Roman Empire
+by the ears as to which was the proper protector of the Christians in
+Jerusalem.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These presents remind us that while Europe in the ninth
+century was still a weltering disorder of war and pillage,
+there flourished a great Arab Empire in Egypt and
+Mesopotamia, far more civilized than anything Europe could
+show.  Here literature and science still lived; the arts
+flourished, and the mind of man could move without fear or
+superstition.  And even in Spain and North Africa where the
+Saracenic dominions were falling into political confusion
+there was a vigorous intellectual life.  Aristotle was read
+and discussed by these Jews and Arabs during these centuries
+of European darkness.  They guarded the neglected seeds of
+science and philosophy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+North-east of the Caliph&rsquo;s dominions was a number of
+Turkish tribes.  They had been converted to Islam, and they
+held the faith much more simply and fiercely than the
+actively intellectual Arabs and Persians to the south.  In
+the tenth century the Turks were growing strong and vigorous
+while the Arab power was divided and decaying.  The relations
+of the Turks to the Empire of the Caliphate became very
+similar to the relations of the Medes to the last Babylonian
+Empire fourteen centuries before.  In the eleventh century a
+group of Turkish tribes, the Seljuk Turks, came down into
+Mesopotamia and made the Caliph their nominal ruler but
+really their <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P268"></a></span>captive and tool.  They conquered
+Armenia.  Then they struck at the remnants of the Byzantine
+power in Asia Minor.  In 1071 the Byzantine army was utterly
+smashed at the battle of Melasgird, and the Turks swept
+forward until not a trace of Byzantine rule remained in Asia.
+  They took the fortress of Nicæa over against
+Constantinople, and prepared to attempt that city.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Byzantine emperor, Michael VII, was overcome with terror.
+  He was already heavily engaged in warfare with a band of
+Norman adventurers who had seized Durazzo, and with a fierce
+Turkish people, the Petschenegs, who were raiding over the
+Danube.  In his extremity he sought help where he could, and
+it is notable that he did not appeal to the western emperor
+but to the Pope of Rome as the head of Latin Christendom.  He
+wrote to Pope Gregory VII, and his successor Alexius Comnenus
+wrote still more urgently to Urban II.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-268"></a>
+<img src="images/img-268.jpg"
+alt="CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRAL"
+ width="600" height="204" />
+<p class="caption">
+CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRAL
+<br /><small>
+<i>Photo:  Mansell</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+This was not a quarter of a century from the rupture of the
+Latin and Greek churches.  That controversy was still vividly
+alive in men&rsquo;s minds, and this disaster to Byzantium
+must have presented itself to the Pope as a supreme
+opportunity for reasserting the supremacy of the Latin Church
+over the dissentient Greeks.  Moreover this occasion gave the
+Pope a chance to deal with two other matters that troubled
+western Christendom very greatly.  One was the custom of
+&ldquo;private war&rdquo; which disordered social life, and
+the other was the superabundant fighting energy of the Low
+Germans and Christianized Northmen and particularly of the
+Franks and Normans.  A religious war, the Crusade, the War of
+the Cross, was <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P269"></a></span>preached against the Turkish
+captors of Jerusalem, and a truce to all warfare amongst
+Christians (1095).  The declared object of this war was the
+recovery of the Holy Sepulchre from the unbelievers.  A man
+called Peter the Hermit carried on a popular propaganda
+throughout France and Germany on broadly democratic lines.
+  He went clad in a coarse garment, barefooted on an ass, he
+carried a huge cross and harangued the crowd in street or
+market-place or church.  He denounced the cruelties practised
+upon the Christian pilgrims by the Turks, and the shame of
+the Holy Sepulchre being in any but Christian hands.  The
+fruits of centuries of Christian teaching became apparent in
+the response.  A great wave of enthusiasm swept the western
+world, and popular Christendom discovered itself.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-269"></a>
+<img src="images/img-269.jpg"
+alt="VIEW OF CAIRO"
+ width="500" height="618" />
+<p class="caption">
+VIEW OF CAIRO
+<br /><small>
+<i>Photo:  Lehnert &#38; Landrock</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Such a widespread uprising of the common people in relation
+to a single idea as now occurred was a new thing in the
+history of our race.  There is nothing to parallel it in the
+previous history of the <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P270"></a></span>Roman Empire or of India or China.
+  On a smaller scale, however, there had been similar movements
+among the Jewish people after their liberation from the
+Babylonian captivity, and later on Islam was to display a
+parallel susceptibility to collective feeling.  Such
+movements were certainly connected with the new spirit that
+had come into life with the development of the missionary-
+teaching religions.  The Hebrew prophets, Jesus and his
+disciples, Mani, Muhammad, were all exhorters of men&rsquo;s
+individual souls.  They brought the personal conscience face
+to face with God.  Before that time religion had been much
+more a business of fetish, of pseudoscience, than of
+conscience.  The old kind of religion turned upon temple,
+initiated priest and mystical sacrifice, and ruled the common
+man like a slave by fear.  The new kind of religion made a
+man of him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The preaching of the First Crusade was the first stirring of
+the common people in European history.  It may be too much to
+call it the birth of modern democracy, but certainly at that
+time modern democracy stirred.  Before very long we shall
+find it stirring again, and raising the most disturbing
+social and religious questions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Certainly this first stirring of democracy ended very
+pitifully and lamentably.  Considerable bodies of common
+people, crowds rather than armies, set out eastward from
+France and the Rhineland and Central Europe without waiting
+for leaders or proper equipment to rescue the Holy Sepulchre.
+  This was the &ldquo;people&rsquo;s crusade.&rdquo;  Two great
+mobs blundered into Hungary, mistook the recently converted
+Magyars for pagans, committed atrocities and were massacred.
+  A third multitude with a similarly confused mind, after a
+great pogrom of the Jews in the Rhineland, marched eastward,
+and was also destroyed in Hungary.  Two other huge crowds,
+under the leadership of Peter the Hermit himself, reached
+Constantinople, crossed the Bosphorus, and were massacred
+rather than defeated by the Seljuk Turks.  So began and ended
+this first movement of the European people, as people.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Next year (1097) the real fighting forces crossed the
+Bosphorus.  Essentially they were Norman in leadership and
+spirit.  They stormed Nicæa, marched by much the same
+route as Alexander had followed fourteen centuries before, to
+Antioch.  The siege of Antioch <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P271"></a></span>kept them a year, and in June 1099
+they invested Jerusalem.  It was stormed after a
+month&rsquo;s siege.  The slaughter was terrible.  Men riding
+on horseback were splashed by the blood in the streets.  At
+nightfall on July 15th the Crusaders had fought their way
+into the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and overcome all
+opposition there: blood-stained, weary and &ldquo;sobbing
+from excess of joy&rdquo; they knelt down in prayer.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-271"></a>
+<img src="images/img-271.jpg"
+alt="THE HORSES OF S. MARK, VENICE"
+ width="350" height="439" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE HORSES OF S. MARK, VENICE
+<br /><small>Originally on the arch of Trajan at Constantinople, the
+ Doge Dandalo V took them after the Fourth Crusade, to Venice,
+ whence Napoleon I removed them to Paris, but in 1815 they were
+ returned to Venice.  During the Great War of 1914-18 they were
+ hidden away for fear of air raids.
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  D. McLeish</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Immediately the hostility of Latin and Greek broke out again.
+  The Crusaders were the servants of the Latin Church, and the
+Greek patriarch of Jerusalem found himself in a far worse
+case under the triumphant Latins than under the Turks.  The
+Crusaders discovered themselves between Byzantine and Turk
+and fighting both.  Much of Asia Minor was recovered by the
+Byzantine Empire, and the Latin princes were left, a buffer
+between Turk and Greek, with Jerusalem and a few small
+principalities, of which Edessa was one of the chief, in
+Syria.  Their grip even on these possessions was precarious,
+and in 1144 Edessa fell to the Moslim, leading to an
+ineffective Second Crusade, which failed to recover Edessa
+but saved Antioch from a similar fate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P272"></a></span>In 1169
+the forces of Islam were rallied under a Kurdish adventurer
+named Saladin who had made himself master of Egypt.  He
+preached a Holy War against the Christians, recaptured
+Jerusalem in 1187, and so provoked the Third Crusade.  This
+failed to recover Jerusalem.  In the Fourth Crusade (1202-4)
+the Latin Church turned frankly upon the Greek Empire, and
+there was not even a pretence of fighting the Turks.  It
+started from Venice and in 1204 it stormed Constantinople.
+  The great rising trading city of Venice was the leader in
+this adventure, and most of the coasts and islands of the
+Byzantine Empire were annexed by the Venetians.  A
+&ldquo;Latin&rdquo; emperor (Baldwin of Flanders) was set up
+in Constantinople and the Latin and Greek Church were
+declared to be reunited.  The Latin emperors ruled in
+Constantinople from 1204 to 1261 when the Greek world shook
+itself free again from Roman predominance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The twelfth century then and the opening of the thirteenth
+was the age of papal ascendancy just as the eleventh was the
+age of the ascendancy of the Seljuk Turks and the tenth the
+age of the Northmen.  A united Christendom under the rule of
+the Pope came nearer to being a working reality than it ever
+was before or after that time.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P273"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-273"></a>
+<img src="images/img-273.jpg"
+alt="A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA"
+ width="600" height="747" />
+<p class="caption">
+A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA
+<br /><small>
+<i>Photo:  Lehnert &#38; Landrock</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In those centuries a simple Christian faith was real and
+widespread over great areas of Europe.  Rome itself had
+passed through some dark and discreditable phases; few
+writers can be found to excuse the lives of Popes John XI and
+John XII in the tenth century; they were abominable
+creatures; but the heart and body of Latin Christendom had
+remained earnest and simple; the generality of the common
+priests and monks and nuns had lived exemplary and faithful
+lives.  Upon the wealth of confidence such lives created
+rested the power of the church.  Among the great Popes of the
+past had been Gregory the Great, Gregory I (590-604) and Leo
+III (795-816) who invited Charlemagne to be Cæsar and
+crowned him in spite of himself.  Towards the close of the
+eleventh century there arose a great clerical statesman,
+Hildebrand, who ended his life as Pope Gregory VII (1073-
+1085).  Next but one after him came Urban II (1087-1099), the
+Pope of the First Crusade.  These two were the founders of
+this period of papal greatness during which the Popes lorded
+it over the Emperors.  From Bulgaria to Ireland and <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P274"></a></span>from Norway to
+Sicily and Jerusalem the Pope was supreme.  Gregory VII
+obliged the Emperor Henry IV to come in penitence to him at
+Canossa and to await forgiveness for three days and nights in
+the courtyard of the castle, clad in sackcloth and barefooted
+to the snow.  In 1176 at Venice the Emperor Frederick
+(Frederick Barbarossa), knelt to Pope Alexander III and swore
+fealty to him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The great power of the church in the beginning of the
+eleventh century lay in the wills and consciences of men.  It
+failed to retain the moral prestige on which its power was
+based.  In the opening decades of the fourteenth century it
+was discovered that the power of the Pope had evaporated.
+  What was it that destroyed the naive confidence of the common
+people of Christendom in the church so that they would no
+longer rally to its appeal and serve its purposes?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The first trouble was certainly the accumulation of wealth by
+the church.  The church never died, and there was a frequent
+disposition on the part of dying childless people to leave
+lands to the church.  Penitent sinners were exhorted to do
+so.  Accordingly in many European countries as much as a
+fourth of the land became church property.  The appetite for
+property grows with what it feeds upon.  Already in the
+thirteenth century it was being said everywhere that the
+priests were not good men, that they were always hunting for
+money and legacies.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The kings and princes disliked this alienation of property
+very greatly.  In the place of feudal lords capable of
+military support, they found their land supporting abbeys and
+monks and nuns.  And these lands were really under foreign
+dominion.  Even before the time of Pope Gregory VII there had
+been a struggle between the princes and the papacy over the
+question of &ldquo;investitures,&rdquo; the question that is
+of who should appoint the bishops.  If that power rested with
+the Pope and not the King, then the latter lost control not
+only of the consciences of his subjects but of a considerable
+part of his dominions.  For also the clergy claimed exemption
+from taxation.  They paid their taxes to Rome.  And not only
+that, but the church also claimed the right to levy a tax of
+one-tenth upon the property of the layman in addition to the
+taxes he paid his prince.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P275"></a></span>The
+history of nearly every country in Latin Christendom tells of
+the same phase in the eleventh century, a phase of struggle
+between monarch and Pope on the issue of investitures and
+generally it tells of a victory for the Pope.  He claimed to
+be able to excommunicate the prince, to absolve his subjects
+from their allegiance to him, to recognize a successor.  He
+claimed to be able to put a nation under an interdict, and
+then nearly all priestly functions ceased except the
+sacraments of baptism, confirmation and penance; the priests
+could neither hold the ordinary services, marry people, nor
+bury the dead.  With these two weapons it was possible for
+the twelfth century Popes to curb the most recalcitrant
+princes and overawe the most restive peoples.  These were
+enormous powers, and enormous powers are only to be used on
+extraordinary occasions.  The Popes used them at last with a
+frequency that staled their effect.  Within thirty years at
+the end of the twelfth century we find Scotland, France and
+England in turn under an interdict.  And also the Popes could
+not resist the temptation to preach crusades against
+offending princes&mdash;until the crusading spirit was
+extinct.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is possible that if the Church of Rome had struggled
+simply against the princes and had had a care to keep its
+hold upon the general mind, it might have achieved a
+permanent dominion over all Christendom.  But the high claims
+of the Pope were reflected as arrogance in the conduct of the
+clergy.  Before the eleventh century the Roman priests could
+marry; they had close ties with the people among whom they
+lived; they were indeed a part of the people.  Gregory VII
+made them celibates; he cut the priests off from too great an
+intimacy with the laymen in order to bind them more closely
+to Rome, but indeed he opened a fissure between the church
+and the commonalty.  The church had its own law courts.
+  Cases involving not merely priests but monks, students,
+crusaders, widows, orphans and the helpless were reserved for
+the clerical courts, and so were all matters relating to
+wills, marriages and oaths and all cases of sorcery, heresy
+and blasphemy.  Whenever the layman found himself in conflict
+with the priest he had to go to a clerical court.  The
+obligations of peace and war fell upon his shoulders alone
+and left the priest free.  It is no great wonder that
+jealousy and hatred of the priests grew up in the Christian
+world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P276"></a></span>Never
+did Rome seem to realize that its power was in the
+consciences of common men.  It fought against religious
+enthusiasm, which should have been its ally, and it forced
+doctrinal orthodoxy upon honest doubt and aberrant opinion.
+  When the church interfered in matters of morality it had the
+common man with it, but not when it interfered in matters of
+doctrine.  When in the south of France Waldo taught a return
+to the simplicity of Jesus in faith and life, Innocent III
+preached a crusade against the Waldenses, Waldo&rsquo;s
+followers, and permitted them to be suppressed with fire,
+sword, rape and the most abominable cruelties.  When again
+St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) taught the imitation of
+Christ and a life of poverty and service, his followers, the
+Franciscans, were persecuted, scourged, imprisoned and
+dispersed.  In 1318 four of them were burnt alive at
+Marseilles.  On the other hand the fiercely orthodox order of
+the Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic (1170-1221) was
+strongly supported by Innocent III, who with its assistance
+set up an organization, the Inquisition, for the hunting of
+heresy and the affliction of free thought.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So it was that the church by excessive claims, by unrighteous
+privileges, and by an irrational intolerance destroyed that
+free faith of the common man which was the final source of
+all its power.  The story of its decline tells of no adequate
+foemen from without but continually of decay from within.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P277"></a></span><a name="chapXLVII"></a>XLVII<br />
+RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM</h2>
+
+<p>
+One very great weakness of the Roman Church in its struggle to secure the
+headship of all Christendom was the manner in which the Pope was chosen.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If indeed the papacy was to achieve its manifest ambition and
+establish one rule and one peace throughout Christendom, then
+it was vitally necessary that it should have a strong, steady
+and continuous direction.  In those great days of its
+opportunity it needed before all things that the Popes when
+they took office should be able men in the prime of life,
+that each should have his successor-designate with whom he
+could discuss the policy of the church, and that the forms
+and processes of election should be clear, definite,
+unalterable and unassailable.  Unhappily none of these things
+obtained.  It was not even clear who could vote in the
+election of a Pope, nor whether the Byzantine or Holy Roman
+Emperor had a voice in the matter.  That very great papal
+statesman Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII, 1073-1085) did much
+to regularize the election.  He confined the votes to the
+Roman cardinals and he reduced the Emperor&rsquo;s share to a
+formula of assent conceded to him by the church, but he made
+no provision for a successor-designate and he left it
+possible for the disputes of the cardinals to keep the See
+vacant, as in some cases it was kept vacant, for a year or
+more.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P278"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-278"></a>
+<img src="images/img-278.jpg"
+alt="MILAN CATHEDRALA COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA"
+ width="600" height="785" />
+<p class="caption">
+MILAN CATHEDRALA COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA
+<br /><small>View showing the exquisite carvings characteristic of the
+ 98 spires of the edifice
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The consequences of this want of firm definition are to be
+seen in the whole history of the papacy up to the sixteenth
+century.  From quite early times onward there were disputed
+elections and two or more men each claiming to be Pope.  The
+church would then be subjected to the indignity of going to
+the Emperor or some other outside arbiter to settle the
+dispute.  And the career of everyone of the great Popes ended
+in a note of interrogation.  At his death the church might be
+left headless and as ineffective as a decapitated <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P279"></a></span>body.  Or he
+might be replaced by some old rival eager only to discredit
+and undo his work.  Or some enfeebled old man tottering on
+the brink of the grave might succeed him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was inevitable that this peculiar weakness of the papal
+organization should attract the interference of the various
+German princes, the French King, and the Norman and French
+Kings who ruled in England; that they should all try to
+influence the elections, and have a Pope in their own
+interest established in the Lateran Palace at Rome.  And the
+more powerful and important the Pope became in European
+affairs, the more urgent did these interventions become.
+  Under the circumstances it is no great wonder that many of
+the Popes were weak and futile.  The astonishing thing is
+that many of them were able and courageous men.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+One of the most vigorous and interesting of the Popes of this
+great period was Innocent III (1198-1216) who was so
+fortunate as to become Pope before he was thirty-eight.  He
+and his successors were pitted against an even more
+interesting personality, the Emperor Frederick II; <i>Stupor
+mundi</i> he was called, the Wonder of the world.  The
+struggle of this monarch against Rome is a turning place in
+history.  In the end Rome defeated him and destroyed his
+dynasty, but he left the prestige of the church and Pope so
+badly wounded that its wounds festered and led to its decay.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Frederick was the son of the Emperor Henry VI and his mother
+was the daughter of Roger I, the Norman King of Sicily.  He
+inherited this kingdom in 1198 when he was a child of four
+years.  Innocent III had been made his guardian.  Sicily in
+those days had been but recently conquered by the Normans;
+the Court was half oriental and full of highly educated
+Arabs; and some of these were associated in the education of
+the young king.  No doubt they were at some pains to make
+their point of view clear to him.  He got a Moslem view of
+Christianity as well as a Christian view of Islam, and the
+unhappy result of this double system of instruction was a
+view, exceptional in that age of faith, that all religions
+were impostures.  He talked freely on the subject; his
+heresies and blasphemies are on record.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the young man grew up he found himself in conflict with
+his guardian.  Innocent III wanted altogether too much from
+his ward.  <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P280"></a></span>When the opportunity came for
+Frederick to succeed as Emperor, the Pope intervened with
+conditions.  Frederick must promise to put down heresy in
+Germany with a strong hand. Moreover he must relinquish his
+crown in Sicily and South Italy, because otherwise he would
+be too strong for the Pope.  And the German clergy were to be
+freed from all taxation.  Frederick agreed but with no
+intention of keeping his word.  The Pope had already induced
+the French King to make war upon his own subjects in France,
+the cruel and bloody crusade against the Waldenses; he wanted
+Frederick to do the same thing in Germany.  But Frederick
+being far more of a heretic than any of the simple pietists
+who had incurred the Pope&rsquo;s animosity, lacked the
+crusading impulse.  And when Innocent urged him to crusade
+against the Moslim and recover Jerusalem he was equally ready
+to promise and equally slack in his performance.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-280"></a>
+<img src="images/img-280.jpg"
+alt="A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS"
+ width="250" height="748" />
+<p class="caption">
+A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS
+<br /><small>From the Church of S. Pedro at Ocana, Spain
+<br />
+<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Having secured the imperial crown Frederick II stayed in
+Sicily, which he greatly preferred to Germany as a residence,
+and did nothing to redeem any of his promises to Innocent
+III, who died baffled in 1216.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P281"></a></span>Honorius
+III, who succeeded Innocent, could do no better with
+Frederick, and Gregory IX (1227) came to the papal throne
+evidently resolved to settle accounts with this young man at
+any cost.  He excommunicated him.  Frederick II was denied
+all the comforts of religion.  In the half-Arab Court of
+Sicily this produced singularly little discomfort.  And also
+the Pope addressed a public letter to the Emperor reciting
+his vices (which were indisputable), his heresies, and his
+general misconduct.  To this Frederick replied in a document
+of diabolical ability.  It was addressed to all the princes
+of Europe, and it made the first clear statement of the issue
+between the Pope and the princes.  He made a shattering
+attack upon the manifest ambition of the Pope to become the
+absolute ruler of all Europe.  He suggested a union of
+princes against this usurpation.   He directed the attention
+of the princes specifically to the wealth of the church.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Having fired off this deadly missile Frederick resolved to
+perform his twelve-year-old promise and go upon a crusade.
+  This was the Sixth Crusade (1228).  It was as a crusade,
+farcical.  Frederick II went to Egypt and met and discussed
+affairs with the Sultan.  These two gentlemen, both of
+sceptical opinions, exchanged congenial views, made a
+commercial convention to their mutual advantage, and agreed
+to transfer Jerusalem to Frederick.  This indeed was a new
+sort of crusade, a crusade by private treaty.  Here was no
+blood splashing the conqueror, no &ldquo;weeping with excess
+of joy.&rdquo;  As this astonishing crusader was an
+excommunicated man, he had to be content with a purely
+secular coronation as King of Jerusalem, taking the crown
+from the altar with his own hand&mdash;for all the clergy
+were bound to shun him.  He then returned to Italy, chased
+the papal armies which had invaded his dominions back to
+their own territories, and obliged the Pope to grant him
+absolution from his excommunication.  So a prince might treat
+the Pope in the thirteenth century, and there was now no
+storm of popular indignation to avenge him.  Those days were
+past.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1239 Gregory IX resumed his struggle with Frederick,
+excommunicated him for a second time, and renewed that
+warfare of public abuse in which the papacy had already
+suffered severely.  The controversy was revived after Gregory
+IX was dead, when Innocent IV <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P282"></a></span>was Pope; and again a devastating
+letter, which men were bound to remember, was written by
+Frederick against the church.  He denounced the pride and
+irreligion of the clergy, and ascribed all the corruptions of
+the time to their pride and wealth.  He proposed to his
+fellow princes a general confiscation of church
+property&mdash;for the good of the church.  It was a
+suggestion that never afterwards left the imagination of the
+European princes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We will not go on to tell of his last years.  The particular
+events of his life are far less significant than its general
+atmosphere.  It is possible to piece together something of
+his court life in Sicily.  He was luxurious in his way of
+living, and fond of beautiful things.  He is described as
+licentious.  But it is clear that he was a man of very
+effectual curiosity and inquiry.  He gathered Jewish and
+Moslem as well as Christian philosophers at his court, and he
+did much to irrigate the Italian mind with Saracenic
+influences.  Through him the Arabic numerals and algebra were
+introduced to Christian students, and among other
+philosophers at his court was Michael Scott, who translated
+portions of Aristotle and the commentaries thereon of the
+great Arab philosopher Averroes (of Cordoba).  In 1224
+Frederick founded the University of Naples, and he enlarged
+and enriched the great medical school at Salerno University.
+  He also founded a zoological garden.  He left a book on
+hawking, which shows him to have been an acute observer of
+the habits of birds, and he was one of the first Italians to
+write Italian verse.  Italian poetry was indeed born at his
+court.  He has been called by an able writer, &ldquo;the
+first of the moderns,&rdquo; and the phrase expresses aptly
+the unprejudiced detachment of his intellectual side.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A still more striking intimation of the decay of the living
+and sustaining forces of the papacy appeared when presently
+the Popes came into conflict with the growing power of the
+French King.  During the lifetime of the Emperor Frederick
+II, Germany fell into disunion, and the French King began to
+play the r&#244;le of guard, supporter and rival to the Pope
+that had hitherto fallen to the Hohenstaufen Emperors.  A
+series of Popes pursued the policy of supporting the French
+monarchs.  French princes were established in the kingdom of
+Sicily and Naples, with the support and approval of Rome, and
+the French Kings saw before them the possibility <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P283"></a></span>of restoring
+and ruling the Empire of Charlemagne.  When, however, the
+German interregnum after the death of Frederick II, the last
+of the Hohenstaufens, came to all end and Rudolf of Habsburg
+was elected first Habsburg Emperor (1273), the policy of Rome
+began to fluctuate between France and Germany, veering about
+with the sympathies of each successive Pope.  In the East in
+1261 the Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latin
+emperors, and the founder of the new Greek dynasty, Michael
+Palæologus, Michael VIII, after some unreal tentatives
+of reconciliation with the Pope, broke away from the Roman
+communion altogether, and with that, and the fall of the
+Latin kingdoms in Asia, the eastward ascendancy of the Popes
+came to an end.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-283"></a>
+<img src="images/img-283.jpg"
+alt="COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE
+ FIFTEENTH CENTURY"
+ width="600" height="420" />
+<p class="caption">
+COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH
+ CENTURY
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In 1294 Boniface VIII became Pope.  He was an Italian,
+hostile to the French, and full of a sense of the great
+traditions and mission of Rome.  For a time he carried things
+with a high hand.  In 1300 he held a jubilee, and a vast
+multitude of pilgrims assembled in Rome.  &ldquo;So great was
+the influx of money into the papal treasury, that two
+assistants were kept busy with the rakes collecting the <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P284"></a></span>offerings that
+were deposited at the tomb of St. Peter.&rdquo; [<a
+name="chapXLVIIfn1text"></a><a href="#chapXLVIIfn1">1</a>]
+But this festival was a delusive triumph.  Boniface came into
+conflict with the French King in 1302, and in 1303, as he was
+about to pronounce sentence of excommunication against that
+monarch, he was surprised and arrested in his own ancestral
+palace at Anagni, by Guillaume de Nogaret.  This agent from
+the French King forced an entrance into the palace, made his
+way into the bedroom of the frightened Pope&mdash;he was
+lying in bed with a cross in his hands&mdash;and heaped
+threats and insults upon him.  The Pope was liberated a day
+or so later by the townspeople, and returned to Rome; but
+there he was seized upon and again made prisoner by the
+Orsini family, and in a few weeks&rsquo; time the shocked and
+disillusioned old man died a prisoner in their hands.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-284"></a>
+<img src="images/img-284.jpg"
+alt="COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE
+ FIFTEENTH CENTURY"
+ width="600" height="433" />
+<p class="caption">
+COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH
+ CENTURY
+<br /><small>This series is from casts in the Victoria and Albert
+ Museum of the original brass statuettes in the Rijks Museum,
+ Amsterdam
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The people of Anagni did resent the first outrage, and rose
+against Nogaret to liberate Boniface, but then Anagni was the
+Pope&rsquo;s native town.  The important point to note is
+that the French King <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P285"></a></span>in this rough treatment of the
+head of Christendom was acting with the full approval of his
+people; he had summoned a council of the Three Estates of
+France (lords, church and commons) and gained their consent
+before proceeding to extremities.  Neither in Italy, Germany
+nor England was there the slightest general manifestation of
+disapproval at this free handling of the sovereign pontiff.
+  The idea of Christendom had decayed until its power over the
+minds of men had gone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Throughout the fourteenth century the papacy did nothing to
+recover its moral sway.  The next Pope elected, Clement V,
+was a Frenchman, the choice of King Philip of France.  He
+never came to Rome.  He set up his court in the town of
+Avignon, which then belonged not to France but to the papal
+See, though embedded in French territory, and there his
+successors remained until 1377, when Pope Gregory XI returned
+to the Vatican palace in Rome.  But Gregory XI did not take
+the sympathies of the whole church with him.  Many of the
+cardinals were of French origin and their habits and
+associations were rooted deep at Avignon.  When in 1378
+Gregory XI died, and an Italian, Urban VI, was elected, these
+dissentient cardinals declared the election invalid, and
+elected another Pope, the anti-Pope, Clement VII.  This split
+is called the Great Schism.  The Popes remained in Rome, and
+all the anti-French powers, the Emperor, the King of England,
+Hungary, Poland and the North of Europe were loyal to them.
+  The anti-Popes, on the other hand, continued in Avignon, and
+were supported by the King of France, his ally the King of
+Scotland, Spain, Portugal and various German princes.  Each
+Pope excommunicated and cursed the adherents of his rival
+(1378-1417).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Is it any wonder that presently all over Europe people began
+to think for themselves in matters of religion?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The beginnings of the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which
+we have noted in the preceding chapters, were but two among
+many of the new forces that were arising in Christendom,
+either to hold or shatter the church as its own wisdom might
+decide.
+  Those two orders the church did assimilate and use, though
+with a little violence in the case of the former.  But other
+forces were more frankly disobedient and critical.  A century
+and a half later <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P286"></a></span>came Wycliffe (1320-1384). He was
+a learned Doctor at Oxford.  Quite late in his life he began
+a series of outspoken criticisms of the corruption of the
+clergy and the unwisdom of the church.  He organized a number
+of poor priests, the Wycliffites, to spread his ideas
+throughout England; and in order that people should judge
+between the church and himself, he translated the Bible into
+English.  He was a more learned and far abler man than either
+St. Francis or St. Dominic.  He had supporters in high places
+and a great following among the people; and though Rome raged
+against him, and ordered his imprisonment, he died a free
+man.  But the black and ancient spirit that was leading the
+Catholic Church to its destruction would not let his bones
+rest in the grave.  By a decree of the Council of Constance
+in 1415, his remains were ordered to be dug up and burnt, an
+order which was carried out at the command of Pope Martin V
+by Bishop Fleming in 1428.  This desecration was not the act
+of some isolated fanatic; it was the official act of the
+church.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="chapXLVIIfn1"></a>
+[<a href="#chapXLVIIfn1text">1</a>] J. H. Robinson.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P287"></a></span><a name="chapXLVIII"></a>XLVIII<br />
+THE MONGOL CONQUESTS</h2>
+
+<p>
+But in the thirteenth century, while this strange and finally ineffectual
+struggle to unify Christendom under the rule of the Pope was going on in
+Europe, far more momentous events were afoot upon the larger stage of Asia. A
+Turkish people from the country to the north of China rose suddenly to
+prominence in the world&rsquo;s affairs, and achieved such a series of
+conquests as has no parallel in history. These were the Mongols. At the opening
+of the thirteenth century they were a horde of nomadic horsemen, living very
+much as their predecessors, the Huns, had done, subsisting chiefly upon meat
+and mare&rsquo;s milk and living in tents of skin. They had shaken themselves
+free from Chinese dominion, and brought a number of other Turkish tribes into a
+military confederacy. Their central camp was at Karakorum in Mongolia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At this time China was in a state of division.  The great
+dynasty of Tang had passed into decay by the tenth century,
+and after a phase of division into warring states, three main
+empires, that of Kin in the north with Pekin as its capital
+and that of Sung in the south with a capital at Nankin, and
+Hsia in the centre, remain.  In 1214 Jengis Khan, the leader
+of the Mongol confederates, made war on the Kin Empire and
+captured Pekin (1214).  He then turned westward and conquered
+Western Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, India down to Lahore, and
+South Russia as far as Kieff.  He died master of a vast
+empire that reached from the Pacific to the Dnieper.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His successor, Ogdai Khan, continued this astonishing career
+of conquest.  His armies were organized to a very high level
+of efficiency; and they had with them a new Chinese
+invention, gunpowder, which they used in small field guns.
+  He completed the conquest of the Kin Empire and then swept
+his hosts right across Asia to Russia (1235), an altogether
+amazing march.  Kieff was <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P288"></a></span>destroyed in 1240, and nearly all
+Russia became tributary to the Mongols.  Poland was ravaged,
+and a mixed army of Poles and Germans was annihilated at the
+battle of Liegnitz in Lower Silesia in 1241.  The Emperor
+Frederick II does not seem to have made any great efforts to
+stay the advancing tide.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-288"></a>
+<img src="images/img-288.jpg"
+alt="Map: The Ottoman Empire before 1453"
+ width="600" height="393" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;It is only recently,&rdquo; says Bury in his notes to
+Gibbon&rsquo;s <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>,
+&ldquo;that European history has begun to understand that the
+successes of the Mongol army which overran Poland and
+occupied Hungary in the spring of
+ <small>A.D.</small> 1241 were won by consummate strategy and were
+not due to a mere overwhelming superiority of numbers.  But
+this fact has not yet become a matter of common knowledge;
+the vulgar opinion which represents the Tartars as a wild
+horde carrying all before them solely by their multitude, and
+galloping through Eastern Europe without a strategic plan,
+rushing at all obstacles and overcoming them by mere weight,
+still prevails. . . .
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;It was wonderful how punctually and effectually the
+arrangements were carried out in operations extending from
+the Lower Vistula to Transylvania.  Such a campaign was quite
+beyond the <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P289"></a></span>power of any European army of the
+time, and it was beyond the vision of any European commander.
+  There was no general in Europe, from Frederick II downward,
+who was not a tyro in strategy compared to Subutai.  It
+should also be noticed that the Mongols embarked upon the
+enterprise with full knowledge of the political situation of
+Hungary and the condition of Poland&mdash;they had taken care
+to inform themselves by a well-organized system of spies; on
+the other hand, the Hungarians and the Christian powers, like
+childish barbarians, knew hardly anything about their
+enemies.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-289"></a>
+<img src="images/img-289.jpg"
+alt="Map: The Empire of Jengis Khan at his death (1227)"
+ width="600" height="463" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+But though the Mongols were victorious at Liegnitz, they did
+not continue their drive westward.  They were getting into
+woodlands and hilly country, which did not suit their
+tactics; and so they turned southward and prepared to settle
+in Hungary, massacring or assimilating the kindred Magyar,
+even as these had previously massacred and assimilated the
+mixed Scythians and Avars and Huns before them.  From the
+Hungarian plain they would probably have made raids west and
+south as the Hungarians had done in the ninth century, the
+Avars in the seventh and eighth and the Huns in the fifth.
+  But Ogdai died suddenly, and in 1242 there was trouble <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P290"></a></span>about the
+succession, and recalled by this, the undefeated hosts of
+Mongols began to pour back across Hungary and Roumania
+towards the east.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thereafter the Mongols concentrated their attention upon
+their Asiatic conquests.  By the middle of the thirteenth
+century they had conquered the Sung Empire.  Mangu Khan
+succeeded Ogdai Khan as Great Khan in 1251, and made his
+brother Kublai Khan governor of China.  In 1280 Kublai Khan
+had been formally recognized Emperor of China, and so founded
+the Yuan dynasty which lasted until 1368.  While the last
+ruins of the Sung rule were going down in China, another
+brother of Mangu, Hulagu, was conquering Persia and Syria.
+  The Mongols displayed a bitter animosity to Islam at this
+time, and not only massacred the population of Bagdad when
+they captured that city, but set to work to destroy the
+immemorial irrigation system which had kept Mesopotamia
+incessantly prosperous and populous from the early days of
+Sumeria.  From that time until our own Mesopotamia has been a
+desert of ruins, sustaining only a scanty population.  Into
+Egypt the Mongols never penetrated; the Sultan of Egypt
+completely defeated an army of Hulagu&rsquo;s in Palestine in
+1260.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After that disaster the tide of Mongol victory ebbed.  The
+dominions of the Great Khan fell into a number of separate
+states.  The eastern Mongols became Buddhists, like the
+Chinese; the western became Moslim.  The Chinese threw off
+the rule of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, and set up the native
+Ming dynasty which flourished from 1368 to 1644.  The
+Russians remained tributary to the Tartar hordes upon the
+south-east steppes until 1480, when the Grand Duke of Moscow
+repudiated his allegiance and laid the foundation of modern
+Russia.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P291"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-291"></a>
+<img src="images/img-291.jpg"
+alt="TARTAR HORSEMEN"
+ width="360" height="752" />
+<p class="caption">
+TARTAR HORSEMEN
+<br /><small><i>(From a Chinese Print in the British Museum)
+</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In the fourteenth century there was a brief revival of Mongol
+vigour under Timurlane, a descendant of Jengis Khan.  He
+established himself in Western Turkestan, assumed the title
+of Grand Khan in 1369, and conquered from Syria to Delhi.  He
+was the most savage and destructive of all the Mongol
+conquerors.  He established an empire of desolation that did
+not survive his death.  In 1505, however, a descendant of
+this Timur, an adventurer named Baber, got together an army
+with guns and swept down upon the <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P292"></a></span>plains of India.  His grandson
+Akbar (1556-1605) completed his conquests, and this Mongol
+(or &ldquo;Mogul&rdquo; as the Arabs called it) dynasty ruled
+in Delhi over the greater part of India until the eighteenth
+century.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-292"></a>
+<img src="images/img-292.jpg"
+alt="Map: The Ottoman Empire at the death of Suleiman the
+ Magnificent, 1566 A.D."
+ width="550" height="421" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+One of the consequences of the first great sweep of Mongol
+conquest in the thirteenth century was to drive a certain
+tribe of Turks, the Ottoman Turks, out of Turkestan into Asia
+Minor.  They extended and consolidated their power in Asia
+Minor, crossed the Dardanelles and conquered Macedonia,
+Serbia and Bulgaria, until at last Constantinople remained
+like an island amongst the Ottoman dominions.  In 1453 the
+Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad II, took Constantinople, attacking
+it from the European side with a great number of guns.  This
+event caused intense excitement in Europe and there was talk
+of a crusade, but the day of the crusades was past.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the course of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Sultans
+conquered Bagdad, Hungary, Egypt and most of North Africa,
+and their fleet made them masters of the Mediterranean.  They
+very nearly took Vienna, and they exacted it tribute from the
+Emperor.  There were but two items to offset the general ebb
+of Christian dominion <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P293"></a></span>in the fifteenth century.  One was
+the restoration of the independence of Moscow (1480); the
+other was the gradual reconquest of Spain by the Christians.
+  In 1492, Granada, the last Moslem state in the peninsula,
+fell to King Ferdinand of Aragon and his Queen Isabella of
+Castile.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it was not until as late as 1571 that the naval battle of
+Lepanto broke the prick of the Ottomans, and restored the
+Mediterranean waters to Christian ascendancy.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P294"></a></span><a name="chapXLIX"></a>XLIX<br />
+THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS</h2>
+
+<p>
+Throughout the twelfth century there were many signs that the European
+intelligence was recovering courage and leisure, and preparing to take up again
+the intellectual enterprises of the first Greek scientific enquiries and such
+speculations as those of the Italian Lucretius. The causes of this revival were
+many and complex. The suppression of private war, the higher standards of
+comfort and security that followed the crusades, and the stimulation of
+men&rsquo;s minds by the experiences of these expeditions were no doubt
+necessary preliminary conditions. Trade was reviving; cities were recovering
+ease and safety; the standard of education was arising in the church and
+spreading among laymen. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were a period
+of growing, independent or quasi-independent cities; Venice, Florence, Genoa,
+Lisbon, Paris, Bruges, London, Antwerp, Hamburg, Nuremberg, Novgorod, Wisby and
+Bergen for example. They were all trading cities with many travellers, and
+where men trade and travel they talk and think. The polemics of the Popes and
+princes, the conspicuous savagery and wickedness of the persecution of
+heretics, were exciting men to doubt the authority of the church and question
+and discuss fundamental things.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have seen how the Arabs were the means of restoring
+Aristotle to Europe, and how such a prince as Frederick II
+acted as a channel through which Arabic philosophy and
+science played upon the renascent European mind.  Still more
+influential in the stirring up of men&rsquo;s ideas were the
+Jews.  Their very existence was a note of interrogation to
+the claims of the church.  And finally the secret,
+fascinating enquiries of the alchemists were spreading far
+and wide and setting men to the petty, furtive and yet
+fruitful resumption of experimental science.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P295"></a></span>And the
+stir in men&rsquo;s minds was by no means confined now to the
+independent and well educated.  The mind of the common man
+was awake in the world as it had never been before in all the
+experience of mankind.  In spite of priest and persecution,
+Christianity does seem to have carried a mental ferment
+wherever its teaching reached.  It established a direct
+relation between the conscience of the individual man and the
+God of Righteousness, so that now if need arose he had the
+courage to form his own judgment upon prince or prelate or
+creed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As early as the eleventh century philosophical discussion had
+begun again in Europe, and there were great and growing
+universities at Paris, Oxford, Bologna and other centres.
+  There medieval &ldquo;schoolmen&rdquo; took up again and
+thrashed out a series of questions upon the value and meaning
+of words that were a necessary preliminary to clear thinking
+in the scientific age that was to follow.  And standing by
+himself because of his distinctive genius was Roger Bacon
+(circa 1210 to circa 1293), a Franciscan of Oxford, the
+father of modern experimental science.  His name deserves a
+prominence in our history second only to that of Aristotle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His writings are one long tirade against ignorance.  He told
+his age it was ignorant, an incredibly bold thing to do.
+  Nowadays a man may tell the world it is as silly as it is
+solemn, that all its methods are still infantile and clumsy
+and its dogmas childish assumptions, without much physical
+danger; but these peoples of the middle ages when they were
+not actually being massacred or starving or dying of
+pestilence, were passionately convinced of the wisdom, the
+completeness and finality of their beliefs, and disposed to
+resent any reflections upon them very bitterly.  Roger
+Bacon&rsquo;s writings were like a flash of light in a
+profound darkness.  He combined his attack upon the ignorance
+of his times with a wealth of suggestion for the increase of
+knowledge.  In his passionate insistence upon the need of
+experiment and of collecting knowledge, the spirit of
+Aristotle lives again in him.  &ldquo;Experiment,
+experiment,&rdquo; that is the burthen of Roger Bacon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yet of Aristotle himself Roger Bacon fell foul.  He fell foul
+of him because men, instead of facing facts boldly, sat in
+rooms and pored over the bad Latin translations which were
+then all that was <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P296"></a></span>available of the master.
+  &ldquo;If I had my way,&rdquo; he wrote, in his intemperate
+fashion, &ldquo;I should burn all the books of Aristotle, for
+the study of them can only lead to a loss of time, produce
+error, and increase ignorance,&rdquo; a sentiment that
+Aristotle would probably have echoed could he have returned
+to a world in which his works were not so much read as
+worshipped&mdash;and that, as Roger Bacon showed, in these
+most abominable translations.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-296"></a>
+<img src="images/img-296.jpg"
+alt="AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS"
+ width="550" height="720" />
+<p class="caption">
+AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS
+<br /><small><i>(From an old print)
+</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P297"></a></span>Throughout his books, a little
+disguised by the necessity of seeming to square it all with
+orthodoxy for fear of the prison and worse, Roger Bacon
+shouted to mankind, &ldquo;Cease to be ruled by dogmas and
+authorities; <i>look at the world!</i>&rdquo; Four chief
+sources of ignorance he denounced; respect for authority,
+custom, the sense of the ignorant crowd, and the vain, proud
+unteachableness of our dispositions.  Overcome but these, and
+a world of power would open to men: &mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;Machines for navigating are possible without rowers,
+so that great ships suited to river or ocean, guided by one
+man, may be borne with greater speed than if they were full
+of men.  Likewise cars may be made so that without a draught
+animal they may be moved <i>cum impetu inœstimable</i>,
+as we deem the scythed chariots to have been from which
+antiquity fought.  And flying machines are possible, so that
+a man may sit in the middle turning some device by which
+artificial wings may beat the air in the manner of a flying
+bird.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So Roger Bacon wrote, but three more centuries were to elapse
+before men began any systematic attempts to explore the
+hidden stores of power and interest he realized so clearly
+existed beneath the dull surface of human affairs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But the Saracenic world not only gave Christendom the
+stimulus of its philosophers and alchemists; it also gave it
+paper.  It is scarcely too much to say that paper made the
+intellectual revival of Europe possible.  Paper originated in
+China, where its use probably goes back to the second century
+<small>B.C.</small>  In 751 the Chinese made an
+attack upon the Arab Moslems in Samarkand; they were
+repulsed, and among the prisoners taken from them were some
+skilled papermakers, from whom the art was learnt.  Arabic
+paper manuscripts from the ninth century onward still exist.
+  The manufacture entered Christendom either through Greece or
+by the capture of Moorish paper-mills during the Christian
+reconquest of Spain.  But under the Christian Spanish the
+product deteriorated sadly.  Good paper was not made in
+Christian Europe until the end of the thirteenth century, and
+then it was Italy which led the world.  Only by the
+fourteenth century did the manufacture reach Germany, and not
+until the end of that century was it abundant and <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P298"></a></span>cheap enough
+for the printing of books to be a practicable business
+proposition.  Thereupon printing followed naturally and
+necessarily, for printing is the most obvious of inventions,
+and the intellectual life of the world entered upon a new and
+far more vigorous phase.  It ceased to be a little trickle
+from mind to mind; it became a broad flood, in which
+thousands and presently scores and hundreds of thousands of
+minds participated.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+One immediate result of this achievement of printing was the
+appearance of an abundance of Bibles in the world.  Another
+was a cheapening of school-books.  The knowledge of reading
+spread swiftly.  There was not only a great increase of books
+in the world, but the books that were now made were plainer
+to read and so easier to understand.  Instead of toiling at a
+crabbed text arid then thinking over its significance,
+readers now could think unimpeded as they read.  With this
+increase in the facility of reading, the reading public grew.
+  The book ceased to be a highly decorated toy or a
+scholar&rsquo;s mystery.  People began to write books to be
+read as well as looked at by ordinary people.  They wrote in
+the ordinary language and not in Latin.  With the fourteenth
+century the real history of the European literature begins.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So far we have been dealing only with the Saracenic share in
+the European revival.  Let us turn now to the influence of
+the Mongol conquests.  They stimulated the geographical
+imagination of Europe enormously.  For a time under the Great
+Khan, all Asia and Western Europe enjoyed an open
+intercourse; all the roads were temporarily open, and
+representatives of every nation appeared at the court of
+Karakorum.  The barriers between Europe and Asia set up by
+the religious feud of Christianity and Islam were lowered.
+  Great hopes were entertained by the papacy for the conversion
+of the Mongols to Christianity.  Their only religion so far
+had been Shumanism, a primitive paganism.  Envoys of the
+Pope, Buddhist priests from India, Parisian and Italian and
+Chinese artificers, Byzantine and Armenian merchants, mingled
+with Arab officials and Persian and Indian astronomers and
+mathematicians at the Mongol court.  We hear too much in
+history of the campaigns and massacres of the Mongols, and
+not enough of their curiosity and desire for learning.  Not
+perhaps as an originative people, but as transmitters <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P299"></a></span>of knowledge
+and method their influence upon the world&rsquo;s history has
+been very great.  And everything one can learn of the vague
+and romantic personalities of Jengis or Kublai tends to
+confirm the impression that these men were at least as
+understanding and creative monarchs as either that flamboyant
+but egotistical figure Alexander the Great or that raiser of
+political ghosts, that energetic but illiterate theologian
+Charlemagne.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+One of the most interesting of these visitors to the Mongol
+Court was a certain Venetian, Marco Polo, who afterwards set
+down his story in a book.  He went to China about 1272 with
+his father and uncle, who had already once made the journey.
+  The Great Khan had been deeply impressed by the elder Polos;
+they were the first men of the &ldquo;Latin&rdquo; peoples he
+had seen; and he sent them back with enquiries for teachers
+and learned men who could explain Christianity to him, and
+for various other European things that had aroused his
+curiosity.  Their visit with Marco was their second visit.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-299"></a>
+<img src="images/img-299.jpg"
+alt="ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA"
+ width="180" height="397" />
+<p class="caption">
+ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA
+<br /><small>Note evidence in attire of knowledge of early European
+ explorers
+<br />
+<i>(In the British Museum)
+</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The three Polos started by way of Palestine and not by the
+Crimea, as in their previous expedition.  They had with them
+a gold tablet and other indications from the Great Khan that
+must have greatly facilitated their journey.  The Great Khan
+had asked for some oil from the lamp that burns in the Holy
+Sepulchre at Jerusalem; and so thither they first went, and
+then by way of Cilicia into Armenia.  They went thus far
+north because the Sultan of Egypt was raiding the Mongol
+domains at this time.  Thence they came by way of Mesopotamia
+to Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, as if they contemplated a sea
+voyage.  At Ormuz they met merchants from India.  For some
+reason they did not take ship, but instead turned northward
+through the Persian deserts, and so by way of Balkh over
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P300"></a></span>the
+Pamir to Kashgar, and by way of Kotan and the Lob Nor into
+the Hwang-ho valley and on to Pekin.  At Pekin was the Great
+Khan, and they were hospitably entertained.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-300"></a>
+<img src="images/img-300.jpg"
+alt="ANOTHER ANCIENT NEGRO BRONZE OF A EUROPEAN"
+ width="160" height="350" />
+<p class="caption">
+ANOTHER ANCIENT NEGRO BRONZE OF A EUROPEAN
+<br />
+<small><i>(In the British Museum)
+</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Marco particularly pleased Kublai; he was young and clever,
+and it is clear he had mastered the Tartar language very
+thoroughly.  He was given an official position and sent on
+several missions, chiefly in south-west China.  The tale he
+had to tell of vast stretches of smiling and prosperous
+country, &ldquo;all the way excellent hostelries for
+travellers,&rdquo; and &ldquo;fine vineyards, fields, and
+gardens,&rdquo; of &ldquo;many abbeys&rdquo; of Buddhist
+monks, of manufactures of &ldquo;cloth of silk and gold and
+many fine taffetas,&rdquo; a &ldquo;constant succession of
+cities and boroughs,&rdquo; and so on, first roused the
+incredulity and then fired the imagination of all Europe.  He
+told of Burmah, and of its great armies with hundreds of
+elephants, and how these animals were defeated by the Mongol
+bowmen, and also of the Mongol conquest of Pegu.  He told of
+Japan, and greatly exaggerated the amount of gold in that
+country.  For three years Marco ruled the city of Yang-chow
+as governor, and he probably impressed the Chinese
+inhabitants as being little more of a foreigner than any
+Tartar would have been.  He may also have been sent on a
+mission to India.  Chinese records mention a certain Polo
+attached to the imperial council in 1277, a very valuable
+confirmation of the general truth of the Polo story.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The publication of Marco Polo&rsquo;s travels produced a
+profound effect upon the European imagination.  The European
+literature, and especially the European romance of the
+fifteenth century, echoes with the names in Marco
+Polo&rsquo;s story, with Cathay (North China) and Cambulac
+(Pekin) and the like.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-301"></a>
+<img src="images/img-301.jpg"
+alt="EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP"
+ width="400" height="815" />
+<p class="caption">
+EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP
+<br /><small>
+<i>(In the British Museum)
+</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Two centuries later, among the readers of the Travels of
+Marco Polo was a certain Genoese mariner, Christopher
+Columbus, who <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P301"></a></span>conceived the brilliant idea of
+sailing westward round the world to China.  In Seville there
+is a copy of the Travels with marginal notes by Columbus.
+  There were many reasons why the thought of a Genoese should
+be turned in this direction.  Until its capture by the Turks
+in 1453 Constantinople had been an impartial trading mart
+between the Western world and the East, and the Genoese had
+traded there freely.  But the &ldquo;Latin&rdquo; Venetians,
+the bitter rivals of the Genoese, had been the allies and
+helpers of the Turks against the Greeks, and with the coming
+of the Turks Constantinople turned an <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P302"></a></span>unfriendly
+face upon Genoese trade.  The long forgotten discovery that
+the world was round had gradually resumed its sway over
+men&rsquo;s minds.  The idea of going westward to China was
+therefore a fairly obvious one.  It was encouraged by two
+things.  The mariner&rsquo;s compass had now been invented
+and men were no longer left to the mercy of a fine night and
+the stars to determine the direction in which they were
+sailing, and the Normans, Catalonians and Genoese and
+Portuguese had already pushed out into the Atlantic as far as
+the Canary Isles, Madeira and the Azores.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yet Columbus found many difficulties before he could get
+ships to put his idea to the test.  He went from one European
+Court to another.  Finally at Granada, just won from the
+Moors, he secured the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+and was able to set out across the unknown ocean in three
+small ships.  After a voyage of two months and nine days he
+came to a land which he believed to be India, but which was
+really a new continent, whose distinct existence the old
+world had never hitherto suspected.  He returned to Spain
+with gold, cotton, strange beasts and birds, and two wild-
+eyed painted Indians to be baptized.  They were called
+Indians because, to the end of his days, he believed that
+this land he had found was India.  Only in the course of
+several years did men begin to realize that the whole new
+continent of America was added to the world&rsquo;s
+resources.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The success of Columbus stimulated overseas enterprise
+enormously.  In 1497 the Portuguese sailed round Africa to
+India, and in 1515 there were Portuguese ships in Java.  In
+1519 Magellan, a Portuguese sailor in Spanish employment,
+sailed out of Seville westward with five ships, of which one,
+the <i>Vittoria</i>, came back up the river to Seville in
+1522, the first ship that had ever circumnavigated the world.
+  Thirty-one men were aboard her, survivors of two-hundred-and-
+eighty who had started.  Magellan himself had been killed in
+the Philippine Isles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Printed paper books, a new realization of the round world as
+a thing altogether attainable, a new vision of strange lands,
+strange animals and plants, strange manners and customs,
+discoveries overseas and in the skies and in the ways and
+materials of life burst upon the European mind. The Greek
+classics, buried and forgotten for so <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P303"></a></span>long, were
+speedily being printed and studied, and were colouring
+men&rsquo;s thoughts with the dreams of Plato and the
+traditions of an age of republican freedom and dignity.  The
+Roman dominion had first brought law and order to Western
+Europe, and the Latin Church had restored it; but under both
+Pagan and Catholic Rome curiosity and innovation were
+subordinate to and restrained by organization.  The reign of
+the Latin mind was now drawing to an end.  Between the
+thirteenth and the sixteenth century the European Aryans,
+thanks to the stimulating influence of Semite and Mongol and
+the rediscovery of the Greek classics, broke away from the
+Latin tradition and rose again to the intellectual and
+material leadership of mankind.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P304"></a></span><a name="chapL"></a>L<br />
+THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH</h2>
+
+<p>
+The Latin Church itself was enormously affected by this mental rebirth. It was
+dismembered; and even the portion that survived was extensively renewed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have told how nearly the church came to the autocratic
+leadership of all Christendom in the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, and how in the fourteenth and fifteenth its power
+over men&rsquo;s minds and affairs declined.  We have
+described how popular religious enthusiasm which had in
+earlier ages been its support and power was turned against it
+by its pride, persecutions and centralization, and how the
+insidious scepticism of Frederick II bore fruit in a growing
+insubordination of the princes.  The Great Schism had reduced
+its religious and political prestige to negligible
+proportions.  The forces of insurrection struck it now from
+both sides.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The teachings of the Englishman Wycliffe spread widely
+throughout Europe.  In 1398 a learned Czech, John Huss,
+delivered a series of lectures upon Wycliffe&rsquo;s
+teachings in the university of Prague.  This teaching spread
+rapidly beyond the educated class and aroused great popular
+enthusiasm.  In 1414-18 a Council of the whole church was
+held at Constance to settle the Great Schism.  Huss was
+invited to this Council under promise of a safe conduct from
+the emperor, seized, put on trial for heresy and burnt alive
+(1415).  So far from tranquillizing the Bohemian people, this
+led to an insurrection of the Hussites in that country, the
+first of a series of religious wars that inaugurated the
+break-up of Latin Christendom.  Against this insurrection
+Pope Martin V, the Pope specially elected at Constance as the
+head of a reunited Christendom, preached a Crusade.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Five Crusades in all were launched upon this sturdy little
+people and all of them failed.  All the unemployed ruffianism
+of Europe was <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P305"></a></span>turned upon Bohemia in the
+fifteenth century, just as in the thirteenth it had been
+turned upon the Waldenses.  But the Bohemian Czechs, unlike
+the Waldenses, believed in armed resistance.  The Bohemian
+Crusade dissolved and streamed away from the battlefield at
+the sound of the Hussites&rsquo; waggons and the distant
+chanting of their troops; it did not even wait to fight
+(battle of Domazlice, 1431).  In 1436 an agreement was
+patched up with the Hussites by a new Council of the church
+at Basle in which many of the special objections to Latin
+practice were conceded.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-305"></a>
+<img src="images/img-305.jpg"
+alt="PORTRAIT OF LUTHER"
+ width="400" height="597" />
+<p class="caption">
+PORTRAIT OF LUTHER
+<br />
+<small>
+<i>(From an early German engraving in the British Museum)
+</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In the fifteenth century a great pestilence had produced much
+social disorganization throughout Europe.  There had been
+extreme misery and discontent among the common people, and
+peasant risings against the landlords and the wealthy in
+England and France.  After the Hussite Wars these peasant
+insurrections increased in gravity in Germany and took on a
+religious character.  Printing came in as an influence upon
+this development.  By the middle of the fifteenth century
+there were printers at work with movable type <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P306"></a></span>in Holland and
+the Rhineland.  The art spread to Italy and England, where
+Caxton was printing in Westminster in 1477.  The immediate
+consequence was a great increase and distribution of Bibles,
+and greatly increased facilities for widespread popular
+controversies.  The European world became a world of readers,
+to an extent that had never happened to any community in the
+past.  And this sudden irrigation of the general mind with
+clearer ideas and more accessible information occurred just
+at a time when the church was confused and divided and not in
+a position to defend itself effectively, and when many
+princes were looking for means to weaken its hold upon the
+vast wealth it claimed in their dominions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Germany the attack upon the church gathered round the
+personality of an ex-monk, Martin Luther (1483-1546), who
+appeared in Wittenberg in 1517 offering disputations against
+various orthodox doctrines and practices.  At first he
+disputed in Latin in the fashion of the Schoolmen.  Then he
+took up the new weapon of the printed word and scattered his
+views far and wide in German addressed to the ordinary
+people.  An attempt was made to suppress him as Huss had been
+suppressed, but the printing press had changed conditions and
+he had too many open and secret friends among the German
+princes for this fate to overtake him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For now in this age of multiplying ideas and weakened faith
+there were many rulers who saw their advantage in breaking
+the religious ties between their people and Rome.  They
+sought to make themselves in person the heads of a more
+nationalized religion.  England, Scotland, Sweden, Norway,
+Denmark, North Germany and Bohemia, one after another,
+separated themselves from the Roman Communion.  They have
+remained separated ever since.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-307"></a>
+<img src="images/img-307.jpg"
+alt="A MAJOLICA DISH PAINTED IN COLOURS"
+ width="600" height="600" />
+<p class="caption">
+A MAJOLICA DISH PAINED IN COLOURS
+<br /><small>An allegory of the Church triumphant over heretics
+ and infidels.  Italian (Urbino), dated 1543
+<br />
+<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The various princes concerned cared very little for the moral
+and intellectual freedom of their subjects.  They used the
+religious doubts and insurgence of their peoples to
+strengthen them against Rome, but they tried to keep a grip
+upon the popular movement as soon as that rupture was
+achieved and a national church set up under the control of
+the crown.  But there has always been a curious vitality in
+the teaching of Jesus, a direct appeal to righteousness and a
+man&rsquo;s self-respect over every loyalty and every
+subordination, lay or ecclesiastical.  None of these princely
+churches broke <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P307"></a></span>off without also breaking off a
+number of fragmentary sects that would admit the intervention
+of neither prince nor Pope between a man and his God.  In
+England and Scotland, for example, there was a number of
+sects who now held firmly to the Bible as their one guide in
+life and belief.  They refused the disciplines of a state
+church.  In England these dissentients were the Non-
+conformists, who played a very large part in the polities of
+that country in the seventeenth <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P308"></a></span>and eighteenth centuries.  In
+England they carried their objection to a princely head to
+the church so far as to decapitate King Charles I (1649), and
+for eleven prosperous years England was a republic under Non-
+conformist rule.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The breaking away of this large section of Northern Europe
+from Latin Christendom is what is generally spoken of as the
+Reformation.  But the shock and stress of these losses
+produced changes perhaps as profound in the Roman Church
+itself.  The church was reorganized and a new spirit came
+into its life.  One of the dominant figures in this revival
+was a young Spanish soldier, Inigo Lopez de Recalde, better
+known to the world as St. Ignatius of Loyola.  After some
+romantic beginnings he became a priest (1538) and was
+permitted to found the Society of Jesus, a direct attempt to
+bring the generous and chivalrous traditions of military
+discipline into the service of religion.  This Society of
+Jesus, the Jesuits, became one of the greatest teaching and
+missionary societies the world has ever seen.  It carried
+Christianity to India, China and America.  It arrested the
+rapid disintegration of the Roman Church.  It raised the
+standard of education throughout the whole Catholic world; it
+raised the level of Catholic intelligence and quickened the
+Catholic conscience everywhere; it stimulated Protestant
+Europe to competitive educational efforts.  The vigorous and
+aggressive Roman Catholic Church we know to-day is largely
+the product of this Jesuit revival.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P309"></a></span><a name="chapLI"></a>LI<br />
+THE EMPEROR CHARLES V</h2>
+
+<p>
+The Holy Roman Empire came to a sort of climax in the reign of the Emperor
+Charles V. He was one of the most extraordinary monarchs that Europe has ever
+seen. For a time he had the air of being the greatest monarch since
+Charlemagne.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His greatness was not of his own making.  It was largely the
+creation of his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I (1459-
+1519).  Some families have fought, others have intrigued
+their way to world power; the Habsburgs married their way.
+  Maximilian began his career with Austria, Styria, part of
+Alsace and other districts, the original Habsburg patrimony;
+he married&mdash;the lady&rsquo;s name scarcely matters to
+us&mdash;the Netherlands and Burgundy.  Most of Burgundy
+slipped from him after his first wife&rsquo;s death, but the
+Netherlands he held.  Then he tried unsuccessfully to marry
+Brittany.  He became Emperor in succession to his father,
+Frederick III, in 1493, and married the duchy of Milan.
+  Finally he married his son to the weak-minded daughter of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, the Ferdinand and Isabella of
+Columbus, who not only reigned over a freshly united Spain
+and over Sardinia and the kingdom of the two Sicilies, but
+over all America west of Brazil.  So it was that this Charles
+V, his grandson, inherited most of the American continent and
+between a third and a half of what the Turks had left of
+Europe.  He succeeded to the Netherlands in 1506.  When his
+grandfather Ferdinand died in 1516, he became practically
+king of the Spanish dominions, his mother being imbecile; and
+his grandfather Maximilian dying in 1519, he was in 1520
+elected Emperor at the still comparatively tender age of
+twenty.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was a fair young man with a not very intelligent face, a
+thick upper lip and a long clumsy chin.  He found himself in
+a world of young and vigorous personalities.  It was an age
+of brilliant young <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P310"></a></span>monarchs.  Francis I had succeeded
+to the French throne in 1515 at the age of twenty-one, Henry
+VIII had become King of England in 1509 at eighteen.  It was
+the age of Baber in India (1526-1530) and Suleiman the
+Magnificent in Turkey (1520), both exceptionally capable
+monarchs, and the Pope Leo X (1513) was also a very
+distinguished Pope.  The Pope and Francis I attempted to
+prevent the election of Charles as Emperor because they
+dreaded the concentration of so much power in the hands of
+one man.  Both Francis I and Henry VIII offered themselves to
+the imperial electors.  But there was now a long established
+tradition of Habsburg Emperors (since 1273), and some
+energetic bribery secured the election for Charles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At first the young man was very much a magnificent puppet in
+the hands of his ministers.  Then slowly he began to assert
+himself and take control.  He began to realize something of
+the threatening complexities of his exalted position.  It was
+a position as unsound as it was splendid.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the very outset of his reign he was faced by the
+situation created by Luther&rsquo;s agitations in Germany.
+  The Emperor had one reason for siding with the reformers in
+the opposition of the Pope to his election.  But he had been
+brought up in Spain, that most Catholic of countries, and he
+decided against Luther.  So he came into conflict with the
+Protestant princes and particularly the Elector of Saxony.
+  He found himself in the presence of an opening rift that was
+to split the outworn fabric of Christendom into two
+contending camps.  His attempts to close that rift were
+strenuous and honest and ineffective.  There was an extensive
+peasant revolt in Germany which interwove with the general
+political and religious disturbance.  And these internal
+troubles were complicated by attacks upon the Empire from
+east and west alike.  On the west of Charles was his spirited
+rival, Francis I; to the east was the ever advancing Turk,
+who was now in Hungary, in alliance with Francis and
+clamouring for certain arrears of tribute from the Austrian
+dominions.  Charles had the money and army of Spain at his
+disposal, but it was extremely difficult to get any effective
+support in money from Germany.  His social and political
+troubles were complicated by financial distresses.  He was
+forced to ruinous borrowing.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P311"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-311"></a>
+<img src="images/img-311.jpg"
+alt="THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN"
+ width="600" height="727" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN
+<br />
+<small><i>(In the Gallery del Prado, Madrid)
+<br />
+Photo:  Anderson</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P312"></a></span>On the whole,
+Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII, was successful against
+Francis I and the Turk.  Their chief battlefield was North
+Italy; the generalship was dull on both sides; their advances
+and retreats depended mainly on the arrival of
+reinforcements.  The German army invaded France, failed to
+take Marseilles, fell back into Italy, lost Milan, and was
+besieged in Pavia.  Francis I made a long and unsuccessful
+siege of Pavia, was caught by fresh German forces, defeated,
+wounded and taken prisoner.  But thereupon the Pope and Henry
+VIII, still haunted by the fear of his attaining excessive
+power, turned against Charles.  The German troops in Milan,
+under the Constable of Bourbon, being unpaid, forced rather
+than followed their commander into a raid upon Rome.  They
+stormed the city and pillaged it (1527).  The Pope took
+refuge in the Castle of St. Angelo while the looting and
+slaughter went on.  He bought off the German troops at last
+by the payment of four hundred thousand ducats.  Ten years of
+such confused fighting impoverished all Europe.  At last the
+Emperor found himself triumphant in Italy.  In 1530, he was
+crowned by the Pope&mdash;he was the last German Emperor to
+be so crowned&mdash;at Bologna.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Meanwhile the Turks were making great headway in Hungary.
+  They had defeated and killed the king of Hungary in 1526,
+they held Buda-Pesth, and in 1529 Suleiman the Magnificent
+very nearly took Vienna.  The Emperor was greatly concerned
+by these advances, and did his utmost to drive back the
+Turks, but he found the greatest difficulty in getting the
+German princes to unite even with this formidable enemy upon
+their very borders.  Francis I remained implacable for a
+time, and there was a new French war; but in 1538 Charles won
+his rival over to a more friendly attitude after ravaging the
+south of France.  Francis and Charles then formed an alliance
+against the Turk.  But the Protestant princes, the German
+princes who were resolved to break away from Rome, had formed
+a league, the Schmalkaldic League, against the Emperor, and
+in the place of a great campaign to recover Hungary for
+Christendom Charles had to turn his mind to the gathering
+internal struggle in Germany.  Of that struggle he saw only
+the opening war.  It was a struggle, a sanguinary irrational
+bickering of princes, for ascendancy, now <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P313"></a></span>flaming into
+war and destruction, now sinking back to intrigues and
+diplomacies; it was a snake&rsquo;s sack of princely policies
+that was to go on writhing incurably right into the
+nineteenth century and to waste and desolate Central Europe
+again and again.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Emperor never seems to have grasped the true forces at
+work in these gathering troubles.  He was for his time and
+station an exceptionally worthy man, and he seems to have
+taken the religious dissensions that were tearing Europe into
+warring fragments as genuine theological differences.  He
+gathered diets and councils in futile attempts at
+reconciliation.  Formulæ and confessions were tried
+over.  The student of German history must struggle with the
+details of the Religious Peace of Nuremberg, the settlement
+at the Diet of Ratisbon, the Interim of Augsburg, and the
+like.  Here we do but mention them as details in the worried
+life of this culminating Emperor.  As a matter of fact,
+hardly one of the multifarious princes and rulers in Europe
+seems to have been acting in good faith.  The widespread
+religious trouble of the world, the desire of the common
+people for truth and social righteousness, the spreading
+knowledge of the time, all those things were merely counters
+in the imaginations of princely diplomacy.  Henry VIII of
+England, who had begun his career with a book against heresy,
+and who had been rewarded by the Pope with the title of
+&ldquo;Defender of the Faith,&rdquo; being anxious to divorce
+his first wife in favour of a young lady named Anne Boleyn,
+and wishing also to loot the vast wealth of the church in
+England, joined the company of Protestant princes in 1530.
+  Sweden, Denmark and Norway had already gone over to the
+Protestant side.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The German religious war began in 1546, a few months after
+the death of Martin Luther.  We need not trouble about the
+incidents of the campaign.  The Protestant Saxon army was
+badly beaten at Lochau.  By something very like a breach of
+faith Philip of Hesse, the Emperor&rsquo;s chief remaining
+antagonist, was caught and imprisoned, and the Turks were
+bought off by the promise of an annual tribute.  In 1547, to
+the great relief of the Emperor, Francis I died.  So by 1547
+Charles got to a kind of settlement, and made his last
+efforts to effect peace where there was no peace.  In 1552
+all Germany was at war again, only a precipitate flight from
+Innsbruck <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P314"></a></span>saved Charles from capture, and in
+1552, with the treaty of Passau, came another unstable
+equilibrium ....
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Such is the brief outline of the politics of the Empire for
+thirty-two years.  It is interesting to note how entirely the
+European mind was concentrated upon the struggle for European
+ascendancy.  Neither Turks, French, English nor Germans had
+yet discovered any political interest in the great continent
+of America, nor any significance in the new sea routes to
+Asia.  Great things were happening in America; Cortez with a
+mere handful of men had conquered the great Neolithic empire
+of Mexico for Spain, Pizarro had crossed the Isthmus of
+Panama (1530) and subjugated another wonder-land, Peru.  But
+as yet these events meant no more to Europe than a useful and
+stimulating influx of silver to the Spanish treasury.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was after the treaty of Passau that Charles began to
+display his distinctive originality of mind.  He was now
+entirely bored and disillusioned by his imperial greatness.
+  A sense of the intolerable futility of these European
+rivalries came upon him.  He had never been of a very sound
+constitution, he was naturally indolent and he was suffering
+greatly from gout.  He abdicated.  He made over all his
+sovereign rights in Germany to his brother Ferdinand, and
+Spain and the Netherlands he resigned to his son Philip.
+  Then in a sort of magnificent dudgeon he retired to a
+monastery at Yuste, among the oak and chestnut forests in the
+hills to the north of the Tagus valley.  There he died in
+1558.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Much has been written in a sentimental vein of this
+retirement, this renunciation of the world by this tired
+majestic Titan, world-weary, seeking in an austere solitude
+his peace with God.  But his retreat was neither solitary nor
+austere; he had with him nearly a hundred and fifty
+attendants: his establishment had all the splendour and
+indulgences without the fatigues or a court, and Philip II
+was a dutiful son to whom his father&rsquo;s advice was a
+command.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-315"></a>
+<img src="images/img-315.jpg"
+alt="INTERIOR OF ST. PETER&rsquo;S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH ALTAR"
+ width="550" height="705" />
+<p class="caption">
+INTERIOR OF ST. PETER&rsquo;S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH ALTAR
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  Alinari</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+And if Charles had lost his living interest in the
+administration of European affairs, there were other motives
+of a more immediate sort to stir him.  Says Prescott:
+&ldquo;In the almost daily correspondence between Quixada, or
+Gaztelu, and the Secretary of State at Valladolid, there is
+scarcely a letter that does not turn more or less on the
+Emperor&rsquo;s eating or his illness.  The one seems
+naturally to follow, <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P315"></a></span>like a running commentary, on the
+other.  It is rare that such topics have formed the burden of
+communications with the department of state.  It must have
+been no easy matter for the secretary to preserve his gravity
+in the perusal of despatches in which politics and gastronomy
+were so strangely mixed together.  The courier from
+Valladolid to Lisbon was ordered to make a detour, so as to
+take Jarandilla in his route, and bring supplies to the royal
+table.  On <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P316"></a></span>Thursdays he was to bring fish to
+serve for the jour maigre that was to follow.  The trout in
+the neighbourhood Charles thought too small, so others of a
+larger size were to be sent from Valladolid.  Fish of every
+kind was to his taste, as, indeed, was anything that in its
+nature or habits at all approached to fish.  Eels, frogs,
+oysters, occupied an important place in the royal bill of
+fare.  Potted fish, especially anchovies, found great favour
+with him; and he regretted that he had not brought a better
+supply of these from the Low Countries.  On an eel-pasty he
+particularly doted.&rdquo; ... [<a
+name="chapLIfn1text"></a><a href="#chapLIfn1">1</a>]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1554 Charles had obtained a bull from Pope Julius III
+granting him a dispensation from fasting, and allowing him to
+break his fast early in the morning even when he was to take
+the sacrament.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Eating and doctoring! it was a return to elemental things.
+  He had never acquired the habit of reading, but he would be
+read aloud to at meals after the fashion of Charlemagne, and
+would make what one narrator describes as a &ldquo;sweet and
+heavenly commentary.&rdquo;  He also amused himself with
+mechanical toys, by listening to music or sermons, and by
+attending to the imperial business that still came drifting
+in to him.  The death of the Empress, to whom he was greatly
+attached, had turned his mind towards religion, which in his
+case took a punctilious and ceremonial form; every Friday in
+Lent he scourged himself with the rest of the monks with such
+good will as to draw blood.  These exercises and the gout
+released a bigotry in Charles that had hitherto been
+restrained by considerations of policy.  The appearance of
+Protestant teaching close at hand in Valladolid roused him to
+fury.  &ldquo;Tell the grand inquisitor and his council from
+me to be at their posts, and to lay the axe at the root of
+the evil before it spreads further.&rdquo; . .. He expressed
+a doubt whether it would not be well, in so black an affair,
+to dispense with the ordinary course of justice, and to show
+no mercy; &ldquo;lest the criminal, if pardoned, should have
+the opportunity of repeating his crime.&rdquo;  He
+recommended, as an example, his own mode or proceeding in the
+Netherlands, &ldquo;where all who remained obstinate in their
+errors were burned alive, and those who were admitted to
+penitence were beheaded.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And almost symbolical of his place and role in history was
+his <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P317"></a></span>preoccupation with funerals.  He
+seems to have had an intuition that something great was dead
+in Europe and sorely needed burial, that there was a need to
+write Finis, overdue.  He not only attended every actual
+funeral that was celebrated at Yuste, but he had services
+conducted for the absent dead, he held a funeral service in
+memory of his wife on the anniversary of her death, and
+finally he celebrated his own obsequies.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;The chapel was hung with black, and the blaze of
+hundreds of wax-lights was scarcely sufficient to dispel the
+darkness.  The brethren in their conventual dress, and all
+the Emperor&rsquo;s household clad in deep mourning, gathered
+round a huge catafalque, shrouded also in black, which had
+been raised in the centre of the chapel.  The service for the
+burial of the dead was then performed; and, amidst the dismal
+wail of the monks, the prayers ascended for the departed
+spirit, that it might be received into the mansions of the
+blessed.  The sorrowful attendants were melted to tears, as
+the image of their master&rsquo;s death was presented to
+their minds&mdash;or they were touched, it may be, with
+compassion by this pitiable display of weakness.  Charles,
+muffled in a dark mantle, and bearing a lighted candle in his
+hand, mingled with his household, the spectator of his own
+obsequies; and the doleful ceremony was concluded by his
+placing the taper in the hands of the priest, in sign of his
+surrendering up his soul to the Almighty.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Within two months of this masquerade he was dead.  And the
+brief greatness of the Holy Roman Empire died with him.  His
+realm was already divided between his brother and his son.
+  The Holy Roman Empire struggled on indeed to the days of
+Napoleon I but as an invalid and dying thing.  To this day
+its unburied tradition still poisons the political air.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="chapLIfn1"></a>
+[<a href="#chapLIfn1text">1</a>] Prescott&rsquo;s Appendix to
+Robertson&rsquo;s <i>History of Charles V</i>.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P318"></a></span><a name="chapLII"></a>LII<br />
+THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND MONARCHY AND PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE</h2>
+
+<p>
+The Latin Church was broken, the Holy Roman Empire was in extreme decay; the
+history of Europe from the opening of the sixteenth century onward is a story
+of peoples feeling their way darkly to some new method of government, better
+adapted to the new conditions that were arising. In the Ancient World, over
+long periods of time, there had been changes of dynasty and even changes of
+ruling race and language, but the form of government through monarch and temple
+remained fairly stable, and still more stable was the ordinary way of living.
+In this modern Europe since the sixteenth century the dynastic changes are
+unimportant, and the interest of history lies in the wide and increasing
+variety of experiments in political and social organization.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The political history of the world from the sixteenth century
+onward was, we have said, an effort, a largely unconscious
+effort, of mankind to adapt its political and social methods
+to certain new conditions that had now arisen.  The effort to
+adapt was complicated by the fad that the conditions
+themselves were changing with a steadily increasing rapidity.
+  The adaptation, mainly unconscious and almost always
+unwilling (for man in general hates voluntary change), has
+lagged more and more behind the alterations in conditions.
+  From the sixteenth century onward the history of mankind is a
+story of political and social institutions becoming more and
+more plainly misfits, less comfortable and more vexatious,
+and of the slow reluctant realization of the need for a
+conscious and deliberate reconstruction of the whole scheme
+of human societies in the face of needs and possibilities new
+to all the former experiences of life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+What are these changes in the conditions of human life that
+have disorganized that balance of empire, priest, peasant and
+trader, with <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P319"></a></span>periodic refreshment by barbaric
+conquest, that has held human affairs in the Old World in a
+sort of working rhythm for more than a hundred centuries?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+They are manifold and various, for human affairs are
+multitudinously complex; but the main changes seem all to
+turn upon one cause, namely the growth and extension of a
+knowledge of the nature of things, beginning first of all in
+small groups of intelligent people and spreading at first
+slowly, and in the last five hundred years very rapidly, to
+larger and larger proportions of the general population.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But there has also been a great change in human conditions
+due to a change in the spirit of human life.  This change has
+gone on side by side with the increase and extension of
+knowledge, and is subtly connected with it.  There has been
+an increasing disposition to treat a life based on the common
+and more elementary desires and gratifications as
+unsatisfactory, and to seek relationship with and service and
+participation in a larger life.  This is the common
+characteristic of all the great religions that have spread
+throughout the world in the last twenty odd centuries,
+Buddhism, Christianity and Islam alike.  They have had to do
+with the spirit of man in a way that the older religions did
+not have to do.  They are forces quite different in their
+nature and effect from the old fetishistic blood-sacrifice
+religions of priest and temple that they have in part
+modified and in part replaced.  They have gradually evolved a
+self-respect in the individual and a sense of participation
+and responsibility in the common concerns of mankind that did
+not exist among the populations of the earlier civilizations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The first considerable change in the conditions of political
+and social life was the simplification and extended use of
+writing in the ancient civilizations which made larger
+empires and wider political understandings practicable and
+inevitable.  The next movement forward came with the
+introduction of the horse, and later on of the camel as a
+means of transport, the use of wheeled vehicles, the
+extension of roads and the increased military efficiency due
+to the discovery of terrestrial iron.  Then followed the
+profound economic disturbances due to the device of coined
+money and the change in the nature of debt, proprietorship
+and trade due to this convenient but dangerous convention.
+  The empires grew in size and range, and <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P320"></a></span>men&rsquo;s
+ideas grew likewise to correspond with these things.  Came
+the disappearance of local gods, the age of theocrasia, and
+the teaching of the great world religions.  Came also the
+beginnings of reasoned and recorded history and geography,
+the first realization by man of his profound ignorance, and
+the first systematic search for knowledge.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For a time the scientific process which began so brilliantly
+in Greece and Alexandria was interrupted.  The raids of the
+Teutonic barbarians, the westward drive of the Mongolian
+peoples, convulsive religious reconstruction and great
+pestilences put enormous strains upon political and social
+order.  When civilization emerged again from this phase of
+conflict and confusion, slavery was no longer the basis of
+economic life; and the first paper-mills were preparing a new
+medium for collective information and co-operation in printed
+matter.  Gradually at this point and that, the search for
+knowledge, the systematic scientific process, was resumed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And now from the sixteenth century onward, as an inevitable
+by-product of systematic thought, appeared a steadily
+increasing series of inventions and devices affecting the
+intercommunication and interaction of men with one another.
+  They all tended towards wider range of action, greater mutual
+benefits or injuries, and increased co-operation, and they
+came faster and faster.  Men&rsquo;s minds had not been
+prepared for anything of the sort, and until the great
+catastrophes at the beginning of the twentieth century
+quickened men&rsquo;s minds, the historian has very little to
+tell of any intelligently planned attempts to meet the new
+conditions this increasing flow of inventions was creating.
+  The history of mankind for the last four centuries is rather
+like that of an imprisoned sleeper, stirring clumsily and
+uneasily while the prison that restrains and shelters him
+catches fire, not waking but incorporating the crackling and
+warmth of the fire with ancient and incongruous dreams, than
+like that of a man consciously awake to danger and
+opportunity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Since history is the story not of individual lives but of
+communities, it is inevitable that the inventions that figure
+most in the historical record are inventions affecting
+communications.  In the sixteenth century the chief new
+things that we have to note are the appearance of printed
+paper and the sea-worthy, ocean-going sailing ship using the
+new device of the mariner&rsquo;s compass.  The former <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P321"></a></span>cheapened,
+spread, and revolutionized teaching, public information and
+discussion, and the fundamental operations of political
+activity.  The latter made the round world one.  But almost
+equally important was the increased utilization and
+improvement of guns and gunpowder which the Mongols had first
+brought westward in the thirteenth century.  This destroyed
+the practical immunity of barons in their castles and of
+walled cities.  Guns swept away feudalism.  Constantinople
+fell to guns. Mexico and Peru fell before the terror of the
+Spanish guns.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-321"></a>
+<img src="images/img-321.jpg"
+alt="CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO BECOMES AUTOCRAT
+ OF THE ENGLISH REPUBLIC"
+ width="600" height="472" />
+<p class="caption">
+CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO BECOMES AUTOCRAT OF
+THE ENGLISH REPUBLIC
+<br />
+<small><i>(From a contemporary satirical print in the British
+ Museum)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The seventeenth century saw the development of systematic
+scientific publication, a less conspicuous but ultimately far
+more pregnant innovation.  Conspicuous among the leaders in
+this great forward step was Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
+afterwards Lord <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P322"></a></span>Verulam, Lord Chancellor of
+England.  He was the pupil and perhaps the mouthpiece of
+another Englishman; Dr. Gilbert, the experimental philosopher
+of Colchester (1540-1603).  This second Bacon, like the
+first, preached observation and experiment, and he used the
+inspiring and fruitful form of a Utopian story, <i>The New
+Atlantis</i>, to express his dream of a great service of
+scientific research.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Presently arose the Royal Society of London, the Florentine
+Society, and later other national bodies for the
+encouragement of research and the publication and exchange of
+knowledge.  These European scientific societies became
+fountains not only of countless inventions but also of a
+destructive criticism of the grotesque theological history of
+the world that had dominated and crippled human thought for
+many centuries.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Neither the seventeenth nor the eighteenth century witnessed
+any innovations so immediately revolutionary in human
+conditions as printed paper and the ocean-going ship, but
+there was a steady accumulation of knowledge and scientific
+energy that was to bear its full fruits in the nineteenth
+century.  The exploration and mapping of the world went on.
+  Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand appeared on the map.  In
+Great Britain in the eighteenth century coal coke began to be
+used for metallurgical purposes, leading to a considerable
+cheapening of iron and to the possibility of casting and
+using it in larger pieces than had been possible before, when
+it had been smelted with wood charcoal.  Modern machinery
+dawned.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Like the trees of the celestial city, science bears bud and
+flower and fruit at the same time and continuously.  With the
+onset of the nineteenth century the real fruition of
+science&mdash;which indeed henceforth may never
+cease&mdash;began.  First came steam and steel, the railway,
+the great liner, vast bridges and buildings, machinery of
+almost limitless power, the possibility of a bountiful
+satisfaction of every material human need, and then, still
+more wonderful, the hidden treasures of electrical science
+were opened to men ....
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have compared the political and social life of man from
+the sixteenth century onward to that of a sleeping prisoner
+who lies and dreams while his prison burns about him.  In the
+sixteenth century the European mind was still going on with
+its Latin Imperial dream, <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P323"></a></span>its dream of a Holy Roman Empire,
+united under a Catholic Church.  But just as some
+uncontrollable element in our composition will insist at
+times upon introducing into our dreams the most absurd and
+destructive comments, so thrust into this dream we find the
+sleeping face and craving stomach of the Emperor Charles V,
+while Henry VIII of England and Luther tear the unity of
+Catholicism to shreds.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-323"></a>
+<img src="images/img-323.jpg"
+alt="THE COURT AT VERSAILLES"
+ width="600" height="419" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE COURT AT VERSAILLES
+<br />
+<small><i>(From the print after Watteau in the British
+ Museum)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the dream turned
+to personal monarchy.  The history of nearly all Europe
+during this period tells with variations the story of an
+attempt to consolidate a monarchy, to make it absolute and to
+extend its power over weaker adjacent regions, and of the
+steady resistance, first of the landowners and then with the
+increase of foreign trade and home industry, of the growing
+trading and moneyed class, to the exaction and interference
+of the crown.  There is no universal victory of either side;
+here it is the King who gets the upper hand while there it is
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="P324"></a></span>man
+of private property who beats the King.  In one case we find
+a King becoming the sun and centre of his national world,
+while just over his borders a sturdy mercantile class
+maintains a republic.  So wide a range of variation shows how
+entirely experimental, what local accidents, were all the
+various governments of this period.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A very common figure in these national dramas is the
+King&rsquo;s minister, often in the still Catholic countries
+a prelate, who stands behind the King, serves him and
+dominates him by his indispensable services.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Here in the limits set to us it is impossible to tell these
+various national dramas in detail.  The trading folk of
+Holland went Protestant and republican, and cast off the rule
+of Philip II of Spain, the son of the Emperor Charles V.  In
+England Henry VIII and his minister Wolsey, Queen Elizabeth
+and her minister Burleigh, prepared the foundations of an
+absolutism that was wrecked by the folly of James I and
+Charles I.  Charles I was beheaded for treason to his people
+(1649), a new turn in the political thought of Europe.  For a
+dozen years (until 1660) Britain was a republic; and the
+crown was an unstable power, much overshadowed by Parliament,
+until George III (1760-1820) made a strenuous and partly
+successful effort to restore its predominance.  The King of
+France, on the other hand, was the most successful of all the
+European Kings in perfecting monarchy.  Two great ministers,
+Richelieu (1585-1642) and Mazarin (1602-1661), built up the
+power of the crown in that country, and the process was aided
+by the long reign and very considerable abilities of King
+Louis XIV, &ldquo;the Grand Monarque&rdquo; (1643-1715).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Louis XIV was indeed the pattern King of Europe.  He was,
+within his limitations, an exceptionally capable King; his
+ambition was stronger than his baser passions, and he guided
+his country towards bankruptcy through the complication of a
+spirited foreign policy with an elaborate dignity that still
+extorts our admiration.  His immediate desire was to
+consolidate and extend France to the Rhine and Pyrenees, and
+to absorb the Spanish Netherlands; his remoter view saw the
+French Kings as the possible successors of Charlemagne in a
+recast Holy Roman Empire.  He made bribery a state method
+almost more important than warfare.  Charles II of <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P325"></a></span>England was in
+his pay, and so were most of the Polish nobility, presently
+to be described.  His money, or rather the money of the tax-
+paying classes in France, went everywhere.  But his
+prevailing occupation was splendour.  His great palace at
+Versailles with its salons, its corridors, its mirrors, its
+terraces and fountains and parks and prospects, was the envy
+and admiration of the world.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-325"></a>
+<img src="images/img-325.jpg"
+alt="THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION"
+ width="600" height="235" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
+<br />
+<small><i>(From Callot&rsquo;s &ldquo;Miseres de la Guerre&rdquo;)
+</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+He provoked a universal imitation.  Every king and princelet
+in Europe was building his own Versailles as much beyond his
+means as his subjects and credits would permit.  Everywhere
+the nobility rebuilt or extended their chateaux to the new
+pattern.  A great industry of beautiful and elaborate fabrics
+and furnishings developed.  The luxurious arts flourished
+everywhere; sculpture in alabaster, faience, gilt woodwork,
+metal work, stamped leather, much music, magnificent
+painting, beautiful printing and bindings, fine crockery,
+fine vintages.  Amidst the mirrors and fine furniture went a
+strange race of &ldquo;gentlemen&rdquo; in tall powdered
+wigs, silks and laces, poised upon high red heels, supported
+by amazing canes; and still more wonderful
+&ldquo;ladies,&rdquo; under towers of powdered hair and
+wearing vast expansions of silk and satin sustained on wire.
+  Through it all postured the great Louis, the sun of his
+world, unaware of the meagre and sulky and bitter faces that
+watched him from those lower darknesses to which his sunshine
+did not penetrate.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-326"></a>
+<img src="images/img-326.jpg"
+alt="Map: Central Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648"
+ width="600" height="603" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The German people remained politically divided throughout
+this period of the monarchies and experimental governments,
+and a considerable <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P326"></a></span>number of ducal and princely
+courts aped the splendours of Versailles on varying scales.
+  The Thirty Years&rsquo; War (1618-48), a devastating scramble
+among the Germans, Swedes and Bohemians for fluctuating
+political advantages, sapped the energies of Germany for a
+century.  A map must show the crazy patchwork in which this
+struggle ended, a map of Europe according to the peace of
+Westphalia (1648).  One sees a tangle of principalities,
+dukedoms, free states and the like, some partly in and partly
+out of the Empire.  Sweden&rsquo;s arm, the reader will note,
+reached far into Germany; and except for a few islands of
+territory within the imperial boundaries France was still far
+from the Rhine.  Amidst this patchwork the <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P327"></a></span>Kingdom of
+Prussia&mdash;it became a Kingdom in 1701&mdash;rose steadily
+to prominence and sustained a series of successful wars.
+  Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-86) had his Versailles
+at Potsdam, where his court spoke French, read French
+literature and rivalled the culture of the French King.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1714 the Elector of Hanover became King of England, adding
+one more to the list of monarchies half in and half out of
+the empire.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Austrian branch of the descendants of Charles V retained
+the title of Emperor; the Spanish branch retained Spain.  But
+now there was also an Emperor of the East again.  After the
+fall of Constantinople (1453), the grand duke of Moscow, Ivan
+the Great (1462-1505), claimed to be heir to the Byzantine
+throne and adopted the Byzantine double-headed eagle upon his
+arms.  His grandson, Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584),
+assumed the imperial title of Cæsar (Tsar).  But only in
+the latter half of the seventeenth century did Russia cease
+to seem remote and Asiatic to the European mind.  The Tsar
+Peter the Great (1682-1725) brought Russia into the arena of
+Western affairs.  He built a new capital for his empire,
+Petersburg upon the Neva, that played the part of a window
+between Russia and Europe, and he set up his Versailles at
+Peterhof eighteen miles away, employing a French architect
+who gave him a terrace, fountains, cascades, picture gallery,
+park and all the recognized appointments of Grand Monarchy.
+  In Russia as in Prussia French became the language of the
+court.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Unhappily placed between Austria, Prussia and Russia was the
+Polish kingdom, an ill-organized state of great landed
+proprietors too jealous of their own individual grandeur to
+permit more than a nominal kingship to the monarch they
+elected.  Her fate was division among these three neighbours,
+in spite of the efforts of France to retain her as an
+independent ally.  Switzerland at this time was a group of
+republican cantons; Venice was a republic; Italy like so much
+of Germany was divided among minor dukes and princes.  The
+Pope ruled like a prince in the papal states, too fearful now
+of losing the allegiance of the remaining Catholic princes to
+interfere between them and their subjects or to remind the
+world of the commonweal of Christendom. There remained indeed
+no common <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P328"></a></span>political idea in Europe at all;
+Europe was given over altogether to division and diversity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All these sovereign princes and republics carried on schemes
+of aggrandizement against each other.  Each one of them
+pursued a &ldquo;foreign policy&rdquo; of aggression against
+its neighbours and of aggressive alliances.  We Europeans
+still live to-day in the last phase of this age of the
+multifarious sovereign states, and still suffer from the
+hatreds, hostilities and suspicions it engendered.  The
+history of this time becomes more and more manifestly
+&ldquo;gossip,&rdquo; more and more unmeaning and wearisome
+to a modern intelligence.  You are told of how this war was
+caused by this King&rsquo;s mistress, and how the jealousy of
+one minister for another caused that.  A tittle-tattle of
+bribes and rivalries disgusts the intelligent student.  The
+more permanently significant fact is that in spite of the
+obstruction of a score of frontiers, reading and thought
+still spread and increased and inventions multiplied.  The
+eighteenth century saw the appearance of a literature
+profoundly sceptical and critical of the courts and policies
+of the time.  In such a book as Voltaire&rsquo;s
+<i>Candide</i> we have the expression of an infinite
+weariness with the planless confusion of the European world.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P329"></a></span><a name="chapLIII"></a>LIII<br />
+THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS</h2>
+
+<p>
+While Central Europe thus remained divided and confused, the Western Europeans
+and particularly the Dutch, the Scandinavians, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the
+French and the British were extending the area of their struggles across the
+seas of all the world. The printing press had dissolved the political ideas of
+Europe into a vast and at first indeterminate fermentation, but that other
+great innovation, the ocean-going sailing ship, was inexorably extending the
+range of European experience to the furthermost limits of salt water.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The first overseas settlements of the Dutch and Northern
+Atlantic Europeans were not for colonization but for trade
+and mining.  The Spaniards were first in the field; they
+claimed dominion over the whole of this new world of America.
+Very soon however the Portuguese asked for a share.  The
+Pope&mdash;it was one of the last acts of Rome as mistress of
+the world&mdash;divided the new continent between these two
+first-comers, giving Portugal Brazil and everything else east
+of a line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands, and all
+the rest to Spain (1494).  The Portuguese at this time were
+also pushing overseas enterprise southward and eastward.  In
+1497 Vasco da Gama had sailed from Lisbon round the Cape to
+Zanzibar and then to Calicut in India.  In 1515 there were
+Portuguese ships in Java and the Moluccas, and the Portuguese
+were setting up and fortifying trading stations round and
+about the coasts of the Indian Ocean.  Mozambique, Goa, and
+two smaller possessions in India, Macao in China and a part
+of Timor are to this day Portuguese possessions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The nations excluded from America by the papal settlement
+paid little heed to the rights of Spain and Portugal.  The
+English, the Danes and Swedes, and presently the Dutch, were
+soon staking <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P330"></a></span>out claims in North America and
+the West Indies, and his Most Catholic Majesty of France
+heeded the papal settlement as little as any Protestant.  The
+wars of Europe extended themselves to these claims and
+possessions.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-330"></a>
+<img src="images/img-330.jpg"
+alt="Map: Central Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648"
+ width="550" height="808" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In the long run the English were the most successful in this
+scramble for overseas possessions. The Danes and Swedes were
+too <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P331"></a></span>deeply entangled in the
+complicated affairs of Germany to sustain effective
+expeditions abroad.  Sweden was wasted upon the German
+battlefields by a picturesque king, Gustavus Adolphus, the
+Protestant &ldquo;Lion of the North.&rdquo;  The Dutch were
+the heirs of such small settlements as Sweden made in
+America, and the Dutch were too near French aggressions to
+hold their own against the British.  In the far East the
+chief rivals for empire were the British, Dutch and French,
+and in America the British, French and Spanish.  The British
+had the supreme advantage of a water frontier, the
+&ldquo;silver streak&rdquo; of the English Channel, against
+Europe.  The tradition of the Latin Empire entangled them
+least.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-331"></a>
+<img src="images/img-331.jpg"
+alt="EUROPEANS TIGER HUNTING IN INDIA"
+ width="600" height="433" />
+<p class="caption">
+EUROPEANS TIGER HUNTING IN INDIA
+<br />
+<small><i>(From the engraving of the picture by Zoffany in the
+ British Museum)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+France has always thought too much in terms of Europe.
+  Throughout the eighteenth century she was wasting her
+opportunities of expansion in West and East alike in order to
+dominate Spain, Italy and the German confusion.  The
+religious and political dissensions of Britain in the
+seventeenth century had driven many <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P332"></a></span>of the English to seek a permanent
+home in America.  They struck root and increased and
+multiplied, giving the British a great advantage in the
+American struggle.  In 1756 and 1760 the French lost Canada
+to the British and their American colonists, and a few years
+later the British trading company found itself completely
+dominant over French, Dutch and Portuguese in the peninsula
+of India.  The great Mongol Empire of Baber, Akbar and their
+successors had now far gone in decay, and the story of its
+practical capture by a London trading company, the British
+East India Company, is one of the most extraordinary episodes
+in the whole history of conquest.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-332"></a>
+<img src="images/img-332.jpg"
+alt="THE LAST EFFORT AND FALL OF TIPPOO SULTAN"
+ width="600" height="422" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE LAST EFFORT AND FALL OF TIPPOO SULTAN
+<br />
+<small><i>(From the engraving of the picture by Singleton in the
+ British Museum)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+This East India Company had been originally at the time of
+its incorporation under Queen Elizabeth no more than a
+company of sea adventurers.  Step by step they had been
+forced to raise troops and arm their ships.  And now this
+trading company, with its tradition of gain, found itself
+dealing not merely in spices and dyes and tea and jewels, but
+in the revenues and territories of princes <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P333"></a></span>and the
+destinies of India.  It had come to buy and sell, and it
+found itself achieving a tremendous piracy.  There was no one
+to challenge its proceedings.  Is it any wonder that its
+captains and commanders and officials, nay, even its clerks
+and common soldiers, came back to England loaded with spoils?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Men under such circumstances, with a great and wealthy land
+at their mercy, could not determine what they might or might
+not do.  It was a strange land to them, with a strange
+sunlight; its brown people seemed a different race, outside
+their range of sympathy; its mysterious temples sustained
+fantastic standards of behaviour.  Englishmen at home were
+perplexed when presently these generals and officials came
+back to make dark accusations against each other of
+extortions and cruelties.  Upon Clive Parliament passed a
+vote of censure.  He committed suicide in 1774.  In 1788
+Warren Hastings, a second great Indian administrator, was
+impeached and acquitted (1792).  It was a strange and
+unprecedented situation in the world&rsquo;s history.  The
+English Parliament found itself ruling over a London trading
+company, which in its turn was dominating an empire far
+greater and more populous than all the domains of the British
+crown.  To the bulk of the English people India was a remote,
+fantastic, almost inaccessible land, to which adventurous
+poor young men went out, to return after many years very rich
+and very choleric old gentlemen.  It was difficult for the
+English to conceive what the life of these countless brown
+millions in the eastern sunshine could be.  Their
+imaginations declined the task.  India remained romantically
+unreal.  It was impossible for the English, therefore, to
+exert any effective supervision and control over the
+company&rsquo;s proceedings.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And while the Western European powers were thus fighting for
+these fantastic overseas empires upon every ocean in the
+world, two great land conquests were in progress in Asia.
+  China had thrown off the Mongol yoke in 1360, and flourished
+under the great native dynasty of the Mings until 1644.  Then
+the Manchus, another Mongol people, reconquered China and
+remained masters of China until 1912.  Meanwhile Russia was
+pushing East and growing to greatness in the world&rsquo;s
+affairs.  The rise of this great central power of the old
+world, which is neither altogether of the East nor <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P334"></a></span>altogether of
+the West, is one of the utmost importance to our human
+destiny.  Its expansion is very largely due to the appearance
+of a Christian steppe people, the Cossacks, who formed a
+barrier between the feudal agriculture of Poland and Hungary
+to the west and the Tartar to the east.  The Cossacks were
+the wild east of Europe, and in many ways not unlike the wild
+west of the United States in the middle nineteenth century.
+  All who had made Russia too hot to hold them, criminals as
+well as the persecuted innocent, rebellious serfs, religious
+secretaries, thieves, vagabonds, murderers, sought asylum in
+the southern steppes and there made a fresh start and fought
+for life and freedom against Pole, Russian and Tartar alike.
+  Doubtless fugitives from the Tartars to the east also
+contributed to the Cossack mixture.  Slowly these border folk
+were incorporated in the Russian imperial service, much as
+the highland clans of Scotland were converted into regiments
+by the British government.  New lands were offered them in
+Asia.  They became a weapon against the dwindling power of
+the Mongolian nomads, first in Turkestan and then across
+Siberia as far as the Amur.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The decay of Mongol energy in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries is very difficult to explain.  Within two or three
+centuries from the days of Jengis and Timurlane Central Asia
+had relapsed from a period of world ascendancy to extreme
+political impotence.  Changes of climate, unrecorded
+pestilences, infections of a malarial type, may have played
+their part in this recession&mdash;which may be only a
+temporary recession measured by the scale of universal
+history&mdash;of the Central Asian peoples.  Some authorities
+think that the spread of Buddhist teaching from China also
+had a pacifying influence upon them.  At any rate, by the
+sixteenth century the Mongol, Tartar and Turkish peoples were
+no longer pressing outward, but were being invaded,
+subjugated and pushed back both by Christian Russia in the
+west and by China in the east.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All through the seventeenth century the Cossacks were
+spreading eastward from European Russia, and settling
+wherever they found agricultural conditions.  Cordons of
+forts and stations formed a moving frontier to these
+settlements to the south, where the Turkomans were still
+strong and active; to the north-east, however, Russia had no
+frontier until she reached right to the Pacific....
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P335"></a></span><a name="chapLIV"></a>LIV<br />
+THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</h2>
+
+<p>
+The third quarter of the eighteenth century thus saw the remarkable and
+unstable spectacle of a Europe divided against itself, and no longer with any
+unifying political or religious idea, yet through the immense stimulation of
+men&rsquo;s imaginations by the printed book, the printed map, and the
+opportunity of the new ocean-going shipping, able in a disorganized and
+contentious manner to dominate all the coasts of the world. It was a planless,
+incoherent ebullition of enterprise due to temporary and almost accidental
+advantages over the rest of mankind. By virtue of these advantages this new and
+still largely empty continent of America was peopled mainly from Western
+European sources, and South Africa and Australia and New Zealand marked down as
+prospective homes for a European population.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The motive that had sent Columbus to America and Vasco da
+Gama to India was the perennial first motive of all sailors
+since the beginning of things&mdash;trade.  But while in the
+already populous and productive East the trade motive
+remained dominant, and the European settlements remained
+trading settlements from which the European inhabitants hoped
+to return home to spend their money, the Europeans in
+America, dealing with communities at a very much lower level
+of productive activity, found a new inducement for
+persistence in the search for gold and silver.  Particularly
+did the mines of Spanish America yield silver.  The Europeans
+had to go to America not simply as armed merchants but as
+prospectors, miners, searchers after natural products, and
+presently as planters.  In the north they sought furs.  Mines
+and plantations necessitated settlements.  They obliged
+people to set up permanent overseas homes.  Finally in some
+cases, as when the English Puritans went to New England in
+the early seventeenth <span class="pagenum"><a name="P336">
+</a>336}</span>century to escape religious
+persecution, when in the eighteenth Oglethorpe sent people
+from the English debtors&rsquo; prisons to Georgia, and when
+in the end of the eighteenth the Dutch sent orphans to the
+Cape of Good Hope, the Europeans frankly crossed the seas to
+find new homes for good.  In the nineteenth century, and
+especially after the coming of the steamship, the stream of
+European emigration to the new empty lands of America and
+Australia rose for some decades to the scale of a great
+migration.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So there grew up permanent overseas populations of Europeans,
+and the European culture was transplanted to much larger
+areas than those in which it had been developed.  These new
+communities bringing a ready-made civilization with them to
+these new lands grew up, as it were, unplanned and
+unperceived; the statecraft of Europe did not foresee them,
+and was unprepared with any ideas about their treatment.  The
+politicians and ministers of Europe continued to regard them
+as essentially expeditionary establishments, sources of
+revenue, &ldquo;possessions&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;dependencies,&rdquo; long after their peoples had
+developed a keen sense of their separate social life.  And
+also they continued to treat them as helplessly subject to
+the mother country long after the population had spread
+inland out of reach of any effectual punitive operations from
+the sea.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Because until right into the nineteenth century, it must be
+remembered, the link of all these overseas empires was the
+oceangoing sailing ship.  On land the swiftest thing was
+still the horse, and the cohesion and unity of political
+systems on land was still limited by the limitations of horse
+communications.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now at the end of the third quarter of the eighteenth century
+the northern two-thirds of North America was under the
+British crown.  France had abandoned America.  Except for
+Brazil, which was Portuguese, and one or two small islands
+and areas in French, British, Danish and Dutch hands,
+Florida, Louisiana, California and all America to the south
+was Spanish.  It was the British colonies south of Maine and
+Lake Ontario that first demonstrated the inadequacy of the
+sailing ship to hold overseas populations together in one
+political system.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These British colonies were very miscellaneous in their
+origin and character.  There were French, Swedish and Dutch
+settlements <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P337"></a></span>as well as British; there were
+British Catholics in Maryland and British ultra-Protestants
+in New England, and while the New Englanders farmed their own
+land and denounced slavery, the British in Virginia and the
+south were planters employing a swelling multitude of
+imported negro slaves.  There was no natural common unity in
+such states.  To get from one to the other might mean a
+coasting voyage hardly less tedious than the transatlantic
+crossing.  But the union that diverse origin and natural
+conditions denied the British Americans was forced upon them
+by the selfishness and stupidity of the British government in
+London.  They were taxed without any voice in the spending of
+the taxes; their trade was sacrificed to British interests;
+the highly profitable slave trade was maintained by the
+British government in spite of the opposition of the
+Virginians who&mdash;though quite willing to hold and use
+slaves&mdash;feared to be swamped by an ever-growing barbaric
+black population.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-337"></a>
+<img src="images/img-337.jpg"
+alt="GEORGE WASHINGTON"
+ width="350" height="530" />
+<p class="caption">
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+<br />
+<small><i>(From a painting by Gilbert Stuart)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Britain at that time was lapsing towards an intenser form of
+monarchy, and the obstinate personality of George III (1760-
+1820) did much to force on a struggle between the home and
+the colonial governments.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The conflict was precipitated by legislation which favoured
+the London East India Company at the expense of the American
+shipper.  Three cargoes of tea which were imported under the
+new conditions were thrown overboard in Boston harbour by a
+band of men disguised as Indians (1773).  <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P338"></a></span>Fighting only
+began in 1775 when the British government attempted to arrest
+two of the American leaders at Lexington near Boston.  The
+first shots were fired in Lexington by the British; the first
+fighting occurred at Concord.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-338"></a>
+<img src="images/img-338.jpg"
+alt="THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON"
+ width="600" height="396" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON
+<br />
+<small><i>(From the engraving of the picture by John Trumbull in the
+ British Museum)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+So the American War of Independence began, though for more
+than a year the colonists showed themselves extremely
+unwilling to sever their links with the mother land.  It was
+not until the middle of 1776 that the Congress of the
+insurgent states issued &ldquo;The Declaration of
+Independence.&rdquo;  George Washington, who like many of the
+leading colonists of the time had had a military training in
+the wars against the French, was made commander-in-chief.  In
+1777 a British general, General Burgoyne, in an attempt to
+reach New York from Canada, was defeated at Freemans Farm and
+obliged to surrender at Saratoga.  In the same year the
+French and Spanish declared war upon Great Britain, greatly
+hampering her sea communications.  A second British army
+under General Cornwallis was caught in the Yorktown peninsula
+in Virginia and obliged to capitulate in 1781.  In 1783 peace
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P339"></a></span>was made
+in Paris, and the Thirteen Colonies from Maine to Georgia
+became a union of independent sovereign States.  So the
+United States of America came into existence.  Canada
+remained loyal to the British flag.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-339"></a>
+<img src="images/img-339.jpg"
+alt="Map: The United States, showing extent of settlement in 1790"
+ width="550" height="656" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+For four years these States had only a very feeble central
+government under certain Articles of Confederation, and they
+seemed destined to break up into separate independent
+communities.  Their immediate separation was delayed by the
+hostility of the British and a certain aggressiveness on the
+part of the French which brought <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P340"></a></span>home to them the immediate dangers
+of division.  A Constitution was drawn up and ratified in
+1788 establishing a more efficient Federal government with a
+President holding very considerable powers, and the weak
+sense of national unity was invigorated by a second war with
+Britain in 1812.  Nevertheless the area covered by the States
+was so wide and their interests so diverse at that time,
+that&mdash;given only the means of communication then
+available&mdash;a disintegration of the Union into separate
+states on the European scale of size was merely a question of
+time.  Attendance at Washington meant a long, tedious and
+insecure journey for the senators and congressmen of the
+remoter districts, and the mechanical impediments to the
+diffusion of a common education and a common literature and
+intelligence were practically insurmountable.  Forces were at
+work in the world however that were to arrest the process of
+differentiation altogether.  Presently came the river
+steamboat and then the railway and the telegraph to save the
+United States from fragmentation, and weave its dispersed
+people together again into the first of great modern nations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Twenty-two years later the Spanish colonies in America were
+to follow the example of the Thirteen and break their
+connection with Europe.  But being more dispersed over the
+continent and separated by great mountainous chains and
+deserts and forests and by the Portuguese Empire of Brazil,
+they did not achieve a union among themselves.  They became a
+constellation of republican states, very prone at first to
+wars among themselves and to revolutions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Brazil followed a rather different line towards the
+inevitable separation.  In 1807 the French armies under
+Napoleon had occupied the mother country of Portugal, and the
+monarchy had fled to Brazil.  From that time on until they
+separated, Portugal was rather a dependency of Brazil than
+Brazil of Portugal.  In 1822 Brazil declared itself a
+separate Empire under Pedro I, a son of the Portuguese King.
+  But the new world has never been very favourable to monarchy.
+  In 1889 the Emperor of Brazil was shipped off quietly to
+Europe, and the United States of Brazil fell into line with
+the rest of republican America.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P341"></a></span><a name="chapLV"></a>LV<br />
+THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY IN FRANCE</h2>
+
+<p>
+Britain had hardly lost the Thirteen Colonies in America before a profound
+social and political convulsion at the very heart of Grand Monarchy was to
+remind Europe still more vividly of the essentially temporary nature of the
+political arrangements of the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have said that the French monarchy was the most successful
+of the personal monarchies in Europe.  It was the envy and
+model of a multitude of competing and minor courts.  But it
+flourished on a basis of injustice that led to its dramatic
+collapse.  It was brilliant and aggressive, but it was
+wasteful of the life and substance of its common people.  The
+clergy and nobility were protected from taxation by a system
+of exemption that threw the whole burden of the state upon
+the middle and lower classes.  The peasants were ground down
+by taxation; the middle classes were dominated and humiliated
+by the nobility.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1787 this French monarchy found itself bankrupt and
+obliged to call representatives of the different classes of
+the realm into consultation upon the perplexities of
+defective income and excessive expenditure.  In 1789 the
+States General, a gathering of the nobles, clergy and
+commons, roughly equivalent to the earlier form of the
+British Parliament, was called together at Versailles.  It
+had not assembled since 1610.  For all that time France had
+been an absolute monarchy.  Now the people found a means of
+expressing their long fermenting discontent.  Disputes
+immediately broke out between the three estates, due to the
+resolve of the Third Estate, the Commons, to control the
+Assembly.  The Commons got the better of these disputes and
+the States General became a National Assembly, clearly
+resolved to keep the crown in order, as the British
+Parliament kept the British <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P342"></a></span>crown in order.  The king (Louis
+XVI) prepared for a struggle and brought up troops from the
+provinces.  Whereupon Paris and France revolted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The collapse of the absolute monarchy was very swift.  The
+grim-looking prison of the Bastille was stormed by the people
+of Paris, and the insurrection spread rapidly throughout
+France.  In the east and north-west provinces many chateaux
+belonging to the nobility were burnt by the peasants, their
+title-deeds carefully destroyed, and the owners murdered or
+driven away.  In a month the ancient and decayed system of
+the aristocratic order had collapsed.  Many of the leading
+princes and courtiers of the queen&rsquo;s party fled abroad.
+  A provisional city government was set up in Paris and in most
+of the other large cities, and a new armed force, the
+National Guard, a force designed primarily and plainly to
+resist the forces of the crown, was brought into existence by
+these municipal bodies.  The National Assembly found itself
+called upon to create a new political and social system for a
+new age.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was a task that tried the powers of that gathering to the
+utmost.  It made a great sweep of the chief injustices of the
+absolutist regime; it abolished tax exemptions, serfdom,
+aristocratic titles and privileges and sought to establish a
+constitutional monarchy in Paris.  The king abandoned
+Versailles and its splendours and kept a diminished state in
+the palace of the Tuileries in Paris.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For two years it seemed that the National Assembly might
+struggle through to an effective modernized government.  Much
+of its work was sound and still endures, if much was
+experimental and had to be undone.  Much was ineffective.
+  There was a clearing up of the penal code; torture, arbitrary
+imprisonment and persecutions for heresy were abolished.  The
+ancient provinces of France, Normandy, Burgundy and the like
+gave place to eighty departments.  Promotion to the highest
+ranks in the army was laid open to men of every class.  An
+excellent and simple system of law courts was set up, but its
+value was much vitiated by having the judges appointed by
+popular election for short periods of time.  This made the
+crowd a sort of final court of appeal, and the judges, like
+the members of the Assembly, were forced to play to the
+gallery.  And the whole vast property of the church was
+seized and administered <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P343"></a></span>by the state; religious
+establishments not engaged in education or works of charity
+were broken up, and the salaries of the clergy made a charge
+upon the nation.  This in itself was not a bad thing for the
+lower clergy in France, who were often scandalously underpaid
+in comparison with the richer dignitaries.  But in addition
+the choice of priests and bishops was made elective, which
+struck at the very root idea of the Roman Church, which
+centred everything upon the Pope, and in which all authority
+is from above downward.  Practically the National Assembly
+wanted at one blow to make the church in France Protestant,
+in organization if not in doctrine.  Everywhere there were
+disputes and conflicts between the state priests created by
+the National Assembly and the recalcitrant (non-juring)
+priests who were loyal to Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1791 the experiment of Constitutional monarchy in France
+was brought to an abrupt end by the action of the king and
+queen, working in concert with their aristocratic and
+monarchist friends abroad.  Foreign armies gathered on the
+Eastern frontier and one night in June the king and queen and
+their children slipped away from the Tuileries and fled to
+join the foreigners and the aristocratic exiles.  They were
+caught at Varennes and brought back to Paris, and an France
+flamed up into a passion of patriotic republicanism.  A
+Republic was proclaimed, open war with Austria and Prussia
+ensued, and the king was tried and executed (January, 1793)
+on the model already set by England, for treason to his
+people.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And now followed a strange phase in the history of the French
+people.  There arose a great flame of enthusiasm for France
+and the Republic.  There was to be an end to compromise at
+home and abroad; at home royalists and every form of
+disloyalty were to be stamped out; abroad France was to be
+the protector and helper of all revolutionaries.  All Europe,
+all the world, was to become Republican.  The youth of France
+poured into the Republican armies; a new and wonderful song
+spread through the land, a song that still warms the blood
+like wine, the Marseillaise.  Before that chant and the
+leaping columns of French bayonets and their enthusiastically
+served guns the foreign armies rolled back; before the end of
+1792 the French armies had gone far beyond the utmost
+achievements of Louis XIV; everywhere they stood on <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P344"></a></span>foreign soil.
+  They were in Brussels, they had overrun Savoy, they had
+raided to Mayence; they had seized the Scheldt from Holland.
+  Then the French Government did an unwise thing.  It had been
+exasperated by the expulsion of its representative from
+England upon the execution of Louis, and it declared war
+against England.  It was an unwise thing to do, because the
+revolution which had given France a new enthusiastic infantry
+and a brilliant artillery released from its aristocratic
+officers and many cramping conditions had destroyed the
+discipline of the navy, and the English were supreme upon the
+sea.  And this provocation united all England against France,
+whereas there had been at first a very considerable liberal
+movement in Great Britain in sympathy with the revolution.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-344"></a>
+<img src="images/img-344.jpg"
+alt="THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI"
+ width="600" height="433" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI
+<br />
+<small><i>(From a print in the British Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Of the fight that France made in the next few years against a
+European coalition we cannot tell in any detail.  She drove
+the Austrians for ever out of Belgium, and made Holland a
+republic.  The Dutch fleet, frozen in the Texel, surrendered
+to a handful of <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P345"></a></span>cavalry without firing its guns.
+  For some time the French thrust towards Italy was hung up,
+and it was only in 1796 that a new general, Napoleon
+Bonaparte, led the ragged and hungry republican armies in
+triumph across Piedmont to Mantua and Verona.  Says C. F.
+  Atkinson,  [<a name="chapLVfn1text"></a><a
+href="#chapLVfn1">1</a>] &ldquo;What astonished the Allies
+most of all was the number and the velocity of the
+Republicans.  These improvised armies had in fact nothing to
+delay them.  Tents were unprocurable for want of money,
+untransportable for want of the enormous number of wagons
+that would have been required, and also unnecessary, for the
+discomfort that would have caused wholesale desertion in
+professional armies was cheerfully borne by the men of 1793-
+94.   Supplies for armies of then unheard-of size could not
+be carried in convoys, and the French soon became familiar
+with &lsquo;living on the country.&rsquo;  Thus 1793 saw the
+birth of the modern system of war&mdash;rapidity of movement,
+full development of national strength, bivouacs, requisitions
+and force as against cautious manœuvring, small
+professional armies, tents and full rations, and chicane.
+  The first represented the decision-compelling spirit, the
+second the spirit of risking little to gain a little ...
+  .&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And while these ragged hosts of enthusiasts were chanting the
+Marseillaise and fighting for <i>la France</i>, manifestly
+never quite clear in their minds whether they were looting or
+liberating the countries into which they poured, the
+republican enthusiasm in Paris was spending itself in a far
+less glorious fashion.  The revolution was now under the sway
+of a fanatical leader, Robespierre.  This man is difficult to
+judge; he was a man of poor physique, naturally timid, and a
+prig.  But he had that most necessary gift for power, faith.
+  He set himself to save the Republic as he conceived it, and
+he imagined it could be saved by no other man than he.  So
+that to keep in power was to save the Republic.  The living
+spirit of the Republic, it seemed, had sprung from a
+slaughter of royalists and the execution of the king.  There
+were insurrections; one in the west, in the district of La
+Vend&#233;e, where the people rose against the conscription
+and against the dispossession of the orthodox clergy, and
+were led by noblemen and priests; one in the south, where
+Lyons and Marseilles had risen and the royalists of
+Toulon<span class="pagenum"><a name="P346"></a></span>
+had admitted an English and Spanish garrison.  To which there
+seemed no more effectual reply than to go on killing
+royalists.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Revolutionary Tribunal went to work, and a steady
+slaughtering began.  The invention of the guillotine was
+opportune to this mood.  The queen was guillotined, most of
+Robespierre&rsquo;s antagonists were guillotined, atheists
+who argued that there was no Supreme Being were guillotined;
+day by day, week by week, this infernal new machine chopped
+off heads and more heads and more.  The reign of Robespierre
+lived, it seemed, on blood; and needed more and more, as an
+opium-taker needs more and more opium.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-346"></a>
+<img src="images/img-346.jpg"
+alt="THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE,
+OCTOBER 16, 1793"
+ width="600" height="432" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE,
+OCTOBER 16, 1793
+<br />
+<small><i>(From a print in the British Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Finally in the summer of 1794 Robespierre himself was
+overthrown and guillotined.  He was succeeded by a Directory
+of five men which carried on the war of defence abroad and
+held France together at home for five years.  Their reign
+formed a curious interlude in this history of violent
+changes.  They took things <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P347"></a></span>as they found them.  The
+propagandist zeal of the revolution carried the French armies
+into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, south Germany and north
+Italy.  Everywhere kings were expelled and republics set up.
+  But such propagandist zeal as animated the Directorate did
+not prevent the looting of the treasures of the liberated
+peoples to relieve the financial embarrassment of the French
+Government.  Their wars became less and less the holy wars of
+freedom, and more and more like the aggressive wars of the
+ancient regime.  The last feature of Grand Monarchy that
+France was disposed to discard was her tradition of foreign
+policy.  One discovers it still as vigorous under the
+Directorate as if there had been no revolution.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Unhappily for France and the world a man arose who embodied
+in its intensest form this national egotism of the French.
+  He gave that country ten years of glory and the humiliation
+of a final defeat.  This was that same Napoleon Bonaparte who
+had led the armies of the Directory to victory in Italy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Throughout the five years of the Directorate he had been
+scheming and working for self-advancement.  Gradually he
+clambered to supreme power.  He was a man of severely limited
+understanding but of ruthless directness and great energy.
+  He had begun life as an extremist of the school of
+Robespierre; he owed his first promotion to that side; but he
+had no real grasp of the new forces that were working in
+Europe.  His utmost political imagination carried him to a
+belated and tawdry attempt to restore the Western Empire.  He
+tried to destroy the remains of the old Holy Roman Empire,
+intending to replace it by a new one centring upon Paris.
+  The Emperor in Vienna ceased to be the Holy Roman Emperor and
+became simply Emperor of Austria.  Napoleon divorced his
+French wife in order to marry an Austrian princess.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He became practically monarch of France as First Consul in
+1799, and he made himself Emperor of France in 1804 in direct
+imitation of Charlemagne.  He was crowned by the Pope in
+Paris, taking the crown from the Pope and putting it upon his
+own head himself as Charlemagne had directed.  His son was
+crowned King of Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For some years Napoleon&rsquo;s reign was a career of
+victory.  He <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P348"></a></span>conquered most of Italy and Spain,
+defeated Prussia and Austria, and dominated all Europe west
+of Russia.  But he never won the command of the sea from the
+British and his fleets sustained a conclusive defeat
+inflicted by the British Admiral Nelson at Trafalgar (1805).
+  Spain rose against him in 1808 and a British army under
+Wellington thrust the French armies slowly northward out of
+the peninsula.  In 1811 Napoleon came into conflict with the
+Tsar Alexander I, and in 1812 he invaded Russia with a great
+conglomerate army of 600,000 men, that was defeated and
+largely destroyed by the Russians and the Russian winter.
+  Germany rose against him, Sweden turned against him.  The
+French armies were beaten back and at Fontainebleau Napoleon
+abdicated (1814).  He was exiled to Elba, returned to France
+for one last effort in 1815 and was defeated by the allied
+British, Belgians and Prussians at Waterloo.  He died a
+British prisoner at St. Helena in 1821.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The forces released by the French revolution were wasted and
+finished.  A great Congress of the victorious allies met at
+Vienna to restore as far as possible the state of affairs
+that the great storm had rent to pieces.  For nearly forty
+years a sort of peace, a peace of exhausted effort, was
+maintained in Europe.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="chapLVfn1"></a>
+[<a href="#chapLIfn1text">1</a>] In his article,
+&ldquo;French Revolutionary Wars,&rdquo; in the
+Encyclopædia Britannica.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P349"></a></span><a name="chapLVI"></a>LVI<br />
+THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL OF NAPOLEON</h2>
+
+<p>
+Two main causes prevented that period from being a complete social and
+international peace, and prepared the way for the cycle of wars between 1854
+and 1871. The first of these was the tendency of the royal courts concerned,
+towards the restoration of unfair privilege and interference with freedom of
+thought and writing and teaching. The second was the impossible system of
+boundaries drawn by the diplomatists of Vienna.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The inherent disposition of monarchy to march back towards
+past conditions was first and most particularly manifest in
+Spain.  Here even the Inquisition was restored.  Across the
+Atlantic the Spanish colonies had followed the example of the
+United States and revolted against the European Great Power
+System, when Napoleon set his brother Joseph on the Spanish
+throne in 1810.  The George Washington of South America was
+General Bolivar.  Spain was unable to suppress this revolt,
+it dragged on much as the United States War of Independence
+had dragged on, and at last the suggestion was made by
+Austria, in accordance with the spirit of the Holy Alliance,
+that the European monarch should assist Spain in this
+struggle.  This was opposed by Britain in Europe, but it was
+the prompt action of President Monroe of the United States in
+1823 which conclusively warned off this projected monarchist
+restoration.  He announced that the United States would
+regard any extension of the European system in the Western
+Hemisphere as a hostile act.  Thus arose the Monroe Doctrine,
+the doctrine that there must be no extension of extra-
+American government in America, which has kept the Great
+Power system out of America for nearly a hundred years and
+permitted the new states of Spanish America to work out their
+destinies along their own lines.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P350"></a></span>But if
+Spanish monarchism lost its colonies, it could at least,
+under the protection of the Concert of Europe, do what it
+chose in Europe.  A popular insurrection in Spain was crushed
+by a French army in 1823, with a mandate from a European
+congress, and simultaneously Austria suppressed a revolution
+in Naples.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1824 Louis XVIII died, and was succeeded by Charles X.
+  Charles set himself to destroy the liberty of the press and
+universities, and to restore absolute government; the sum of
+a billion francs was voted to compensate the nobles for the
+chateau burnings and sequestrations of 1789.  In 1830 Paris
+rose against this embodiment of the ancient regime, and
+replaced him by Louis Philippe, the son of that Philip, Duke
+of Orleans, who was executed during the Terror.  The other
+continental monarchies, in face of the open approval of the
+revolution by Great Britain and a strong liberal ferment in
+Germany and Austria, did not interfere in this affair.  After
+all, France was still a monarchy.  This man Louis Philippe
+(1830-48) remained the constitutional King of France for
+eighteen years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Such were the uneasy swayings of the peace of the Congress of
+Vienna, which were provoked by the reactionary proceedings of
+the monarchists.  The stresses that arose from the
+unscientific boundaries planned by the diplomatists at Vienna
+gathered force more deliberately, but they were even more
+dangerous to the peace of mankind.  It is extraordinarily
+inconvenient to administer together the affairs of peoples
+speaking different languages and so reading different
+literatures and having different general ideas, especially if
+those differences are exacerbated by religious disputes.
+  Only some strong mutual interest, such as the common
+defensive needs of the Swiss mountaineers, can justify a
+close linking of peoples of dissimilar languages and faiths;
+and even in Switzerland there is the utmost local autonomy.
+  When, as in Macedonia, populations are mixed in a patchwork
+of villages and districts, the cantonal system is
+imperatively needed.  But if the reader will look at the map
+of Europe as the Congress of Vienna drew it, he will see that
+this gathering seems almost as if it had planned the maximum
+of local exasperation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It destroyed the Dutch Republic, quite needlessly, it lumped
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P351"></a></span>together
+the Protestant Dutch with the French-speaking Catholics of
+the old Spanish (Austrian) Netherlands, and set up a kingdom
+of the Netherlands.  It handed over not merely the old
+republic of Venice, but all of North Italy as far as Milan to
+the German-speaking Austrians.  French-speaking Savoy it
+combined with pieces of Italy to restore the kingdom of
+Sardinia.  Austria and Hungary, already a sufficiently
+explosive mixture of discordant nationalities, Germans,
+Hungarians, Czecho-Slovaks, Jugo-Slavs, Roumanians, and now
+Italians, was made still more impossible by confirming
+Austria&rsquo;s Polish acquisitions of 1772 and 1795.  The
+Catholic and republican-spirited Polish people were chiefly
+given over to the less civilized rule of the Greek-orthodox
+Tsar, but important districts went to Protestant Prussia.
+  The Tsar was also confirmed in his acquisition of the
+entirely alien Finns.  The very dissimilar Norwegian and
+Swedish peoples were bound together under one king.  Germany,
+the reader will see, was left in a particularly dangerous
+state of muddle.  Prussia and Austria were both partly in and
+partly out of a German confederation, which included a
+multitude of minor states.  The King of Denmark came into the
+German confederation by virtue of certain German-speaking
+possessions in Holstein.  Luxembourg was included in the
+German confederation, though its ruler was also King of the
+Netherlands, and though many of its peoples talked French.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Here was a complete disregard of the fact that the people who
+talk German and base their ideas on German literature, the
+people who talk Italian and base their ideas on Italian
+literature, and the people who talk Polish and base their
+ideas on Polish literature, will all be far better off and
+most helpful and least obnoxious to the rest of mankind if
+they conduct their own affairs in their own idiom within the
+ring-fence of their own speech.  Is it any wonder that one of
+the most popular songs in Germany during this period declared
+that wherever the German tongue was spoken, there was the
+German Fatherland!
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P352"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-352"></a>
+<img src="images/img-352.jpg"
+alt="PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION)"
+ width="550" height="772" />
+<p class="caption">
+PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION)
+<br />
+<small><i>(From a print in the British Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In 1830 French-speaking Belgium, stirred up by the current
+revolution in France, revolted against its Dutch association
+in the kingdom of the Netherlands.  The powers, terrified at
+the possibilities of a republic or of annexation to France,
+hurried in to pacify <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P353"></a></span>this situation, and gave the
+Belgians a monarch, Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg Gotha.  There
+were also ineffectual revolts in Italy and Germany in 1830,
+and a much more serious one in Russian Poland.  A republican
+government held out in Warsaw for a year against Nicholas I
+(who succeeded Alexander in 1825), and was then stamped out
+of existence with great violence and cruelty.  The Polish
+language was banned, and the Greek Orthodox church was
+substituted for the Roman Catholic as the state religion ....
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-353"></a>
+<img src="images/img-353.jpg"
+alt="Map: Europe after the Congress of Vienna"
+ width="550" height="502" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In 1821 there was an insurrection of the Greeks against the
+Turks.  For six years they fought a desperate war, while the
+governments of Europe looked on.  Liberal opinion protested
+against this inactivity; volunteers from every European
+country joined the insurgents, and at last Britain, France
+and Russia took joint action.  The Turkish fleet was
+destroyed by the French and English at the battle of Navarino
+(1827), and the Tsar invaded Turkey.  By the treaty of
+Adrianople (1829) Greece was declared free, but <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P354"></a></span>she was not
+permitted to resume her ancient republican traditions.  A
+German king was found for Greece, one Prince Otto of Bavaria,
+and Christian governors were set up in the Danubian provinces
+(which are now Roumania) and Serbia (a part of the Jugo-Slav
+region).  Much blood had still to run however before the Turk
+was altogether expelled from these lands.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P355"></a></span><a name="chapLVII"></a>LVII<br />
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE</h2>
+
+<p>
+Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the opening years of
+the nineteenth century, while these conflicts of the powers and princes were
+going on in Europe, and the patchwork of the treaty of Westphalia (1648) was
+changing kaleidoscopically into the patchwork of the treaty of Vienna (1815),
+and while the sailing ship was spreading European influence throughout the
+world, a steady growth of knowledge and a general clearing up of men&rsquo;s
+ideas about the world in which they lived was in progress in the European and
+Europeanized world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It went on disconnected from political life, and producing
+throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries no
+striking immediate results in political life.  Nor was it
+affecting popular thought very profoundly during this period.
+  These reactions were to come later, and only in their full
+force in the latter half of the nineteenth century.  It was a
+process that went on chiefly in a small world of prosperous
+and independent-spirited people.  Without what the English
+call the &ldquo;private gentleman,&rdquo; the scientific
+process could not have begun in Greece, and could not have
+been renewed in Europe.  The universities played a part but
+not a leading part in the philosophical and scientific
+thought of this period.  Endowed learning is apt to be timid
+and conservative learning, lacking in initiative and
+resistent to innovation, unless it has the spur of contact
+with independent minds.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have already noted the formation of the Royal Society in
+1662 and its work in realizing the dream of Bacon&rsquo;s
+<i>New Atlantis</i>.  Throughout the eighteenth century there
+was much clearing up of general ideas about matter and
+motion, much mathematical advance, a systematic development
+of the use of optical glass in microscope and telescope, a
+renewed energy in classificatory natural <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P356"></a></span>history, a
+great revival of anatomical science.  The science of
+geology&mdash;foreshadowed by Aristotle and anticipated by
+Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)&mdash;began its great task of
+interpreting the Record of the Rocks.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-3561"></a>
+<img src="images/img-3561.jpg"
+alt="EARLY ROLLING STOCK ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY IN
+ THE FIRST DAYS OF THE RAILWAY"
+ width="550" height="134" />
+<p class="caption">
+EARLY ROLLING STOCK ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY IN THE
+ FIRST DAYS OF THE RAILWAY
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The progress of physical science reacted upon metallurgy.
+  Improved metallurgy, affording the possibility of a larger
+and bolder handling of masses of metal and other materials,
+reacted upon practical inventions.  Machinery on a new scale
+and in a new abundance appeared to revolutionize industry.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1804 Trevithick adapted the Watt engine to transport and
+made the first locomotive.  In 1825 the first railway,
+between Stockton and Darlington, was opened, and
+Stephenson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Rocket,&rdquo; with a thirteen-ton
+train, got up to a speed of forty-four miles per hour.  From
+1830 onward railways multiplied.  By the middle of the
+century a network of railways had spread all over Europe.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-3562"></a>
+<img src="images/img-3562.jpg"
+alt="EARLY TRAVELLING ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY, 1833"
+ width="550" height="134" />
+<p class="caption">
+EARLY TRAVELLING ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY, 1833
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Here was a sudden change in what had long been a fixed
+condition of human life, the maximum rate of land transport.
+  After the Russian disaster, Napoleon travelled from near
+Vilna to Paris in 312 hours.  This was a journey of about
+1,400 miles.  He was travelling with every conceivable
+advantage, and he averaged <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P357"></a></span>under 5 miles an hour.  An
+ordinary traveller could not have done this distance in twice
+the time.  These were about the same maximum rates of travel
+as held good between Rome and Gaul in the first century
+ <small>A.D.</small>  Then suddenly came this tremendous
+change.  The railways reduced this journey for any ordinary
+traveller to less than forty-eight hours.  That is to say,
+they reduced the chief European distances to about a tenth of
+what they had been.  They made it possible to carry out
+administrative work in areas ten times as great as any that
+had hitherto been workable under one administration.  The
+full significance of that possibility in Europe still remains
+to be realized.  Europe is still netted in boundaries drawn
+in the horse and road era.  In America the effects were
+immediate.  To the United States of America, sprawling
+westward, it meant the possibility of a continuous access to
+Washington, however far the frontier travelled across the
+continent.  It meant unity, sustained on a scale that would
+otherwise have been impossible.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-357"></a>
+<img src="images/img-357.jpg"
+alt="THE STEAMBOAT: CLERMONT, 1807, U.S.A."
+ width="550" height="369" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE STEAMBOAT: <i>CLERMONT</i>, 1807, U.S.A.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The steamboat was, if anything, a little ahead of the steam
+engine in its earlier phases.  There was a steamboat, the
+<i>Charlotte Dundas</i>, on the Firth of Clyde Canal in 1802,
+and in 1807 an American <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P358"></a></span>named Fulton had a steamer, the
+Clermont, with British-built engines, upon the Hudson River
+above New York.  The first steamship to put to sea was also
+an American, the Phœnix, which went from New York
+(Hoboken) to Philadelphia.  So, too, was the first ship using
+steam (she also had sails) to cross the Atlantic, the
+Savannah (1819).  All these were paddle-wheel boats and
+paddle-wheel boats are not adapted to work in heavy seas.
+  The paddles smash too easily, and the boat is then disabled.
+  The screw steamship followed rather slowly.  Many
+difficulties had to be surmounted before the screw was a
+practicable thing.  Not until the middle of the century did
+the tonnage of steamships upon the sea begin to overhaul that
+of sailing ships.  After that the evolution in sea transport
+was rapid.  For the first time men began to cross the seas
+and oceans with some certainty as to the date of their
+arrival.  The transatlantic crossing, which had been an
+uncertain adventure of several weeks&mdash;which might
+stretch to months&mdash;was accelerated, until in 1910 it was
+brought down, in the case of the fastest boats, to under five
+days, with a practically notifiable hour of arrival.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Concurrently with the development of steam transport upon
+land and sea a new and striking addition to the facilities of
+human intercourse arose out of the investigations of Volta,
+Galvani and Faraday into various electrical phenomena.  The
+electric telegraph came into existence in 1835.  The first
+underseas cable was laid in 1851 between France and England.
+  In a few years the telegraph system had spread over the
+civilized world, and news which had hitherto travelled slowly
+from point to point became practically simultaneous
+throughout the earth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These things, the steam railway and the electric telegraph,
+were to the popular imagination of the middle nineteenth
+century the most striking and revolutionary of inventions,
+but they were only the most conspicuous and clumsy first
+fruits of a far more extensive process.  Technical knowledge
+and skill were developing with an extraordinary rapidity, and
+to an extraordinary extent measured by the progress of any
+previous age.  Far less conspicuous at first in everyday
+life, but finally far more important, was the extension of
+man&rsquo;s power over various structural materials.  Before
+the middle of the eighteenth century iron was reduced from
+its ores by <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P359"></a></span>means of wood charcoal, was
+handled in small pieces, and hammered and wrought into shape.
+  It was material for a craftsman.  Quality and treatment were
+enormously dependent upon the experience and sagacity of the
+individual iron-worker.  The largest masses of iron that
+could be dealt with under those conditions amounted at most
+(in the sixteenth century) to two or three tons.  (There was
+a very definite upward limit, therefore, to the size of
+cannon.)  The blast-furnace rose in the eighteenth century
+and developed with the use of coke.  Not before the
+eighteenth century do we find rolled sheet iron (1728) and
+rolled rods and bars (1783).  Nasmyth&rsquo;s steam hammer
+came as late as 1838.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The ancient world, because of its metallurgical inferiority,
+could not use steam.  The steam engine, even the primitive
+pumping engine, could not develop before sheet iron was
+available.  The early engines seem to the modern eye very
+pitiful and clumsy bits of ironmongery, but they were the
+utmost that the metallurgical science of the time could do.
+As late as 1856 came the Bessemer process, and presently
+(1864) the open-hearth process, in which steel and every sort
+of iron could be melted, purified and cast in a manner and
+upon a scale hitherto unheard of.  To-day in the electric
+furnace one may see tons of incandescent steel swirling about
+like boiling milk in a saucepan.  Nothing in the previous
+practical advances of mankind is comparable in its
+consequences to the complete mastery over enormous masses of
+steel and iron and over their texture and quality which man
+has now achieved.  The railways and early engines of all
+sorts were the mere first triumphs of the new metallurgical
+methods.  Presently came ships of iron and steel, vast
+bridges, and a new way of building with steel upon a gigantic
+scale.  Men realized too late that they had planned their
+railways with far too timid a gauge, that they could have
+organized their travelling with far more steadiness and
+comfort upon a much bigger scale.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Before the nineteenth century there were no ships in the
+world much over 2,000 tons burthen; now there is nothing
+wonderful about a 50,000-ton liner.  There are people who
+sneer at this kind of progress as being a progress in
+&ldquo;mere size,&rdquo; but that sort of sneering merely
+marks the intellectual limitations of those who indulge in
+it.  <span class="pagenum"><a name="P360"></a></span>The
+great ship or the steel-frame building is not, as they
+imagine, a magnified version of the small ship or building of
+the past; it is a thing different in kind, more lightly and
+strongly built, of finer and stronger materials; instead of
+being a thing of precedent and rule-of-thumb, it is a thing
+of subtle and intricate calculation.  In the old house or
+ship, matter was dominant&mdash;the material and its needs
+had to be slavishly obeyed; in the new, matter had been
+captured, changed, coerced.  Think of the coal and iron and
+sand dragged out of the banks and pits, wrenched, wrought,
+molten and cast, to be flung at last, a slender glittering
+pinnacle of steel and glass, six hundred feet above the
+crowded city!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have given these particulars of the advance in man&rsquo;s
+knowledge of the metallurgy of steel and its results by way
+of illustration.  A parallel story could be told of the
+metallurgy of copper and tin, and of a multitude of metals,
+nickel and aluminium to name but two, unknown before the
+nineteenth century dawned.  It is in this great and growing
+mastery over substances, over different sorts of glass, over
+rocks and plasters and the like, over colours and textures,
+that the main triumphs of the mechanical revolution have thus
+far been achieved.  Yet we are still in the stage of the
+first fruits in the matter.  We have the power, but we have
+still to learn how to use our power.  Many of the first
+employments of these gifts of science have been vulgar,
+tawdry, stupid or horrible.  The artist and the adaptor have
+still hardly begun to work with the endless variety of
+substances now at their disposal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Parallel with this extension of mechanical possibilities the
+new science of electricity grew up.  It was only in the
+eighties of the nineteenth century that this body of enquiry
+began to yield results to impress the vulgar mind.  Then
+suddenly came electric light and electric traction, and the
+transmutation of forces, the possibility of sending power,
+that could be changed into mechanical motion or light or heat
+as one chose, along a copper wire, as water is sent along a
+pipe, began to come through to the ideas of ordinary
+people....
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The British and French were at first the leading peoples in
+this great proliferation of knowledge; but presently the
+Germans, who had learnt humility under Napoleon, showed such
+zeal and pertinacity in scientific enquiry as to overhaul
+these leaders.  British <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P361"></a></span>science was largely the creation
+of Englishmen and Scotchmen working outside the ordinary
+centres of erudition.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-3611"></a>
+<img src="images/img-3611.jpg"
+alt="EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL"
+ width="300" height="237" />
+<p class="caption">
+EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL
+<br />
+<small><i>In the Ipswich Museum</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-3612"></a>
+<img src="images/img-3612.jpg"
+alt="MODEL OF ARKWRIGHT&rsquo;S SPINNING JENNY, 1769"
+ width="500" height="471" />
+<p class="caption">
+MODEL OF ARKWRIGHT&rsquo;S SPINNING JENNY, 1769
+<br />
+<small><i>From the specifications in the Patent Office</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The universities of Britain were at this time in a state of
+educational retrogression, largely given over to a pedantic
+conning of the Latin and Greek classics.  French education,
+too, was dominated by the classical tradition of the Jesuit
+schools, and consequently it was not difficult for the
+Germans to organize a body of investigators, small indeed in
+relation to the possibilities of the case, but large in
+proportion to the little band of British and French inventors
+and experimentalists.  And though this work of research and
+experiment was making Britain and France the most rich and
+powerful countries in the world, it was not making scientific
+and inventive men rich and <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P362"></a></span>powerful.  There is a necessary
+unworldliness about a sincere scientific man; he is too
+preoccupied with his research to plan and scheme how to make
+money out of it.  The economic exploitation of his
+discoveries falls very easily and naturally, therefore, into
+the hands of a more acquisitive type; and so we find that the
+crops of rich men which every fresh phase of scientific and
+technical progress has produced in Great Britain, though they
+have not displayed quite the same passionate desire to insult
+and kill the goose that laid the national golden eggs as the
+scholastic and clerical professions, have been quite content
+to let that profitable creature starve.  Inventors and
+discoverers came by nature, they thought, for cleverer people
+to profit by.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this matter the Germans were a little wiser.  The German
+&ldquo;learned&rdquo; did not display the same vehement
+hatred of the new learning.  They permitted its development.
+  The German business man and manufacturer again had not quite
+the same contempt for the man of science as had his British
+competitor.  Knowledge, these Germans believed, might be a
+cultivated crop, responsive to fertilizers.  They did
+concede, therefore, a certain amount of opportunity to the
+scientific mind; their public expenditure on scientific work
+was relatively greater, and this expenditure was abundantly
+rewarded.  By the latter half of the nineteenth century the
+German scientific worker had made German a necessary language
+for every science student who wished to keep abreast with the
+latest work in his department, and in certain branches, and
+particularly in chemistry, Germany acquired a very great
+superiority over her western neighbours.  The scientific
+effort of the sixties and seventies in Germany began to tell
+after the eighties, and the German gained steadily upon
+Britain and France in technical and industrial prosperity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A fresh phase in the history of invention opened when in the
+eighties a new type of engine came into use, an engine in
+which the expansive force of an explosive mixture replaced
+the expansive force of steam.  The light, highly efficient
+engines that were thus made possible were applied to the
+automobile, and developed at last to reach such a pitch of
+lightness and efficiency as to render flight&mdash;<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P363"></a></span>long known to
+be possible&mdash;a practical achievement.  A successful
+flying machine&mdash;but not a machine large enough to take
+up a human body&mdash;was made by Professor Langley of the
+Smithsonian Institute of Washington as early as 1897.  By
+1909 the aeroplane was available for human locomotion.  There
+had seemed to be a pause in the increase of human speed with
+the perfection of railways and automobile road traction, but
+with the flying machine came fresh reductions in the
+effective distance between one point of the earth&rsquo;s
+surface and another.  In the eighteenth century the distance
+from London to Edinburgh was an eight days&rsquo; journey; in
+1918 the British Civil Air Transport Commission reported that
+the journey from London to Melbourne, halfway round the
+earth, would probably in a few years&rsquo; time be
+accomplished in that same period of eight days.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-363"></a>
+<img src="images/img-363.jpg"
+alt="AN EARLY WEAVING MACHINE"
+ width="600" height="281" />
+<p class="caption">
+AN EARLY WEAVING MACHINE
+<br />
+<small><i>From an engraving by W. Hincks in the British Museum</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Too much stress must not be laid upon these striking
+reductions in the time distances of one place from another.
+  They are merely one aspect of a much profounder and more
+momentous enlargement of human possibility.  The science of
+agriculture and agricultural chemistry, for instance, made
+quite parallel advances during the nineteenth century.  Men
+learnt so to fertilize the soil as to produce quadruple and
+quintuple the crops got from the same area in the seventeenth
+century.  There was a still more extraordinary advance in
+medical science; the average duration of life rose, the daily
+efficiency increased, the waste of life through ill-health
+diminished.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P364"></a></span>Now here
+altogether we have such a change in human life as to
+constitute a fresh phase of history.  In a little more than a
+century this mechanical revolution has been brought about.
+  In that time man made a stride in the material conditions of
+his life vaster than he had done during the whole long
+interval between the palæolithic stage and the age of
+cultivation, or between the days of Pepi in Egypt and those
+of George III.  A new gigantic material framework for human
+affairs has come into existence.  Clearly it demands great
+readjustments of our social, economical and political
+methods.  But these readjustments have necessarily waited
+upon the development of the mechanical revolution, and they
+are still only in their opening stage to-day.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P365"></a></span><a name="chapLVIII"></a>LVIII<br />
+THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION</h2>
+
+<p>
+There is a tendency in many histories to confuse together what we have here
+called the mechanical revolution, which was an entirely new thing in human
+experience arising out of the development of organized science, a new step like
+the invention of agriculture or the discovery of metals, with something else,
+quite different in its origins, something for which there was already an
+historical precedent, the social and financial development which is called the
+<i>industrial revolution</i>. The two processes were going on together, they
+were constantly reacting upon each other, but they were in root and essence
+different. There would have been an industrial revolution of sorts if there had
+been no coal, no steam, no machinery; but in that case it would probably have
+followed far more closely upon the lines of the social and financial
+developments of the later years of the Roman Republic. It would have repeated
+the story of dispossessed free cultivators, gang labour, great estates, great
+financial fortunes, and a socially destructive financial process. Even the
+factory method came before power and machinery. Factories were the product not
+of machinery, but of the &ldquo;division of labour.&rdquo; Drilled and sweated
+workers were making such things as millinery cardboard boxes and furniture, and
+colouring maps and book illustrations and so forth, before even water-wheels
+had been used for industrial purposes. There were factories in Rome in the days
+of Augustus. New books, for instance, were dictated to rows of copyists in the
+factories of the book-sellers. The attentive student of Defoe and of the
+political pamphlets of Fielding will realize that the idea of herding poor
+people into establishments to work collectively for their living was already
+current in Britain before the close of the seventeenth century. There are
+intimations of it even as early as More&rsquo;s <i>Utopia</i> (1516). It was a
+social and not a mechanical development.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P366"></a></span>Up to
+past the middle of the eighteenth century the social and
+economic history of western Europe was in fact retreading the
+path along which the Roman state had gone in the last three
+centuries <small>B.C.</small>  But the political
+disunions of Europe, the political convulsions against
+monarchy, the recalcitrance of the common folk and perhaps
+also the greater accessibility of the western European
+intelligence to mechanical ideas and inventions, turned the
+process into quite novel directions.  Ideas of human
+solidarity, thanks to Christianity, were far more widely
+diffused in the newer European world, political power was not
+so concentrated, and the man of energy anxious to get rich
+turned his mind, therefore, very willingly from the ideas of
+the slave and of gang labour to the idea of mechanical power
+and the machine.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The mechanical revolution, the process of mechanical
+invention and discovery, was a new thing in human experience
+and it went on regardless of the social, political, economic
+and industrial consequences it might produce.  The industrial
+revolution, on the other hand, like most other human affairs,
+was and is more and more profoundly changed and deflected by
+the constant variation in human conditions caused by the
+mechanical revolution.  And the essential difference between
+the amassing of riches, the extinction of small farmers and
+small business men, and the phase of big finance in the
+latter centuries of the Roman Republic on the one hand, and
+the very similar concentration of capital in the eighteenth
+and nineteenth centuries on the other, lies in the profound
+difference in the character of labour that the mechanical
+revolution was bringing about.  The power of the old world
+was human power; everything depended ultimately upon the
+driving power of human muscle, the muscle of ignorant and
+subjugated men.  A little animal muscle, supplied by draft
+oxen, horse traction and the like, contributed.  Where a
+weight had to be lifted, men lifted it; where a rock had to
+be quarried, men chipped it out; where a field had to be
+ploughed, men and oxen ploughed it; the Roman equivalent of
+the steamship was the galley with its bank of sweating
+rowers.  A vast proportion of mankind in the early
+civilizations were employed in purely mechanical drudgery.
+  At its onset, power-driven machinery did not seem to promise
+any release from such unintelligent toil.  Great gangs <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P367"></a></span>of men were
+employed in excavating canals, in making railway cuttings and
+embankments, and the like.  The number of miners increased
+enormously.  But the extension of facilities and the output
+of commodities increased much more.  And as the nineteenth
+century went on, the plain logic of the new situation
+asserted itself more clearly.  Human beings were no longer
+wanted as a source of mere indiscriminated power.  What could
+be done mechanically by a human being could be done faster
+and better by a machine.  The human being was needed now only
+where choice and intelligence had to be exercised.  Human
+beings were wanted only as human beings.  The drudge, on whom
+all the previous civilizations had rested, the creature of
+mere obedience, the man whose brains were superfluous, had
+become unnecessary to the welfare of mankind.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-367"></a>
+<img src="images/img-367.jpg"
+alt="INCIDENT IN THE DAYS OF THE SLAVE TRADE"
+ width="600" height="414" />
+<p class="caption">
+INCIDENT IN THE DAYS OF THE SLAVE TRADE
+<br />
+<small><i>From a print after Morland in the British Museum</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+This was as true of such ancient industries as agriculture
+and mining as it was of the newest metallurgical processes.
+  For ploughing, sowing and harvesting, swift machines came
+forward to do the work of scores of men.  The Roman
+civilization was built upon <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P368"></a></span>cheap and degraded human beings;
+modern civilization is being rebuilt upon cheap mechanical
+power.  For a hundred years power has been getting cheaper
+and labour dearer.  If for a generation or so machinery has
+had to wait its turn in the mine, it is simply because for a
+time men were cheaper than machinery.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-368"></a>
+<img src="images/img-368.jpg"
+alt="EARLY FACTORY, IN COLEBROOKDALE"
+ width="600" height="430" />
+<p class="caption">
+EARLY FACTORY, IN COLEBROOKDALE
+<br />
+<small><i>From a print the British Museum</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Now here was a change-over of quite primary importance in
+human affairs.  The chief solicitude of the rich and of the
+ruler in the old civilization had been to keep up a supply of
+drudges.  As the nineteenth century went on, it became more
+and more plain to the intelligent directive people that the
+common man had now to be something better than a drudge.  He
+had to be educated&mdash;if only to secure &ldquo;industrial
+efficiency.&rdquo;  He had to understand what he was about.
+  From the days of the first Christian propaganda, popular
+education had been smouldering in Europe, just as it had
+smouldered in Asia wherever Islam has set its foot, because
+of the necessity of making the believer understand a little
+of the belief by which he is <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P369"></a></span>saved, and of enabling him to read
+a little in the sacred books by which his belief is conveyed.
+  Christian controversies, with their competition for
+adherents, ploughed the ground for the harvest of popular
+education.  In England, for instance, by the thirties and
+forties of the nineteenth century, the disputes of the sects
+and the necessity of catching adherents young had produced a
+series of competing educational organizations for children,
+the church &ldquo;National&rdquo; schools, the dissenting
+&ldquo;British&rdquo; schools, and even Roman Catholic
+elementary schools.  The second half of the nineteenth
+century was a period of rapid advance in popular education
+throughout all the Westernized world.  There was no parallel
+advance in the education of the upper classes&mdash;some
+advance, no doubt, but nothing to correspond&mdash;and so the
+great gulf that had divided that world hitherto into the
+readers and the non-reading mass became little more than a
+slightly perceptible difference in educational level.  At the
+back of this process was the mechanical revolution,
+apparently regardless of social conditions, but really
+insisting inexorably upon the complete abolition of a totally
+illiterate class throughout the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The economic revolution of the Roman Republic had never been
+clearly apprehended by the common people of Rome.  The
+ordinary Roman citizen never saw the changes through which he
+lived, clearly and comprehensively as we see them.  But the
+industrial revolution, as it went on towards the end of the
+nineteenth century, was more and more distinctly <i>seen</i>
+as one whole process by the common people it was affecting,
+because presently they could read and discuss and
+communicate, and because they went about and saw things as no
+commonalty had ever done before.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P370"></a></span><a name="chapLIX"></a>LIX<br />
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS</h2>
+
+<p>
+The institutions and customs and political ideas of the ancient civilizations
+grew up slowly, age by age, no man designing and no man foreseeing. It was only
+in that great century of human adolescence, the sixth century
+<small>B.C.</small>, that men began to think clearly about their relations to
+one another, and first to question and first propose to alter and rearrange the
+established beliefs and laws and methods of human government.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have told of the glorious intellectual dawn of Greece and
+Alexandria, and how presently the collapse of the slave-
+holding civilizations and the clouds of religious intolerance
+and absolutist government darkened the promise of that
+beginning.  The light of fearless thinking did not break
+through the European obscurity again effectually until the
+fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.  We have tried to show
+something of the share of the great winds of Arab curiosity
+and Mongol conquest in this gradual clearing of the mental
+skies of Europe.  And at first it was chiefly material
+knowledge that increased.  The first fruits of the recovered
+manhood of the race were material achievements and material
+power.  The science of human relationship, of individual and
+social psychology, of education and of economics, are not
+only more subtle and intricate in themselves but also bound
+up inextricably with much emotional matter.  The advances
+made in them have been slower and made against greater
+opposition.  Men will listen dispassionately to the most
+diverse suggestions about stars or molecules, but ideas about
+our ways of life touch and reflect upon everyone about us.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And just as in Greece the bold speculations of Plato came
+before Aristotle&rsquo;s hard search for fact, so in Europe
+the first political enquiries of the new phase were put in
+the form of &ldquo;Utopian&rdquo; stories, directly imitated
+from Plato&rsquo;s <i>Republic</i> and his <i>Laws</i>.  Sir
+Thomas <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P371"></a></span>More&rsquo;s <i>Utopia</i> is a
+curious imitation of Plato that bore fruit in a new English
+poor law.  The Neapolitan Campanella&rsquo;s <i>City of the
+Sun</i> was more fantastic and less fruitful.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+By the end of the seventeenth century we find a considerable
+and growing literature of political and social science was
+being produced.  Among the pioneers in this discussion was
+John Locke, the son of an English republican, an Oxford
+scholar who first directed his attention to chemistry and
+medicine.  His treatises on government, toleration and
+education show a mind fully awake to the possibilities of
+social reconstruction.  Parallel with and a little later than
+John Locke in England, Montesquieu (1689-1755) in France
+subjected social, political and religious institutions to a
+searching and fundamental analysis.  He stripped the magical
+prestige from the absolutist monarchy in France.  He shares
+with Locke the credit for clearing away many of the false
+ideas that had hitherto prevented deliberate and conscious
+attempts to reconstruct human society.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The generation that followed him in the middle and later
+decades of the eighteenth century was boldly speculative upon
+the moral and intellectual clearings he had made.  A group of
+brilliant writers, the &ldquo;Encyclopædists,&rdquo;
+mostly rebel spirits from the excellent schools of the
+Jesuits, set themselves to scheme out a new world (1766).
+  Side by side with the Encyclopædists were the Economists
+or Physiocrats, who were making bold and crude enquiries into
+the production and distribution of food and goods.  Morelly,
+the author of the <i>Code de La Nature</i>, denounced the
+institution of private property and proposed a communistic
+organization of society.  He was the precursor of that large
+and various school of collectivist thinkers in the nineteenth
+century who are lumped together as Socialists.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+What is Socialism?  There are a hundred definitions of
+Socialism and a thousand sects of Socialists.  Essentially
+Socialism is no more and no less than a criticism of the idea
+of property in the light of the public good.  We may review
+the history of that idea through the ages very briefly.  That
+and the idea of internationalism are the two cardinal ideas
+upon which most of our political life is turning.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P372"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-372"></a>
+<img src="images/img-372.jpg"
+alt="CARL MARX"
+ width="500" height="709" />
+<p class="caption">
+CARL MARX
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  Linde &#38; Co.</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The idea
+of property arises out of the combative instincts of the
+species.  Long before men were men, the ancestral ape was a
+proprietor.  Primitive property is what a beast will fight
+for.  The dog and his bone, the tigress and her lair, the
+roaring stag and his herd, these are proprietorship blazing.
+  No more nonsensical expression is conceivable in sociology
+than the term &ldquo;primitive communism.&rdquo;  The Old Man
+of the family tribe of early palæolithic times insisted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P373"></a></span>upon his
+proprietorship in his wives and daughters, in his tools, in
+his visible universe.  If any other man wandered into his
+visible universe he fought him, and if he could he slew him.
+  The tribe grew in the course of ages, as Atkinson showed
+convincingly in his <i>Primal Law</i>, by the gradual
+toleration by the Old Man of the existence of the younger
+men, and of their proprietorship in the wives they captured
+from outside the tribe, and in the tools and ornaments they
+made and the game they slew.  Human society grew by a
+compromise between this one&rsquo;s property and that.  It
+was a compromise with instinct which was forced upon men by
+the necessity of driving some other tribe out of its visible
+universe.  If the hills and forests and streams were not
+<i>your</i> land or <i>my</i> land, it was because they had
+to be our land.  Each of us would have preferred to have it
+<i>my</i> land, but that would not work.  In that case the
+other fellows would have destroyed us.  Society, therefore,
+is from its beginning a <i>mitigation of ownership</i>.
+  Ownership in the beast and in the primitive savage was far
+more intense a thing than it is in the civilized world to-
+day.  It is rooted more strongly in our instincts than in our
+reason.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the natural savage and in the untutored man to-day there
+is no limitation to the sphere of ownership.  Whatever you
+can fight for, you can own; women-folk, spared captive,
+captured beast, forest glade, stone-pit or what not.  As the
+community grew, a sort of law came to restrain internecine
+fighting, men developed rough-and-ready methods of settling
+proprietorship.  Men could own what they were the first to
+make or capture or claim.  It seemed natural that a debtor
+who could not pay should become the property of his creditor.
+  Equally natural was it that after claiming a patch of land a
+man should exact payments from anyone who wanted to use it.
+  It was only slowly, as the possibilities of organized life
+dawned on men, that this unlimited property in anything
+whatever began to be recognized as a nuisance.  Men found
+themselves born into a universe all owned and claimed, nay!
+they found themselves born owned and claimed.  The social
+struggles of the earlier civilization are difficult to trace
+now, but the history we have told of the Roman Republic shows
+a community waking up to the idea that debts may become a
+public inconvenience and should then be repudiated, and that
+the unlimited ownership of land is also an inconvenience.  We
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P374"></a></span>find
+that later Babylonia severely limited the rights of property
+in slaves.  Finally, we find in the teaching of that great
+revolutionist, Jesus of Nazareth, such an attack upon
+property as had never been before.  Easier it was, he said,
+for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for the
+owner of great possessions to enter the kingdom of heaven.  A
+steady, continuous criticism of the permissible scope of
+property seems to have been going on in the world for the
+last twenty-five or thirty centuries.  Nineteen hundred years
+after Jesus of Nazareth we find all the world that has come
+under the Christian teaching persuaded that there could be no
+property in human beings.  And also the idea that a man may
+&ldquo;do what he likes with his own&rdquo; was very much
+shaken in relation to other sorts of property.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But this world of the closing eighteenth century was still
+only in the interrogative stage in this matter.  It had got
+nothing clear enough, much less settled enough, to act upon.
+  One of its primary impulses was to protect property against
+the greed and waste of kings and the exploitation of noble
+adventurers.  It was largely to protect private property from
+taxation that the French Revolution began.  But the
+equalitarian formulæ of the Revolution carried it into a
+criticism of the very property it had risen to protect.  How
+can men be free and equal when numbers of them have no ground
+to stand upon and nothing to eat, and the owners will neither
+feed nor lodge them unless they toil?  Excessively&mdash;the
+poor complained.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To which riddle the reply of one important political group
+was to set about &ldquo;dividing up.&rdquo;  They wanted to
+intensify and universalize property.  Aiming at the same end
+by another route, there were the primitive
+socialists&mdash;or, to be more exact, communists&mdash;who
+wanted to &ldquo;abolish&rdquo; private property altogether.
+  The state (a democratic state was of course understood) was
+to own all property.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is paradoxical that different men seeking the same ends of
+liberty and happiness should propose on the one hand to make
+property as absolute as possible, and on the other to put an
+end to it altogether.  But so it was.  And the clue to this
+paradox is to be found in the fact that ownership is not one
+thing but a multitude of different things.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P375"></a></span>It was
+only as the nineteenth century developed that men began to
+realize that property was not one simple thing, but a great
+complex of ownerships of different values and consequences,
+that many things (such as one&rsquo;s body, the implements of
+an artist, clothing, toothbrushes) are very profoundly and
+incurably one&rsquo;s personal property, and that there is a
+very great range of things, railways, machinery of various
+sorts, homes, cultivated gardens, pleasure boats, for
+example, which need each to be considered very particularly
+to determine how far and under what limitations it may come
+under private ownership, and how far it falls into the public
+domain and may be administered and let out by the state in
+the collective interest.  On the practical side these
+questions pass into politics, and the problem of making and
+sustaining efficient state administration.  They open up
+issues in social psychology, and interact with the enquiries
+of educational science.  The criticism of property is still a
+vast and passionate ferment rather than a science.  On the
+one hand are the Individualists, who would protect and
+enlarge our present freedoms with what we possess, and on the
+other the Socialists who would in many directions pool our
+ownerships and restrain our proprietory acts.  In practice
+one will find every gradation between the extreme
+individualist, who will scarcely tolerate a tax of any sort
+to support a government, and the communist who would deny any
+possessions at all.  The ordinary socialist of to-day is what
+is called a collectivist; he would allow a considerable
+amount of private property but put such affairs as education,
+transport, mines, land-owning, most mass productions of
+staple articles, and the like, into the hands of a highly
+organized state.  Nowadays there does seem to be a gradual
+convergence of reasonable men towards a moderate socialism
+scientifically studied and planned.  It is realized more and
+more clearly that the untutored man does not co-operate
+easily and successfully in large undertakings, and that every
+step towards a more complex state and every function that the
+state takes over from private enterprise, necessitates a
+corresponding educational advance and the organization of a
+proper criticism and control.  Both the press and the
+political methods of the contemporary state are far too crude
+for any large extension of collective activities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But for a time the stresses between employer and employed and
+<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P376"></a></span>particularly between selfish
+employers and reluctant workers, led to a world-wide
+dissemination of the very harsh and elementary form of
+communism which is associated with the name of Marx.  Marx
+based his theories on a belief that men&rsquo;s minds are
+limited by their economic necessities, and that there is a
+necessary conflict of interests in our present civilization
+between the prosperous and employing classes of people and
+the employed mass.  With the advance in education
+necessitated by the mechanical revolution, this great
+employed majority will become more and more class-conscious
+and more and more solid in antagonism to the (class-
+conscious) ruling minority.  In some way the class-conscious
+workers would seize power, he prophesied, and inaugurate a
+new social state.  The antagonism, the insurrection, the
+possible revolution are understandable enough, but it does
+not follow that a new social state or anything but a socially
+destructive process will ensue.  Put to the test in Russia,
+Marxism, as we shall note later, has proved singularly
+uncreative.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-376"></a>
+<img src="images/img-376.jpg"
+alt="SCIENCE IN THE COAL MINE"
+ width="600" height="405" />
+<p class="caption">
+SCIENCE IN THE COAL MINE
+<br />
+<small>Portable Electric Loading Conveyor
+<br /><i>Photo:  Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, Columbus, Ohio</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P377"></a></span>Marx
+sought to replace national antagonism by class antagonisms;
+Marxism has produced in succession a First, a Second and a
+Third Workers&rsquo; International.  But from the starting
+point of modern individualistic thought it is also possible
+to reach international ideas.  From the days of that great
+English economist, Adam Smith, onward there has been an
+increasing realization that for world-wide prosperity free
+and unencumbered trade about the earth is needed.  The
+individualist with his hostility to the state is hostile also
+to tariffs and boundaries and all the restraints upon free
+act and movement that national boundaries seem to justify.
+  It is interesting to see two lines of thought, so diverse in
+spirit, so different in substance as this class-war socialism
+of the Marxists and the individualistic free-trading
+philosophy of the British business men of the Victorian age
+heading at last, in spite of these primary differences,
+towards the same intimations of a new world-wide treatment of
+human affairs outside the boundaries and limitations of any
+existing state.  The logic of reality triumphs over the logic
+of theory.  We begin to perceive that from widely divergent
+starting points individualist theory and socialist theory are
+part of a common search, a search for more spacious social
+and political ideas and interpretations, upon which men may
+contrive to work together, a search that began again in
+Europe and has intensified as men&rsquo;s confidence in the
+ideas of the Holy Roman Empire and in Christendom decayed,
+and as the age of discovery broadened their horizons from the
+world of the Mediterranean to the whole wide world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To bring this description of the elaboration and development
+of social, economic and political ideas right down to the
+discussions of the present day, would be to introduce issues
+altogether too controversial for the scope and intentions of
+this book.  But regarding these things, as we do here, from
+the vast perspectives of the student of world history, we are
+bound to recognize that this reconstruction of these
+directive ideas in the human mind is still an unfinished
+task&mdash;we cannot even estimate yet how unfinished the
+task may be.  Certain common beliefs do seem to be emerging,
+and their influence is very perceptible upon the political
+events and public acts of to-day; but at present they are not
+clear enough nor convincing enough to compel men definitely
+and systematically towards their realization.  <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P378"></a></span>Men&rsquo;s
+acts waver between tradition and the new, and on the whole
+they rather gravitate towards the traditional.  Yet, compared
+with the thought of even a brief lifetime ago, there does
+seem to be an outline shaping itself of a new order in human
+affairs.  It is a sketchy outline, vanishing into vagueness
+at this point and that, <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P379"></a></span>and fluctuating in detail and
+formulæ, yet it grows steadfastly clearer, and its main
+lines change less and less.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-378"></a>
+<img src="images/img-378.jpg"
+alt="CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL OF THE FORTH BRIDGE"
+ width="600" height="745" />
+<p class="caption">
+CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL OF THE FORTH BRIDGE
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  Baker &#38; Hurtzig</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It is becoming plainer and plainer each year that in many
+respects and in an increasing range of affairs, mankind is
+becoming one community, and that it is more and more
+necessary that in such matters there should be a common
+world-wide control.  For example, it is steadily truer that
+the whole planet is now one economic community, that the
+proper exploitation of its natural resources demands one
+comprehensive direction, and that the greater power and range
+that discovery has given human effort makes the present
+fragmentary and contentious administration of such affairs
+more and more wasteful and dangerous.  Financial and monetary
+expedients also become world-wide interests to be dealt with
+successfully only on world-wide lines.  Infectious diseases
+and the increase and migrations of population are also now
+plainly seen to be world-wide concerns.  The greater power
+and range of human activities has also made war
+disproportionately destructive and disorganizing, and, even
+as a clumsy way of settling issues between government and
+government and people and people, ineffective.  All these
+things clamour for controls and authorities of a greater
+range and greater comprehensiveness than any government that
+has hitherto existed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it does not follow that the solution of these problems
+lies in some super-government of all the world arising by
+conquest or by the coalescence of existing governments.  By
+analogy with existing institutions men have thought of the
+Parliament of Mankind, of a World Congress, of a President or
+Emperor of the Earth.  Our first natural reaction is towards
+some such conclusion, but the discussion and experiences of
+half a century of suggestions and attempts has on the whole
+discouraged belief in that first obvious idea.  Along that
+line to world unity the resistances are too great.  The drift
+of thought seems now to be in the direction of a number of
+special committees or organizations, with world-wide power
+delegated to them by existing governments in this group of
+matters or that, bodies concerned with the waste or
+development of natural wealth, with the equalization of
+labour conditions, with world peace, with currency,
+population and health, and so forth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P380"></a></span>The
+world may discover that all its common interests are being
+managed as one concern, while it still fails to realize that
+a world government exists.  But before even so much human
+unity is attained, before such international arrangements can
+be put above patriotic suspicions and jealousies, it is
+necessary that the common mind of the race should be
+possessed of that idea of human unity, and that the idea of
+mankind as one family should be a matter of universal
+instruction and understanding.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For a score of centuries or more the spirit of the great
+universal religions has been struggling to maintain and
+extend that idea of a universal human brotherhood, but to
+this day the spites, angers and distrusts of tribal, national
+and racial friction obstruct, and successfully obstruct, the
+broader views and more generous impulses which would make
+every man the servant of all mankind.  The idea of human
+brotherhood struggles now to possess the human soul, just as
+the idea of Christendom struggled to possess the soul of
+Europe in the confusion and disorder of the sixth and seventh
+centuries of the Christian era.  The dissemination and
+triumph of such ideas must be the work of a multitude of
+devoted and undistinguished missionaries, and no contemporary
+writer can presume to guess how far such work has gone or
+what harvest it may be preparing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Social and economic questions seem to be inseparably mingled
+with international ones.  The solution in each case lies in
+an appeal to that same spirit of service which can enter and
+inspire the human heart.  The distrust, intractability and
+egotism of nations reflects and is reflected by the distrust,
+intractability and egotism of the individual owner and worker
+in the face of the common good.  Exaggerations of
+possessiveness in the individual are parallel and of a piece
+with the clutching greed of nations and emperors.  They are
+products of the same instinctive tendencies, and the same
+ignorances and traditions.  Internationalism is the socialism
+of nations.  No one who has wrestled with these problems can
+feel that there yet exists a sufficient depth and strength of
+psychological science and a sufficiently planned-out
+educational method and organization for any real and final
+solution of these riddles of human intercourse and
+cooperation.  We are as incapable of planning a really
+effective peace organization of the world to-day as were men
+in 1820 to plan an <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P381"></a></span>electric railway system, but for
+all we know the thing is equally practicable and may be as
+nearly at hand.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+No man can go beyond his own knowledge, no thought can reach
+beyond contemporary thought, and it is impossible for us to
+guess or foretell how many generations of humanity may have
+to live in war and waste and insecurity and misery before the
+dawn of the great peace to which all history seems to be
+pointing, peace in the heart and peace in the world, ends our
+night of wasteful and aimless living.  Our proposed solutions
+are still vague and crude.  Passion and suspicion surround
+them.  A great task of intellectual reconstruction is going
+on, it is still incomplete, and our conceptions grow clearer
+and more exact&mdash;slowly, rapidly, it is hard to tell
+which.  But as they grow clearer they will gather power over
+the minds and imaginations of men.  Their present lack of
+grip is due to their lack of assurance and exact rightness.
+  They are misunderstood because they are variously and
+confusingly presented.  But with precision and certainty the
+new vision of the world will gain compelling power.  It may
+presently gain power very rapidly.  And a great work of
+educational reconstruction will follow logically and
+necessarily upon that clearer understanding.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P382"></a></span><a name="chapLX"></a>LX<br />
+THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES</h2>
+
+<p>
+The region of the world that displayed the most immediate and striking results
+from the new inventions in transport was North America. Politically the United
+States embodied, and its constitution crystallized, the liberal ideas of the
+middle eighteenth century. It dispensed with state-church or crown, it would
+have no titles, it protected property very jealously as a method of freedom,
+and&mdash;the exact practice varied at first in the different states&mdash;it
+gave nearly every adult male citizen a vote. Its method of voting was
+barbarically crude, and as a consequence its political life fell very soon
+under the control of highly organized party machines, but that did not prevent
+the newly emancipated population developing an energy, enterprise and public
+spirit far beyond that of any other contemporary population.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Then came that acceleration of locomotion to which we have
+already called attention.  It is a curious thing that
+America, which owes most to this acceleration in locomotion,
+has felt it least.  The United States have taken the railway,
+the river steamboat, the telegraph and so forth as though
+they were a natural part of their growth.  They were not.
+  These things happened to come along just in time to save
+American unity.  The United States of to-day were made first
+by the river steamboat, and then by the railway.  Without
+these things, the present United States, this vast
+continental nation, would have been altogether impossible.
+  The westward flow of population would have been far more
+sluggish.  It might never have crossed the great central
+plains.  It took nearly two hundred years for effective
+settlement to reach from the coast to Missouri, much less
+than halfway across the continent.  The first state
+established beyond the river was the steamboat state of
+Missouri in 1821.  But the rest of the distance to the
+Pacific was done in a few decades.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P383"></a></span>If we
+had the resources of the cinema it would be interesting to
+show a map of North America year by year from 1600 onward,
+with little dots to represent hundreds of people, each dot a
+hundred, and stars to represent cities of a hundred thousand
+people.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For two hundred years the reader would see that stippling
+creeping slowly along the coastal districts and navigable
+waters, spreading still more gradually into Indiana, Kentucky
+and so forth.  Then somewhere about 1810 would come a change.
+  Things would get more lively along the river courses.  The
+dots would be multiplying and spreading.  That would be the
+steamboat.  The pioneer dots would be spreading soon over
+Kansas and Nebraska from a number of jumping-off places along
+the great rivers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Then from about 1850 onward would come the black lines of the
+railways, and after that the little black dots would not
+simply creep but run.  They would appear now so rapidly, it
+would be almost as though they were being put on by some sort
+of spraying machine.  And suddenly here and then there would
+appear the first stars to indicate the first great cities of
+a hundred thousand people.  First one or two and then a
+multitude of cities&mdash;each like a knot in the growing net
+of the railways.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The growth of the United States is a process that has no
+precedent in the world&rsquo;s history; it is a new kind of
+occurrence.  Such a community could not have come into
+existence before, and if it had, without railways it would
+certainly have dropped to pieces long before now.  Without
+railways or telegraph it would be far easier to administer
+California from Pekin than from Washington.  But this great
+population of the United States of America has not only grown
+outrageously; it has kept uniform.  Nay, it has become more
+uniform.  The man of San Francisco is more like the man of
+New York to-day than the man of Virginia was like the man of
+New England a century ago.  And the process of assimilation
+goes on unimpeded.  The United States is being woven by
+railway, by telegraph, more and more into one vast unity,
+speaking, thinking and acting harmoniously with itself.  Soon
+aviation will be helping in the work.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This great community of the United States is an altogether
+new thing in history.  There have been great empires before
+with populations exceeding 100 millions, but these were
+associations of divergent <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P384"></a></span>peoples; there has never been one
+single people on this scale before.  We want a new term for
+this new thing.  We call the United States a country just as
+we call France or Holland a country.  But the two things are
+as different as an automobile and a one-horse shay.  They are
+the creations of different periods and different conditions;
+they are going to work at a different pace and in an entirely
+different way.  The United States in scale and possibility is
+halfway between a European state and a United States of all
+the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But on the way to this present greatness and security the
+American people passed through one phase of dire conflict.
+  The river steamboats, the railways, the telegraph, and their
+associate facilities, did not come soon enough to avert a
+deepening conflict of interests and ideas between the
+southern and northern states of the Union.  The former were
+slave-holding states; the latter, states in which all men
+were free.  The railways and steamboats at first did but
+bring into sharper conflict an already established difference
+between the two sections of the United States.  The
+increasing unification due to the new means of transport made
+the question whether the southern spirit or the northern
+should prevail an ever more urgent one.  There was little
+possibility of compromise.  The northern spirit was free and
+individualistic; the southern made for great estates and a
+conscious gentility ruling over a dusky subject multitude.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Every new territory that was organized into a state as the
+tide of population swept westward, every new incorporation
+into the fast growing American system, became a field of
+conflict between the two ideas, whether it should become a
+state of free citizens, or whether the estate and slavery
+system should prevail.  From 1833 an American anti-slavery
+society was not merely resisting the extension of the
+institution but agitating the whole country for its complete
+abolition.  The issue flamed up into open conflict over the
+admission of Texas to the Union.  Texas had originally been a
+part of the republic of Mexico, but it was largely colonized
+by Americans from the slave-holding states, and it seceded
+from Mexico, established its independence in 1835, and was
+annexed to the United States in 1844.  Under the Mexican law
+slavery had been forbidden in Texas, but now the South
+claimed Texas for slavery and got it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P385"></a></span>Meanwhile the development of ocean
+navigation was bringing a growing swarm of immigrants from
+Europe to swell the spreading population of the northern
+states, and the raising of Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota and
+Oregon, all northern farm lands, to state level, gave the
+anti-slavery North the possibility of predominance both in
+the Senate and the House of Representatives.  The cotton-
+growing South, irritated by the growing threat of the
+Abolitionist movement, and fearing this predominance in
+Congress, began to talk of secession from the Union.
+  Southerners began to dream of annexations to the south of
+them in Mexico and the West Indies, and of great slave state,
+detached from the North and reaching to Panama.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The return of Abraham Lincoln as an anti-extension President
+in 1860 decided the South to split the Union.  South Carolina
+passed an &ldquo;ordinance of secession&rdquo; and prepared
+for war.  Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana
+and Texas joined her, and a convention met at Montgomery in
+Alabama, elected Jefferson Davis president of the
+&ldquo;Confederated States&rdquo; of America, and adopted a
+constitution specifically upholding &ldquo;the institution of
+negro slavery.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-385"></a>
+<img src="images/img-385.jpg"
+alt="ONE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN RIVER STEAMERS"
+ width="600" height="380" />
+<p class="caption">
+ONE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN RIVER STEAMERS
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P386"></a></span>Abraham
+Lincoln was, it chanced, a man entirely typical of the new
+people that had grown up after the War of Independence.  His
+early years had been spent as a drifting particle in the
+general westward flow of the population.  He was born in
+Kentucky (1809), was taken to Indiana as a boy and later on
+to Illinois.  Life was rough in the backwoods of Indiana in
+those days; the house was a mere log cabin in the wilderness,
+and his schooling was poor and casual.  But his mother taught
+him to read early, and he became a voracious reader.  At
+seventeen he was a big athletic youth, a great wrestler and
+runner.  He worked for a time as clerk in a store, went into
+business as a storekeeper with a drunken partner, and
+contracted debts that he did not fully pay off for fifteen
+years.  In 1834, when he was still only five and twenty, he
+was elected member of the House of Representatives for the
+State of Illinois.  In Illinois particularly the question of
+slavery flamed because the great leader of the party for the
+extension of slavery in the national Congress was Senator
+Douglas of Illinois.  Douglas was a man of great ability and
+prestige, and for some years Lincoln fought against him by
+speech and pamphlet, rising steadily to the position of his
+most formidable and finally victorious antagonist.  Their
+culminating struggle was the presidential campaign of 1860,
+and on the fourth of March, 1861, Lincoln was inaugurated
+President, with the southern states already in active
+secession from the rule of the federal government at
+Washington, and committing acts of war.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This civil war in America was fought by improvised armies
+that grew steadily from a few score thousands to hundreds of
+thousands&mdash;until at last the Federal forces exceeded a
+million men; it was fought over a vast area between New
+Mexico and the eastern sea, Washington and Richmond were the
+chief objectives.  It is beyond our scope here to tell of the
+mounting energy of that epic struggle that rolled to and fro
+across the hills and woods of Tennessee and Virginia and down
+the Mississippi.  There was a terrible waste and killing of
+men.  Thrust was followed by counter thrust; hope gave way to
+despondency, and returned and was again disappointed.
+  Sometimes Washington seemed within the Confederate grasp;
+again the Federal armies were driving towards Richmond.  The
+Confederates, outnumbered and far poorer in resources, fought
+under <span class="pagenum"><a name="P387"></a></span>a
+general of supreme ability, General Lee.  The generalship of
+the Union was far inferior.  Generals were dismissed, new
+generals appointed; until at last, under Sherman and Grant,
+came victory over the ragged and depleted South.  In October,
+1864, a Federal army under Sherman broke through the
+Confederate left and marched down from Tennessee through
+Georgia to the coast, right across the Confederate country,
+and then turned up through the <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P388"></a></span>Carolinas, coming in upon the rear
+of the Confederate armies.  Meanwhile Grant held Lee before
+Richmond until Sherman closed on him.  On April 9th, 1865,
+Lee and his army surrendered at Appomattox Court House, and
+within a month all the remaining secessionist armies had laid
+down their arms and the Confederacy was at an end.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-387"></a>
+<img src="images/img-387.jpg"
+alt="ABRAHAM LINCOLN"
+ width="500" height="722" />
+<p class="caption">
+ABRAHAM LINCOLN
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+This four years&rsquo; struggle had meant an enormous
+physical and moral strain for the people of the United
+States.  The principle of state autonomy was very dear to
+many minds, and the North seemed in effect to be forcing
+abolition upon the South.  In the border states brothers and
+cousins, even fathers and sons, would take opposite sides and
+find themselves in antagonistic armies.  The North felt its
+cause a righteous one, but for great numbers of people it was
+not a full-bodied and unchallenged righteousness.  But for
+Lincoln there was no doubt.  He was a clear-minded man in the
+midst of much confusion.  He stood for union; he stood for
+the wide peace of America.  He was opposed to slavery, but
+slavery he held to be a secondary issue; his primary purpose
+was that the United States should not be torn into two
+contrasted and jarring fragments.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When in the opening stages of the war Congress and the
+Federal generals embarked upon a precipitate emancipation,
+Lincoln opposed and mitigated their enthusiasm.  He was for
+emancipation by stages and with compensation.  It was only in
+January, 1865, that the situation had ripened to a point when
+Congress could propose to abolish slavery for ever by a
+constitutional amendment, and the war was already over before
+this amendment was ratified by the states.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the war dragged on through 1862 and 1863, the first
+passions and enthusiasms waned, and America learnt all the
+phases of war weariness and war disgust.  The President found
+himself with defeatists, traitors, dismissed generals,
+tortuous party politicians, and a doubting and fatigued
+people behind him and uninspired generals and depressed
+troops before him; his chief consolation must have been that
+Jefferson Davis at Richmond could be in little better case.
+  The English government misbehaved, and permitted the
+Confederate agents in England to launch and man three swift
+privateer ships&mdash;the <i>Alabama</i> is the best
+remembered of them&mdash;which <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P389"></a></span>chased United States shipping from
+the seas.  The French army in Mexico was trampling the Monroe
+Doctrine in the dirt.  Came subtle proposals from Richmond to
+drop the war, leave the issues of the war for subsequent
+discussion, and turn, Federal and Confederate in alliance,
+upon the French in Mexico.  But Lincoln would not listen to
+such proposals unless the supremacy of the Union was
+maintained.  The Americans might do such things as one people
+but not as two.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He held the United States together through long weary months
+of reverses and ineffective effort, through black phases of
+division and failing courage; and there is no record that he
+ever faltered from his purpose.  There were times when there
+was nothing to be done, when he sat in the White House silent
+and motionless, a grim monument of resolve; times when he
+relaxed his mind by jesting and broad anecdotes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He saw the Union triumphant.  He entered Richmond the day
+after its surrender, and heard of Lee&rsquo;s capitulation.
+  He returned to Washington, and on April 11th made his last
+public address.  His theme was reconciliation and the
+reconstruction of loyal government in the defeated states.
+  On the evening of April 14th he went to Ford&rsquo;s theatre
+in Washington, and as he sat looking at the stage, he was
+shot in the back of the head and killed by an actor named
+Booth who had some sort of grievance against him, and who had
+crept into the box unobserved.  But Lincoln&rsquo;s work was
+done; the Union was saved.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At the beginning of the war there was no railway to the
+Pacific coast; after it the railways spread like a swiftly
+growing plant until now they have clutched and held and woven
+all the vast territory of the United States into one
+indissoluble mental and material unity&mdash;the greatest
+real community&mdash;until the common folk of China have
+learnt to read&mdash;in the world.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P390"></a></span><a name="chapLXI"></a>LXI<br />
+THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE</h2>
+
+<p>
+WE have told how after the convulsion of the French
+Revolution and the Napoleonic adventure, Europe settled down
+again for a time to an insecure peace and a sort of
+modernized revival of the political conditions of fifty years
+before.  Until the middle of the century the new facilities
+in the handling of steel and the railway and steamship
+produced no marked political consequences.  But the social
+tension due to the development of urban industrialism grew.
+  France remained a conspicuously uneasy country.  The
+revolution of 1830 was followed by another in 1848.  Then
+Napoleon III, a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, became first
+President, and then (in 1852) Emperor.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He set about rebuilding Paris, and changed it from a
+picturesque seventeenth century insanitary city into the
+spacious Latinized city of marble it is to-day.  He set about
+rebuilding France, and made it into a brilliant-looking
+modernized imperialism.  He displayed a disposition to revive
+that competitiveness of the Great Powers which had kept
+Europe busy with futile wars during the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries.  The Tsar Nicholas I of Russia (1825-
+1856) was also becoming aggressive and pressing southward
+upon the Turkish Empire with his eyes on Constantinople.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After the turn of the century Europe broke out into a fresh
+cycle of wars.  They were chiefly &ldquo;balance-of-
+power&rdquo; and ascendancy wars.  England, France and
+Sardinia assailed Russia in the Crimean war in defence of
+Turkey; Prussia (with Italy as an ally) and Austria fought
+for the leadership of Germany, France liberated North Italy
+from Austria at the price of Savoy, and Italy gradually
+unified itself into one kingdom.  Then Napoleon III was so
+ill advised as to attempt adventures in Mexico, during the
+American Civil War; he set up an Emperor Maximilian there and
+abandoned him hastily to <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P391"></a></span>his fate&mdash;he was shot by the
+Mexicans&mdash;when the victorious Federal Government showed
+its teeth.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-391"></a>
+<img src="images/img-391.jpg"
+alt="Map of Europe, 1848-1871"
+ width="600" height="575" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In 1870 came a long-pending struggle for predominance in
+Europe between France and Prussia.  Prussia had long foreseen
+and prepared for this struggle, and France was rotten with
+financial corruption.  Her defeat was swift and dramatic.
+  The Germans invaded France in August, one great French army
+under the Emperor capitulated at Sedan in September, another
+surrendered in October at Metz, and in January 1871, Paris,
+after a siege and bombardment, fell into German hands.  Peace
+was signed at Frankfort surrendering the provinces of Alsace
+and Lorraine to the Germans.  <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P392"></a></span>Germany, excluding Austria, was
+unified as an empire, and the King of Prussia was added to
+the galaxy of European Cæsars, as the German Emperor.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For the next forty-three years Germany was the leading power
+upon the European continent.  There was a Russo-Turkish war
+in 1877-8, but thereafter, except for certain readjustments
+in the Balkans, European frontiers remained uneasily stable
+for thirty years.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P393"></a></span><a name="chapLXII"></a>LXII<br />
+THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY</h2>
+
+<p>
+The end of the eighteenth century was a period of disrupting empires and
+disillusioned expansionists. The long and tedious journey between Britain and
+Spain and their colonies in America prevented any really free coming and going
+between the home land and the daughter lands, and so the colonies separated
+into new and distinct communities, with distinctive ideas and interests and
+even modes of speech. As they grew they strained more and more at the feeble
+and uncertain link of shipping that had joined them. Weak trading-posts in the
+wilderness, like those of France in Canada, or trading establishments in great
+alien communities, like those of Britain in India, might well cling for bare
+existence to the nation which gave them support and a reason for their
+existence. That much and no more seemed to many thinkers in the early part of
+the nineteenth century to be the limit set to overseas rule. In 1820 the
+sketchy great European &ldquo;empires&rdquo; outside of Europe that had figured
+so bravely in the maps of the middle eighteenth century, had shrunken to very
+small dimensions. Only the Russian sprawled as large as ever across Asia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The British Empire in 1815 consisted of the thinly populated
+coastal river and lake regions of Canada, and a great
+hinterland of wilderness in which the only settlements as yet
+were the fur-trading stations of the Hudson Bay Company,
+about a third of the Indian peninsula, under the rule of the
+East India Company, the coast districts of the Cape of Good
+Hope inhabited by blacks and rebellious-spirited Dutch
+settlers; a few trading stations on the coast of West Africa,
+the rock of Gibraltar, the island of Malta, Jamaica, a few
+minor slave-labour possessions in the West Indies, British
+Guiana in South America, and, on the other side of the world,
+two dumps for convicts at Botany Bay in Australia and in
+Tasmania.  Spain retained Cuba and a few settlements in the
+Philippine Islands.  <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P394"></a></span>Portugal had in Africa some
+vestiges of her ancient claims.  Holland had various islands
+and possessions in the East Indies and Dutch Guiana, and
+Denmark an island or so in the West Indies.  France had one
+or two West Indian islands and French Guiana.  This seemed to
+be as much as the European powers needed, or were likely to
+acquire of the rest of the world.  Only the East India
+Company showed any spirit of expansion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+While Europe was busy with the Napoleonic wars the East India
+Company, under a succession of Governors-General, was playing
+much the same role in India that had been played before by
+Turkoman and such-like invaders from the north.  And after
+the peace of Vienna it went on, levying its revenues, making
+wars, sending ambassadors to Asiatic powers, a quasi-
+independent state, however, with a marked disposition to send
+wealth westward.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We cannot tell here in any detail how the British Company
+made its way to supremacy sometimes as the ally of this
+power, sometimes as that, and finally as the conqueror of
+all.  Its power spread to Assam, Sind, Oudh.  The map of
+India began to take on the outlines familiar to the English
+schoolboy of to-day, a patchwork of native states embraced
+and held together by the great provinces under direct British
+rule. . . .
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1859, following upon a serious mutiny of the native troops
+in India, this empire of the East India Company was annexed
+to the British Crown.  By an Act entitled <i>An Act for the
+Better Government of India</i>, the Governor-General became a
+Viceroy representing the Sovereign, and the place of the
+Company was taken by a Secretary of State for India
+responsible to the British Parliament.  In 1877, Lord
+Beaconsfield, to complete the work, caused Queen Victoria to
+be proclaimed Empress of India.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Upon these extraordinary lines India and Britain are linked
+at the present time.  India is still the empire of the Great
+Mogul, but the Great Mogul has been replaced by the
+&ldquo;crowned republic&rdquo; of Great Britain.  India is an
+autocracy without an autocrat.  Its rule combines the
+disadvantage of absolute monarchy with the impersonality and
+irresponsibility of democratic officialdom.  The Indian with
+a complaint to make has no visible monarch to go to; his
+Emperor is a golden symbol; he must circulate pamphlets in
+England <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P395"></a></span>or inspire a question in the
+British House of Commons.  The more occupied Parliament is
+with British affairs, the less attention India will receive,
+and the more she will be at the mercy of her small group of
+higher officials.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-395"></a>
+<img src="images/img-395.jpg"
+alt="RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE GORGE, VICTORIA FALLS, OF THE ZAMBESI,
+ SOUTHERN RHODESIA"
+ width="320" height="717" />
+<p class="caption">
+RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE GORGE, VICTORIA FALLS, OF THE ZAMBESI,
+ SOUTHERN RHODESIA
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  British South African Co.</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Apart from India, there was no great expansion of any
+European Empire until the railways and the steamships were in
+effective action.  A considerable school of political
+thinkers in Britain was disposed to regard overseas
+possessions as a source of weakness to the kingdom.  The
+Australian settlements developed slowly until in 1842 the
+discovery of valuable copper mines, and in 1851 of gold, gave
+them a new importance.  Improvements in transport were also
+making Australian wool an increasingly marketable commodity
+in Europe.  <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P396"></a></span>Canada, too, was not remarkably
+progressive until 1849; it was troubled by dissensions
+between its French and British inhabitants, there were
+several serious revolts, and it was only in 1867 that a new
+constitution creating a Federal Dominion of Canada relieved
+its internal strains.  It was the railway that altered the
+Canadian outlook.  It enabled Canada, just as it enabled the
+United States, to expand westward, to market its corn and
+other produce in Europe, and in spite of its swift and
+extensive growth, to remain in language and sympathy and
+interests one community.  The railway, the steamship and the
+telegraph cable were indeed changing all the conditions of
+colonial development.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Before 1840, English settlements had already begun in New
+Zealand, and a New Zealand Land Company had been formed to
+exploit the possibilities of the island.  In 1840 New Zealand
+also was added to the colonial possessions of the British
+Crown.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Canada, as we have noted, was the first of the British
+possessions to respond richly to the new economic
+possibilities that the new methods of transport were opening.
+  Presently the republics of South America, and particularly
+the Argentine Republic, began to feel in their cattle trade
+and coffee growing the increased nearness of the European
+market.  Hitherto the chief commodities that had attracted
+the European powers into unsettled and barbaric regions had
+been gold or other metals, spices, ivory, or slaves.  But in
+the latter quarter of the nineteenth century the increase of
+the European populations was obliging their governments to
+look abroad for staple foods; and the growth of scientific
+industrialism was creating a demand for new raw materials,
+fats and greases of every kind, rubber, and other hitherto
+disregarded substances.  It was plain that Great Britain and
+Holland and Portugal were reaping a great and growing
+commercial advantage from their very considerable control of
+tropical and sub-tropical products.  After 1871 Germany, and
+presently France and later Italy, began to look for unannexed
+raw-material areas, or for Oriental countries capable of
+profitable modernization.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So began a fresh scramble all over the world, except in the
+American region where the Monroe Doctrine now barred such
+adventures, for politically unprotected lands.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P397"></a></span>Close to
+Europe was the continent of Africa, full of vaguely known
+possibilities.  In 1850 it was a continent of black mystery;
+only Egypt and the coast were known.  Here we have no space
+to tell the amazing story of the explorers and adventurers
+who first pierced the African darkness, and of the political
+agents, administrators, traders, settlers and scientific men
+who followed in their track.  Wonderful races of men like the
+pygmies, strange beasts like the okapi, marvellous fruits and
+flowers and insects, terrible diseases, astounding scenery of
+forest and mountain, enormous inland seas and gigantic rivers
+and cascades were revealed; a whole new world.  Even remains
+(at Zimbabwe) of some unrecorded and vanished civilization,
+the southward enterprise of an early people, were discovered.
+  Into this new world came the Europeans, and found the rifle
+already there in the hands of the Arab slave-traders, and
+negro life in disorder.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-397"></a>
+<img src="images/img-397.jpg"
+alt="Map: The British Empire in 1815"
+ width="600" height="328" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+By 1900, in half a century, all Africa was mapped, explored,
+estimated and divided between the European powers.  Little
+heed was given to the welfare of the natives in this
+scramble.  The Arab slaver was indeed curbed rather than
+expelled, but the greed for rubber, which was a wild product
+collected under compulsion by the natives in the Belgian
+Congo, a greed exacerbated by the clash of inexperienced
+European administrators with the native <span
+class="pagenum"><a name="P398"></a></span>population,
+led to horrible atrocities.  No European power has perfectly
+clean hands in this matter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We cannot tell here in any detail how Great Britain got
+possession of Egypt in 1883 and remained there in spite of
+the fact that Egypt was technically a part of the Turkish
+Empire, nor how nearly this scramble led to war between
+France and Great Britain in 1898, when a certain Colonel
+Marchand, crossing Central Africa from the west coast, tried
+at Fashoda to seize the Upper Nile.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nor can we tell how the British Government first let the
+Boers, or Dutch settlers, of the Orange River district and
+the Transvaal set up independent republics in the inland
+parts of South Africa, and then repented and annexed the
+Transvaal Republic in 1877; nor how the Transvaal Boers
+fought for freedom and won it after the battle of Majuba Hill
+(1881).  Majuba Hill was made to rankle in the memory of the
+English people by a persistent press campaign.  A war with
+both republics broke out in 1899, a three years&rsquo; war
+enormously costly to the British people, which ended at last
+in the surrender of the two republics.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Their period of subjugation was a brief one.  In 1907, after
+the downfall of the imperialist government which had
+conquered them, the Liberals took the South African problem
+in hand, and these former republics became free and fairly
+willing associates with Cape Colony and  Natal in a
+Confederation of all the states of South Africa as one self-
+governing republic under the British Crown.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a quarter of a century the partition of Africa was
+completed.  There remained unannexed three comparatively
+small countries: Liberia, a settlement of liberated negro
+slaves on the west coast; Morocco, under a Moslem Sultan; and
+Abyssinia, a barbaric country, with an ancient and peculiar
+form of Christianity, which had successfully maintained its
+independence against Italy at the battle of Adowa in 1896.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P399"></a></span><a name="chapLXIII"></a>LXIII<br />
+EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA AND THE RISE OF JAPAN</h2>
+
+<p>
+It is difficult to believe that any large number of people really accepted this
+headlong painting of the map of Africa in European colours as a permanent new
+settlement of the worlds affairs, but it is the duty of the historian to record
+that it was so accepted. There was but a shallow historical background to the
+European mind in the nineteenth century, and no habit of penetrating criticism.
+The quite temporary advantages that the mechanical revolution in the west had
+given the Europeans over the rest of the old world were regarded by people,
+blankly ignorant of such events as the great Mongol conquests, as evidences of
+a permanent and assured European leadership of mankind. They had no sense of
+the transferability of science and its fruits. They did not realize that
+Chinamen and Indians could carry on the work of research as ably as Frenchmen
+or Englishmen. They believed that there was some innate intellectual drive in
+the west, and some innate indolence and conservatism in the east, that assured
+the Europeans a world predominance for ever.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The consequence of this infatuation was that the various
+European foreign offices set themselves not merely to
+scramble with the British for the savage and undeveloped
+regions of the world&rsquo;s surface, but also to carve up
+the populous and civilized countries of Asia as though these
+people also were no more than raw material for exploitation.
+  The inwardly precarious but outwardly splendid imperialism of
+the British ruling class in India, and the extensive and
+profitable possessions of the Dutch in the East Indies,
+filled the rival Great Powers with dreams of similar glories
+in Persia, in the disintegrating Ottoman Empire, and in
+Further India, China and Japan.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P400"></a></span>In 1898
+Germany seized Kiau Chau in China.  Britain responded by
+seizing Wei-hai-wei, and the next year the Russians took
+possession of Port Arthur.  A flame of hatred for the
+Europeans swept through China.  There were massacres of
+Europeans and Christian converts, and in 1900 an attack upon
+and siege of the European legations in Pekin.  A combined
+force of Europeans made a punitive expedition to Pekin,
+rescued the legations, and stole an enormous amount of
+valuable property.  The Russians then seized Manchuria, and
+in 1904, the British invaded Tibet....
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But now a new Power appeared in the struggle of the Great
+Powers, Japan.  Hitherto Japan has played but a small part in
+this history; her secluded civilization has not contributed
+very largely to the general shaping of human destinies; she
+has received much, but she has given little.  The Japanese
+proper are of the Mongolian race.  Their civilization, their
+writing and their literary and artistic traditions are
+derived from the Chinese.  Their history is an interesting
+and romantic one; they developed a feudal system and a system
+of chivalry in the earlier centuries of the Christian era;
+their attacks upon Korea and China are an Eastern equivalent
+of the English wars in France.  Japan was first brought into
+contact with Europe in the sixteenth century; in 1542 some
+Portuguese reached it in a Chinese junk, and in 1549 a Jesuit
+missionary, Francis Xavier, began his teaching there.  For a
+time Japan welcomed European intercourse, and the Christian
+missionaries made a great number of converts.  A certain
+William Adams became the most trusted European adviser of the
+Japanese, and showed them how to build big ships.  There were
+voyages in Japanese-built ships to India and Peru.  Then
+arose complicated quarrels between the Spanish Dominicans,
+the Portuguese Jesuits, and the English and Dutch
+Protestants, each warning the Japanese against the political
+designs of the others.  The Jesuits, in a phase of
+ascendancy, persecuted and insulted the Buddhists with great
+acrimony.  In the end the Japanese came to the conclusion
+that the Europeans were an intolerable nuisance, and that
+Catholic Christianity in particular was a mere cloak for the
+political dreams of the Pope and the Spanish
+monarchy&mdash;already in possession of the Philippine
+Islands; there was a great persecution of the Christians, and
+in 1638 Japan was absolutely <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P401"></a></span>closed to Europeans, and remained
+closed for over 200 years.  During those two centuries the
+Japanese were as completely cut off from the rest of the
+world as though they lived upon another planet.  It was
+forbidden to build any ship larger than a mere coasting boat.
+  No Japanese could go abroad, and no European enter the
+country.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-401"></a>
+<img src="images/img-401.jpg"
+alt="JAPANESE SOLDIER ON THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY"
+ width="250" height="708" />
+<p class="caption">
+JAPANESE SOLDIER ON THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+<br />
+<small><i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+For two centuries Japan remained outside the main current of
+history.  She lived on in a state of picturesque feudalism in
+which about five per cent of the population, the
+<i>samurai</i>, or fighting men, and the nobles and their
+families, tyrannized without restraint over the rest of the
+population.  Meanwhile the great world outside went on to
+wider visions and new powers.  Strange shipping became more
+frequent, passing the Japanese headlands; sometimes ships
+were wrecked and sailors brought ashore.  Through the Dutch
+settlement in the island of Deshima, their one link with the
+outer universe, came warnings that Japan was not keeping pace
+with the power of the Western world.  In 1837 a ship sailed
+into Yedo Bay flying a strange flag of stripes and stars, and
+carrying some Japanese sailors she had picked up far adrift
+in the Pacific.  She was driven off by cannon shot.  This
+flag presently reappeared on other ships.  One in 1849 came
+to demand the liberation <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P402"></a></span>of eighteen shipwrecked American
+sailors.  Then in 1853 came four American warships under
+Commodore Perry, and refused to be driven away.  He lay at
+anchor in forbidden waters, and sent messages to the two
+rulers who at that time shared the control of Japan.  In 1854
+he returned with ten ships, amazing ships propelled by steam,
+and equipped with big guns, and he made proposals for trade
+and intercourse that the Japanese had no power to resist.  He
+landed with a guard of 500 men to sign the treaty.
+  Incredulous crowds watched this visitation from the outer
+world, marching through the streets.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Russia, Holland and Britain followed in the wake of America.
+  A great nobleman whose estates commanded the Straits of
+Shimonoseki saw fit to fire on foreign vessels, and a
+bombardment by a fleet of British, French, Dutch and American
+warships destroyed his batteries and scattered his swordsmen.
+  Finally an allied squadron (1865), at anchor off Kioto,
+imposed a ratification of the treaties which opened Japan to
+the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The humiliation of the Japanese by these events was intense.
+  With astonishing energy and intelligence they set themselves
+to bring their culture and organization to the level of the
+European Powers.  Never in all the history of mankind did a
+nation make such a stride as Japan then did.  In 1866 she was
+a medieval people, a fantastic caricature of the extremest
+romantic feudalism; in 1899 hers was a completely Westernized
+people, on a level with the most advanced European Powers.
+  She completely dispelled the persuasion that Asia was in some
+irrevocable way hopelessly behind Europe.  She made all
+European progress seem sluggish by comparison.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We cannot tell here in any detail of Japan&rsquo;s war with
+China in 1894-95.  It demonstrated the extent of her
+Westernization.  She had an efficient Westernized army and a
+small but sound fleet.  But the significance of her
+renascence, though it was appreciated by Britain and the
+United States, who were already treating her as if she were a
+European state, was not understood by the other Great Powers
+engaged in the pursuit of new Indias in Asia.  Russia was
+pushing down through Manchuria to Korea.  France was already
+established far to the south in Tonkin and Annam, Germany was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P403"></a></span>prowling
+hungrily on the look-out for some settlement.  The three
+Powers combined to prevent Japan reaping any fruits from the
+Chinese war.  She was exhausted by the struggle, and they
+threatened her with war.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-403"></a>
+<img src="images/img-403.jpg"
+alt="A STREET IN TOKIO"
+ width="550" height="429" />
+<p class="caption">
+A STREET IN TOKIO
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Japan submitted for a time and gathered her forces.  Within
+ten years she was ready for a struggle with Russia, which
+marks an epoch in the history of Asia, the close of the
+period of European arrogance.  The Russian people were, of
+course, innocent and ignorant of this trouble that was being
+made for them halfway round the world, and the wiser Russian
+statesmen were against these foolish thrusts; but a gang of
+financial adventurers, including the Grand Dukes, his
+cousins, surrounded the Tsar.  They had gambled deeply in the
+prospective looting of Manchuria and China, and they would
+suffer no withdrawal.  So there began a transportation of
+great armies of Japanese soldiers across the sea to Port
+Arthur and Korea, and the sending of endless trainloads of
+Russian peasants along the Siberian railway to die in those
+distant battlefields.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P404"></a></span>The
+Russians, badly led and dishonestly provided, were beaten on
+sea and land alike.  The Russian Baltic Fleet sailed round
+Africa to be utterly destroyed in the Straits of Tshushima.
+  A revolutionary movement among the common people of Russia,
+infuriated by this remote and reasonless slaughter, obliged
+the Tsar to end the war (1905); he returned the southern half
+of Saghalien, which had been seized by Russia in 1875,
+evacuated Manchuria, resigned Korea to Japan.  The European
+invasion of Asia was coming to an end and the retraction of
+Europe&rsquo;s tentacles was beginning.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P405"></a></span><a name="chapLXIV"></a>LXIV<br />
+THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914</h2>
+
+<p>
+We may note here briefly the varied nature of the constituents of the British
+Empire in 1914 which the steamship and railway had brought together. It was and
+is a quite unique political combination; nothing of the sort has ever existed
+before.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+First and central to the whole system was the &ldquo;crowned
+republic&rdquo; of the United British Kingdom, including
+(against the will of a considerable part of the Irish people)
+Ireland.  The majority of the British Parliament, made up of
+the three united parliaments of England and Wales, Scotland
+and Ireland, determines the headship, the quality and policy
+of the ministry, and determines it largely on considerations
+arising out of British domestic politics.  It is this
+ministry which is the effective supreme government, with
+powers of peace and war, over all the rest of the empire.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Next in order of political importance to the British States
+were the &ldquo;crowned republics&rdquo; of Australia,
+Canada, Newfoundland (the oldest British possession, 1583),
+New Zealand and South Africa, all practically independent and
+self-governing states in alliance with Great Britain, but
+each with a representative of the Crown appointed by the
+Government in office;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Next the Indian Empire, an extension of the Empire of the
+Great Mogul with its dependent and &ldquo;protected&rdquo;
+states reaching now from Beluchistan to Burma, and including
+Aden, in all of which empire the British Crown and the India
+Office (under Parliamentary control) played the role of the
+original Turkoman dynasty;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Then the ambiguous possession of Egypt, still nominally a
+part of the Turkish Empire and still retaining its own
+monarch, the Khedive, but under almost despotic British
+official rule;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P406"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-406"></a>
+<img src="images/img-406.jpg"
+alt="Map: OVERSEAS EMPIRES of EUROPEAN POWERS, January 1914"
+ width="800" height="497" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Then the still more ambiguous &ldquo;Anglo-Egyptian&rdquo;
+Sudan <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P407"></a></span>province, occupied and
+administered jointly by the British and by the (British
+controlled) Egyptian Government;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Then a number of partially self-governing communities, some
+British in origin and some not, with elected legislatures and
+an appointed executive, such as Malta, Jamaica, the Bahamas
+and Bermuda;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Then the Crown colonies, in which the rule of the British
+Home Government (through the Colonial Office) verged on
+autocracy, as in Ceylon, Trinidad and Fiji (where there was
+an appointed council), and Gibraltar and St. Helena (where
+there was a governor);
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-407"></a>
+<img src="images/img-407.jpg"
+alt="GIBRALTAR"
+ width="600" height="208" />
+<p class="caption">
+GIBRALTAR
+<br />
+<small><i>Photo:  C. Sinclair</i>
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Then great areas of (chiefly) tropical lands, raw-product
+areas, with politically weak and under-civilized native
+communities which were nominally protectorates, and
+administered either by a High Commissioner set over native
+chiefs (as in Basutoland) or over a chartered company (as in
+Rhodesia).  In some cases the Foreign Office, in some cases
+the Colonial Office, and in some cases the India Office, has
+been concerned in acquiring the possessions that fell into
+this last and least definite class of all, but for the most
+part the Colonial Office was now responsible for them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It will be manifest, therefore, that no single office and no
+single brain had ever comprehended the British Empire as a
+whole.  It was a mixture of growths and accumulations
+entirely different from anything that has ever been called an
+empire before.  It guaranteed a wide peace and security; that
+is why it was endured and sustained by many men of the
+&ldquo;subject&rdquo; races&mdash;in spite of official
+tyrannies <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P408"></a></span>and insufficiencies, and of much
+negligence on the part of the &ldquo;home&rdquo; public.
+  Like the Athenian Empire, it was an overseas empire; its ways
+were sea ways, and its common link was the British Navy.
+  Like all empires, its cohesion was dependent physically upon
+a method of communication; the development of seamanship,
+ship-building and steamships between the sixteenth and
+nineteenth centuries had made it a possible and convenient
+Pax&mdash;the &ldquo;Pax Britannica,&rdquo; and fresh
+developments of air or swift land transport might at any time
+make it inconvenient.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-408"></a>
+<img src="images/img-408.jpg"
+alt="STREET IN HONG KONG"
+ width="550" height="611" />
+<p class="caption">
+STREET IN HONG KONG
+<small><br />
+<i>Photo:  Underwood &#38; Underwood</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P409"></a></span><a name="chapLXV"></a>LXV<br />
+THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18</h2>
+
+<p>
+The progress in material science that created this vast steamboat-and-railway
+republic of America and spread this precarious British steamship empire over
+the world, produced quite other effects upon the congested nations upon the
+continent of Europe. They found themselves confined within boundaries fixed
+during the horse-and-high-road period of human life, and their expansion
+overseas had been very largely anticipated by Great Britain. Only Russia had
+any freedom to expand eastward; and she drove a great railway across Siberia
+until she entangled herself in a conflict with Japan, and pushed
+south-eastwardly towards the borders of Persia and India to the annoyance of
+Britain. The rest of the European Powers were in a state of intensifying
+congestion. In order to realize the full possibilities of the new apparatus of
+human life they had to rearrange their affairs upon a broader basis, either by
+some sort of voluntary union or by a union imposed upon them by some
+predominant power. The tendency of modern thought was in the direction of the
+former alternative, but all the force of political tradition drove Europe
+towards the latter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The downfall of the &ldquo;empire&rdquo; of Napoleon III, the
+establishment of the new German Empire, pointed men&rsquo;s
+hopes and fears towards the idea of a Europe consolidated
+under German auspices.  For thirty-six years of uneasy peace
+the polities of Europe centred upon that possibility.
+  France, the steadfast rival of Germany for European
+ascendancy since the division of the empire of Charlemagne,
+sought to correct her own weakness by a close alliance with
+Russia, and Germany linked herself closely with the Austrian
+Empire (it had ceased to be the Holy Roman Empire in the days
+of Napoleon I) and less successfully with the new kingdom of
+Italy.  <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P410"></a></span>At first Great Britain stood as
+usual half in and half out of continental affairs.  But she
+was gradually forced into a close association with the
+Franco-Russian group by the aggressive development of a great
+German navy.  The grandiose imagination of the Emperor
+William II (1888-1918) thrust Germany into premature overseas
+enterprise that ultimately brought not only Great Britain but
+Japan and the United States into the circle of her enemies.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-410"></a>
+<img src="images/img-410.jpg"
+alt="BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD"
+ width="600" height="581" />
+<p class="caption">
+BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD
+<small><br />The crew came out for a breath of fresh air during a lull
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  British Official</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+All these nations armed.  Year after year the proportion of
+national production devoted to the making of guns, equipment,
+battleships and the like, increased. Year after year the
+balance <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P411"></a></span>of things seemed trembling towards
+war, and then war would be averted.  At last it came.
+  Germany and Austria struck at France and Russia and Serbia;
+the German armies marching through Belgium, Britain
+immediately came into the war on the side of Belgium,
+bringing in Japan as her ally, and very soon Turkey followed
+on the German side.  Italy entered the war against Austria in
+1915, and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in the October
+of that year.  In 1916 Rumania, and in 1917 the United States
+and China were forced into war against Germany.  It is not
+within the scope of this history to define the exact share of
+blame for this vast catastrophe.  The more interesting
+question is not why the Great War was begun but why the Great
+War was not anticipated and prevented.  It is a far graver
+thing for mankind that scores of millions of people were too
+&ldquo;patriotic,&rdquo; stupid, or apathetic to prevent this
+disaster by a movement towards European unity upon frank and
+generous lines, than that a small number of people may have
+been active in bringing it about.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-411"></a>
+<img src="images/img-411.jpg"
+alt="THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH TOWN)"
+ width="600" height="329" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH TOWN)
+<small><br />To show the complete destructiveness of modern war
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Topical</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-412"></a>
+<img src="images/img-412.jpg"
+alt="THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR"
+ width="600" height="327" />
+<p class="caption">
+THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR
+<small><br />Wire entanglements in the foreground
+<br />
+<i>Photo:  Photopress</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It is impossible within the space at our command here to
+trace the intricate details of the war.  Within a few months
+it became apparent that the progress of modern technical
+science had changed <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P412"></a></span>the nature of warfare very
+profoundly.  Physical science gives power, power over steel,
+over distance, over disease; whether that power is used well
+or ill depends upon the moral and political intelligence of
+the world.  The governments of Europe, inspired by antiquated
+policies of hate and suspicion, found themselves with
+unexampled powers both of destruction and resistance in their
+hands.  The war became a consuming fire round and about the
+world, causing losses both to victors and vanquished out of
+all proportion to the issues involved.  The first phase of
+the war was a tremendous rush of the Germans upon Paris and
+an invasion of East Prussia by the Russians.  Both attacks
+were held and turned.  Then the power of the defensive
+developed; there was a rapid elaboration of trench warfare
+until for a time the opposing armies lay entrenched in long
+lines right across Europe, unable to make any advance without
+enormous losses.  The armies were millions strong, and behind
+them entire populations were organized for the supply of food
+and munitions to the front.  Then was a cessation of nearly
+every sort of productive activity except such as contributed
+to military operations.  All the able-bodied manhood of
+Europe was drawn into the armies or navies or into the
+improvised <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P413"></a></span>factories that served them.  There
+was an enormous replacement of men by women in industry.
+  Probably more than half the people in the belligerent
+countries of Europe changed their employment altogether
+during this stupendous struggle.  They were socially uprooted
+and transplanted.  Education and normal scientific work were
+restricted or diverted to immediate military ends, and the
+distribution of news was crippled and corrupted by military
+control and &ldquo;propaganda&rdquo; activities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The phase of military deadlock passed slowly into one of
+aggression upon the combatant populations behind the fronts
+by the destruction of food supplies and by attacks through
+the air.  And also there was a steady improvement in the size
+and range of the guns employed and of such ingenious devices
+as poison-gas shells and the small mobile forts known as
+tanks, to break down the resistance of troops in the
+trenches.  The air offensive was the most revolutionary of
+all the new methods.  It carried warfare from two dimensions
+into three.  Hitherto in the history of mankind war had gone
+on only where the armies marched and met.  Now it went on
+everywhere.  First the Zeppelin and then the bombing
+aeroplane carried war over and past the front to an ever-
+increasing area of civilian activities beyond.  The old
+distinction maintained in civilized warfare between the
+civilian and combatant population disappeared.  Everyone who
+grew food, or who sewed a garment, everyone who felled a tree
+or repaired a house, every railway station and every
+warehouse was held to be fair game for destruction.  The air
+offensive increased in range and terror with every month in
+the war.  At last great areas of Europe were in a state of
+siege and subject to nightly raids.  Such exposed cities as
+London and Paris passed sleepless night after sleepless night
+while the bombs burst, the anti-aircraft guns maintained an
+intolerable racket, and the fire engines and ambulances
+rattled headlong through the darkened and deserted streets.
+  The effects upon the minds and health of old people and of
+young children were particularly distressing and destructive.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pestilence, that old follower of warfare, did not arrive
+until the very end of the fighting in 1918.  For four years
+medical science staved off any general epidemic; then came a
+great outbreak of <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P414"></a></span>influenza about the world which
+destroyed many millions of people.  Famine also was staved
+off for some time.  By the beginning of 1918 however most of
+Europe was in a state of mitigated and regulated famine.  The
+production of food throughout the world had fallen very
+greatly through the calling off of peasant mankind to the
+fronts, and the distribution of such food as was produced was
+impeded by the havoc wrought by the submarine, by the rupture
+of customary routes through the closing of frontiers, and by
+the disorganization of the transport system of the world.
+  The various governments took possession of the dwindling food
+supplies, and, with more or less success, rationed their
+populations.  By the fourth year the whole world was
+suffering from shortages of clothing and housing and of most
+of the normal gear of life as well as of food.  Business and
+economic life were profoundly disorganized.  Every-one was
+worried, and most people were leading lives of unwonted
+discomfort.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The actual warfare ceased in November, 1918.  After a supreme
+effort in the spring of 1918 that almost carried the Germans
+to Paris, the Central Powers collapsed.  They had come to an
+end of their spirit and resources.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P415"></a></span><a name="chapLXVI"></a>LXVI<br />
+THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA</h2>
+
+<p>
+But a good year and more before the collapse of the Central Powers the half
+oriental monarchy of Russia, which had professed to be the continuation of the
+Byzantine Empire, had collapsed. The Tsardom had been showing signs of profound
+rottenness for some years before the war; the court was under the sway of a
+fantastic religious impostor, Rasputin, and the public administration, civil
+and military, was in a state of extreme inefficiency and corruption. At the
+outset of the war there was a great flare of patriotic enthusiasm in Russia. A
+vast conscript army was called up, for which there was neither adequate
+military equipment nor a proper supply of competent officers, and this great
+host, ill supplied and badly handled, was hurled against the German and
+Austrian frontiers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There can be no doubt that the early appearance of Russian armies in
+ East Prussia in September, 1914, diverted the energies and
+ attention of the Germans from their first victorious drive upon
+ Paris.  The sufferings and deaths of scores of thousands of
+ ill-led Russian peasants saved France from complete overthrow in
+ that momentous opening campaign, and made all western Europe the
+ debtors of that great and tragic people.  But the strain of the war
+ upon this sprawling, ill-organized empire was too heavy for its
+ strength.  The Russian common soldiers were sent into battle
+ without guns to support them, without even rifle ammunition; they
+ were wasted by their officers and generals in a delirium of
+ militarist enthusiasm.  For a time they seemed to be suffering
+ mutely as the beasts suffer; but there is a limit to the endurance
+ even of the most ignorant.  A profound disgust for Tsardom was
+ creeping through these armies of betrayed and wasted men.  From the
+ close of 1915 onward Russia was a source of deepening anxiety to
+ her Western Allies.  Throughout 1916 she remained largely on <span
+ class="pagenum"><a name="P416"></a></span>the defensive, and
+ there were rumours of a separate peace with Germany.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On December 29th, 1916, the monk Rasputin was murdered at a dinner
+ party in Petrograd, and a belated attempt was made to put the
+ Tsardom in order.  By March things were moving rapidly; food riots
+ in Petrograd developed into a revolutionary insurrection; there was
+ an attempted suppression of the Duma, the representative body,
+ there were attempted arrests of liberal leaders, the formation of a
+ provisional government under Prince Lvoff, and an abdication (March
+ 15th) by the Tsar.  For a time it seemed that a moderate and
+ controlled revolution might be possible&mdash;perhaps under a new
+ Tsar.  Then it became evident that the destruction of popular
+ confidence in Russia had gone too far for any such adjustments.
+  The Russian people were sick to death of the old order of things
+ in Europe, of Tsars and wars and of Great Powers; it wanted relief,
+ and that speedily, from unendurable miseries.  The Allies had no
+ understanding of Russian realities; their diplomatists were
+ ignorant of Russian, genteel persons with their attention directed
+ to the Russian Court rather than to Russia, they blundered steadily
+ with the new situation.  There was little goodwill among these
+ diplomatists for republicanism, and a manifest disposition to
+ embarrass the new government as much as possible.  At the head of
+ the Russian republican government was an eloquent and picturesque
+ leader, Kerensky, who found himself assailed by the forces of a
+ profounder revolutionary movement, the &ldquo;social
+ revolution,&rdquo; at home and cold-shouldered by the Allied
+ governments abroad.  His Allies would neither let him give the
+ Russian peasants the land for which they craved nor peace beyond
+ their frontiers.  The French and the British press pestered their
+ exhausted ally for a fresh offensive, but when presently the
+ Germans made a strong attack by sea and land upon Riga, the
+ British Admiralty quailed before the prospect of a Baltic
+ expedition in relief.  The new Russian Republic had to fight
+ unsupported.  In spite of their naval predominance and the bitter
+ protests of the great English admiral, Lord Fisher (1841-1920), it
+ is to be noted that the British and their Allies, except for some
+ submarine attacks, left the Germans the complete mastery of the
+ Baltic throughout the war.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P417"></a></span>The Russian
+ masses, however, were resolute to end the war.  At any cost.  There
+ had come into existence in Petrograd a body representing the
+ workers and common soldiers, the Soviet, and this body clamoured
+ for an international conference of socialists at Stockholm.  Food
+ riots were occurring in Berlin at this time, war weariness in
+ Austria and Germany was profound, and there can be little doubt, in
+ the light of subsequent events, that such a conference would have
+ precipitated a reasonable peace on democratic lines in 1917 and a
+ German revolution.  Kerensky implored his Western allies to allow
+ this conference to take place, but, fearful of a worldwide outbreak
+ of socialism and republicanism, they refused, in spite of the
+ favourable response of a small majority of the British Labour
+ Party.  Without either moral or physical help from the Allies, the
+ unhappy &ldquo;moderate&rdquo; Russian Republic still fought on and
+ made a last desperate offensive effort in July.  It failed after
+ some preliminary successes, and there came another great
+ slaughtering of Russians.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The limit of Russian endurance was reached.  Mutinies broke out in
+ the Russian armies, and particularly upon the northern front, and
+ on November 7th, 1917, Kerensky&rsquo;s government was overthrown
+ and power was seized by the Soviets, dominated by the Bolshevik
+ socialists under Lenin, and pledged to make peace regardless of the
+ Western powers.  On March 2nd, 1918, a separate peace between
+ Russia and Germany was signed at Brest-Litovsk.
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P418"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-418"></a>
+<img src="images/img-418.jpg"
+alt="A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE"
+ width="450" height="695" />
+<p class="caption">
+A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE
+<small><br />A wooden house has been demolished for firewood
+<br />
+<i>By courtesy of Messrs. Hodder &#38; Stoughton</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It speedily became evident that these Bolshevik socialists were men
+ of a very different quality from the rhetorical constitutionalists
+ and revolutionaries of the Kerensky phase.  They were fanatical
+ Marxist communists.  They believed that their accession to power in
+ Russia was only the opening of a world-wide social revolution, and
+ they set about changing the social and economic order with the
+ thoroughness of perfect faith and absolute inexperience.  The
+ western European and the American governments were themselves much
+ too ill-informed and incapable to guide or help this extraordinary
+ experiment, and the press set itself to discredit and the ruling
+ classes to wreck these usurpers upon any terms and at any cost to
+ themselves or to Russia.  A propaganda of abominable and disgusting
+ inventions went on unchecked in the press of the
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P419"></a></span>world; the
+ Bolshevik leaders were represented as incredible monsters glutted
+ with blood and plunder and living lives of sensuality before which
+ the realities of the Tsarist court during the Rasputin regime paled
+ to a white purity.  Expeditions were launched at the exhausted
+ country, insurgents and raiders were encouraged, armed and
+ subsidized, and no method of attack was too mean or too monstrous
+ for the frightened enemies of the Bolshevik regime.  In 1919, the
+ Russian Bolsheviks, ruling a country already exhausted and
+ disorganized by five years of intensive warfare, were fighting a
+ British Expedition at Archangel, Japanese invaders in Eastern
+ Siberia, Roumanians with French and Greek contingents in the south,
+ the Russian Admiral Koltchak in Siberia and General Deniken,
+ supported by the French fleet, in the Crimea.  In July of that year
+ an Esthonian army, under General Yudenitch, almost got to
+ Petersburg.  In 1920 the Poles, incited by the French, made a new
+ attack on Russia; and a new reactionary raider, General Wrangel,
+ took over the task of General Deniken in invading and devastating
+ his own country.  In March, 1921, the sailors at Cronstadt
+ revolted.  The Russian Government under its president, Lenin,
+ survived all these various attacks.  It showed an amazing tenacity,
+ and the common people of Russia sustained it unswervingly under
+ conditions of extreme hardship.  By the end of 1921 both Britain
+ and Italy had made a sort of recognition of the communist rule.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But if the Bolshevik Government was successful in its struggle
+ against foreign intervention and internal revolt, it was far less
+ happy in its attempts to set up a new social order based upon
+ communist ideas in Russia.  The Russian peasant is a small
+ land-hungry proprietor, as far from communism in his thoughts and
+ methods as a whale is from flying; the revolution gave him the land
+ of the great landowners but could not make him grow food for
+ anything but negotiable money, and the revolution, among other
+ things, had practically destroyed the value of money.
+  Agricultural production, already greatly disordered by the
+ collapse of the railways through war-strain, shrank to a mere
+ cultivation of food by the peasants for their own consumption.  The
+ towns starved.  Hasty and ill-planned attempts to make over
+ industrial production
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P420"></a></span>in accordance
+ with communist ideas were equally unsuccessful.  By 1920 Russia
+ presented the unprecedented spectacle of a modern civilization
+ in complete collapse.  Railways were rusting and passing out of
+ use, towns were falling into ruin, everywhere there was an
+ immense mortality.  Yet the country still fought with its
+ enemies at its gates.  In 1921 came a drought and a great famine
+ among the peasant cultivators in the war-devastated south-east
+ provinces.  Millions of people starved.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But the question of the distresses and the possible recuperation
+ of Russia brings us too close to current controversies to be
+ discussed here.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P421"></a></span><a name="chapLXVII"></a>LXVII<br />
+THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD</h2>
+
+<p>
+The scheme and scale upon which this History is planned do not permit us to
+enter into the complicated and acrimonious disputes that centre about the
+treaties, and particularly of the treaty of Versailles, which concluded the
+Great War. We are beginning to realize that that conflict, terrible and
+enormous as it was, ended nothing, began nothing and settled nothing. It killed
+millions of people; it wasted and impoverished the world. It smashed Russia
+altogether. It was at best an acute and frightful reminder that we were living
+foolishly and confusedly without much plan or foresight in a dangerous and
+unsympathetic universe. The crudely organized egotisms and passions of national
+and imperial greed that carried mankind into that tragedy, emerged from it
+sufficiently unimpaired to make some other similar disaster highly probable so
+soon as the world has a little recovered from its war exhaustion and fatigue.
+Wars and revolutions make nothing; their utmost service to mankind is that, in
+a very rough and painful way, they destroy superannuated and obstructive
+things. The great war lifted the threat of German imperialism from Europe, and
+shattered the imperialism of Russia. It cleared away a number of monarchies.
+But a multitude of flags still waves in Europe, the frontiers still exasperate,
+great armies accumulate fresh stores of equipment.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Peace Conference at Versailles was a gathering very ill adapted
+ to do more than carry out the conflicts and defeats of the war to
+ their logical conclusions.  The Germans, Austrians, Turks and
+ Bulgarians were permitted no share in its deliberations; they were
+ only to accept the decisions it dictated to them.  From the point
+ of view of human welfare the choice of the place of meeting was
+ particularly unfortunate.  It was at Versailles in 1871 that, with
+ every circumstance of triumphant vulgarity, the new German
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P422"></a></span>Empire had
+ been proclaimed.  The suggestion of a melodramatic reversal of that
+ scene, in the same Hall of Mirrors, was overpowering.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whatever generosities had appeared in the opening phases of the
+ Great War had long been exhausted.  The populations of the
+ victorious countries were acutely aware of their own losses and
+ sufferings, and entirely regardless of the fact that the defeated
+ had paid in the like manner.  The war had arisen as a natural and
+ inevitable consequence of the competitive nationalisms of Europe
+ and the absence of any Federal adjustment of these competitive
+ forces; war is the necessary logical consummation of independent
+ sovereign nationalities living in too small an area with too
+ powerful an armament; and if the great war had not come in the form
+ it did it would have come in some similar form&mdash;just as it
+ will certainly return upon a still more disastrous scale in twenty
+ or thirty years&rsquo; time if no political unification anticipates
+ and prevents it.  States organized for war will make wars as surely
+ as hens will lay eggs, but the feeling of these distressed and
+ war-worn countries disregarded this fact, and the whole of the
+ defeated peoples were treated as morally and materially responsible
+ for all the damage, as they would no doubt have treated the victor
+ peoples had the issue of war been different.  The French and
+ English thought the Germans were to blame, the Germans thought the
+ Russians, French and English were to blame, and only an intelligent
+ minority thought that there was anything to blame in the
+ fragmentary political constitution of Europe.  The treaty of
+ Versailles was intended to be exemplary and vindictive; it provided
+ tremendous penalties for the vanquished; it sought to provide
+ compensations for the wounded and suffering victors by imposing
+ enormous debts upon nations already bankrupt, and its attempts to
+ reconstitute international relations by the establishment of a
+ League of Nations against war were manifestly insincere and
+ inadequate.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-423"></a>
+<img src="images/img-423.jpg"
+alt="PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT"
+ width="600" height="434" />
+<p class="caption">
+PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT
+<small><br />
+<i>(Photo taken by another &rsquo;plane by the Central Aerophoto
+ Co.)</i></small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+So far as Europe was concerned it is doubtful if there would have
+ been any attempt whatever to organize international relations for
+ a permanent peace.  The proposal of the League of Nations was
+ brought into practical politics by the President of the United
+ States of America, President Wilson.  Its chief support was in
+ America.  So far the United States, this new modern state, had
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P423"></a></span>developed no
+ distinctive ideas of international relationship beyond the Monroe
+ Doctrine, which protected the new world from European interference.
+  Now suddenly it was called upon for its mental contribution to the
+ vast problem of the time.  It had none.  The natural disposition of
+ the American people was towards a permanent world peace.  With this
+ however was linked a strong traditional distrust of old-world
+ polities and a habit of isolation from old-world entanglements.
+  The Americans had hardly begun to think out an American solution
+ of world problems when the submarine campaign of the Germans
+ dragged them into the war on the side of the anti-German allies.
+  President Wilson&rsquo;s scheme of a League of Nations was an
+ attempt at short notice to create a distinctively American world
+ project.  It was a sketchy, inadequate and dangerous scheme.  In
+ Europe however it was taken as a matured American point of view.
+  The generality of mankind in 1918-19 was intensely weary of war
+ and anxious at almost any sacrifice to erect
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P424"></a></span>barriers
+ against its recurrence, but there was not a single government in
+ the old world willing to waive one iota of its sovereign
+ independence to attain any such end.  The public utterances of
+ President Wilson leading up to the project of a World League of
+ Nations seemed for a time to appeal right over the heads of the
+ governments to the peoples of the world; they were taken as
+ expressing the ripe intentions of America, and the response was
+ enormous.  Unhappily President Wilson had to deal with governments
+ and not with peoples; he was a man capable of tremendous flashes of
+ vision and yet when put to the test egotistical and limited, and
+ the great wave of enthusiasm he evoked passed and was wasted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Says Dr. Dillon in his book, <i>The Peace Conference:</i>
+ &ldquo;Europe, when the President touched its shores, was as clay
+ ready for the creative potter.  Never before were the nations so
+ eager to follow a Moses who would take them to the long-promised
+ land where wars are prohibited and blockades unknown.  And to their
+ thinking he was just that great leader.  In France men bowed down
+ before him with awe and affection.  Labour leaders in Paris told
+ me that they shed tears of joy in his presence, and that their
+ comrades would go through fire and water to help him to realize his
+ noble schemes.  To the working classes in Italy his name was a
+ heavenly clarion at the sound of which the earth would be renewed.
+  The Germans regarded him and his doctrine as their sheet-anchor of
+ safety.  The fearless Herr Muehlon said: &lsquo;If President Wilson
+ were to address the Germans and pronounce a severe sentence upon
+ them, they would accept it with resignation and without a murmur
+ and set to work at once.&rsquo;  In German-Austria his fame was
+ that of a saviour, and the mere mention of his name brought balm to
+ the suffering and surcease of sorrow to the afflicted ... .&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Such were the overpowering expectations that President Wilson raised. How
+completely he disappointed them and how weak and futile was the League of
+Nations he made is too long and too distressful a story to tell here. He
+exaggerated in his person our common human tragedy, he was so very great in his
+dreams and so incapable in his performance. America dissented from the acts of
+its President and would not join the League Europe accepted from him. There was
+a slow realization on the part of the American <span class="pagenum"><a
+name="P425"></a></span>people that it had been rushed into something for which
+it was totally unprepared. There was a corresponding realization on the part of
+Europe that America had nothing ready to give to the old world in its
+extremity. Born prematurely and crippled at its birth, that League has become
+indeed, with its elaborate and unpractical constitution and its manifest
+limitations of power, a serious obstacle in the way of any effective
+reorganization of international relationships. The problem would be a clearer
+one if the League did not yet exist. Yet that world-wide blaze of enthusiasm
+that first welcomed the project, that readiness of men everywhere round and
+about the earth, of men, that is, as distinguished from governments, for a
+world control of war, is a thing to be recorded with emphasis in any history.
+Behind the short-sighted governments that divide and mismanage human affairs, a
+real force for world unity and world order exists and grows.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From 1918 onward the world entered upon an age of conferences.  Of
+ these the Conference at Washington called by President Harding
+ (1921) has been the most successful and suggestive.  Notable, too,
+ is the Genoa Conference (1922) for the appearance of German and
+ Russian delegates at its deliberations.  We will not discuss this
+ long procession of conferences and tentatives in any detail.  It
+ becomes more and more clearly manifest that a huge work of
+ reconstruction has to be done by mankind if a crescendo of such
+ convulsions and world massacres as that of the great war is to be
+ averted.  No such hasty improvisation as the League of Nations, no
+ patched-up system of Conferences between this group of states and
+ that, which change nothing with an air of settling everything, will
+ meet the complex political needs of the new age that lies before
+ us.  A systematic development and a systematic application of the
+ sciences of human relationship, of personal and group psychology,
+ of financial and economic science and of education, sciences still
+ only in their infancy, is required.  Narrow and obsolete, dead and
+ dying moral and political ideas have to be replaced by a clearer
+ and a simpler conception of the common origins and destinies of our
+ kind.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="">
+<a name="img-426"></a>
+<img src="images/img-426.jpg"
+alt="A PEACEFUL GARDEN IN ENGLAND"
+ width="540" height="742" />
+<p class="caption">
+A PEACEFUL GARDEN IN ENGLAND
+<small><br />Given wisdom, all mankind might live in such gardens
+</small>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+But if the dangers, confusions and disasters that crowd upon man in
+ these days are enormous beyond any experience of the past, it is
+ because science has brought him such powers as he never had
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P426"></a></span>before.
+  And the scientific method of fearless thought, exhaustively lucid
+ statement, and exhaustively criticized planning, which has given
+ him these as yet uncontrollable powers, gives him also the hope of
+ controlling these powers.  Man is still only adolescent.  His
+ troubles are not the troubles of senility and exhaustion but of
+ increasing and still undisciplined strength.  When we look at all
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="P427"></a></span>history as one
+ process, as we have been doing in this book, when we see the
+ steadfast upward struggle of life towards vision and control, then
+ we see in their true proportions the hopes and dangers of the
+ present time.  As yet we are hardly in the earliest dawn of human
+ greatness.  But in the beauty of flower and sunset, in the happy
+ and perfect movement of young animals and in the delight of ten
+ thousand various landscapes, we have some intimations of what life
+ can do for us, and in some few works of plastic and pictorial art,
+ in some great music, in a few noble buildings and happy gardens, we
+ have an intimation of what the human will can do with material
+ possibilities.  We have dreams; we have at present undisciplined
+ but ever increasing power.  Can we doubt that presently our race
+ will more than realize our boldest imaginations, that it will
+ achieve unity and peace, that it will live, the children of our
+ blood and lives will live, in a world made more splendid and lovely
+ than any palace or garden that we know, going on from strength to
+ strength in an ever widening circle of adventure and achievement?
+  What man has done, the little triumphs of his present state, and
+ all this history we have told, form but the prelude to the things
+ that man has got to do.
+</p>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="P429"></a></span><a name="CHRON"></a>CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE</h3>
+
+<p>
+About the year 1000 <small>B.C.</small> the Aryan peoples were establishing
+themselves in the peninsulas of Spain, Italy and the Balkans, and they were
+established in North India; Cnossos was already destroyed and the spacious
+times of Egypt, of Thothmes III, Amenophis III and Rameses II were three or
+four centuries away. Weak monarchs of the XXIst Dynasty were ruling in the Nile
+Valley. Israel was united under her early kings; Saul or David or possibly even
+Solomon may have been reigning. Sargon I (2750 <small>B.C.</small>) of the
+Akkadian Sumerian Empire was a remote memory in Babylonian history, more remote
+than is Constantine the Great from the world of the present day. Hammurabi had
+been dead a thousand years. The Assyrians were already dominating the less
+military Babylonians. In 1100 <small>B.C.</small> Tiglath Pileser I had taken
+Babylon. But there was no permanent conquest; Assyria and Babylonia were still
+separate empires. In China the new Chow dynasty was flourishing. Stonehenge in
+England was already some hundreds of years old.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The next two centuries saw a renascence of Egypt under the XXIInd
+Dynasty, the splitting up of the brief little Hebrew kingdom of
+Solomon, the spreading of the Greeks in the Balkans, South Italy
+and Asia Minor, and the days of Etruscan predominance in Central
+Italy.  We begin our list of ascertainable dates with
+</p>
+
+<table width="70%">
+<tbody>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">B.C.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right"> 800.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The building of Carthage.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right"> 790. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Ethiopian conquest of Egypt (founding the XXVth Dynasty).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  776.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+First Olympiad.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  753.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Rome built.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  745.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Tiglath Pileser III conquered Babylonia and founded the New
+    Assyrian Empire.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  722.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Sargon II armed the Assyrians with iron weapons.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  721.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+He deported the Israelites.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  680.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Esarhaddon took Thebes in Egypt (overthrowing the Ethiopian
+    XXVth Dynasty).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  664.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Psammetichus I restored the freedom of Egypt and founded the
+    XXVIth Dynasty (to 610).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  608.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Necho of Egypt defeated Josiah, king of Judah, at the battle
+    of Megiddo.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  606.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Capture of Nineveh by the Chaldeans and Medes.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">        &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Foundation of the Chaldean Empire.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  604.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+ Necho pushed to the Euphrates and was overthrown by
+    Nebuchadnezzar II.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">       &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+ (Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews to Babylon.)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  550.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Cyrus the Persian succeeded Cyaxares the Mede.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">         &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Cyrus conquered Crœsus.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">         &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Buddha lived about this time.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">        &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+ So also did Confucius and Lao Tse.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  539.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Cyrus took Babylon and founded the Persian Empire.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  521.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, ruled from the Hellespont
+    to the Indus.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">         &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+His expedition to Scythia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</tbody></table>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P430"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<table width="70%">
+<tbody>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  490.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Marathon.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  480.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battles of Thermopyl&#239; and Salamis.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  479.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The battles of Platea and Mycale completed the repulse of
+    Persia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  474.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Etruscan fleet destroyed by the Sicilian Greeks.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  431.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Peloponnesian War began (to 404)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  401.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Retreat of the Ten Thousand.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  359.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Philip became king of Macedonia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  338.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Ch&#239;ronia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  336.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Macedonian troops crossed into Asia.  Philip murdered.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  334.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of the Granicus.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  333.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Issus.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  331.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Arbela.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  330.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Darius III killed.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  323.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Death of Alexander the Great.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  321.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Rise of Chandragupta in the Punjab.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">         &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Romans completely beaten by the Samnites at the battle of
+    the Caudine Forks.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  281.   &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Pyrrhus invaded Italy.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    280.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Heraclea.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    279.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Ausculum.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    278.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Gauls raided into Asia Minor and settled in Galatia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    275.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Pyrrhus left Italy.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    264.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+First Punic War. (Asoka began to reign in Behar&mdash;to 227.)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    260.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Myl&#239;.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    256.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Ecnomus.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    246.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Shi-Hwang-ti became King of Ts&rsquo;in.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    220.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Shi-Hwang-ti became Emperor of China.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    214.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Great Wall of China begun.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    210.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Death of Shi-Hwang-ti.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    202.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Zama.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    146.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Carthage destroyed.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    133.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Attalus bequeathed Pergamum to Rome.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    102.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Marius drove back Germans.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    100.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Triumph of Marius. (Chinese conquering the Tarim valley.)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    89.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+All Italians became Roman citizens.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    73.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The revolt of the slaves under Spartacus.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    71.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Defeat and end of Spartacus.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    66.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Pompey led Roman troops to the Caspian and Euphrates.  He encountered the Alani.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    48.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Julius C&#239;sar defeated Pompey at Pharsalos.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    44.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Julius C&#239;sar assassinated.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    27.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Augustus C&#239;sar princeps (until 14 <small>A.D.</small>).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    4.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+True date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    A.D.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Christian Era began.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    14.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Augustus died.  Tiberius emperor.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    30.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Jesus of Nazareth crucified.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    41.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Claudius (the first emperor of the legions) made emperor by
+ pretorian guard after murder of Caligula.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    68.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Suicide of Nero. (Galba, Otho, Vitellus, emperors in succession.)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    69.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Vespasian.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    102.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Pan Chau on the Caspian Sea.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    117.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Hadrian succeeded Trajan.  Roman Empire at its greatest extent.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    138.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+(The Indo-Scythians at this time were destroying the last traces of
+ Hellenic rule in India.)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    161.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Marcus Aurelius succeeded Antoninus Pius.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    164.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Great plague began, and lasted to the death of M. Aurelius (180).
+  This also devastated all Asia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">           &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+(Nearly a century of war and disorder began in the Roman Empire.)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    220.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+End of the Han dynasty.  Beginning of four hundred years of division
+ in China.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    227.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Ardashir I (first Sassanid shah) put an end to Arsacid line in
+ Persia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    242.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Mani began his teaching.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    247.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Goths crossed Danube in a great raid.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    251.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Great victory of Goths.  Emperor Decius killed.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    260.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Sapor I, the second Sassanid shah, took Antioch, captured the
+ Emperor Valerian, and was cut up on his return from Asia Minor by
+ Odenathus of Palmyra.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</tbody></table>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P431"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<table width="70%">
+<tbody>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">    277.    &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Mani crucified in Persia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  284.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Diocletian became emperor.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  303.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Diocletian persecuted the Christians.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  311.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Galerius abandoned the persecution of the Christians.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  312.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Constantine the Great became emperor.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  323.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Constantine presided over the Council of Nic&#239;a.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  337.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Constantine baptized on his deathbed.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  361-3. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Julian the Apostate attempted to substitute Mithraism for
+  Christianity.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  392.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Theodosius the Great emperor of east and west.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  395.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Theodosius the Great died.  Honorius and Arcadius redivided
+  the empire with Stilicho and Alaric as their masters and
+  protectors.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  410.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Visigoths under Alaric captured Rome.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  425.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Vandals settling in south of Spain.  Huns in Pannonia, Goths in
+ Dalmatia.  Visigoths and Suevi in Portugal and North Spain.
+  English invading Britain.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  439.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Vandals took Carthage.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" align="right">  451.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Attila raided Gaul and was defeated by Franks, Alemanni and
+  Romans at Troyes.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  453.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Death of Attila.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  455.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Vandals sacked Rome.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  470.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Odoacer, king of a medley of Teutonic tribes, informed
+  Constantinople that there was no emperor in the West.  End of
+  the Western Empire.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  493.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, conquered Italy and became King of
+  Italy, but was nominally subject to Constantinople.  (Gothic
+  kings in Italy.  Goths settled on special confiscated lands as a
+  garrison.)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  527.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Justinian emperor.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  529.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Justinian closed the schools at Athens, which had flourished nearly
+ a thousand years.  Belisarius (Justinian&rsquo;s general) took
+ Naples.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  531.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Chosroes I began to reign.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  543.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Great plague in Constantinople.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  553.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Goths expelled from Italy by Justinian.  Justinian died.  The
+ Lombards conquered most of North Italy (leaving Ravenna and Rome
+ Byzantine).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  570.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Muhammad born.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  579.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Chosroes I died.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+(The Lombards dominant in Italy.)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  590.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Plague raged in Rome.  Chosroes II began to reign.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  610.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Heraclius began to reign.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  619.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Chosroes II held Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus, and armies on
+ Hellespont.  Tang dynasty began in China.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  622.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Hegira.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  627.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Great Persian defeat at Nineveh by Heraclius.  Tai-tsung became
+ Emperor of China.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  628.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Kavadh II murdered and succeeded his father, Chosroes II.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Muhammad wrote letters to all the rulers of the earth.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  629.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Muhammad returned to Mecca.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  632.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Muhammad died. Abu Bekr Caliph.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  634.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of the Yarmuk.  Moslems took Syria.  Omar second Caliph.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  635.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Tai-tsung received Nestorian missionaries.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  637.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Kadessia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  638.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Jerusalem surrendered to the Caliph Omar.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  642.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Heraclius died.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  643.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Othman third Caliph.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  655.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Defeat of the Byzantine fleet by the Moslems.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  668.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Caliph Moawija attacked Constantinople by sea.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  687.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Pepin of Hersthal, mayor of the palace, reunited Austrasia and
+ Neustria.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  711.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Moslem army invaded Spain from Africa.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</tbody></table>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P432"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<table width="70%">
+<tbody>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  715.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The domains of the Caliph Walid I extended from the Pyrenees to
+ China.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  717-18.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Suleiman, son and successor of Walid, failed to take Constantinople.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  732.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Charles Martel defeated the Moslems near Poitiers.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  751.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Pepin crowned King of the French.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  768.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Pepin died.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  771.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Charlemagne sole king.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  774.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Charlemagne conquered Lombardy.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  786.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Haroun-al-Raschid Abbasid Caliph in Bagdad (to 809).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  795.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Leo III became Pope (to 816).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  800.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Leo crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  802.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Egbert, formerly an English refugee at the court of Charlemagne,
+ established himself as King of Wessex.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  810.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Krum of Bulgaria defeated and killed the Emperor Nicephorus.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  814.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Charlemagne died.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  828. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Egbert became first King of England.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  843. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Louis the Pious died, and the Carlovingian Empire went to pieces.
+  Until 962 there was no regular succession of Holy Roman Emperors,
+ though the title appeared intermittently.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  850.  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+About this time Rurik (a Northman) became ruler of Novgorod
+  and Kieff.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  852. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Boris first Christian King of Bulgaria (to 884).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  865. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The fleet of the Russians (Northmen) threatened Constantinople.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  904. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Russian (Northmen) fleet off Constantinople.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  912. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Rolf the Ganger established himself in Normandy.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  919. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Henry the Fowler elected King of Germany.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  936. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Otto I became King of Germany in succession to his father, Henry the
+ Fowler.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  941. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Russian fleet again threatened Constantinople.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  962. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Otto I, King of Germany, crowned Emperor (first Saxon Emperor) by
+ John XII.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  987. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Hugh Capet became King of France.  End of the Carlovingian line of
+ French kings.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1016. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Canute became King of England, Denmark and Norway.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1043. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Russian fleet threatened Constantinople.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1066. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1071. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Revival of Islam under the Seljuk Turks.  Battle of Melasgird.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1073. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Hildebrand became Pope (Gregory VII) to 1085.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1084. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Robert Guiscard, the Norman, sacked Rome.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1087-99.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Urban II Pope.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1095. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Urban II at Clermont summoned the First Crusade.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1096. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Massacre of the People&rsquo;s Crusade.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1099. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1147. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Second Crusade.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1169. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Saladin Sultan of Egypt.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1176. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Frederick Barbarossa acknowledged supremacy of the Pope (Alexander
+ III) at Venice.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1187. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Saladin captured Jerusalem.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1189. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Third Crusade.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1198. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Innocent III Pope (to 1216).  Frederick II (aged four), King of
+ Sicily, became his ward.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+ &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1202. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Fourth Crusade attacked the Eastern Empire.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1204. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Capture of Constantinople by the Latins.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1214. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Jengis Khan took Pekin.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1226. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+St. Francis of Assisi died. (The Franciscans.)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1227. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Jengis Khan died.  Khan from the Caspian to the Pacific, and was
+ succeeded by Ogdai Khan.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1228. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Frederick II embarked upon the Sixth Crusade, and acquired
+ Jerusalem.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1240. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Mongols destroyed Kieff. Russia tributary to the Mongols.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</tbody></table>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P433"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<table width="70%">
+<tbody>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1241. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Mongol victory in Liegnitz in Silesia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1250. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Frederick II, the last Hohenstaufen Emperor, died.  German
+ interregnum until 1273.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1251. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Mangu Khan became Great Khan.  Kublai Khan governor of China.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1258. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Hulagu Khan took and destroyed Bagdad.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1260. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Kublai Khan became Great Khan.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1261. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latins.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1273. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Rudolf of Habsburg elected Emperor.  The Swiss formed their
+ Everlasting League.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1280. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty in China.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1292. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Death of Kublai Khan.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1293. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Roger Bacon, the prophet of experimental science, died.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1348. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Great Plague, the Black Death.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1360. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+In China the Mongol (Yuan) dynasty fell, and was succeeded by the
+ Ming dynasty (to 1644).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1377. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1378. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Great Schism.  Urban VI in Rome, Clement VII at Avignon.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1398. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Huss preached Wycliffism at Prague.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1414-18.&nbsp;&nbsp; </td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Council of Constance.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Huss burnt (1415).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1417. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Great Schism ended.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1453. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Ottoman Turks under Muhammad II took Constantinople.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1480. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow, threw off the Mongol allegiance.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1481. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Death of the Sultan Muhammad II while preparing for the conquest of
+ Italy.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1486. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1492. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Columbus crossed the Atlantic to America.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1498. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Maximilian I became Emperor.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1498. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape to India.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1499. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Switzerland became an independent republic.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1500. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Charles V born.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1509. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Henry VIII King of England.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1513. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Leo X Pope.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1515. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Francis I King of France.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1520. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan (to 1566), who ruled from Bagdad to
+ Hungary.  Charles V Emperor.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1525. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Baber won the battle of Panipat, captured Delhi, and founded the
+ Mogul Empire.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1527. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The German troops in Italy, under the Constable of Bourbon, took and
+ pillaged Rome.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1529. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Suleiman besieged Vienna.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1530. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Charles V crowned by the Pope.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Henry VIII began his quarrel with the Papacy.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1539. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Society of Jesus founded.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1546. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Martin Luther died.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1547. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Ivan IV (the Terrible) took the Title of Tsar of Russia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1556. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Charles V abdicated.  Akbar, Great Mogul (to 1605).  Ignatius of
+ Loyola died.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1558. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Death of Charles V.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1566. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Suleiman the Magnificent died.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1603. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+James I King of England and Scotland.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1620. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+<i>Mayflower</i> expedition founded New Plymouth.  First negro
+ slaves landed at Jamestown (Va.).
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1625. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Charles I of England.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1626. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Sir Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam) died.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1643. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Louis XIV began his reign of seventy-two year&rsquo;s.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1644. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Manchus ended the Ming dynasty.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1648. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Treaty of Westphalia.  There-by Holland and Switzerland were
+ recognized as free republics and Prussia became important.  The
+ treaty gave a complete victory neither to the Imperial Crown nor to
+ the Princes.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</tbody></table>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P434"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<table width="70%">
+<tbody>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+War of the Fronde; it ended in the complete victory of the French
+ crown.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1649. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Execution of Charles I of England.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1658. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Aurungzeb Great Mogul.  Cromwell died.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1660. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Charles II of England.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1674. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Nieuw Amsterdam finally became British by treaty and was renamed New
+ York.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1683. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The last Turkish attack on Vienna defeated by John III of Poland.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1689. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Peter the Great of Russia. (To 1725.)
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1701. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Frederick I first King of Prussia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1707. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Death of Aurungzeb.  The empire of the Great Mogul disintegrated.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1713. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Frederick the Great of Prussia born.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1715. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Louis XV of France.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1755-63.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Britain and France struggled for America and India.  France in
+ alliance with Austria and Russia against Prussia and Britain
+ (1756-63); the Seven Years&rsquo; War.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1759. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The British general, Wolfe, took Quebec.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1760. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+George III of Britain.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1763. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Peace of Paris; Canada ceded to Britain.  British dominant in India.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1769. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Napoleon Bonaparte born.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1774. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Louis XVI began his reign.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1776. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Declaration of Independence by the United States of America.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1783. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Treaty of Peace between Britain and the new United States of
+ America.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1787. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Constitutional Convention of Philadelphia set up the Federal
+ Government of the United States.  France discovered to be bankrupt.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1788. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+First Federal Congress of the United States at New York.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1789. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The French States-General assembled.  Storming of the Bastille.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1791. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Flight to Varennes.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1792. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+France declared war on Austria.  Prussia declared war on France.
+  Battle of Valmy.  France became a republic.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1793. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Louis XVI beheaded.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1794. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Execution of Robespierre and end of the Jacobin republic.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1795. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Directory.  Bonaparte suppressed a revolt and went to Italy as
+ commander-in-chief.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1798. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Bonaparte went to Egypt.  Battle of the Nile.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1799. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Bonaparte returned to France.  He became First Consul with enormous
+ powers.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1804. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Bonaparte became Emperor.  Francis II took the title of Emperor of
+Austria in 1805, and in 1806 he dropped the title of Holy Roman
+ Emperor.  So the &ldquo;Holy Roman Empire&rdquo; came to an end.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1806. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Prussia overthrown at Jena.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1808. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Napoleon made his brother Joseph King of Spain.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1810. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Spanish America became republican.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1812. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Napoleon&rsquo;s retreat from Moscow.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1814. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Abdication of Napoleon.  Louis XVIII.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1824. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Charles X of France.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1825. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Nicholas I of Russia.  First railway, Stockton to Darlington.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1827. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Battle of Navarino.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1829. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Greece independent.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1830. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+A year of disturbance.  Louis Philippe ousted Charles X.  Belgium
+ broke away from Holland.  Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became king
+ of this new country, Belgium.  Russian Poland revolted
+ ineffectually.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1835. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The word &ldquo;socialism&rdquo; first used.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1837. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Queen Victoria.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1840. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1852. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Napoleon III Emperor of the French.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">1854-56.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Crimean War.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</tbody></table>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="P435"></a></span>
+</p>
+
+<table width="70%">
+<tbody>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1856. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Alexander II of Russia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1861. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Victor Emmanuel First King of Italy.  Abraham Lincoln became
+ President, U. S. A.  The American Civil War began.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1865. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Surrender of Appomattox Court House.  Japan opened to the world.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1870. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Napoleon III declared war against Prussia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1871. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Paris surrendered (January).  The King of Prussia became
+ &ldquo;German Emperor.&rdquo;  The Peace of Frankfort.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1878. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Treaty of Berlin.  The Armed Peace of forty-six years began in
+ western Europe.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1888. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Frederick II (March), William II (June), German Emperors.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1912. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+China became a republic.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1914. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Great War in Europe began.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1917. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The two Russian revolutions.  Establishment of the Bolshevik regime
+ in Russia.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1918. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Armistice.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1920. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+First meeting of the League of Nations, from which Germany, Austria,
+ Russia and Turkey were excluded and at which the United States was
+not represented.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1921. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+The Greeks, in complete disregard of the League of Nations, make war
+ upon the Turks.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">  1922. &nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top" align="left">
+Great defeat of the Greeks in Asia Minor by the Turks.
+</td>
+<td valign="top" align="right">
+  &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</tbody></table>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="P439"></a></span><a name="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h3>
+
+<p>
+A
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Abolitionist movement,<a href="#P384">384</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Abraham the Patriarch, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Abu Bekr", <a href="#P249">249</a>, <a href="#P252">252</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Abyssinia, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Actium, battle of, <a href="#P195">195</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Adam and Eve, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Adams, William, <a href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aden, <a href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Adowa, battle of, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Adrianople, <a href="#P229">229</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Adrianople, Treaty of, <a href="#P353">353</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Adriatic Sea, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P228">228</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ægatian Isles, <a href="#P182">182</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ægean peoples, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a
+href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a
+href="#P117">117</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Æolic Greeks, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P130">130</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aeroplanes, <a href="#P4">4</a>, <a href="#P363">363</a>, <a
+href="#P413">413</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Æschylus, <a href="#P139">139</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Afghanistan, <a href="#P163">163</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Africa, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a
+href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a
+href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Africa, Central, <a href="#P397">397</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Africa, North, <a href="#P65">65</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a
+href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a
+href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a
+href="#P394">394</a>, <a href="#P397">397</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Africa, South, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P335">335</a>, <a
+href="#P398">398</a>, <a href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Africa, West, <a href="#P393">393</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Age of Confusion,&rdquo; the, <a href="#P168">168</a>,
+<a href="#P173">173</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Agriculturalists, primitive, <a href="#P66">66</a>, <a
+href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Agriculture, <a href="#P203">203</a>; slaves in, <a href="#P203">203</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ahab, <a href="#P119">119</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Air-breathing vertebrata, <a href="#P23">23</a>, <a
+href="#P24">24</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Air-raids, <a href="#P413">413</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#P265">265</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Akbar, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P332">332</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Akkadian and Akkadians, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alabama, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Alabama</i>, the, <a href="#P388">388</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alani, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alaric, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Albania, <a href="#P179">179</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Prince Consort), <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alchemists, <a href="#P257">257</a>, <a href="#P294">294</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aldebaran, <a href="#P257">257</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alemanni, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alexander I. Tsar, <a href="#P348">348</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alexander II of Russia, <a href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alexander III, Pope, <a href="#P274">274</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alexander the Great, <a href="#P142">142</a>, <a href="#P146">146
+<i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#P163">163</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>,
+<a href="#P240">240</a>, <a href="#P299">299</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alexandretta, <a href="#P147">147</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alexandria, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a
+href="#P209">209</a>, <a href="#P222">222</a>, <a
+href="#P239">239</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alexandria, library at, <a href="#P151">151</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alexandria, museum of, <a href="#P150">150</a>, <a
+href="#P180">180</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alexius Comnenus, <a href="#P268">268</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alfred the Great, <a href="#P26">26</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Algæ, <a href="#P13">13</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Algebra, <a href="#P257">257</a>, <a href="#P282">282</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Algiers, <a href="#P185">185</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Algol, <a href="#P257">257</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Allah, <a href="#P252">252</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alligators, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alphabets, <a href="#P79">79</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alps, the, <a href="#P37">37</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Alsace, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a
+href="#P391">391</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aluminium, <a href="#P360">360</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Amenophis III, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Amenophis IV, <a href="#P96">96</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+America, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a
+href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P314">314</a>, <a
+href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P335">335</a>, <a
+href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P422">442-23</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+America, North, <a href="#P12">12</a>, <a href="#P330">330</a>, <a
+href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P382">382</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+American Civil War, <a href="#P386">386</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+American civilizations, primitive, <a href="#P73">73</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+American warships in Japanese waters, <a href="#P402">402</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ammonites, <a href="#P30">30</a>, <a href="#P36">36</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Amorites, <a href="#P90">90</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Amos, the prophet, <a href="#P124">124</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Amphibia, <a href="#P24">24</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Amphitheatres, <a href="#P208">208</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Amur, <a href="#P334">334</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Anagni, <a href="#P284">284</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Anatomy, <a href="#P24">24</a>, <a href="#P355">355</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Anaxagoras, <a href="#P138">138</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Anaximander of Miletus, <a href="#P132">132</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Andes, <a href="#P37">37</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Angles, <a href="#P230">230</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, <a href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Animals, (<i>See</i> Mammalia)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Annam, <a href="#P402">402</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Anti-aircraft guns, <a href="#P413">413</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Antigonus, <a href="#P149">149</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Antioch, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P271">271</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Antiochus III, <a href="#P183">183</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Anti-Slavery Society, <a href="#P384">384</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Antoninus Pius, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Antony, Mark, <a href="#P194">194</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Antwerp, <a href="#P294">294</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Anubis, <a href="#P210">210</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Apes, <a href="#P43">43</a>, <a href="#P44">44</a>; anthropoid,
+ <a href="#P45">45</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Apis, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a href="#P211">211</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Apollonius, <a href="#P151">151</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Appian Way, <a href="#P191">191</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Appomattox Court House, <a href="#P388">338</a>, <a
+href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aquileia, <a href="#P235">235</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Arabia, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a
+href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>,
+<a href="#P248">248</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Arabic figures, <a href="#P257">257</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Arabic language, <a href="#P243">243</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Arabs, <a href="#P253">253 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#P294">294;
+culture of</a>, <a href="#P267">267</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Arbela, battle of, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Arcadius, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Archangel, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Archimedes, <a href="#P151">151</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ardashir I, <a href="#P241">241</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Argentine Republic, <a href="#P396">396</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Arians, <a href="#P224">224</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aristocracy, <a href="#P130">130</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aristotle, <a href="#P142">142</a>, <a href="#P144">144</a>, <a
+href="#P146">146</a>, <a href="#P256">256</a>, <a
+href="#P282">282</a>, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a
+href="#P295">295</a>, <a href="#P356">356</a>, <a
+href="#P370">370</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Armadillo, <a href="#P74">74</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Armenia, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a
+href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P299">299</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Armenians, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Armistice, the, <a href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Arno, the, <a href="#P178">178</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Arsacid dynasty, <a href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Artizans, <a href="#P152">152</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aryan language, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a
+href="#P106">106</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aryans, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P104">104 <i>et
+seq.</i></a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P128">128</a>, <a
+href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a
+href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a
+href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P198">198</a>, <a
+href="#P233">233</a>, <a href="#P303">303</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ascalon, <a href="#P117">117</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Asceticism, <a href="#P158">158-60</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ashdod, <a href="#P117">117</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Asia, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a
+href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a
+href="#P298">298</a>, <a href="#P329">329 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a
+href="#P333">333</a>, <a href="#P399">399 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a
+href="#P403">403 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Asia, Central, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a
+href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a
+href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P245">245-47</a>, <a
+href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P334">334</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Asia Minor, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a
+href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a
+href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a
+href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P192">192-93</a>, <a
+href="#P238">238</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a
+href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P271">271</a>, <a
+href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Asia, Western, <a href="#P65">65</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Asoka, King, <a href="#P163">163</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Assam, <a href="#P394">394</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Asses, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a
+href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P112">112</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus), <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a
+href="#P98">98</a>, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Assyria, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a
+href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P121">121</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Assyrians, <a href="#P84">84</a>, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a
+href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P98">98</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>,
+<a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Astronomy, early, <a href="#P70">70</a>, <a href="#P74">74</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Athanasian Creed, <a href="#P224">224</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Athenians, <a href="#P135">135</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Athens, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P135">135-36</a>, <a
+href="#P139">139</a>, <a href="#P150">150</a>, <a
+href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P204">204</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Athens, schools of philosophy in, <a href="#P238">238</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Atkinson, C. F., <a href="#P345">345</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Atkinson, J. J., <a href="#P61">61</a>, <a href="#P373">373</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Atlantic, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Attalus, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Attila, <a href="#P234">234</a>, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a
+href="#P238">238</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Augsburg, Interim of, <a href="#P313">313</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Augustus Cæsar, Roman Emperor, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a
+href="#P214">214</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aurelian, Emperor, <a href="#P200">200</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aurochs, <a href="#P197">197</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Aurungzeb, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ausculum, battle of, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Australia, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a
+href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P395">395</a>, <a
+href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Austrasia, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Austria, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a
+href="#P347">347-48</a>, <a href="#P349">349-52</a>, <a
+href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P411">411</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Austrian Empire, <a href="#P409">409</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Austrians, <a href="#P344">344</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Automobiles, <a href="#P362">362</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Avars, <a href="#P289">289</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Avebury, <a href="#P106">106</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Averroes, <a href="#P282">282</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Avignon, <a href="#P285">285</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Axis of earth, <a href="#P1">1</a>, <a href="#P2">2</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Azilian age, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P65">65</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Azilian rock pictures, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Azoic rocks, <a href="#P11">11</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Azores, <a href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+B
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Baber, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a
+href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Baboons, <a href="#P43">43</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Babylon, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a
+href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P101">101</a>,
+<a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a
+href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P115">115-
+16</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P121">121</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a
+href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a
+href="#P373">373</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Babylonian calendar, <a href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Babylonian Empire, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a
+href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Babylonians, <a href="#P108">108</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bacon, Roger, <a href="#P293">293-97</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bacon, Sir Francis, <a href="#P321">321</a>, <a href="#P355">355</a>,
+<a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bagdad, <a href="#P256">256</a>, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a
+href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bahamas, <a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Baldwin of Flanders, <a href="#P272">272</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Balkan peninsula, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>,
+<a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P392">392</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Balkh, <a href="#P299">299</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Balloons, altitude attained by, <a href="#P4">4</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Baltic, <a href="#P415">415</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Baltic Fleet, Russian, <a href="#P404">404</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Baluchistan, <a href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Barbarians, <a href="#P227">227 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a
+href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P320">320</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Barbarossa. Frederick, (<i>See</i> Frederick I)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bards, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P234">234</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Barrows, <a href="#P104">104</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Barter, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Basketwork, <a href="#P65">65</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Basle, Council of, <a href="#P305">305</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Basque race, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P107">107</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bastille, <a href="#P342">342</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Basutoland, <a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Beaconsfield, Lord, <a href="#P394">394</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bedouins, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P248">248</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Beetles, <a href="#P26">26</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Behar, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Behring Straits, <a href="#P52">52</a>, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a
+href="#P73">73</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bel Marduk, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a
+href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P114">114</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Belgium, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P344">344</a>, <a
+href="#P347">347</a>, <a href="#P352">352</a>, <a
+href="#P411">411</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Belisarius, <a href="#P431">421</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Belshazzar, <a href="#P112">112</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Beluchistan, <a href="#P149">149</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Benares, <a href="#P156">156</a>, <a href="#P160">160</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Beneventum, <a href="#P179">179</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Berbers, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bergen, <a href="#P294">294</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Berlin, Treaty of, <a href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bermuda, <a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bessemer process, <a href="#P359">359</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Beth-shan, <a href="#P118">118</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bible, <a href="#P1">1</a>, <a href="#P68">68</a>, <a
+href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a
+href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>, <a
+href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P121">121</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P184">184</a>, <a
+href="#P286">286</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a>, <a href="#P306">306-07
+(<i>Cf.</i> Hebrew Bible)</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Birds, flight of, <a href="#P4">4; the earliest </a>, <a
+href="#P31">31; development of </a>, <a href="#P32">32</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bison, <a href="#P56">56</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Black Death, the, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Black Sea, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P94">94-95</a>, <a
+href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a
+href="#P200">200</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Blood sacrifice, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>, <a
+href="#P212">212</a> (<i>See also</i> Sacrifice)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Boats, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P136">136</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Boer republic, <a href="#P187">187</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Boers, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bohemia, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P306">306</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bohemians, <a href="#P304">304-05</a>, <a href="#P326">326</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bokhara, <a href="#P256">256</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Boleyn, Anne, <a href="#P313">313</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bolivar, General, <a href="#P349">349</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bologna, <a href="#P295">295</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bolsheviks (and Bolshevism), <a href="#P417">417-19</a>, <a
+href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bone carvings, <a href="#P53">53</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bone implements, <a href="#P45">45</a>, <a href="#P46">46</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Boniface VIII, Pope, <a href="#P283">283-84</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Book religions,&rdquo; <a href="#P226">226</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Books, <a href="#P153">153</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a>, <a
+href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bo&#246;tes, <a href="#P257">257</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Boris, King of Bulgaria, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bosnia, <a href="#P228">228</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bosphorus, <a href="#P135">135</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Boston, <a href="#P337">337-38</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bostra, <a href="#P243">243</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Botany Bay, <a href="#P393">393</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bourbon, Constable of, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bowmen, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P155">155</a>, <a
+href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Brahmins and Brahminism, <a href="#P165">165</a>, <a
+href="#P166">166</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Brain, <a href="#P42">42</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Brazil, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a
+href="#P340">340</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Breathing, <a href="#P24">24</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Brest-Litovsk, <a href="#P417">417</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Britain, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a
+href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a
+href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a
+href="#P349">349</a>, <a href="#P353">353</a>, <a
+href="#P402">402</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>, (<i>See also</i> England, Great Britain)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+British, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P331">331</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+British Civil Air Transport Commission, <a href="#P363">363</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+British East Indian Company, (<i>See</i> East India Company)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+British Empire, <a href="#P407">407</a>;  (in 1815)
+ <a href="#P393">393</a>; (in 1914) <a href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+British Guianu. <a href="#P393">393</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+British Navy, <a href="#P408">408</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;British schools,&rdquo; the, <a href="#P369">369</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Brittany, <a href="#P309">309</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Broken Hill, South Africa, <a href="#P52">52</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bronze, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a href="#P87">87</a>, <a
+href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P104">104</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bruges, <a href="#P294">294</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Brussels, <a href="#P344">344</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Brythonic Celts, <a href="#P107">107</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Buda-Pesth, <a href="#P312">312</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Buddha, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a href="#P156">156</a>, <a
+href="#P172">172</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a> <a
+href="#P429">429</a>; life of <a href="#P158">158</a>; his teaching
+<a href="#P161">161-62</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Buddhism (and Buddhists), <a href="#P166">166</a>, <a
+href="#P172">172</a>, <a href="#P222">222</a>, <a
+href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a
+href="#P319">319</a>, <a href="#P334">334</a>, <a
+href="#P400">400</a>, (<i>See also</i> Buddha)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bulgaria, <a href="#P135">135</a>, <a href="#P229">229</a>, <a
+href="#P245">245</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a
+href="#P411">411</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bull fights, Cretan, <a href="#P93">93</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Burgoyne, General, <a href="#P338">338</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Burgundy, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P342">342</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Burial, early, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P104">104</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Burleigh. Lord, <a href="#P324">324</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Burma, <a href="#P166">166</a>, <a href="#P300">300</a>, <a
+href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Burning the dead, <a href="#P104">104</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bury, J. B., <a href="#P288">288</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Bushmen, <a href="#P54">54</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Byzantine Army, <a href="#P253">253</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Byzantine Empire, <a href="#P238">238</a>, <a href="#P271">271-72</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Byzantine fleet, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Byzantium, <a href="#P228">228</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a
+href="#P267">267</a>, <a href="#P268">268</a>, (<i>See also</i>
+Constantinople)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+C
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cabul, <a href="#P148">148</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cæsar, Augustus, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cæsar, Julius, <a href="#P187">187</a>, <a href="#P192">192</a>,
+<a href="#P193">193</a>, <a href="#P194">194</a>, <a
+href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cæsar, title, etc., <a href="#P212">212</a>, <a
+href="#P223">223</a>, <a href="#P240">240</a>, <a
+href="#P327">327</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cainozoic period, <a href="#P37">37</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cairo, <a href="#P256">256</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Calendar, <a href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Calicut, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+California, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P383">383</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Caligula, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Caliphs, <a href="#P252">252</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Cambulac,&rdquo; <a href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cambyses, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Camels, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a
+href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a
+href="#P319">319</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Campanella, <a href="#P371">371</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Canaan, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Canada, <a href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P396">396</a>, <a
+href="#P405">405</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Canary Islands, <a href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cannæ, <a href="#P182">182</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Canossa, <a href="#P274">274</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Canton, <a href="#P247">247</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Canute, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cape Colony, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P393">393</a>,
+<a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Capet, Hugh, <a href="#P266">266</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Carboniferous age.  (<i>See</i> Coal swamps)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cardinals, <a href="#P277">277</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Caria, <a href="#P98">98</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Carians, <a href="#P94">94</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Caribou, <a href="#P73">73</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Carlovingian Empire, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Carnac, <a href="#P106">106</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Carolinas, <a href="#P388">388</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Carrhæ, <a href="#P194">194</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Carthage, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a
+href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a
+href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a
+href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P183">183</a>, <a
+href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P429">429-
+30</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Carthaginians, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a href="#P182">182</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Caspian Sea, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a
+href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a
+href="#P193">193</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Caste, <a href="#P157">157</a>, <a href="#P165">165</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Catalonians, <a href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Cathay,&rdquo; <a href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Catholicism, <a href="#P237">237</a>, <a href="#P337">337</a>, <a
+href="#P351">351</a>. (<i>See also</i> Papacy, Roman Catholic)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cato, <a href="#P187">187</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cattle, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P83">83</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Caudine Forks, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cavalry, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a
+href="#P178">178</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cave drawings, <a href="#P53">53</a>, <a href="#P56">56</a>, <a
+href="#P57">57</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Caxton, William, <a href="#P306">306</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Celibacy, <a href="#P275">275</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Celts, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P107">107</a>, <a
+href="#P193">193</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Centipedes, <a href="#P23">23</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ceylon, <a href="#P165">165</a>, <a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chæronia, battle of, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a
+href="#P146">146</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chalcedon, <a href="#P243">243</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chaldean Empire, <a href="#P109">109</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chaldeans, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P110">110-11</a>, <a
+href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chandragupta, <a href="#P163">163</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chariots, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a
+href="#P101">101-02</a>, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a
+href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a
+href="#P148">148</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Charlemagne, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a href="#P261">261</a>, <a
+href="#P264">264-65</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a
+href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Charles I, King of England, <a href="#P308">308</a>, <a
+href="#P314">314</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Charles II, King of England, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Charles V, Emperor, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P310">310</a>,
+<a href="#P314">314</a>, <a href="#P316">316</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Charles X, King of France, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Charles the Great, (<i>See</i> Charlemagne)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Charlotte Dundas</i>, steamboat, <a href="#P357">357</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chelonia, <a href="#P27">27</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chemists, Arab, <a href="#P257">257</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> Alchemists)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cheops, <a href="#P83">83</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chephren, <a href="#P83">83</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+China, <a href="#P76">76</a>, <a href="#P84">84</a>, <a
+href="#P103">103</a>, <a href="#P166">166</a>, <a
+href="#P167">167</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a
+href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P233">233</a>, <a
+href="#P245">245</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P248">248</a>, <a
+href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a
+href="#P297">297</a>, <a href="#P333">333</a>, <a href="#P399">399-
+400</a>, <a href="#P402">402-03</a>, <a href="#P411">411</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429-31</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a>.  (<i>See also</i>
+Chow, Han, Kin, Ming, Shang, Sung, Suy, Ts&rsquo;in, and Yuan
+dynasties)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+China, culture and civilization in, <a href="#P247">247</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+China, Empire of, <a href="#P196">196</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+China, Great Wall of, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+China, North, <a href="#P173">173</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chinese picture writing, <a href="#P79">79</a>, <a
+href="#P167">167</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chosroes I, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chosroes II, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chow dynasty, <a href="#P168">168</a>, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Christ.  (<i>See</i> Jesus)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Christian conception of Jesus, <a href="#P214">214</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Christianity (and Christians), <a href="#P224">224</a>, <a
+href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a
+href="#P295">295</a>, <a href="#P319">319</a>, <a
+href="#P400">400</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Christianity, doctrinal, development of, <a href="#P222">222</a>
+<i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Christianity, spirit of, <a href="#P224">224</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chronicles, book of, <a href="#P116">116</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Chronology, primitive, <a href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ch&rsquo;u, <a href="#P173">173</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Church, the, <a href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cicero, <a href="#P193">193</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cilicia, <a href="#P299">299</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cimmerians, <a href="#P100">100</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Circumcision, <a href="#P70">70</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Circumnavigation, <a href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cities, Sumerian, <a href="#P78">78</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Citizenship, <a href="#P187">187</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P237">237</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+City states, Greek, <a href="#P129">129</a> <i>et seq.</i>, Chinese,
+<a href="#P168">168</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Civilization, <a href="#P100">100</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Civilization, Hellenic, <a href="#P139">139</a>, <a
+href="#P150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Civilization, Japanese, <a href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Civilization, pre-historic, <a href="#P71">71</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Civilization, primitive, <a href="#P76">76</a>, <a
+href="#P167">167</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Civilization, Roman, <a href="#P185">185</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Claudius, Emperor, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Clay documents, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a
+href="#P111">111</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Clement V, Pope, <a href="#P285">285</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Clement VII, Pope, <a href="#P285">285</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cleopatra, <a href="#P194">194</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Clermont, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Clermont</i>, steamboat, <a href="#P358">358</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Climate, changes of, <a href="#P21">21</a>, <a href="#P37">37</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Clive, <a href="#P333">333</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Clothing, <a href="#P77">77</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Clothing of Cretan women, <a href="#P93">93</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Clouds, <a href="#P8">8</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Clovis, <a href="#P259">259</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Clyde, Firth of, <a href="#P357">357</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cnossos (Crete), <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a
+href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P101">101</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>,
+<a href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Coal, <a href="#P26">26</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Coal swamps, the age of, <a href="#P21">21</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Coinage, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a
+href="#P201">201</a>, <a href="#P319">319</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Coke, <a href="#P322">322</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Collectivists, <a href="#P375">375</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Colonies, <a href="#P394">394</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#P300">300-01</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P335">335</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Communism (and Communists), <a href="#P374">374-75</a>, <a
+href="#P417">417</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Comnenus, Alexius.  (<i>See</i> Alexius)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Comparative anatomy, science of, <a href="#P25">25</a>, (<i>Cf.</i>
+Anatomy)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Concord, Mass., <a href="#P338">338</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Confederated States of America, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Confucius, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a href="#P168">168</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Congo, <a href="#P397">397</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Conifers, <a href="#P26">26</a>, <a href="#P36">36</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Constance, Council of, <a href="#P286">286</a>, <a
+href="#P304">304</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Constantine the Great, <a href="#P187">187</a>, <a
+href="#P226">226</a>, <a href="#P228">228</a>, <a
+href="#P229">229</a>, <a href="#P241">241</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Constantinople, <a href="#P229">229</a>, <a href="#P238">238</a>, <a
+href="#P239">239</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a
+href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P263">263-
+64</a>, <a href="#P270">270</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P283">283</a>, <a
+href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P301">301</a>, <a
+href="#P321">321</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>.  (<i>See also</i> Byzantium)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Consuls, Roman, <a href="#P193">193</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Copper, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a
+href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P360">360</a>, <a
+href="#P395">395</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cordoba, <a href="#P256">256</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Corinth, <a href="#P129">129</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cornwallis, General, <a href="#P338">338</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Corsets, <a href="#P93">93</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Corsica, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a
+href="#P232">232</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cortez, <a href="#P314">314</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cossacks, <a href="#P334">334</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cotton fabrics, <a href="#P102">102</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Couvade, the, <a href="#P70">70</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Crabs, <a href="#P23">23</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Crassus, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a href="#P194">194</a>, <a
+href="#P199">199</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Creation of the world, story of, <a href="#P1">1</a>, <a
+href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Creed religions, <a href="#P240">240</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cretan script, <a href="#P94">94</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Crete, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Crimea, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Crimean War, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Crocodiles, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Crœsus, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cro-Magnon race, <a href="#P51">51</a>, <a href="#P54">54</a>, <a
+href="#P65">65</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cromwell, Oliver, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cronstadt, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Crucifixion, <a href="#P204">204</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Crusades, <a href="#P267">267</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P281">281</a>, <a href="#P304">304-05</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Crustacea, <a href="#P13">13</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ctesiphon, <a href="#P244">244</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cuba, <a href="#P393">393</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cultivation, the beginnings of, <a href="#P65">65</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Culture, Heliolithic, <a href="#P69">69</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Culture, Japanese, <a href="#P402">402</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cuneiform, <a href="#P78">78</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Currents, <a href="#P18">18</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cyaxares, <a href="#P109">109-10</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cycads, <a href="#P26">26</a>, <a href="#P36">36</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Cyrus the Persian, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>,
+<a href="#P121">121</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a
+href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Czech language, <a href="#P236">236</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Czecho-Slovaks, <a href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Czechs, <a href="#P304">304</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+D
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dacia, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a
+href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a
+href="#P236">236</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dædalus, <a href="#P94">94</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dalmatia, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">Damascus, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a
+href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">Danes, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a
+href="#P330">330</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Danube, <a href="#P135">135</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a
+href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dardanelles, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a
+href="#P292">292</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Darius I, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a
+href="#P135">135</a>, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Darius III, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Darlington, <a href="#P356">356</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+David, King, <a href="#P118">118-19</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Da Vinci, Leonardo, <a href="#P356">356</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Davis, Jefferson, <a href="#P385">385</a>, <a href="#P388">388</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dawn Man.  (<i>See</i> Eoanthropus)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dead, burning the, <a href="#P104">104</a>; burial of (<i>See</i>
+Burial)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Debtors&rsquo; prisons, <a href="#P336">336</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Deciduous trees, <a href="#P36">36</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Decius, Emperor, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Declaration of Independence, <a href="#P334">334</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (Gibbon&rsquo;s), <a
+href="#P288">288-89</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Deer, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P56">56</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Defender of the Faith, title of, <a href="#P313">313</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Defoe, Daniel, <a href="#P365">365</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Delhi, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Democracy, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P132">132</a>, <a
+href="#P270">270</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Deniken, General, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Denmark, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a
+href="#P394">394</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Deshima, <a href="#P401">401</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Devonian system, <a href="#P19">19</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Diaz, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dictator, Roman, <a href="#P194">194</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dillon, Dr., <a href="#P424">424</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dinosaurs, <a href="#P28">28</a>, <a href="#P31">31</a>, <a
+href="#P36">36</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Diocletian, Emperor, <a href="#P224">224</a>, <a
+href="#P226">226</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dionysius, <a href="#P170">170</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Diplodocus Carnegii, measurement of, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Diseases, infectious, <a href="#P379">379</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ditchwater, animal and plant life in, <a href="#P13">13</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dogs, <a href="#P42">42</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Domazlice, battle of, <a href="#P305">305</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dominic, St., <a href="#P276">276</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dominician Order, <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a href="#P285">285</a>,
+<a href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dorian Greeks, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P130">130</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Douglas, Senator, <a href="#P386">386</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dover, Straits of, <a href="#P193">193</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dragon flies, <a href="#P23">23</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Drama, Greek, <a href="#P139">139</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dravidian civilization, <a href="#P108">108</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dravidians, <a href="#P71">71</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Duck-billed platypus, <a href="#P34">34</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Duma, the, <a href="#P416">416</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Durazzo, <a href="#P268">268</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dutch, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P331">331</a>, <a
+href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P399">399</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dutch Guiana, <a href="#P394">394</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dutch Republic, <a href="#P350">350</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Dyeing, <a href="#P75">75</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+E
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Earth, the, shape of, <a href="#P1">1</a>; rotation of, <a
+href="#P1">1</a>; distance from the sun, <a href="#P2">2</a>; age and
+origin of, <a href="#P5">5</a>; surface of, <a href="#P21">21</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Earthquakes, <a href="#P95">95</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+East India Company, <a href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P337">337</a>,
+<a href="#P393">393</a>, <a href="#P394">394</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+East Indies, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a href="#P399">399</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ebro, <a href="#P182">182</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ecbatana, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P114">114</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Echidna, the, <a href="#P34">34</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Eclipses, <a href="#P8">8</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ecnomus, battle of, <a href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Economists, French, <a href="#P371">371</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Edessa, <a href="#P271">271</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Education, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P361">361</a>, <a
+href="#P368">368</a>, <a href="#P369">369</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Egbert, King of Wessex, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Egg-laying mammals, <a href="#P34">34</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Eggs, <a href="#P24">24</a>, <a href="#P26">26</a>, <a
+href="#P31">31</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Egypt (and Egyptians), <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a>,
+<a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P92">62</a>,
+<a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P98">98</a>, <a href="#P100">100-
+101</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a
+href="#P121">121</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a
+href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P124">124</a>, <a
+href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P138">138</a>, <a
+href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a
+href="#P208">208</a>, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a
+href="#P210">210</a>, <a href="#P238">238</a>, <a
+href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a
+href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a
+href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P398">398</a>, <a
+href="#P405">405</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Egyptian script, <a href="#P78">78</a>, <a href="#P79">79</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Elamites, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a
+href="#P174">174</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Elba, <a href="#P348">348</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Electric light, <a href="#P360">360</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Electric traction, <a href="#P360">360</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Electricity, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P358">358</a>,
+ <a href="#P360">360</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Elephants, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a
+href="#P149">149</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a
+href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a
+href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Elixir of life, <a href="#P257">257</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P332">332</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Emigration, <a href="#P336">336</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Emperor, title of, <a href="#P327">327</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Employer and employed, <a href="#P375">375</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Encyclopædists,&rdquo; the, <a href="#P371">371</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+England (and English), <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a
+href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+England, Norman Conquest of, <a href="#P266">266</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+England, overseas possessions, <a href="#P330">330</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+English Channel, <a href="#P331">331</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+English language, <a href="#P95">95</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Entelodonts, <a href="#P42">42</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Eoanthropus, <a href="#P47">47</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Eoliths, <a href="#P45">45</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ephesus, <a href="#P149">149</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ephthalites, <a href="#P199">199</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Epics, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a
+href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P131">131</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Epirus, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a
+href="#P179">179</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Epistles, the, <a href="#P222">222</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Eratosthenes, <a href="#P151">151</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Erech, Sumerian city of, <a href="#P78">78</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Esarhaddon, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Essenes, <a href="#P213">213</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Esthonia, <a href="#P245">245</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Esthonians, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ethiopian dynasty, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ethiopians, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P233">233</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Etruscans, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a
+href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Euclid, <a href="#P151">151</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Euphrates, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a
+href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a
+href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Euripides, <a href="#P139">139</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Europe, <a href="#P200">200</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Europe, Central, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Europe, Concert of, <a href="#P350">350</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Europe, Western, <a href="#P53">53</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+European overseas populations, <a href="#P336">336</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Europeans, intellectual revival of, <a href="#P294">294</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Europeans, North Atlantic, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Europeans, Western, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Everlasting League, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Evolution, <a href="#P16">16</a>, <a href="#P42">42</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Excommunication, <a href="#P275">275</a>, <a href="#P281">281</a>, <a
+href="#P285">285</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Execution. Greek method of, <a href="#P140">140</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ezekiel, <a href="#P124">124</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+F
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Factory system, <a href="#P365">365</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Family groups, <a href="#P61">61</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Famine, <a href="#P420">420</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Faraday, <a href="#P358">358</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fashoda, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fatherhood of God, the, <a href="#P215">215</a>, <a
+href="#P224">224</a>, <a href="#P251">251</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fear, <a href="#P61">61</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Feathers, <a href="#P32">32</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ferdinand of Aragon, King, <a href="#P293">293</a>, <a
+href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ferns, <a href="#P23">23</a>, <a href="#P26">26</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fertilizers, <a href="#P363">363</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fetishism, <a href="#P63">63</a>, <a href="#P64">64</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Feudal system, <a href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a
+href="#P401">401</a>, <a href="#P402">402</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fielding, Henry, <a href="#P365">365</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fiji, <a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Finance, <a href="#P134">134</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Finland, <a href="#P245">245</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Finns, <a href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fish, the age of, <a href="#P16">16</a> <i>et seq.</i>; the first
+known vertebrata, <a href="#P19">19</a>; evolution of, <a
+href="#P30">30</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fisher, Lord, <a href="#P416">416</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fishing, <a href="#P57">57</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fleming, Bishop, <a href="#P286">286</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Flint implements, <a href="#P44">44</a>, <a href="#P47">47</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Flood, story of the, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Florence, <a href="#P294">294</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Florentine Society, <a href="#P322">322</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Florida, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Flying machines, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P363">363</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fontainebleau, <a href="#P348">348</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Food, rationing of, <a href="#P414">414</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Food riots, <a href="#P417">417</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Forests, <a href="#P56">56</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fossils, <a href="#P13">13</a>, <a href="#P43">43</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i>
+Rocks)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fowl, the domestic, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+France, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a
+href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a
+href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a
+href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P342">342</a>, <a
+href="#P353">353</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a
+href="#P391">391</a>, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a
+href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P402">402</a>, <a
+href="#P409">409</a>, <a href="#P411">411</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Francis I, King of France, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a
+href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Francis II, Emperor of Austria, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Francis of Assisi, St., <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Franciscan Order, <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a href="#P285">285</a>,
+<a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Frankfort, Peace of, <a href="#P391">391</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Franks, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a
+href="#P235">235</a>, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a
+href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Frazer, Sir J. G., <a href="#P66">66</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Frederick I (Barbarossa), <a href="#P274">274</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Frederick I, King of Prussia, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Frederick II, German Emperor, <a href="#P279">279</a>, <a
+href="#P280">280</a>, <a href="#P288">288</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P289">289</a>, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a
+href="#P304">304</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Frederick II, King of Sicily, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Frederick the Great of Prussia, <a href="#P327">437</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Freeman&rsquo;s Farm, <a href="#P338">338</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+French, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P331">331</a>, <a
+href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+French Guiana, <a href="#P394">394</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+French language, <a href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a
+href="#P328">328</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+French Revolution, <a href="#P342">342</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P374">374</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Frogs, <a href="#P24">24</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fronde, war of the, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Fulton, Robert, <a href="#P358">358</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Furnace, blast, <a href="#P359">359</a>; electric, <a
+href="#P359">359</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Furs, <a href="#P335">335</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+G
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Galatia, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Galatians, <a href="#P193">193</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Galba, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Galerius, Emperor, <a href="#P226">226</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Galleys, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a
+href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P263">263</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Galvani, <a href="#P258">258</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gamma, Vasco da, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P335">335</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ganges, <a href="#P156">156</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gath, <a href="#P117">117</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gaul, <a href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a
+href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P357">357</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gauls, <a href="#P154">154</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a
+href="#P179">179</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a
+href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P193">193</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gautama.  (<i>See</i> Buddha)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gaza, <a href="#P117">117</a>, <a href="#P147">147</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gaztelu, <a href="#P314">314</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Genoa (and Genoese), <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a
+href="#P300">300</a>, <a href="#P301">301</a>, <a
+href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Genoa Conference, <a href="#P425">425</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Genseric, <a href="#P232">232</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Geology, <a href="#P11">11</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P356">356</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+George III, King of England, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a
+href="#P337">337</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Georgia, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P339">339</a>, <a
+href="#P385">385</a>, <a href="#P387">387</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+German Empire, <a href="#P409">409</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+German language, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a
+href="#P260">260</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Germans, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a href="#P288">288</a>, <a
+href="#P310">310</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>, <a href="#P360">360-
+61</a>, <a href="#P362">362</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Germany, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P326">326</a>, <a
+href="#P347">347</a>, <a href="#P348">348</a>, <a
+href="#P362">362</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a
+href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P402">402</a>, <a
+href="#P409">409</a>, <a href="#P410">410</a>, <a
+href="#P411">411</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Germany, North, <a href="#P306">306</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gibbon, E., <a href="#P234">234</a>, <a href="#P288">288</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gibraltar, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a
+href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P393">393</a>,
+<a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gigantosaurus, measurement of, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gilbert, Dr., <a href="#P322">322</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gilboa, Mount, <a href="#P118">118</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gills, <a href="#P24">24</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Giraffes, <a href="#P42">42</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gizeh, pyramids at, <a href="#P83">83</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Glacial Ages, <a href="#P22">22</a>, <a href="#P37">37</a>, <a
+href="#P44">44</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gladiators, <a href="#P205">205</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Glass, <a href="#P102">102</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Glyptodon, <a href="#P74">74</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Goa, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Goats, <a href="#P77">77</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+God, idea of one true, <a href="#P249">249</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+God of Judaism, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a
+href="#P213">213</a>, <a href="#P214">214</a>, <a
+href="#P215">215</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Godfrey of Bouillon, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gods, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a
+href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P165">165</a>, <a
+href="#P184">184</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>, <a
+href="#P201">201</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P208">208</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>, <a href="#P240">240</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Goidelic Celts, <a href="#P106">106</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gold, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a
+href="#P83">83</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P300">300</a>,
+<a href="#P395">395</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Golden Bough</i>, Frazer&rsquo;s, <a href="#P66">66</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Good Hope, Cape of.  (<i>See</i> Cape)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gospels, the, <a href="#P214">214</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P222">222</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gothic kingdom, <a href="#P259">259</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gothland, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Goths, <a href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a
+href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P228">228</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Granada, <a href="#P293">293</a>, <a href="#P301">301</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Granicus, battle of the, <a href="#P146">146</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Grant, General, <a href="#P387">387</a>, <a href="#P388">388</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Graphite, <a href="#P15">15</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Grass, <a href="#P37">37</a>, <a href="#P51">51</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Great Britain, <a href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P410">410</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Great Mogul, Empire of, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Great Powers, <a href="#P399">399</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Great Schism.  (<i>See</i> Papal schism)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Great War, the, <a href="#P411">411</a> <i>et seq. </i>, <a
+href="#P421">421</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Greece, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a
+href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a
+href="#P139">139</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P145">145</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Greece, war with Persia, <a href="#P134">134</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Greek language, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a
+href="#P203">203</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Greeks, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a
+href="#P101">101</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P135">135</a>, <a
+href="#P150">150</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a
+href="#P186">186</a>, <a href="#P271">271</a>, <a
+href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P301">301</a>, <a
+href="#P353">353</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Greenland, <a href="#P263">263</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gregory I, Pope, <a href="#P263">263</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gregory VII, Pope (Hildebrand), <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a
+href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P274">274</a>, <a
+href="#P275">275</a>, <a href="#P278">278</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gregory IX, Pope, <a href="#P281">281</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gregory XI, Pope, <a href="#P285">285</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gregory the Great, <a href="#P272">272</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Grimaldi race, <a href="#P51">51</a>, <a href="#P54">54</a>, <a
+href="#P65">65</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Guillotine, the, <a href="#P346">346</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Guiscard, Robert, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gunpowder, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P321">321</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Guns, <a href="#P321">321</a>, <a href="#P413">413</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gustavus Adolphus, <a href="#P331">331</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Gymnastic displays, Cretan, <a href="#P93">93</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+H
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Habsburgs, <a href="#P283">283</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a
+href="#P310">310</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hadrian, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Halicarnassus, <a href="#P138">138</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hamburg, <a href="#P294">294</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hamitic people, <a href="#P71">71</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hammurabi, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a
+href="#P104">104</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Han dynasty, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a
+href="#P245">245</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hannibal, <a href="#P182">182</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hanover, Elector of, <a href="#P327">327</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Harding, President, <a href="#P425">425</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Harold Hardrada, <a href="#P266">266</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Harold, King of England, <a href="#P266">266</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Haroun-al-Raschid, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hastings, battle of, <a href="#P266">266</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hastings, Warren, <a href="#P333">333</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hatasu, Queen of Egypt, <a href="#P96">96</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hathor, <a href="#P209">209</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Heaven, Kingdom of, <a href="#P216">216</a>, <a href="#P217">217</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hebrew Bible, <a href="#P1">1</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a
+href="#P116">116</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> Bible)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hebrew literature, <a href="#P100">100</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hebrews, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>.  (<i>See
+also</i> Jews)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hegira, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Heidelberg man, <a href="#P45">45</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Heliolithic culture, <a href="#P69">69</a>, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a
+href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Heliolithic peoples, <a href="#P107">107</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hellenic tribes, <a href="#P100">100</a>.  (<i>See also</i> Greeks)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hellespont, <a href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Helots, <a href="#P130">130</a>, <a href="#P203">203</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hen.  (<i>See</i> Fowl)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Henry IV, King, <a href="#P274">274</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Henry VI, Emperor, <a href="#P279">279</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Henry VIII, King of England, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a
+href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a
+href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Henry the Fowler, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Heraclea, battle of, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Heraclitus of Ephesus, <a href="#P132">132</a>, <a
+href="#P156">156</a>, <a href="#P161">161</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Heraclius, Emperor, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P247">247</a>,
+<a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Herat, <a href="#P148">148</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Herbivorous reptiles, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hercules, Pillars of, (<i>See</i> Gibraltar)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hero, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P152">152</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Herodotus, <a href="#P138">138</a>, <a href="#P139">139</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Herophilus, <a href="#P151">151</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hiero, <a href="#P182">182</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hieroglyphics, <a href="#P79">79</a>, <a href="#P124">124</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hildebrand. (<i>See</i> Gregory VII)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Himalayas, the, <a href="#P37">37</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hipparchus, <a href="#P151">151</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hippopotamus, <a href="#P43">43</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hiram, King of Sidon, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a
+href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>History of Charles V</i>, <a href="#P316">316</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hittites, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a
+href="#P98">98</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hohenstaufens, <a href="#P283">283</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Holland, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P344">344</a>, <a
+href="#P347">347</a>, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a
+href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P402">402</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Holstein, <a href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Holy Alliance, <a href="#P349">349</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#P264">264</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>,
+<a href="#P317">317</a>, <a href="#P323">323</a>, <a
+href="#P347">347</a>, <a href="#P377">377</a>, <a
+href="#P409">409</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Homer, <a href="#P129">129</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Honorius, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Honorius III, Pope, <a href="#P281">281</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Horse, <a href="#P51">51</a>, <a href="#P56">56</a>, <a
+href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a
+href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a
+href="#P319">319</a>, <a href="#P336">336</a>; evolution of the, <a
+href="#P42">42</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Horsetails, <a href="#P23">23</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Horus, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a href="#P210">210</a>, <a
+href="#P211">211</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hottentots, <a href="#P54">54</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hsia, <a href="#P287">287</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hudson Bay Company, <a href="#P393">393</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hudson River, <a href="#P358">358</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hulagu Khan, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Human sacrifice, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>.
+(<i>Cf.</i> Blood Sacrifice, Sacrifice)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hungarians, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P289">289</a>, <a
+href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hungary, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P203">203</a>, <a
+href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a
+href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a
+href="#P289">289</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a
+href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a
+href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hungary, plain of, <a href="#P234">234</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Huns, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a
+href="#P168">168</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a
+href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P198">198</a>, <a
+href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a
+href="#P233">233</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a
+href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P289">289</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hunting, <a href="#P56">56</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Huss, John, <a href="#P304">304</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hussites, <a href="#P305">305</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hwang-ho river, <a href="#P173">173</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hwang-ho valley, <a href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hyksos, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P96">96</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hyracodons, <a href="#P42">42</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Hystaspes, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Iberians, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ice age, <a href="#P43">43</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> Glacial ages)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Iceland, <a href="#P263">263</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ichthyosaurs, <a href="#P29">29</a>, <a href="#P36">36</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ignatius of Loyola, St., <a href="#P308">308</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Iliad</i>, <a href="#P127">127</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Illinois, <a href="#P386">386</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Illyria, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a href="#P182">182</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Immolation of human beings, <a href="#P102">102</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Immortality, idea of, <a href="#P210">210</a>, <a
+href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P224">224</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Imperialism, <a href="#P399">399</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Implements, <a href="#P46">46</a>, <a href="#P48">48</a>, <a
+href="#P56">56</a>, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P65">65</a>, <a
+href="#P87">87</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Implements, use of, by animals, <a href="#P44">44</a>, <a
+href="#P45">45</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+India, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P84">84</a>, <a
+href="#P104">104</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a
+href="#P156">156</a>, <a href="#P163">163</a>, <a
+href="#P164">164</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a
+href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a
+href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P335">335</a>, <a href="#P394">394-
+95</a>, <a href="#P399">399</a>, <a href="#P409">409</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Indian Empire, <a href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Indian Ocean, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Indiana, <a href="#P383">383</a>, <a href="#P386">386</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Individualists, <a href="#P375">375</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Individuality in reproduction, <a href="#P16">16</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Indo-Scythians, <a href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Indus, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Industrial revolution, <a href="#P365">365</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Infantry, <a href="#P178">178</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Influenza, <a href="#P414">414</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Innocent III, Pope, <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a href="#P279">279</a>,
+<a href="#P280">280</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Innocent IV, Pope, <a href="#P281">281</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Innsbruck, <a href="#P313">313</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Inquisition, the, <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a href="#P349">349</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Insects, <a href="#P26">26</a>, <a href="#P31">31</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Interdicts, papal, <a href="#P275">275</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Interglacial period, <a href="#P44">44</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Internationalism, <a href="#P380">380</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Invertebrata, <a href="#P13">13</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Investitures, <a href="#P275">275</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ionic Greeks, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P130">130</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Iowa, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ireland, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Iron, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a href="#P87">87</a>, <a
+href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>,
+<a href="#P104">104</a>, <a href="#P168">168</a>, <a
+href="#P319">319</a>, <a href="#P321">321</a>, <a
+href="#P358">358</a>, <a href="#P359">359</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Irrigation, <a href="#P290">290</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Isabella of Castile, Queen, <a href="#P293">293</a>, <a
+href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Isaiah, <a href="#P125">125</a>, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a
+href="#P156">156</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Isis, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a href="#P210">210</a>, <a
+href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Islam, <a href="#P251">251</a>, <a href="#P252">252</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Islamism, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a href="#P319">319</a>.  (<i>See
+also</i> Moslem, Muhammedanism)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Isocrates, <a href="#P145">145</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Israel, judges of, <a href="#P118">118</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Israel, kings of, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>,
+<a href="#P121">121</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Issus, battle of, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Italian language, <a href="#P203">203</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Italians, <a href="#P107">107</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Italica, <a href="#P202">202</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Italy, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a
+href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a
+href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a
+href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a
+href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a
+href="#P347">347</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a
+href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P409">409</a>, <a
+href="#P411">411</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Italy, Central, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Italy, North, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a
+href="#P351">351</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Italy, South, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ivan III (the Great), <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ivan IV (the Terrible), <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+J
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jacobin republic, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jamaica, <a href="#P393">393</a>, <a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+James I, King of England and Scotland, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jamestown (Va.), <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Japan, <a href="#P166">166</a>, <a href="#P300">300</a>, <a
+href="#P399">399</a>, <a href="#P400">400-01</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P409">409</a>, <a href="#P410">410</a>, <a
+href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Japanese, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jarandilla, <a href="#P315">315</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Java, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jaw-bone, Heidelberg, <a href="#P45">45-46</a>; Piltdown, <a
+href="#P46">46</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jehovah, <a href="#P125">125</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jena, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jengis Khan, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a>, <a
+href="#P334">334</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jerusalem, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>, <a
+href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P121">121</a>, <a
+href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P124">124</a>, <a
+href="#P184">184</a>, <a href="#P215">215</a>, <a
+href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a
+href="#P271">271</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a
+href="#P299">299</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jerusalem, Temple of, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a
+href="#P184">184</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jesuits, <a href="#P308">308</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jesus, life and teaching of, <a href="#P214">214</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+<a href="#P224">224</a>, <a href="#P270">270</a>, <a
+href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P374">374</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jews, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P124">124</a>, <a
+href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P184">184</a>, <a
+href="#P213">213</a>, <a href="#P215">215</a>, <a
+href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P256">256</a>, <a
+href="#P270">270</a>, <a href="#P294">294</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jews, early history of, <a href="#P115">115</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jews, literature of, <a href="#P115">115</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jewish religion and sacred books, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+John III of Poland, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+John XI, Pope, <a href="#P272">272</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+John XII, Pope, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Joppa, <a href="#P117">117</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Joseph, King of Spain, <a href="#P349">349</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Josiah, King of Judah, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a
+href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Judah, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Judah, kings of, <a href="#P119">119</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Judea, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P183">183</a>, <a
+href="#P214">214</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Judea, priests and prophets in, <a href="#P122">122</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Judges, book of, <a href="#P117">117</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Judges of Israel, <a href="#P118">118</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jugo-Slavia, <a href="#P354">354</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jugo-Slavs, <a href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jugurtha, <a href="#P192">192</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Julian the Apostate, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Julius III, <a href="#P316">316</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Junks, Chinese, <a href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jupiter (god), <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jupiter (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jupiter Capitolinus, <a href="#P184">184</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jupiter Serapis, <a href="#P226">226</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Justinian I, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P238">238</a>, <a
+href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Jutes, <a href="#P230">230</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+K
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kaaba, the, <a href="#P249">249</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kadessia, battle of, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kalinga, <a href="#P163">163</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kansas, <a href="#P383">383</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Karakorum, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Karnak, <a href="#P101">101</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kashgar, <a href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kashmir, Buddhists in, <a href="#P165">165</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kavadh, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P244">244</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kentucky, <a href="#P383">383</a>, <a href="#P386">386</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kerensky, <a href="#P416">416</a>, <a href="#P417">417</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Khans, <a href="#P287">287</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Khyber Pass, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a href="#P199">199</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kiau Chau, <a href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kieff, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kin dynasty, <a href="#P287">287</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kings, book of, <a href="#P119">119</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kioto, <a href="#P402">402</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ki-wi, the, <a href="#P32">32</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Koltchak, Admiral, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Koran, the, <a href="#P251">251</a>, <a href="#P255">255</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Korea, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a href="#P402">402</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kotan, <a href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Krum of Bulgaria, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kublai Khan, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a>, <a
+href="#P300">300</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Kushan dynasty, <a href="#P199">199</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+L
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Labyrinth, Cretan, <a href="#P127">127</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lahore, <a href="#P287">287</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lake Ontario, <a href="#P336">336</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Land scorpions, <a href="#P23">23</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Langley, Professor, <a href="#P363">363</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Languages of mankind, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P95">95</a>,
+<a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a
+href="#P107">107</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a
+href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a
+href="#P156">156</a>, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a
+href="#P201">201</a>, <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a
+href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a
+href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a
+href="#P245">245</a>, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a
+href="#P325">325</a>, <a href="#P328">328</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lao Tse, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a href="#P170">170</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>, <a href="#P222">222</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lapland, <a href="#P233">233</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Latin Emperor, <a href="#P259">259</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Latin language, <a href="#P201">201</a>, <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a
+href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a
+href="#P259">259</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> also Languages)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Latins, the, <a href="#P271">271</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Law, <a href="#P238">238</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Laws</i>, Plato&rsquo;s, <a href="#P142">142</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+League of Nations, <a href="#P422">422</a>, <a href="#P423">423</a>,
+<a href="#P424">424</a>, <a href="#P425">425</a>, <a
+href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Learning, <a href="#P255">255</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lee, General, <a href="#P387">387</a>, <a href="#P389">389</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Legionaries, <a href="#P229">229</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lemurs, <a href="#P43">43</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lenin, <a href="#P417">417</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Leo III, Pope, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Leo X, Pope, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Leonidas, <a href="#P136">136</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Leopold I, <a href="#P353">353</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lepanto, battle of, <a href="#P293">293</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lepidus, <a href="#P194">194</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lexington, <a href="#P338">338</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Liberia, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Libraries, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P164">164</a>, <a
+href="#P170">170</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Liegnitz, battle of, <a href="#P288">288</a>, <a
+href="#P289">289</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Life, beginnings of, the Record of the Rocks, <a href="#P11">11</a>
+<i>et seq.</i>; progressive nature of, <a href="#P16">16</a>; of what
+it consists, <a href="#P16">16</a>; theory of Natural Selection, <a
+href="#P18">18</a>; a teachable type: advent of, <a
+href="#P39">39</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lincoln, Abraham, <a href="#P385">385</a>, <a href="#P386">386</a>,
+<a href="#P388">388</a>, <a href="#P389">389</a>, <a
+href="#P435">435</a>; assassination of, <a href="#P389">389</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Linen, <a href="#P102">102</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lions, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lisbon, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P315">315</a>, <a
+href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Literary criticism, evolution of, <a href="#P205">205</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Literature, European, <a href="#P298">298</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Literature, pre-historic, <a href="#P115">115</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lizards, <a href="#P27">27</a>, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Llamas, <a href="#P42">42</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lob Nor, <a href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lochau, battle of, <a href="#P313">313</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Locke, John, <a href="#P371">371</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Logic, science of, <a href="#P144">144</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lombard kingdom, <a href="#P259">259</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lombards, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lombardy, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+London, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P413">413</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lopez de Recalde, Inigo, <a href="#P308">308</a>, (<i>See also</i>
+Ignatius of Loyola)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lorraine, <a href="#P391">391</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Louis XIV, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Louis XV, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Louis XVI, <a href="#P342">342</a>, <a href="#P343">343</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Louis XVIII, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Louis Philippe, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Louis the Pious, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Louisiana, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lu, state of, <a href="#P170">170</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lucretius, <a href="#P294">294</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lucullus, <a href="#P192">192</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lunar month, <a href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lung, the, <a href="#P24">24</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Luther, Martin, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Luxembourg, <a href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Luxor, <a href="#P101">101</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lvoff, Prince, <a href="#P416">416</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lyceum, Athens, <a href="#P142">142</a>, <a href="#P144">144</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lydia, <a href="#P98">98</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lydians, <a href="#P94">94</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Lyons, <a href="#P345">345</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+M
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Macao, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Macaulay, Lord, <a href="#P187">187</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Maccabeans, <a href="#P184">184</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Macedonia and Macedonians, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a
+href="#P135">135</a>, <a href="#P139">139</a>, <a
+href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a
+href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Machinery, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P356">356</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Madeira, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Madras, <a href="#P163">163</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Magellan, Ferdinand, <a href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Magic, <a href="#P172">172</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Magna Græcia, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Magnesia, battle of, <a href="#P183">183</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Magyars, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P264">264</a>, <a
+href="#P270">270</a>, <a href="#P289">289</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mahaffy, Professor, <a href="#P151">151</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Maine, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P339">339</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Majuba Hill, battle of, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Malta, <a href="#P393">393</a>, <a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mammals, the earliest, <a href="#P33">33</a>; viviparous, <a
+href="#P33">33</a>; egg-laying, <a href="#P34">34</a>; the Age of, <a
+href="#P37">37</a> <i>et seq. </i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mammoth, <a href="#P43">43</a>, <a href="#P49">49</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Man, brotherhood of, <a href="#P216">216</a>, <a
+href="#P224">224</a>, <a href="#P380">380</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Man, <a href="#P43">43</a>; Heidelberg, <a href="#P45">45</a>;
+Eoanthropus, <a href="#P47">47</a>; Neanderthal, <a
+href="#P47">47</a>, <a href="#P48">48</a> <i>et seq.</i>; earliest
+known, <a href="#P53">53</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Manchu, <a href="#P333">333</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Manchuria, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a
+href="#P402">402</a>, <a href="#P403">403</a>, <a
+href="#P404">404</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mangu Khan, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mani, <a href="#P241">241</a>, <a href="#P270">270</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Manichæans, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P255">255</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mankind, racial divisions of, <a href="#P54">54</a>, <a
+href="#P71">71</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mantua, <a href="#P345">345</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Maoris, <a href="#P71">71</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Marathon, <a href="#P136">136</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Marathon, battle of, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Marchand, Colonel, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Marie Antoinette, <a href="#P343">343</a>, <a href="#P346">346</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mariner&rsquo;s compass, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a
+href="#P320">320</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Marius, <a href="#P191">191</a>, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a
+href="#P237">237</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Marriage of East and West,&rdquo; <a href="#P149">149</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mars (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Marseillaise, the, <a href="#P343">343</a>, <a href="#P345">345</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Marseilles, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a
+href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P345">345</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Martel, Charles, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Marlin V, Pope, <a href="#P286">286</a>, <a href="#P304">304</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Marx, <a href="#P376">376</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Maryland, <a href="#P337">337</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mas d&rsquo;Azil cave, <a href="#P57">57</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a
+href="#P391">391</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Maximilian I, Emperor, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Maya writing, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P75">75</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mayence, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P344">344</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Mayflower</i> expedition, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mazarin, Cardinal, <a href="#P324">324</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mecca, <a href="#P248">248</a>, <a href="#P249">249</a>, <a
+href="#P251">251</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mechanical revolution, <a href="#P256">256</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P366">366</a>, <a href="#P369">369</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Medes, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a
+href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a
+href="#P155">155</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Media, rebellion in, <a href="#P136">136</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Median Empire, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a
+href="#P112">112</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Medicine man, the, <a href="#P64">64</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Medina, <a href="#P249">249</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mediterranean, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a
+href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a
+href="#P293">293</a>; valley, <a href="#P71">71</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Mediterranean&rdquo; people, pre-Greek, <a
+href="#P130">130</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Megatherium, <a href="#P74">74</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Megiddo, battle of, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>,
+<a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Melasgird, battle of, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mentality, primitive, <a href="#P60">60</a>, <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mercury (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mesopotamia, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a
+href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P109">109</a>,
+<a href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a
+href="#P267">267</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a
+href="#P299">299</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mesozoic period, <a href="#P27">27</a>; land life of, <a
+href="#P28">28</a>; sea life of, <a href="#P30">30</a>; scarcity of
+bird and mammal life in, <a href="#P32">32</a>, <a
+href="#P34">34</a>; its difference from Cainozoic period, <a
+href="#P38">38</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Messina, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Messina, Straits of, <a href="#P179">179</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Metallurgy, <a href="#P356">356</a>, <a href="#P359">359</a>, <a
+href="#P360">360</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Metals, transmutation of, <a href="#P257">257</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Meteoric iron, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Metz, <a href="#P391">391</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mexico, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P76">76</a>, <a
+href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P321">321</a>, <a
+href="#P384">384</a>, <a href="#P385">385</a>, <a
+href="#P389">389</a>, <a href="#P399">399</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Michael VII, Emperor, <a href="#P268">268</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Michael VIII.  (<i>See</i> Palæologus)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Microscope, <a href="#P355">355</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Midianites, <a href="#P117">117</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Milan, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a
+href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a
+href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Miletus, <a href="#P129">129</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Millipedes, <a href="#P23">23</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Milton, <a href="#P129">129</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ming dynasty, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P333">333</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mining, <a href="#P335">335</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Minnesota, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Minos, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a
+href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P131">131</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Missionaries, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P247">247</a>, <a
+href="#P380">380</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mississippi (state), <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mississippi River, <a href="#P386">386</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Missouri, <a href="#P382">382</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mithraism, <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a>, <a
+href="#P213">213</a>, <a href="#P222">222</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mithras, <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mnemonics, Chinese and Peruvian method of, <a href="#P76">76</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moabites, <a href="#P117">117</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moawija, Caliph, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mogul dynasty, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moluccas, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Monarchy, <a href="#P323">323</a>, <a href="#P341">341</a>, <a
+href="#P347">347</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Monasticism, <a href="#P213">213</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Money, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a
+href="#P201">201</a>, <a href="#P319">319</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mongol conquests, influence of, <a href="#P298">298</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mongol Court, the, <a href="#P299">299</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mongol Empire, <a href="#P332">332</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mongolia, <a href="#P197">197</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mongolian language, <a href="#P108">108</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mongolian peoples, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P73">73</a>, <a
+href="#P88">88</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>,
+<a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a
+href="#P233">233</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a
+href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P298">298</a>, <a href="#P320">320</a>, <a
+href="#P333">333</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mongoloid tribes, <a href="#P69">69</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Monkeys, <a href="#P43">43</a>, <a href="#P45">45</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Monotheism, <a href="#P251">251</a>. (<i>See also</i> Muhammad)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Monroe doctrine, <a href="#P349">349</a>, <a href="#P389">389</a>, <a
+href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P423">423</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Monroe, President, <a href="#P349">349</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Montesquieu, <a href="#P371">371</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Montgomery, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Month, the lunar, <a href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moon, the, <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a>, <a
+href="#P6">6</a>, <a href="#P8">8</a>, <a href="#P10">10</a>, <a
+href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moorish paper-mills, <a href="#P297">297</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+More, Sir Thomas, <a href="#P365">365</a>, <a href="#P371">371</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Morelly, <a href="#P371">371</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Morocco, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mortillet, <a href="#P57">57</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moscow, <a href="#P293">293</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moscow, Grand Duke of, <a href="#P290">290</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moses, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moslem Empire, <a href="#P253">253</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moslems, <a href="#P297">297</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moslim, the, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P269">269</a>, <a
+href="#P271">271</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mososaurs, <a href="#P29">29</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Moses, <a href="#P23">23</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mounds, Neolithic, <a href="#P70">70</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mountains, <a href="#P197">197</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mozambique, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Muehlon, Herr, <a href="#P424">424</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Muhammad, prophet, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P247">247</a>,
+<a href="#P248">248</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P270">270</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Muhammad II, Sultan, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mules, <a href="#P102">102</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mummies, <a href="#P70">70</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Munitions, <a href="#P412">412</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Musk ox, <a href="#P43">43</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mycalæ, battle of, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mycenæ, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mycerinus, <a href="#P83">83</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Mylæ, battle of, <a href="#P181">181</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+N
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nabonidus, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P112">112</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nankin, <a href="#P173">173</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Naples, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Napoleon Bonaparte, <a href="#P345">345</a>, <a href="#P347">347</a>,
+<a href="#P348">348</a>, <a href="#P356">356</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Napoleon III, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>, <a
+href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nasmyth, <a href="#P359">359</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Natal, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;National schools,&rdquo; <a href="#P369">369</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Natural history, father of, <a href="#P144">144</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Natural Selection, theory of, <a href="#P17">17</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nautilus, the pearly, <a href="#P39">39</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Navarino, battle of, <a href="#P353">353</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Neanderthaler Man, <a href="#P47">47</a>, <a href="#P48">48</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nebraska, <a href="#P383">383</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nebuchadnezzar II (the Great), <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a
+href="#P110">110</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nebulæ, <a href="#P4">4</a>, <a href="#P5">5</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Necho II, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a
+href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a
+href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Needles, bone, <a href="#P57">57</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Negroid tribes, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nelson, Horatio, <a href="#P348">348</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Neolithic age, <a href="#P59">59</a>, <a href="#P65">65</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Neolithic civilizations, primitive, <a href="#P71">71</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Neptune (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nero, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nestorian missionaries, <a href="#P431">431</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i>
+Missionaries)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Netherlands, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a
+href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Neustria, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Neva, <a href="#P327">327</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+New Assyrian Empire, <a href="#P97">97</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>New Atlantis, The</i>, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a
+href="#P355">355</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+New England, <a href="#P335">335</a>, <a href="#P337">337</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+New Mexico, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+New Plymouth, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Newts, <a href="#P24">24</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+New York, <a href="#P358">358</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+New Zealand, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P396">396</a>, <a
+href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Newfoundland, <a href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nicæa, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a href="#P270">270</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nicæa, Council of, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nicephorus, Emperor, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nicholas I, Tsar, <a href="#P351">351</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>,
+<a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nicholas II, Tsar, <a href="#P416">416</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nickel, <a href="#P360">360</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nicomedia, <a href="#P227">227</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nieuw Amsterdam, <a href="#P434">434</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> New York)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nile, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a
+href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P398">398</a>; valley <a
+href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nile, battle of the, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nineveh, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a
+href="#P101">101</a>, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a
+href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nippur, <a href="#P78">78</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nirvana, <a href="#P161">161</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nish, <a href="#P227">227</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Noah&rsquo;s Ark, <a href="#P91">91</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nogaret, Guillaume de, <a href="#P284">284</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nomadic peoples, primitive, <a href="#P84">84</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+(<i>Cf.</i> Nomads)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nomads, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P155">155</a>, <a
+href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P168">168</a>, <a
+href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P198">198-200</a>, <a
+href="#P233">233-34</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a
+href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P334">334</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nonconformity, <a href="#P307">307</a>, <a href="#P308">308</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nordic race, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a
+href="#P104">104</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a
+href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P154">154</a>, <a
+href="#P155">155</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a
+href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a
+href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a
+href="#P233">233</a>, <a href="#P258">258</a>, <a
+href="#P261">261</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Normandy, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P342">342</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Normandy, Duke of, <a href="#P266">266</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Normans, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P266">266</a>, <a
+href="#P279">279</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Northmen, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P264">264</a>, <a
+href="#P266">266</a>, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Norway, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Norwegians, <a href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Novgorod, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nubians, <a href="#P238">238</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Numerals, Arabic, <a href="#P282">282</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Numidia, <a href="#P191">191</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Numidians, <a href="#P182">182</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nuremberg, <a href="#P294">294</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Nuremberg, Peace of, <a href="#P313">313</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+O
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ocean dredgings, deepest, <a href="#P4">4</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ocean liners, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P336">336</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Octavian. (<i>See</i> Augustus)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Odenathus of Palmyra, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Odoacer, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Odyssey</i>, <a href="#P127">127</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ogdai Khan, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P289">289</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Oglethorpe, <a href="#P336">336</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Okapi, <a href="#P397">397</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Old Man,&rdquo; <a href="#P372">372</a>, <a
+href="#P373">373</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Old Testament, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Olympiad, first, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Olympian games, <a href="#P131">131</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Olympias, Queen, <a href="#P146">146</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Omar, Caliph, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Open-hearth process, <a href="#P359">359</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Orange River, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Ordinance of secession,&rdquo; <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Oregon, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Organic Evolution, <a href="#P16">16</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ormuz, <a href="#P299">299</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Orsini family, <a href="#P284">284</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Orthodoxy, <a href="#P240">240</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Osiris, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P210">210</a>, <a
+href="#P211">211</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ostrogoths, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Othman, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Otho, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Otto I, King of Germany, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Otto of Bavaria, Prince, <a href="#P354">354</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ottoman Empire, <a href="#P202">202</a>.  (<i>See also</i> Turkey,
+Turks)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Oudh, <a href="#P394">394</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ownership, <a href="#P373">373</a>, <a href="#P374">374</a>, <a
+href="#P375">375</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Oxen, <a href="#P49">49</a>, <a href="#P104">104</a>, <a
+href="#P112">112</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Oxford, <a href="#P295">295</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+P
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Padua, <a href="#P235">235</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pæstum, <a href="#P176">176</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Palæologus, Michael (Michael VIII), <a href="#P283">283</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Palæolithic age, <a href="#P13">13</a>, <a href="#P59">59</a>,
+<a href="#P66">66</a> (note)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Palermo, <a href="#P181">181</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Palestine, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P299">299</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pamirs, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Panama, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Panama, Isthmus of, <a href="#P314">314</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pan Chau, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Panipat, battle of, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pannonia, <a href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P229">229</a>, <a
+href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P234">234</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Papacy (including Popes), <a href="#P237">237</a>, <a
+href="#P261">261</a>, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a
+href="#P277">277</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P329">329</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>, <a href="#P343">343</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Papal schism (the Great Schism), <a href="#P285">285</a>, <a
+href="#P394">394</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Paper, <a href="#P153">153</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a
+href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P297">297</a>, <a
+href="#P320">320</a>, <a href="#P322">322</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Papyrus, <a href="#P78">78</a>, <a href="#P153">153</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Parables, <a href="#P216">216</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Paradise Lost</i>, <a href="#P129">129</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Parchment, <a href="#P153">153</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Paris, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P295">295</a>, <a
+href="#P342">342</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a
+href="#P356">356</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a
+href="#P391">391</a>, <a href="#P412">412</a>, <a
+href="#P413">413</a>, <a href="#P415">415</a>, <a
+href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Paris, Peace of, <a href="#P338">338</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Parthian dynasty, <a href="#P202">202</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Parthians, <a href="#P155">155</a>, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a
+href="#P194">194</a>, <a href="#P198">198</a>, <a
+href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Passau, Treaty of, <a href="#P314">314</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Patricians, Roman, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P188">188</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Paul, St., <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a href="#P223">223</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pavia, siege of, <a href="#P312">312</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Peace Conference</i>, Dr. Dillon&rsquo;s, <a href="#P424">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Peasant revolts, <a href="#P305">305</a>, <a href="#P310">310</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Peculium, <a href="#P206">206</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pedro I, <a href="#P340">340</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pegu, <a href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pekin, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a
+href="#P300">300</a>, <a href="#P383">383</a>, <a
+href="#P400">400</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Peloponnesian War, <a href="#P139">139</a>, <a href="#P145">145</a>,
+<a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pentateuch, the, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;People&rsquo;s crusade,&rdquo; the, <a href="#P270">270</a>,
+<a href="#P432">432</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> Crusades)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pepi II, <a href="#P83">83</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pepin I, <a href="#P259">259</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pepin of Hersthal, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pergamum, <a href="#P154">154</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a
+href="#P183">183</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pericles, <a href="#P139">139</a>, <a href="#P140">140</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Perry, Commodore, <a href="#P402">402</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Persepolis, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a
+href="#P155">155</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Persia, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>, <a href="#P165">165</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a
+href="#P192">192</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a
+href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a
+href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a
+href="#P399">399</a>, <a href="#P409">409</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Persian Empire, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a
+href="#P238">238</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Persian Gulf, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a>, <a
+href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P299">299</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Persian language, <a href="#P95">95</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Persians, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a
+href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a
+href="#P155">155</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Peru, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P75">75</a>, <a
+href="#P314">314</a>, <a href="#P321">321</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pestilence, <a href="#P305">305</a>, <a href="#P320">320</a>, <a
+href="#P334">334</a>, <a href="#P413">413</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Peter the Great, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Peter the Hermit, <a href="#P269">269</a>, <a href="#P270">270</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Peterhof, <a href="#P327">327</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Petersburg, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a>.
+(<i>See also</i> Petrograd)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Petrograd, <a href="#P416">416</a>, <a href="#P417">417</a>.  (<i>See
+also</i> Petersburg)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Petschenegs, <a href="#P268">268</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Phalanx, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pharaohs, the, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a
+href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a
+href="#P150">150</a>, <a href="#P188">188</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pharsalos, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Philadelphia, <a href="#P358">358</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Philip, Duke of Orleans, <a href="#P350">350</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Philip, King of France, <a href="#P285">285</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Philip II, King of Spain, <a href="#P314">314</a>, <a
+href="#P324">324</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Philip of Hesse, <a href="#P313">313</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Philip of Macedon, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P146">146</a>,
+<a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Philippine Islands, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P393">393</a>,
+<a href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Philistines, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P117">117</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Philosopher&rsquo;s stone, <a href="#P257">257</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Philosophers and Philosophy, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a
+href="#P139">139</a>, <a href="#P152">152</a>, <a
+href="#P168">168</a>, <a href="#P239">239</a>, <a
+href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P295">295</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Phœnicians, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a
+href="#P107">107</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a
+href="#P147">147</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Phœnix</i>, steamship, <a href="#P358">358</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Phrygians, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Physiocrats, <a href="#P371">371</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Picture writing, <a href="#P56">56</a>, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a
+href="#P78">78</a>, <a href="#P79">79</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Piedmont, <a href="#P345">345</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pirates and Piracy, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P179">179</a>,
+<a href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a
+href="#P263">263</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pithecanthropus erectus, <a href="#P45">45</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pizarro, <a href="#P314">314</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Plague, (<i>See</i> Pestilence)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Planetoids, <a href="#P2">2</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Planets, <a href="#P2">2</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Plant lice, <a href="#P13">13</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Plants, <a href="#P22">22</a>, <a href="#P23">23</a>, <a
+href="#P36">36</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Platea, battle of, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Plato, <a href="#P140">140</a>, <a href="#P142">142</a>, <a
+href="#P144">144</a>, <a href="#P170">170</a>, <a href="#P370">370-
+71</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Platypus, duck-billed, <a href="#P34">34</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Plebeians, Roman, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P177">177</a>,
+<a href="#P187">187-88</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Plesiosaurs, <a href="#P29">29</a>, <a href="#P30">30</a>, <a
+href="#P36">36</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Poison-gas, <a href="#P413">413</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Poitiers, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Poitiers, battle of, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P259">259</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Poland, <a href="#P288">288</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a
+href="#P353">353</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Poles, <a href="#P288">288</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Political experiment, age of, <a href="#P318">318</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Political ideas, development of, <a href="#P370">370</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Political science, founder of, <a href="#P144">144</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Political worship, <a href="#P412">412</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Polo, Marco, <a href="#P299">299-300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Polynesian races, <a href="#P71">71</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pompey the Great, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a href="#P193">193</a>,
+<a href="#P196">196</a>, <a href="#P198">198</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pontifex maximus, <a href="#P237">237</a>, <a href="#P261">261</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Popes.  (<i>See</i> Papacy)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Population, <a href="#P379">379</a>, <a href="#P383">383</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Port Arthur, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a href="#P403">403</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Portugal, <a href="#P340">340</a>, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a
+href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Portuguese, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a
+href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Porus, King, <a href="#P149">149</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Potato, <a href="#P76">76</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Potsdam, <a href="#P327">327</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pottery, <a href="#P75">75</a>, <a href="#P87">87X</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Prague, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Prescott, <a href="#P314">314</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Priestcraft (including Priests), <a href="#P64">64</a>, <a
+href="#P68">68</a>, <a href="#P69">69</a>, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a
+href="#P75">75</a>, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a
+href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P114">114</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a
+href="#P132">132</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a
+href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P275">275</a>, <a
+href="#P277">277</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Primal Law</i>, <a href="#P61">61</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Primates, <a href="#P43">43</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> Mammalia)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Printing, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a href="#P153">153</a>, <a
+href="#P247">247</a>, <a href="#P255">255</a>, <a
+href="#P298">298</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a
+href="#P305">305</a>, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a
+href="#P320">320</a>, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a
+href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Priscus, <a href="#P234">234</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Property, <a href="#P274">274</a>, <a href="#P372">372</a>, <a
+href="#P374">374</a>, <a href="#P375">375</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Prophet, Muhammad as, <a href="#P249">249</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Prophets, Jewish, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>
+<i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Proprietorship, <a href="#P373">373</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Protestantism, <a href="#P316">316</a>, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a
+href="#P327">327</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>, <a
+href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Proverbs, book of, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Prussia, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a href="#P348">348</a>, <a
+href="#P351">351</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a
+href="#P391">391</a>, <a href="#P392">392</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Prussia, East, <a href="#P412">412</a>, <a href="#P415">415</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Psalms, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Psammetichus I, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Psycho-analvsis, <a href="#P69">69</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pterodactyls, <a href="#P28">28</a>, <a href="#P29">29</a>, <a
+href="#P31">31</a>, <a href="#P36">36</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ptolemy I, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a href="#P150">150</a>, <a
+href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>, <a
+href="#P211">211</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ptolemy II, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Punic language, <a href="#P203">203</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Punic Wars, <a href="#P180">180</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P187">187</a>, <a href="#P188">188</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Punjab, <a href="#P163">163</a>, <a href="#P199">199</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Puritans, <a href="#P335">335</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pygmies, <a href="#P397">397</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pyramids, <a href="#P69">69</a>, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a
+href="#P100">100</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pyrenees, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Pyrrhus, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Q
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Quebec, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Quinqueremes, <a href="#P180">180</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Quixada, <a href="#P314">314</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+R
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Races of mankind, <a href="#P71">71</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Railways, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a
+href="#P357">357</a>, <a href="#P382">382</a>, <a
+href="#P383">383</a>, <a href="#P384">384</a>, <a
+href="#P389">389</a>, <a href="#P395">395</a>, <a
+href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P409">409</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rain, <a href="#P9">9</a>, <a href="#P10">10</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rameses II, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rasputin, <a href="#P415">415</a>, <a href="#P416">416</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ratisbon, Diet of, <a href="#P313">313</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ravenna, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Reading, <a href="#P176">176</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rebus, <a href="#P79">79</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Red deer, <a href="#P56">56</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Red Sea, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Reformation, the, <a href="#P308">308</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Reindeer, <a href="#P43">43</a>, <a href="#P49">49</a>, <a
+href="#P51">51</a>, <a href="#P56">56</a>, <a href="#P73">73</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Religion, and the creation of the world, <a href="#P1">1</a>; and
+organic evolution, <a href="#P16">16</a>; primitive, <a
+href="#P61">61</a>, <a href="#P64">64</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Religions, <a href="#P172">172</a>, <a href="#P222">222</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>, <a href="#P240">240</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P319">319</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> Buddhism, Christianity, etc.)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Religious developments under the Roman Empire, <a
+href="#P208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Religious wars, <a href="#P270">270</a>, <a href="#P304">304</a>, <a
+href="#P313">313</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> Crusades)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Reptiles, the age of, <a href="#P26">26</a> <i>et seq.</i>; mental
+life of, <a href="#P38">38</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Reproduction, <a href="#P17">17</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Republic</i>, Plato&rsquo;s, <a href="#P142">142</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Republic, the Assimilative, <a href="#P187">187</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Republics, <a href="#P187">187</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P308">308</a>, <a
+href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P328">328</a>, <a
+href="#P340">340</a>, <a href="#P343">343</a>, <a
+href="#P344">344</a>, <a href="#P416">416</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>, <a
+href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Republicans, the first, <a href="#P131">131</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Retreat of the Ten Thousand, <a href="#P150">150</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Revolution, <a href="#P342">342</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P349">349</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a
+href="#P404">404</a>, <a href="#P416">416</a>, <a
+href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rhine, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rhine languages, <a href="#P236">236</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rhineland, <a href="#P270">270</a>, <a href="#P306">306</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rhinoceros, <a href="#P43">43</a>, <a href="#P49">49</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rhodes, <a href="#P108">108</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rhodesia, <a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rhodesian man, <a href="#P52">52</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Richelieu, Cardinal, <a href="#P324">324</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Richmond, U.S.A., <a href="#P386">386</a>, <a href="#P388">388</a>,
+<a href="#P389">389</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Roads, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P187">187</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Robertson, <a href="#P316">316</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Robespierre, <a href="#P345">345</a>, <a href="#P346">346</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Robinson, J. H., <a href="#P284">284</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Rocket,&rdquo; Stephenson&rsquo;s, <a href="#P356">356</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rock pictures, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Rocks as record of beginnings of life, <a href="#P11">11</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+S
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sabellians, <a href="#P224">224</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sabre-toothed tiger, <a href="#P43">43</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sacrifice, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P103">103</a>, <a
+href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a
+href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>, <a
+href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> also
+Blood sacrifice, Human sacrifice)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sagas, <a href="#P106">106</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Saghalien, <a href="#P404">404</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sailing ships, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P336">336</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+St. Angelo, castle of, <a href="#P312">312</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+St. Helena, <a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+St. Sophia, church of, <a href="#P238">238</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Saladin, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Salamis, battle of, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Salamis, bay of, <a href="#P136">136</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Salerno, <a href="#P282">282</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Samarkand, <a href="#P256">256</a>, <a href="#P297">297</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Samnites, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Samos, <a href="#P129">129</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Samson, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Samurai, <a href="#P401">401</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+San Francisco, <a href="#P383">383</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sandstones, <a href="#P26">26</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sanskrit, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P107">107</a>, <a
+href="#P156">156</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sapor I, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Saracens, <a href="#P264">264</a>, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a
+href="#P297">297</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Saratoga, <a href="#P338">338</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sardanapalus (Assurbanipal), <a href="#P98">98</a>, <a
+href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P111">111</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sardinia, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a
+href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a
+href="#P351">351</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sardis, <a href="#P98">98</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sargon I, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a
+href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sargon II, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sarmatians, <a href="#P100">100</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sassanid dynasty, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P241">241</a>,
+<a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Saturn (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Saul, King of Israel, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a
+href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Saul of Tarsus.  (<i>See</i> Paul, St.)"
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Savannah</i>, steamship, <a href="#P358">258</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Savoy, <a href="#P334">334</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>, <a
+href="#P390">390</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Saxons, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P265">265</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Saxony, Elector of, <a href="#P310">310</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Scandinavians, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Scarabeus beetle, <a href="#P209">209</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Scheldt, <a href="#P344">344</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Schmalkaldic League, <a href="#P312">312</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Science, <a href="#P144">144</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Science and religion, <a href="#P243">243</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Science, exploitation of, <a href="#P362">362</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Science, physical, <a href="#P412">412</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Scientific societies, <a href="#P322">322</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Scipio Africanus, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P187">187</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Scorpion, sea, <a href="#P13">13</a>, <a href="#P18">18</a>, <a
+href="#P23">23</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Scotland, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P307">307</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Scott, Michael, <a href="#P282">282</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Scythia, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Scythians, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a
+href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P135">135</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sea trade, <a href="#P91">91</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sea worms, <a href="#P13">13</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Seasons, the, <a href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Seaweed, <a href="#P13">13</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sedan, <a href="#P391">391</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Seed-bearing trees, <a href="#P26">26</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Seleucid dynasty, <a href="#P183">183</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>,
+<a href="#P196">196</a>, <a href="#P199">199</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Seleucus I, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a href="#P163">163</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Seljuks, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a
+href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Semites and Semitic peoples, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a
+href="#P89">89</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a
+href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P107">107</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>
+, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a
+href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P233">233</a>, <a
+href="#P256">256</a>, <a href="#P258">258</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Semitic language, <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sennacherib, <a href="#P97">97</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Serapeum, <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Serapis, <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Serbia, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a
+href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P228">228</a>, <a
+href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P354">354</a>, <a
+href="#P411">411</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Serfdom, <a href="#P207">207</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Seven Years&rsquo; War, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Severus, Septimius, <a href="#P202">202</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Seville, <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a>, <a
+href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Shang dynasty, <a href="#P103">103</a>, <a href="#P168">168</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sheep, <a href="#P77">77</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Shell necklaces, <a href="#P56">56</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Shellfish, <a href="#P13">13</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Shells, as protection against drying, <a href="#P18">18</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sherman, General, <a href="#P387">387</a>, <a href="#P388">388</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Shi Hwang-ti, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Shimonoseki, Straits of, <a href="#P402">402</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Shipbuilding, <a href="#P359">359</a>, <a href="#P360">360</a>, <a
+href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ships, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a
+href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a
+href="#P320">320</a>, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a
+href="#P336">336</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Shishak, <a href="#P119">119</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Shrubs, <a href="#P16">16</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Shumanism, <a href="#P298">298</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Siam, <a href="#P166">166</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Siberia, <a href="#P334">334</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Siberia, Eastern, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Siberian railway, <a href="#P403">403</a>, <a href="#P409">409</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sicilies, Two, <a href="#P287">287</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sicily, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a
+href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a
+href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a
+href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a
+href="#P188">188</a>, <a href="#P232">323</a>, <a
+href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P279">279</a>, <a
+href="#P280">280</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sidon, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a
+href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a
+href="#P147">147</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Silurian system, <a href="#P19">19</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Silver, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a
+href="#P335">335</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sind, <a href="#P394">394</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sirmium, <a href="#P227">227</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Skins, use of; for clothing, <a href="#P56">56</a> for writing, <a
+href="#P75">75</a>; inflated as boats, <a href="#P91">91</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Skull, Rhodesian, <a href="#P52">52</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Slavery (and slaves), <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P102">102
+</a>, <a href="#P188">188</a>, <a href="#P191">191</a>, <a
+href="#P194">194</a>, <a href="#P203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a
+href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P320">320</a>, <a
+href="#P337">337</a>, <a href="#P373">373</a>, <a
+href="#P374">374</a>, <a href="#P384">384-86</a>, <a
+href="#P388">388</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Slavonic language, <a href="#P236">236</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Slavs, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P265">265</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Smelting, <a href="#P87">87</a>, <a href="#P104">104</a>, <a
+href="#P322">322</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Smith, Adam, <a href="#P377">377</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Smith, Eliot, <a href="#P69">69</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Snakes, <a href="#P27">27</a>, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Social reform, <a href="#P125">125</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Socialism, <a href="#P371">371</a>, <a href="#P416">416</a>, <a
+href="#P417">417</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Socialists, <a href="#P375">375</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Socialists, primitive, <a href="#P374">374</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Society, primitive, <a href="#P60">60</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Socrates, <a href="#P140">140</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Solomon, King, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a
+href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Solomon&rsquo;s temple, <a href="#P119">119</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sophists, <a href="#P140">140</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sophocles, <a href="#P139">139</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+South Carolina, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Soviets, <a href="#P417">417</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Space, the world in, <a href="#P1">1</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Spain, <a href="#P93">93</a>, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a
+href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a
+href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a
+href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a
+href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P256">256</a>, <a
+href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P348">348</a>, <a
+href="#P349">349</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a
+href="#P393">393</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>; relics of first true man in, <a
+href="#P53">53</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Spain, North, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Spanish, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P331">331</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Spanish language, <a href="#P203">203</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sparta, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P130">130</a>, <a
+href="#P136">136</a>, <a href="#P203">203</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Spartacus, <a href="#P191">191</a>, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a
+href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Spartans, <a href="#P136">136</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Species, generation of, <a href="#P17">17</a>; new, <a
+href="#P36">36</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Speech, primitive human, <a href="#P63">63</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Spiders, <a href="#P23">23</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Spiral nebulæ, <a href="#P5">5</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Spores, <a href="#P24">24</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Stagira, <a href="#P142">142</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Stamford Bridge, battle of, <a href="#P286">286</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Stars, <a href="#P68">68</a>, <a href="#P257">257</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+State, modern idea of a, <a href="#P375">375</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+State ownership, <a href="#P374">374</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+States General, the, <a href="#P341">341</a>, <a href="#P434">434
+</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Steamboat, <a href="#P340">340</a>, <a href="#P357">357</a> <i>et
+seq.</i>, <a href="#P374">374</a>, <a href="#P382">382</a>, <a
+href="#P395">395</a>, <a href="#P396">396</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Steam engine, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P152">152</a>, <a
+href="#P359">359</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Steam hammer, <a href="#P359">359</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Steam power, <a href="#P322">322</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Steel, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P359">359-60</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Stephenson, George, <a href="#P356">356</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Stilicho, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P234">234</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Stockholm, <a href="#P417">417</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Stockton, <a href="#P356">356</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Stone age, <a href="#P53">53</a>, <a href="#P59">59</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Stone implements, <a href="#P45">45</a>, <a href="#P65">65</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Stonehenge, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Story-telling, primitive, <a href="#P62">62</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Styria, <a href="#P309">309</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Submarine campaign, <a href="#P423">423</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Subutai, <a href="#P289">289</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sudan, the, <a href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Suevi, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Suleiman the Magnificent, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a
+href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sulla, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a href="#P237">237</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sumeria and Sumerians, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a>
+<i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P87">87</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a
+href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sumerian Empire, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sumerian language and writing, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a
+href="#P78">78</a>, <a href="#P79">79</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sun, the, <a href="#P5">5</a>, <a href="#P6">6</a>, <a
+href="#P8">8</a>, <a href="#P9">9</a>, <a href="#P10">10</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sun worship, <a href="#P211">211</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sung dynasty, <a href="#P290">290</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Susa, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P135">135</a>, <a
+href="#P148">148</a>, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a
+href="#P155">155</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Suy dynasty, <a href="#P245">245</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Swastika, <a href="#P70">70</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Sweden, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a
+href="#P348">348</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Swedes, <a href="#P326">326</a>, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a
+href="#P330">330</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Swimming bladder, <a href="#P24">24</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Switzerland, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a href="#P347">347</a>, <a
+href="#P350">350</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Syracuse, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P154">154</a>, <a
+href="#P170">170</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Syria, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a
+href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a
+href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P138">138</a>, <a
+href="#P238">238</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a
+href="#P249">249</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Syrians, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P98">98</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+T
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Tabus</i>, the, <a href="#P61">61</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tadpoles, <a href="#P26">26</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tagus valley, <a href="#P314">314</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tai-Tsung, <a href="#P247">247</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tang dynasty, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a
+href="#P247">247</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Tanks,&rdquo; <a href="#P413">413</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Taoism, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P222">222</a>.  (<i>See
+also</i> Lao Tse)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Taranto, <a href="#P178">178</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tarentum, <a href="#P178">178</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tarim valley, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tartars, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a
+href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a
+href="#P288">288</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a
+href="#P334">334</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tasmania, <a href="#P59">59</a>, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a
+href="#P393">393</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tattooing, <a href="#P70">70</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Taxation, <a href="#P271">271</a>, <a href="#P337">337</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tea, <a href="#P247">247</a>, <a href="#P337">337</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Teeth, <a href="#P19">19</a>, <a href="#P20">20</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Telamon, battle of, <a href="#P182">182</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Telegraph, electric, <a href="#P340">340</a>, <a
+href="#P358">358</a>, <a href="#P382">382</a>, <a
+href="#P384">384</a>, <a href="#P396">396</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Telescope, <a href="#P355">355</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Temples, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a
+href="#P101">101</a>, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a
+href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a
+href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P184">184</a>, <a
+href="#P186">186</a>, <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a
+href="#P212">212</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a>, <a
+href="#P240">240</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tennessee, <a href="#P386">386</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Testament, Old, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Teutons, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Texas, <a href="#P384">384</a>, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Texel, <a href="#P344">344</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Thales, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P161">161</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Thebes, <a href="#P101">101</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a
+href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P136">136</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Theocrasia, <a href="#P209">209</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Theodora, Empress, <a href="#P238">238</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Theodoric the Goth, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Theodosius II, <a href="#P234">234</a>, <a href="#P238">238</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Theodosius the Great, <a href="#P226">226</a>, <a
+href="#P229">229</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Thermopylæ, battle of, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a
+href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Thessaly, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Thirty Years&rsquo; War, <a href="#P326">326</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Thothmes III, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a
+href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Thought and research, <a href="#P140">140</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Thought, primitive, <a href="#P60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Thrace, <a href="#P135">135</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Three Estates, council of the, <a href="#P285">285</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Three Teachings, the, <a href="#P170">170</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tiberius Cæsar, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a
+href="#P214">214</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tibet, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tides, <a href="#P18">18</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tigers, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P43">43</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tiglath Pileser I, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tiglath Pileser III, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>,
+<a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tigris, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P84">84</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Time, <a href="#P5">5</a>, <a href="#P6">6</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Timor, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Timurlane, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P334">334</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tin, <a href="#P360">360</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tiryns, <a href="#P108">108</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Titanotherium, the, <a href="#P39">39</a>, <a href="#P42">42</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tonkin, <a href="#P402">402</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tortoises, <a href="#P27">27</a>, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Toulon, <a href="#P345">345</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trade, early, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trade, Grecian, <a href="#P129">129</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trade routes, <a href="#P119">119</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Traders, <a href="#P132">132</a>, <a href="#P335">335</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Traders, sea, <a href="#P92">92</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trafalgar, battle of, <a href="#P348">348</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trajan, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Transport, <a href="#P319">319</a>, <a href="#P358">358</a>, <a
+href="#P382">382</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Transvaal, <a href="#P398">398</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Transylvania, <a href="#P195">195</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trasimere, Lake, <a href="#P182">182</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trench warfare, <a href="#P412">412</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trevithick, <a href="#P356">356</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tribal life, <a href="#P61">61</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trilobites, <a href="#P13">13</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trinidad, <a href="#P407">407</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trinil, Java, <a href="#P45">45</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trinitarians, <a href="#P224">224</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trinity, doctrine of the, <a href="#P224">224</a>, <a
+href="#P261">261</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Triremes, <a href="#P180">180</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Triumvirates, <a href="#P194">194</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Trojans, <a href="#P94">94</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Troy, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Troyes, battle of, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tsar, title of, <a href="#P327">327</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tshushima, Straits of, <a href="#P404">404</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ts&rsquo;i, <a href="#P173">173</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Ts&rsquo;in, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tuileries, <a href="#P342">342</a>, <a href="#P343">343</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tunis, <a href="#P185">185</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Turkestan, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a
+href="#P148">148</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a
+href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P198">198</a>, <a
+href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a
+href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a
+href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a
+href="#P334">334</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Turkey, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P411">411</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Turkoman dynasty, <a href="#P405">405</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Turkomans, <a href="#P334">334</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Turks, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a
+href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a
+href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a
+href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a
+href="#P310">310</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a
+href="#P334">334</a>, <a href="#P353">353</a>, <a
+href="#P354">354</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Turtles, <a href="#P27">27</a>, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tushratta, king of Mitanni, <a href="#P97">97</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Twelve tribes, the, <a href="#P116">116</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tyrannosaurus, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Tyre, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a
+href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a
+href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a
+href="#P147">147</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+U
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Uintatheres, <a href="#P42">42</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Uncleanness, <a href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+United States, <a href="#P357">357</a>, <a href="#P410">410</a>, <a
+href="#P411">411</a>, <a href="#P422">422</a>, <a
+href="#P434">434</a>; Declaration of Independence, <a
+href="#P338">338</a>; treaty with Britain, <a href="#P339">339</a>;
+expansion of, <a href="#P382">382</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Universities, <a href="#P295">295</a>, <a href="#P304">304</a>, <a
+href="#P355">355</a>, <a href="#P361">361</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Uranus, <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Urban II, Pope, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Urban VI, Pope, <a href="#P285">285</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Utopias, <a href="#P140">140</a>, <a href="#P142">142</a>, <a
+href="#P144">144</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+V
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Valens, Emperor, <a href="#P229">229</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Valerian, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Valladolid, <a href="#P314">314</a>, <a href="#P315">315</a>, <a
+href="#P316">316</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Valmy, battle of, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vandals, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P229">229</a>, <a
+href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Varennes, <a href="#P343">343</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vassalage, <a href="#P259">259</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vatican, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P266">266</a>, <a
+href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P285">285</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vedas, <a href="#P106">106</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vegetation of Mesozoic period, <a href="#P28">28</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Veii, <a href="#P177">177</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vend&#233;e, <a href="#P345">345</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Venetia, <a href="#P235">235</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Venetians, <a href="#P301">301</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Venice, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a
+href="#P274">274</a>, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a
+href="#P327">327</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>, <a
+href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Venus (goddess), <a href="#P213">213</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Venus (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Verona, <a href="#P345">345</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Versailles, <a href="#P325">325</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a
+href="#P341">341</a>, <a href="#P342">342</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Versailles, Peace Conference of, <a href="#P421">421</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Versailles, Treaty of, <a href="#P421">421</a>, <a
+href="#P422">422</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vertebrata, <a href="#P19">19</a>; ancestors of, <a
+href="#P20">20</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Verulam, Lord, (<i>See</i> Bacon, Sir Francis)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vespasian, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vesuvius, <a href="#P191">191</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, <a href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Victoria, Queen, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vienna, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a
+href="#P433">433</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vienna, Congress of, <a href="#P348">348</a>, <a
+href="#P349">349</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vienna, Treaty of, <a href="#P355">355</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vilna, <a href="#P356">356</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vindhya Mountains, <a href="#P159">159</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Virginia, <a href="#P337">337</a>, <a href="#P383">383</a>, <a
+href="#P386">386</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Visigoths, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P229">229</a>, <a
+href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a
+href="#P259">259</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>.  (<i>Cf.</i> Goths)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vitellus, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<i>Vittoria</i>, ship, <a href="#P302">302</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Viviparous mammals, <a href="#P33">33</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Vivisection, Herophilus and, <a href="#P151">151</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Volcanoes, <a href="#P37">37</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Volga, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Volta, <a href="#P358">358</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Voltaire, <a href="#P328">328</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Votes, <a href="#P382">382</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+W
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Waldenses, <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a href="#P280">280</a>, <a
+href="#P305">305</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Waldo, <a href="#P276">276</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Walid I, <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+War and Warfare, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P344">344</a>, <a
+href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P422">422</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+War of American Independence, <a href="#P338">338</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Warsaw, <a href="#P353">353</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Washington, <a href="#P340">340</a>, <a href="#P357">357</a>, <a
+href="#P383">383</a>, <a href="#P386">386</a>, <a
+href="#P389">389</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Washington, Conference of, <a href="#P425">425</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Washington, George, <a href="#P338">338</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Waterloo, battle of, <a href="#P348">348</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Watt engine, <a href="#P356">356</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Weapons, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P106">106</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Weaving, <a href="#P65">65</a>, <a href="#P75">75</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wei-hai-wei, <a href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wellington, Duke of, <a href="#P348">348</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+West Indies, <a href="#P330">330</a>, <a href="#P385">385</a>, <a
+href="#P393">393</a>, <a href="#P394">394</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Western Empire, <a href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Westminster, <a href="#P306">306</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Westphalia, Peace of, <a href="#P326">326</a>, <a
+href="#P355">355</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wheat, <a href="#P66">66</a>, <a href="#P104">104</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+White Huns.  (<i>See</i> Ephthalites)
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+William Duke of Normandy (William I), <a href="#P432">432</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+William II, German Emperor, <a href="#P410">410</a>, <a
+href="#P435">435</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wilson, President, <a href="#P422">422</a>, <a href="#P423">423</a>,
+<a href="#P424">424</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wings, birds&rsquo;, <a href="#P32">32</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wisby, <a href="#P294">294</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wisconsin, <a href="#P385">385</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+&ldquo;Wisdom lovers,&rdquo; the first, <a href="#P133">133</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Witchcraft, <a href="#P68">68</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wittenberg, <a href="#P306">306</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wolfe, General, <a href="#P434">434</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wolsey, Cardinal, <a href="#P324">324</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wood blocks for printing, <a href="#P247">247</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wool, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P395">395</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Workers&rsquo; Internationals, <a href="#P377">377</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+World, The, creation of, <a href="#P1">1</a>; in time, <a
+href="#P5">5</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wrangel, General, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Writing, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P75">75</a>, <a
+href="#P78">78</a>, <a href="#P79">79</a>, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a
+href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P124">124</a>,
+ <a href="#P176">176</a>;
+dawn of, <a href="#P57">57</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Wycliffe, John, and his followers, <a href="#P286">286</a>, <a
+href="#P304">304</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+X
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Xavier, Francis, <a href="#P400">400</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Xenophon, <a href="#P150">150</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Xerxes, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a href="#P138">138</a>, <a
+href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P150">150</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Y
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Yang-Chow, <a href="#P300">300</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Yang-tse-Kiang, <a href="#P173">173</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Yangtse valley, <a href="#P173">173</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Yarmuk, battle of, the, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a
+href="#P431">431</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Yedo Bay, <a href="#P401">401</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Yorktown, <a href="#P338">338</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Yuan dynasty, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Yucatan, <a href="#P74">74</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Yudenitch, General, <a href="#P419">419</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Yuste, <a href="#P314">314</a>, <a href="#P317">317</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Z
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Zama, battle of, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Zanzibar, <a href="#P329">329</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Zarathustra, <a href="#P241">241</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Zeppelins, <a href="#P413">413</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Zero sign, <a href="#P257">257</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Zeus, <a href="#P211">211</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Zimbabwe, <a href="#P397">397</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Zoophytes, fossilized, <a href="#P13">13</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+Zoroaster (and Zoroastrianism), <a href="#P241">241</a>, <a
+href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P255">255</a>
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD ***</div>
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #35461 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/35461)
diff --git a/old/35461-8.txt b/old/35461-8.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net
+
+
+Title: A Short History of the World
+
+Author: H. G. Wells
+
+Release Date: March 2, 2011 [EBook #35461]
+[Last updated: November 3, 2011]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Donald F. Behan
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A Short History of the World
+Illustrated
+
+BY
+
+H. G. Wells
+
+
+
+J. J. Little & Ives Company
+
+New York
+
+1922
+
+Copyright, 1922, by H. G. Wells
+
+
+
+{v}
+
+PREFACE
+
+This SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD is meant to be read
+straightforwardly almost as a novel is read.  It gives in the most
+general way an account of our present knowledge of history, shorn
+of elaborations and complications.  It has been amply illustrated
+and everything has been done to make it vivid and clear.  From it
+the reader should be able to get that general view of history
+which is so necessary a framework for the study of it particular
+period or the history of a particular country.  It may be found
+useful as a preparatory excursion before the reading of the
+author's much fuller and more explicit _Outline of History_ is
+undertaken.  But its especial end is to meet the needs of the busy
+general reader, too driven to study the maps and time charts of
+that _Outline_ in detail, who wishes to refresh and repair his
+faded or fragmentary conceptions of the great adventure of
+mankind.  It is not an abstract or condensation of that former
+work.  Within its aim the _Outline_ admits of no further
+condensation.  This is a much more generalized History, planned
+and written afresh.
+
+{vii}
+
+
+
+ CONTENTS
+
+  CHAPTER                                                        PAGE
+  I.       THE WORLD IN SPACE                                       1
+  II.      THE WORLD IN TIME                                        5
+  III.     THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE                                  11
+  IV.      THE AGE OF FISHES                                       16
+  V.       THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS                              21
+  VI.      THE AGE OF REPTILES                                     26
+  VII.     THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS                   31
+  VIII.    THE AGE OF MAMMALS                                      37
+  IX.      MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN                               43
+  X.       THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN                 48
+  XI.      THE FIRST TRUE MEN                                      53
+  XII.     PRIMITIVE THOUGHT                                       60
+  XIII.    THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION                           65
+  XIV.     PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS                       71
+  XV.      SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING                        77
+  XVI.     PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES                               84
+  XVII.    THE FIRST SEA-GOING PEOPLES                             91
+  XVIII.   EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA                              96
+  XIX.     THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS                                   104
+  XX.      THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I  109
+  XXI.     THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS                          115
+  XXII.    PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA                          122
+  XXIII.   THE GREEKS                                             127
+  XXIV.    THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS                    134
+  XXV.     THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE                                139
+  XXVI.    THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT                      145
+  XXVII.   THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA                   150
+
+{viii}
+
+  XXVIII.  THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA                             156
+  XXIX.    KING ASOKA                                             163
+  XXX.     CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE                                  167
+  XXXI.    ROME COMES INTO HISTORY                                174
+  XXXII.   ROME AND CARTHAGE                                      180
+  XXXIII.  THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE                         185
+  XXXIV.   BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA                                 196
+  XXXV.    THE COMMON MAN'S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE     201
+  XXXVI.   RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE           208
+  XXXVII.  THE TEACHING OF JESUS                                  214
+  XXXVIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY              222
+  XXXIX.   THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST     227
+  XL.      THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE             233
+  XLI.     THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES                     238
+  XLII.    THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA                 245
+  XLIII.   MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM                                     248
+  XLIV.    THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS                            253
+  XLV.     THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM                   258
+  XLVI.    THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION             267
+  XLVII.   RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM              277
+  XLVIII.  THE MONGOL CONQUESTS                                   287
+  XLIX.    THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS              294
+  L.       THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH                    304
+  LI.      THE EMPEROR CHARLES V                                  309
+  LII.     THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND MONARCHY
+                   AND PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE    318
+  LIII.    THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS  329
+  LIV.     THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE                       335
+
+{ix}
+
+  LV.      THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF
+                   MONARCHY IN FRANCE                             341
+  LVI.     THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED
+                   THE FALL OF NAPOLEON                           349
+  LVII.    THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE                  355
+  LVIII.   THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION                              365
+  LIX.     THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS   370
+  LX.      THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES                     382
+  LXI.     THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE          390
+  LXII.    THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF THE STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY  393
+  LXIII.   EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA, AND THE RISE OF JAPAN     399
+  LXIV.    THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914                             405
+  LXV.     THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND
+                   THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18                       409
+  LXVI.    THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA                    415
+  LXVII.   THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD   421
+           CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE                                    429
+           INDEX                                                  439
+
+
+{xi}
+
+ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+  Luminous Spiral Clouds of Matter                                  2
+  Nebula seen Edge-on                                               3
+  The Great Spiral Nebula                                           6
+  A Dark Nebula                                                     7
+  Another Spiral Nebula                                             8
+  Landscape before Life                                             9
+  Marine Life in the Cambrian Period                               12
+  Fossil Trilobite                                                 13
+  Early Pal�ozoic Fossils of various Species of Lingula            14
+  Fossilized Footprints of a Labyrinthodont, Cheirotherium         15
+  Pterichthys Milleri                                              17
+  Fossil of Cladoselache                                           18
+  Sharks and Ganoids of the Devonian Period                        19
+  A Carboniferous Swamp                                            22
+  Skull of a Labyrinthodont, Capitosaurus                          23
+  Skeleton of a Labyrinthodont: The Eryops                         24
+  A Fossil Ichthyosaurus                                           27
+  A Pterodactyl                                                    28
+  The Diplodocus                                                   29
+  Fossil of Archeopteryx                                           32
+  Hesperornis in its Native Seas                                   33
+  The Ki-wi                                                        34
+  Slab of Marl Rich in Cainozoic Fossils                           35
+  Titanotherium Robustum                                           38
+  Skeleton of Giraffe-camel                                        40
+  Skeleton of Early Horse                                          40
+  Comparative Sizes of Brains of Rhinoceros and Dinoceras          41
+  A Mammoth                                                        44
+  Flint Implements from Piltdown Region                            45
+  A Pithecanthropean Man                                           46
+  The Heidelberg Man                                               46
+  The Piltdown Skull                                               47
+  A Neanderthaler                                                  49
+
+{xii}
+
+  Europe and Western Asia 50,000 years ago                   Map   50
+  Comparison of Modern Skull and Rhodesian Skull                   51
+  Altamira Cave Paintings                                          54
+  Later Pal�olithic Carvings                                       55
+  Bust of Cro-magnon Man                                           57
+  Later Pal�olithic Art                                            58
+  Relics of the Stone Age                                          62
+  Gray's Inn Lane Flint Implement                                  63
+  Somaliland Flint Implement                                       63
+  Neolithic Flint Implement                                        67
+  Australian Spearheads                                            68
+  Neolithic Pottery                                                69
+  Relationship of Human Races                                Map   72
+  A Maya Stele                                                     73
+  European Neolithic Warrior                                       75
+  Babylonian Brick                                                 78
+  Egyptian Cylinder Seals of First Dynasty                         79
+  The Sakhara Pyramids                                             80
+  The Pyramid of Cheops: Scene from Summit                         81
+  The Temple of Hathor                                             82
+  Pottery and Implements of the Lake Dwellers                      85
+  A Lake Village                                                   86
+  Flint Knives of 4500 B.C.                                        87
+  Egyptian Wall Paintings of Nomads                                87
+  Egyptian Peasants Going to Work                                  88
+  Stele of Naram Sin                                               89
+  The Treasure House at Mycen�                                     93
+  The Palace at Cnossos                                            95
+  Temple at Abu Simbel                                             97
+  Avenue of Sphinxes at Karnak                                     98
+  The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak                                     99
+  Frieze of Slaves                                                101
+  The Temple of Horus, Edfu                                       103
+  Archaic Amphora                                                 105
+  The Mound of Nippur                                             107
+  Median and Chaldean Empires                                Map  110
+  The Empire of Darius                                       Map  111
+  A Persian Monarch                                               112
+  The Ruins of Persepolis                                         113
+  The Great Porch of Xerxes                                       113
+
+{xiii}
+
+  The Land of the Hebrews                                    Map  117
+  Nebuchadnezzar's Mound at Babylon                               118
+  The Ishtar Gateway, Babylon                                     120
+  Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II                                 124
+  Captive Princes making Obeisance                                125
+  Statue of Meleager                                              128
+  Ruins of Temple of Zeus                                         130
+  The Temple of Neptune, P�stum                                   132
+  Greek Ships on Ancient Pottery                                  135
+  The Temple of Corinth                                           137
+  The Temple of Neptune at Cape Sunium                            138
+  Frieze of the Parthenon, Athens                                 140
+  The Acropolis, Athens                                           141
+  Theatre at Epidauros, Greece                                    141
+  The Caryatides of the Erechtheum                                142
+  Athene of the Parthenon                                         143
+  Alexander the Great                                             146
+  Alexander's Victory at Issus                                    147
+  The Apollo Belvedere                                            148
+  Aristotle                                                       152
+  Statuette of Maitreya                                           153
+  The Death of Buddha                                             154
+  Tibetan Buddha                                                  158
+  A Burmese Buddha                                                159
+  The Dham�kh Tower, Sarnath                                      160
+  A Chinese Buddhist Apostle                                      164
+  The Court of Asoka                                              165
+  Asoka Panel from Bharhut                                        165
+  The Pillar of Lions (Asokan)                                    166
+  Confucius                                                       169
+  The Great Wall of China                                         171
+  Early Chinese Bronze Bell                                       172
+  The Dying Gaul                                                  175
+  Ancient Roman Cisterns at Carthage                              177
+  Hannibal                                                        181
+  Roman Empire and its Alliances, 150 B.C.                   Map  183
+  The Forum, Rome                                                 188
+  Ruined Coliseum in Tunis                                        189
+  Roman Arch at Ctesiphon                                         190
+  The Column of Trajan, Rome                                      193
+
+{xiv}
+
+  Glazed Jar of Han Dynasty                                       197
+  Vase of Han Dynasty                                             198
+  Chinese Vessel in Bronze                                        199
+  A Gladiator (contemporary representation)                       202
+  A Street in Pompeii                                             204
+  The Coliseum, Rome                                              206
+  Interior of Coliseum                                            206
+  Mithras Sacrificing a Bull                                      210
+  Isis and Horus                                                  211
+  Bust of Emperor Commodus                                        212
+  Early Portrait of Jesus Christ                                  216
+  Road from Nazareth to Tiberias                                  217
+  David's Tower and Wall of Jerusalem                             218
+  A Street in Jerusalem                                           219
+  The Peter and Paul Mosaic at Rome                               223
+  Baptism of Christ (Ivory Panel)                                 225
+  Roman Empire and the Barbarians                            Map  228
+  Constantine's Pillar, Constantinople                            229
+  The Obelisk of Theodosius, Constantinople                       231
+  Head of Barbarian Chief                                         235
+  The Church of S. Sophia, Constantinople                         239
+  Roof-work in S. Sophia                                          240
+  Justinian and his Court                                         241
+  The Rock-hewn Temple at Petra                                   242
+  Chinese Earthenware of Tang Dynasty                             246
+  At Prayer in the Desert                                         250
+  Looking Across the Sea of Sand                                  251
+  Growth of Moslem Power                                     Map  254
+  The Moslem Empire                                          Map  254
+  The Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem                                   255
+  Cairo Mosques                                                   256
+  Frankish Dominions of Martel                               Map  260
+  Statue of Charlemagne                                           262
+  Europe at Death of Charlemagne                             Map  264
+  Crusader Tombs, Exeter Cathedral                                268
+  View of Cairo                                                   269
+  The Horses of S. Mark, Venice                                   271
+  Courtyard in the Alhambra                                       273
+  Milan Cathedral (showing spires)                                278
+  A Typical Crusader                                              280
+
+{xv}
+
+  Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes)                              283-4
+  The Empire of Jengis Khan                                  Map  288
+  Ottoman Empire before 1453                                 Map  289
+  Tartar Horsemen                                                 291
+  Ottoman Empire, 1566                                       Map  292
+  An Early Printing Press                                         296
+  Ancient Bronze from Benin                                       299
+  Negro Bronze-work                                               300
+  Early Sailing Ship (Italian Engraving)                          301
+  Portrait of Martin Luther                                       305
+  The Church Triumphant (Italian Majolica work, 1543)             307
+  Charles V (the Titian Portrait)                                 311
+  S. Peter's, Rome: the High Altar                                315
+  Cromwell Dissolves the Long Parliament                          321
+  The Court at Versailles                                         323
+  Sack of a Village, French Revolution                            325
+  Central Europe after Peace of Westphalia, 1648             Map  326
+  European Territory in America, 1750                        Map  330
+  Europeans Tiger Hunting in India                                331
+  Fall of Tippoo Sultan                                           332
+  George Washington                                               337
+  The Battle of Bunker Hill                                       338
+  The U.S.A., 1790                                                339
+  The Trial of Louis XVI                                          344
+  Execution of Marie Antoinette                                   346
+  Portrait of Napoleon                                            352
+  Europe after the Congress of Vienna                        Map  353
+  Early Rolling Stock, Liverpool and Manchester Railway           356
+  Passenger Train in 1833                                         356
+  The Steamboat Clermont                                          357
+  Eighteenth Century Spinning Wheel                               361
+  Arkwright's Spinning Jenny                                      361
+  An Early Weaving Machine                                        363
+  An Incident of the Slave Trade                                  367
+  Early Factory, in Colebrookdale                                 368
+  Carl Marx                                                       372
+  Electric Conveyor, in Coal Mine                                 376
+  Constructional Detail, Forth Bridge                             378
+  American River Steamer                                          385
+  Abraham Lincoln                                                 387
+
+{xvi}
+
+  Europe, 1848-71                                            Map  391
+  Victoria Falls, Zambesi                                         395
+  The British Empire, 1815                                   Map  397
+  Japanese Soldier, Eighteenth Century                            401
+  A Street in Tokio                                               403
+  Overseas Empires of Europe, 1914                           Map  406
+  Gibraltar                                                       407
+  Street in Hong Kong                                             408
+  British Tank in Battle                                          410
+  The Ruins of Ypres                                              411
+  Modern War: War Entanglements                                   412
+  A View in Petersburg under Bolshevik Rule                       418
+  Passenger Aeroplane in Flight                                   423
+  A Peaceful Garden in England                                    426
+
+
+
+
+
+
+{1}
+
+I
+
+THE WORLD IN SPACE
+
+
+The story of our world is a story that is still very imperfectly
+known. A couple of hundred years ago men possessed the history of
+little more than the last three thousand years.  What happened
+before that time was a matter of legend and speculation.  Over a
+large part of the civilized world it was believed and taught that
+the world had been created suddenly in 4004 B.C., though
+authorities differed as to whether this had occurred in the spring
+or autumn of that year. This fantastically precise misconception
+was based upon a too literal interpretation of the Hebrew Bible,
+and upon rather arbitrary theological assumptions connected
+therewith.  Such ideas have long since been abandoned by religious
+teachers, and it is universally recognized that the universe in
+which we live has to all appearances existed for an enormous
+period of time and possibly for endless time.  Of course there may
+be deception in these appearances, as a room may be made to seem
+endless by putting mirrors facing each other at either end.  But
+that the universe in which we live has existed only for six or
+seven thousand years may be regarded as an altogether exploded
+idea.
+
+The earth, as everybody knows nowadays, is a spheroid, a sphere
+slightly compressed, orange fashion, with a diameter of nearly
+8,000 miles.  Its spherical shape has been known at least to a
+limited number of intelligent people for nearly 2,500 years, but
+before that time it was supposed to be flat, and various ideas
+which now seem fantastic were entertained about its relations to
+the sky and the stars and planets.  We know now that it rotates
+upon its {2} axis (which is about 24 miles shorter than its
+equatorial diameter) every twenty-four hours, and that this is the
+cause of the alternations of day and night, that it circles about
+the sun in a slightly distorted and slowly variable oval path in a
+year. Its distance from the sun varies between ninety-one and a
+half millions at its nearest and ninety-four and a half million
+miles.
+
+[Illustration: "LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER"]
+
+About the earth circles a smaller sphere, the moon, at an average
+distance of 239,000 miles. Earth and moon are not the only bodies
+to travel round the sun.  There are also the planets, Mercury and
+Venus, at distances of thirty-six and sixty-seven millions of
+miles; and beyond the circle of the earth and disregarding a belt
+of numerous smaller bodies, the planetoids, there are Mars,
+Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune at mean distances of 141, 483,
+886, 1,782, and 1,793 millions of miles respectively.  These
+figures in {3} millions of miles are very difficult for the mind
+to grasp.  It may help the reader's imagination if we reduce the
+sun and planets to a smaller, more conceivable scale.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEBULA SEEN EDGE ON]
+
+If, then, we represent our earth as a little ball of one inch
+diameter, the sun would be a big globe nine feet across and 323
+yards away, that is about a fifth of a mile, four or five minutes'
+walking.  The moon would be a small pea two feet and a half from
+the world.  Between earth and sun there would be the two inner
+planets, Mercury and Venus, at distances of one hundred and
+twenty-five and two hundred and fifty yards from the sun. All
+round and about these bodies there would be emptiness until you
+came to Mars, a hundred and seventy-five feet beyond the earth;
+Jupiter {4} nearly a mile away, a foot in diameter; Saturn, a
+little smaller, two miles off; Uranus four miles off and Neptune
+six miles off.  Then nothingness and nothingness except for small
+particles and drifting scraps of attenuated vapour for thousands
+of miles. The nearest star to earth on this scale would be 40,000
+miles away.
+
+These figures will serve perhaps to give one some conception of
+the immense emptiness of space in which the drama of life goes on.
+
+For in all this enormous vacancy of space we know certainly of
+life only upon the surface of our earth. It does not penetrate
+much more than three miles down into the 4,000 miles that separate
+us from the centre of our globe, and it does not reach more than
+five miles above its surface.  Apparently all the limitlessness of
+space is otherwise empty and dead.
+
+The deepest ocean dredgings go down to five miles. The highest
+recorded flight of an aeroplane is little more than four miles.
+Men have reached to seven miles up in balloons, but at a cost of
+great suffering.  No bird can fly so high as five miles, and small
+birds and insects which have been carried up by aeroplanes drop
+off insensible far below that level.
+
+
+
+
+{5}
+
+II
+
+THE WORLD IN TIME
+
+
+In the last fifty years there has been much very fine and
+interesting speculation on the part of scientific men upon the age
+and origin of our earth.  Here we cannot pretend to give even a
+summary of such speculations because they involve the most subtle
+mathematical and physical considerations.  The truth is that the
+physical and astronomical sciences are still too undeveloped as
+yet to make anything of the sort more than an illustrative
+guesswork.  The general tendency has been to make the estimated
+age of our globe longer and longer.  It now seems probable that
+the earth has had an independent existence as a spinning planet
+flying round and round the sun for a longer period than
+2,000,000,000 years.  It may have been much longer than that. This
+is a length of time that absolutely overpowers the imagination.
+
+Before that vast period of separate existence, the sun and earth
+and the other planets that circulate round the sun may have been a
+great swirl of diffused matter in space.  The telescope reveals to
+us in various parts of the heavens luminous spiral clouds of
+matter, the spiral nebul�, which appear to be in rotation about a
+centre.  It is supposed by many astronomers that the sun and its
+planets were once such a spiral, and that their matter has
+undergone concentration into its present form. Through majestic
+�ons that concentration went on until in that vast remoteness of
+the past for which we have given figures, the world and its moon
+were distinguishable.  They were spinning then much faster than
+they are spinning now; they were at a lesser distance from the
+sun; they travelled round it very much faster, and they were
+probably incandescent or molten at the surface.  The sun itself
+was a much greater blaze in the heavens.
+
+{6}
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA]
+
+If we could go back through that infinitude of time and see the
+earth in this earlier stage of its history, we should behold a
+scene more like the interior of a blast furnace or the surface of
+a lava flow before it cools and cakes over than any other
+contemporary scene.  No water would be visible because all the
+water there was would still be superheated steam in a stormy
+atmosphere of sulphurous and metallic vapours.  Beneath this would
+swirl and boil an ocean of molten rock substance.  Across a sky of
+fiery clouds the glare of the hurrying sun and moon would sweep
+swiftly like hot breaths of flame.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{7}
+
+[Illustration:  A DARK NEBULA]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Slowly by degrees as one million of years followed another, this
+{8} fiery scene would lose its eruptive incandescence.  The
+vapours in the sky would rain down and become less dense overhead;
+great slaggy cakes of solidifying rock would appear upon the
+surface of the molten sea, and sink under it, to be replaced by
+other floating masses.  The sun and moon growing now each more
+distant and each smaller, would rush with diminishing swiftness
+across the heavens. The moon now, because of its smaller size,
+would be already cooled far below incandescence, and would be
+alternately obstructing and reflecting the sunlight in a series of
+eclipses and full moons.
+
+[Illustration: ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA]
+
+And so with a tremendous slowness through the vastness of time,
+the earth would grow more and more like the earth on which we
+live, until at last an age would come when, in the cooling air,
+steam would begin to condense into clouds, and the first rain
+would fall hissing upon the first rocks below.  For endless
+millenia the greater part of the earth's water would still be
+vaporized in the atmosphere, but there would now be hot streams
+running over the crystallizing {9} rocks below and pools and lakes
+into which these streams would be carrying detritus and depositing
+sediment.
+
+[Illustration: LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE]
+
+At last a condition of things must have been attained in which a
+man might have stood up on earth and looked about him and lived.
+If we could have visited the earth at that time we should have
+stood on great lava-like masses of rock without a trace of soil or
+touch of living vegetation, under a storm-rent sky.  Hot and
+violent winds, exceeding the fiercest tornado that ever blows, and
+downpours of rain such as our milder, slower earth to-day knows
+nothing of, might have assailed us.  The water of the downpour
+would have rushed by us, muddy with the spoils of the rocks,
+coming together into torrents, cutting deep gorges and canyons as
+they hurried past to deposit their sediment in the earliest seas.
+Through the clouds we should have glimpsed a great sun moving
+visibly across the sky, and in its wake and in the wake of the
+moon would have come a diurnal tide of earthquake and upheaval.
+And {10} the moon, which nowadays keeps one constant face to
+earth, would then have been rotating visibly and showing the side
+it now hides so inexorably.
+
+The earth aged.  One million years followed another, and the day
+lengthened, the sun grew more distant and milder, the moon's pace
+in the sky slackened; the intensity of rain and storm diminished
+and the water in the first seas increased and ran together into
+the ocean garment our planet henceforth wore.
+
+But there was no life as yet upon the earth; the seas were
+lifeless, and the rocks were barren.
+
+
+
+
+{11}
+
+III
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE
+
+
+As everybody knows nowadays, the knowledge we possess of life
+before the beginnings of human memory and tradition is derived
+from the markings and fossils of living things in the stratified
+rocks. We find preserved in shale and slate, limestone, and
+sandstone, bones, shells, fibres, stems, fruits, footmarks,
+scratchings and the like, side by side with the ripple marks of
+the earliest tides and the pittings of the earliest rain-falls. It
+is by the sedulous examination of this Record of the Rocks that
+the past history of the earth's life has been pieced together.
+That much nearly everybody knows to-day.  The sedimentary rocks do
+not lie neatly stratum above stratum; they have been crumpled,
+bent, thrust about, distorted and mixed together like the leaves
+of a library that has been repeatedly looted and burnt, and it is
+only as a result of many devoted lifetimes of work that the record
+has been put into order and read.  The whole compass of time
+represented by the record of the rocks is now estimated as
+1,600,000,000 years.
+
+The earliest rocks in the record are called by geologists the
+Azoic rocks, because they show no traces of life.  Great areas of
+these Azoic rocks lie uncovered in North America, and they are of
+such a thickness that geologists consider that they represent a
+period of at least half of the 1,600,000,000 which they assign to
+the whole geological record.  Let me repeat this profoundly
+significant fact.  Half the great interval of time since land and
+sea were first distinguishable on earth has left us no traces of
+life.  There are ripplings and rain marks still to be found in
+these rocks, but no marks nor vestiges of any living thing.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{12}
+
+[Illustration: MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Then, as we come up the record, signs of past life appear and
+increase.  The age of the world's history in which we find these
+past {13} traces is called by geologists the Lower Pal�ozoic age.
+The first indications that life was astir are vestiges of
+comparatively simple and lowly things: the shells of small
+shellfish, the stems and flowerlike heads of zoophytes, seaweeds
+and the tracks and remains of sea worms and crustacea.  Very early
+appear certain creatures rather like plant-lice, crawling
+creatures which could roll themselves up into balls as the
+plant-lice do, the trilobites.  Later by a few million years or so
+come certain sea scorpions, more mobile and powerful creatures
+than the world had ever seen before.
+
+[Illustration: FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY MAGNIFIED)]
+
+None of these creatures were of very great size.  Among the
+largest were certain of the sea scorpions, which measured nine
+feet in length.  There are no signs whatever of land life of any
+sort, plant or animal; there are no fishes nor any vertebrated
+creatures in this part of the record.  Essentially all the plants
+and creatures which have left us their traces from this period of
+the earth's history are shallow-water and intertidal beings.  If
+we wished to parallel the flora and fauna of the Lower Pal�ozoic
+rocks on the earth to-day, we should do it best, except in the
+matter of size, by taking a drop of water from a rock pool or
+scummy ditch and examining it under a microscope.  The little
+crustacea, the small shellfish, the zoophytes and alg� we should
+find there would display a quite striking resemblance to these
+clumsier, larger prototypes that once were the crown of life upon
+our planet.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY PAL�OLITHIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF
+LINGULA]
+
+It is well, however, to bear in mind that the Lower Pal�ozoic
+rocks probably do not give us anything at all representative of
+the first beginnings of life on our planet. Unless a creature has
+bones {14} or other hard parts, unless it wears a shell or is big
+enough and heavy enough to make characteristic footprints and
+trails in mud, it is unlikely to leave any fossilized traces of
+its existence behind.  To-day there are hundreds of thousands of
+species of small soft-bodied creatures in our world which it is
+inconceivable can ever leave any mark for future geologists to
+discover.  In the world's past, millions of millions of species of
+such creatures may have lived and multiplied and flourished and
+passed away without a trace remaining.  The waters of the warm and
+shallow lakes and seas of the so-called Azoic period may have
+teemed with an infinite variety {15} of lowly, jelly-like,
+shell-less and boneless creatures, and a multitude of green scummy
+plants may have spread over the sunlit intertidal rocks and
+beaches.  The Record of the Rocks is no more a complete record of
+life in the past than the books of a bank are a record of the
+existence of everybody in the neighbourhood.  It is only when a
+species begins to secrete a shell or a spicule or a carapace or a
+lime-supported stem, and so put by something for the future, that
+it goes upon the Record.  But in rocks of an age prior to those
+which bear any fossil traces, graphite, a form of uncombined
+carbon, is sometimes found, and some authorities consider that it
+may have been separated out from combination through the vital
+activities of unknown living things.
+
+[Illustration: FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT
+CHEIROTHERIUM]
+
+
+
+
+{16}
+
+IV
+
+THE AGE OF FISHES
+
+
+In the days when the world was supposed to have endured for only a
+few thousand years, it was supposed that the different species of
+plants and animals were fixed and final; they had all been created
+exactly as they are to-day, each species by itself.  But as men
+began to discover and study the Record of the Rocks this belief
+gave place to the suspicion that many species had changed and
+developed slowly through the course of ages, and this again
+expanded into a belief in what is called Organic Evolution, a
+belief that all species of life upon earth, animal and vegetable
+alike, are descended by slow continuous processes of change from
+some very simple ancestral form of life, some almost structureless
+living substance, far back in the so-called Azoic seas.
+
+This question of Organic Evolution, like the question of the age
+of the earth, has in the past been the subject of much bitter
+controversy.  There was a time when a belief in organic evolution
+was for rather obscure reasons supposed to be incompatible with
+sound Christian, Jewish and Moslem doctrine.  That time has
+passed, and the men of the most orthodox Catholic, Protestant,
+Jewish and Mohammedan belief are now free to accept this newer and
+broader view of a common origin of all living things.  No life
+seems to have happened suddenly upon earth.  Life grew and grows.
+Age by age through gulfs of time at which imagination reels, life
+has been growing from a mere stirring in the intertidal slime
+towards freedom, power and consciousness.
+
+Life consists of individuals. These individuals are definite
+things, they are not like the lumps and masses, nor even the
+limitless and motionless crystals, of non-living matter, and they
+have two characteristics no dead matter possesses.  They can
+assimilate other matter into themselves and make it part of
+themselves, and {17} they can reproduce themselves.  They eat and
+they breed.  They can give rise to other individuals, for the most
+part like themselves, but always also a little different from
+themselves.  There is a specific and family resemblance between an
+individual and its offspring, and there is an individual
+difference between every parent and every offspring it produces,
+and this is true in every species and at every stage of life.
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION
+SHOWING BODY ARMOUR]
+
+Now scientific men are not able to explain to us either why
+offspring should resemble nor why they should differ from their
+parents.  But seeing that offspring do at once resemble and
+differ, it is a matter rather of common sense than of scientific
+knowledge that, if the conditions under which a species live are
+changed, the species should undergo some correlated changes.
+Because in any generation of the species there must be a number of
+individuals whose individual differences make them better adapted
+to the new conditions under which the species has to live, and a
+number whose individuals whose individual differences make it
+rather harder for them to live.  And on the whole the former sort
+will live longer, bear more offspring, and reproduce themselves
+more abundantly than the latter, and so generation by generation
+the average of the species will change in the favourable
+direction.  This process, which is called Natural Selection, is
+not so much a scientific theory as a necessary deduction {18} from
+the facts of reproduction and individual difference.  There may be
+many forces at work varying, destroying and preserving species,
+about which science may still be unaware or undecided, but the man
+who can deny the operation of this process of natural selection
+upon life since its beginning must be either ignorant of the
+elementary facts of life or incapable of ordinary thought.
+
+Many scientific men have speculated about the first beginning of
+life and their speculations are often of great interest, but there
+is absolutely no definite knowledge and no convincing guess yet of
+the way in which life began.  But nearly all authorities are
+agreed that it probably began upon mud or sand in warm sunlit
+shallow brackish water, and that it spread up the beaches to the
+intertidal lines and out to the open waters.
+
+[Illustration: FOSSIL OF THE CLADOSELACHE, A DEVONIAN SHARK]
+
+That early world was a world of strong tides and currents.  An
+incessant destruction of individuals must have been going on
+through their being swept up the beaches and dried, or by their
+being swept out to sea and sinking down out of reach of air and
+sun.  Early conditions favoured the development of every tendency
+to root and hold on, every tendency to form an outer skin and
+casing to protect the stranded individual from immediate
+desiccation.  From the very earliest any tendency to sensitiveness
+to taste would turn the individual in the direction of food, and
+any sensitiveness to light would assist it to struggle back out of
+the darkness of the sea deeps and caverns or to wriggle back out
+of the excessive glare of the dangerous shallows.
+
+Probably the first shells and body armour of living things were
+protections against drying rather than against active enemies.
+But tooth and claw come early into our earthly history.
+
+We have already noted the size of the earlier water scorpions.
+For long ages such creatures were the supreme lords of life. Then
+{19} in a division of these Pal�ozoic rocks called the Silurian
+division, which many geologists now suppose to be as old as five
+hundred million years, there appears a new type of being, equipped
+with eyes and teeth and swimming powers of an altogether more
+powerful kind.  These were the first known backboned animals, the
+earliest fishes, the first known Vertebrata.
+
+[Illustration: SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD]
+
+These fishes increase greatly in the next division of rocks, the
+rocks known as the Devonian system.  They are so prevalent that
+this period of the Record of the Rocks has been called the Age of
+{20} Fishes.  Fishes of a pattern now gone from the earth, and
+fishes allied to the sharks and sturgeons of to-day, rushed
+through the waters, leapt in the air, browsed among the seaweeds,
+pursued and preyed upon one another, and gave a new liveliness to
+the waters of the world.  None of these were excessively big by
+our present standards.  Few of them were more than two or three
+feet long, but there were exceptional forms which were as long as
+twenty feet.
+
+We know nothing from geology of the ancestors of these fishes.
+They do not appear to be related to any of the forms that preceded
+them.  Zoologists have the most interesting views of their
+ancestry, but these they derive from the study of the development
+of the eggs of their still living relations, and from other
+sources.  Apparently the ancestors of the vertebrata were
+soft-bodied and perhaps quite small swimming creatures who began first
+to develop hard parts as teeth round and about their mouths.  The
+teeth of a skate or dogfish cover the roof and floor of its mouth
+and pass at the lip into the flattened toothlike scales that
+encase most of its body.  As the fishes develop these teeth scales
+in the geological record, they swim out of the hidden darkness of
+the past into the light, the first vertebrated animals visible in
+the record.
+
+
+
+
+{21}
+
+V
+
+THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS
+
+
+The land during this Age of Fishes was apparently quite lifeless.
+Crags and uplands of barren rock lay under the sun and rain.
+There was no real soil--for as yet there were no earthworms which
+help to make a soil, and no plants to break up the rock particles
+into mould; there was no trace of moss or lichen.  Life was still
+only in the sea.
+
+Over this world of barren rock played great changes of climate.
+The causes of these changes of climate were very complex and they
+have still to be properly estimated.  The changing shape of the
+earth's orbit, the gradual shifting of the poles of rotation,
+changes in the shapes of the continents, probably even
+fluctuations in the warmth of the sun, now conspired to plunge
+great areas of the earth's surface into long periods of cold and
+ice and now again for millions of years spread a warm or equable
+climate over this planet.  There seem to have been phases of great
+internal activity in the world's history, when in the course of a
+few million years accumulated upthrusts would break out in lines
+of volcanic eruption and upheaval and rearrange the mountain and
+continental outlines of the globe, increasing the depth of the sea
+and the height of the mountains and exaggerating the extremes of
+climate.  And these would be followed by vast ages of comparative
+quiescence, when frost, rain and river would wear down the
+mountain heights and carry great masses of silt to fill and raise
+the sea bottoms and spread the seas, ever shallower and wider,
+over more and more of the land.  There have been "high and deep"
+ages in the world's history and "low and level" ages.  The reader
+must dismiss from his mind any idea that the surface of the earth
+has been growing steadily cooler since its crust grew solid.
+After that much cooling had been achieved, the internal
+temperature ceased to affect surface {22} conditions. There are
+traces of periods of superabundant ice and snow, of "Glacial
+Ages," that is, even in the Azoic period.
+
+It was only towards the close of the Age of Fishes, in a period of
+extensive shallow seas and lagoons, that life spread itself out in
+any effectual way from the waters on to the land.  No doubt the
+earlier types of the forms that now begin to appear in great
+abundance had already been developing in a rare and obscure manner
+for many scores of millions of years.  But now came their
+opportunity.
+
+[Illustration: A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP]
+
+Plants no doubt preceded animal forms in this invasion of the
+land, but the animals probably followed up the plant emigration
+{23} very closely.  The first problem that the plant had to solve
+was the problem of some sustaining stiff support to hold up its
+fronds to the sunlight when the buoyant water was withdrawn; the
+second was the problem of getting water from the swampy ground
+below to the tissues of the plant, now that it was no longer close
+at hand.  The two problems were solved by the development of woody
+tissue which both sustained the plant and acted as water carrier
+to the leaves.  The Record of the Rocks is suddenly crowded by a
+vast variety of woody swamp plants, many of them of great size,
+big tree mosses, tree ferns, gigantic horsetails and the like.
+And with these, age by age, there crawled out of the water a great
+variety of animal forms.  There were centipedes and millipedes;
+there were the first primitive insects; there were creatures
+related to the ancient king crabs and sea scorpions which became
+the earliest spiders and land scorpions, and presently there were
+vertebrated animals.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF A LABYRINTHODONT, CAPITOSAURUS]
+
+Some of the earlier insects were very large. There were dragon
+flies in this period with wings that spread out to twenty-nine
+inches.
+
+In various ways these new orders and genera had adapted themselves
+to breathing air.  Hitherto all animals had breathed air dissolved
+in water, and that indeed is what all animals still have to do.
+But now in divers fashions the animal kingdom was acquiring the
+power of supplying its own moisture where it was needed.  A man
+with a perfectly dry lung would suffocate to-day; {24} his lung
+surfaces must be moist in order that air may pass through them
+into his blood.  The adaptation to air breathing consists in all
+cases either in the development of a cover to the old-fashioned
+gills to stop evaporation, or in the development of tubes or other
+new breathing organs lying deep inside the body and moistened by a
+watery secretion.  The old gills with which the ancestral fish of
+the vertebrated line had breathed were inadaptable to breathing
+upon land, and in the case of this division of the animal kingdom
+it is the swimming bladder of the fish which becomes a new,
+deep-seated breathing organ, the lung.  The kind of animals
+known as amphibia, the frogs and newts of to-day, begin
+their lives in the water and breathe by gills; and subsequently
+the lung, developing in the same way as the swimming
+bladder of many fishes do, as a baglike outgrowth from the throat,
+takes over the business of breathing, the animal comes out on
+land, and the gills dwindle and the gill slits disappear.  (All
+except an outgrowth of one gill slit, which becomes the passage of
+the ear and ear-drum.)  The animal can now live only in the air,
+but it must return at least to the edge of the water to lay its
+eggs and reproduce its kind.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT; THE ERYOPS]
+
+All the air-breathing vertebrata of this age of swamps and plants
+belonged to the class amphibia.  They were nearly all of them
+forms related to the newts of to-day, and some of them attained a
+considerable size.  They were land animals, it is true, but they
+were land animals needing to live in and near moist and swampy
+places, and all the great trees of this period were equally {25}
+amphibious in their habits.  None of them had yet developed fruits
+and seeds of a kind that could fall on land and develop with the
+help only of such moisture as dew and rain could bring.  They all
+had to shed their spores in water, it would seem, if they were to
+germinate.
+
+It is one of the most beautiful interests of that beautiful
+science, comparative anatomy, to trace the complex and wonderful
+adaptations of living things to the necessities of existence in
+air.  All living things, plants and animals alike, are primarily
+water things.  For example all the higher vertebrated animals
+above the fishes, up to and including man, pass through a stage in
+their development in the egg or before birth in which they have
+gill slits which are obliterated before the young emerge.  The
+bare, water-washed eye of the fish is protected in the higher
+forms from drying up by eyelids and glands which secrete moisture.
+The weaker sound vibrations of air necessitate an ear-drum.  In
+nearly every organ of the body similar modifications and
+adaptations are to be detected, similar patchings-up to meet
+aerial conditions.
+
+This Carboniferous age, this age of the amphibia, was an age of
+life in the swamps and lagoons and on the low banks among these
+waters.  Thus far life had now extended.  The hills and high lands
+were still quite barren and lifeless.  Life had learnt to breathe
+air indeed, but it still had its roots in its native water; it
+still had to return to the water to reproduce its kind.
+
+
+
+
+{26}
+
+VI
+
+THE AGE OF REPTILES
+
+
+The abundant life of the Carboniferous period was succeeded by a
+vast cycle of dry and bitter ages.  They are represented in the
+Record of the Rocks by thick deposits of sandstones and the like,
+in which fossils are comparatively few.  The temperature of the
+world fluctuated widely, and there were long periods of glacial
+cold.  Over great areas the former profusion of swamp vegetation
+ceased, and, overlaid by these newer deposits, it began that
+process of compression and mineralization that gave the world most
+of the coal deposits of to-day.
+
+But it is during periods of change that life undergoes its most
+rapid modifications, and under hardship that it learns its hardest
+lessons.  As conditions revert towards warmth and moisture again
+we find a new series of animal and plant forms established,  We
+find in the record the remains of vertebrated animals that laid
+eggs which, instead of hatching out tadpoles which needed to live
+for a time in water, carried on their development before hatching
+to a stage so nearly like the adult form that the young could live
+in air from the first moment of independent existence.  Gills had
+been cut out altogether, and the gill slits only appeared as an
+embryonic phase.
+
+These new creatures without a tadpole stage were the Reptiles.
+Concurrently there had been a development of seed-bearing trees,
+which could spread their seed, independently of swamp or lakes.
+There were now palmlike cycads and many tropical conifers, though
+as yet there were no flowering plants and no grasses.  There was a
+great number of ferns.  And there was now also an increased
+variety of insects.  There were beetles, though bees and
+butterflies had yet to come.  But all the fundamental forms of a
+new real land fauna and flora had been laid down during these vast
+ages of severity.  {27} This new land life needed only the
+opportunity of favourable conditions to flourish and prevail.
+
+[Illustration: A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD]
+
+Age by age and with abundant fluctuations that mitigation came.
+The still incalculable movements of the earth's crust, the changes
+in its orbit, the increase and diminution of the mutual
+inclination of orbit and pole, worked together to produce a great
+spell of widely diffused warm conditions.  The period lasted
+altogether, it is now supposed, upwards of two hundred million
+years.  It is called the Mesozoic period, to distinguish it from
+the altogether vaster Pal�ozoic and Azoic periods (together
+fourteen hundred millions) that preceded it, and from the
+Cainozoic or new life period that intervened between its close and
+the present time, and it is also called the Age of Reptiles
+because of the astonishing predominance and variety of this form
+of life.  It came to an end some eighty million  years ago.
+
+In the world to-day the genera of Reptiles are comparatively few
+and their distribution is very limited.  They are more various, it
+is true, than are the few surviving members of the order of the
+amphibia which once in the Carboniferous period ruled the world.
+We still have the snakes, the turtles and tortoises (the
+Chelonia), {28} the alligators and crocodiles, and the lizards.
+Without exception they are creatures requiring warmth all the year
+round; they cannot stand exposure to cold, and it is probable that
+all the reptilian beings of the Mesozoic suffered under the same
+limitation.  It was a hothouse fauna, living amidst a hothouse
+flora.  It endured no frosts.  But the world had at least attained
+a real dry land fauna and flora as distinguished from the mud and
+swamp fauna and flora of the previous heyday of life upon earth.
+
+[Illustration: A PTERODACTYL]
+
+All the sorts of reptile we know now were much more abundantly
+represented then, great turtles and tortoises, big crocodiles and
+many lizards and snakes, but in addition there was a number of
+series of wonderful creatures that have now vanished altogether
+from the earth.  There was a vast variety of beings called the
+Dinosaurs.  Vegetation was now spreading over the lower levels of
+the world, reeds, brakes of fern and the like; and browsing upon
+this abundance came a multitude of herbivorous reptiles, which
+increased in size as the Mesozoic period rose to its climax.  Some
+of these beasts exceeded in size any other land animals that have
+ever lived; they were as large as whales.  The _Diplodocus
+Carnegii_ for example measured eighty-four feet from snout to
+tail; the Gigantosaurus was even greater; it measured a hundred
+feet.  Living upon these monsters was a swarm of carnivorous
+Dinosaurs of a corresponding size.  One of these, the
+Tyrannosaurus, is figured and described in many books as the last
+word in reptilian frightfulness.
+
+{29}
+
+[Illustration: A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS,
+OVER EIGHTY FEET FROM SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP]
+
+While these great creatures pastured and pursued amidst the fronds
+and evergreens of the Mesozoic jungles, another now vanished tribe
+of reptiles, with a bat-like development of the fore limbs,
+pursued insects and one another, first leapt and parachuted and
+presently flew amidst the fronds and branches of the forest trees.
+These were the Pterodactyls. These were the first flying creatures
+with backbones; they mark a new achievement in the growing powers
+of vertebrated life.
+
+Moreover some of the reptiles were returning to the sea waters.
+Three groups of big swimming beings had invaded the sea from which
+their ancestors had come: the Mososaurs, the Plesiosaurs, and
+Ichthyosaurs.  Some of these again approached the proportions of
+our present whales.  The Ichthyosaurs seem to have been quite
+seagoing creatures, but the Plesiosaurs were a type of animal that
+has no cognate form to-day.  The body was stout and big with
+paddles, adapted either for swimming or crawling through marshes,
+or along the bottom of shallow waters.  The comparatively small
+{30} head was poised on a vast snake of neck, altogether outdoing
+the neck of the swan.  Either the Plesiosaur swam and searched for
+food under the water and fed as the swan will do, or it lurked
+under water and snatched at passing fish or beast.
+
+Such was the predominant land life throughout the Mesozoic age.
+It was by our human standards an advance upon anything that had
+preceded it.  It had produced land animals greater in size, range,
+power and activity, more "vital" as people say, than anything the
+world had seen before.  In the seas there had been no such advance
+but a great proliferation of new forms of life.  An enormous
+variety of squid-like creatures with chambered shells, for the
+most part coiled, had appeared in the shallow seas, the Ammonites.
+They had had predecessors in the Pal�ozoic seas, but now was their
+age of glory.  To-day they have left no survivors at all; their
+nearest relation is the pearly Nautilus, an inhabitant of tropical
+waters.  And a new and more prolific type of fish with lighter,
+finer scales than the plate-like and tooth-like coverings that had
+hitherto prevailed, became and has since remained predominant in
+the seas and rivers.
+
+
+
+
+{31}
+
+VII
+
+THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS
+
+
+In a few paragraphs a picture of the lush vegetation and swarming
+reptiles of that first great summer of life, the Mesozoic period,
+has been sketched.  But while the Dinosaurs lorded it over the hot
+selvas and marshy plains and the Pterodactyls filled the forests
+with their flutterings and possibly with shrieks and croakings as
+they pursued the humming insect life of the still flowerless
+shrubs and trees, some less conspicuous and less abundant forms
+upon the margins of this abounding life were acquiring certain
+powers and learning certain lessons of endurance, that were to be
+of the utmost value to their race when at last the smiling
+generosity of sun and earth began to fade.
+
+A group of tribes and genera of hopping reptiles, small creatures
+of the dinosaur type, seem to have been pushed by competition and
+the pursuit of their enemies towards the alternatives of
+extinction or adaptation to colder conditions in the higher hills
+or by the sea.  Among these distressed tribes there was developed
+a new type of scale--scales that were elongated into quill-like
+forms and that presently branched into the crude beginnings of
+feathers.  These quill-like scales layover one another and formed
+a heat-retaining covering more efficient than any reptilian
+covering that had hitherto existed.  So they permitted an invasion
+of colder regions that were otherwise uninhabited.  Perhaps
+simultaneously with these changes there arose in these creatures a
+greater solicitude for their eggs.  Most reptiles are apparently
+quite careless about their eggs, which are left for sun and season
+to hatch.  But some of the varieties upon this new branch of the
+tree of life were acquiring a habit of guarding their eggs and
+keeping them warm with the warmth of their bodies.
+
+With these adaptations to cold other internal modifications {32}
+were going on that made these creatures, the primitive birds,
+warm-blooded and independent of basking.  The very earliest birds
+seem to have been seabirds living upon fish, and their fore limbs
+were not wings but paddles rather after the penguin type.  That
+peculiarly primitive bird, the New Zealand Ki-Wi, has feathers of
+a very simple sort, and neither flies nor appears to be descended
+from flying ancestors.  In the development of the birds, feathers
+came before wings.  But once the feather was developed the
+possibility of making a light spread of feathers led inevitably to
+the wing.  We know of the fossil remains of one bird at least
+which had reptilian teeth in its jaw and a long reptilian tail,
+but which also had a true bird's wing and which certainly flew and
+held its own among the pterodactyls of the Mesozoic time.
+Nevertheless birds were neither varied nor abundant in Mesozoic
+times.  If a man could go back to typical Mesozoic country, he
+might walk for days and never see or hear such a thing as a bird,
+though he would see a great abundance of pterodactyls and insects
+among the fronds and reeds.
+
+[Illustration: FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST
+BIRDS]
+
+And another thing he would probably never see, and that would be
+any sign of a mammal.  Probably the first mammals were in {33}
+existence millions of years before the first thing one could call
+a bird, but they were altogether too small and obscure and remote
+for attention.
+
+[Illustration: HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS]
+
+The earliest mammals, like the earliest birds, were creatures
+driven by competition and pursuit into a life of hardship and
+adaptation to cold.  With them also the scale became quill-like,
+and was developed into a heat-retaining covering; and they too
+underwent modifications, similar in kind though different in
+detail, to become warm-blooded and independent of basking.
+Instead of feathers they developed hairs, and instead of guarding
+and incubating their eggs they kept them warm and safe by
+retaining them inside their bodies until they were almost mature.
+Most of them became altogether vivaparous and brought their young
+into the world alive.  And even after their young were born they
+tended to maintain a protective and nutritive association with
+them.  Most {34} but not all mammals to-day have mamm� and suckle
+their young.  Two mammals still live which lay eggs and which have
+not proper mamm�, though they nourish their young by a nutritive
+secretion of the under skin; these are the duck-billed platypus
+and the echidna.  The echidna lays leathery eggs and then puts
+them into a pouch under its belly, and so carries them about warm
+and safe until they hatch.
+
+But just as a visitor to the Mesozoic world might have searched
+for days and weeks before finding a bird, so, unless he knew
+exactly where to go and look, he might have searched in vain for
+any traces of a mammal.  Both birds and mammals would have seemed
+very eccentric and secondary and unimportant creatures in Mesozoic
+times.
+
+[Illustration: THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND]
+
+====================================================================
+
+{35}
+
+[Illustration: SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL]
+
+====================================================================
+
+The Age of Reptiles lasted, it is now guessed, eighty million
+years.  Had any quasi-human intelligence been watching the world
+through that inconceivable length of time, how safe and eternal
+the sunshine and abundance must have seemed, how assured the
+wallowing prosperity of the dinosaurs and the flapping abundance
+of the flying lizards!  And then the mysterious rhythms and
+accumulating forces of the universe began to turn against that
+quasi-eternal stability.  That run of luck {36} for life was
+running out.  Age by age, myriad of years after myriad of years,
+with halts no doubt and retrogressions, came a change towards
+hardship and extreme conditions, came great alterations of level
+and great redistributions of mountain and sea.  We find one thing
+in the Record of the Rocks during the decadence of the long
+Mesozoic age of prosperity that is very significant of steadily
+sustained changes of condition, and that is a violent fluctuation
+of living forms and the appearance of new and strange species.
+Under the gathering threat of extinction the older orders and
+genera are displaying their utmost capacity for variation and
+adaptation.  The Ammonites for example in these last pages of the
+Mesozoic chapter exhibit a multitude of fantastic forms.  Under
+settled conditions there is no encouragement for novelties; they
+do not develop, they are suppressed; what is best adapted is
+already there.  Under novel conditions it is the ordinary type
+that suffers, and the novelty that may have a better chance to
+survive and establish itself....
+
+There comes a break in the Record of the Rocks that may represent
+several million years.  There is a veil here still, over even the
+outline of the history of life.  When it lifts again, the Age of
+Reptiles is at an end; the Dinosaurs, the Plesiosaurs and
+Ichthyosaurs, the Pterodactyls, the innumerable genera and species
+of Ammonite have all gone absolutely.  In all their stupendous
+variety they have died out and left no descendants.  The cold has
+killed them.  All their final variations were insufficient; they
+had never hit upon survival conditions.  The world had passed
+through a phase of extreme conditions beyond their powers of
+endurance, a slow and complete massacre of Mesozoic life has
+occurred, and we find now a new scene, a new and hardier flora,
+and a new and hardier fauna in possession of the world.
+
+It is still a bleak and impoverished scene with which this new
+volume of the book of life begins. The cycads and tropical
+conifers have given place very largely to trees that shed their
+leaves to avoid destruction by the snows of winter and to
+flowering plants and shrubs, and where there was formerly a
+profusion of reptiles, an increasing variety of birds and mammals
+is entering into their inheritance.
+
+
+
+
+{37}
+
+VIII
+
+THE AGE OF MAMMALS
+
+
+The opening of the next great period in the life of the earth, the
+Cainozoic period, was a period of upheaval and extreme volcanic
+activity.  Now it was that the vast masses of the Alps and
+Himalayas and the mountain backbone of the Rockies and Andes were
+thrust up, and that the rude outlines of our present oceans and
+continents appeared.  The map of the world begins to display a
+first dim resemblance to the map of to-day.  It is estimated now
+that between forty and eighty million years have elapsed from the
+beginnings of the Cainozoic period to the present time.
+
+At the outset of the Cainozoic period the climate of the world was
+austere.  It grew generally warmer until a fresh phase of great
+abundance was reached, after which conditions grew hard again and
+the earth passed into a series of extremely cold cycles, the
+Glacial Ages, from which apparently it is now slowly emerging.
+
+But we do not know sufficient of the causes of climatic change at
+present to forecast the possible fluctuations of climatic
+conditions that lie before us.  We may be moving towards
+increasing sunshine or lapsing towards another glacial age;
+volcanic activity and the upheaval of mountain masses may be
+increasing or diminishing; we do not know; we lack sufficient
+science.
+
+With the opening of this period the grasses appear; for the first
+time there is pasture in the world; and with the full development
+of the once obscure mammalian type, appear a number of interesting
+grazing animals and of carnivorous types which prey upon these.
+
+At first these early mammals seem to differ only in a few
+characters from the great herbivorous and carnivorous reptiles
+that ages before had flourished and then vanished from the earth.
+A {38} careless observer might suppose that in this second long
+age of warmth and plenty that was now beginning, nature was merely
+repeating the first, with herbivorous and carnivorous mammals to
+parallel the herbivorous and carnivorous dinosaurs, with birds
+replacing pterodactyls and so on.  But this would be an altogether
+superficial comparison.  The variety of the universe is infinite
+and incessant; it progresses eternally; history never repeats
+itself and no parallels are precisely true.  The differences
+between the life of the Cainozoic and Mesozoic periods are far
+profounder than the resemblances.
+
+
+[Illustration: A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD]
+
+The most fundamental of all these differences lies in the mental
+life of the two periods.  It arises essentially out of the
+continuing contact of parent and offspring which distinguishes
+mammalian and in a lesser degree bird life, from the life of the
+reptile.  With very few exceptions the reptile abandons its egg to
+hatch alone.  The young reptile has no knowledge whatever of its
+parent; its mental life, such as it is, begins and ends with its
+own experiences.  {39} It may tolerate the existence of its
+fellows but it has no communication with them; it never imitates,
+never learns from them, is incapable of concerted action with
+them.  Its life is that of an isolated individual.  But with the
+suckling and cherishing of young which was distinctive of the new
+mammalian and avian strains arose the possibility of learning by
+imitation, of communication, by warning cries and other concerted
+action, of mutual control and instruction.  A teachable type of
+life had come into the world.
+
+The earliest mammals of the Cainozoic period are but little
+superior in brain size to the more active carnivorous dinosaurs,
+but as we read on through the record towards modern times we find,
+in every tribe and race of the mammalian animals, a steady
+universal increase in brain capacity.  For instance we find at a
+comparatively early stage that rhinoceros-like beasts appear.
+There is a creature, the Titanotherium, which lived in the
+earliest division of this period.  It was probably very like a
+modern rhinoceros in its habits and needs.  But its brain capacity
+was not one tenth that of its living successor.
+
+The earlier mammals probably parted from their offspring as soon
+as suckling was over, but, once the capacity for mutual
+understanding has arisen, the advantages of continuing the
+association are very great; and we presently find a number of
+mammalian species displaying the beginnings of a true social life
+and keeping together in herds, packs and flocks, watching each
+other, imitating each other, taking warning from each other's acts
+and cries.  This is something that the world had not seen before
+among vertebrated animals.   Reptiles and fish may no doubt be
+found in swarms and shoals; they have been hatched in quantities
+and similar conditions have kept them together, but in the case of
+the social and gregarious mammals the association arises not
+simply from a community of external forces, it is sustained by an
+inner impulse.  They are not merely like one another and so found
+in the same places at the same times; they like one another and so
+they keep together.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{40}
+
+[Illustration: STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI--A GIRAFFE-CAMEL]
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS--EARLY HORSE]
+
+====================================================================
+
+This difference between the reptile world and the world of our
+human minds is one our sympathies seem unable to pass.  We cannot
+conceive in ourselves the swift uncomplicated urgency of a
+reptile's instinctive motives, its appetites, fears and hates.  We
+{41} cannot understand them in their simplicity because all our
+motives are complicated; our's are balances and resultants and not
+simple urgencies.  But the mammals and birds have
+self-restraint and consideration for other individuals, a social
+appeal, a self-control that is, at its lower level, after our own
+fashion.  We can in consequence establish relations with almost
+all sorts of them.  When they suffer they utter cries and make
+movements that rouse our feelings.  We can make understanding pets
+of them with a mutual recognition.  They can be tamed to
+self-restraint towards us, domesticated and taught.
+
+[Illustration: COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND
+DINOCERAS]
+
+That unusual growth of brain which is the central fact of
+Cainozoic times marks a new communication and interdependence of
+individuals.  It foreshadows the development of human societies of
+which we shall soon be telling.
+
+As the Cainozoic period unrolled, the resemblance of its flora and
+fauna to the plants and animals that inhabit the world to-day {42}
+increased.  The big clumsy Uintatheres and Titanotheres, the
+Entelodonts and Hyracodons, big clumsy brutes like nothing living,
+disappeared.  On the other hand a series of forms led up by steady
+degrees from grotesque and clumsy predecessors to the giraffes,
+camels, horses, elephants, deer, dogs and lions and tigers of the
+existing world.  The evolution of the horse is particularly
+legible upon the geological record.  We have a fairly complete
+series of forms from a small tapir-like ancestor in the early
+Cainozoic.  Another line of development that has now been pieced
+together with some precision is that of the llamas and camels.
+
+
+
+
+{43}
+
+IX
+
+MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN
+
+
+Naturalists divide the class _Mammalia_ into a number of orders.
+At the head of these is the order _Primates_, which includes the
+lemurs, the monkeys, apes and man.  Their classification was based
+originally upon anatomical resemblances and took no account of any
+mental qualities.
+
+Now the past history of the Primates is one very difficult to
+decipher in the geological record.  They are for the most part
+animals which live in forests like the lemurs and monkeys or in
+bare rocky places like the baboons.  They are rarely drowned and
+covered up by sediment, nor are most of them very numerous
+species, and so they do not figure so largely among the fossils as
+the ancestors of the horses, camels and so forth do.  But we know
+that quite early in the Cainozoic period, that is to say some
+forty million years ago or so, primitive monkeys and lemuroid
+creatures had appeared, poorer in brain and not so specialized as
+their later successors.
+
+The great world summer of the middle Cainozoic period drew at last
+to an end.  It was to follow those other two great summers in the
+history of life, the summer of the Coal Swamps and the vast summer
+of the Age of Reptiles.  Once more the earth spun towards an ice
+age.  The world chilled, grew milder for a time and chilled again.
+In the warm past hippopotami had wallowed through a lush
+sub-tropical vegetation, and a tremendous tiger with fangs like
+sabres, the sabre-toothed tiger, had hunted its prey where now the
+journalists of Fleet Street go to and fro.  Now came a bleaker age
+and still bleaker ages.  A great weeding and extinction of species
+occurred.  A woolly rhinoceros, adapted to a cold climate, and the
+mammoth, a big woolly cousin of the elephants, the Arctic musk ox
+and the reindeer passed across the scene.  Then century by century
+the Arctic ice cap, the wintry death of the great Ice Age, crept
+{44} southward.  In England it came almost down to the Thames, in
+America it reached Ohio.  There would be warmer spells of a few
+thousand years and relapses towards a bitterer cold.
+
+[Illustration: A MAMMOTH]
+
+Geologists talk of these wintry phases as the First, Second, Third
+and Fourth Glacial Ages, and of the interludes as Interglacial
+periods.  We live to-day in a world that is still impoverished and
+scarred by that terrible winter.  The First Glacial Age was coming
+on 600,000 years ago; the Fourth Glacial Age reached its bitterest
+some fifty thousand years ago.  And it was amidst the snows of
+this long universal winter that the first man-like beings lived
+upon our planet.
+
+By the middle Cainozoic period there have appeared various apes
+with many quasi-human attributes of the jaws and leg bones, but it
+is only as we approach these Glacial Ages that we find traces of
+creatures that we can speak of as "almost human."  These traces
+are not bones but implements.  In Europe, in deposits of this
+period, between half a million and a million years old, we find
+flints {45} and stones that have evidently been chipped
+intentionally by some handy creature desirous of hammering,
+scraping or fighting with the sharpened edge.  These things have
+been called "Eoliths" (dawn stones).  In Europe there are no bones
+nor other remains of the creature which made these objects, simply
+the objects themselves.  For all the certainty we have it may have
+been some entirely un-human but intelligent monkey.  But at Trinil
+in Java, in accumulations of this age, a piece of a skull and
+various teeth and bones have been found of a sort of ape man, with
+a brain case bigger than that of any living apes, which seems to
+have walked erect.  This creature is now called _Pithecanthropus
+erectus_, the walking ape man, and the little trayful of its bones
+is the only help our imaginations have as yet in figuring to,
+ourselves the makers of the Eoliths.
+
+[Illustration: FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN PILTDOWN REGION]
+
+It is not until we come to sands that are almost a quarter of a
+million years old that we find any other particle of a sub-human
+being.  But there are plenty of implements, and they are steadily
+improving in quality as we read on through the record.  They are
+no longer clumsy Eoliths; they are now shapely instruments made
+with considerable skill.  _And they are much bigger than the
+similar implements afterwards made by true man._ Then, in a
+sandpit at Heidelberg, appears a single quasi-human jaw-bone, a
+clumsy jaw-bone, absolutely chinless, far heavier than a true
+human jaw-bone and narrower, so that it is improbable the
+creature's tongue could have moved about for articulate speech.
+On the strength of this jaw-bone, scientific men suppose this
+creature to have been a heavy, almost human monster, possibly with
+huge limbs and hands, possibly with a thick felt of hair, and they
+call it the Heidelberg Man.
+
+{46}
+
+This jaw-bone is, I think, one of the most tormenting objects in
+the world to our human curiosity.  To see it is like looking
+through a defective glass into the past and catching just one
+blurred and tantalizing glimpse of this Thing, shambling through
+the bleak wilderness, clambering to avoid the sabre-toothed tiger,
+watching the woolly rhinoceros in the woods.  Then before we can
+scrutinize the monster, he vanishes.  Yet the soil is littered
+abundantly with the indestructible implements he chipped out for
+his uses.
+
+[Illustration: A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS
+ERECTUS BY PROF. RUTOT]
+
+[Illustration: THE HEIDELBERG MAN]
+
+Still more fascinatingly enigmatical are the remains of a creature
+found at Piltdown in Sussex in a deposit that may indicate an age
+between a hundred and a hundred and fifty thousand years ago,
+though some authorities would put these particular remains back in
+time to before the Heidelberg jaw-bone.  Here there {47} are the
+remains of a thick sub-human skull much larger than any existing
+ape's, and a chimpanzee-like jaw-bone which may or may not belong
+to it, and, in addition, a bat-shaped piece of elephant bone
+evidently carefully manufactured, through which a hole had
+apparently been bored.  There is also the thigh-bone of a deer
+with cuts upon it like a tally.  That is all.
+
+[Illustration: THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ORIGINAL
+FRAGMENT]
+
+What sort of beast was this creature which sat and bored holes in
+bones?
+
+Scientific men have named him Eoanthropus, the Dawn Man.  He
+stands apart from his kindred; a very different being either from
+the Heidelberg creature or from any living ape.  No other vestige
+like him is known.  But the gravels and deposits of from one
+hundred thousand years onward are increasingly rich in implements
+of flint and similar stone.  And these implements are no longer
+rude "Eoliths." The arch�ologists are presently able to
+distinguish scrapers, borers, knives, darts, throwing stones and
+hand axes ....
+
+We are drawing very near to man.  In our next section we shall
+have to describe the strangest of all these precursors of
+humanity, the Neanderthalers, the men who were almost, but not
+quite, true men.
+
+But it may be well perhaps to state quite clearly here that no
+scientific man supposes either of these creatures, the Heidelberg
+Man or _Eoanthropus_, to be direct ancestors of the men of to-day.
+These are, at the closest, related forms.
+
+
+
+
+{48}
+
+X
+
+THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN
+
+
+About fifty or sixty thousand years ago, before the climax of the
+Fourth Glacial Age, there lived a creature on earth so like a man
+that until a few years ago its remains were considered to be
+altogether human.  We have skulls and bones of it and a great
+accumulation of the large implements it made and used.  It made
+fires.  It sheltered in caves from the cold.  It probably dressed
+skins roughly and wore them.  It was right-handed as men are.
+
+Yet now the ethnologists tell us these creatures were not true
+men.  They were of a different species of the same genus.  They
+had heavy protruding jaws and great brow ridges above the eyes and
+very low foreheads.  Their thumbs were not opposable to the
+fingers as men's are; their necks were so poised that they could
+not turn back their heads and look up to the sky.  They probably
+slouched along, head down and forward.  Their chinless jaw-bones
+resemble the Heidelberg jaw-bone and are markedly unlike human
+jaw-bones.  And there were great differences from the human
+pattern in their teeth.  Their cheek teeth were more complicated
+in structure than ours, more complicated and not less so; they had
+not the long fangs of our cheek teeth; and also these quasi-men
+had not the marked canines (dog teeth) of an ordinary human being.
+The capacity of their skulls was quite human, but the brain was
+bigger behind and lower in front than the human brain.  Their
+intellectual faculties were differently arranged.  They were not
+ancestral to the human line. Mentally and physically they were
+upon a different line from the human line.
+
+Skulls and bones of this extinct species of man were found at
+Neanderthal {49} among other places, and from that place these
+strange proto-men have been christened Neanderthal Men, or
+Neanderthalers. They must have endured in Europe for many hundreds
+or even thousands of years.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT]
+
+At that time the climate and geography of our world was very
+different from what they are at the present time. Europe for
+example was covered with ice reaching as far south as the Thames
+and into Central Germany and Russia; there was no Channel
+separating Britain from France; the Mediterranean and the Red Sea
+were great valleys, with perhaps a chain of lakes in their deeper
+portions, and a great inland sea spread from the present Black Sea
+across South Russia and far into Central Asia.  Spain and all of
+Europe not actually under ice consisted of bleak uplands under a
+harder climate than that of Labrador, and it was only when North
+Africa was reached that one would have found a temperate climate.
+Across the cold steppes of Southern Europe with its sparse arctic
+vegetation, drifted such hardy creatures as the woolly mammoth,
+and woolly rhinoceros, great oxen and reindeer, no doubt following
+the vegetation northward in spring and southward in autumn.
+
+{50}
+
+[Map: Possible Outline of Europe and Western Asia at the Maximum
+of the Fourth Ice Age (about 50,000 years ago)]
+
+Such was the scene through which the Neanderthaler wandered,
+gathering such subsistence as he could from small game or fruits
+and berries and roots.  Possibly he was mainly a vegetarian,
+chewing twigs and roots.  His level elaborate teeth suggest a
+largely vegetarian dietary.  But we also find the long marrow
+bones of great animals in his caves, cracked to extract the
+marrow.  His weapons could not have been of much avail in open
+conflict with great beasts, but it is supposed that he attacked
+them with spears at difficult river crossings and even constructed
+pitfalls for them.  Possibly he followed the herds and preyed upon
+any dead that were killed in fights, and perhaps he played the
+part of jackal to the sabre-toothed tiger which still survived in
+his day.  Possibly in the bitter hardships of the Glacial Ages
+this creature had taken to attacking animals after long ages of
+vegetarian adaptation.
+
+We cannot guess what this Neanderthal man looked like. He may have
+been very hairy and very unhuman-looking indeed.  It is even
+doubtful if he went erect.  He may have used his knuckles as well
+as his feet to hold himself up. Probably he went about {51} alone
+or in small family groups.  It is inferred from the structure of
+his jaw that he was incapable of speech as we understand it.
+
+For thousands of years these Neanderthalers were the highest
+animals that the European area had ever seen; and then some thirty
+or thirty-five thousand years ago as the climate grew warmer a
+race of kindred beings, more intelligent, knowing more, talking
+and co-operating together, came drifting into the Neanderthaler's
+world from the south.  They ousted the Neanderthalers from their
+caves and squatting places; they hunted the same food; they
+probably made war upon their grisly predecessors and killed them
+off.  These newcomers from the south or the east--for at present
+we do not know their region of origin--who at last drove the
+Neanderthalers out of existence altogether, were beings of our own
+blood and kin, the first True Men.  Their brain-cases and thumbs
+and necks and teeth were anatomically the same as our own.  In a
+cave at Cro-Magnon and in another at Grimaldi, a number of
+skeletons have been found, the earliest truly human remains that
+are so far known.
+
+So it is our race comes into the Record of the Rocks, and the
+story of mankind begins.
+
+[Illustration: COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN
+SKULL]
+
+The world was growing liker our own in those days though the
+climate was still austere.  The glaciers of the Ice Age were
+receding in Europe; the reindeer of France and Spain presently
+gave way to great herds of horses as grass increased upon the
+steppes, and the {52} mammoth became more and more rare in
+southern Europe and finally receded northward altogether ....
+
+We do not know where the True Men first originated.  But in the
+summer of 1921, an extremely interesting skull was found together
+with pieces of a skeleton at Broken Hill in South Africa, which
+seems to be a relic of a third sort of man, intermediate in its
+characteristics between the Neanderthaler and the human being.
+The brain-case indicates a brain bigger in front and smaller
+behind than the Neanderthaler's, and the skull was poised erect
+upon the backbone in a quite human way.  The teeth also and the
+bones are quite human.  But the face must have been ape-like with
+enormous brow ridges and a ridge along the middle of the skull.
+The creature was indeed a true man, so to speak, with an ape-like,
+Neanderthaler face.  This Rhodesian Man is evidently still closer
+to real men than the Neanderthal Man.
+
+This Rhodesian skull is probably only the second of what in the
+end may prove to be a long list of finds of sub-human species
+which lived on the earth in the vast interval of time between the
+beginnings of the Ice Age and the appearance of their common heir,
+and perhaps their common exterminator, the True Man.  The
+Rhodesian skull itself may not be very ancient.  Up to the time of
+publishing this book there has been no exact determination of its
+probable age. It may be that this sub-human creature survived in
+South Africa until quite recent times.
+
+
+
+
+{53}
+
+XI
+
+THE FIRST TRUE MEN
+
+
+The earliest signs and traces at present known to science, of a
+humanity which is indisputably kindred with ourselves, have been
+found in western Europe and particularly in France and Spain.
+Bones, weapons, scratchings upon bone and rock, carved fragments
+of bone, and paintings in caves and upon rock surfaces dating, it
+is supposed, from 30,000 years ago or more, have been discovered
+in both these countries. Spain is at present the richest country
+in the world in these first relics of our real human ancestors.
+
+Of course our present collections of these things are the merest
+beginnings of the accumulations we may hope for in the future,
+when there are searchers enough to make a thorough examination of
+all possible sources and when other countries in the world, now
+inaccessible to arch�ologists, have been explored in some detail.
+The greater part of Africa and Asia has never even been traversed
+yet by a trained observer interested in these matters and free to
+explore, and we must be very careful therefore not to conclude
+that the early true men were distinctively inhabitants of western
+Europe or that they first appeared in that region.
+
+In Asia or Africa or submerged beneath the sea of to-day there may
+be richer and much earlier deposits of real human remains than
+anything that has yet come to light.  I write in Asia or Africa,
+and I do not mention America because so far there have been no
+finds at all of any of the higher Primates, either of great apes,
+sub-men, Neanderthalers nor early true men.  This development of
+life seems to have been an exclusively old world development, and
+it was only apparently at the end of the Old Stone Age that human
+beings first made their way across the land connexion that is now
+cut by Behring Straits, into the American continent.
+
+{54}
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA,
+NORTH SPAIN]
+
+These first real human beings we know of in Europe appear already
+to have belonged to one or other of at least two very distinct
+races. One of these races was of a very high type indeed; it was
+tall and big brained.  One of the women's skulls found exceeds in
+capacity that of the average man of to-day.  One of the men's
+skeletons is over six feet in height.  The physical type resembled
+that of the North American Indian.  From the Cro-Magnon cave in
+which the first skeletons were found these people have been called
+Cro-Magnards.  They were savages, but savages of a high order.
+The second race, the race of the Grimaldi cave remains, was
+distinctly negroid in its characters.  Its nearest living
+affinities are the Bushmen and Hottentots of South Africa.  It is
+interesting to find at the very outset of the known human story,
+that mankind was already racially divided into at least two main
+varieties; and one is tempted to such unwarrantable guesses as
+that the former race was probably brownish rather than black and
+that it came from the East or North, and that the latter was
+blackish rather than brown and came from the equatorial south.
+
+{55}
+
+[Illustration: BONE CARVINGS OF THE PAL�OLITHIC PERIOD]
+
+{56}
+
+And these savages of perhaps forty thousand years ago were so
+human that they pierced shells to make necklaces, painted
+themselves, carved images of bone and stone, scratched figures on
+rocks and bones, and painted rude but often very able sketches of
+beasts and the like upon the smooth walls of caves and upon
+inviting rock surfaces.  They made a great variety of implements,
+much smaller in scale and finer than those of the Neanderthal men.
+We have now in our museums great quantities of their implements,
+their statuettes, their rock drawings and the like.
+
+The earliest of them were hunters.  Their chief pursuit was the
+wild horse, the little bearded pony of that time.  They followed
+it as it moved after pasture.  And also they followed the bison.
+They knew the mammoth, because they have left us strikingly
+effective pictures of that creature.  To judge by one rather
+ambiguous drawing they trapped and killed it.
+
+They hunted with spears and throwing stones.  They do not seem to
+have had the bow, and it is doubtful if they had yet learnt to
+tame any animals.  They had no dogs.  There is one carving of a
+horse's head and one or two drawings that suggest a bridled horse,
+with a twisted skin or tendon round it.  But the little horses of
+that age and region could not have carried a man, and if the horse
+was domesticated it was used as a led horse.  It is doubtful and
+improbable that they had yet learnt the rather unnatural use of
+animal's milk as food.
+
+They do not seem to have erected any buildings though they may
+have had tents of skins, and though they made clay figures they
+never rose to the making of pottery.  Since they had no cooking
+implements their cookery must have been rudimentary or
+nonexistent.  They knew nothing of cultivation and nothing of any
+sort of basket work or woven cloth. Except for their robes of skin
+or fur they were naked painted savages.
+
+These earliest known men hunted the open steppes of Europe for a
+hundred centuries perhaps, and then slowly drifted and changed
+before a change of climate.  Europe, century by century, was
+growing milder and damper. Reindeer receded northward and
+eastward, and bison and horse followed.  The steppes gave way to
+forests, and red deer took the place of horse and bison. There is
+a {57} change in the character of the implements with this change
+in their application.  River and lake fishing becomes of great
+importance to men, and fine implements of bone increased.  "The
+bone needles of this age," says de Mortillet, "are much superior
+to those of later, even historical times, down to the Renaissance.
+The Romans, for example, never had needles comparable to those of
+this epoch."
+
+[Illustration: THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN]
+
+Almost fifteen or twelve thousand years ago a fresh people drifted
+into the south of Spain, and left very remarkable drawings of
+themselves upon exposed rock faces there.  These were the Azilians
+(named from the Mas d'Azil cave).  They had the bow; they seem to
+have worn feather headdresses; they drew vividly; but also they
+had reduced their drawings to a sort of symbolism--a man for
+instance would be represented by a vertical dab with two or three
+horizontal dabs--that suggest the dawn of the writing idea.
+Against hunting sketches there are often marks like tallies.  One
+drawing shows two men smoking out a bees' nest.
+
+{58}
+
+[Illustration: FIGHT OF BOWMEN]
+
+{59}
+
+These are the latest of the men that we call Pal�olithic (Old
+Stone Age) because they had only chipped implements.  By ten or
+twelve thousand years a new sort of life has dawned in Europe, men
+have learnt not only to chip but to polish and grind stone
+implements, and they have begun cultivation.  The Neolithic Age
+(New Stone Age) was beginning.
+
+It is interesting to note that less than a century ago there still
+survived in a remote part of the world, in Tasmania, a race of
+human beings at a lower level of physical and intellectual
+development than any of these earliest races of mankind who have
+left traces in Europe.  These people had long ago been cut off by
+geographical changes from the rest of the species, and from
+stimulation and improvement.  They seem to have degenerated rather
+than developed.  They lived a base life subsisting upon shellfish
+and small game.  They had no habitations but only squatting
+places.  They were real men of our species, but they had neither
+the manual dexterity nor the artistic powers of the first true
+men.
+
+
+
+
+{60}
+
+XII
+
+PRIMITIVE THOUGHT
+
+
+And now let us indulge in a very interesting speculation; how did
+it feel to be a man in those early days of the human adventure?
+How did men think and what did they think in those remote days of
+hunting and wandering four hundred centuries ago before seed time
+and harvest began.  Those were days long before the written record
+of any human impressions, and we are left almost entirely to
+inference and guesswork in our answers to these questions.
+
+The sources to which scientific men have gone in their attempts to
+reconstruct that primitive mentality are very various.  Recently
+the science of psycho-analysis, which analyzes the way in which
+the egotistic and passionate impulses of the child are restrained,
+suppressed, modified or overlaid, to adapt them to the needs of
+social life, seems to have thrown a considerable amount of light
+upon the history of primitive society; and another fruitful source
+of suggestion has been the study of the ideas and customs of such
+contemporary savages as still survive.  Again there is a sort of
+mental fossilization which we find in folk-lore and the deep-lying
+irrational superstitions and prejudices that still survive among
+modern civilized people.  And finally we have in the increasingly
+numerous pictures, statues, carvings, symbols and the like, as we
+draw near to our own time, clearer and clearer indications of what
+man found interesting and worthy of record and representation.
+
+Primitive man probably thought very much as a child thinks, that
+is to say in a series of imaginative pictures.  He conjured up
+images or images presented themselves to his mind, and he acted in
+accordance with the emotions they aroused.  So a child or an
+uneducated person does to-day.  Systematic thinking is apparently
+a comparatively late development in human experience; it has not
+{61} played any great part in human life until within the last
+three thousand years.  And even to-day those who really control
+and order their thoughts are but a small minority of mankind.
+Most of the world still lives by imagination and passion.
+
+Probably the earliest human societies, in the opening stages of
+the true human story, were small family groups.  Just as the
+flocks and herds of the earlier mammals arose out of families
+which remained together and multiplied, so probably did the
+earliest tribes.  But before this could happen a certain restraint
+upon the primitive egotisms of the individual had to be
+established.  The fear of the father and respect for the mother
+had to be extended into adult life, and the natural jealousy of
+the old man of the group for the younger males as they grew up had
+to be mitigated.  The mother on the other hand was the natural
+adviser and protector of the young.  Human social life grew up out
+of the reaction between the crude instinct of the young to go off
+and pair by themselves as they grew up, on the one hand, and the
+dangers and disadvantages of separation on the other.  An
+anthropological writer of great genius, J. J. Atkinson, in his
+_Primal Law_, has shown how much of the customary law of savages,
+the _Tabus_, that are so remarkable a fact in tribal life, can be
+ascribed to such a mental adjustment of the needs of the primitive
+human animal to a developing social life, and the later work of
+the psycho-analysts has done much to confirm his interpretation of
+these possibilities.
+
+Some speculative writers would have us believe that respect and
+fear of the Old Man and the emotional reaction of the primitive
+savage to older protective women, exaggerated in dreams and
+enriched by fanciful mental play, played a large part in the
+beginnings of primitive religion and in the conception of gods and
+goddesses.  Associated with this respect for powerful or helpful
+personalities was a dread and exaltation of such personages after
+their deaths, due to their reappearance in dreams.  It was easy to
+believe they were not truly dead but only fantastically
+transferred to a remoteness of greater power.
+
+The dreams, imaginations and fears of a child are far more vivid
+and real than those of a modern adult, and primitive man was
+always something of a child. He was nearer to the animals {62}
+also, and he could suppose them to have motives and reactions like
+his own.  He could imagine animal helpers, animal enemies, animal
+gods.  One needs to have been an imaginative child oneself to
+realize again how important, significant, portentous or friendly,
+strangely shaped rocks, lumps of wood, exceptional trees or the
+like may have appeared to the men of the Old Stone Age, and how
+dream and fancy would create stories and legends about such things
+that would become credible as they told them.  Some of these
+stories would be good enough to remember and tell again.  The
+women would tell them to the children and so establish a
+tradition.  To this day most imaginative children invent long
+stories in which some favourite doll or animal or some fantastic
+semi-human being figures as the hero, and primitive man probably
+did the same--with a much stronger disposition to believe his hero
+real.
+
+[Illustration: RELICS OF THE STONE AGE]
+
+For the very earliest of the true men that we know of were
+probably quite talkative beings.  In that way they have differed
+from the Neanderthalers and had an advantage over them.  The
+Neanderthaler may have been a dumb animal. Of course the primitive
+{63} human speech was probably a very scanty collection of names,
+and may have been eked out with gestures and signs.
+
+There is no sort of savage so low as not to have a kind of science
+of cause and effect.  But primitive man was not very critical in
+his associations of cause with effect; he very easily connected an
+effect with something quite wrong as its cause. "You do so and
+so," he said, "and so and so happens."  You give a child a
+poisonous berry and it dies.  You eat the heart of a valiant enemy
+and you become strong.  There we have two bits of cause and effect
+association, one true one false.  We call the system of cause and
+effect in the mind of a savage, Fetish; but Fetish is simply
+savage science.  It differs from modern science in that it is
+totally unsystematic and uncritical and so more frequently wrong.
+
+[Illustration: WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE]
+
+In many cases it is not difficult to link cause and effect, in
+{64} many others erroneous ideas were soon corrected by
+experience; but there was a large series of issues of very great
+importance to primitive man, where he sought persistently for
+causes and found explanations that were wrong but not sufficiently
+wrong nor so obviously wrong as to be detected.  It was a matter
+of great importance to him that game should be abundant or fish
+plentiful and easily caught, and no doubt he tried and believed in
+a thousand charms, incantations and omens to determine these
+desirable results.  Another great concern of his was illness and
+death.  Occasionally infections crept through the land and men
+died of them.  Occasionally men were stricken by illness and died
+or were enfeebled without any manifest cause.  This too must have
+given the hasty, emotional mind of primitive man much feverish
+exercise.  Dreams and fantastic guesses made him blame this, or
+appeal for help to that man or beast or thing.  He had the child's
+aptitude for fear and panic.
+
+Quite early in the little human tribe, older, steadier minds
+sharing the fears, sharing the imaginations, but a little more
+forceful than the others, must have asserted themselves, to
+advise, to prescribe, to command. This they declared unpropitious
+and that imperative, this an omen of good and that an omen of
+evil.  The expert in Fetish, the Medicine Man, was the first
+priest.  He exhorted, he interpreted dreams, he warned, he
+performed the complicated hocus pocus that brought luck or averted
+calamity.  Primitive religion was not so much what we now call
+religion as practice and observance, and the early priest dictated
+what was indeed an arbitrary primitive practical science.
+
+
+
+
+{65}
+
+XIII
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION
+
+
+We are still very ignorant about the beginnings of cultivation and
+settlement in the world although a vast amount of research and
+speculation has been given to these matters in the last fifty
+years.  All that we can say with any confidence at present is that
+somewhen about 15,000 and 12,000 B.C. while the Azilian people
+were in the south of Spain and while the remnants of the earlier
+hunters were drifting northward and eastward, somewhere in North
+Africa or Western Asia or in that great Mediterranean valley that
+is now submerged under the waters of the Mediterranean sea, there
+were people who, age by age, were working out two vitally
+important things; they were beginning cultivation and they were
+domesticating animals.  They were also beginning to make, in
+addition to the chipped implements of their hunter forebears,
+implements of polished stone.  They had discovered the possibility
+of basketwork and roughly woven textiles of plant fibre, and they
+were beginning to make a rudely modelled pottery.
+
+They were entering upon a new phase in human culture, the
+Neolithic phase (New Stone Age) as distinguished from the
+Pal�olithic (Old Stone) phase of the Cro-Magnards, the Grimaldi
+people, the Azilians and their like.  [1]  Slowly these Neolithic
+people spread over the warmer parts of the world; and the arts
+they had mastered, the plants and animals they had learnt to use,
+spread by imitation and acquisition even more widely than they
+did.  By 10,000 B.C., most of mankind was at the Neolithic level.
+
+{66}
+
+Now the ploughing of land, the sowing of seed, the reaping of
+harvest, threshing and grinding, may seem the most obviously
+reasonable steps to a modern mind just as to a modern mind it is a
+commonplace that the world is round.  What else could you do?
+people will ask.  What else can it be?  But to the primitive man
+of twenty thousand years ago neither of the systems of action and
+reasoning that seem so sure and manifest to us to-day were at all
+obvious.  He felt his way to effectual practice through a
+multitude of trials and misconceptions, with fantastic and
+unnecessary elaborations and false interpretations at every turn.
+Somewhere in the Mediterranean region, wheat grew wild; and man
+may have learnt to pound and then grind up its seeds for food long
+before he learnt to sow.  He reaped before he sowed.
+
+And it is a very remarkable thing that throughout the world
+wherever there is sowing and harvesting there is still traceable
+the vestiges of a strong primitive association of the idea of
+sowing with the idea of a blood sacrifice, and primarily of the
+sacrifice of a human being.  The study of the original
+entanglement of these two things is a profoundly attractive one to
+the curious mind; the interested reader will find it very fully
+developed in that monumental work, Sir J. G. Frazer's _Golden
+Bough_.  It was an entanglement, we must remember, in the
+childish, dreaming, myth-making primitive mind; no reasoned
+process will explain it.  But in that world of 12,000 to 20,000
+years ago, it would seem that whenever seed time came round to the
+Neolithic peoples there was a human sacrifice.  And it was not the
+sacrifice of any mean or outcast person; it was the sacrifice
+usually of a chosen youth or maiden, a youth more often who was
+treated with profound deference and even worship up to the moment
+of his immolation.  He was a sort of sacrificial god-king, and all
+the details of his killing had become a ritual directed by the
+old, knowing men and sanctioned by the accumulated usage of ages.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{67}
+
+[Illustration: NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+At first primitive men, with only a very rough idea of the
+seasons, must have found great difficulty in determining when was
+the propitious moment for the seed-time sacrifice and the sowing.
+There is some reason for supposing that there was an early stage
+in human experience when men had no idea of a year. The first {68}
+chronology was in lunar months; it is supposed that the years of
+the Biblical patriarchs are really moons, and the Babylonian
+calendar shows distinct traces of an attempt to reckon seed time
+by taking thirteen lunar months to see it round. This lunar
+influence upon the calendar reaches down to our own days. If usage
+did not dull our sense of its strangeness we should think it a
+very remarkable thing indeed that the Christian Church does not
+commemorate the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Christ on the
+proper anniversaries but on dates that vary year by year with the
+phases of the moon.
+
+[Illustration: NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY]
+
+It may be doubted whether the first agriculturalists made any
+observation of the stars.  It is more likely that stars were first
+observed by migratory herdsmen, who found them a convenient mark
+of direction.  But once their use in determining seasons was
+realized, their importance to agriculture became very great.  The
+seed-time sacrifice was linked up with the southing or northing of
+some prominent star.  A myth and worship of that star was for
+primitive man an almost inevitable consequence.
+
+It is easy to see how important the man of knowledge and
+experience, the man who knew about the blood sacrifice and the
+stars, became in this early Neolithic world.
+
+The fear of uncleanness and pollution, and the methods of
+cleansing that were advisable, constituted another source of power
+for the knowledgeable men and women. For there have always been
+witches as well as wizards, and priestesses as well as priests.
+The early priest was really not so much a {69} religious man as a
+man of applied science.  His science was generally empirical and
+often bad; he kept it secret from the generality of men very
+jealously; but that does not alter the fact that his primary
+function was knowledge and that his primary use was a practical
+use.
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY]
+
+Twelve or fifteen thousand years ago, in all the warm and fairly
+well-watered parts of the Old World these Neolithic human
+communities, with their class and tradition of priests and
+priestesses and their cultivated fields and their development of
+villages and little walled cities, were spreading.  Age by age a
+drift and exchange of ideas went on between these communities.
+Eliot Smith and Rivers have used the term "Heliolithic culture"
+for the culture of these first agricultural peoples.
+"Heliolithic" (Sun and Stone) is not perhaps the best possible
+word to use for this, but until scientific men give us a better
+one we shall have to use it.  Originating somewhere in the
+Mediterranean and western Asiatic area, it spread age by age
+eastward and from island to island across the Pacific until it may
+even have reached America and mingled with the more primitive ways
+of living of the Mongoloid immigrants coming down from the North.
+
+Wherever the brownish people with the Heliolithic culture went
+they took with them all or most of a certain group of curious
+ideas and practices.  Some of them are such queer ideas that they
+call for the explanation of the mental expert.  They made pyramids
+{70} and great mounds, and set up great circles of big stones,
+perhaps to facilitate the astronomical observation of the priests;
+they made mummies of some or all of their dead; they tattooed and
+circumcized; they had the old custom, known as the _couvade_, of
+sending the _father_ to bed and rest when a child was born, and
+they had as a luck symbol the well-known Swastika.
+
+If we were to make a map of the world with dots to show how far
+these group practices have left their traces, we should make a
+belt along the temperate and sub-tropical coasts of the world from
+Stonehenge and Spain across the world to Mexico and Peru.  But
+Africa below the equator, north central Europe, and north Asia
+would show none of these dottings; there lived races who were
+developing along practically independent lines.
+
+[1] The term Pal�olithic we may note is also used to cover the
+Neanderthaler and even the Eolithic implements.  The pre-human age
+is called the "Older Pal�olithic;" the age of true men using
+unpolished stones in the "Newer Pal�olithic."
+
+
+
+
+{71}
+
+XIV
+
+PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS
+
+
+About 10,000 B.C. the geography of the world was very similar in
+its general outline to that of the world to-day.  It is probable
+that by that time the great barrier across the Straits of
+Gibraltar that had hitherto banked back the ocean waters from the
+Mediterranean valley had been eaten through, and that the
+Mediterranean was a sea following much the same coastlines as it
+does now.  The Caspian Sea was probably still far more extensive
+than it is at present, and it may have been continuous with the
+Black Sea to the north of the Caucasus Mountains.  About this
+great Central Asian sea lands that are now steppes and deserts
+were fertile and habitable.  Generally it was a moister and more
+fertile world.  European Russia was much more a land of swamp and
+lake than it is now, and there may still have been a land
+connexion between Asia and America at Behring Straits.
+
+It would have been already possible at that time to have
+distinguished the main racial divisions of mankind as we know them
+to-day.  Across the warm temperate regions of this rather warmer
+and better-wooded world, and along the coasts, stretched the
+brownish peoples of the Heliolithic culture, the ancestors of the
+bulk of the living inhabitants of the Mediterranean world, of the
+Berbers, the Egyptians and of much of the population of South and
+Eastern Asia.  This great race had of course a number of
+varieties.  The Iberian or Mediterranean or "dark-white" race of
+the Atlantic and Mediterranean coast, the "Hamitic" peoples which
+include the Berbers and Egyptians, the Dravidians; the darker
+people of India, a multitude of East Indian people, many
+Polynesian races and the Maoris are all divisions of various value
+of this great main mass of humanity.  Its western varieties are
+whiter than its eastern.  In the forests of central and northern
+Europe a more blonde variety {72} of men with blue eyes was
+becoming distinguishable, branching off from the main mass of
+brownish people, a variety which many people now speak of as the
+Nordic race.  In the more open regions of northeastern Asia was
+another differentiation of this brownish humanity in the direction
+of a type with more oblique eyes, high cheek-bones, a yellowish
+skin, and very straight black hair, the Mongolian peoples.  In
+South Africa, Australia, in many tropical islands in the south of
+Asia were remains of the early negroid peoples. The central parts
+of Africa were already a region of racial intermixture.  Nearly
+all the coloured races of Africa to-day seem to be blends of the
+brownish peoples of the north with a negroid substratum.
+
+[Illustration: A Diagrammatic Summary of Current Ideas of the
+Relationship of Human Races]
+
+We have to remember that human races can all interbreed freely and
+that they separate, mingle and reunite as clouds do.  Human races
+do not branch out like trees with branches that never come
+together again.  It is a thing we need to bear constantly in mind,
+this remingling of races at any opportunity.  It will save us from
+many cruel delusions and prejudices if we do so.  People will use
+such a word as race in the loosest manner, and base the most
+preposterous generalizations upon it.  They will speak of a
+"British" {73} race or of a "European" race.  But nearly all the
+European nations are confused mixtures of brownish, dark-white,
+white and Mongolian elements.
+
+[Illustration: A MAYA STELE]
+
+It was at the Neolithic phase of human development that peoples of
+the Mongolian breed first made their way into America.  Apparently
+they came by way of Behring Straits and spread southward.  They
+found caribou, the American reindeer, in the north and great {74}
+herds of bison in the south.  When they reached South America
+there were still living the Glyptodon, a gigantic armadillo, and
+the Megatherium, a monstrous clumsy sloth as high as an elephant.
+They probably exterminated the latter beast, which was as helpless
+as it was big.
+
+The greater portion of these American tribes never rose above a
+hunting nomadic Neolithic life.  They never discovered the use of
+iron, and their chief metal possessions were native gold and
+copper.  But in Mexico, Yucatan and Peru conditions existed
+favourable to settled cultivation, and here about 1000 B.C. or so
+arose very interesting civilizations of a parallel but different
+type from the old-world civilization.  Like the much earlier
+primitive civilizations of the old world these communities
+displayed a great development of human sacrifice about the
+processes of seed time and harvest; but while in the old world, as
+we shall see, these primary ideas were ultimately mitigated,
+complicated and overlaid by others, in America they developed and
+were elaborated, to a very high degree of intensity.  These
+American civilized countries were essentially priest-ruled
+countries; their war chiefs and rulers were under a rigorous rule
+of law and omen.
+
+These priests carried astronomical science to a high level of
+accuracy.  They knew their year better than the Babylonians of
+whom we shall presently tell.  In Yucatan they had a kind of
+writing, the Maya writing, of the most curious and elaborate
+character.  So far as we have been able to decipher it, it was
+used mainly for keeping the exact and complicated calendars upon
+which the priests expended their intelligence.  The art of the
+Maya civilization came to a climax about 700 or 800 A.D.  The
+sculptured work of these people amazes the modern observer by its
+great plastic power and its frequent beauty, and perplexes him by
+a grotesqueness and by a sort of insane conventionality and
+intricacy outside the circle of his ideas.  There is nothing quite
+like it in the old world.  The nearest approach, and that is a
+remote one, is found in archaic Indian carvings.  Everywhere there
+are woven feathers and serpents twine in and out.  Many Maya
+inscriptions resemble a certain sort of elaborate drawing made by
+lunatics in European asylums, more than any other
+old-world work.  It is as if the Maya mind {75} had developed upon
+a different line from the old-world mind, had a different twist to
+its ideas, was not, by old-world standards, a rational mind at
+all.
+
+This linking of these aberrant American civilizations to the idea
+of a general mental aberration finds support in their
+extraordinary obsession by the shedding of human blood.  The
+Mexican civilization in particular ran blood; it offered thousands
+of human victims yearly.  The cutting open of living victims, the
+tearing out of the still beating heart, was an act that dominated
+the minds and lives of these strange priesthoods.  The public
+life, the national festivities all turned on this fantastically
+horrible act.
+
+[Illustration: NEOLITHIC WARRIOR]
+
+The ordinary existence of the common people in these communities
+was very like the ordinary existence of any other barbaric
+peasantry.  Their pottery, weaving and dyeing was very good.  The
+Maya writing was not only carven on stone but written and painted
+upon skins and the like.  The European and American museums
+contain many enigmatical Maya manuscripts of which at present
+little has been deciphered except the dates.  In Peru there were
+beginnings of a similar writing but they were superseded by a
+method of keeping records by knotting {76} cords.  A similar
+method of mnemonics was in use in China thousands of years ago.
+
+In the old world before 4000 or 5000 B.C., that is to say three or
+four thousand years earlier, there were primitive civilizations
+not unlike these American civilizations; civilizations based upon
+a temple, having a vast quantity of blood sacrifices and with an
+intensely astronomical priesthood.  But in the old world the
+primitive civilizations reacted upon one another and developed
+towards the conditions of our own world.  In America these
+primitive civilizations never progressed beyond this primitive
+stage.  Each of them was in a little world of its own.  Mexico it
+seems knew little or nothing of Peru, until the Europeans came to
+America.  The potato, which was the principal food stuff in Peru,
+was unknown in Mexico.
+
+Age by age these peoples lived and marvelled at their gods and
+made their sacrifices and died.  Maya art rose to high levels of
+decorative beauty.  Men made love and tribes made war.  Drought
+and plenty, pestilence and health, followed one another.  The
+priests elaborated their calendar and their sacrificial ritual
+through long centuries, but made little progress in other
+directions.
+
+
+
+
+{77}
+
+XV
+
+SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING
+
+
+The old world is a wider, more varied stage than the new.  By 6000
+or 7000 B.C. there were already quasi-civilized communities almost
+at the Peruvian level, appearing in various fertile regions of
+Asia and in the Nile valley.  At that time north Persia and
+western Turkestan and south Arabia were all more fertile than they
+are now, and there are traces of very early communities in these
+regions.  It is in lower Mesopotamia however and in Egypt that
+there first appear cities, temples, systematic irrigation, and
+evidences of a social organization rising above the level of a
+mere barbaric village-town.  In those days the Euphrates and
+Tigris flowed by separate mouths into the Persian Gulf, and it was
+in the country between them that the Sumerians built their first
+cities.  About the same time, for chronology is still vague, the
+great history of Egypt was beginning.
+
+These Sumerians appear to have been a brownish people with
+prominent noses.  They employed a sort of writing that has been
+deciphered, and their language is now known.  They had discovered
+the use of bronze and they built great tower-like temples of
+sun-dried brick. The clay of this country is very fine; they used
+it to write upon, and so it is that their inscriptions have been
+preserved to us.  They had cattle, sheep, goats and asses, but no
+horses.  They fought on foot, in close formation, carrying spears
+and shields of skin.  Their clothing was of wool and they shaved
+their heads.
+
+Each of the Sumerian cities seems generally to have been an
+independent state with a god of its own and priests of its own.
+But sometimes one city would establish an ascendancy over others
+and exact tribute from their population.  A very ancient
+inscription {78}at Nippur records the "empire," the first recorded
+empire, of the Sumerian city of Erech.  Its god and its
+priest-king claimed an authority from the Persian Gulf to
+the Red Sea.
+
+[Illustration: BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200
+B.C.]
+
+At first writing was merely an abbreviated method of pictorial
+record.  Even before Neolithic times men were beginning to write.
+The Azilian rock pictures to which we have already referred show
+the beginning of the process.  Many of them record hunts and
+expeditions, and in most of these the human figures are plainly
+drawn.  But in some the painter would not bother with head and
+limbs; he just indicated men by a vertical and one or two
+transverse strokes.  From this to a conventional condensed picture
+writing was an easy transition.  In Sumeria, where the writing was
+done on clay with a stick, the dabs of the characters soon became
+unrecognizably unlike the things they stood for, but in Egypt
+where men painted on walls and on strips of the papyrus reed (the
+first paper) the likeness to the thing imitated remained.  From
+the fact that the wooden styles used in Sumeria made wedge-shaped
+marks, the Sumerian writing is called cuneiform (= wedge-shaped).
+
+{79}
+
+[Illustration: EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY]
+
+An important step towards writing was made when pictures were used
+to indicate not the thing represented but some similar thing.  In
+the rebus dear to children of a suitable age, this is still done
+to-day.  We draw a camp with tents and a bell, and the child is
+delighted to guess that this is the Scotch name Campbell.  The
+Sumerian language was a language made up of accumulated syllables
+rather like some contemporary Amerindian languages, and it lent
+itself very readily to this syllabic method of writing words
+expressing ideas that could not be conveyed by pictures directly.
+Egyptian writing underwent parallel developments.  Later on, when
+foreign peoples with less distinctly syllabled methods of speech
+were to learn and use these picture scripts they were to make
+those further modifications and simplifications that developed at
+last into alphabetical writing.  All the true alphabets of the
+later world derived from a mixture of the Sumerian cuneiform and
+the Egyptian hieroglyphic (priest writing).  Later in China there
+was to develop a conventionalized picture writing, but in China it
+never got to the alphabetical stage.
+
+{80}
+
+The invention of writing was of very great importance in the
+development of human societies.  It put agreements, laws,
+commandments on record.  It made the growth of states larger than
+the old city states possible.  It made a continuous historical
+consciousness possible.  The command of the priest or king and his
+seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his
+death.  It is interesting to note that in ancient Sumeria seals
+were greatly used.  A king or a nobleman or a merchant would have
+his seal often very artistically carved, and would impress it on
+any clay document he wished to authorize.  So close had
+civilization got to printing six thousand years ago.  Then the
+clay was dried hard and became permanent.  For the reader must
+remember that in the land of Mesopotamia for countless years,
+letters, records and accounts were all written on comparatively
+indestructible tiles.  To that fact we owe a great wealth of
+recovered knowledge.
+
+[Illustration: THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS]
+
+Bronze, copper, gold, silver and, as a precious rarity, meteoric
+iron were known in both Sumeria and Egypt at a very early stage.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{81}
+
+[Illustration: VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF
+CHEOPS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+{82}
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Daily life in those first city lands of the old world must have
+been {83} very similar in both Egypt and Sumeria.  And except for
+the asses and cattle in the streets it must have been not unlike
+the life in the Maya cities of America three or four thousand
+years later.  Most of the people in peace time were busy with
+irrigation and cultivation--except on days of religious festivity.
+They had no money and no need for it.  They managed their small
+occasional trades by barter.  The princes and rulers who alone had
+more than a few possessions used gold and silver bars and precious
+stones for any incidental act of trade.  The temple dominated
+life; in Sumeria it was a great towering temple that went up to a
+roof from which the stars were observed; in Egypt it was a massive
+building with only a ground floor. In Sumeria the priest ruler was
+the greatest, most splendid of beings.  In Egypt however there was
+one who was raised above the priests; he was the living
+incarnation of the chief god of the land, the Pharaoh, the god
+king.
+
+There were few changes in the world in those days; men's days were
+sunny, toilsome and conventional.  Few strangers came into the
+land and such as did fared uncomfortably.  The priest directed
+life according to immemorial rules and watched the stars for seed
+time and marked the omens of the sacrifices and interpreted the
+warnings of dreams.  Men worked and loved and died, not unhappily,
+forgetful of the savage past of their race and heedless of its
+future.  Sometimes the ruler was benign.  Such was Pepi II, who
+reigned in Egypt for ninety years.  Sometimes he was ambitious and
+took men's sons to be soldiers and sent them against neighbouring
+city states to war and plunder, or he made them toil to build
+great buildings.  Such were Cheops and Chephren and Mycerinus, who
+built those vast sepulchral piles, the pyramids at Gizeh.  The
+largest of these is 450 feet high and the weight of stone in it is
+4,883,000 tons.  All this was brought down the Nile in boats and
+lugged into place chiefly by human muscle.  Its erection must have
+exhausted Egypt more than a great war would have done.
+
+
+
+{84}
+
+XVI
+
+PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES
+
+
+It was not only in Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley that men were
+settling down to agriculture and the formation of city states in
+the centuries between 6000 and 8000 B.C.  Wherever there were
+possibilities of irrigation and a steady all-the-year-round food
+supply men were exchanging the uncertainties and hardships of
+hunting and wandering for the routines of settlement.  On the
+upper Tigris a people called the Assyrians were founding cities;
+in the valleys of Asia Minor and on the Mediterranean shores and
+islands, there were small communities growing up to civilization.
+Possibly parallel developments of human life were already going on
+in favourable regions of India, and China.  In many parts of
+Europe where there were lakes well stocked with fish, little
+communities of men had long settled in dwellings built on piles
+over the water, and were eking out agriculture by fishing and
+hunting. But over much larger areas of the old world no such
+settlement was possible.  The land was too harsh, too thickly
+wooded or too arid, or the seasons too uncertain for mankind, with
+only the implements and science of that age to take root.
+
+For settlement under the conditions of the primitive civilizations
+men needed a constant water supply and warmth and sunshine.  Where
+these needs were not satisfied, man could live as a transient, as
+a hunter following his game, as a herdsman following the seasonal
+grass, but he could not settle.  The transition from the hunting
+to the herding life may have been very gradual.  From following
+herds of wild cattle or (in Asia) wild horses, men may have come
+to an idea of property in them, have learnt to pen them into
+valleys, have fought for them against wolves, wild dogs and other
+predatory beasts.
+
+{85}
+
+[Illustration: POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS]
+
+{86}
+
+[Illustration: A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE]
+
+So while the primitive civilizations of the cultivators were
+growing up chiefly in the great river valleys, a different way of
+living, the nomadic life, a life in constant movement to and fro
+from winter pasture to summer pasture, was also growing up.  The
+nomadic peoples were on the whole hardier than the
+agriculturalists; they were less prolific and numerous, they had
+no permanent temples and no highly organized priesthood; they had
+less gear; but the reader must not suppose that theirs was
+necessarily a less highly developed way of living on that account.
+In many ways this free life was a fuller life than that of the
+tillers of the soil.  The individual was more
+self-reliant; less of a unit in a crowd.  The leader was more
+important; the medicine man perhaps less so.
+
+[Illustration: NOMADS IN EGYPT]
+
+{87}
+
+Moving over large stretches of country the nomad took a wider view
+of life.  He touched on the confines of this settled land and
+that.  He was used to the sight of strange faces.  He had to
+scheme and treat for pasture with competing tribes.  He knew more
+of minerals than the folk upon the plough lands because he went
+over mountain passes and into rocky places.  He may have been a
+better metallurgist.  Possibly bronze and much more probably iron
+smelting were nomadic discoveries.  Some of the earliest
+implements of iron reduced from its ores have been found in
+Central Europe far away from the early civilizations.
+
+[Illustration: FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 B.C.]
+
+[Illustration: NOMADS IN EGYPT]
+
+On the other hand the settled folk had their textiles and their
+pottery and made many desirable things.  It was inevitable that as
+the two sorts of life, the agricultural and the nomadic
+differentiated, a certain amount of looting and trading should
+develop between the two.  In Sumeria particularly which had
+deserts and seasonal {88} country on either hand it must have been
+usual to have the nomads camping close to the cultivated fields,
+trading and stealing and perhaps tinkering, as gipsies do to this
+day.  (But hens they would not steal, because the domestic
+fowl--an Indian jungle fowl originally was not domesticated by man
+until about 1000 B.C.)  They would bring precious stones and things
+of metal and leather.  If they were hunters they would bring skins.
+They would get in exchange pottery and beads and glass, garments
+and suchlike manufactured things.
+
+[Illustration: EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK]
+
+Three main regions and three main kinds of wandering and
+imperfectly settled people there were in those remote days of the
+first civilizations in Sumeria and early Egypt.  Away in the
+forests of Europe were the blonde Nordic peoples, hunters and
+herdsmen, a lowly race.  The primitive civilizations saw very
+little of this race before 1500 B.C.  Away on the steppes of
+eastern Asia various Mongolian tribes, the Hunnish peoples, were
+domesticating the horse and developing a very wide sweeping habit
+of seasonal movement between their summer and winter camping
+places.  Possibly the Nordic and Hunnish peoples were still
+separated from one another by the swamps of Russia and the greater
+Caspian Sea of that time.  For very much of Russia there was swamp
+and lake.  In the deserts, which were growing more arid now, of
+Syria and Arabia, tribes of a dark white or brownish people, the
+Semitic tribes, were driving flocks of sheep and goats and asses
+from pasture to pasture.  It was these Semitic shepherds and
+certain more negroid people from southern Persia, the Elamites,
+who were the first nomads to come into close contact with the
+early civilizations.  They came {90} as traders and as raiders.
+Finally there arose leaders among them with bolder imaginations,
+and they became conquerors.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{89}
+
+[Illustration: STELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD]
+
+====================================================================
+
+About 2750 B.C. a great Semitic leader, Sargon, had conquered the
+whole Sumerian land and was master of all the world from the
+Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea.  He was an illiterate
+barbarian and his people, the Akkadians, learnt the Sumerian
+writing and adopted the Sumerian language as the speech of the
+officials and the learned.  The empire he founded decayed after
+two centuries, and after one inundation of Elamites a fresh
+Semitic people, the Amorites, by degrees established their rule
+over Sumeria.  They made their capital in what had hitherto been a
+small up-river town, Babylon, and their empire is called the first
+Babylonian Empire.  It was consolidated by a great king called
+Hammurabi (circa 2100 B.C.) who made the earliest code of laws yet
+known to history.
+
+The narrow valley of the Nile lies less open to nomadic invasion
+than Mesopotamia, but about the time of Hammurabi occurred a
+successful Semitic invasion of Egypt and a line of Pharaohs was
+set up, the Hyksos or "shepherd kings," which lasted for several
+centuries.  These Semitic conquerors never assimilated themselves
+with the Egyptians; they were always regarded with hostility as
+foreigners and barbarians; and they were at last expelled by a
+popular uprising about 1600 B.C.
+
+But the Semites had come into Sumeria for good and all, the two
+races assimilated and the Babylonian Empire became Semitic in its
+language and character.
+
+
+
+
+{91}
+
+XVII
+
+THE FIRST SEAGOING PEOPLES
+
+
+The earliest boats and ships must have come into use some
+twenty-five or thirty thousand years ago.  Man was probably
+paddling about on the water with a log of wood or an inflated skin
+to assist him, at latest in the beginnings of the Neolithic
+period.  A basketwork boat covered with skin and caulked was used
+in Egypt and Sumeria from the beginnings of our knowledge.  Such
+boats are still used there.  They are used to this day in Ireland
+and Wales and in Alaska; sealskin boats still make the crossing of
+Behring Straits.  The hollow log followed as tools improved.  The
+building of boats and then ships came in a natural succession.
+
+Perhaps the legend of Noah's Ark preserves the memory of some
+early exploit in shipbuilding, just as the story of the Flood, so
+widely distributed among the peoples of the world, may be the
+tradition of the flooding of the Mediterranean basin.
+
+There were ships upon the Red Sea long before the pyramids were
+built, and there were ships on the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf
+by 7000 B.C.  Mostly these were the ships of fishermen, but some
+were already trading and pirate ships--for knowing what we do of
+mankind we may guess pretty safely that the first sailors
+plundered where they could and traded where they had to do so.
+
+The seas on which these first ships adventured were inland seas on
+which the wind blew fitfully and which were often at a dead calm
+for days together, so that sailing did not develop beyond an
+accessory use.  It is only in the last four hundred years that the
+well-rigged, ocean-going, sailing ship has developed.  The ships
+of the ancient world were essentially rowing ships which hugged
+the shore and went into harbour at the first sign of rough
+weather.  As ships grew into big galleys they caused a demand for
+war captives as galley slaves.
+
+We have already noted the appearance of the Semitic people as
+wanderers and nomads in the region of Syria and Arabia, and how
+they conquered Sumeria and set up first the Akkadian and then the
+first Babylonian Empire.  In the west these same Semitic peoples
+{92} were taking to the sea.  They set up a string of harbour
+towns along the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean, of which Tyre
+and Sidon were the chief; and by the time of Hammurabi in Babylon,
+they had spread as traders, wanderers and colonizers over the
+whole Mediterranean basin.  These sea Semites were called the
+Phoenicians, They settled largely in Spain, pushing back the old
+Iberian Basque population and sending coasting expeditions through
+the straits of Gibraltar; and they set up colonies upon the north
+coast of Africa.  Of Carthage, one of these Phoenician cities, we
+shall have much more to tell later.
+
+But the Phoenicians were not the first people to have galleys in
+the Mediterranean waters.  There was already a series of towns and
+cities among the islands and coasts of that sea belonging to a
+race or races apparently connected by blood and language with the
+Basques to the west and the Berbers and Egyptians to the south,
+the �gean peoples.  These peoples must not be confused with the
+Greeks, who come much later into our story; they were pre-Greek,
+but they had cities in Greece and Asia Minor; Mycen� and Troy for
+example, and they had a great and prosperous establishment at
+Cnossos in Crete.
+
+It is only in the last half century that the industry of
+excavating arch�ologists has brought the extent and civilization
+of the �gean peoples to our knowledge.  Cnossos has been most
+thoroughly explored; it was happily not succeeded by any city big
+enough to destroy its ruins, and so it is our chief source of
+information about this once almost forgotten civilization.
+
+The history of Cnossos goes back as far as the history of Egypt;
+the two countries were trading actively across the sea by 4000
+B.C.  By 2500 B.C., that is between the time of Sargon I and
+Hammurabi, Cretan civilization was at its zenith.
+
+Cnossos was not so much a town as a great palace for the Cretan
+monarch and his people.  It was not even fortified.  It was only
+fortified later as the Phoenicians grew strong, and as a new and
+more terrible breed of pirates, the Greeks, came upon the sea from
+the north.
+
+The monarch was called Minos, as the Egyptian monarch was called
+Pharaoh; and he kept his state in a palace fitted with running
+water, with bathrooms and the like conveniences such as we know of
+in no other ancient remains.  There he held great festivals and
+shows.  There was bull-fighting, singularly like the
+bull-fighting that {93} still survives in Spain; there was
+resemblance even in the costumes of the bull-fighters; and there
+were gymnastic displays.  The women's clothes were remarkably
+modern in spirit; they wore corsets and flounced dresses.  The
+pottery, the textile manufactures, the sculpture, painting,
+jewellery, ivory, metal and inlay work of these {94} Cretans was
+often astonishingly beautiful.  And they had a system of writing,
+but that still remains to be deciphered.
+
+[Illustration: THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCEN�]
+
+This happy and sunny and civilized life lasted for some score of
+centuries.  About 2000 B.C. Cnossos and Babylon abounded in
+comfortable and cultivated people who probably led very pleasant
+lives.  They had shows and they had religious festivals, they had
+domestic slaves to look after them and industrial slaves to make a
+profit for them.  Life must have seemed very secure in Cnossos for
+such people, sunlit and girdled by the blue sea.  Egypt of course
+must have appeared rather a declining country in those days under
+the rule of her half-barbaric shepherd kings, and if one took an
+interest in politics one must have noticed how the Semitic people
+seemed to be getting everywhere, ruling Egypt, ruling distant
+Babylon, building Nineveh on the upper Tigris, sailing west to the
+Pillars of Hercules (the straits of Gibraltar) and setting up
+their colonies on those distant coasts.
+
+There were some active arid curious minds in Cnossos, because
+later on the Greeks told legends of a certain skilful Cretan
+artificer, D�dalus, who attempted to make some sort of flying
+machine, perhaps a glider, which collapsed and fell into the sea.
+
+It is interesting to note some of the differences as well as the
+resemblances between the life of Cnossos and our own.  To a Cretan
+gentleman of 2500 B.C. iron was a rare metal which fell out of the
+sky and was curious rather than useful--for as yet only meteoric
+iron was known, iron had not been obtained from its ores.  Compare
+that with our modern state of affairs pervaded by iron everywhere.
+The horse again would be a quite legendary creature to our Cretan,
+a sort of super-ass which lived in the bleak northern lands far
+away beyond the Black Sea.  Civilization for him dwelt chiefly in
+�gean Greece and Asia Minor, where Lydians and Carians and Trojans
+lived a life and probably spoke languages like his own.  There
+were Phoenicians and �geans settled in Spain and North Africa, but
+those were very remote regions to his imagination.  Italy was
+still a desolate land covered with dense forests; the
+brown-skinned Etruscans had not yet gone there from Asia Minor.  And
+one day perhaps this Cretan gentleman went down to the harbour and saw
+a captive who attracted his attention because he was very
+fair-complexioned {95} and had blue eyes.  Perhaps our Cretan tried to
+talk to him and was answered in an unintelligible gibberish.  This
+creature came from somewhere beyond the Black Sea and seemed to be
+an altogether benighted savage.  But indeed he was an Aryan
+tribesman, of a race and culture of which we shall soon have much
+to tell, and the strange gibberish he spoke was to differentiate
+some day into Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, German, English and
+most of the chief languages of the world.
+
+[Illustration: THE PALACE AT CNOSSOS]
+
+Such was Cnossos at its zenith, intelligent, enterprising, bright
+and happy.  But about 1400 B.C. disaster came perhaps very
+suddenly upon its prosperity.  The palace of Minos was destroyed,
+and its ruins have never been rebuilt or inhabited from that day
+to this.  We do not know how this disaster occurred.  The
+excavators note what appears to be scattered plunder and the marks
+of the fire.  But the traces of a very destructive earthquake have
+also been found.  Nature alone may have destroyed Cnossos, or the
+Greeks may have finished what the earthquake began.
+
+
+
+
+{96}
+
+XVIII
+
+EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA
+
+
+The Egyptians had never submitted very willingly to the rule of
+their Semitic shepherd kings and about 1600 A.D. a vigorous
+patriotic movement expelled these foreigners.  Followed a new
+phase or revival for Egypt, a period known to Egyptologists as the
+New Empire.  Egypt, which had not been closely consolidated before
+the Hyksos invasion, was now a united country; and the phase of
+subjugation and insurrection left her full of military spirit.
+The Pharaohs became aggressive conquerors.  They had now acquired
+the war horse and the war chariot, which the Hyksos had brought to
+them.  Under Thothmes III and Amenophis III Egypt had extended her
+rule into Asia as far as the Euphrates.
+
+We are entering now upon a thousand years of warfare between the
+once quite separated civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Nile.
+At first Egypt was ascendant.  The great dynasties, the
+Seventeenth Dynasty, which included Thothmes III and Amenophis III
+and IV and a great queen Hatasu, and the Nineteenth, when Rameses
+II, supposed by some to have been the Pharaoh of Moses, reigned
+for sixty-seven years, raised Egypt to high levels of prosperity.
+In between there were phases of depression for Egypt, conquest by
+the Syrians and later conquest by the Ethiopians from the South.
+In Mesopotamia Babylon ruled, then the Hittites and the Syrians of
+Damascus rose to a transitory predominance; at one time the
+Syrians conquered Egypt; the fortunes of the Assyrians of Nineveh
+ebbed and flowed; sometimes the city was a conquered city;
+sometimes the Assyrians ruled in Babylon and assailed Egypt.  Our
+space is too limited here to tell of the comings and goings of the
+armies of the Egyptians and of the various Semitic powers of Asia
+Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia.  They were armies now provided with
+vast droves of war chariots, for the horse--still used only for
+{97} war and glory--had spread by this time into the old
+civilizations from Central Asia.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE AT ABU SIMBEL]
+
+Great conquerors appear in the dim light of that distant time and
+pass, Tushratta, King of Mitanni, who captured Nineveh, Tiglath
+Pileser I of Assyria who conquered Babylon.  At last the Assyrians
+became the greatest military power of the time. Tiglath Pileser
+III conquered Babylon in 745 B.C. and founded what historians call
+the New Assyrian Empire.  Iron had also come now into civilization
+out of the north; the Hittites, the precursors of the Armenians,
+had it first and communicated its use to the Assyrians, and an
+Assyrian usurper, Sargon II, armed his troops with it.  Assyria
+became the first power to expound the doctrine of blood and iron.
+Sargon's son Sennacherib led an army to the borders of Egypt, and
+was defeated not by military strength but by the plague.
+Sennacherib's grandson Assurbanipal (who is also known in history
+{98} by his Greek name of Sardanapalus) did actually conquer Egypt
+in 670 B.C.  But Egypt was already a conquered country then under
+an Ethiopian dynasty.  Sardanapalus simply replaced one conqueror
+by another.
+
+[Illustration: AVENUE OF SPHINXES]
+
+If one had a series of political maps of this long period of
+history, this interval of ten centuries, we should have Egypt
+expanding and contracting like an amoeba under a microscope, and
+we should see these various Semitic states of the Babylonians, the
+Assyrians, the Hittites and the Syrians coming and going, eating
+each other up and disgorging each other again.  To the west of
+Asia Minor there would be little �gean states like Lydia, whose
+capital was Sardis, and Caria.  But after about 1200 B.C. and
+perhaps earlier, a new set of names would come into the map of the
+ancient world from {100} the north-east and from the north-west.
+These would be the names of certain barbaric tribes, armed with
+iron weapons and using horse-chariots, who were becoming a great
+affliction to the �gean and Semitic civilizations on the northern
+borders.  They all spoke variants of what once must have been the
+same language, Aryan.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{99}
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Round the north-east of the Black and Caspian Seas were coming the
+Medes and Persians.  Confused with these in the records of the
+time were Scythians and Samatians.  From north-east or
+north-west came the Armenians, from the north-west of the
+sea-barrier through the Balkan peninsula came Cimmerians,
+Phrygians and the Hellenic tribes whom now we call the Greeks.
+They were raiders and robbers and plunderers of cities, these
+Ayrans, east and west alike.  They were all kindred and similar
+peoples, hardy herdsmen who had taken to plunder.  In the east
+they were still only borderers and raiders, but in the west they
+were taking cities and driving out the civilized �gean
+populations.  The �gean peoples were so pressed that they were
+seeking new homes in lands beyond the Aryan range.  Some were
+seeking a settlement in the delta of the Nile and being repulsed
+by the Egyptians; some, the Etruscans, seem to have sailed from
+Asia Minor to found a state in the forest wildernesses of middle
+Italy; some built themselves cities upon the south-east coasts of
+the Mediterranean and became later that people known in history as
+the Philistines.
+
+Of these Aryans who came thus rudely upon the scene of the ancient
+civilizations we will tell more fully in a later section.  Here we
+note simply all this stir and emigration amidst the area of the
+ancient civilizations, that was set up by the swirl of the gradual
+and continuous advance of these Aryan barbarians out of the
+northern forests and wildernesses between 1600 and 600 B.C.
+
+And in a section to follow we must tell also of a little Semitic
+people, the Hebrews, in the hills behind the Phoenician and
+Philistine coasts, who began to be of significance in the world
+towards the end of this period.  They produced a literature of
+very great importance in subsequent history, a collection of
+books, histories, poems, books of wisdom and prophetic works, the
+Hebrew Bible.
+
+In Mesopotamia and Egypt the coming of the Aryans did not cause
+fundamental changes until after 600 B.C. The flight of {101} the
+�geans before the Greeks and even the destruction of Cnossos must
+have seemed a very remote disturbance to both the citizens of
+Egypt and of Babylon.  Dynasties came and went in these cradle
+states of civilization, but the main tenor of human life went on,
+with a slow increase in refinement and complexity age by age.  In
+Egypt the accumulated monuments of more ancient times--the
+pyramids were already in their third thousand of years and a show
+for visitors just as they are to-day--were supplemented by fresh
+and splendid buildings, more particularly in the time of the
+seventeenth and nineteenth dynasties.  The great temples at Karnak
+and Luxor date from this time.  All the chief monuments of
+Nineveh, the great temples, the winged bulls with human heads, the
+reliefs of kings and chariots and lion hunts, were done in these
+centuries between 1600 and 600 B.C., and this period also covers
+most of the splendours of Babylon.
+
+[Illustration: FRIEZE SHOWING EGYPTIAN FEMALE SLAVES CARRYING
+LUXURIOUS FOODS]
+
+Both from Mesopotamia and Egypt we now have abundant public
+records, business accounts, stories, poetry and private
+correspondence.  We know that life, for prosperous and influential
+people in such cities as Babylon and the Egyptian Thebes, was
+already almost as refined and as luxurious as that of comfortable
+and prosperous people to-day.  Such people lived an orderly and
+ceremonious life in beautiful and beautifully furnished and
+decorated houses, wore richly decorated clothing and lovely
+jewels; they had feasts and festivals, entertained one another
+with music and dancing, were waited upon by highly trained
+servants, were cared for by doctors and dentists.  They did not
+travel very much or very far, but boating {102} excursions were a
+common summer pleasure both on the Nile and on the Euphrates.  The
+beast of burthen was the ass; the horse was still used only in
+chariots for war and upon occasions of state.  The mule was still
+novel and the camel, though it was known in Mesopotamia, had not
+been brought into Egypt.  And there were few utensils of iron;
+copper and bronze remained the prevailing metals.  Fine linen and
+cotton fabrics were known as well as wool.  But there was no silk
+yet.  Glass was known and beautifully coloured, but glass things
+were usually small.  There was no clear glass and no optical use
+of glass.  People had gold stoppings in their teeth but no
+spectacles on their noses.
+
+One odd contrast between the life of old Thebes or Babylon and
+modern life was the absence of coined money.  Most trade was still
+done by barter.  Babylon was financially far ahead of Egypt.  Gold
+and silver were used for exchange and kept in ingots; and there
+were bankers, before coinage, who stamped their names and the
+weight on these lumps of precious metal.  A merchant or traveller
+would carry precious stones to sell to pay for his necessities.
+Most servants and workers were slaves who were paid not money but
+in kind.  As money came in slavery declined.
+
+A modern visitor to these crowning cities of the ancient world
+would have missed two very important articles of diet; there were
+no hens and no eggs.  A French cook would have found small joy in
+Babylon.  These things came from the East somewhere about the time
+of the last Assyrian empire.
+
+Religion like everything else had undergone great refinement.
+Human sacrifice for instance had long since disappeared; animals
+or bread dummies had been substituted for the victim.  (But the
+Phoenicians and especially the citizens of Carthage, their
+greatest settlement in Africa, were accused, later of immolating
+human beings.)  When a great chief had died in the ancient days it
+had been customary to sacrifice his wives and slaves and break
+spear and bow at his tomb so that he should not go unattended and
+unarmed in the spirit world.  In Egypt there survived of this dark
+tradition the pleasant custom of burying small models of house and
+shop and servants and cattle with the dead, models that give us
+to-day the liveliest realization of the safe and cultivated life
+of these ancient people, three thousand years and more ago.
+
+{103}
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF HORUS AT EDFU]
+
+Such was the ancient world before the coming of the Aryans out of
+the northern forests and plains.  In India and China there were
+parallel developments.  In the great valleys of both these regions
+agricultural city states of brownish peoples were growing up, but
+in India they do not seem to have advanced or coalesced so rapidly
+as the city states of Mesopotamia or Egypt.  They were nearer the
+level of the ancient Sumerians or of the Maya civilization of
+America.  Chinese history has still to be modernized by Chinese
+scholars and cleared of much legendary matter.  Probably China at
+this time was in advance of India.  Contemporary with the
+seventeenth dynasty in Egypt, there was a dynasty of emperors in
+China, the Shang dynasty, priest emperors over a loose-knit empire
+of subordinate kings.  The chief duty of these early emperors was
+to perform the seasonal sacrifices.  Beautiful bronze vessels from
+the time of the Shang dynasty still exist, and their beauty and
+workmanship compel us to recognize that many centuries of
+civilization must have preceded their manufacture.
+
+
+
+
+{104}
+
+XIX
+
+THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS
+
+
+Four thousand years ago, that is to say about 2000 B.C., central
+and south-eastern Europe and central Asia were probably warmer,
+moister and better wooded than they are now.  In these regions of
+the earth wandered a group of tribes mainly of the fair and
+blue-eyed Nordic race, sufficiently in touch with one another to
+speak merely variations of one common language from the Rhine to
+the Caspian Sea.  At that time they may not have been a very
+numerous people, and their existence was unsuspected by the
+Babylonians to whom Hammurabi was giving laws, or by the already
+ancient and cultivated land of Egypt which was tasting in those
+days for the first time the bitterness of foreign conquest.
+
+These Nordic people were destined to play a very important part
+indeed in the world's history.  They were a people of the
+parklands and the forest clearings; they had no horses at first
+but they had cattle; when they wandered they put their tents and
+other gear on rough ox waggons; when they settled for a time they
+may have made huts of wattle and mud.  They burnt their important
+dead; they did not bury them ceremoniously as the brunette peoples
+did.  They put the ashes of their greater leaders in urns and then
+made a great circular mound about them.  These mounds are the
+"round barrows" that occur all over north Europe.  The brunette
+people, their predecessors, did not burn their dead but buried
+them in a sitting position in elongated mounds; the "long
+barrows."
+
+The Aryans raised crops of wheat, ploughing with oxen, but they
+did not settle down by their crops; they would reap and move on.
+They had bronze, and somewhen about 1500 B.C. they acquired iron.
+They may have been the discoverers of iron smelting.  And somewhen
+vaguely about that time they also got the horse--which to begin
+with they used only for draught purposes.  Their social life did
+not centre upon a temple like that of the more settled people
+round the Mediterranean, and their chief men were leaders rather
+than priests.  They had an aristocratic social order rather than a
+{106} divine and regal order; from a very early stage they
+distinguished certain families as leaderly and noble.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{105}
+
+[Illustration: A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA]
+
+====================================================================
+
+They were a very vocal people.  They enlivened their wanderings by
+feasts, at which there was much drunkenness and at which a special
+sort of man, the bards, would sing and recite.  They had no
+writing until they had come into contact with civilization, and
+the memories of these bards were their living literature.  This
+use of recited language as an entertainment did much to make it a
+fine and beautiful instrument of expression, and to that no doubt
+the subsequent predominance of the languages derived from Aryan
+is, in part, to be ascribed.  Every Aryan people had its legendary
+history crystallized in bardic recitations, epics, sagas and
+vedas, as they were variously called.
+
+The social life of these people centred about the households of
+their leading men.  The hall of the chief where they settled for a
+time was often a very capacious timber building.  There were no
+doubt huts for herds and outlying farm buildings; but with most of
+the Aryan peoples this hall was the general centre, everyone went
+there to feast and hear the bards and take part in games and
+discussions.  Cowsheds and stabling surrounded it.  The chief and
+his wife and so forth would sleep on a dais or in an upper
+gallery; the commoner sort slept about anywhere, as people still
+do in Indian households.  Except for weapons, ornaments, tools and
+suchlike personal possessions there was a sort of patriarchal
+communism in the tribe.  The chief owned the cattle and grazing
+lands in the common interest; forest and rivers were the wild.
+
+This was the fashion of the people who were increasing and
+multiplying over the great spaces of central Europe and west
+central Asia during the growth of the great civilization of
+Mesopotamia and the Nile, and whom we find pressing upon the
+heliolithic peoples everywhere in the second millennium before
+Christ.  They were coming into France and Britain and into Spain.
+They pushed westward in two waves.  The first of these people who
+reached Britain and Ireland were armed with bronze weapons.  They
+exterminated or subjugated the people who had made the great stone
+monuments of Carnac in Brittany and Stonehenge and Avebury in
+England.  They reached Ireland. They are called the Goidelic
+Celts.  The {107} second wave of a closely kindred people, perhaps
+intermixed with other racial elements, brought iron with it into
+Great Britain, and is known as the wave of Brythonic Celts.  From
+them the Welsh derive their language.
+
+[Illustration: THE MOUND OF NIPPUR]
+
+Kindred Celtic peoples were pressing southward into Spain and
+coming into contact not only with the heliolithic Basque people
+who still occupied the country but with the Semitic Phoenician
+colonies of the sea coast.  A closely allied series of tribes, the
+Italians, were making their way down the still wild and wooded
+Italian peninsula.  They did not always conquer.  In the eighth
+century B.C. Rome appears in history, a trading town on the Tiber,
+inhabited by Aryan Latins but under the rule of Etruscan nobles
+and kings.
+
+At the other extremity of the Aryan range there was a similar
+progress southward of similar tribes.  Aryan peoples, speaking
+Sanskrit, had come down through the western passes into North
+{108} India long before 1000 B.C.  There they came into contact
+with a primordial brunette civilization, the Dravidian
+civilization, and learnt much from it.  Other Aryan tribes seem to
+have spread over the mountain masses of Central Asia far to the
+east of the present range of such peoples.  In Eastern Turkestan
+there are still fair, blue-eyed Nordic tribes, but now they speak
+Mongolian tongues.
+
+Between the Black and Caspian Seas the ancient Hittites had been
+submerged and "Aryanized" by the Armenians before 1000 B.C., and
+the Assyrians and Babylonians were already aware of a new and
+formidable fighting barbarism on the north-eastern frontiers, a
+group of tribes amidst which the Scythians, the Medes and the
+Persians remain as outstanding names.
+
+But it was through the Balkan peninsula that Aryan tribes made
+their first heavy thrust into the heart of the old-world
+civilization.  They were already coming southward and crossing
+into Asia Minor many centuries before 1000 B.C.  First came a
+group of tribes of whom the Phrygians were the most conspicuous,
+and then in succession the �olic, the Ionic and the Dorian Greeks.
+By 1000 B.C. they had wiped out the ancient �gean civilization
+both in the mainland of Greece and in most of the Greek islands;
+the cities of Mycen� and Tiryns were obliterated and Cnossos was
+nearly forgotten.  The Greeks had taken to the sea before 1000
+A.D., they had settled in Crete and Rhodes, and they were founding
+colonies in Sicily and the south of Italy after the fashion of the
+Phoenician trading cities that were dotted along the Mediterranean
+coasts.
+
+So it was, while Tiglath Pileser III and Sargon II and
+Sardanapalus were ruling in Assyria and fighting with Babylonia
+and Syria and Egypt, the Aryan peoples were learning the methods
+of civilization and making it over for their own purposes in Italy
+and Greece and north Persia.  The theme of history from the ninth
+century B.C. onward for six centuries is the story of how these
+Aryan peoples grew to power and enterprise and how at last they
+subjugated the whole Ancient World, Semitic, �gean and Egyptian
+alike.  In form the Aryan peoples were altogether victorious; but
+the struggle of Aryan, Semitic and Egyptian ideas and methods was
+continued long after the sceptre was in Aryan hands.  It is indeed
+a struggle that goes on through all the rest of history and still
+in a manner continues to this day.
+
+
+
+
+{109}
+
+XX
+
+THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I
+
+
+We have already mentioned how Assyria became a great military
+power under Tiglath Pileser III and under the usurper Sargon II.
+Sargon was not this man's original name; he adopted it to flatter
+the conquered Babylonians by reminding them of that ancient
+founder of the Akkadian Empire, Sargon I, two thousand years
+before his time.  Babylon, for all that it was a conquered city,
+was of greater population and importance than Nineveh, and its
+great god Bel Marduk and its traders and priests had to be treated
+politely.  In Mesopotamia in the eighth century B.C. we are
+already far beyond the barbaric days when the capture of a town
+meant loot and massacre.  Conquerors sought to propitiate and win
+the conquered.  For a century and a half after Sargon the new
+Assyrian empire endured and, as we have noted, Assurbanipal
+(Sardanapalus) held at least lower Egypt.
+
+But the power and solidarity of Assyria waned rapidly.  Egypt by
+an effort threw off the foreigner under a Pharoah Psammetichus I,
+and under Necho II attempted a war of conquest in Syria.  By that
+time Assyria was grappling with foes nearer at hand, and could
+make but a poor resistance.  A Semitic people from south-east
+Mesopotamia, the Chaldeans, combined with Aryan Medes and Persians
+from the north-east against Nineveh, and in
+606 B.C.--for now we are coming down to exact chronology--took
+that city.
+
+There was a division of the spoils of Assyria.  A Median Empire
+was set up in the north under Cyaxares.   It included Nineveh, and
+its capital was Ecbatana.  Eastward it reached to the borders of
+India.  To the south of this in a great crescent was a new
+Chaldean Empire, the Second Babylonian Empire, which rose to a
+very great degree of wealth and power under the rule of
+Nebuchadnezzar the Great (the Nebuchadnezzar of the Bible). The
+last great days, the {110} greatest days of all, for Babylon
+began.  For a time the two Empires remained at peace, and the
+daughter of Nebuchadnezzar was married to Cyaxares.
+
+Meanwhile Necho II was pursuing his easy conquests in Syria.  He
+had defeated and slain King Josiah of Judah, a small country of
+which there is more to tell presently, at the battle of Megiddo in
+608 B.C., and he pushed on to the Euphrates to encounter not a
+decadent Assyria but a renascent Babylonia.  The Chaldeans dealt
+very vigorously with the Egyptians.  Necho was routed and driven
+back to Egypt, and the Babylonian frontier pushed down to the
+ancient Egyptian boundaries.
+
+From 606 until 589 B.C. the Second Babylonian Empire flourished
+insecurely.  It flourished so long as it kept the peace with the
+stronger, hardier Median Empire to the north.  And during these
+sixty-seven years not only life but learning flourished in the
+ancient city.
+
+[Map: Map showing the relation of the Median and Second Babylonian
+(Chald�an) Empires in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar the Great]
+
+[Map: The Empire of Darius (tribute-paying countries) at its
+greatest extent]
+
+Even under the Assyrian monarchs and especially under
+Sardanapalus, Babylon had been a scene of great intellectual
+activity.  {111} Sardanapalus, though an Assyrian, had been quite
+Babylon-ized.  He made a library, a library not of paper but of
+the clay tablets that were used for writing in Mesopotamia since
+early Sumerian days.  His collection has been unearthed and is
+perhaps the most precious store of historical material in the
+world.  The last of the Chaldean line of Babylonian monarchs,
+Nabonidus, had even keener literary tastes.  He patronized
+antiquarian researches, and when a date was worked out by his
+investigators for the accession of Sargon I he commemorated the
+fact by inscriptions.  But there were many signs of disunion in
+his empire, and he sought to centralize it by bringing a number of
+the various local gods to Babylon and setting up temples to them
+there.  This device was to be practised quite successfully by the
+Romans in later times, but in Babylon it roused the jealousy of
+the powerful priesthood of Bel Marduk, the dominant god of the
+Babylonians.  They cast about for a possible alternative to
+Nabonidus and found it in Cyrus the Persian, the ruler of the
+adjacent Median Empire.  Cyrus had already distinguished himself
+by conquering Croesus, the rich king of Lydia in Eastern Asia
+Minor.  {112} He came up against Babylon, there was a battle
+outside the walls, and the gates of the city were opened to him
+(538 B.C.).  His soldiers entered the city without fighting.  The
+crown prince Belshazzar, the son of Nabonidus, was feasting, the
+Bible relates, when a hand appeared and wrote in letters of fire
+upon the wall these mystical words: _"Mene, Mene, Tekel,
+Upharsin,"_ which was interpreted by the prophet Daniel, whom he
+summoned to read the riddle, as "God has numbered thy kingdom and
+finished it; thou art weighed in the balance and found wanting and
+thy kingdom is given to the Medes and Persians."  Possibly the
+priests of Bel Marduk knew something about that writing on the
+wall.  Belshazzar was killed that night, says the Bible.
+Nabonidus was taken prisoner, and the occupation of the city was
+so peaceful that the services of Bel Marduk continued without
+intermission.
+
+[Illustration: PERSIAN MONARCH]
+
+Thus it was the Babylonian and Median empires were united.
+Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, subjugated Egypt.  Cambyses went mad
+and was accidentally killed, and was presently succeeded by Darius
+the Mede, Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, one of the chief
+councillors of Cyrus.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{113}
+
+[Illustration: THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS]
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+The Persian Empire of Darius I, the first of the new Aryan empires
+in the seat of the old civilizations, was the greatest empire the
+world had hitherto seen.  It included all Asia Minor and Syria,
+all the old Assyrian and Babylonian empires, Egypt, the Caucasus
+and Caspian regions, Media, Persia, and it extended into India as
+far as the Indus.  Such an empire was possible because the horse
+and rider and the chariot and the made-road had now been brought
+into the world.  Hitherto the ass and ox and the camel for desert
+use had afforded the swiftest method of {114} transport.  Great
+arterial roads were made by the Persian rulers to hold their new
+empire, and post horses were always in waiting for the imperial
+messenger or the traveller with an official permit.  Moreover the
+world was now beginning to use coined money, which greatly
+facilitated trade and intercourse.  But the capital of this vast
+empire was no longer Babylon.  In the long run the priesthood of
+Bel Marduk gained nothing by their treason.  Babylon though still
+important was now a declining city, and the great cities of the
+new empire were Persepolis and Susa and Ecbatana.  The capital was
+Susa.  Nineveh was already abandoned and sinking into ruins.
+
+
+
+
+{115}
+
+XXI
+
+THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS
+
+
+And now we can tell of the Hebrews, a Semitic people, not so
+important in their own time as in their influence upon the later
+history of the world.  They were settled in Judea long before 1000
+B.C., and their capital city after that time was Jerusalem.  Their
+story is interwoven with that of the great empires on either side
+of them, Egypt to the south and the changing empires of Syria,
+Assyria and Babylon to the north.  Their country was an inevitable
+high road between these latter powers and Egypt.
+
+Their importance in the world is due to the fact that they
+produced a written literature, a world history, a collection of
+laws, chronicles, psalms, books of wisdom, poetry and fiction and
+political utterances which became at last what Christians know as
+the Old Testament, the Hebrew Bible.  This literature appears in
+history in the fourth or fifth century B.C.
+
+Probably this literature was first put together in Babylon.  We
+have already told how the Pharaoh, Necho II, invaded the Assyrian
+Empire while Assyria was fighting for life against Medes, Persians
+and Chaldeans.  Josiah King of Judah opposed him, and was defeated
+and slain at Megiddo (608 B.C.).  Judah became a tributary to
+Egypt, and when Nebuchadnezzar the Great, the new Chaldean king in
+Babylon, rolled back Necho into Egypt, he attempted to manage
+Judah by setting up puppet kings in Jerusalem.  The experiment
+failed, the people massacred his Babylonian officials, and he then
+determined to break up this little state altogether, which had
+long been playing off Egypt against the northern empire.
+Jerusalem was sacked and burnt, and the remnant of the people was
+carried off captive to Babylon.
+
+{116}
+
+There they remained until Cyrus took Babylon (538 B.C.).  He then
+collected them together and sent them back to resettle their
+country and rebuild the walls and temple of Jerusalem.
+
+Before that time the Jews do not seem to have been a very
+civilized or united people.  Probably only a very few of them
+could read or write.  In their own history one never hears of the
+early books of the Bible being read; the first mention of a book
+is in the time of Josiah.  The Babylonian captivity civilized them
+and consolidated them.  They returned aware of their own
+literature, an acutely self-conscious and political people.
+
+Their Bible at that time seems to have consisted only of the
+Pentateuch, that is to say the first five books of the Old
+Testament as we know it.  In addition, as separate books they
+already had many of the other books that have since been
+incorporated with the Pentateuch into the present Hebrew Bible,
+Chronicles, the Psalms and Proverbs for example.
+
+The accounts of the Creation of the World, of Adam and Eve and of
+the Flood, with which the Bible begins, run closely parallel with
+similar Babylonian legends; they seem to have been part of the
+common beliefs of all the Semitic peoples. So too the stories of
+Moses and of Samson have Sumerian and Babylonian parallels.  But
+with the story of Abraham and onward begins something more special
+to the Jewish race.
+
+Abraham may have lived as early as the days of Hammurabi in
+Babylon.  He was a patriarchal Semitic nomad.  To the book of
+Genesis the reader must go for the story of his wanderings and for
+the stories of his sons and grandchildren and how they became
+captive in the Land of Egypt.  He travelled through Canaan, and
+the God of Abraham, says the Bible story, promised this smiling
+land of prosperous cities to him and to his children.
+
+And after a long sojourn in Egypt and after fifty years of
+wandering in the wilderness under the leadership of Moses, the
+children of Abraham, grown now to a host of twelve tribes, invaded
+the land of Canaan from the Arabian deserts to the East.  They may
+have done this somewhen between 1600 B.C. and 1300 B.C.; there are
+no Egyptian records of Moses nor of Canaan at this time to help
+out the story.  But at any rate they did not succeed in conquering
+any {117} more than the hilly backgrounds of the promised land.
+The coast was now in the hands, not of the Canaanites but of
+newcomers, those �gean peoples, the Philistines; and their cities,
+Gaza, Gath, Ashdod, Ascalon and Joppa successfully withstood the
+Hebrew attack.  For many generations the children of Abraham
+remained an obscure people of the hilly back country engaged in
+incessant bickerings with the Philistines and with the kindred
+tribes about them, the Moabites, the Midianites and so forth.  The
+reader will find in the book of Judges a record of their struggles
+and disasters during this period.  For very largely it is a record
+of disasters and failures frankly told.
+
+[Map: The Land of the Hebrews]
+
+{118}
+
+For most of this period the Hebrews were ruled, so far as there
+was any rule among them, by priestly judges selected by the elders
+of the people, but at last somewhen towards 1000 B.C. they chose
+themselves a king, Saul, to lead them in battle.  But Saul's
+leading was no great improvement upon the leading of the Judges;
+he perished under the hail of Philistine arrows at the battle of
+Mount Gilboa, his armour went into the temple of the Philistine
+Venus, and his body was nailed to the walls of
+Beth-shan.
+
+[Illustration: MOUND AT BABYLON]
+
+His successor David was more successful and more politic.  With
+David dawned the only period of prosperity the Hebrew peoples were
+ever to know.  It was based on a close alliance with the
+Phoenician city of Tyre, whose King Hiram seems to have been a man
+of very great intelligence and enterprise.  He wished to secure a
+trade route to the Red Sea through the Hebrew hill country.
+Normally Phoenician trade went to the Red Sea by Egypt, but Egypt
+was in a state of profound disorder at this {119} time; there may
+have been other obstructions to Phoenician trade along this line,
+and at any rate Hiram established the very closest relations both
+with David and with his son and successor Solomon.  Under Hiram's
+auspices the walls, palace and temple of Jerusalem arose, and in
+return Hiram built and launched his ships on the Red Sea.  A very
+considerable trade passed northward and southward through
+Jerusalem.  And Solomon achieved a prosperity and magnificence
+unprecedented in the experience of his people.  He was even given
+a daughter of Pharaoh in marriage.
+
+But it is well to keep the proportion of things in mind.  At the
+climax of his glories Solomon was only a little subordinate king
+in a little city.  His power was so transitory that within a few
+years of his death, Shishak the first Pharaoh of the twenty-second
+dynasty, had taken Jerusalem and looted most of its splendours.
+The account of Solomon's magnificence given in the books of Kings
+and Chronicles is questioned by many critics.  They say that it
+was added to and exaggerated by the patriotic pride of later
+writers.  But the Bible account read carefully is not so
+overwhelming as it appears at the first reading.  Solomon's
+temple, if one works out the measurements, would go inside a small
+suburban church, and his fourteen hundred chariots cease to
+impress us when we learn from an Assyrian monument that his
+successor Ahab sent a contingent of two thousand to the Assyrian
+army.  It is also plainly manifest from the Bible narrative that
+Solomon spent himself in display and overtaxed and overworked his
+people.  At his death the northern part of his kingdom broke off
+from Jerusalem and became the independent kingdom of Israel.
+Jerusalem remained the capital city of Judah.
+
+The prosperity of the Hebrew people was short-lived.  Hiram died,
+and the help of Tyre ceased to strengthen Jerusalem.  Egypt grew
+strong again.  The history of the kings of Israel and the kings of
+Judah becomes a history of two little states ground between,
+first, Syria, then Assyria and then Babylon to the north and Egypt
+to the south.  It is a tale of disasters and of deliverances that
+only delayed disaster.  It is a tale of barbaric kings ruling a
+barbaric people. In 721 B.C. the kingdom of Israel was swept away
+into captivity by the Assyrians and its people utterly lost to
+history.  Judah struggled {121} on until in 604 B.C., as we have
+told, it shared the fate of Israel.  There may be details open to
+criticism in the Bible story of Hebrew history from the days of
+the Judges onward, but on the whole it is evidently a true story
+which squares with all that has been learnt in the excavation of
+Egypt and Assyria and Babylon during the past century.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{120}
+
+[Illustration: THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON]
+
+====================================================================
+
+It was in Babylon that the Hebrew people got their history
+together and evolved their tradition.  The people who came back to
+Jerusalem at the command of Cyrus were a very different people in
+spirit and knowledge from those who had gone into captivity.  They
+had learnt civilization.  In the development of their peculiar
+character a very great part was played by certain men, a new sort
+of men, the Prophets, to whom we must now direct our attention.
+These Prophets mark the appearance of new and remarkable forces in
+the steady development of human society.
+
+
+
+
+{122}
+
+XXII
+
+PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA
+
+
+The fall of Assyria and Babylon were only the first of a series of
+disasters that were to happen to the Semitic peoples.  In the
+seventh century B.C. it would have seemed as though the whole
+civilized world was to be dominated by Semitic rulers.  They ruled
+the great Assyrian empire and they had conquered Egypt; Assyria,
+Babylon, Syria were all Semitic, speaking languages that were
+mutually intelligible.  The trade of the world was in Semitic
+hands.  Tyre, Sidon, the great mother cities of the Phoenician
+coast, had thrown out colonies that grew at last to even greater
+proportion in Spain, Sicily and Africa.  Carthage, founded before
+800 B.C., had risen to a population of more than a million.  It
+was for a time the greatest city on earth.  Its ships went to
+Britain and out into the Atlantic.  They may have reached Madeira.
+We have already noted how Hiram co-operated with Solomon to build
+ships on the Red Sea for the Arabian and perhaps for the Indian
+trade.  In the time of the Pharaoh Necho, a Phoenician expedition
+sailed completely round Africa.
+
+At that time the Aryan peoples were still barbarians.  Only the
+Greeks were reconstructing a new civilization of the ruins of the
+one they had destroyed, and the Medes were becoming "formidable,"
+as an Assyrian inscription calls them, in central Asia.  In 800
+B.C. no one could have prophesied that before the third century
+B.C. every trace of Semitic dominion would be wiped out by
+Aryan-speaking conquerors, and that everywhere the Semitic peoples
+would be subjects or tributaries or scattered altogether.
+Everywhere except in the northern deserts of Arabia, where the
+Bedouin adhered steadily to the nomadic way of life, the ancient
+way of life of the Semites before Sargon I and his Akkadians went
+down to conquer Sumeria.  But the Arab Bedouin were never
+conquered by Aryan masters.
+
+{123}
+
+Now of all these civilized Semites who were beaten and overrun in
+these five eventful centuries one people only held together and
+clung to its ancient traditions and that was this little people,
+the Jews, who were sent back to build their city of Jerusalem by
+Cyrus the Persian.  And they were able to do this, because they
+had got together this literature of theirs, their Bible, in
+Babylon.  It is not so much the Jews who made the Bible as the
+Bible which made the Jews.  Running through this Bible were
+certain ideas, different from the ideas of the people about them,
+very stimulating and sustaining ideas, to which they were destined
+to cling through five and twenty centuries of hardship, adventure
+and oppression.
+
+Foremost of these Jewish ideas was this, that their God was
+invisible and remote, an invisible God in a temple not made with
+hands, a Lord of Righteousness throughout the earth.  All other
+peoples had national gods embodied in images that lived in
+temples.  If the image was smashed and the temple razed, presently
+that god died out.  But this was a new idea, this God of the Jews,
+in the heavens, high above priests and sacrifices.  And this God
+of Abraham, the Jews believed, had chosen them to be his peculiar
+people, to restore Jerusalem and make it the capital of
+Righteousness in the World.  They were a people exalted by their
+sense of a common destiny.  This belief saturated them all when
+they returned to Jerusalem after the captivity in Babylon.
+
+Is it any miracle that in their days of overthrow and subjugation
+many Babylonians and Syrians and so forth and later on many
+Phoenicians, speaking practically the same language and having
+endless customs, habits, tastes and traditions in common, should
+be attracted by this inspiring cult and should seek to share in
+its fellowship and its promise?  After the fall of Tyre, Sidon,
+Carthage and the Spanish Phoenician cities, the Phoenicians
+suddenly vanish from history; and as suddenly we find, not simply
+in Jerusalem but in Spain, Africa, Egypt, Arabia, the East,
+wherever the Phoenicians had set their feet, communities of Jews.
+And they were all held together by the Bible and by the reading of
+the Bible.  Jerusalem was from the first only their nominal
+capital; their real city was this book of books.  This is a new
+sort of thing in history.  It is something of which the seeds were
+sown long before, when the Sumerians {124} and Egyptians began to
+turn their hieroglyphics into writing.  The Jews were a new thing,
+a people without a king and presently without a temple (for as we
+shall tell Jerusalem itself was broken up in 70 A.D.), held
+together and consolidated out of heterogeneous elements by nothing
+but the power of the written word.
+
+And this mental welding of the Jews was neither planned nor
+foreseen nor done by either priests or statesmen.  Not only a new
+kind of community but a new kind of man comes into history with
+the development of the Jews.  In the days of Solomon the Hebrews
+looked like becoming a little people just like any other little
+people of that time clustering around court and temple, ruled by
+the wisdom of the priest and led by the ambition of the king.  But
+already, the reader may learn from the Bible, this new sort of man
+of which we speak, the Prophet, was in evidence.
+
+As troubles thicken round the divided Hebrews the importance of
+these Prophets increases.
+
+[Illustration: THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II]
+
+What were these Prophets?  They were men of the most diverse
+origins.  The Prophet Ezekiel was of the priestly caste and the
+Prophet Amos wore the goatskin mantle of a shepherd, but all had
+this in common, that they gave allegiance to no one but to the God
+of Righteousness and that they spoke directly to the people.  They
+{125} came without licence or consecration.  "Now the word of the
+Lord came unto me;" that was the formula.  They were intensely
+political.  They exhorted the people against Egypt, "that broken
+reed," or against Assyria or Babylon; they denounced the indolence
+of the priestly order or the flagrant sins of the King.  Some of
+them turned their attention to what we should now call "social
+reform."  The rich were "grinding the faces of the poor," the
+luxurious were consuming the children's bread; wealthy people made
+friends with and imitated the splendours and vices of foreigners;
+and this was hateful to Jehovah, the God of Abraham, who would
+certainly punish this land.
+
+[Illustration: ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK]
+
+These fulminations were written down and preserved and studied.
+They went wherever the Jews went, and wherever they went they
+spread a new religious spirit.  They carried the common man past
+priest and temple, past court and king and brought him face to
+face with the Rule of Righteousness.  That is their supreme
+importance in the history of mankind.  In the great utterances of
+Isaiah the prophetic voice rises to a pitch of splendid
+anticipation and foreshadows the whole earth united and at peace
+under one God.  Therein the Jewish prophecies culminate.
+
+All the Prophets did not speak in this fashion, and the
+intelligent reader of the prophetic books will find much hate in
+them, much prejudice, and much that will remind him of the
+propaganda pamphlets {126}of the present time.  Nevertheless it is
+the Hebrew Prophets of the period round and about the Babylonian
+captivity who mark the appearance of a new power in the world, the
+power of individual moral appeal, of an appeal to the free
+conscience of mankind against the fetish sacrifices and slavish
+loyalties that had hitherto bridled and harnessed our race.
+
+
+
+
+{127}
+
+XXIII
+
+THE GREEKS
+
+
+Now while after Solomon (whose reign was probably about 960 B.C.)
+the divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah were suffering
+destruction and deportation, and while the Jewish people were
+developing their tradition in captivity in Babylon, another great
+power over the human mind, the Greek tradition, was also arising.
+While the Hebrew prophets were working out a new sense of direct
+moral responsibility between the people and an eternal and
+universal God of Right, the Greek philosophers were training the
+human mind in a new method and spirit of intellectual adventure.
+
+The Greek tribes as we have told were a branch of the
+Aryan-speaking stem. They had come down among the �gean cities and
+islands some centuries before 1000 B.C.  They were probably
+already in southward movement before the Pharaoh Thothmes hunted
+his first elephants beyond the conquered Euphrates.  For in those
+days there were elephants in Mesopotamia and lions in Greece.
+
+It is possible that it was a Greek raid that burnt Cnossos, but
+there are no Greek legends of such a victory though there are
+stories of Minos and his palace (the Labyrinth) and of the skill
+of the Cretan artificers.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{128}
+
+[Illustration: STATUE OF MELEAGER]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Like most of the Aryans these Greeks had singers and reciters
+whose performances were an important social link, and these handed
+down from the barbaric beginnings of their people two great epics,
+the _Iliad_, telling how a league of Greek tribes besieged and
+took and sacked the town of Troy in Asia Minor, and the _Odyssey_,
+being a long adventure story of the return of the sage captain,
+Odysseus, from Troy to his own island.  These epics were written
+down somewhen in the eighth or seventh century B.C., when the
+Greeks had acquired the use of an alphabet from their more
+civilized neighbours, but they {129} are supposed to have been in
+existence very much earlier.  Formerly they were ascribed to a
+particular blind bard, Homer, who was supposed to have sat down
+and composed them as Milton composed Paradise Lost.  Whether there
+really was such a poet, whether he composed or only wrote down and
+polished these epics and so forth, is a favourite quarrelling
+ground for the erudite.  We need not concern ourselves with such
+bickerings here.  The thing that matters from our point of view is
+that the Greeks were in possession of their epics in the eighth
+century B.C., and that they were a common possession and a link
+between their various tribes, giving them a sense of fellowship as
+against the outer barbarians.  They were a group of kindred
+peoples linked by the spoken and afterwards by the written word,
+and sharing common ideals of courage and behaviour.
+
+The epics showed the Greeks a barbaric people without iron,
+without writing, and still not living in cities.  They seem to
+have lived at first in open villages of huts around the halls of
+their chiefs outside the ruins of the �gean cities they had
+destroyed.  Then they began to wall their cities and to adopt the
+idea of temples from the people they had conquered.  It has been
+said that the cities of the primitive civilizations grew up about
+the altar of some tribal god, and that the wall was added; in the
+cities of the Greeks the wall preceded the temple.  They began to
+trade and send out colonies.  By the seventh century B.C. a new
+series of cities had grown up in the valleys and islands of
+Greece, forgetful of the �gean cities and civilization that had
+preceded them; Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Samos, Miletus
+among the chief.  There were already Greek settlements along the
+coast of the Black Sea and in Italy and Sicily.  The heel and toe
+of Italy was called Magna Gr�cia.  Marseilles was a Greek town
+established on the site of an earlier Phoenician colony.
+
+Now countries which are great plains or which have as a chief
+means of transport some great river like the Euphrates or Nile
+tend to become united under some common rule.  The cities of Egypt
+and the cities of Sumeria, for example, ran together under one
+system of government. But the Greek peoples were cut up among
+islands and mountain valleys; both Greece and Magna Gr�cia are
+very mountainous; and the tendency was all the other way.  When
+the {130} Greeks come into history they are divided up into a
+number of little states which showed no signs of coalescence.
+They are different even in race.  Some consist chiefly of citizens
+of this or that Greek tribe, Ionic, �olian or Doric; some have a
+mingled population of Greeks and descendants of the pre-Greek
+"Mediterranean" folk; some have an unmixed free citizenship of
+Greeks lording it over an enslaved conquered population like the
+"Helots" in Sparta.  In some the old leaderly Aryan families have
+become a close aristocracy; in some there is a democracy of all
+the Aryan citizens; in some there are elected or even hereditary
+kings, in some usurpers or tyrants.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA]
+
+And the same geographical conditions that kept the Greek states
+divided and various, kept them small.  The largest states were
+smaller than many English counties, and it is doubtful if the
+population of any of their cities ever exceeded a third of a
+million.  Few came up even to 50,000.  There were unions of
+interest and sympathy but no coalescences.  Cities made leagues
+and alliances as {131} trade increased, and small cities put
+themselves under the protection of great ones.  Yet all Greece was
+held together in a certain community of feeling by two things, by
+the epics and by the custom of taking part every fourth year in
+the athletic contests at Olympia.  This did not prevent wars and
+feuds, but it mitigated something of the savagery of war between
+them, and a truce protected all travellers to and from the games.
+As time went on the sentiment of a common heritage grew and the
+number of states participating in the Olympic games increased
+until at last not only Greeks but competitors from the closely
+kindred countries of Epirus and Macedonia to the north were
+admitted.
+
+The Greek cities grew in trade and importance, and the quality of
+their civilization rose steadily in the seventh and sixth
+centuries B.C.  Their social life differed in many interesting
+points from the social life of the �gean and river valley
+civilizations.  They had splendid temples but the priesthood was
+not the great traditional body it was in the cities of the older
+world, the-repository of all knowledge, the storehouse of ideas.
+They had leaders and noble families, but no quasi-divine monarch
+surrounded by an elaborately organized court.  Rather their
+organization was aristocratic, with leading families which kept
+each other in order.  Even their so-called "democracies" were
+aristocratic; every citizen had a share in public affairs and came
+to the assembly in a democracy, but everybody was not a _citizen_.
+The Greek democracies were not like our modern "democracies" in
+which everyone has a vote.  Many of the Greek democracies had a
+few hundred or a few thousand citizens and then many thousands of
+slaves, freedmen and so forth, with no share in public affairs.
+Generally in Greece affairs were in the hands of a community of
+substantial men.  Their kings and their tyrants alike were just
+men set in front of other men or usurping a leadership; they were
+not quasi-divine overmen like Pharaoh or Minos or the monarchs of
+Mesopotamia.  Both thought and government therefore had a freedom
+under Greek conditions such as they had known in none of the older
+civilizations.  The Greeks had brought down into cities the
+individualism, the personal initiative of the wandering life of
+the northern parklands.  They were the first republicans of
+importance in history.
+
+{132}
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), P�STUM, SICILY]
+
+And we find that as they emerge from a condition of barbaric
+warfare a new thing becomes apparent in their intellectual life.
+We find men who are not priests seeking and recording knowledge
+and enquiring into the mysteries of life and being, in a way that
+has hitherto been the sublime privilege of priesthood or the
+presumptuous amusement of kings.  We find already in the sixth
+century B.C.--perhaps while Isaiah was still prophesying in
+Babylon--such men as Thales and Anaximander of Miletus and
+Heraclitus of Ephesus, who were what we should now call
+independent gentlemen, giving their minds to shrewd questionings
+of the world in which we live, asking what its real nature was,
+whence it came and what its destiny might be, and refusing all
+ready-made or evasive answers.  Of these questionings of the
+universe by the Greek mind, we shall have more to say a little
+later in this history.  These Greek enquirers {133} who begin to
+be remarkable in the sixth century B.C. are the first
+philosophers, the first "wisdom-lovers," in the world.
+
+And it may be noted here how important a century this sixth
+century B.C. was in the history of humanity.  For not only were
+these Greek philosophers beginning the research for clear ideas
+about this universe and man's place in it and Isaiah carrying
+Jewish prophecy to its sublimest levels, but as we shall tell
+later Gautama Buddha was then teaching in India and Confucius and
+Lao Tse in China.  From Athens to the Pacific the human mind was
+astir.
+
+
+
+
+{134}
+
+XXIV
+
+THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS
+
+
+While the Greeks in the cities in Greece, South Italy and Asia
+Minor were embarking upon free intellectual enquiry and while in
+Babylon and Jerusalem the last of the Hebrew prophets were
+creating a free conscience for mankind, two adventurous Aryan
+peoples, the Medes and the Persians, were in possession of the
+civilization of the ancient world and were making a great empire,
+the Persian empire, which was far larger in extent than any empire
+the world had seen hitherto.  Under Cyrus, Babylon and the rich
+and ancient civilization of Lydia had been added to the Persian
+rule; the Phoenician cities of the Levant and all the Greek cities
+in Asia Minor had been made tributary, Cambyses had subjected
+Egypt, and Darius I, the Mede, the third of the Persian rulers
+(521 B.C.), found himself monarch as it seemed of all the world.
+His couriers rode with his decrees from the Dardanelles to the
+Indus and from Upper Egypt to Central Asia.
+
+The Greeks in Europe, it is true, Italy, Carthage, Sicily and the
+Spanish Phoenician settlements, were not under the Persian Peace;
+but they treated it with respect and the only people who gave any
+serious trouble were the old parent hordes of Nordic people in
+South Russia and Central Asia, the Scythians, who raided the
+northern and north-eastern borders.
+
+Of course the population of this great Persian empire was not a
+population of Persians, The Persians were only the small
+conquering minority of this enormous realm.  The rest of the
+population was what it had been before the Persians came from time
+immemorial, only that Persian was the administrative language.
+Trade and finance were still largely Semitic, Tyre and Sidon as of
+old were the great Mediterranean ports and Semitic shipping plied
+upon the seas.  But many of these Semitic merchants and business
+people as {135} they went from place to place already found a
+sympathetic and convenient common history in the Hebrew tradition
+and the Hebrew scriptures.  A new element which was increasing
+rapidly in this empire was the Greek element.  The Greeks were
+becoming serious rivals to the Semites upon the sea, and their
+detached and vigorous intelligence made them useful and,
+unprejudiced officials.
+
+[Illustration: FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY]
+
+It was on account of the Scythians that Darius I invaded Europe.
+He wanted to reach South Russia, the homeland of the Scythian
+horsemen.  He crossed the Bosphorus with a great army and marched
+through Bulgaria to the Danube, crossed this by a bridge of boats
+and pushed far northward.  His army suffered terribly.  It was
+largely an infantry force and the mounted Scythians rode all round
+it, cut off its supplies, destroyed any stragglers and never came
+to a pitched battle.  Darius was forced into an inglorious
+retreat.
+
+He returned himself to Susa but he left an army in Thrace and
+Macedonia, and Macedonia submitted to Darius.  Insurrections of
+the Greek cities in Asia followed this failure, and the European
+Greeks were drawn into the contest.  Darius resolved upon the
+subjugation of the Greeks in Europe.  With the Phoenician fleet at
+his disposal he was able to subdue one island after another, and
+finally in 490 B.C. he made his main attack upon Athens.  A
+considerable Armada sailed from the ports of Asia Minor and the
+eastern Mediterranean, and the expedition landed its troops at
+Marathon to the north of Athens.  There they were met and signally
+defeated by the Athenians.
+
+{136}
+
+An extraordinary thing happened at this time.  The bitterest rival
+of Athens in Greece was Sparta, but now Athens appealed to Sparta,
+sending a herald, a swift runner, imploring the Spartans not to
+let Greeks become slaves to barbarians.  This runner (the
+prototype of all "Marathon" runners) did over a hundred miles of
+broken country in less than two days.  The Spartans responded
+promptly and generously; but when, in three days, the Spartan
+force reached Athens, there was nothing for it to do but to view
+the battlefield and the bodies of the defeated Persian soldiers.
+The Persian fleet had returned to Asia.  So ended the first
+Persian attack on Greece.
+
+The next was much more impressive.  Darius died soon after the
+news of his defeat at Marathon reached him, and for four years his
+son and successor, Xerxes, prepared a host to crush the Greeks.
+For a time terror united all the Greeks.  The army of Xerxes was
+certainly the greatest that had hitherto been assembled in the
+world.  It was a huge assembly of discordant elements.  It crossed
+the Dardanelles, 480 B.C., by a bridge of boats; and along the
+coast as it advanced moved an equally miscellaneous fleet carrying
+supplies.  At the narrow pass of Thermopyl� a small force of 1400
+men under the Spartan Leonidas resisted this multitude, and after
+a fight of unsurpassed heroism was completely destroyed.  Every
+man was killed.  But the losses they inflicted upon the Persians
+were enormous, and the army of Xerxes pushed on to Thebes and
+Athens in a chastened mood.  Thebes surrendered and made terms.
+The Athenians abandoned their city and it was burnt.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{137}
+
+[Illustration: ALL THAT REMAINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF CORINTH]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Greece seemed in the hands of the conqueror, but again came
+victory against the odds and all expectations.  The Greek fleet,
+though not a third the size of the Persian, assailed it in the bay
+of Salamis and destroyed it.  Xerxes found himself and his immense
+army cut off from supplies and his heart failed him.  He retreated
+to Asia with one half of his army, leaving the rest to be defeated
+at Platea (479 B.C.) what time the remnants of the Persian fleet
+were hunted down by the Greeks and destroyed at Mycal� in Asia
+Minor.
+
+The Persian danger was at an end.  Most of the Greek cities in
+Asia became free.  All this is told in great detail and with much
+picturesqueness in the first of written histories, the _History_
+of {138} Herodotus.  This Herodotus was born about 484 B.C. in the
+Ionian city of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, and he visited Babylon
+and Egypt in his search for exact particulars.  From Mycal� onward
+Persia sank into a confusion of dynastic troubles.  Xerxes was
+murdered in 465 B.C. and rebellions in Egypt, Syria and Media
+broke up the brief order of that mighty realm.  The history of
+Herodotus lays stress on the weakness of Persia.  This history is
+indeed what we should now call propaganda--propaganda for Greece
+to unite and conquer Persia.  Herodotus makes one character,
+Aristagoras, go to the Spartans with a map of the known world and
+say to them: "These Barbarians are not valiant in fight.  You on
+the other hand have now attained the utmost skill in war .... No
+other nations in the world have what they possess: gold, silver,
+bronze, embroidered garments, beasts and slaves.  _All this you
+might have for yourselves, if you so desired._"
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM]
+
+
+
+
+{139}
+
+XXV
+
+THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE
+
+
+The century and a half that followed the defeat of Persia was one
+of very great splendour for the Greek civilization.  True that
+Greece was torn by a desperate struggle for ascendancy between
+Athens, Sparta and other states (the Peloponnesian War 431 to 404
+B.C.) and that in 338 B.C. the Macedonians became virtually
+masters of Greece; nevertheless during this period the thought and
+the creative and artistic impulse of the Greeks rose to levels
+that made their achievement a lamp to mankind for all the rest of
+history.
+
+The head and centre of this mental activity was Athens.  For over
+thirty years (466 to 428 B.C.) Athens was dominated by a man of
+great vigour and liberality of mind, Pericles, who set himself to
+rebuild the city from the ashes to which the Persians had reduced
+it. The beautiful ruins that still glorify Athens to-day are
+chiefly the remains of this great effort.  And he did not simply
+rebuild a material Athens.  He rebuilt Athens intellectually.  He
+gathered about him not only architects and sculptors but poets,
+dramatists, philosophers and teachers.  Herodotus came to Athens
+to recite his history (438 B.C.). Anaxagoras came with the
+beginnings of a scientific description of the sun and stars.
+�schylus, Sophocles and Euripides one after the other carried the
+Greek drama to its highest levels or beauty and nobility.
+
+The impetus Pericles gave to the intellectual life of Athens lived
+on after his death, and in spite of the fact that the peace of
+Greece was now broken by the Peloponnesian War and a long and
+wasteful struggle for "ascendancy" was beginning.  Indeed the
+darkling of the political horizon seems for a time to have
+quickened rather than discouraged men's minds.
+
+Already long before the time of Pericles the peculiar freedom of
+Greek institutions had given great importance to skill in
+discussion.  {140} Decision rested neither with king nor with
+priest but in the assemblies of the people or of leading men.
+Eloquence and able argument became very desirable accomplishments
+therefore, and a class of teachers arose, the Sophists, who
+undertook to strengthen young men in these arts.  But one cannot
+reason without matter, and knowledge followed in the wake of
+speech.  The activities and rivalries of these Sophists led very
+naturally to an acute examination of style, of methods of thought
+and of the validity of arguments.  When Pericles died a certain
+Socrates was becoming prominent as an able and destructive critic
+of bad argument--and much of the teaching of the Sophists was bad
+argument.  A group of brilliant young men gathered about Socrates.
+In the end Socrates was executed for disturbing people's minds
+(399 B.C.), he was condemned after the dignified fashion of the
+Athens of those days to drink in his own house and among his own
+friends a poisonous draught made from hemlock, but the disturbance
+of people's minds went on in spite of his condemnation. His young
+men carried on his teaching.
+
+[Illustration: PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+{141}
+
+[Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS]
+
+[Illustration: THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Chief among these young men was Plato (427 to 347 B.C.) who
+presently began to teach philosophy in the grove of the Academy.
+His teaching fell into two main divisions, an examination of the
+foundations and methods of human thinking and an examination of
+political institutions.  He was the first man to write a Utopia,
+that is to say the plan of a community different from and better
+than any {142} existing community.  This shows an altogether
+unprecedented boldness in the human mind which had hitherto
+accepted social traditions and usages with scarcely a question.
+Plato said plainly to mankind: "Most of the social and political
+ills from which you suffer are under your control, given only the
+will and courage to change them.  You can live in another and a
+wiser fashion if you choose to think it out and work it out.  You
+are not awake to your own power."  That is a high adventurous
+teaching that has still to soak in to the common intelligence of
+our race.  One of his earliest works was the Republic, a dream of
+a communist aristocracy; his last unfinished work was the Laws, a
+scheme of regulation for another such Utopian state.
+
+[Illustration: THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM]
+
+The criticism of methods of thinking and methods of government was
+carried on after Plato's death by Aristotle, who had been his
+pupil and who taught in the Lyceum.  Aristotle came from the city
+of Stagira in Macedonia, and his father was court physician to the
+Macedonian king.  For a time Aristotle was tutor to Alexander,
+{144} the king's son, who was destined to achieve very great
+things of which we shall soon be telling.  Aristotle's work upon
+methods of thinking carried the science of Logic to a level at
+which it remained for fifteen hundred years or more, until the
+medi�val schoolmen took up the ancient questions again.  He made
+no Utopias.  Before man could really control his destiny as Plato
+taught, Aristotle perceived that he needed far more knowledge and
+far more accurate knowledge than he possessed.  And so Aristotle
+began that systematic collection of knowledge which nowadays we
+call Science.  He sent out explorers to collect _facts_.  He was
+the father of natural history.  He was the founder of political
+science.  His students at the Lyceum examined and compared the
+constitutions of 158 different states ....
+
+{143}
+
+[Illustration: ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON]
+
+Here in the fourth century B.C. we find men who are practically
+"modern thinkers."  The child-like, dream-like methods of
+primitive thought had given way to a disciplined and critical
+attack upon the problems of life.  The weird and monstrous
+symbolism and imagery of the gods and god monsters, and all the
+taboos and awes and restraints that have hitherto encumbered
+thinking are here completely set aside.  Free, exact and
+systematic thinking has begun.  The fresh and unencumbered mind of
+these newcomers out of the northern forests has thrust itself into
+the mysteries of the temple and let the daylight in.
+
+
+
+
+{145}
+
+XXVI
+
+THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
+
+
+From 431 to 404 B.C. the Peloponnesian War wasted Greece.
+Meanwhile to the north of Greece, the kindred country of Macedonia
+was rising slowly to power and civilization.  The Macedonians
+spoke a language closely akin to Greek, and on several occasions
+Macedonian competitors had taken part in the Olympic games.  In
+359 B.C. a man of very great abilities and ambition became king of
+this little country--Philip.  Philip had previously been a hostage
+in Greece; he had had a thoroughly Greek education and he was
+probably aware of the ideas of Herodotus--which had also been
+developed by the philosopher Isocrates--of a possible conquest of
+Asia by a consolidated Greece.
+
+He set himself first to extend and organize his own realm and to
+remodel his army.  For a thousand years now the charging
+horse-chariot had been the decisive factor in battles, that and
+the close-fighting infantry.  Mounted horsemen had also fought,
+but as a cloud of skirmishers, individually and without
+discipline.  Philip made his infantry fight in a closely packed
+mass, the Macedonian phalanx, and he trained his mounted
+gentlemen, the knights or companions, to fight in formation and so
+invented cavalry.  The master move in most of his battles and in
+the battles of his son Alexander was a cavalry charge.  The
+phalanx _held_ the enemy infantry in front while the cavalry swept
+away the enemy horse on his wings and poured in on the flank and
+rear of his infantry.  Chariots were disabled by bowmen, who shot
+the horses.
+
+With this new army Philip extended his frontiers through Thessaly
+to Greece; and the battle of Ch�ronia (338 B.C.), fought against
+Athens and her allies, put all Greece at his feet.  At last the
+dream of Herodotus was bearing fruit.  A congress of all the Greek
+states appointed Philip captain-general of the Gr�co-Macedonian
+confederacy {146} against Persia, and in 336 B.C. his advanced
+guard crossed into Asia upon this long premeditated adventure.
+But he never followed it.  He was assassinated; it is believed at
+the instigation of his queen Olympias, Alexander's mother.  She
+was jealous because Philip had married a second wife.
+
+But Philip had taken unusual pains with his son's education.  He
+had not only secured Aristotle, the greatest philosopher in the
+world, as this boy's tutor, but he had shared his ideas with him
+and thrust military experience upon him.  At Ch�ronia Alexander,
+who was then only eighteen years old, had been in command of the
+cavalry.  And so it was possible for this young man, who was still
+only twenty years old at the time of his accession, to take up his
+father's task at once and to proceed successfully with the Persian
+adventure.
+
+[Illustration: BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT]
+
+In 334 B.C.--for two years were needed to establish and confirm
+his position in Macedonia and Greece--he crossed into Asia,
+defeated a not very much bigger Persian army at the battle of the
+Granicus and captured a number of cities in Asia Minor.  He kept
+along the sea-coast.  It was necessary for him to reduce and
+garrison all the coast towns as he advanced because the Persians
+had control of the fleets of Tyre and Sidon and so had command of
+the sea.  {147} Had he left a hostile port in his rear the
+Persians might have landed forces to raid his communications and
+cut him off. At  Issus (333 B.C.) he met and smashed a vast
+conglomerate host under Darius III.  Like the host of Xerxes that
+had crossed the Dardanelles a century and a half before, it was an
+incoherent accumulation of contingents and it was encumbered with
+a multitude of court officials, the harem of Darius and many camp
+followers.  Sidon surrendered to Alexander but Tyre resisted
+obstinately.  Finally that great city was stormed and plundered
+and destroyed.  Gaza also was stormed, and towards the end of 332
+B.C. the conqueror entered Egypt and took over its rule from the
+Persians.
+
+[Illustration: ALEXANDER'S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS]
+
+At Alexandretta and at Alexandria in Egypt he built great cities,
+accessible from the land and so incapable of revolt.  To these the
+trade of the Phoenician cities was diverted.  The Phoenicians of
+the western Mediterranean suddenly disappear from history--and as
+immediately the Jews of Alexandria and the other new trading
+cities created by Alexander appear.
+
+In 331 B.C. Alexander marched out of Egypt upon Babylon as
+Thothmes and Rameses and Necho had done before him.  But he
+marched by way of Tyre.  At Arbela near the ruins of Nineveh,
+{148} which was already a forgotten city, he met Darius and fought
+the decisive battle of the war.  The Persian chariot charge
+failed, a Macedonian cavalry charge broke up the great composite
+host and the phalanx completed the victory.  Darius led the
+retreat.  He made no further attempt to resist the invader but
+fled northward into the country of the Medes.  Alexander marched
+on to Babylon, still prosperous and important, and then to Susa
+and Persepolis.  There after a drunken festival he burnt down the
+palace of Darius, the king of kings.
+
+[Illustration: THE APOLLO BELVEDERE]
+
+Thence Alexander presently made a military parade of central Asia,
+going to the utmost bounds of the Persian empire.  At first he
+turned northward.  Darius was pursued; and he was overtaken at
+dawn dying in his chariot, having been murdered by his own people.
+He was still living when the foremost Greeks reached him.
+Alexander came up to find him dead.  Alexander skirted the Caspian
+Sea, he went up into the mountains of western Turkestan, he came
+down by Herat (which he founded) and Cabul and the Khyber Pass
+into {149} India.  He fought a great battle on the Indus with an
+Indian king, Porus, and here the Macedonian troops met elephants
+for the first time and defeated them.  Finally he built himself
+ships, sailed down to the mouth of the Indus, and marched back by
+the coast of Beluchistan, reaching Susa again in 324 B.C. after an
+absence of six years.  He then prepared to consolidate and
+organize this vast empire he had won.  He sought to win over his
+new subjects.  He assumed the robes and tiara of a Persian
+monarch, and this roused the jealousy of his Macedonian
+commanders.  He had much trouble with them.  He arranged a number
+of marriages between these Macedonian officers and Persian and
+Babylonian women: the "Marriage of the East and West."  He never
+lived to effect the consolidation he had planned.  A fever seized
+him after a drinking bout in Babylon and he died in 323 B.C.
+
+Immediately this vast dominion fell to pieces.  One of his
+generals, Seleucus, retained most of the old Persian empire from
+the Indus to Ephesus; another, Ptolemy, seized Egypt, and
+Antigonus secured Macedonia.  The rest of the empire remained
+unstable, passing under the control of a succession of local
+adventurers.  Barbarian raids began from the north and grew in
+scope and intensity.  Until at last, as we shall tell, a new
+power, the power of the Roman republic, came out of the west to
+subjugate one fragment after another and weld them together into a
+new and more enduring empire.
+
+
+
+
+{150}
+
+XXVII
+
+THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+Before the time of Alexander Greeks had already been spreading as
+merchants, artists, officials, mercenary soldiers, over most of
+the Persian dominions.  In the dynastic disputes that followed the
+death of Xerxes, a band of ten thousand Greek mercenaries played a
+part under the leadership of Xenophon.  Their return to Asiatic
+Greece from Babylon is described in his Retreat of the _Ten
+Thousand_, one of the first war stories that was ever written by a
+general in command.  But the conquests of Alexander and the
+division of his brief empire among his subordinate generals,
+greatly stimulated this permeation of the ancient world by the
+Greeks and their language and fashions and culture.  Traces of
+this Greek dissemination are to be found far away in central Asia
+and in north-west India.  Their influence upon the development of
+Indian art was profound.
+
+For many centuries Athens retained her prestige as a centre of art
+and culture; her schools went on indeed to 529 A.D., that is to
+say for nearly a thousand years; but the leadership in the
+intellectual activity of the world passed presently across the
+Mediterranean to Alexandria, the new trading city that Alexander
+had founded.  Here the Macedonian general Ptolemy had become
+Pharaoh, with a court that spoke Greek.  He had become an intimate
+of Alexander before he became king, and he was deeply saturated
+with the ideas of Aristotle.  He set himself, with great energy
+and capacity, to organize knowledge and investigation.  He also
+wrote a history of Alexander's campaigns which, unhappily, is lost
+to the world.
+
+Alexander had already devoted considerable sums to finance the
+enquiries of Aristotle, but Ptolemy I was the first person to make
+a permanent endowment of science.  He set up a foundation in
+Alexandria which was formerly dedicated to the Muses, the Museum
+{151} of Alexandria.  For two or three generations the scientific
+work done at Alexandria was extraordinarily good.  Euclid,
+Eratosthenes who measured the size of the earth and came within
+fifty miles of its true diameter, Apollonius who wrote on conic
+sections, Hipparchus who made the first star map and catalogue,
+and Hero who devised the first steam engine are among the greater
+stars of an extraordinary constellation of scientific pioneers.
+Archimedes came from Syracuse to Alexandria to study, and was a
+frequent correspondent of the Museum.  Herophilus was one of the
+greatest of Greek anatomists, and is said to have practised
+vivisection.
+
+For a generation or so during the reigns of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy
+II there was such a blaze of knowledge and discovery at Alexandria
+as the world was not to see again until the sixteenth century A.D.
+But it did not continue.  There may have been several causes of
+this decline.  Chief among them, the late Professor Mahaffy
+suggested, was the fact that the Museum was a "royal" college and
+all its professors and fellows were appointed and paid by Pharaoh.
+This was all very well when Pharaoh was Ptolemy I, the pupil and
+friend of Aristotle.  But as the dynasty of the Ptolemies went on
+they became Egyptianized, they fell under the sway of Egyptian
+priests and Egyptian religious developments, they ceased to follow
+the work that was done, and their control stifled the spirit of
+enquiry altogether.  The Museum produced little good work after
+its first century of activity.
+
+Ptolemy I not only sought in the most modern spirit to organize
+the finding of fresh knowledge.  He tried also to set up an
+encyclop�dic storehouse of wisdom in the Library of Alexandria.
+It was not simply a storehouse, it was also a book-copying and
+book-selling organization.  A great army of copyists was set to
+work perpetually multiplying copies of books.
+
+Here then we have the definite first opening up of the
+intellectual process in which we live to-day; here we have the
+systematic gathering and distribution of knowledge.  The
+foundation of this Museum and Library marks one of the great
+epochs in the history of mankind.  It is the true beginning of
+Modern History.
+
+{152}
+
+[Illustration: ARISTOTLE]
+
+Both the work of research and the work of dissemination went on
+under serious handicaps.  One of these was the great social gap
+that separated the philosopher, who was a gentleman, from the
+trader and the artisan.  There were glass workers and metal
+workers in abundance in those days, but they were not in mental
+contact with the thinkers.  The glass worker was making the most
+beautifully coloured beads and phials and so forth, but he never
+made a Florentine flask or a lens.  Clear glass does not seem to
+have interested him.  The metal worker made weapons and jewellery
+but he never made a chemical balance.  The philosopher speculated
+loftily about atoms and the nature of things, but he had no
+practical experience of enamels and pigments and philters and so
+forth.  He was not interested in substances.  So Alexandria in its
+brief day of opportunity produced no microscopes and no
+chemistry.  And though Hero invented a steam engine it was never
+set either to pump or drive a boat or do any useful thing.  There
+were few practical applications of science except in the realm of
+medicine, and the progress of science was not stimulated and
+sustained by the interest and excitement of practical
+applications.  There was nothing to keep the work going therefore
+when the intellectual curiosity of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II {153}
+was withdrawn.  The discoveries of the Museum went on record in
+obscure manuscripts and never, until the revival of scientific
+curiosity at the Renascence, reached out to the mass of mankind.
+
+[Illustration: STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME]
+
+Nor did the Library produce any improvements in book making.  That
+ancient world had no paper made in definite sizes from rag pulp.
+Paper was a Chinese invention and it did not reach the western
+world until the ninth century A.D.  The only book materials were
+parchment and strips of the papyrus reed joined edge to edge.
+These strips were kept on rolls which were very unwieldy to wind
+to and fro and read, and very inconvenient for reference.  It was
+these things that prevented the development of paged and printed
+books.  Printing itself was known in the world it would seem as
+early as the Old Stone Age; there were seals in ancient Sumeria;
+but without abundant paper there was little advantage in printing
+books, an improvement that may further have been resisted by
+trades unionism on the part of the copyists employed.  Alexandria
+produced abundant books but not cheap books, and it never spread
+knowledge into the population of the ancient world below the level
+of a wealthy and influential class.
+
+So it was that this blaze of intellectual enterprise never reached
+beyond a small circle of people in touch with the group of
+philosophers collected by the first two Ptolemies.  It was like
+the light in a dark lantern which is shut off from the world at
+large.  Within the blaze may be blindingly bright, but
+nevertheless it is unseen.  The rest of the world went on its old
+ways unaware that the seed of scientific knowledge that was one
+day to revolutionize it altogether had been sown.  Presently a
+darkness of bigotry fell even upon {154} Alexandria. Thereafter
+for a thousand years of darkness the seed that Aristotle had sown
+lay hidden.  Then it stirred and began to germinate.  In a few
+centuries it had become that widespread growth of knowledge and
+clear ideas that is now changing the whole of human life.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEATH OF BUDDHA]
+
+Alexandria was not the only centre of Greek intellectual activity
+in the third century B.C.  There were many other cities that
+displayed a brilliant intellectual life amidst the disintegrating
+fragments of the brief empire of Alexander.  There was, for
+example, the Greek city of Syracuse in Sicily, where thought and
+science flourished for two centuries; there was Pergamum in Asia
+Minor, which also had a great library.  But this brilliant
+Hellenic world was now stricken by invasion from the north.  New
+Nordic barbarians, the Gauls, were striking down along the tracks
+that had once been followed by the ancestors of the Greeks and
+Phrygians and Macedonians.  They raided, shattered and destroyed.
+And in the wake of the Gauls came a new conquering people out of
+Italy, the Romans, who gradually subjugated all the western half
+of the vast realm of Darius and Alexander.  They were an able but
+unimaginative people, preferring law and profit to either science
+or art.  {155} New invaders were also coming down out of central
+Asia to shatter and subdue the Seleucid empire and to cut off the
+western world again from India.  These were the Parthians, hosts
+of mounted bowmen, who treated the Gr�co-Persian empire of
+Persepolis and Susa in the third century B.C. in much the same
+fashion that the Medes and Persians had treated it in the seventh
+and sixth.  And there were now other nomadic peoples also coming
+out of the northeast, peoples who were not fair and Nordic and
+Aryan-speaking but yellow-skinned and black-haired and with a
+Mongolian speech.  But of these latter people we shall tell more
+in a subsequent chapter.
+
+
+
+
+{156}
+
+XXVIII
+
+THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA
+
+
+But now we must go back three centuries in our story to tell of a
+great teacher who came near to revolutionizing the religious
+thought and feeling of all Asia.  This was Gautama Buddha, who
+taught his disciples at Benares in India about the same time that
+Isaiah was prophesying among the Jews in Babylon and Heraclitus
+was carrying on his speculative enquiries into the nature of
+things at Ephesus.  All these men were in the world at the same
+time, in the sixth century B.C.--unaware of one another.
+
+This sixth century B.C. was indeed one of the most remarkable in
+all history.  Everywhere--for as we shall tell it was also the
+case in China--men's minds were displaying a new boldness.
+Everywhere they were waking up out of the traditions of kingships
+and priests and blood sacrifices and asking the most penetrating
+questions.  It is as if the race had reached a stage of
+adolescence--after a childhood of twenty thousand years.
+
+The early history of India is still very obscure.  Somewhen
+perhaps about 2000 B.C., an Aryan-speaking people came down from
+the north-west into India either in one invasion or in a series of
+invasions; and was able to spread its language and traditions over
+most of north India.  Its peculiar variety of Aryan speech was the
+Sanskrit.  They found a brunette people with a more elaborate
+civilization and less vigour of will, in possession of the country
+of the Indus and Ganges.  But they do not seem to have mingled
+with their predecessors as freely as did the Greeks and Persians.
+They remained aloof.  When the past of India becomes dimly visible
+to the historian, Indian society is already stratified into
+several layers, with a variable number of
+sub-divisions, which do not eat together nor intermarry nor
+associate freely.  And throughout history this {157}
+stratification into castes continues.  This makes the Indian
+population something different from the simple, freely
+inter-breeding European or Mongolian communities.  It is really a
+community of communities.
+
+Siddhattha Gautama was the son of an aristocratic family which
+ruled a small district on the Himalayan slopes.  He was married at
+nineteen to a beautiful cousin.  He hunted and played and went
+about in his sunny world of gardens and groves and irrigated
+rice-fields.  And it was amidst this life that a great discontent
+fell upon him.  It was the unhappiness of a fine brain that seeks
+employment.  He felt that the existence he was leading was not the
+reality of life, but a holiday--a holiday that had gone on too
+long.
+
+The sense of disease and mortality, the insecurity and the
+un-satisfactoriness of all happiness, descended upon the mind of
+Gautama.  While he was in this mood he met one of those wandering
+ascetics who already existed in great numbers in India.  These men
+lived under severe rules, spending much time in meditation and in
+religious discussion.  They were supposed to be seeking some
+deeper reality in life, and a passionate desire to do likewise
+took possession of Gautama.
+
+He was meditating upon this project, says the story, when the news
+was brought to him that his wife had been delivered of his
+first-born son. "This is another tie to break," said Gautama.
+
+He returned to the village amidst the rejoicings of his fellow
+clansmen.  There was a great feast and a Nautch dance to celebrate
+the birth of this new tie, and in the night Gautama awoke in a
+great agony of spirit, "like a man who is told that his house is
+on fire."  He resolved to leave his happy aimless life forthwith.
+He went softly to the threshold of his wife's chamber, and saw her
+by the light of a little oil lamp, sleeping sweetly, surrounded by
+flowers, with his infant son in her arms.  He felt a great craving
+to take up the child in one first and last embrace before he
+departed, but the fear of waking his wife prevented him, and at
+last he turned away and went out into the bright Indian moonshine
+and mounted his horse and rode off into the world.
+
+{158}
+
+[Illustration: TIBETAN BUDDHA]
+
+Very far he rode that night, and in the morning he stopped outside
+{159} the lands of his clan, and dismounted beside a sandy river.
+There he cut off his flowing locks with his sword, removed all his
+ornaments and sent them and his horse and sword back to his house.
+Going on he presently met a ragged man and exchanged clothes with
+him, and so having divested himself of all worldly entanglements
+he was free to pursue his search after wisdom.  He made his way
+southward to a resort of hermits and teachers in a hilly spur of
+the Vindhya Mountains.  There lived a number of wise men in a
+warren of caves, going into the town for their simple supplies and
+imparting their knowledge by word of mouth to such as cared to
+come to them.  Gautama became versed in all the metaphysics of his
+age.  But his acute intelligence was dissatisfied with the
+solutions offered him.
+
+[Illustration: A BURMESE BUDDHA]
+
+The Indian mind has always been disposed to believe that power and
+knowledge may be obtained by extreme asceticism, by fasting,
+sleeplessness, and self-torment, and these ideas Gautama now put
+to the test.  He betook himself with five disciple companions to
+the jungle and there he gave himself up to fasting and terrible
+penances.  His fame spread, "like the sound of a great {160} bell
+hung in the canopy of the skies."  But it brought him no sense of
+truth achieved.  One day he was walking up and down, trying to
+think in spite of his enfeebled state.  Suddenly he fell
+unconscious.  When he recovered, the preposterousness of these
+semi-magical ways to wisdom was plain to him.
+
+[Illustration: THE DHAM�KH TOWER]
+
+He horrified his companions by demanding ordinary food and
+refusing to continue his mortifications.  He had realized that
+whatever truth a man may reach is reached best by a nourished
+brain in a healthy body.  Such a conception was absolutely foreign
+to the ideas of the land and age.  His disciples deserted him, and
+went off in a melancholy state to Benares.  Gautama wandered
+alone.
+
+When the mind grapples with a great and intricate problem, it
+makes its advances step by step, with but little realization of
+the gains it has made, until suddenly, with an effect of abrupt
+illumination, it realizes its victory.  So it happened to Gautama.
+He had seated himself under a great tree by the side of a river to
+eat, when this sense of clear vision came to him.  It seemed to
+him that he saw life plain.  He is said to have sat all day and
+all night in profound thought, and then he rose up to impart his
+vision to the world.
+
+He went on to Benares and there he sought out and won back his
+lost disciples to his new teaching.  In the King's Deer Park at
+Benares they built themselves huts and set up a sort of school to
+which came many who were seeking after wisdom.
+
+The starting point of his teaching was his own question as a
+fortunate {161} young man, "Why am I not completely happy?"  It
+was an introspective question.  It was a question very different
+in quality from the frank and self-forgetful _externalized_
+curiosity with which Thales and Heraclitus were attacking the
+problems of the universe, or the equally self-forgetful burthen of
+moral obligation that the culminating prophets were imposing upon
+the Hebrew mind.  The Indian teacher did not forget self, he
+concentrated upon self and sought to destroy it.  All suffering,
+he taught, was due to the greedy desires of the individual.  Until
+man has conquered his personal cravings his life is trouble and
+his end sorrow.  There were three principal forms that the craving
+for life took and they were all evil.  The first was the desire of
+the appetites, greed and all forms of sensuousness, the second was
+the desire for a personal and egotistic immortality, the third was
+the craving for personal success, worldliness, avarice and the
+like.  All these forms of desire had to be overcome to escape from
+the distresses and chagrins of life.  When they were overcome,
+when self had vanished altogether, then serenity of soul, Nirvana,
+the highest good was attained.
+
+This was the gist of his teaching, a very subtle and metaphysical
+teaching indeed, not nearly so easy to understand as the Greek
+injunction to see and know fearlessly and rightly and the Hebrew
+command to fear God and accomplish righteousness.  It was a
+teaching much beyond the understanding of even Gautama's immediate
+disciples, and it is no wonder that so soon as his personal
+influence was withdrawn it became corrupted and coarsened.  There
+was a widespread belief in India at that time that at long
+intervals Wisdom came to earth and was incarnate in some chosen
+person who was known as the Buddha.  Gautama's disciples declared
+that he was a Buddha, the latest of the Buddhas, though there is
+no evidence that he himself ever accepted the title.  Before he
+was well dead, a cycle of fantastic legends began to be woven
+about him.  The human heart has always preferred a wonder story to
+a moral effort, and Gautama Buddha became very wonderful.
+
+Yet there remained a substantial gain in the world.  If Nirvana
+was too high and subtle for most men's imaginations, if the
+myth-making impulse in the race was too strong for the simple
+facts of Gautama's life, they could at least grasp something of
+the intention {162} of what Gautama called the Eight-fold way, the
+Aryan or Noble Path in life.  In this there was an insistence upon
+mental uprightness, upon right aims and speech, right conduct and
+honest livelihood.  There was a quickening of the conscience and
+an appeal to generous and self-forgetful ends.
+
+
+
+
+{163}
+
+XXIX
+
+KING ASOKA
+
+
+For some generations after the death of Gautama, these high and
+noble Buddhist teachings, this first plain teaching that the
+highest good for man is the subjugation of self, made
+comparatively little headway in the world.  Then they conquered
+the imagination of one of the greatest monarchs the world has ever
+seen.
+
+We have already mentioned how Alexander the Great came down into
+India and fought with Porus upon the Indus.  It is related by the
+Greek historians that a certain Chandragupta Maurya came into
+Alexander's camp and tried to persuade him to go on to the Ganges
+and conquer all India.  Alexander could not do this because of the
+refusal of his Macedonians to go further into what was for them an
+unknown world, and later on (303 B.C.) Chandragupta was able to
+secure the help or various hill tribes and realize his dream
+without Greek help.  He built up an empire in North India and was
+presently (303 B.C.) able to attack Seleucus I in the Punjab and
+drive the last vestige of Greek power out of India.  His son
+extended this new empire.  His grandson, Asoka, the monarch of
+whom we now have to tell, found himself in 264 B.C. ruling from
+Afghanistan to Madras.
+
+Asoka was at first disposed to follow the example of his father
+and grandfather and complete the conquest of the Indian peninsula.
+He invaded Kalinga (255 B.C.), a country on the east coast of
+Madras, he was successful in his military operations and--alone
+among conquerors--he was so disgusted by the cruelty and horror of
+war that he renounced it.  He would have no more of it.  He
+adopted the peaceful doctrines of Buddhism and declared that
+henceforth his conquests should be the conquests of religion.
+
+{164}
+
+[Illustration: A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty)]
+
+His reign for eight-and-twenty years was one of the brightest
+interludes in the troubled history of mankind.  He organized a
+great digging of wells in India and the planting of trees for
+shade.  He founded hospitals and public gardens and gardens for
+the growing of medicinal herbs.  He created a ministry for the
+care of the aborigines and subject races of India.  He made
+provision for the education of women.  He made vast benefactions
+to the Buddhist teaching orders, and tried to stimulate them to a
+better and more energetic criticism of their own accumulated
+literature.  For corruptions and superstitious accretions had
+accumulated very {165} speedily upon the pure and simple teaching
+of the great Indian master.  Missionaries went from Asoka to
+Kashmir, to Persia, to Ceylon and Alexandria.
+
+[Illustration: TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA]
+
+[Illustration: ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUT]
+
+Such was Asoka, greatest of kings.  He was far in advance of his
+age.  He left no prince and no organization of men to carry on his
+work, and within a century of his death the great days of his
+reign had become a glorious memory in a shattered and decaying
+India.  The priestly caste of the Brahmins, the highest and most
+privileged caste in the Indian social body, has always been
+opposed to the frank and open teaching of Buddha.  Gradually they
+undermined the Buddhist influence in the land.  The old monstrous
+gods, the innumerable cults of Hinduism, resumed their sway.
+Caste became {166} more rigorous and complicated.  For long
+centuries Buddhism and Brahminism flourished side by side, and
+then slowly Buddhism decayed and Brahminism in a multitude of
+forms replaced it.  But beyond the confines of India and the
+realms of caste Buddhism spread--until it had won China and Siam
+and Burma and Japan, countries in which it is predominant to this
+day.
+
+[Illustration: THE PILLAR OF LIONS]
+
+
+
+
+{167}
+
+XXX
+
+CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE
+
+
+We have still to tell of two other great men, Confucius and Lao
+Tse, who lived in that wonderful century which began the
+adolescence of mankind, the sixth century B.C.  In this history
+thus far we have told very little of the early story of China.  At
+present that early history is still very obscure, and we look to
+Chinese explorers and arch�olologists in the new China that is now
+arising to work out their past as thoroughly as the European past
+has been worked out during the last century.  Very long ago the
+first primitive Chinese civilizations arose in the great river
+valleys out of the primordial heliolithic culture.  They had, like
+Egypt and Sumeria, the general characteristics of that culture,
+and they centred upon temples in which priests and priest kings
+offered the seasonal blood sacrifices.  The life in those cities
+must have been very like the Egyptian and Sumerian life of six or
+seven thousand years ago and very like the Maya life of Central
+America a thousand years ago.
+
+If there were human sacrifices they had long given way to animal
+sacrifices before the dawn of history.  And a form of picture
+writing was growing up long before a thousand years B.C.
+
+And just as the primitive civilizations of Europe and western Asia
+were in conflict with the nomads of the desert and the nomads of
+the north, so the primitive Chinese civilizations had a great
+cloud of nomadic peoples on their northern borders.  There was a
+number of tribes akin in language and ways of living, who are
+spoken of in history in succession as the Huns, the Mongols, the
+Turks and Tartars.  They changed and divided and combined and
+re-combined, just as the Nordic peoples in north Europe and central
+Asia changed and varied in name rather than in nature.  These
+Mongolian nomads had horses earlier than the Nordic peoples, and
+it may {168} be that in the region of the Altai Mountains they
+made an independent discovery of iron somewhen after 1000 B.C.
+And just as in the western case so ever and again these eastern
+nomads would achieve a sort of political unity, and become the
+conquerors and masters and revivers of this or that settled and
+civilized region.
+
+It is quite possible that the earliest civilization of China was
+not Mongolian at all any more than the earliest civilization of
+Europe and western Asia was Nordic or Semitic.  It is quite
+possible that the earliest civilization of China was a brunette
+civilization and of a piece with the earliest Egyptian, Sumerian
+and Dravidian civilizations, and that when the first recorded
+history of China began there had already been conquests and
+intermixture.  At any rate we find that by 1750 B.C. China was
+already a vast system of little kingdoms and city states, all
+acknowledging a loose allegiance and paying more or less
+regularly, more or less definite feudal dues to one great priest
+emperor, the "Son of Heaven."  The "Shang" dynasty came to an end
+in 1125 B.C.  A "Chow" dynasty succeeded "Shang," and maintained
+China in a relaxing unity until the days of Asoka in India and of
+the Ptolemies in Egypt.  Gradually China went to pieces during
+that long "Chow" period.  Hunnish peoples came down and set up
+principalities; local rulers discontinued their tribute and became
+independent.  There was in the sixth century B.C., says one
+Chinese authority, five or six thousand practically independent
+states in China.  It was what the Chinese call in their records an
+"Age of Confusion."
+
+But this Age of Confusion was compatible with much intellectual
+activity and with the existence of many local centres of art and
+civilized living.  When we know more of Chinese history we shall
+find that China also had her Miletus and her Athens, her Pergamum
+and her Macedonia.  At present we must be vague and brief about
+this period of Chinese division simply because our knowledge is
+not sufficient for us to frame a coherent and consecutive story.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{169}
+
+[Illustration: CONFUCIUS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+And just as in divided Greece there were philosophers and in
+shattered and captive Jewry prophets, so in disordered China there
+were philosophers and teachers at this time.  In all these cases
+{170} insecurity and uncertainty seemed to have quickened the
+better sort of mind.  Confucius was a man of aristocratic origin
+and some official importance in a small state called Lu.  Here in
+a very parallel mood to the Greek impulse he set up a sort of
+Academy for discovering and teaching Wisdom.  The lawlessness and
+disorder of China distressed him profoundly.  He conceived an
+ideal of a better government and a better life, and travelled from
+state to state seeking a prince who would carry out his
+legislative and educational ideas.  He never found his prince; he
+found a prince, but court intrigues undermined the influence of
+the teacher and finally defeated his reforming proposals.  It is
+interesting to note that a century and a half later the Greek
+philosopher Plato also sought a prince, and was for a time adviser
+to the tyrant Dionysius who ruled Syracuse in Sicily.
+
+Confucius died a disappointed man.  "No intelligent ruler arises
+to take me as his master," he said, "and my time has come to die."
+But his teaching had more vitality than he imagined in his
+declining and hopeless years, and it became a great formative
+influence with the Chinese people.  It became one of what the
+Chinese call the Three Teachings, the other two being those of
+Buddha and of Lao Tse.
+
+The gist of the teaching of Confucius was the way of the noble or
+aristocratic man.  He was concerned with personal conduct as much
+as Gautama was concerned with the peace of self-forgetfulness and
+the Greek with external knowledge and the Jew with righteousness.
+He was the most public-minded of all great teachers.  He was
+supremely concerned by the confusion and miseries of the world,
+and he wanted to make men noble in order to bring about a noble
+world.  He sought to regulate conduct to an extraordinary extent;
+to provide sound rules for every occasion in life.  A polite,
+public-spirited gentleman, rather sternly self-disciplined, was
+the ideal he found already developing in the northern Chinese
+world and one to which he gave a permanent form.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{171}
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA]
+
+====================================================================
+The teaching of Lao Tse, who was for a long time in charge of the
+imperial library of the Chow dynasty, was much more mystical and
+vague and elusive than that of Confucius.  He seems to have
+preached a stoical indifference to the pleasures and powers of
+{172} the world and a return to an imaginary simple life of the
+past.  He left writings very contracted in style and very obscure.
+He wrote in riddles.  After his death his teachings, like the
+teachings of Gautama Buddha, were corrupted and overlaid by
+legends and had the most complex and extraordinary observances and
+superstitious ideas grafted upon them.  In China just as in India
+primordial ideas of magic and monstrous legends out of the
+childish past of our race struggled against the new thinking in
+the world and succeeded in plastering it over with grotesque,
+irrational and antiquated observances.  Both Buddhism and Taoism
+(which ascribes itself largely to Lao Tse) as one finds them in
+China now, are religions of monk, temple, priest and offering of a
+type as ancient in form, if not in thought, as the sacrificial
+religions of ancient Sumeria and Egypt.  But the teaching {173} of
+Confucius was not so overlaid because it was limited and plain and
+straightforward and lent itself to no such distortions.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL]
+
+North China, the China of the Hwang-ho River, became Confucian in
+thought and spirit; south China, Yang-tse-Kiang China, became
+Taoist.  Since those days a conflict has always been traceable in
+Chinese affairs between these two spirits, the spirit of the north
+and the spirit of the south, between (in latter times) Pekin and
+Nankin, between the official-minded, upright and conservative
+north, and the sceptical, artistic, lax and experimental south.
+
+The divisions of China of the Age of Confusion reached their worst
+stage in the sixth century B.C.  The Chow dynasty was so enfeebled
+and so discredited that Lao Tse left the unhappy court and retired
+into private life.
+
+Three nominally subordinate powers dominated the situation in
+those days, Ts'i and Ts'in, both northern powers, and Ch'u, which
+was an aggressive military power in the Yangtse valley.  At last
+Ts'i and Ts'in formed an alliance, subdued Ch'u and imposed a
+general treaty of disarmament and peace in China.  The power of
+Ts'in became predominant.  Finally about the time of Asoka in
+India the Ts'in monarch seized upon the sacrificial vessels of the
+Chow emperor and took over his sacrificial duties.  His son,
+Shi-Hwang-ti (king in 246 B.C., emperor in 220 B.C.), is called in
+the Chinese Chronicles "the First Universal Emperor."
+
+More fortunate than Alexander, Shi-Hwang-ti reigned for
+thirty-six years as king and emperor.  His energetic reign marks
+the beginning of a new era of unity and prosperity for the Chinese
+people.  He fought vigorously against the Hunnish invaders from
+the northern deserts, and he began that immense work, the Great
+Wall of China, to set a limit to their incursions.
+
+
+
+
+{174}
+
+XXXI
+
+ROME COMES INTO HISTORY
+
+
+The reader will note a general similarity in the history of all
+these civilizations in spite of the effectual separation caused by
+the great barriers of the Indian north-west frontier and of the
+mountain masses of Central Asia and further India.  First for
+thousands of years the heliolithic culture spread over all the
+warm and fertile river valleys of the old world and developed a
+temple system and priest rulers about its sacrificial traditions.
+Apparently its first makers were always those brunette peoples we
+have spoken of as the central race of mankind.  Then the nomads
+came in from the regions of seasonal grass and seasonal migrations
+and superposed their own characteristics and often their own
+language on the primitive civilization.  They subjugated and
+stimulated it, and were stimulated to fresh developments and made
+it here one thing and here another.  In Mesopotamia it was the
+Elamite and then the Semite, and at last the Nordic Medes and
+Persians and the Greeks who supplied the ferment; over the region
+of the �gean peoples it was the Greeks; in India it was the
+Aryan-speakers; in Egypt there was a thinner infusion of conquerors
+into a more intensely saturated priestly civilization; in China,
+the Hun conquered and was absorbed and was followed by fresh Huns.
+China was Mongolized just as Greece and North India were Aryanized
+and Mesopotamia Semitized and Aryanized.  Everywhere the nomads
+destroyed much, but everywhere they brought in a new spirit of
+free enquiry and moral innovation.  They questioned the beliefs of
+immemorial ages.  They let daylight into the temples.  They set up
+kings who were neither priests nor gods but mere leaders among
+their captains and companions.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{175}
+
+[Illustration: THE DYING GAUL]
+
+====================================================================
+
+In the centuries following the sixth century B.C. we find
+everywhere a great breaking down of ancient traditions and a new
+spirit {176} of moral and intellectual enquiry awake, a spirit
+never more to be altogether stilled in the great progressive
+movement of mankind.  We find reading and writing becoming common
+and accessible accomplishments among the ruling and prosperous
+minority; they were no longer the jealously guarded secret of the
+priests.  Travel is increasing and transport growing easier by
+reason of horses and roads.  A new and easy device to facilitate
+trade has been found in coined money.
+
+Let us now transfer our attention back from China in the extreme
+east of the old world to the western half of the Mediterranean.
+Here we have to note the appearance of a city which was destined
+to play at last a very great part indeed in human affairs, Rome.
+
+Hitherto we have told very little about Italy in our story.  It
+was before 1000 B.C. a land of mountain and forest and thinly
+populated.  Aryan-speaking tribes had pressed down this peninsula
+and formed little towns and cities, and the southern extremity was
+studded with Greek settlements.  The noble ruins of P�stum
+preserve for us to this day something of the dignity and splendour
+of these early Greek establishments.  A non-Aryan people, probably
+akin to the �gean peoples, the Etruscans, had established
+themselves in the central part of the peninsula.  They had
+reversed the usual process by subjugating various Aryan tribes.
+Rome, when it comes into the light of history, is a little trading
+city at a ford on the Tiber, with a Latin-speaking population
+ruled over by Etruscan kings.  The old chronologies gave 753 B.C.
+as the date of the founding of Rome, half a century later than the
+founding of the great Phoenician city of Carthage and twenty-three
+years after the first Olympiad.  Etruscan tombs of a much earlier
+date than 753 B.C. have, however, been excavated in the Roman
+Forum.
+
+In that red-letter century, the sixth century B.C., the Etruscan
+kings were expelled (510 B.C.) and Rome became an aristocratic
+republic with a lordly class of "patrician" families dominating a
+commonalty of "plebeians."  Except that it spoke Latin it was not
+unlike many aristocratic Greek republics.
+
+For some centuries the internal history of Rome was the story of a
+long and obstinate struggle for freedom and a share in the
+government on the part of the plebeians.  It would not be
+difficult to find {177} Greek parallels to this conflict, which
+the Greeks would have called a conflict of aristocracy with
+democracy.  In the end the plebeians broke down most of the
+exclusive barriers of the old families and established a working
+equality with them.  They destroyed the old exclusiveness, and
+made it possible and acceptable for Rome to extend her citizenship
+by the inclusion of more and more "outsiders."  For while she
+still struggled at home, she was extending her power abroad.
+
+[Illustration: REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE]
+
+The extension of Roman power began in the fifth century B.C.
+Until that time they had waged war, and generally unsuccessful
+war, with the Etruscans.  There was an Etruscan fort, Veii, only a
+few miles from Rome which the Romans had never been able to
+capture.  In 474 B.C., however, a great misfortune came to the
+Etruscans.  Their fleet was destroyed by the Greeks of Syracuse in
+Sicily.  {178} At the same time a wave of Nordic invaders came
+down upon them from the north, the Gauls.  Caught between Roman
+and Gaul, the Etruscans fell--and disappear from history.  Veii
+was captured by the Romans, The Gauls came through to Rome and
+sacked the city (390 B.C.) but could not capture the Capitol.  An
+attempted night surprise was betrayed by the cackling of some
+geese, and finally the invaders were bought off and retired to the
+north of Italy again.
+
+The Gaulish raid seems to have invigorated rather than weakened
+Rome.  The Romans conquered and assimilated the Etruscans, and
+extended their power over all central Italy from the Arno to
+Naples.  To this they had reached within a few years of 300 B.C.
+Their conquests in Italy were going on simultaneously with the
+growth of Philip's power in Macedonia and Greece, and the
+tremendous raid of Alexander to Egypt and the Indus.  The Romans
+had become notable people in the civilized world to the east of
+them by the break-up of Alexander's empire.
+
+To the north of the Roman power were the Gauls; to the south of
+them were the Greek settlements of Magna Gr�cia, that is to say of
+Sicily and of the toe and heel of Italy.  The Gauls were a hardy,
+warlike people and the Romans held that boundary by a line of
+forts and fortified settlements.  The Greek cities in the south
+headed by Tarentum (now Taranto) and by Syracuse in Sicily, did
+not so much threaten as fear the Romans.  They looked about for
+some help against these new conquerors.
+
+We have already told how the empire of Alexander fell to pieces
+and was divided among his generals and companions.  Among these
+adventurers was a kinsman of Alexander's named Pyrrhus, who
+established himself in Epirus, which is across the Adriatic Sea
+over against the heel of Italy.  It was his ambition to play the
+part of Philip of Macedonia to Magna Gr�cia, and to become
+protector and master-general of Tarentum, Syracuse and the rest of
+that part of the world.  He had what was then it very efficient
+modern army; he had an infantry phalanx, cavalry from
+Thessaly--which was now quite as good as the original Macedonian
+cavalry--and twenty fighting elephants; he invaded Italy and routed
+the Romans in two considerable battles, Heraclea (280 B.C.) and
+Ausculum (279 B.C.), and {179} having driven them north, he turned
+his attention to the subjugation of Sicily.
+
+But this brought against him a more formidable enemy than were the
+Romans at that time, the Phoenician trading city of Carthage,
+which was probably then the greatest city in the world.  Sicily
+was too near Carthage for a new Alexander to be welcome there, and
+Carthage was mindful of the fate that had befallen her mother city
+Tyre half a century before.  So she sent a fleet to encourage or
+compel Rome to continue the struggle, and she cut the overseas
+communications of Pyrrhus.  Pyrrhus found himself freshly assailed
+by the Romans, and suffered a disastrous repulse in an attack he
+had made upon their camp at Beneventum between Naples and Rome.
+
+And suddenly came news that recalled him to Epirus.  The Gauls
+were raiding south.  But this time they were not raiding down into
+Italy; the Roman frontier, fortified and guarded, had become too
+formidable for them.  They were raiding down through Illyria
+(which is now Serbia and Albania) to Macedonia and Epirus.
+Repulsed by the Romans, endangered at sea by the Carthaginians,
+and threatened at home by the Gauls, Pyrrhus abandoned his dream
+of conquest and went home (275 B.C.), and the power of Rome was
+extended to the Straits of Messina.
+
+On the Sicilian side of the Straits was the Greek city of Messina,
+and this presently fell into the hands of a gang of pirates.  The
+Carthaginians, who were already practically overlords of Sicily
+and allies of Syracuse, suppressed these pirates (270 B.C.) and
+put in a Carthaginian garrison there.  The pirates appealed to
+Rome and Rome listened to their complaint.  And so across the
+Straits of Messina the great trading power of Carthage and this
+new conquering people, the Romans, found themselves in antagonism,
+face to face.
+
+
+
+
+{180}
+
+XXXII
+
+ROME AND CARTHAGE
+
+
+It was in 264 B.C. that the great struggle between Rome and
+Carthage, the Punic Wars, began.  In that year Asoka was beginning
+his reign in Behar and Shi-Hwang-ti was a little child, the Museum
+in Alexandria was still doing good scientific work, and the
+barbaric Gauls were now in Asia Minor and exacting a tribute from
+Pergamum.  The different regions of the world were still separated
+by insurmountable distances, and probably the rest of mankind
+heard only vague and remote rumours of the mortal fight that went
+on for a century and a half in Spain, Italy, North Africa and the
+western Mediterranean, between the last stronghold of Semitic
+power and Rome, this newcomer among
+Aryan-speaking peoples.
+
+That war has left its traces upon issues that still stir the
+world.  Rome triumphed over Carthage, but the rivalry of Aryan and
+Semite was to merge itself later on in the conflict of Gentile and
+Jew.  Our history now is coming to events whose consequences and
+distorted traditions still maintain a lingering and expiring
+vitality in, and exercise a complicating and confusing influence
+upon, the conflicts and controversies of
+to-day.
+
+The First Punic War began in 264 B.C. about the pirates of
+Messina.  It developed into a struggle for the possession of all
+Sicily except the dominions of the Greek king of Syracuse.  The
+advantage of the sea was at first with the Carthaginians.  They
+had great fighting ships of what was hitherto an unheard-of size,
+quinqueremes, galleys with five banks of oars and a huge ram.  At
+the battle of Salamis, two centuries before, the leading
+battleships had only been triremes with three banks.  But the
+Romans, with extraordinary energy and in spite of the fact that
+they had little naval experience, set themselves to outbuild the
+Carthaginians.  They manned the new navy they created chiefly with
+Greek seamen, and they invented {181} grappling and boarding to
+make up for the superior seamanship of the enemy.  When the
+Carthaginian came up to ram or shear the oars of the Roman, huge
+grappling irons seized him and the Roman soldiers swarmed aboard
+him.  At Myl� (260 B.C.) and at Ecnomus (256 B.C.) the
+Carthaginians were disastrously beaten.  They repulsed a Roman
+landing near Carthage but were badly beaten at Palermo, losing one
+hundred and four elephants there--to grace such a triumphal
+procession through the Forum as Rome had never seen before.  But
+after that came two Roman defeats and then a Roman recovery.  The
+last naval forces of Carthage were defeated {182} by it last Roman
+effort at the battle of the �gatian Isles (241 B.C.) and Carthage
+sued for peace.  All Sicily except the dominions of Hiero, king of
+Syracuse, was ceded to the Romans.
+
+[Illustration: HANNIBAL]
+
+For twenty-two years Rome and Carthage kept the peace.  Both had
+trouble enough at home.  In Italy the Gauls came south again,
+threatened Rome--which in a state of panic offered human
+_sacrifices to the Gods!_--and were routed at Telamon.  Rome
+pushed forward to the Alps, and even extended her dominions down
+the Adriatic coast to Illyria.  Carthage suffered from domestic
+insurrections and from revolts in Corsica and Sardinia, and
+displayed far less recuperative power.  Finally, an act of
+intolerable aggression, Rome seized and annexed the two revolting
+islands.
+
+Spain at that time was Carthaginian as far north as the river
+Ebro.  To that boundary the Romans restricted them.  Any crossing
+of the Ebro by the Carthaginians was to be considered an act of
+war against the Romans.  At last in 218 B.C. the Carthaginians,
+provoked by new Roman aggressions, did cross this river under a
+young general named Hannibal, one of the most brilliant commanders
+in the whole of history.  He marched his army from Spain over the
+Alps into Italy, raised the Gauls against the Romans, and carried
+on the Second Punic War in Italy itself for fifteen years.  He
+inflicted tremendous defeats upon the Romans at Lake Trasimere and
+at Cann�, and throughout all his Italian campaigns no Roman army
+stood against him and escaped disaster.  But a Roman army had
+landed at Marseilles and cut his communications with Spain; he had
+no siege train, and he could never capture Rome.  Finally the
+Carthaginians, threatened by the revolt of the Numidians at home,
+were forced back upon the defence of their own city in Africa, a
+Roman army crossed into Africa, and Hannibal experienced his first
+defeat under its walls at the battle of Zama (202 B.C.) at the
+hands of Scipio Africanus the Elder.  The battle of Zama ended
+this Second Punic War.  Carthage capitulated; she surrendered
+Spain and her war fleet; she paid an enormous indemnity and agreed
+to give up Hannibal to the vengeance of the Romans.  But Hannibal
+escaped and fled to Asia where later, being in danger of falling
+into the hands of his relentless enemies, he took poison and died.
+
+{183}
+
+For fifty-six years Rome and the shorn city of Carthage were at
+peace.  And meanwhile Rome spread her empire over confused and
+divided Greece, invaded Asia Minor, and defeated Antiochus III,
+the Seleucid monarch, at Magnesia in Lydia.  She made Egypt, still
+under the Ptolemies, and Pergamum and most of the small states of
+Asia Minor into "Allies," or, as we should call them now,
+"protected states."
+
+Meanwhile Carthage, subjugated and enfeebled, had been slowly
+regaining something of her former prosperity.  Her recovery
+revived the hate and suspicion of the Romans.  She was attacked
+upon the most shallow and artificial of quarrels (149 B.C.), she
+made an obstinate and bitter resistance, stood a long siege and
+was stormed (146 B.C.). The street fighting, or massacre, lasted
+six days; it was extraordinarily bloody, and when the citadel
+capitulated only about fifty thousand of the Carthaginian
+population remained alive out of a quarter of a million.  They
+were sold into slavery, and the city was burnt and elaborately
+destroyed.  The blackened ruins were ploughed and sown as a sort
+of ceremonial effacement.
+
+[Map: The Extent of the Roman Power & its Alliances about 150
+B.C.]
+
+So ended the Third Punic War.  Of all the Semitic states and
+cities that had flourished in the world five centuries before only
+one little country remained free under native rulers.  This was
+Judea, which had liberated itself from the Seleucids and was under
+the rule {184} of the native Maccabean princes.  By this time it
+had its Bible almost complete, and was developing the distinctive
+traditions of the Jewish world as we know it now.  It was natural
+that the Carthaginians, Phoenicians and kindred peoples dispersed
+about the world should find a common link in their practically
+identical language and in this literature of hope and courage.  To
+a large extent they were still the traders and bankers of the
+world.  The Semitic world had been submerged rather than replaced.
+
+Jerusalem, which has always been rather the symbol than the centre
+of Judaism, was taken by the Romans in 65 B.C.; and after various
+vicissitudes of quasi-independence and revolt was besieged by them
+in 70 A.D. and captured after a stubborn struggle.  The Temple was
+destroyed.  A later rebellion in 132 A.D. completed its
+destruction, and the Jerusalem we know to-day was rebuilt later
+under Roman auspices.  A temple to the Roman god, Jupiter
+Capitolinus, stood in the place of the Temple, and Jews were
+forbidden to inhabit the city.
+
+
+
+
+{185}
+
+XXXIII
+
+THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+Now this new Roman power which arose to dominate the western world
+in the second and first centuries B.C. was in several respects a
+different thing from any of the great empires that had hitherto
+prevailed in the civilized world.  It was not at first a monarchy,
+and it was not the creation of any one great conqueror.  It was
+not indeed the first of republican empires; Athens had dominated a
+group of Allies and dependents in the time of Pericles, and
+Carthage when she entered upon her fatal struggle with Rome was
+mistress of Sardinia and Corsica, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and
+most of Spain and Sicily.  But it was the first republican empire
+that escaped extinction and went on to fresh developments.
+
+The centre of this new system lay far to the west of the more
+ancient centres of empire, which had hitherto been the river
+valleys of Mesopotamia and Egypt.  This westward position enabled
+Rome to bring in to civilization quite fresh regions and peoples.
+The Roman power extended to Morocco and Spain, and was presently
+able to thrust north-westward over what is now France and Belgium
+to Britain and north-eastward into Hungary and South Russia.  But
+on the other hand it was never able to maintain itself in Central
+Asia or Persia because they were too far from its administrative
+centres.  It included therefore great masses of fresh Nordic
+Aryan-speaking peoples, it presently incorporated nearly all the
+Greek people in the world, and its population was less strongly
+Hamitic and Semitic than that of any preceding empire.
+
+For some centuries this Roman Empire did not fall into the grooves
+of precedent that had so speedily swallowed up Persian and Greek,
+and all that time it developed.  The rulers of the Medes and
+Persians became entirely Babylonized in a generation or so; they
+{186} took over the tiara of the king of kings and the temples and
+priesthoods of his gods; Alexander and his successors followed in
+the same easy path of assimilation; the Seleucid monarchs had much
+the same court and administrative methods as Nebuchadnezzar; the
+Ptolemies became Pharaohs and altogether Egyptian.  They were
+assimilated just as before them the Semitic conquerors of the
+Sumerians had been assimilated.  But the Romans ruled in their own
+city, and for some centuries kept to the laws of their own nature.
+The only people who exercised any great mental influence upon them
+before the second or third century A.D. were the kindred and
+similar Greeks.  So that the Roman Empire was essentially a first
+attempt to rule a great dominion upon mainly Aryan lines.  It was
+so far a new pattern in history, it was an expanded Aryan
+republic.  The old pattern of a personal conqueror ruling over a
+capital city that had grown up round the temple of a harvest god
+did not apply to it.  The Romans had gods and temples, but like
+the gods of the Greeks their gods were quasi-human immortals,
+divine patricians.  The Romans also had blood sacrifices and even
+made human ones in times of stress, things they may have learnt to
+do from their dusky Etruscan teachers; but until Rome was long
+past its zenith neither priest nor temple played a large part in
+Roman history.
+
+The Roman Empire was a growth, an unplanned novel growth; the
+Roman people found themselves engaged almost unawares in a vast
+administrative experiment.  It cannot be called a successful
+experiment.  In the end their empire collapsed altogether.  And it
+changed enormously in form and method from century to century.  It
+changed more in a hundred years than Bengal or Mesopotamia or
+Egypt changed in a thousand.  It was always changing.  It never
+attained to any fixity.
+
+In a sense the experiment failed.  In a sense the experiment
+remains unfinished, and Europe and America to-day are still
+working out the riddles of world-wide statescraft first confronted
+by the Roman people.
+
+It is well for the student of history to bear in mind the very
+great changes not only in political but in social and moral
+matters that went on throughout the period of Roman dominion.
+There is much too strong a tendency in people's minds to think of
+the Roman {187} rule as something finished and stable, firm,
+rounded, noble and decisive.  Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_,
+S.P.Q.R. the elder Cato, the Scipios, Julius C�sar, Diocletian,
+Constantine the Great, triumphs, orations, gladiatorial combats
+and Christian martyrs are all mixed up together in a picture of
+something high and cruel and dignified.  The items of that picture
+have to be disentangled.  They are collected at different points
+from a process of change profounder than that which separates the
+London of William the Conqueror from the London of to-day.
+
+We may very conveniently divide the expansion of Rome into four
+stages.  The first stage began after the sack of Rome by the Goths
+in 390 B.C. and went on until the end of the First Punic War (240
+B.C.).  We may call this stage the stage of the Assimilative
+Republic.  It was perhaps the finest, most characteristic stage in
+Roman history.  The age-long dissensions of patrician and plebeian
+were drawing to it close, the Etruscan threat had come to an end,
+no one was very rich yet nor very poor, and most men were
+public-spirited.  It was a republic like the republic of the
+South African Boers before 1900 or like the northern states of the
+American union between 1800 and 1850; a free-farmers republic.  At
+the outset of this stage Rome was a little state scarcely twenty
+miles square.  She fought the sturdy but kindred states about her,
+and sought not their destruction but coalescence.  Her centuries
+of civil dissension had trained her people in compromise and
+concessions.  Some of the defeated cities became altogether Roman
+with a voting share in the government, some became self-governing
+with the right to trade and marry in Rome; garrisons full of
+citizens were set up at strategic points and colonies of varied
+privileges founded among the freshly conquered people.  Great
+roads were made.  The rapid Latinization of all Italy was the
+inevitable consequence of such a policy.  In 89 B.C. all the free
+inhabitants of Italy became citizens of the city of Rome.
+Formally the whole Roman Empire became at last an extended city.
+In 212 A.D. every free man in the entire extent of the empire was
+given citizenship; the right, if he could get there, to vote in
+the town meeting in Rome.
+
+This extension of citizenship to tractable cities and to whole
+countries was the distinctive device of Roman expansion.  It {188}
+reversed the old process of conquest and assimilation altogether.
+By the Roman method the conquerors assimilated the conquered.
+
+[Illustration: THE FORUM AT ROME AS IT IS TO-DAY]
+
+But after the First Punic War and the annexation of Sicily, though
+the old process of assimilation still went on, another process
+arose by its side.  Sicily for instance was treated as a conquered
+prey.  It was declared an "estate" of the Roman people.  Its rich
+soil and industrious population was exploited to make Rome rich.
+The patricians and the more influential among the plebeians
+secured the major share of that wealth.  And the war also brought
+in a large supply of slaves.  Before the First Punic War the
+population of the republic had been largely a population of
+citizen farmers.  Military service was their privilege and
+liability.  While they were on active service their farms fell
+into debt and a new large-scale slave agriculture grew up; when
+they returned they found their produce in competition with
+slave-grown produce from Sicily and from the new estates at home.
+Times had changed.  The republic had {189} altered its character.
+Not only was Sicily in the hands of Rome, the common man was in
+the hands of the rich creditor and the rich competitor.  Rome had
+entered upon its second stage, the Republic of Adventurous Rich
+Men.
+
+[Illustration: RELICS OF ROMAN RULE]
+
+For two hundred years the Roman soldier farmers had struggled for
+freedom and a share in the government of their state; for a
+hundred years they had enjoyed their privileges.  The First Punic
+War wasted them and robbed them of all they had won.
+
+The value of their electoral privileges had also evaporated.  The
+governing bodies of the Roman republic were two in number.  The
+first and more important was the Senate.  This was a body
+originally of patricians and then of prominent men of all sorts,
+who were summoned to it first by certain powerful officials, the
+consuls and censors.  Like the British House of Lords it became a
+gathering of great landowners, prominent politicians, big business
+men and the {190} like.  It was much more like the British House
+of Lords than it was like the American Senate.  For three
+centuries, from the Punic Wars onward, it was the centre of Roman
+political thought and purpose.  The second body was the Popular
+Assembly.  This was supposed to be an assembly of _all_ the
+citizens of Rome.  When Rome was a little state twenty miles
+square this was a possible gathering.  When the citizenship of
+Rome had spread beyond the confines in Italy, it was an altogether
+impossible one.  Its meetings, proclaimed by
+horn-blowing from the Capitol and the city walls, became more and
+more a gathering of political hacks and city riff-raff.  In the
+fourth century B.C. the Popular Assembly was a considerable check
+upon the Senate, a competent representation of the claims and
+rights of the common man.  By the end of the Punic Wars it was an
+impotent relic of a vanquished popular control.  No effectual
+legal check remained upon the big men.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT ROMAN ARCH AT CTESIPHON NEAR BAGDAD]
+
+Nothing of the nature of representative government was ever
+introduced into the Roman republic.  No one thought of electing
+delegates to represent the will of the citizens.  This is a very
+important point for the student to grasp.  The Popular Assembly
+{191} never became the equivalent of the American House of
+Representatives or the British House of Commons.  In theory it was
+all the citizens; in practice it ceased to be anything at all
+worth consideration.
+
+The common citizen of the Roman Empire was therefore in a very
+poor case after the Second Punic War; he was impoverished, he had
+often lost his farm, he was ousted from profitable production by
+slaves, and he had no political power left to him to remedy these
+things.  The only methods of popular expression left to a people
+without any form of political expression are the strike and the
+revolt.  The story of the second and first centuries B.C., so far
+as internal politics go, is a story of futile revolutionary
+upheaval.  The scale of this history will not permit us to tell of
+the intricate struggles of that time, of the attempts to break up
+estates and restore the land to the free farmer, of proposals to
+abolish debts in whole or in part.  There was revolt and civil
+war.  In 73 B.C., the distresses of Italy were enhanced by a great
+insurrection, of the slaves under Spartacus.  The slaves of Italy
+revolted with some effect, for among them were the trained
+fighters of the gladiatorial shows.  For two years Spartacus held
+out in the crater of Vesuvius, which seemed at that time to be an
+extinct volcano.  This insurrection was defeated at last and
+suppressed with frantic cruelty.  Six thousand captured
+Spartacists were crucified along the Appian Way, the great highway
+that runs southward out of Rome (71 B.C.).
+
+The common man never made head against the forces that were
+subjugating and degrading him.  But the big rich men who were
+overcoming him were even in his defeat preparing a new power in
+the Roman world over themselves and him, the power of the army.
+
+Before the Second Punic War the army of Rome was a levy of free
+farmers, who, according to their quality, rode or marched afoot to
+battle.  This was a very good force for wars close at hand, but
+not the sort of army that will go abroad and bear long campaigns
+with patience.  And moreover as the slaves multiplied and the
+estates grew, the supply of free-spirited fighting farmers
+declined.  It was a popular leader named Marius who introduced a
+new factor.  North Africa after the overthrow of the Carthaginian
+civilization had become a semi-barbaric kingdom, the kingdom of
+Numidia.  {192} The Roman power fell into conflict with Jugurtha,
+king of this state, and experienced enormous difficulties in
+subduing him.  Marius was made consul, in a phase of public
+indignation, to end this discreditable war.  This he did by
+raising _paid troops_ and drilling them hard.  Jugurtha was
+brought in chains to Rome (106 B.C.) and Marius, when his time of
+office had expired, held on to his consulship illegally with his
+newly created legions.  There was no power in Rome to restrain
+him.
+
+With Marius began the third phase in the development of the Roman
+power, the Republic of the Military Commanders.  For now began a
+period in which the leaders of the paid legions fought for the
+mastery of the Roman world.  Against Marius was pitted the
+aristocratic Sulla who had served under him in Africa.  Each in
+turn made a great massacre of his political opponents.  Men were
+proscribed and executed by the thousand, and their estates were
+sold.  After the bloody rivalry of these two and the horror of the
+revolt of Spartacus, came a phase in which Lucullus and Pompey the
+Great and Crassus and Julius C�sar were the masters of armies and
+dominated affairs.  It was Crassus who defeated Spartacus.
+Lucullus conquered Asia Minor and penetrated to Armenia, and
+retired with great wealth into private life.  Crassus thrusting
+further invaded Persia and was defeated and slain by the
+Parthians.  After a long rivalry Pompey was defeated by Julius
+C�sar (48 B.C.) and murdered in Egypt, leaving Julius C�sar sole
+master of the Roman world.
+
+The figure of Julius C�sar is one that has stirred the human
+imagination out of all proportion to its merit or true importance.
+He has become a legend and a symbol.  For us he is chiefly
+important as marking the transition from the phase of military
+adventurers to the beginning of the fourth stage in Roman
+expansion, the Early Empire.  For in spite of the profoundest
+economic and political convulsions, in spite of civil war and
+social degeneration, throughout all this time the boundaries of
+the Roman state crept outward and continued to creep outward to
+their maximum about 100 A.D.  There had been something like an ebb
+during the doubtful phases of the Second Punic War, and again a
+manifest loss of vigour before the reconstruction of the army by
+Marius. The revolt of Spartacus {193} marked a third phase.
+Julius C�sar made his reputation as a military leader in Gaul,
+which is now France and Belgium.  (The chief tribes inhabiting
+this country belonged to the same Celtic people as the Gauls who
+had occupied north Italy for a time, and who had afterwards raided
+into Asia Minor and settled down as the Galatians.)  C�sar drove
+back a German invasion of Gaul and added all that country to the
+empire, and he twice crossed the Straits of Dover into Britain (55
+and 54 B.C.), where however he made no permanent conquest.
+Meanwhile Pompey the Great was consolidating Roman conquests that
+reached in the east to the Caspian Sea.
+
+[Illustration: THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME]
+
+At this time, the middle of the first century B.C., the Roman
+Senate was still the nominal centre of the Roman government,
+appointing consuls and other officials, granting powers and the
+like; and a number of politicians, among whom Cicero was an
+outstanding {194} figure, were struggling to preserve the great
+traditions of republican Rome and to maintain respect for its
+laws.  But the spirit of citizenship had gone from Italy with the
+wasting away of the free farmers; it was a land now of slaves and
+impoverished men with neither the understanding nor the desire for
+freedom.  There was nothing whatever behind these republican
+leaders in the Senate, while behind the great adventurers they
+feared and desired to control were the legions.  Over the heads of
+the Senate Crassus and Pompey and C�sar divided the rule of the
+Empire between them (The First Triumvirate).  When presently
+Crassus was killed at distant Carrh� by the Parthians, Pompey and
+C�sar fell out.  Pompey took up the republican side, and laws were
+passed to bring C�sar to trial for his breaches of law and his
+disobedience to the decrees of the Senate.
+
+It was illegal for a general to bring his troops out of the
+boundary of his command, and the boundary between C�sar's command
+and Italy was the Rubicon.  In 49 B.C. he crossed the Rubicon,
+saying "The die is cast" and marched upon Pompey and Rome.
+
+It had been the custom in Rome in the past, in periods of military
+extremity, to elect a "dictator" with practically unlimited powers
+to rule through the crisis.  After his overthrow of Pompey, C�sar
+was made dictator first for ten years and then (in 45 B.C.) for
+life.  In effect he was made monarch of the empire for life.
+There was talk of a king, a word abhorrent to Rome since the
+expulsion of the Etruscans five centuries before.  C�sar refused
+to be king, but adopted throne and sceptre.  After his defeat of
+Pompey, C�sar had gone on into Egypt and had made love to
+Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, the goddess queen of Egypt.
+She seems to have turned his head very completely.  He had brought
+back to Rome the Egyptian idea of a god-king.  His statue was set
+up in a temple with an inscription "To the Unconquerable God."
+The expiring republicanism of Rome flared up in a last protest,
+and C�sar was stabbed to death in the Senate at the foot of the
+statue of his murdered rival, Pompey the Great.
+
+Thirteen years more of this conflict of ambitious personalities
+followed.  There was a second Triumvirate of Lepidus, Mark Antony
+and Octavian C�sar, the latter the nephew of Julius C�sar.
+Octavian like his uncle took the poorer, hardier western provinces
+{195} where the best legions were recruited.  In 31 B.C., he
+defeated Mark Antony, his only serious rival, at the naval battle
+of Actium, and made himself sole master of the Roman world.  But
+Octavian was a man of different quality altogether from Julius
+C�sar.  He had no foolish craving to be God or King.  He had no
+queen-lover that he wished to dazzle.  He restored freedom to the
+Senate and people of Rome.  He declined to be dictator.  The
+grateful Senate in return gave him the reality instead of the
+forms of power.  He was to be called not King indeed, but
+"Princeps" and "Augustus."  He became Augustus C�sar, the first of
+the Roman emperors (27 B.C. to 14 A.D.).
+
+He was followed by Tiberius C�sar (14 to 37 A.D.) and he by
+others, Caligula, Claudius, Nero and so on up to Trajan (98 A.D.),
+Hadrian (117 A.D.), Antonius Pius (138 A.D.) and Marcus Aurelius
+(161-180 A.D.).  All these emperors were emperors of the legions.
+The soldiers made them, and some the soldiers destroyed.
+Gradually the Senate fades out of Roman-history, and the emperor
+and his administrative officials replace it.  The boundaries of
+the empire crept forward now to their utmost limits.  Most of
+Britain was added to the empire, Transylvania was brought in as a
+new province, Dacia; Trajan crossed the Euphrates.  Hadrian had an
+idea that reminds us at once of what had happened at the other end
+of the old world.  Like Shi-Hwang-ti he built walls against the
+northern barbarians; one across Britain and a palisade between the
+Rhine and the Danube.  He abandoned some of the acquisitions of
+Trajan.
+
+The expansion of the Roman Empire was at an end.
+
+
+
+
+{196}
+
+XXXIV
+
+BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA
+
+
+The second and first centuries B.C. mark a new phase in the
+history of mankind.  Mesopotamia and the eastern Mediterranean are
+no longer the centre of interest.  Both Mesopotamia and Egypt were
+still fertile, populous and fairly prosperous, but they were no
+longer the dominant regions of the world.  Power had drifted to
+the west and to the east.  Two great empires now dominated the
+world, this new Roman Empire and the renascent Empire of China.
+Rome extended its power to the Euphrates, but it was never able to
+get beyond that boundary.  It was too remote.  Beyond the
+Euphrates the former Persian and Indian dominions of the Seleucids
+fell under a number of new masters.  China, now under the Han
+dynasty, which had replaced the Ts'in dynasty at the death of
+Shi-Hwang-ti, had extended its power across Tibet and over the
+high mountain passes of the Pamirs into western Turkestan.  But
+there, too, it reached its extremes.  Beyond was too far.
+
+China at this time was the greatest, best organized and most
+civilized political system in the world.  It was superior in area
+and population to the Roman Empire at its zenith.  It was possible
+then for these two vast systems to flourish in the same world at
+the same time in almost complete ignorance of each other.  The
+means of communication both by sea and land was not yet
+sufficiently developed and organized for them to come to a direct
+clash.
+
+Yet they reacted upon each other in a very remarkable way, and
+their influence upon the fate of the regions that lay between
+them, upon central Asia and India, was profound.  A certain amount
+of trade trickled through, by camel caravans across Persia, for
+example, and by coasting ships by way of India and the Red Sea.
+In 66 B.C. Roman troops under Pompey followed in the footsteps of
+Alexander the Great, and marched up the eastern shores of the
+{197} Caspian Sea.  In 102 A.D. a Chinese expeditionary force
+under Pan Chau reached the Caspian, and sent emissaries to report
+upon the power of Rome.  But many centuries were still to pass
+before definite knowledge and direct intercourse were to link the
+great parallel worlds of Europe and Eastern Asia.
+
+To the north of both these great empires were barbaric
+wildernesses.  What is now Germany was largely forest lands; the
+forests extended far into Russia and made a home for the gigantic
+aurochs, a bull of almost elephantine size.  Then to the north of
+the great mountain masses of Asia stretched a band of deserts,
+steppes and then forests and frozen lands.  In the eastward lap of
+the elevated part of Asia was the great triangle of Manchuria.
+Large parts of these regions, stretching between South Russia and
+Turkestan into Manchuria, were and are regions of exceptional
+climatic insecurity.  Their rainfall has varied greatly in the
+course of a few centuries  They are lands treacherous to man.  For
+years they will carry pasture and sustain cultivation, and then
+will come an age of decline in humidity and a cycle of killing
+droughts.
+
+[Illustration: A CHINESE COVERED JAR OF GREEN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE]
+
+The western part of this barbaric north from the German forests to
+South Russia and Turkestan and from Gothland to the Alps was the
+region of origin of the Nordic peoples and of the Aryan speech.
+The eastern steppes and deserts of Mongolia was the region of
+origin of the Hunnish or Mongolian or Tartar or Turkish
+peoples--for all these several peoples were akin in language, race,
+and way of life.  And as the Nordic peoples seem to have been
+continually overflowing their own borders and pressing south upon
+the developing civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean
+coast, so the Hunnish {198} tribes sent their surplus as
+wanderers, raiders and conquerors into the settled regions of
+China.  Periods of plenty in the north would mean an increase in
+population there; a shortage of grass, a spell of cattle disease,
+would drive the hungry warlike tribesmen south.
+
+[Illustration: VASE OF BRONZE FORM, UNGLAZED STONEWARE]
+
+For a time there were simultaneously two fairly effective Empires
+in the world capable of holding back the barbarians and even
+forcing forward the frontiers of the imperial peace.  The thrust
+of the Han empire from north China into Mongolia was strong and
+continuous.  The Chinese population welled up over the barrier of
+the Great Wall.  Behind the imperial frontier guards came the
+Chinese farmer with horse and plough, ploughing up the grass lands
+and enclosing the winter pasture.  The Hunnish peoples raided and
+murdered the settlers, but the Chinese punitive expeditions were
+too much for them.  The nomads were faced with the choice of
+settling down to the plough and becoming Chinese tax-payers or
+shifting in search of fresh summer pastures.  Some took the former
+course and were absorbed.  Some drifted
+north-eastward and eastward over the mountain passes down into
+western Turkestan.
+
+This westward drive of the Mongolian horsemen was going on from
+200 B.C. onward.  It was producing a westward pressure upon the
+Aryan tribes, and these again were pressing upon the Roman
+frontiers ready to break through directly there was any weakness
+apparent.  The Parthians, who were apparently a Scythian people
+with some Mongolian admixture, came down to the Euphrates by the
+first century B.C.  They fought against Pompey the Great in {199}
+his eastern raid.  They defeated and killed Crassus.  They
+replaced the Seleucid monarchy in Persia by a dynasty of Parthian
+kings, the Arsacid dynasty.
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE VESSEL IN BRONZE, IN FORM OF A GOOSE]
+
+But for a time the line of least resistance for hungry nomads lay
+neither to the west nor the east but through central Asia and then
+south-eastward through the Khyber Pass into India.  It was India
+which received the Mongolian drive in these centuries of Roman and
+Chinese strength.  A series of raiding conquerors poured down
+through the Punjab into the great plains to loot and destroy.  The
+empire of Asoka was broken up, and for a time the history of India
+passes into darkness.  A certain Kushan dynasty founded by the
+"Indo-Scythians"--one of the raiding peoples--ruled for a time
+over North India and maintained a certain order.  These invasions
+went on for several centuries.  For a large part of the fifth
+century A.D. India was afflicted by the Ephthalites or White Huns,
+who levied tribute on the small Indian princes and held India in
+terror.  Every summer these Ephthalites pastured in western
+Turkestan, every autumn they came down through the passes to
+terrorize India.
+
+{200}
+
+In the second century A.D. a great misfortune came upon the Roman
+and Chinese empires that probably weakened the resistance of both
+to barbarian pressure.  This was a pestilence of unexampled
+virulence.  It raged for eleven years in China and disorganized
+the social framework profoundly.  The Han dynasty fell, and a new
+age of division and confusion began from which China did not
+fairly recover until the seventh century A.D. with the coming of
+the great Tang dynasty.
+
+The infection spread through Asia to Europe.  It raged throughout
+the Roman Empire from 164 to 180 A.D.  It evidently weakened the
+Roman imperial fabric very seriously.  We begin to hear of
+depopulation in the Roman provinces after this, and there was a
+marked deterioration in the vigour and efficiency of government.
+At any rate we presently find the frontier no longer invulnerable,
+but giving way first in this place and then in that.  A new Nordic
+people, the Goths, coming originally from Gothland in Sweden, had
+migrated across Russia to the Volga region and the shores of the
+Black Sea and taken to the sea and piracy.  By the end of the
+second century they may have begun to feel the westward thrust of
+the Huns.  In 247 they crossed the Danube in a great land raid,
+and defeated and killed the Emperor Decius in a battle in what is
+now Serbia. In 236 another Germanic people, the Franks, had broken
+bounds upon the lower Rhine, and the Alemanni had poured into
+Alsace.  The legions in Gaul beat back their invaders, but the
+Goths in the Balkan peninsula raided again and again.  The
+province of Dacia vanished from Roman history.
+
+A chill had come to the pride and confidence of Rome.  In 270-275
+Rome, which had been an open and secure city for three centuries,
+was fortified by the Emperor Aurelian.
+
+
+
+
+{201}
+
+XXXV
+
+THE COMMON MAN'S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+Before we tell of how this Roman empire which was built up in the
+two centuries B.C., and which flourished in peace and security
+from the days of Augustus C�sar onward for two centuries, fell
+into disorder and was broken up, it may be as well to devote some
+attention to the life of the ordinary people throughout this great
+realm.  Our history has come down now to within 2000 years of our
+own time; and the life of the civilized people, both under the
+Peace of Rome and the Peace of the Han dynasty, was beginning to
+resemble more and more clearly the life of their civilized
+successors to-day.
+
+In the western world coined money was now in common use; outside
+the priestly world there were many people of independent means who
+were neither officials of the government nor priests; people
+travelled about more freely than they had ever done before, and
+there were high roads and inns for them.  Compared with the past,
+with the time before 500 B.C., life had become much more loose.
+Before that date civilized men had been bound to a district or
+country, had been bound to a tradition and lived within a very
+limited horizon; only the nomads traded and travelled.
+
+But neither the Roman Peace nor the Peace of the Han dynasty meant
+a uniform civilization over the large areas they controlled.
+There were very great local differences and great contrasts and
+inequalities of culture between one district and another, just as
+there are to-day under the British Peace in India.  The Roman
+garrisons and colonies were dotted here and there over this great
+space, worshipping Roman gods and speaking the Latin language; but
+where there had been towns and cities before the coming of the
+Romans, they went on, subordinated indeed but managing their own
+affairs, and, for a time at least, worshipping their own gods in
+their own fashion.  Over Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt and the
+Hellenized East {202} generally, the Latin language never
+prevailed.  Greek ruled there invincibly.  Saul of Tarsus, who
+became the apostle Paul, was a Jew and a Roman citizen; but he
+spoke and wrote Greek and not Hebrew.  Even at the court of the
+Parthian dynasty, which had overthrown the Greek Seleucids in
+Persia, and was quite outside the Roman imperial boundaries, Greek
+was the fashionable language.  In some parts of Spain and in North
+Africa, the Carthaginian language also held on for a long time in
+spite of the destruction of Carthage.  Such a town as Seville, which
+had been a prosperous city long before the Roman name had been heard
+of, kept its Semitic goddess and preserved its Semitic speech for
+generations, in spite of a colony of Roman veterans at Italica a few
+miles away.  Septimius Severus, who was emperor from 193 to 211
+A.D., spoke Carthaginian as his mother speech.  He learnt Latin
+later as a foreign tongue; {203} and it is recorded that his sister
+never learnt Latin and conducted her Roman household in the
+Punic language.
+
+[Illustration: A GLADIATOR]
+
+In such countries as Gaul and Britain and in provinces like Dacia
+(now roughly Roumania) and Pannonia (Hungary south of the Danube),
+where there were no pre-existing great cities and temples and
+cultures, the Roman empire did however "Latinize."  It civilized
+these countries for the first time.  It created cities and towns
+where Latin was from the first the dominant speech, and where
+Roman gods were served and Roman customs and fashions followed.
+The Roumanian, Italian, French and Spanish languages, all
+variations and modifications of Latin, remain to remind us of this
+extension of Latin speech and customs.
+North-west Africa also became at last largely Latin-speaking.
+Egypt, Greece and the rest of the empire to the east were never
+Latinized.  They remained Egyptian and Greek in culture and
+spirit.  And even in Rome, among educated men, Greek was learnt as
+the language of a gentleman and Greek literature and learning were
+very, properly preferred to Latin.
+
+In this miscellaneous empire the ways of doing work and business
+were naturally also very miscellaneous.  The chief industry of the
+settled world was still largely agriculture.  We have told how in
+Italy the sturdy free farmers who were the backbone of the early
+Roman republic were replaced by estates worked by slave labour
+after the Punic wars.  The Greek world had had very various
+methods of cultivation, from the Arcadian plan, wherein every free
+citizen toiled with his own hands, to Sparta, wherein it was a
+dishonour to work and where agricultural work was done by a
+special slave class, the Helots.  But that was ancient history
+now, and over most of the Hellenized world the estate system and
+slave-gangs had spread.  The agricultural slaves were captives who
+spoke many different languages so that they could not understand
+each other, or they were born slaves; they had no solidarity to
+resist oppression, no tradition of rights, no knowledge, for they
+could not read nor write.  Although they came to form a majority
+of the country population they never made a successful
+insurrection.  The insurrection of Spartacus in the first century
+B.C. was an insurrection of the special slaves who were trained
+for the gladiatorial combats. The agricultural workers in Italy in
+the latter days of {204} the Republic and the early Empire
+suffered frightful indignities; they would be chained at night to
+prevent escape or have half the head shaved to make it difficult.
+They had no wives of their own; they could be outraged, mutilated
+and killed by their masters.  A master could sell his slave to
+fight beasts in the arena.  If a slave slew his master, all the
+slaves in his household and not merely the murderer were
+crucified.  In some parts of Greece, in Athens notably, the lot of
+the slave was never quite so frightful as this, but it was still
+detestable.  To such a population the barbarian invaders who
+presently broke through the defensive line of the legions, came
+not as enemies but as liberators.
+
+[Illustration: POMPEII]
+
+The slave system had spread to most industries and to every sort
+of work that could be done by gangs.  Mines and metallurgical
+operations, the rowing of galleys, road-making and big building
+operations were all largely slave occupations.  And almost all
+domestic service was performed by slaves.  There were poor
+free-men {205} and there were freed-men in the cities and upon the
+country side, working for themselves or even working for wages.
+They were artizans, supervisors and so forth, workers of a new
+money-paid class working in competition with slave workers; but we
+do not know what proportion they made of the general population.
+It probably varied widely in different places and at different
+periods.  And there were also many modifications of slavery, from
+the slavery that was chained at night and driven with whips to the
+farm or quarry, to the slave whose master found it advantageous to
+leave him to cultivate his patch or work his craft and own his
+wife like a free-man, provided he paid in a satisfactory quittance
+to his owner.
+
+There were armed slaves.  At the opening of the period of the
+Punic wars, in 264 B.C., the Etruscan sport of setting slaves to
+fight for their lives was revived in Rome.  It grew rapidly
+fashionable; and soon every great Roman rich man kept a retinue of
+gladiators, who sometimes fought in the arena but whose real
+business it was to act as his bodyguard of bullies.  And also
+there were learned slaves.  The conquests of the later Republic
+were among the highly civilized cities of Greece, North Africa and
+Asia Minor; and they brought in many highly educated captives.
+The tutor of a young Roman of good family was usually a slave.  A
+rich man would have a Greek slave as librarian, and slave
+secretaries and learned men.  He would keep his poet as he would
+keep a performing dog.  In this atmosphere of slavery the
+traditions of modern literary criticism were evolved.  The slaves
+still boast and quarrel in our reviews.  There were enterprising
+people who bought intelligent boy slaves and had them educated for
+sale.  Slaves were trained as book copyists, as jewellers, and for
+endless skilled callings.
+
+But there were very considerable changes in the position of a
+slave during the four hundred years between the opening days of
+conquest under the republic of rich men and the days of
+disintegration that followed the great pestilence.  In the second
+century B.C. war-captives were abundant, manners gross and brutal;
+the slave had no rights and there was scarcely an outrage the
+reader can imagine that was not practised upon slaves in those
+days.  But already in the first century A.D. there was a
+perceptible improvement in the attitude of the Roman civilization
+towards slavery.  Captives were not so abundant for one thing,
+{207} thing, and slaves were dearer.  And slave-owners began to
+realize that the profit and comfort they got from their slaves
+increased with the self-respect of these unfortunates.  But also
+the moral tone of the community was rising, and a sense of justice
+was becoming effective.  The higher mentality of Greece was
+qualifying the old Roman harshness.  Restrictions upon cruelty
+were made, a master might no longer sell his slave to fight
+beasts, a slave was given property rights in what was called his
+_peculium_, slaves were paid wages as an encouragement and
+stimulus, a form of slave marriage was recognized.  Very many
+forms of agriculture do not lend themselves to gang working, or
+require gang workers only at certain seasons.  In regions where
+such conditions prevailed the slave presently became a serf,
+paying his owner part of his produce or working for him at certain
+seasons.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{206}
+
+[Illustration: THE COLISEUM, ROME]
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AT IT APPEARS TO-DAY]
+
+====================================================================
+
+When we begin to realize how essentially this great Latin and
+Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the first two centuries A.D. was a
+slave state and how small was the minority who had any pride or
+freedom in their lives, we lay our hands on the clues to its decay
+and collapse.  There was little of what we should call family
+life, few homes of temperate living and active thought and study;
+schools and colleges were few and far between.  The free will and
+the free mind were nowhere to be found.  The great roads, the
+ruins of splendid buildings, the tradition of law and power it
+left for the astonishment of succeeding generations must not
+conceal from us that all its outer splendour was built upon
+thwarted wills, stifled intelligence, and crippled and perverted
+desires.  And even the minority who lorded it over that wide realm
+of subjugation and of restraint and forced labour were uneasy and
+unhappy in their souls; art and literature, science and
+philosophy, which are the fruits of free and happy minds, waned in
+that atmosphere.  There was much copying and imitation, an
+abundance of artistic artificers, much slavish pedantry among the
+servile men of learning, but the whole Roman empire in four
+centuries produced nothing to set beside the bold and noble
+intellectual activities of the comparatively little city of Athens
+during its one century of greatness.  Athens decayed under the
+Roman sceptre.  The science of Alexandria decayed.  The spirit of
+man, it seemed, was decaying in those days.
+
+
+
+
+{208}
+
+XXXVI
+
+RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+The soul of man under that Latin and Greek empire of the first two
+centuries of the Christian era was a worried and frustrated soul.
+Compulsion and cruelty reigned; there were pride and display but
+little honour; little serenity or steadfast happiness.  The
+unfortunate were despised and wretched; the fortunate were
+insecure and feverishly eager for gratifications.  In a great
+number of cities life centred on the red excitement of the arena,
+where men and beasts fought and were tormented and slain.
+Amphitheatres are the most characteristic of Roman ruins.  Life
+went on in that key.  The uneasiness of men's hearts manifested
+itself in profound religious unrest.
+
+From the days when the Aryan hordes first broke in upon the
+ancient civilizations, it was inevitable that the old gods of the
+temples and priesthoods should suffer great adaptations or
+disappear.  In the course of hundreds of generations the
+agricultural peoples of the brunette civilizations had shaped
+their lives and thoughts to the temple-centred life.  Observances
+and the fear of disturbed routines, sacrifices and mysteries,
+dominated their minds.  Their gods seem monstrous and illogical to
+our modern minds because we belong to an Aryanized world, but to
+these older peoples these deities had the immediate conviction and
+vividness of things seen in an intense dream.  The conquest of one
+city state by another in Sumeria or early Egypt meant a change or
+a renaming of gods or goddesses, but left the shape and spirit of
+the worship intact.  There was no change in its general character.
+The figures in the dream changed, but the dream went on and it was
+the same sort of dream.  And the early Semitic conquerors were
+sufficiently akin in spirit to the Sumerians to take over the
+religion of the Mesopotamian civilization they subjugated without
+any profound alteration.  Egypt was never {209} indeed subjugated
+to the extent of a religious revolution.  Under the Ptolemies and
+under the C�sars, her temples and altars and priesthoods remained
+essentially Egyptian.
+
+So long as conquests went on between people of similar social and
+religious habits it was possible to get over the clash between the
+god of this temple and region and the god of that by a process of
+grouping or assimilation.  If the two gods were alike in character
+they were identified.  It was really the same god under another
+name, said the priests and the people.  This fusion of gods is
+called theocrasia; and the age of the great conquests of the
+thousand years B.C. was an age of theocrasia.  Over wide areas the
+local gods were displaced by, or rather they were swallowed up in,
+a general god.  So that when at last Hebrew prophets in Babylon
+proclaimed one God of Righteousness in all the earth men's minds
+were fully prepared for that idea.
+
+But often the gods were too dissimilar for such an assimilation,
+and then they were grouped together in some plausible
+relationship.  A female god--and the �gean world before the coming
+of the Greek was much addicted to Mother Gods--would be married to
+a male god, and an animal god or a star god would be humanized and
+the animal or astronomical aspect, the serpent or the sun or the
+star, made into an ornament or a symbol.  Or the god of a defeated
+people would become a malignant antagonist to the brighter gods.
+The history of theology is full of such adaptations, compromises
+and rationalizations of once local gods.
+
+As Egypt developed from city states into one united kingdom there
+was much of this theocrasia.  The chief god so to speak was
+Osiris, a sacrificial harvest god of whom Pharaoh was supposed to
+be the earthly incarnation.  Osiris was represented as repeatedly
+dying and rising again; he was not only the seed and the harvest
+but also by a natural extension of thought the means of human
+immortality.  Among his symbols was the wide-winged scarabeus
+beetle which buries its eggs to rise again, and also the effulgent
+sun which sets to rise.  Later on he was to be identified with
+Apis, the sacred bull.  Associated with him was the goddess Isis.
+Isis was also Hathor, a cow-goddess, and the crescent moon and the
+Star of the sea.  Osiris dies and she bears a child, Horus, who is
+also a {210} hawk-god and the dawn, and who grows to become Osiris
+again.  The effigies of Isis represent her as bearing the infant
+Horus in her arms and standing on the crescent moon.  These are
+not logical relationships, but they were devised by the human mind
+before the development of hard and systematic thinking and they
+have a dream-like coherence.  Beneath this triple group there are
+other and darker Egyptian gods, bad gods, the dog-headed Anubis,
+black night and the like, devourers, tempters, enemies of god and
+man.
+
+[Illustration: MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN]
+
+Every religious system does in the course of time fit itself to
+the shape of the human soul, and there can be no doubt that out of
+these illogical and even uncouth symbols, Egyptian people were
+able to fashion for themselves ways of genuine devotion and
+consolation.  The desire for immortality was very strong in the
+Egyptian mind, and the religious life of Egypt turned on that
+desire. The Egyptian {211} religion was an immortality religion as
+no other religion had ever been.  As Egypt went down under foreign
+conquerors and the Egyptian gods ceased to have any satisfactory
+political significance, this craving for a life of compensations
+here-after, intensified.
+
+[Illustration: ISIS AND HORUS]
+
+After the Greek conquest, the new city of Alexandria became the
+centre of Egyptian religious life, and indeed of the religious
+life of the whole Hellenic world.  A great temple, the Serapeum,
+was set up by Ptolemy I at which a sort of trinity of gods was
+worshipped. These were Serapis (who was Osiris-Apis rechristened),
+Isis and Horus. These were not regarded as separate gods but as
+three aspects of one god, and Serapis was identified with the
+Greek Zeus, the Roman Jupiter and the Persian sun-god.  This
+worship spread wherever the Hellenic influence extended, even into
+North India and Western China.  The idea of immortality, an
+immortality of compensations and consolation, was eagerly received
+by a world in which the common life was hopelessly wretched.
+Serapis was called "the saviour of souls."  "After death," said
+the hymns of that time, "we are still in the care of his
+providence."  Isis attracted many devotees.  Her images stood in
+her temples, as Queen of Heaven, bearing the infant Horus in her
+arms.  Candles were burnt before her, votive offerings were made
+to her, shaven priests consecrated to celibacy waited on her
+altar.
+
+The rise of the Roman empire opened the western European world to
+this growing cult.  The temples of Serapis-Isis, the chanting of
+the priests and the hope of immortal life, followed the Roman
+standards to Scotland and Holland.  But there were many rivals to
+the Serapis-Isis religion.  Prominent among these was Mithraism.
+This was a religion of Persian origin, and it {212} centred upon
+some now forgotten mysteries about Mithras sacrificing a sacred
+and benevolent bull.  Here we seem to have something more
+primordial than the complicated and sophisticated Serapis-Isis
+beliefs.  We are carried back directly to the blood sacrifices of
+the heliolithic stage in human culture.  The bull upon the
+Mithraic monuments always bleeds copiously from a wound in its
+side, and from this blood springs new life.  The votary to
+Mithraism actually bathed in the blood of the sacrificial bull.
+At his initiation he went beneath a scaffolding upon which a bull
+was killed so that the blood could actually run down on him.
+
+Both these religions, and the same is true of many other of the
+numerous parallel cults that sought the allegiance of the slaves
+and citizens under the earlier Roman emperors, are personal
+religions.  They aim at personal salvation and personal
+immortality.  The older religions were not personal like that;
+they were social.  The older fashion of divinity was god or
+goddess of the city first or of the state, and only secondarily of
+the individual.  The sacrifices were a public and not a private
+function.  They concerned collective practical needs in this world
+in which we live.  But the Greeks first and now the Romans had
+pushed religion out of politics.  Guided by the Egyptian tradition
+religion had retreated to the other world.
+
+[Illustration: BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, A.D. 180-192]
+
+These new private immortality religions took all the heart and
+emotion out of the old state religions, but they did not actually
+replace them.  A typical city under the earlier Roman emperors
+would have a number of temples to all sorts of gods.  There might
+be a temple to Jupiter of the Capitol, the great god of Rome, and
+there would probably be one to the reigning C�sar.  For the C�sars
+had learnt from the Pharaohs the possibility of being gods.  In
+such temples a cold and stately political worship went on; one
+would go and make an offering and burn a pinch of incense to show
+one's loyalty.  But it would be to the temple of Isis, the dear
+Queen of Heaven, one would go with the burthen {213} of one's
+private troubles for advice and relief.  There might be local and
+eccentric gods.  Seville, for example, long affected the worship
+of the old Carthaginian Venus.  In a cave or an underground temple
+there would certainly be an altar to Mithras, attended by
+legionaries and slaves.  And probably also there would be a
+synagogue where the Jews gathered to read their Bible and uphold
+their faith in the unseen God of all the Earth.
+
+Sometimes there would be trouble with the Jews about the political
+side of the state religion.  They held that their God was a
+jealous God intolerant of idolatry, and they would refuse to take
+part in the public sacrifices to C�sar.  They would not even
+salute the Roman standards for fear of idolatry.
+
+In the East long before the time of Buddha there had been
+ascetics, men and women who gave up most of the delights of life,
+who repudiated marriage and property and sought spiritual powers
+and an escape from the stresses and mortifications of the world in
+abstinence, pain and solitude.  Buddha himself set his face
+against ascetic extravagances, but many of his disciples followed
+a monkish life of great severity.  Obscure Greek cults practised
+similar disciplines even to the extent of self-mutilation.
+Asceticism appeared in the Jewish communities of Judea and
+Alexandria also in the first century B.C.  Communities of men
+abandoned the world and gave themselves to austerities and
+mystical contemplation.  Such was the sect of the Essenes.
+Throughout the first and second centuries A.D. there was an almost
+world-wide resort to such repudiations of life, a universal search
+for "salvation" from the distresses of the time.  The old sense of
+an established order, the old confidence in priest and temple and
+law and custom, had gone.  Amidst the prevailing slavery, cruelty,
+fear, anxiety, waste, display and hectic self-indulgence, went
+this epidemic of self-disgust and mental insecurity, this agonized
+search for peace even at the price of renunciation and voluntary
+suffering.  This it was that filled the Serapeum with weeping
+penitents and brought the converts into the gloom and gore of the
+Mithraic cave.
+
+
+
+
+{214}
+
+XXXVII
+
+THE TEACHING OF JESUS
+
+
+It was while Augustus C�sar, the first of the Emperors, was
+reigning in Rome that Jesus who is the Christ of Christianity was
+born in Judea.  In his name a religion was to arise which was
+destined to become the official religion of the entire Roman
+Empire.
+
+Now it is on the whole more convenient to keep history and
+theology apart.  A large proportion of the Christian world
+believes that Jesus was an incarnation of that God of all the
+Earth whom the Jews first recognized.  The historian, if he is to
+remain historian, can neither accept nor deny that interpretation.
+Materially Jesus appeared in the likeness of a man, and it is as a
+man that the historian must deal with him.
+
+He appeared in Judea in the reign of Tiberius C�sar.  He was a
+prophet.  He preached after the fashion of the preceding Jewish
+prophets.  He was a man of about thirty, and we are in the
+profoundest ignorance of his manner of life before his preaching
+began.
+
+Our only direct sources of information about the life and teaching
+of Jesus are the four Gospels.  All four agree in giving us a
+picture of a very definite personality.  One is obliged to say,
+"Here was a man.  This could not have been invented."
+
+But just as the personality of Gautama Buddha has been distorted
+and obscured by the stiff squatting figure, the gilded idol of
+later Buddhism, so one feels that the lean and strenuous
+personality of Jesus is much wronged by the unreality and
+conventionality that a mistaken reverence has imposed upon his
+figure in modern Christian art.  Jesus was a penniless teacher,
+who wandered about the dusty sun-bit country of Judea, living upon
+casual gifts of food; yet he is always represented clean, combed
+and sleek, in spotless raiment, erect and with something
+motionless about him as though {215} he was gliding through the
+air.  This alone has made him unreal and incredible to many people
+who cannot distinguish the core of the story from the ornamental
+and unwise additions of the unintelligently devout.
+
+We are left, if we do strip this record of these difficult
+accessories, with the figure of a being, very human, very earnest
+and passionate, capable of swift anger, and teaching a new and
+simple and profound doctrine--namely, the universal loving
+Fatherhood of God and the coming of the Kingdom of Heaven.  He was
+clearly a person--to use a common phrase--of intense personal
+magnetism.  He attracted followers and filled them with love and
+courage.  Weak and ailing people were heartened and healed by his
+presence.  Yet he was probably of a delicate physique, because of
+the swiftness with which he died under the pains of crucifixion.
+There is a tradition that he fainted when, according to the
+custom, he was made to bear his cross to the place of execution.
+He went about the country for three years spreading his doctrine
+and then he came to Jerusalem and was accused of trying to set up
+a strange kingdom in Judea; he was tried upon this charge, and
+crucified together with two thieves.  Long before these two were
+dead his sufferings were over.
+
+The doctrine of the Kingdom of Heaven, which was the main teaching
+of Jesus, is certainly one of the most revolutionary doctrines
+that ever stirred and changed human thought.  It is small wonder
+if the world of that time failed to grasp its full significance,
+and recoiled in dismay from even a half apprehension of its
+tremendous challenges to the established habits and institutions
+of mankind.  For the doctrine of the Kingdom of Heaven, as Jesus
+seems to have preached it, was no less than a bold and
+uncompromising demand for a complete change and cleansing of the
+life of our struggling race, an utter cleansing, without and
+within.  To the gospels the reader must go for all that is
+preserved of this tremendous teaching; here we are only concerned
+with the jar of its impact upon established ideas.
+
+The Jews were persuaded that God, the one God of the whole world,
+was a righteous god, but they also thought of him as a trading god
+who had made a bargain with their Father Abraham {216} about them,
+a very good bargain indeed for them, to bring them at last to
+predominance in the earth. With dismay and anger they heard Jesus
+sweeping away their dear securities.  God, he taught, was no
+bargainer; there were no chosen people and no favourites in the
+Kingdom of Heaven.  God was the loving father of all life, as
+incapable of showing favour as the universal sun.  And all men
+were brothers--sinners alike and beloved sons alike--of this
+divine father.  In the parable of the Good Samaritan Jesus cast
+scorn upon that natural tendency we all obey, to glorify our own
+people and to minimize the righteousness of other creeds and other
+races.  In the parable of the labourers he thrust aside the
+obstinate claim of the Jews to have a special claim upon God.  All
+whom God takes into the kingdom, he taught, God serves alike;
+there is no distinction in his treatment, because there is no
+measure to his bounty.  From all moreover, as the parable of the
+buried talent witnesses, and as the incident of the widow's mite
+enforces, he demands the utmost.  There are no privileges, no
+rebates and no excuses in the Kingdom of Heaven.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS
+CHRIST IN WHICH THE TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN]
+
+{217}
+
+But it is not only the intense tribal patriotism of the Jews that
+Jesus outraged.  They were a people of intense family loyalty, and
+he would have swept away all the narrow and restrictive family
+affections in the great flood of the love of God.  The whole
+kingdom of Heaven was to be the family of his followers.  We are
+told that, "While he yet talked to the people, behold, his mother
+and his brethren stood without, desiring to speak with him.  Then
+one said unto him, Behold, thy mother and thy brethren stand
+without, desiring to speak with thee.  But he answered and said
+unto him that told him, Who is my mother? and who are my brethren?
+And he stretched forth his hands towards his disciples, and said,
+Behold my mother and my brethren!  For whosoever shall do the will
+of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, and
+sister, and mother."  [2]
+
+[Illustration: THE ROAD FROM NAZARETH TO TIBERIAS]
+
+And not only did Jesus strike at patriotism and the bonds of
+family loyalty in the name of God's universal fatherhood and
+brotherhood of all mankind, but it is clear that his teaching
+condemned all the gradations of the economic system, all private
+wealth, and {218} personal advantages.  All men belonged to the
+kingdom; all their possessions belonged to the kingdom; the
+righteous life for all men, the only righteous life, was the
+service of God's will with all that we had, with all that we were.
+Again and again he denounced private riches and the reservation of
+any private life.
+
+[Illustration: DAVID'S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM]
+
+"And when he was gone forth into the way, there came one running,
+and kneeled to him, and asked him, Good Master, what shall I do
+that I may inherit eternal life?  And Jesus said to him, Why
+callest thou me good? there is none good but one, that is God.
+Thou knowest the commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not
+kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Defraud not, Honour
+thy father and mother.  And he answered and said unto him, Master,
+all these things have I observed from my youth.  Then Jesus
+beholding him loved him, and said unto him, One thing thou
+lackest; go thy way, sell whatsoever thou hast, and give to the
+poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven; and come, take up
+the cross, and follow me.  And he was sad at that saying, and went
+away grieved; for he had great possessions.
+
+"And Jesus looked round about, and saith unto his disciples, How
+hardly shall they that have riches enter into the Kingdom of God!
+And the disciples were astonished at his words.  But Jesus
+answered again, and saith unto them, Children, how hard is it for
+them that trust in riches to enter into the Kingdom of God!  It is
+{220} easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than
+for a rich man to enter into the Kingdom of God."  [3]
+
+====================================================================
+
+{219}
+
+[Illustration: A STREET IN JERUSALEM]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Moreover, in his tremendous prophecy of this kingdom which was to
+make all men one together in God, Jesus had small patience for the
+bargaining righteousness of formal religion.  Another large part
+of his recorded utterances is aimed against the meticulous
+observance of the rules of the pious career.  "Then the Pharisees
+and scribes asked him, Why walk not thy disciples according to the
+tradition of the elders, but eat bread with unwashen hands?  He
+answered and said unto them, Well hath Isaiah prophesied of you
+hypocrites, as it is written,
+
+"This people honoureth me with their lips,
+
+"But their heart is far from me.
+
+"Howbeit in vain do they worship me,
+
+"Teaching for doctrines the commandments of men.
+
+"For laying aside the commandment of God, ye hold the tradition of
+men, as the washing of pots and cups: and many other such things
+ye do.  And he said unto them, Full well ye reject the commandment
+of God, that ye may keep your own tradition."  [4]
+
+It was not merely a moral and a social revolution that Jesus
+proclaimed; it is clear from a score of indications that his
+teaching had a political bent of the plainest sort.  It is true
+that he said his kingdom was not of this world, that it was in the
+hearts of men and not upon a throne; but it is equally clear that
+wherever and in what measure his kingdom was set up in the hearts
+of men, the outer world would be in that measure revolutionized
+and made new.
+
+Whatever else the deafness and blindness of his hearers may have
+missed in his utterances, it is plain they did not miss his
+resolve to revolutionize the world.  The whole tenor of the
+opposition to him and the circumstances of his trial and execution
+show clearly that to his contemporaries he seemed to propose
+plainly, and did propose plainly, to change and fuse and enlarge
+all human life.
+
+In view of what he plainly said, is it any wonder that all who
+were rich and prosperous felt a horror of strange things, a
+swimming of their world at his teaching?  He was dragging out all
+the little private reservations they had made from social service
+into the light {221} of a universal religious life.  He was like
+some terrible moral huntsman digging mankind out of the snug
+burrows in which they had lived hitherto.  In the white blaze of
+this kingdom of his there was to be no property, no privilege, no
+pride and precedence; no motive indeed and no reward but love.  Is
+it any wonder that men were dazzled and blinded and cried out
+against him?  Even his disciples cried out when he would not spare
+them the light.  Is it any wonder that the priests realized that
+between this man and themselves there was no choice but that he or
+priestcraft should perish?  Is it any wonder that the Roman
+soldiers, confronted and amazed by something soaring over their
+comprehension and threatening all their disciplines, should take
+refuge in wild laughter, and crown him with thorns and robe him in
+purple and make a mock C�sar of him?  For to take him seriously
+was to enter upon a strange and alarming life, to abandon habits,
+to control instincts and impulses, to essay an incredible
+happiness. . . .
+
+[2]  Matt. xii, 46-50.
+
+[3]  Mark x. 17-25.
+
+[4]  Mark vii, 1-9.
+
+
+
+
+{222}
+
+XXXVIII
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY
+
+
+In the four gospels we find the personality and teachings of Jesus
+but very little of the dogmas of the Christian church.  It is in
+the epistles, a series of writings by the immediate followers of
+Jesus, that the broad lines of Christian belief are laid down.
+
+Chief among the makers of Christian doctrine was St. Paul.  He had
+never seen Jesus nor heard him preach.  Paul's name was originally
+Saul, and he was conspicuous at first as an active persecutor of
+the little band of disciples after the crucifixion.  Then he was
+suddenly converted to Christianity, and he changed his name to
+Paul.  He was a man of great intellectual vigour and deeply and
+passionately interested in the religious movements of the time.
+He was well versed in Judaism and in the Mithraism and Alexandrian
+religion of the day.  He carried over many of their ideas and
+terms of expression into Christianity.  He did very little to
+enlarge or develop the original teaching of Jesus, the teaching of
+the Kingdom of Heaven.  But he taught that Jesus was not only the
+promised Christ, the promised leader of the Jews, but also that
+his death was a sacrifice, like the deaths of the ancient
+sacrificial victims of the primordial civilizations, for the
+redemption of mankind.
+
+When religions flourish side by side they tend to pick up each
+other's ceremonial and other outward peculiarities.  Buddhism, for
+example, in China has now almost the same sort of temples and
+priests and uses as Taoism, which follows in the teachings of Lao
+Tse.  Yet the original teachings of Buddhism and Taoism were
+almost flatly opposed.  And it reflects no doubt or discredit upon
+the essentials of Christian teaching that it took over not merely
+such formal things as the shaven priest, the votive offering, the
+altars, candles, chanting and images of the Alexandrian and
+Mithraic faiths, but adopted even their devotional phrases and
+their theological {223} ideas.  All these religions were
+flourishing side by side with many less prominent cults.  Each was
+seeking adherents, and there must have been a constant going and
+coming of converts between them.  Sometimes one or other would be
+in favour with the government.  But Christianity was regarded with
+more suspicion than its rivals because, like the Jews, its
+adherents would not perform acts of worship to the God C�sar.
+This made it a seditious religion, quite apart from the
+revolutionary spirit of the teachings of Jesus himself.
+
+[Illustration: MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE,
+ON GOLD BACKGROUND]
+
+St. Paul familiarized his disciples with the idea that Jesus, like
+{224} Osiris, was a god who died to rise again and give men
+immortality.  And presently the spreading Christian community was
+greatly torn by complicated theological disputes about the
+relationship of this God Jesus to God the Father of Mankind.  The
+Arians taught that Jesus was divine, but distant from and inferior
+to the Father.  The Sabellians taught that Jesus was merely an
+aspect of the Father, and that God was Jesus and Father at the
+same time just as a man may be a father and an artificer at the
+same time; and the Trinitarians taught a more subtle doctrine that
+God was both one and three, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.  For a
+time it seemed that Arianism would prevail over its rivals, and
+then after disputes, violence and wars, the Trinitarian formula
+became the accepted formula of all Christendom.  It may be found
+in its completest expression in the Athanasian Creed.
+
+We offer no comment on these controversies here.  They do not sway
+history as the personal teaching of Jesus sways history.  The
+personal teaching of Jesus does seem to mark a new phase in the
+moral and spiritual life of our race.  Its insistence upon the
+universal Fatherhood of God and the implicit brotherhood of all
+men, its insistence upon the sacredness of every human personality
+as a living temple of God, was to have the profoundest effect upon
+all the subsequent social and political life of mankind.  With
+Christianity, with the spreading teachings of Jesus, a new respect
+appears in the world for man as man.  It may be true, as hostile
+critics of Christianity have urged, that St.. Paul preached
+obedience to slaves, but it is equally true that the whole spirit
+of the teachings of Jesus preserved in the gospels was against the
+subjugation of man by man.  And still more distinctly was
+Christianity opposed to such outrages upon human dignity as the
+gladiatorial combats in the arena.
+
+Throughout the first two centuries after Christ, the Christian
+religion spread throughout the Roman Empire, weaving together an
+ever-growing multitude of converts into a new community of ideas
+and will.  The attitude of the emperors varied between hostility
+and toleration.  There were attempts to suppress this new faith in
+both the second and third centuries; and finally in 303 and the
+following years a great persecution under the Emperor Diocletian.
+The considerable accumulations of Church property were {225}
+seized, all bibles and religious writings were confiscated and
+destroyed, Christians were put out of the protection of the law
+and many executed.  The destruction of the books is particularly
+notable.  It shows how the power of the written word in holding
+together {226} the new faith was appreciated by the authorities.
+These "book religions," Christianity and Judaism, were religions
+that educated.  Their continued existence depended very largely on
+people being able to read and understand their doctrinal ideas.
+The older religions had made no such appeal to the personal
+intelligence.  In the ages of barbaric confusion that were now at
+hand in western Europe it was the Christian church that was mainly
+instrumental in preserving the tradition of learning.
+
+[Illustration: THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST]
+
+The persecution of Diocletian failed completely to suppress the
+growing Christian community.  In many provinces it was ineffective
+because the bulk of the population and many of the officials were
+Christian.  In 317 an edict of toleration was issued by the
+associated Emperor Galerius, and in 324 Constantine the Great, a
+friend and on his deathbed a baptized convert to Christianity,
+became sole ruler of the Roman world.  He abandoned all divine
+pretensions and put Christian symbols on the shields and banners
+of his troops.
+
+In a few years Christianity was securely established as the
+official religion of the empire.  The competing religions
+disappeared or were absorbed with extraordinary celerity, and in
+300 Theodosius the Great caused the great statue of Jupiter
+Serapis at Alexandria to be destroyed.  From the outset of the
+fifth century onward the only priests or temples in the Roman
+Empire were Christian priests and temples.
+
+
+
+
+{227}
+
+XXXIX
+
+THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST
+
+
+Throughout the third century the Roman Empire, decaying socially
+and disintegrating morally, faced the barbarians.  The emperors of
+this period were fighting military autocrats, and the capital of
+the empire shifted with the necessities of their military policy.
+Now the imperial headquarters would be at Milan in north Italy,
+now in what is now Serbia at Sirmium or Nish, now in Nicomedia in
+Asia Minor.  Rome halfway down Italy was too far from the centre
+of interest to be a convenient imperial seat.  It was a declining
+city.  Over most of the empire peace still prevailed and men went
+about without arms.  The armies continued to be the sole
+repositories of power; the emperors, dependent on their legions,
+became more and more autocratic to the rest of the empire and
+their state more and more like that of the Persian and other
+oriental monarchs.  Diocletian assumed a royal diadem and oriental
+robes.
+
+All along the imperial frontier, which ran roughly along the Rhine
+and Danube, enemies were now pressing.  The Franks and other
+German tribes had come up to the Rhine.  In north Hungary were the
+Vandals; in what was once Dacia and is now Roumania, the Visigoths
+or West Goths.  Behind these in south Russia were the East Goths
+or Ostrogoths, and beyond these again in the Volga region the
+Alans.  But now Mongolian peoples were forcing their way towards
+Europe.  The Huns were already exacting tribute from the Alans and
+Ostrogoths and pushing them to the west.
+
+In Asia the Roman frontiers were crumpling back under the push of
+a renascent Persia.  This new Persia, the Persia of the Sassenid
+kings, was to be a vigorous and on the whole a successful rival of
+the Roman Empire in Asia for the next three centuries.
+
+A glance at the map of Europe will show the reader the peculiar
+weakness of the empire.  The river Danube comes down to within
+{228} a couple of hundred miles of the Adriatic Sea in the region
+of what is now Bosnia and Serbia.  It makes a square re-entrant
+angle there.  The Romans never kept their sea communications in
+good order, and this two hundred mile strip of land was their line
+of communication between the western Latin-speaking part of the
+empire and the eastern Greek-speaking portion.  Against this
+square angle of the Danube the barbarian pressure was greatest.
+When they broke through there it was inevitable that the empire
+should fall into two parts.
+
+[Map: The Empire and the Barbarians]
+
+A more vigorous empire might have thrust forward and reconquered
+Dacia, but the Roman Empire lacked any such vigour.  Constantine
+the Great was certainly a monarch of great devotion and
+intelligence.  He beat back a raid of the Goths from just these
+vital Balkan regions, but he had no force to carry the frontier
+across the Danube.  He was too pre-occupied with the internal
+weaknesses of the empire.  He brought the solidarity and moral
+force of Christianity to revive the spirit of the declining
+empire, and he decided to create a new permanent capital at
+Byzantium upon the Hellespont.  This new-made Byzantium, which was
+re-christened Constantinople in his honour, was still building
+when he died.  Towards the end of his reign occurred a remarkable
+transaction.  The {229} Vandals, being pressed by the Goths, asked
+to be received into the Roman Empire.  They were assigned lands in
+Pannonia, which is now that part of Hungary west of the Danube,
+and their fighting men became nominally legionaries.  But these
+new legionaries remained under their own chiefs.  Rome failed to
+digest them.
+
+[Illustration: CONSTANTINE'S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE]
+
+Constantine died working to reorganize his great realm, and soon
+the frontiers were ruptured again and the Visigoths came almost to
+Constantinople. They defeated the Emperor Valens at Adrianople and
+made a settlement in what is now Bulgaria, similar to the
+settlement of the Vandals in Pannonia.  Nominally they were
+subjects of the emperor, practically they were conquerors.
+
+From 379 to 395 A.D. reigned the Emperor Theodosius the Great, and
+while he reigned the empire was still formally intact.  Over the
+armies of Italy and Pannonia presided Stilicho, a Vandal, over the
+armies in the Balkan peninsula, Alaric, a Goth.  When Theodosius
+died at the close of the fourth century he left {230} two sons.
+Alaric supported one of these, Arcadius, in Constantinople, and
+Stilicho the other, Honorius, in Italy.  In other words Alaric and
+Stilicho fought for the empire with the princes as puppets.  In
+the course of their struggle Alaric marched into Italy and after a
+short siege took Rome (410 A.D.).
+
+The opening half of the fifth century saw the whole of the Roman
+Empire in Europe the prey of robber armies of barbarians.  It is
+difficult to visualize the state of affairs in the world at that
+time.  Over France, Spain, Italy and the Balkan peninsula, the
+great cities that had flourished under the early empire still
+stood, impoverished, partly depopulated and falling into decay.
+Life in them must have been shallow, mean and full of uncertainty.
+Local officials asserted their authority and went on with their
+work with such conscience as they had, no doubt in the name of a
+now remote and inaccessible emperor.  The churches went on, but
+usually with illiterate priests.  There was little reading and
+much superstition and fear.  But everywhere except where looters
+had destroyed them, books and pictures and statuary and such-like
+works of art were still to be found.
+
+The life of the countryside had also degenerated.  Everywhere this
+Roman world was much more weedy and untidy than it had been.  In
+some regions war and pestilence had brought the land down to the
+level of a waste.  Roads and forests were infested with robbers.
+Into such regions the barbarians marched, with little or no
+opposition, and set up their chiefs as rulers, often with Roman
+official titles.  If they were half civilized barbarians they
+would give the conquered districts tolerable terms, they would
+take possession of the towns, associate and intermarry, and
+acquire (with an accent) the Latin speech; but the Jutes, the
+Angles and Saxons who submerged the Roman province of Britain were
+agriculturalists and had no use for towns, they seem to have swept
+south Britain clear of the Romanized population and they replaced
+the language by their own Teutonic dialects, which became at last
+English.
+
+It is impossible in the space at our disposal to trace the
+movements of all the various German and Slavonic tribes as they
+went to and fro in the disorganized empire in search of plunder
+and a pleasant home.  But let the Vandals serve as an example.
+They came into {232} history in east Germany.  They settled as we
+have told in Pannonia.  Thence they moved somewhen about 425 A.D.
+through the intervening provinces to Spain.  There they found
+Visigoths from South Russia and other German tribes setting up
+dukes and kings.  From Spain the Vandals under Genseric sailed for
+North Africa (429), captured Carthage (439), and built a fleet.
+They secured the mastery of the sea and captured and pillaged Rome
+(455), which had recovered very imperfectly from her capture and
+looting by Alaric half a century earlier.  Then the Vandals made
+themselves masters of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia and most of the
+other islands of the western Mediterranean.  They made, in fact, a
+sea empire very similar in its extent to the sea empire of
+Carthage seven hundred odd years before.  They were at the climax
+of their power about 477.  They were a mere handful of conquerors
+holding all this country.  In the next century almost all their
+territory had been reconquered for the empire of Constantinople
+during a transitory blaze of energy under Justinian I.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{231}
+
+[Illustration: BASE OF THE "OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,"
+CONSTANTINOPLE]
+
+====================================================================
+
+The story of the Vandals is but one sample of a host of similar
+adventures.  But now there was coming into the European world the
+least kindred and most redoubtable of all these devastators, the
+Mongolian Huns or Tartars, a yellow people active and able, such
+as the western world had never before encountered.
+
+
+
+
+{233}
+
+XL
+
+THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE
+
+
+This appearance of a conquering Mongolian people in Europe may be
+taken to mark a new stage in human history.  Until the last
+century or so before the Christian era, the Mongol and the Nordic
+peoples had not been in close touch.  Far away in the frozen lands
+beyond the northern forests the Lapps, a Mongolian people, had
+drifted westward as far as Lapland, but they played no part in the
+main current of history.  For thousands of years the western world
+carried on the dramatic interplay of the Aryan, Semitic and
+fundamental brunette peoples with very little interference (except
+for an Ethiopian invasion of Egypt or so) either from the black
+peoples to the south or from the Mongolian world in the far East.
+
+It is probable that there were two chief causes for the new
+westward drift of the nomadic Mongolians.  One was the
+consolidation of the great empire of China, its extension
+northward and the increase of its population during the prosperous
+period of the Han dynasty.  The other was some process of climatic
+change; a lesser rainfall that abolished swamps and forests
+perhaps, or a greater rainfall that extended grazing over desert
+steppes, or even perhaps both these processes going on in
+different regions but which anyhow facilitated a westward
+migration.  A third contributary cause was the economic
+wretchedness, internal decay and falling population of the Roman
+Empire.  The rich men of the later Roman Republic, and then the
+tax-gatherers of the military emperors had utterly consumed its
+vitality.  So we have the factors of thrust, means and
+opportunity.  There was pressure from the east, rot in the west
+and an open road.
+
+The Hun had reached the eastern boundaries of European Russia by
+the first century A.D., but it was not until the fourth and {234}
+fifth centuries A.D. that these horsemen rose to predominance upon
+the steppes.  The fifth century was the Hun's century.  The first
+Huns to come into Italy were mercenary bands in the pay of
+Stilicho the Vandal, the master of Honorius.  Presently they were
+in possession of Pannonia, the empty nest of the Vandals.
+
+By the second quarter of the fifth century a great war chief had
+arisen among the Huns, Attila.  We have only vague and tantalizing
+glimpses of his power.  He ruled not only over the Huns but over a
+conglomerate of tributary Germanic tribes; his empire extended
+from the Rhine cross the plains into Central Asia.  He exchanged
+ambassadors with China.  His head camp was in the plain of Hungary
+east of the Danube.  There he was visited by an envoy from
+Constantinople, Priscus, who has left us an account of his state.
+The way of living of these Mongols was very like the way of living
+of the primitive Aryans they had replaced.  The common folk were
+in huts and tents; the chiefs lived in great stockaded timber
+halls.  There were feasts and drinking and singing by the bards.
+The Homeric heroes and even the Macedonian companions of Alexander
+would probably have felt more at home in the camp-capital of
+Attila than they would have done in the cultivated and decadent
+court of Theodosius II, the son of Arcadius, who was then reigning
+in Constantinople.
+
+For a time it seemed as though the nomads under the leadership
+of the Huns and Attila would play the same part towards the
+Gr�co-Roman civilization of the Mediterranean countries that the
+barbaric Greeks had played long ago to the �gean civilization.  It
+looked like history repeating itself upon a larger stage.  But the
+Huns were much more wedded to the nomadic life than the early
+Greeks, who were rather migratory cattle farmers than true nomads.
+The Huns raided and plundered but did not settle.
+
+For some years Attila bullied Theodosius as he chose.  His armies
+devastated and looted right down to the walls of Constantinople,
+Gibbon says that he totally destroyed no less than seventy cities
+in the Balkan peninsula, and Theodosius bought him off by payments
+of tribute and tried to get rid of him for good by sending secret
+agents to assassinate him.  In 451 Attila turned his attention to
+the remains of the Latin-speaking half of the empire and invaded
+{235} Gaul.  Nearly every town in northern Gaul was sacked.
+Franks, Visigoths and the imperial forces united against him and
+he was defeated at Troyes in a vast dispersed battle in which a
+multitude of men, variously estimated as between 150,000 and
+300,000, were killed. This checked him in Gaul, but it did not
+exhaust his enormous military resources.  Next year he came into
+Italy by way of Venetia, burnt Aquileia and Padua and looted
+Milan.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF]
+
+Numbers of fugitives from these north Italian towns and
+particularly from Padua fled to islands in the lagoons at the head
+of the Adriatic and laid there the foundations of the city state
+of Venice, which was to become one of the greatest or the trading
+centres in the middle ages.
+
+In 453 Attila died suddenly after a great feast to celebrate his
+marriage to a young woman, and at his death this plunder
+confederation of his fell to pieces.  The actual Huns disappear
+from history, mixed into the surrounding more numerous
+Aryan-speaking populations.  {236} But these great Hun raids
+practically consummated the end of the Latin Roman Empire.  After
+his death ten different emperors ruled in Rome in twenty years,
+set up by Vandal and other mercenary troops.  The Vandals from
+Carthage took and sacked Rome in 455.  Finally in 476 Odoacer, the
+chief of the barbarian troops, suppressed a Pannonian who was
+figuring as emperor under the impressive name of Romulus
+Augustulus, and informed the Court of Constantinople that there
+was no longer an emperor in the west.  So ingloriously the Latin
+Roman Empire came to an end.  In 493 Theodoric the Goth became
+King of Rome.
+
+All over western and central Europe now barbarian chiefs were
+reigning as kings, dukes and the like, practically independent but
+for the most part professing some sort of shadowy allegiance to
+the emperor.  There were hundreds and perhaps thousands of such
+practically independent brigand rulers.  In Gaul, Spain and Italy
+and in Dacia the Latin speech still prevailed in locally distorted
+forms, but in Britain and east of the Rhine languages of the
+German group (or in Bohemia a Slavonic language, Czech) were the
+common speech.  The superior clergy and a small remnant of other
+educated men read and wrote Latin.  Everywhere life was insecure
+and property was held by the strong arm.  Castles multiplied and
+roads fell into decay.  The dawn of the sixth century was an age
+of division and of intellectual darkness throughout the western
+world.  Had it not been for the monks and Christian missionaries
+Latin learning might have perished altogether.
+
+Why had the Roman Empire grown and why had it so completely
+decayed?  It grew because at first the idea of citizenship held it
+together.  Throughout the days of the expanding republic, and even
+into the days of the early empire there remained a great number of
+men conscious of Roman citizenship, feeling it a privilege and an
+obligation to be a Roman citizen, confident of their rights under
+the Roman law and willing to make sacrifices in the name of Rome.
+The prestige of Rome as of something just and great and
+law-upholding spread far beyond the Roman boundaries.  But even as
+early as the Punic wars the sense of citizenship was being
+undermined by the growth of wealth and slavery.  Citizenship
+spread indeed but not the idea of citizenship.
+
+{237}
+
+The Roman Empire was after all a very primitive organization; it
+did not educate, did not explain itself to its increasing
+multitudes of citizens, did not invite their co-operation in its
+decisions.  There was no network of schools to ensure a common
+understanding, no distribution of news to sustain collective
+activity.  The adventurers who struggled for power from the days
+of Marius and Sulla onward had no idea of creating and calling in
+public opinion upon the imperial affairs.  The spirit of
+citizenship died of starvation and no one observed it die.  All
+empires, all states, all organizations of human society are, in
+the ultimate, things of understanding and will.  There remained no
+will for the Roman Empire in the World and so it came to an end.
+
+But though the Latin-speaking Roman Empire died in the fifth
+century, something else had been born within it that was to avail
+itself enormously of its prestige and tradition, and that was the
+Latin-speaking half of the Catholic Church.  This lived while the
+empire died because it appealed to the minds and wills of men,
+because it had books and a great system of teachers and
+missionaries to hold it together, things stronger than any law or
+legions.  Throughout the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. while the
+empire was decaying, Christianity was spreading to a universal
+dominion in Europe.  It conquered its conquerors, the barbarians.
+When Attila seemed disposed to march on Rome, the patriarch of
+Rome intercepted him and did what no armies could do, turning him
+back by sheer moral force.
+
+The Patriarch or Pope of Rome claimed to be the head of the entire
+Christian church.  Now that there were no more emperors, he began
+to annex imperial titles and claims.  He took the title of
+_pontifex maximus_, head sacrificial priest of the Roman dominion,
+the most ancient of all the titles that the emperors had enjoyed.
+
+
+
+
+{238}
+
+XLI
+
+THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES
+
+
+The Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire showed much
+more political tenacity than the western half.  It weathered the
+disasters of the fifth century A.D., which saw a complete and
+final breaking up of the original Latin Roman power.  Attila
+bullied the Emperor Theodosius II and sacked and raided almost to
+the walls of Constantinople, but that city remained intact.  The
+Nubians came down the Nile and looted Upper Egypt, but Lower Egypt
+and Alexandria were left still fairly prosperous.  Most of Asia
+Minor was held against the Sassanid Persians.
+
+The sixth century, which was an age of complete darkness for the
+West, saw indeed a considerable revival of the Greek power.
+Justinian I (527-565) was a ruler of very great ambition and
+energy, and he was married to the Empress Theodora, a woman of
+quite equal capacity who had begun life as an actress.  Justinian
+reconquered North Africa from the Vandals and most of Italy from
+the Goths.  He even regained the south of Spain.  He did not limit
+his energies to naval and military enterprises.  He founded a
+university, built the great church of Sta. Sophia in
+Constantinople and codified the Roman law.  But in order to
+destroy a rival to his university foundation he closed the schools
+of philosophy in Athens, which had been going on in unbroken
+continuity from the days of Plato, that is to say for nearly a
+thousand years.
+
+From the third century onwards the Persian Empire had been the
+steadfast rival of the Byzantine.  The two empires kept Asia
+Minor, Syria and Egypt in a state of perpetual unrest and waste.
+In the first century A.D., these lands were still at a high level
+of civilization, wealthy and with an abundant population, but the
+continual coming and going of armies, massacres, looting and war
+taxation wore them down steadily until only shattered and ruinous
+{239} cities remained upon a countryside of scattered peasants.
+In this melancholy process of impoverishment and disorder lower
+Egypt fared perhaps less badly than the rest of the world.
+Alexandria, like Constantinople, continued a dwindling trade
+between the east and the west.
+
+Science and political philosophy seemed dead now in both these
+warring and decaying empires.  The last philosophers of Athens,
+until their suppression, preserved the texts of the great
+literature of the past with an infinite reverence and want of
+understanding.  But there remained no class of men in the world,
+no free gentlemen with bold and independent habits of thought, to
+carry on the tradition of frank statement and enquiry embodied in
+these writings.  The social and political chaos accounts largely
+for the disappearance of this class, but there was also another
+reason why the human intelligence was sterile and feverish during
+this age.  In both Persia and Byzantium it was all age of
+intolerance.  Both empires were religious empires in a new way, in
+a way that greatly hampered the free activities of the human mind.
+
+[Illustration: THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA,
+CONSTANTINOPLE]
+
+{240}
+
+[Illustration: THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIA]
+
+Of course the oldest empires in the world were religious empires,
+centring upon the worship of a god or of a god-king.  Alexander
+was treated as a divinity and the C�sars were gods in so much as
+they had altars and temples devoted to them and the offering of
+incense was made a test of loyalty to the Roman state.  But these
+older religions were essentially religions of act and fact.  They
+did not invade the mind.  If a man offered his sacrifice and bowed
+to the god, he was left not only to think but to say practically
+whatever he liked about the affair.  But the new sort of religions
+that had come into the world, and particularly Christianity,
+turned inward.  These new faiths demanded not simply conformity
+but understanding belief.  Naturally fierce controversy ensued
+upon the exact meaning of the things believed.  These new
+religions were creed religions.  The world was confronted with a
+new word, Orthodoxy, and with a stern resolve to keep not only
+acts but speech {241} and private thought within the limits of a
+set teaching.  For to hold a wrong opinion, much more to convey it
+to other people, was no longer regarded as an intellectual defect
+but a moral fault that might condemn a soul to everlasting
+destruction.
+
+[Illustration: THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS
+COURT]
+
+Both Ardashir I who founded the Sassanid dynasty in the third
+century A.D., and Constantine the Great who reconstructed the
+Roman Empire in the fourth, turned to religious organizations for
+help, because in these organizations they saw a new means of using
+and controlling the wills of men.  And already before the end of
+the fourth century both empires were persecuting free talk and
+religious innovation.  In Persia Ardashir found the ancient
+Persian religion of Zoroaster (or Zarathushtra) with its priests
+and temples and a sacred fire that burnt upon its altars, ready
+for his purpose as a state religion.  Before the end of the third
+century Zoroastrianism was persecuting Christianity, and in 277
+A.D. Mani, the founder of {243} a new faith, the Manich�ans, was
+crucified and his body flayed.  Constantinople, on its side, was
+busy hunting out Christian heresies.  Manich�an ideas infected
+Christianity and had to be fought with the fiercest methods; in
+return ideas from Christianity affected the purity of the
+Zoroastrian doctrine.  All ideas became suspect.  Science, which
+demands before all things the free action of an untroubled mind,
+suffered a complete eclipse throughout this phase of intolerance.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{242}
+
+[Illustration: THE ROCK HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA]
+
+====================================================================
+
+War, the bitterest theology, and the usual vices of mankind
+constituted Byzantine life of those days.  It was picturesque, it
+was romantic; it had little sweetness or light.  When Byzantium
+and Persia were not fighting the barbarians from the north, they
+wasted Asia Minor and Syria in dreary and destructive hostilities.
+Even in close alliance these two empires would have found it a
+hard task to turn back the barbarians and recover their
+prosperity.  The Turks or Tartars first come into history as the
+allies first of one power and then of another.  In the sixth
+century the two chief antagonists were Justinian and Chosroes I;
+in the opening of the seventh the Emperor Heraclius was pitted
+against Chosroes II (580).
+
+At first and until after Heraclius had become Emperor (610)
+Chosroes II carried all before him.  He took Antioch, Damascus and
+Jerusalem and his armies reached Chalcedon, which is in Asia Minor
+over against Constantinople.  In 619 he conquered Egypt.  Then
+Heraclius pressed a counter attack home and routed a Persian army
+at Nineveh (627), although at that time there were still Persian
+troops at Chalcedon.  In 628 Chosroes II was deposed and murdered
+by his son, Kavadh, and an inconclusive peace was made between the
+two exhausted empires.
+
+Byzantium and Persia had fought their last war.  But few people as
+yet dreamt of the storm that was even then gathering in the
+deserts to put an end for ever to this aimless, chronic struggle.
+
+While Heraclius was restoring order in Syria a message reached
+him.  It had been brought in to the imperial outpost at Bostra
+south of Damascus; it was in Arabic, an obscure Semitic desert
+language, and it was read to the Emperor, if it reached him at
+all, by an interpreter.  It was from someone who called himself
+"Muhammad the Prophet of God."  It called upon the Emperor to
+{244} acknowledge the One True God and to serve him.  What the
+Emperor said is not recorded.
+
+A similar message came to Kavadh at Ctesiphon.  He was annoyed,
+tore up the letter, and bade the messenger begone.
+
+This Muhammad, it appeared, was a Bedouin leader whose
+headquarters were in the mean little desert town of Medina.  He
+was preaching a new religion of faith in the One True God.
+
+"Even so, O Lord!" he said; "rend thou his Kingdom from Kavadh."
+
+
+
+
+{245}
+
+XLII
+
+THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA
+
+
+Throughout the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, there
+was a steady drift of Mongolian peoples westward.  The Huns of
+Attila were merely precursors of this advance, which led at last
+to the establishment of Mongolian peoples in Finland, Esthonia,
+Hungary and Bulgaria, where their descendants, speaking languages
+akin to Turkish, survive to this day.  The Mongolian nomads were,
+in fact, playing a role towards the Aryanized civilizations of
+Europe and Persia and India that the Aryans had played to the
+�gean and Semitic civilizations ten or fifteen centuries before.
+
+In Central Asia the Turkish peoples had taken root in what is now
+Western Turkestan, and Persia already employed many Turkish
+officials and Turkish mercenaries.  The Parthians had gone out of
+history, absorbed into the general population of Persia.  There
+were no more Aryan nomads in the history of Central Asia;
+Mongolian people had replaced them.  The Turks became masters of
+Asia from China to the Caspian.
+
+The same great pestilence at the end of the second century A.D.
+that had shattered the Roman Empire had overthrown the Han dynasty
+in China.  Then came a period of division and of Hunnish conquests
+from which China arose refreshed, more rapidly and more completely
+than Europe was destined to do.  Before the end of the sixth
+century China was reunited under the Suy dynasty, and this by the
+time of Heraclius gave place to the Tang dynasty, whose reign
+marks another great period of prosperity for China.
+
+Throughout the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries China was the
+most secure and civilized country in the world.  The Han dynasty
+had extended her boundaries in the north; the Suy and Tang
+dynasties now spread her civilization to the south, and China
+{247} began to assume the proportions she has to-day.  In Central
+Asia indeed she reached much further, extending at last, through
+tributary Turkish tribes, to Persia and the Caspian Sea.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{246}
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG
+DYNASTY, 616-906]
+
+====================================================================
+
+The new China that had arisen was a very different land from the
+old China of the Hans.  A new and more vigorous literary school
+appeared, there was a great poetic revival; Buddhism had
+revolutionized philosophical and religious thought.  There were
+great advances in artistic work, in technical skill and in all the
+amenities of life.  Tea was first used, paper manufactured and
+wood-block printing began.  Millions of people indeed were leading
+orderly, graceful and kindly lives in China during these centuries
+when the attenuated populations of Europe and Western Asia were
+living either in hovels, small walled cities or grim robber
+fortresses.  While the mind of the west was black with theological
+obsessions, the mind of China was open and tolerant and enquiring.
+
+One of the earliest monarchs of the Tang dynasty was Tai-tsung,
+who began to reign in 627, the year of the victory of Heraclius at
+Nineveh.  He received an embassy from Heraclius, who was probably
+seeking an ally in the rear of Persia.  From Persia itself came a
+party of Christian missionaries (635).  They were allowed to
+explain their creed to Tai-tsung and he examined a Chinese
+translation of their Scriptures.  He pronounced this strange
+religion acceptable, and gave permission for the foundation of a
+church and monastery.
+
+To this monarch also (in 628) came messengers from Muhammad.  They
+came to Canton on a trading ship.  They had sailed the whole way
+from Arabia along the Indian coasts.  Unlike Heraclius and Kavadh,
+Tai-Tsung gave these envoys a courteous hearing.  He expressed his
+interest in their theological ideas and assisted them to build a
+mosque in Canton, a mosque which survives, it is said, to this
+day, the oldest mosque in the world.
+
+
+
+
+{248}
+
+XLIII
+
+MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM
+
+
+A prophetic amateur of history surveying the world in the opening
+of the seventh century might have concluded very reasonably that
+it was only a question of a few centuries before the whole of
+Europe and Asia fell under Mongolian domination.  There were no
+signs of order or union in Western Europe, and the Byzantine and
+Persian Empires were manifestly bent upon a mutual destruction.
+India also was divided and wasted.  On the other hand China was a
+steadily expanding empire which probably at that time exceeded all
+Europe in population, and the Turkish people who were growing to
+power in Central Asia were disposed to work in accord with China.
+And such a prophecy would not have been an altogether vain one.  A
+time was to come in the thirteenth century when a Mongolian
+overlord would rule from the Danube to the Pacific, and Turkish
+dynasties were destined to reign over the entire Byzantine and
+Persian Empires, over Egypt and most of India.
+
+Where our prophet would have been most likely to have erred would
+have been in under-estimating the recuperative power of the Latin
+end of Europe and in ignoring the latent forces of the Arabian
+desert.  Arabia would have seemed what it had been for times
+immemorial, the refuge of small and bickering nomadic tribes.  No
+Semitic people had founded an empire now for more than a thousand
+years.
+
+Then suddenly the Bedouin flared out for a brief century of
+splendour.  They spread their rule and language from Spain to the
+boundaries of China.  They gave the world a new culture.  They
+created a religion that is still to this day one of the most vital
+forces in the world.
+
+{249}
+
+The man who fired this Arab flame appears first in history as the
+young husband of the widow of a rich merchant of the town of
+Mecca, named Muhammad.  Until he was forty he did very little to
+distinguish himself in the world.  He seems to have taken
+considerable interest in religious discussion.  Mecca was a pagan
+city at that time worshipping in particular a black stone, the
+Kaaba, of great repute throughout all Arabia and a centre of
+pilgrimages; but there were great numbers of Jews in the
+country--indeed all the southern portion of Arabia professed the
+Jewish faith--and there were Christian churches in Syria.
+
+About forty Muhammad began to develop prophetic characteristics
+like those of the Hebrew prophets twelve hundred years before him.
+He talked first to his wife of the One True God, and of the
+rewards and punishments of virtue and wickedness.  There can be no
+doubt that his thoughts were very strongly influenced by Jewish
+and Christian ideas.  He gathered about him a small circle of
+believers and presently began to preach in the town against the
+prevalent idolatry.  This made him extremely unpopular with his
+fellow townsmen because the pilgrimages to the Kaaba were the
+chief source of such prosperity as Mecca enjoyed.  He became
+bolder and more definite in his teaching, declaring himself to be
+the last chosen prophet of God entrusted with a mission to perfect
+religion.  Abraham, he declared, and Jesus Christ were his
+forerunners.  He had been chosen to complete and perfect the
+revelation of God's will.
+
+He produced verses which he said had been communicated to him by
+an angel, and he had a strange vision in which he was taken up
+through the Heavens to God and instructed in his mission.
+
+As his teaching increased in force the hostility of his fellow
+townsmen increased also.  At last a plot was made to kill him; but
+he escaped with his faithful friend and disciple, Abu Bekr, to the
+friendly town of Medina which adopted his doctrine.  Hostilities
+followed between Mecca and Medina which ended at last in a treaty.
+Mecca was to adopt the worship of the One True God and accept
+Muhammad as his prophet, but the adherents of the new _faith were
+still to make the pilgrimage to Mecca_ just as they had done when
+they were pagans.  So Muhammad established the One True God in
+{251} Mecca without injuring its pilgrim traffic.  In 629 Muhammad
+returned to Mecca as its master, a year after he had sent out
+these envoys of his to Heraclius, Tai-tsung, Kavadh and all the
+rulers of the earth.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{250}
+
+[Illustration: AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT]
+
+[Illustration: LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND]
+
+=====================================================================
+
+Then for four years more until his death in 632, Muhammad spread
+his power over the rest of Arabia.  He married a number of wives
+in his declining years, and his life on the whole was by modern
+standards unedifying.  He seems to have been a man compounded of
+very considerable vanity, greed, cunning, self-deception and quite
+sincere religious passion.  He dictated a book of injunctions and
+expositions, the Koran, which he declared was communicated to him
+from God.  Regarded as literature or philosophy the Koran is
+certainly unworthy of its alleged Divine authorship.
+
+Yet when the manifest defects of Muhammad's life and writings have
+been allowed for, there remains in Islam, this faith he imposed
+upon the Arabs, much power and inspiration.  One is its
+uncompromising monotheism; its simple enthusiastic faith in the
+rule and fatherhood of God and its freedom from theological
+complications.  Another is its complete detachment from the
+sacrificial priest and the temple.  It is an entirely prophetic
+religion, proof against any possibility of relapse towards blood
+sacrifices.  In the Koran the limited {252} and ceremonial nature
+of the pilgrimage to Mecca is stated beyond the possibility of
+dispute, and every precaution was taken by Muhammad to prevent the
+deification of himself after his death.  And a third element of
+strength lay in the insistence of Islam upon the perfect
+brotherhood and equality before God of all believers, whatever
+their colour, origin or status.
+
+These are the things that made Islam a power in human affairs.  It
+has been said that the true founder of the Empire of Islam was not
+so much Muhammad as his friend and helper, Abu Bekr.  If Muhammad,
+with his shifty character, was the mind and imagination of
+primitive Islam, Abu Bekr was its conscience and its will.
+Whenever Muhammad wavered Abu Bekr sustained him.  And when
+Muhammad died, Abu Bekr became Caliph (= successor), and with that
+faith that moves mountains, he set himself simply and sanely to
+organize the subjugation of the whole world to Allah--with little
+armies of 3,000 or 4,000 Arabs--according to those letters the
+prophet had written from Medina in 628 to all the monarchs of the
+world.
+
+
+
+
+{253}
+
+XLIV
+
+THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS
+
+
+There follows the most amazing story of conquest in the whole
+history of our race.  The Byzantine army was smashed at the battle
+of the Yarmuk (a tributary of the Jordan) in 634; and the Emperor
+Heraclius, his energy sapped by dropsy and his resources exhausted
+by the Persian war, saw his new conquests in Syria, Damascus,
+Palmyra, Antioch, Jerusalem and the rest fall almost without
+resistance to the Moslim.  Large elements in the population went
+over to Islam.  Then the Moslim turned east.  The Persians had
+found an able general in Rustam; they had a great host with a
+force of elephants; and for three days they fought the Arabs at
+Kadessia (637) and broke at last in headlong rout.
+
+The conquest of all Persia followed, and the Moslem Empire pushed
+far into Western Turkestan and eastward until it met the Chinese.
+Egypt fell almost without resistance to the new conquerors, who
+full of a fanatical belief in the sufficiency of the Koran, wiped
+out the vestiges of the book-copying industry of the Alexandria
+Library.  The tide of conquest poured along the north coast of
+Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar and Spain.  Spain was invaded
+in 710 and the Pyrenees Mountains were reached in 720.  In 732 the
+Arab advance had reached the centre of France, but here it was
+stopped for good at the battle of Poitiers and thrust back as far
+as the Pyrenees again.  The conquest of Egypt had given the Moslim
+a fleet, and for a time it looked as though they would take
+Constantinople.  They made repeated sea attacks between 672 and
+718 but the great city held out against them.
+
+The Arabs had little political aptitude and no political
+experience, and this great empire with its capital now at
+Damascus, which stretched from Spain to China, was destined to
+break up very speedily. From the very beginning doctrinal
+differences undermined {254} its unity.  But our interest here
+lies not with the story of its political disintegration but with
+its effect upon the human mind and upon the general destinies of
+our race.  The Arab intelligence had been flung across the world
+even more swiftly and dramatically than had the Greek a thousand
+years before.  The intellectual stimulation of the whole world
+west of China, the break-up of old ideas and development of new
+ones, was enormous.
+
+[Map: The Growth of the Moslem Power in 25 Years]
+
+[Map: the Moslem Empire, 750 A.D.]
+
+{255}
+
+In Persia this fresh excited Arabic mind came into contact not
+only with Manich�an, Zoroastrian and Christian doctrine, but with
+the scientific Greek literature, preserved not only in Greek but
+in Syrian translations.  It found Greek learning in Egypt also.
+Every-where, and particularly in Spain, it discovered an active
+Jewish tradition of speculation and discussion.  In Central Asia
+it met Buddhism and the material achievements of Chinese
+civilization.  It learnt the manufacture of paper--which made
+printed books possible--from the Chinese.  And finally it came
+into touch with Indian mathematics and philosophy.
+
+[Illustration: JERUSALEM, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR]
+
+Very speedily the intolerant self-sufficiency of the early days of
+faith, which made the Koran seem the only possible book, was
+dropped. Learning sprang up everywhere in the footsteps of the
+Arab conquerors.  By the eighth century there was an educational
+{256} organization throughout the whole "Arabized" world.  In the
+ninth learned men in the schools of Cordoba in Spain were
+corresponding with learned men in Cairo, Bagdad, Bokhara and
+Samarkand.  The Jewish mind assimilated very readily with the
+Arab, and for a time the two Semitic races worked together through
+the medium of Arabic.  Long after the political break-up and
+enfeeblement of the Arabs, this intellectual community of the
+Arab-speaking world endured.  It was still producing very
+considerable results in the thirteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF CAIRO MOSQUES]
+
+So it was that the systematic accumulation and criticism of facts
+which was first begun by the Greeks was resumed in this
+astonishing renascence of the Semitic world.  The seed of
+Aristotle and the museum of Alexandria that had lain so long
+inactive and neglected now germinated and began to grow towards
+fruition.  Very great advances were made in mathematical, medical
+and physical science.  {257} The clumsy Roman numerals were ousted
+by the Arabic figures we use to this day and the zero sign was
+first employed.  The very name _algebra_ is Arabic.  So is the
+word chemistry.  The names of such stars as Algol, Aldebaran and
+Bo�tes preserve the traces of Arab conquests in the sky.  Their
+philosophy was destined to reanimate the medieval philosophy of
+France and Italy and the whole Christian world.
+
+The Arab experimental chemists were called alchemists, and they
+were still sufficiently barbaric in spirit to keep their methods
+and results secret as far as possible.  They realized from the
+very beginning what enormous advantages their possible discoveries
+might give them, and what far-reaching consequences they might
+have on human life.  They came upon many metallurgical and
+technical devices of the utmost value, alloys and dyes,
+distilling, tinctures and essences, optical glass; but the two
+chief ends they sought, they sought in vain.  One was "the
+philosopher's stone"--a means of changing the metallic elements
+one into another and so getting a control of artificial gold, and
+the other was the _elixir vitoe_, a stimulant that would revivify
+age and prolong life indefinitely.  The crabbed patient
+experimenting of these Arab alchemists spread into the Christian
+world.  The fascination of their enquiries spread.  Very gradually
+the activities of these alchemists became more social and
+co-operative.  They found it profitable to exchange and compare
+ideas.  By insensible gradations the last of the alchemists became
+the first of the experimental philosophers.
+
+The old alchemists sought the philosopher's stone which was to
+transmute base metals to gold, and an elixir of immortality; they
+found the methods of modern experimental science which promise in
+the end to give man illimitable power over the world and over his
+own destiny.
+
+
+
+
+{258}
+
+XLV
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM
+
+
+It is worth while to note the extremely shrunken dimensions of the
+share of the world remaining under Aryan control in the seventh
+and eighth centuries.  A thousand years before, the Aryan-speaking
+races were triumphant over all the civilized world west of China.
+Now the Mongol had thrust as far as Hungary, nothing of Asia
+remained under Aryan rule except the Byzantine dominions in Asia
+Minor, and all Africa was lost and nearly all Spain.  The great
+Hellenic world had shrunken to a few possessions round the nucleus
+of the trading city of Constantinople, and the memory of the Roman
+world was kept alive by the Latin of the western Christian
+priests.  In vivid contrast to this tale of retrogression, the
+Semitic tradition had risen again from subjugation and obscurity
+after a thousand years of darkness.
+
+Yet the vitality of the Nordic peoples was not exhausted.
+Confined now to Central and North-Western Europe and terribly
+muddled in their social and political ideas, they were
+nevertheless building up gradually and steadily a new social order
+and preparing unconsciously for the recovery of a power even more
+extensive than that they had previously enjoyed.
+
+We have told how at the beginning of the sixth century there
+remained no central government in Western Europe at all.  That
+world was divided up among numbers of local rulers holding their
+own as they could.  This was too insecure a state of affairs to
+last; a system of co-operation and association grew up in this
+disorder, the feudal system, which has left its traces upon
+European life up to the present time.  This feudal system was a
+sort of crystallization of society about power.  Everywhere the
+lone man felt insecure and was prepared to barter a certain amount
+of his liberty for help and protection.  He sought a stronger man
+as his lord and protector; {259} he gave him military services and
+paid him dues, and in return he was confirmed in his possession of
+what was his.  His lord again found safety in vassalage to a still
+greater lord.  Cities also found it convenient to have feudal
+protectors, and monasteries and church estates bound themselves by
+similar ties.  No doubt in many cases allegiance was claimed
+before it was offered; the system grew downward as well as upward.
+So a sort of pyramidal system grew up, varying widely in different
+localities, permitting at first a considerable play of violence
+and private warfare but making steadily for order and a new reign
+of law.  The pyramids grew up until some became recognizable as
+kingdoms.  Already by the early sixth century a Frankish kingdom
+existed under its founder Clovis in what is now France and the
+Netherlands, and presently Visigothic and Lombard and Gothic
+kingdoms were in existence.
+
+The Moslim when they crossed the Pyrenees in 720 found this
+Frankish kingdom under the practical rule of Charles Martel, the
+Mayor of the Palace of a degenerate descendant of Clovis, and
+experienced the decisive defeat of Poitiers (732) at his hands.
+This Charles Martel was practically overlord of Europe north of
+the Alps from the Pyrenees to Hungary.  He ruled over a multitude
+of subordinate lords speaking French-Latin, and High and Low
+German languages.  His son Pepin extinguished the last descendants
+of Clovis and took the kingly state and title.  His grandson
+Charlemagne, who began to reign in 768, found himself lord of a
+realm so large that he could think of reviving the title of Latin
+Emperor.  He conquered North Italy and made himself master of
+Rome.
+
+Approaching the story of Europe as we do from the wider horizons
+of a world history we can see much more distinctly than the mere
+nationalist historian how cramping and disastrous this tradition
+of the Latin Roman Empire was.  A narrow intense struggle for this
+phantom predominance was to consume European energy for more than
+a thousand years.  Through all that period it is possible to trace
+certain unquenchable antagonisms; they run through the wits of
+Europe like the obsessions of a demented mind.  One driving force
+was this ambition of successful rulers, which Charlemagne (Charles
+the Great) embodied, to become C�sar.  The realm of Charlemagne
+consisted of a complex of feudal German states at {260} various
+stages of barbarism.  West of the Rhine, most of these German
+peoples had learnt to speak various Latinized dialects which fused
+at last to form French.  East of the Rhine, the racially similar
+German peoples did not lose their German speech.  On account of
+this, communication was difficult between these two groups of
+barbarian conquerors and a split easily brought about.  The split
+was made the more easy by the fact that the Frankish usage made it
+seem natural to divide the empire of Charlemagne among his sons at
+his death.  So one aspect of the history of Europe from the days
+of Charlemagne onwards is a history of first this monarch and his
+family and then that, struggling to a precarious headship of the
+kings, princes, dukes, bishops and cities of Europe, while a
+steadily deepening antagonism between the French and German
+speaking elements develops in the medley.  There was a formality
+of election for each emperor; and the climax of his ambition was
+to struggle to the possession of that worn-out, misplaced capital
+Rome and to a coronation there.
+
+[Map: Area more or less under Frankish dominion in the time of
+Charles Martel]
+
+{261}
+
+The next factor in the European political disorder was the resolve
+of the Church at Rome to make no temporal prince but the Pope of
+Rome himself emperor in effect.  He was already pontifex maximus;
+for all practical purposes he held the decaying city; if he had no
+armies he had at least a vast propaganda organization in his
+priests throughout the whole Latin world; if he had little power
+over men's bodies he held the keys of heaven and hell in their
+imaginations and could exercise much influence upon their souls.
+So throughout the middle ages while one prince manoeuvred against
+another first for equality, then for ascendancy, and at last for
+the supreme prize, the Pope of Rome, sometimes boldly, sometimes
+craftily, sometimes feebly--for the Popes were a succession of
+oldish men and the average reign of a Pope was not more than two
+years--manoeuvred for the submission of all the princes to himself
+as the ultimate overlord of Christendom.
+
+But these antagonisms of prince against prince and of Emperor
+against Pope do not by any means exhaust the factors of the
+European confusion.  There was still an Emperor in Constantinople
+speaking Greek and claiming the allegiance of all Europe.  When
+Charlemagne sought to revive the empire, it was merely the Latin
+end of the empire he revived.  It was natural that a sense of
+rivalry between Latin Empire and Greek Empire should develop very
+readily.  And still more readily did the rivalry of
+Greek-speaking Christianity and the newer Latin-speaking version
+develop.  The Pope of Rome claimed to be the successor of St.
+Peter, the chief of the apostles of Christ, and the head of the
+Christian community everywhere.  Neither the emperor nor the
+patriarch in Constantinople were disposed to acknowledge this
+claim.  A dispute about a fine point in the doctrine of the Holy
+Trinity consummated a long series of dissensions in a final
+rupture in 1054.  The Latin Church and the Greek Church became and
+remained thereafter distinct and frankly antagonistic.  This
+antagonism must be added to the others in our estimate of the
+conflicts that wasted Latin Christendom in the middle ages.
+
+Upon this divided world of Christendom rained the blows of three
+sets of antagonists.  About the Baltic and North Seas remained a
+series of Nordic tribes who were only very slowly and reluctantly
+{263} Christianized; these were the Northmen.  They had taken to
+the sea and piracy, and were raiding all the Christian coasts down
+to Spain.  They had pushed up the Russian rivers to the desolate
+central lands and brought their shipping over into the
+south-flowing rivers.  They had come out upon the Caspian and Black
+Seas as pirates also.  They set up principalities in Russia; they
+were the first people to be called Russians.  These Northmen
+Russians came near to taking Constantinople.  England in the early
+ninth century was a Christianized Low German country under a king,
+Egbert, a prot�g� and pupil of Charlemagne.  The Northmen wrested
+half the kingdom from his successor Alfred the Great (886), and
+finally under Canute (1016) made themselves masters of the whole
+land.  Under Rolph the Ganger (912) another band of Northmen
+conquered the north of France, which became Normandy.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{262}
+
+[Illustration: STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE IN FRONT OF NOTRE DAME,
+PARIS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Canute ruled not only over England but over Norway and Denmark,
+but his brief empire fell to pieces at his death through that
+political weakness of the barbaric peoples--division among a
+ruler's sons.  It is interesting to speculate what might have
+happened if this temporary union of the Northmen had endured.
+They were a race of astonishing boldness and energy.  They sailed
+in their galleys even to Iceland and Greenland.  They were the
+first Europeans to land on American soil.  Later on Norman
+adventurers were to recover Sicily from the Saracens and sack
+Rome.  It is a fascinating thing to imagine what a great northern
+sea-faring power might have grown out of Canute's kingdom,
+reaching from America to Russia.
+
+To the east of the Germans and Latinized Europeans was a medley of
+Slav tribes and Turkish peoples.  Prominent among these were the
+Magyars or Hungarians who were coming westward throughout the
+eighth and ninth centuries.  Charlemagne held them for a time, but
+after his death they established themselves in what is now
+Hungary; and after the fashion of their kindred predecessors, the
+Huns, raided every summer into the settled parts of Europe.  In
+938 they went through Germany into France, crossed the Alps into
+North Italy, and so came home, burning, robbing and destroying.
+
+Finally pounding away from the south at the vestiges of the {264}
+Roman Empire were the Saracens.  They had made themselves largely
+masters of the sea; their only formidable adversaries upon the
+water were the Northmen, the Russian Northmen out of the Black Sea
+and the Northmen of the west.
+
+[Map: Europe at the death of Charlemagne--814]
+
+Hemmed in by these more vigorous and aggressive peoples, amidst
+forces they did not understand and dangers they could not
+estimate, Charlemagne and after him a series of other ambitious
+spirits took up the futile drama of restoring the Western Empire
+under the name of the Holy Roman Empire.  From the time of
+Charlemagne onward this idea obsessed the political life of
+Western Europe, while in the East the Greek half of the Roman
+power decayed and dwindled until at last nothing remained of it at
+all but the corrupt trading city of Constantinople and a few miles
+of territory about it.  Politically the continent of Europe
+remained traditional and uncreative from the time of Charlemagne
+onward for a thousand years.
+
+{265}
+
+The name of Charlemagne looms large in European history but his
+personality is but indistinctly seen.  He could not read nor
+write, but he had a considerable respect for learning; he liked to
+be read aloud to at meals and he had a weakness for theological
+discussion.  At his winter quarters at
+Aix-la-Chapelle or Mayence he gathered about him a number of
+learned men and picked up much from their conversation.  In the
+summer he made war, against the Spanish Saracens, against the
+Slavs and Magyars, against the Saxons, and other still heathen
+German tribes.  It is doubtful whether the idea of becoming C�sar
+in succession to Romulus Augustulus occurred to him before his
+acquisition of North Italy, or whether it was suggested to him by
+Pope Leo III, who was anxious to make the Latin Church independent
+of Constantinople.
+
+There were the most extraordinary manoeuvres at Rome between the
+Pope and the prospective emperor in order to make it appear or not
+appear as if the Pope gave him the imperial crown.  The Pope
+succeeded in crowning his visitor and conqueror by surprise in St.
+Peter's on Christmas Day 800 A.D.  He produced a crown, put it on
+the head of Charlemagne and hailed him C�sar and Augustus.  There
+was great applause among the people.  Charlemagne was by no means
+pleased at the way in which the thing was done, it rankled in his
+mind as a defeat; and he left the most careful instructions to his
+son that he was not to let the Pope crown him emperor; he was to
+seize the crown into his own hands and put it on his own head
+himself.  So at the very outset of this imperial revival we see
+beginning the age-long dispute of Pope and Emperor for priority.
+But Louis the Pious, the son of Charlemagne, disregarded his
+father's instructions and was entirely submissive to the Pope.
+
+The empire of Charlemagne fell apart at the death of Louis the
+Pious and the split between the French-speaking Franks and the
+German-speaking Franks widened.  The next emperor to arise was
+Otto, the son of a certain Henry the Fowler, a Saxon, who had been
+elected King of Germany by an assembly of German princes and
+prelates in 919.  Otto descended upon Rome and was crowned emperor
+there in 962.  This Saxon line came to an end early in the
+eleventh century and gave place to other German rulers.  The
+feudal princes and nobles to the west who spoke various French
+dialects {266} did not fall under the sway of these German
+emperors after the Carlovingian line, the line that is descended
+from Charlemagne, had come to an end, and no part of Britain ever
+came into the Holy Roman Empire.  The Duke of Normandy, the King
+of France and a number of lesser feudal rulers remained outside.
+In 987 the Kingdom of France passed out of the possession of the
+Carlovingian line into the hands of Hugh Capet, whose descendants
+were still reigning in the eighteenth century.  At the time of
+Hugh Capet the King of France ruled only a comparatively small
+territory round Paris.
+
+In 1066 England was attacked almost simultaneously by an invasion
+of the Norwegian Northmen under King Harold Hardrada and by the
+Latinized Northmen under the Duke of Normandy.  Harold King of
+England defeated the former at the battle of Stamford Bridge, and
+was defeated by the latter at Hastings.  England was conquered by
+the Normans, and so cut off from Scandinavian, Teutonic and
+Russian affairs, and brought into the most intimate relations and
+conflicts with the French.  For the next four centuries the
+English were entangled in the conflicts of the French feudal
+princes and wasted upon the fields of France.
+
+
+
+
+{267}
+
+XLVI
+
+THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION
+
+
+It is interesting to note that Charlemagne corresponded with the
+Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid, the Haroun-al-Raschid of the _Arabian
+Nights_.  It is recorded that Haroun-al-Raschid sent ambassadors
+from Bagdad--which had now replaced Damascus as the Moslem
+capital--with a splendid tent, a water clock, an elephant and the
+keys of the Holy Sepulchre.  This latter present was admirably
+calculated to set the Byzantine Empire and this new Holy Roman
+Empire by the ears as to which was the proper protector of the
+Christians in Jerusalem.
+
+These presents remind us that while Europe in the ninth century
+was still a weltering disorder of war and pillage, there
+flourished a great Arab Empire in Egypt and Mesopotamia, far more
+civilized than anything Europe could show.  Here literature and
+science still lived; the arts flourished, and the mind of man
+could move without fear or superstition.  And even in Spain and
+North Africa where the Saracenic dominions were falling into
+political confusion there was a vigorous intellectual life.
+Aristotle was read and discussed by these Jews and Arabs during
+these centuries of European darkness.  They guarded the neglected
+seeds of science and philosophy.
+
+North-east of the Caliph's dominions was a number of Turkish
+tribes.  They had been converted to Islam, and they held the faith
+much more simply and fiercely than the actively intellectual Arabs
+and Persians to the south.  In the tenth century the Turks were
+growing strong and vigorous while the Arab power was divided and
+decaying.  The relations of the Turks to the Empire of the
+Caliphate became very similar to the relations of the Medes to the
+last Babylonian Empire fourteen centuries before.  In the eleventh
+century a group of Turkish tribes, the Seljuk Turks, came down
+into Mesopotamia and made the Caliph their nominal ruler but
+really their {268} captive and tool.  They conquered Armenia.
+Then they struck at the remnants of the Byzantine power in Asia
+Minor.  In 1071 the Byzantine army was utterly smashed at the
+battle of Melasgird, and the Turks swept forward until not a trace
+of Byzantine rule remained in Asia.  They took the fortress of
+Nic�a over against Constantinople, and prepared to attempt that
+city.
+
+The Byzantine emperor, Michael VII, was overcome with terror.  He
+was already heavily engaged in warfare with a band of Norman
+adventurers who had seized Durazzo, and with a fierce Turkish
+people, the Petschenegs, who were raiding over the Danube.  In his
+extremity he sought help where he could, and it is notable that he
+did not appeal to the western emperor but to the Pope of Rome as
+the head of Latin Christendom.  He wrote to Pope Gregory VII, and
+his successor Alexius Comnenus wrote still more urgently to Urban
+II.
+
+[Illustration: CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRAL]
+
+This was not a quarter of a century from the rupture of the Latin
+and Greek churches.  That controversy was still vividly alive in
+men's minds, and this disaster to Byzantium must have presented
+itself to the Pope as a supreme opportunity for reasserting the
+supremacy of the Latin Church over the dissentient Greeks.
+Moreover this occasion gave the Pope a chance to deal with two
+other matters that troubled western Christendom very greatly.  One
+was the custom of "private war" which disordered social life, and
+the other was the superabundant fighting energy of the Low Germans
+and Christianized Northmen and particularly of the Franks and
+Normans.  A religious war, the Crusade, the War of the Cross, was
+{269} preached against the Turkish captors of Jerusalem, and a
+truce to all warfare amongst Christians (1095).  The declared
+object of this war was the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre from the
+unbelievers.  A man called Peter the Hermit carried on a popular
+propaganda throughout France and Germany on broadly democratic
+lines.  He went clad in a coarse garment, barefooted on an ass, he
+carried a huge cross and harangued the crowd in street or
+market-place or church.  He denounced the cruelties practised upon
+the Christian pilgrims by the Turks, and the shame of the Holy
+Sepulchre being in any but Christian hands.  The fruits of
+centuries of Christian teaching became apparent in the response.
+A great wave of enthusiasm swept the western world, and popular
+Christendom discovered itself.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF CAIRO]
+
+Such a widespread uprising of the common people in relation to a
+single idea as now occurred was a new thing in the history of our
+race.  There is nothing to parallel it in the previous history of
+the {270} Roman Empire or of India or China.  On a smaller scale,
+however, there had been similar movements among the Jewish people
+after their liberation from the Babylonian captivity, and later on
+Islam was to display a parallel susceptibility to collective
+feeling.  Such movements were certainly connected with the new
+spirit that had come into life with the development of the
+missionary-teaching religions.  The Hebrew prophets, Jesus and his
+disciples, Mani, Muhammad, were all exhorters of men's individual
+souls.  They brought the personal conscience face to face with
+God.  Before that time religion had been much more a business of
+fetish, of pseudoscience, than of conscience.  The old kind of
+religion turned upon temple, initiated priest and mystical
+sacrifice, and ruled the common man like a slave by fear.  The new
+kind of religion made a man of him.
+
+The preaching of the First Crusade was the first stirring of the
+common people in European history.  It may be too much to call it
+the birth of modern democracy, but certainly at that time modern
+democracy stirred.  Before very long we shall find it stirring
+again, and raising the most disturbing social and religious
+questions.
+
+Certainly this first stirring of democracy ended very pitifully
+and lamentably.  Considerable bodies of common people, crowds
+rather than armies, set out eastward from France and the Rhineland
+and Central Europe without waiting for leaders or proper equipment
+to rescue the Holy Sepulchre.  This was the "people's crusade."
+Two great mobs blundered into Hungary, mistook the recently
+converted Magyars for pagans, committed atrocities and were
+massacred.  A third multitude with a similarly confused mind,
+after a great pogrom of the Jews in the Rhineland, marched
+eastward, and was also destroyed in Hungary.  Two other huge
+crowds, under the leadership of Peter the Hermit himself, reached
+Constantinople, crossed the Bosphorus, and were massacred rather
+than defeated by the Seljuk Turks.  So began and ended this first
+movement of the European people, as people.
+
+Next year (1097) the real fighting forces crossed the Bosphorus.
+Essentially they were Norman in leadership and spirit.  They
+stormed Nic�a, marched by much the same route as Alexander had
+followed fourteen centuries before, to Antioch.  The siege of
+Antioch {271} kept them a year, and in June 1099 they invested
+Jerusalem.  It was stormed after a month's siege.  The slaughter
+was terrible.  Men riding on horseback were splashed by the blood
+in the streets.  At nightfall on July 15th the Crusaders had
+fought their way into the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and
+overcome all opposition there: blood-stained, weary and "sobbing
+from excess of joy" they knelt down in prayer.
+
+[Illustration: THE HORSES OF S. MARK, VENICE]
+
+Immediately the hostility of Latin and Greek broke out again.  The
+Crusaders were the servants of the Latin Church, and the Greek
+patriarch of Jerusalem found himself in a far worse case under the
+triumphant Latins than under the Turks.  The Crusaders discovered
+themselves between Byzantine and Turk and fighting both.  Much of
+Asia Minor was recovered by the Byzantine Empire, and the Latin
+princes were left, a buffer between Turk and Greek, with Jerusalem
+and a few small principalities, of which Edessa was one of the
+chief, in Syria.  Their grip even on these possessions was
+precarious, and in 1144 Edessa fell to the Moslim, leading to an
+ineffective Second Crusade, which failed to recover Edessa but
+saved Antioch from a similar fate.
+
+{272}
+
+In 1169 the forces of Islam were rallied under a Kurdish
+adventurer named Saladin who had made himself master of Egypt.  He
+preached a Holy War against the Christians, recaptured Jerusalem
+in 1187, and so provoked the Third Crusade.  This failed to
+recover Jerusalem.  In the Fourth Crusade (1202-4) the Latin
+Church turned frankly upon the Greek Empire, and there was not
+even a pretence of fighting the Turks.  It started from Venice and
+in 1204 it stormed Constantinople.  The great rising trading city
+of Venice was the leader in this adventure, and most of the coasts
+and islands of the Byzantine Empire were annexed by the Venetians.
+A "Latin" emperor (Baldwin of Flanders) was set up in
+Constantinople and the Latin and Greek Church were declared to be
+reunited.  The Latin emperors ruled in Constantinople from 1204 to
+1261 when the Greek world shook itself free again from Roman
+predominance.
+
+The twelfth century then and the opening of the thirteenth was the
+age of papal ascendancy just as the eleventh was the age of the
+ascendancy of the Seljuk Turks and the tenth the age of the
+Northmen.  A united Christendom under the rule of the Pope came
+nearer to being a working reality than it ever was before or after
+that time.
+
+In those centuries a simple Christian faith was real and
+widespread over great areas of Europe.  Rome itself had passed
+through some dark and discreditable phases; few writers can be
+found to excuse the lives of Popes John XI and John XII in the
+tenth century; they were abominable creatures; but the heart and
+body of Latin Christendom had remained earnest and simple; the
+generality of the common priests and monks and nuns had lived
+exemplary and faithful lives.  Upon the wealth of confidence such
+lives created rested the power of the church.  Among the great
+Popes of the past had been Gregory the Great, Gregory I (590-604)
+and Leo III (795-816) who invited Charlemagne to be C�sar and
+crowned him in spite of himself.  Towards the close of the
+eleventh century there arose a great clerical statesman,
+Hildebrand, who ended his life as Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085).
+Next but one after him came Urban II (1087-1099), the Pope of the
+First Crusade.  These two were the founders of this period of
+papal greatness during which the Popes lorded it over the
+Emperors.  From Bulgaria to Ireland and {274} from Norway to
+Sicily and Jerusalem the Pope was supreme.  Gregory VII obliged
+the Emperor Henry IV to come in penitence to him at Canossa and to
+await forgiveness for three days and nights in the courtyard of
+the castle, clad in sackcloth and barefooted to the snow.  In 1176
+at Venice the Emperor Frederick (Frederick Barbarossa), knelt to
+Pope Alexander III and swore fealty to him.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{273}
+
+[Illustration: A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA]
+
+====================================================================
+
+The great power of the church in the beginning of the eleventh
+century lay in the wills and consciences of men.  It failed to
+retain the moral prestige on which its power was based.  In the
+opening decades of the fourteenth century it was discovered that
+the power of the Pope had evaporated.  What was it that destroyed
+the naive confidence of the common people of Christendom in the
+church so that they would no longer rally to its appeal and serve
+its purposes?
+
+The first trouble was certainly the accumulation of wealth by the
+church.  The church never died, and there was a frequent
+disposition on the part of dying childless people to leave lands
+to the church.  Penitent sinners were exhorted to do so.
+Accordingly in many European countries as much as a fourth of the
+land became church property.  The appetite for property grows with
+what it feeds upon.  Already in the thirteenth century it was
+being said everywhere that the priests were not good men, that
+they were always hunting for money and legacies.
+
+The kings and princes disliked this alienation of property very
+greatly.  In the place of feudal lords capable of military
+support, they found their land supporting abbeys and monks and
+nuns.  And these lands were really under foreign dominion.  Even
+before the time of Pope Gregory VII there had been a struggle
+between the princes and the papacy over the question of
+"investitures," the question that is of who should appoint the
+bishops.  If that power rested with the Pope and not the King,
+then the latter lost control not only of the consciences of his
+subjects but of a considerable part of his dominions.  For also
+the clergy claimed exemption from taxation.  They paid their taxes
+to Rome.  And not only that, but the church also claimed the right
+to levy a tax of one-tenth upon the property of the layman in
+addition to the taxes he paid his prince.
+
+{275}
+
+The history of nearly every country in Latin Christendom tells of
+the same phase in the eleventh century, a phase of struggle
+between monarch and Pope on the issue of investitures and
+generally it tells of a victory for the Pope.  He claimed to be
+able to excommunicate the prince, to absolve his subjects from
+their allegiance to him, to recognize a successor.  He claimed to
+be able to put a nation under an interdict, and then nearly all
+priestly functions ceased except the sacraments of baptism,
+confirmation and penance; the priests could neither hold the
+ordinary services, marry people, nor bury the dead.  With these
+two weapons it was possible for the twelfth century Popes to curb
+the most recalcitrant princes and overawe the most restive
+peoples.  These were enormous powers, and enormous powers are only
+to be used on extraordinary occasions.  The Popes used them at
+last with a frequency that staled their effect.  Within thirty
+years at the end of the twelfth century we find Scotland, France
+and England in turn under an interdict.  And also the Popes could
+not resist the temptation to preach crusades against offending
+princes--until the crusading spirit was extinct.
+
+It is possible that if the Church of Rome had struggled simply
+against the princes and had had a care to keep its hold upon the
+general mind, it might have achieved a permanent dominion over all
+Christendom.  But the high claims of the Pope were reflected as
+arrogance in the conduct of the clergy.  Before the eleventh
+century the Roman priests could marry; they had close ties with
+the people among whom they lived; they were indeed a part of the
+people.  Gregory VII made them celibates; he cut the priests off
+from too great an intimacy with the laymen in order to bind them
+more closely to Rome, but indeed he opened a fissure between the
+church and the commonalty.  The church had its own law courts.
+Cases involving not merely priests but monks, students, crusaders,
+widows, orphans and the helpless were reserved for the clerical
+courts, and so were all matters relating to wills, marriages and
+oaths and all cases of sorcery, heresy and blasphemy.  Whenever
+the layman found himself in conflict with the priest he had to go
+to a clerical court.  The obligations of peace and war fell upon
+his shoulders alone and left the priest free.  It is no great
+wonder that jealousy and hatred of the priests grew up in the
+Christian world.
+
+{276}
+
+Never did Rome seem to realize that its power was in the
+consciences of common men.  It fought against religious
+enthusiasm, which should have been its ally, and it forced
+doctrinal orthodoxy upon honest doubt and aberrant opinion.  When
+the church interfered in matters of morality it had the common man
+with it, but not when it interfered in matters of doctrine.  When
+in the south of France Waldo taught a return to the simplicity of
+Jesus in faith and life, Innocent III preached a crusade against
+the Waldenses, Waldo's followers, and permitted them to be
+suppressed with fire, sword, rape and the most abominable
+cruelties.  When again St. Francis of Assisi
+(1181-1226) taught the imitation of Christ and a life of poverty
+and service, his followers, the Franciscans, were persecuted,
+scourged, imprisoned and dispersed.  In 1318 four of them were
+burnt alive at Marseilles.  On the other hand the fiercely
+orthodox order of the Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic
+(1170-1221) was strongly supported by Innocent III, who with its
+assistance set up an organization, the Inquisition, for the
+hunting of heresy and the affliction of free thought.
+
+So it was that the church by excessive claims, by unrighteous
+privileges, and by an irrational intolerance destroyed that free
+faith of the common man which was the final source of all its
+power.  The story of its decline tells of no adequate foemen from
+without but continually of decay from within.
+
+
+
+
+{277}
+
+XLVII
+
+RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM
+
+
+One very great weakness of the Roman Church in its struggle to
+secure the headship of all Christendom was the manner in which the
+Pope was chosen.
+
+If indeed the papacy was to achieve its manifest ambition and
+establish one rule and one peace throughout Christendom, then it
+was vitally necessary that it should have a strong, steady and
+continuous direction.  In those great days of its opportunity it
+needed before all things that the Popes when they took office
+should be able men in the prime of life, that each should have his
+successor-designate with whom he could discuss the policy of the
+church, and that the forms and processes of election should be
+clear, definite, unalterable and unassailable.  Unhappily none of
+these things obtained.  It was not even clear who could vote in
+the election of a Pope, nor whether the Byzantine or Holy Roman
+Emperor had a voice in the matter.  That very great papal
+statesman Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII, 1073-1085) did much to
+regularize the election.  He confined the votes to the Roman
+cardinals and he reduced the Emperor's share to a formula of
+assent conceded to him by the church, but he made no provision for
+a successor-designate and he left it possible for the disputes of
+the cardinals to keep the See vacant, as in some cases it was kept
+vacant, for a year or more.
+
+The consequences of this want of firm definition are to be seen in
+the whole history of the papacy up to the sixteenth century.  From
+quite early times onward there were disputed elections and two or
+more men each claiming to be Pope.  The church would then be
+subjected to the indignity of going to the Emperor or some other
+outside arbiter to settle the dispute.  And the career of everyone
+of the great Popes ended in a note of interrogation.  At his death
+the church might be left headless and as ineffective as a
+decapitated {279} body.  Or he might be replaced by some old rival
+eager only to discredit and undo his work.  Or some enfeebled old
+man tottering on the brink of the grave might succeed him.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{278}
+
+[Illustration: MILAN CATHEDRAL]
+
+====================================================================
+
+It was inevitable that this peculiar weakness of the papal
+organization should attract the interference of the various German
+princes, the French King, and the Norman and French Kings who
+ruled in England; that they should all try to influence the
+elections, and have a Pope in their own interest established in
+the Lateran Palace at Rome.  And the more powerful and important
+the Pope became in European affairs, the more urgent did these
+interventions become.  Under the circumstances it is no great
+wonder that many of the Popes were weak and futile.  The
+astonishing thing is that many of them were able and courageous
+men.
+
+One of the most vigorous and interesting of the Popes of this
+great period was Innocent III (1198-1216) who was so fortunate as
+to become Pope before he was thirty-eight.  He and his successors
+were pitted against an even more interesting personality, the
+Emperor Frederick II; _Stupor mundi_ he was called, the Wonder of
+the world.  The struggle of this monarch against Rome is a turning
+place in history.  In the end Rome defeated him and destroyed his
+dynasty, but he left the prestige of the church and Pope so badly
+wounded that its wounds festered and led to its decay.
+
+Frederick was the son of the Emperor Henry VI and his mother was
+the daughter of Roger I, the Norman King of Sicily.  He inherited
+this kingdom in 1198 when he was a child of four years.  Innocent
+III had been made his guardian.  Sicily in those days had been but
+recently conquered by the Normans; the Court was half oriental and
+full of highly educated Arabs; and some of these were associated
+in the education of the young king.  No doubt they were at some
+pains to make their point of view clear to him.  He got a Moslem
+view of Christianity as well as a Christian view of Islam, and the
+unhappy result of this double system of instruction was a view,
+exceptional in that age of faith, that all religions were
+impostures.  He talked freely on the subject; his heresies and
+blasphemies are on record.
+
+As the young man grew up he found himself in conflict with his
+guardian.  Innocent III wanted altogether too much from his ward.
+{280} When the opportunity came for Frederick to succeed as
+Emperor, the Pope intervened with conditions.  Frederick must
+promise to put down heresy in Germany with a strong hand. Moreover
+he must relinquish his crown in Sicily and South Italy, because
+otherwise he would be too strong for the Pope.  And the German
+clergy were to be freed from all taxation.  Frederick agreed but
+with no intention of keeping his word.  The Pope had already
+induced the French King to make war upon his own subjects in
+France, the cruel and bloody crusade against the Waldenses; he
+wanted Frederick to do the same thing in Germany.  But Frederick
+being far more of a heretic than any of the simple pietists who
+had incurred the Pope's animosity, lacked the crusading impulse.
+And when Innocent urged him to crusade against the Moslim and
+recover Jerusalem he was equally ready to promise and equally
+slack in his performance.
+
+[Illustration: A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS]
+
+Having secured the imperial crown Frederick II stayed in Sicily,
+which he greatly preferred to Germany as a residence, and did
+nothing to redeem any of his promises to Innocent III, who died
+baffled in 1216.
+
+{281}
+
+Honorius III, who succeeded Innocent, could do no better with
+Frederick, and Gregory IX (1227) came to the papal throne
+evidently resolved to settle accounts with this young man at any
+cost.  He excommunicated him.  Frederick II was denied all the
+comforts of religion.  In the half-Arab Court of Sicily this
+produced singularly little discomfort.  And also the Pope
+addressed a public letter to the Emperor reciting his vices (which
+were indisputable), his heresies, and his general misconduct.  To
+this Frederick replied in a document of diabolical ability.  It
+was addressed to all the princes of Europe, and it made the first
+clear statement of the issue between the Pope and the princes.  He
+made a shattering attack upon the manifest ambition of the Pope to
+become the absolute ruler of all Europe.  He suggested a union of
+princes against this usurpation.   He directed the attention of
+the princes specifically to the wealth of the church.
+
+Having fired off this deadly missile Frederick resolved to perform
+his twelve-year-old promise and go upon a crusade.  This was the
+Sixth Crusade (1228).  It was as a crusade, farcical.  Frederick
+II went to Egypt and met and discussed affairs with the Sultan.
+These two gentlemen, both of sceptical opinions, exchanged
+congenial views, made a commercial convention to their mutual
+advantage, and agreed to transfer Jerusalem to Frederick.  This
+indeed was a new sort of crusade, a crusade by private treaty.
+Here was no blood splashing the conqueror, no "weeping with excess
+of joy."  As this astonishing crusader was an excommunicated man,
+he had to be content with a purely secular coronation as King of
+Jerusalem, taking the crown from the altar with his own hand--for
+all the clergy were bound to shun him.  He then returned to Italy,
+chased the papal armies which had invaded his dominions back to
+their own territories, and obliged the Pope to grant him
+absolution from his excommunication.  So a prince might treat the
+Pope in the thirteenth century, and there was now no storm of
+popular indignation to avenge him.  Those days were past.
+
+In 1239 Gregory IX resumed his struggle with Frederick,
+excommunicated him for a second time, and renewed that warfare of
+public abuse in which the papacy had already suffered severely.
+The controversy was revived after Gregory IX was dead, when
+Innocent IV {282} was Pope; and again a devastating letter, which
+men were bound to remember, was written by Frederick against the
+church.  He denounced the pride and irreligion of the clergy, and
+ascribed all the corruptions of the time to their pride and
+wealth.  He proposed to his fellow princes a general confiscation
+of church property--for the good of the church.  It was a
+suggestion that never afterwards left the imagination of the
+European princes.
+
+We will not go on to tell of his last years.  The particular
+events of his life are far less significant than its general
+atmosphere.  It is possible to piece together something of his
+court life in Sicily.  He was luxurious in his way of living, and
+fond of beautiful things.  He is described as licentious.  But it
+is clear that he was a man of very effectual curiosity and
+inquiry.  He gathered Jewish and Moslem as well as Christian
+philosophers at his court, and he did much to irrigate the Italian
+mind with Saracenic influences.  Through him the Arabic numerals
+and algebra were introduced to Christian students, and among other
+philosophers at his court was Michael Scott, who translated
+portions of Aristotle and the commentaries thereon of the great
+Arab philosopher Averroes (of Cordoba).  In 1224 Frederick founded
+the University of Naples, and he enlarged and enriched the great
+medical school at Salerno University.  He also founded a
+zoological garden.  He left a book on hawking, which shows him to
+have been an acute observer of the habits of birds, and he was one
+of the first Italians to write Italian verse.  Italian poetry was
+indeed born at his court.  He has been called by an able writer,
+"the first of the moderns," and the phrase expresses aptly the
+unprejudiced detachment of his intellectual side.
+
+A still more striking intimation of the decay of the living and
+sustaining forces of the papacy appeared when presently the Popes
+came into conflict with the growing power of the French King.
+During the lifetime of the Emperor Frederick II, Germany fell into
+disunion, and the French King began to play the role of guard,
+supporter and rival to the Pope that had hitherto fallen to the
+Hohenstaufen Emperors.  A series of Popes pursued the policy of
+supporting the French monarchs.  French princes were established
+in the kingdom of Sicily and Naples, with the support and approval
+of Rome, and the French Kings saw before them the possibility of
+{283} restoring and ruling the Empire of Charlemagne.  When,
+however, the German interregnum after the death of Frederick II,
+the last of the Hohenstaufens, came to all end and Rudolf of
+Habsburg was elected first Habsburg Emperor (1273), the policy of
+Rome began to fluctuate between France and Germany, veering about
+with the sympathies of each successive Pope.  In the East in 1261
+the Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latin emperors, and
+the founder of the new Greek dynasty, Michael Pal�ologus, Michael
+VIII, after some unreal tentatives of reconciliation with the
+Pope, broke away from the Roman communion altogether, and with
+that, and the fall of the Latin kingdoms in Asia, the eastward
+ascendancy of the Popes came to an end.
+
+[Illustration: COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK
+OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+In 1294 Boniface VIII became Pope.  He was an Italian, hostile to
+the French, and full of a sense of the great traditions and
+mission of Rome.  For a time he carried things with a high hand.
+In 1300 he held a jubilee, and a vast multitude of pilgrims
+assembled in Rome.  "So great was the influx of money into the
+papal treasury, that two assistants were kept busy with the rakes
+collecting the {284} offerings that were deposited at the tomb of
+St. Peter."  [5]  But this festival was a delusive triumph.
+Boniface came into conflict with the French King in 1302, and in
+1303, as he was about to pronounce sentence of excommunication
+against that  monarch, he was surprised and arrested in his own
+ancestral palace at Anagni, by Guillaume de Nogaret.  This agent
+from the French King forced an entrance into the palace, made his
+way into the bedroom of the frightened Pope--he was lying in bed
+with a cross in his hands--and heaped threats and insults upon
+him.  The Pope was liberated a day or so later by the townspeople,
+and returned to Rome; but there he was seized upon and again made
+prisoner by the Orsini family, and in a few weeks' time the
+shocked and disillusioned old man died a prisoner in their hands.
+
+[Illustration: COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK
+OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+The people of Anagni did resent the first outrage, and rose
+against Nogaret to liberate Boniface, but then Anagni was the
+Pope's native town.  The important point to note is that the
+French King {285} in this rough treatment of the head of
+Christendom was acting with the full approval of his people; he
+had summoned a council of the Three Estates of France (lords,
+church and commons) and gained their consent before proceeding to
+extremities.  Neither in Italy, Germany nor England was there the
+slightest general manifestation of disapproval at this free
+handling of the sovereign pontiff.  The idea of Christendom had
+decayed until its power over the minds of men had gone.
+
+Throughout the fourteenth century the papacy did nothing to
+recover its moral sway.  The next Pope elected, Clement V, was a
+Frenchman, the choice of King Philip of France.  He never came to
+Rome.  He set up his court in the town of Avignon, which then
+belonged not to France but to the papal See, though embedded in
+French territory, and there his successors remained until 1377,
+when Pope Gregory XI returned to the Vatican palace in Rome.  But
+Gregory XI did not take the sympathies of the whole church with
+him.  Many of the cardinals were of French origin and their habits
+and associations were rooted deep at Avignon.  When in 1378
+Gregory XI died, and an Italian, Urban VI, was elected, these
+dissentient cardinals declared the election invalid, and elected
+another Pope, the anti-Pope, Clement VII.  This split is called
+the Great Schism.  The Popes remained in Rome, and all the
+anti-French powers, the Emperor, the King of England, Hungary,
+Poland and the North of Europe were loyal to them.  The
+anti-Popes, on the other hand, continued in Avignon, and were
+supported by the King of France, his ally the King of Scotland,
+Spain, Portugal and various German princes.  Each Pope
+excommunicated and cursed the adherents of his rival (1378-1417).
+
+Is it any wonder that presently all over Europe people began to
+think for themselves in matters of religion?
+
+The beginnings of the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which we
+have noted in the preceding chapters, were but two among many of
+the new forces that were arising in Christendom, either to hold or
+shatter the church as its own wisdom might decide.
+Those two orders the church did assimilate and use, though with a
+little violence in the case of the former.  But other forces were
+more frankly disobedient and critical.  A century and a half later
+{286} came Wycliffe (1320-1384). He was a learned Doctor at
+Oxford.  Quite late in his life he began a series of outspoken
+criticisms of the corruption of the clergy and the unwisdom of the
+church.  He organized a number of poor priests, the Wycliffites,
+to spread his ideas throughout England; and in order that people
+should judge between the church and himself, he translated the
+Bible into English.  He was a more learned and far abler man than
+either St. Francis or St. Dominic.  He had supporters in high
+places and a great following among the people; and though Rome
+raged against him, and ordered his imprisonment, he died a free
+man.  But the black and ancient spirit that was leading the
+Catholic Church to its destruction would not let his bones rest in
+the grave.  By a decree of the Council of Constance in 1415, his
+remains were ordered to be dug up and burnt, an order which was
+carried out at the command of Pope Martin V by Bishop Fleming in
+1428.  This desecration was not the act of some isolated fanatic;
+it was the official act of the church.
+
+[5]  J. H. Robinson.
+
+
+
+
+{287}
+
+XLVIII
+
+THE MONGOL CONQUESTS
+
+
+But in the thirteenth century, while this strange and finally
+ineffectual struggle to unify Christendom under the rule of the
+Pope was going on in Europe, far more momentous events were afoot
+upon the larger stage of Asia.  A Turkish people from the country
+to the north of China rose suddenly to prominence in the world's
+affairs, and achieved such a series of conquests as has no
+parallel in history.  These were the Mongols.  At the opening of
+the thirteenth century they were a horde of nomadic horsemen,
+living very much as their predecessors, the Huns, had done,
+subsisting chiefly upon meat and mare's milk and living in tents
+of skin.  They had shaken themselves free from Chinese dominion,
+and brought a number of other Turkish tribes into a military
+confederacy.  Their central camp was at Karakorum in Mongolia.
+
+At this time China was in a state of division.  The great dynasty
+of Tang had passed into decay by the tenth century, and after a
+phase of division into warring states, three main empires, that of
+Kin in the north with Pekin as its capital and that of Sung in the
+south with a capital at Nankin, and Hsia in the centre, remain.
+In 1214 Jengis Khan, the leader of the Mongol confederates, made
+war on the Kin Empire and captured Pekin (1214).  He then turned
+westward and conquered Western Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, India
+down to Lahore, and South Russia as far as Kieff.  He died master
+of a vast empire that reached from the Pacific to the Dnieper.
+
+His successor, Ogdai Khan, continued this astonishing career of
+conquest.  His armies were organized to a very high level of
+efficiency; and they had with them a new Chinese invention,
+gunpowder, which they used in small field guns.  He completed the
+conquest of the Kin Empire and then swept his hosts right across
+Asia to Russia (1235), an altogether amazing march.  Kieff was
+{288} destroyed in 1240, and nearly all Russia became tributary to
+the Mongols.  Poland was ravaged, and a mixed army of Poles and
+Germans was annihilated at the battle of Liegnitz in Lower Silesia
+in 1241.  The Emperor Frederick II does not seem to have made any
+great efforts to stay the advancing tide.
+
+[Map: The Empire of Jengis Khan at his death (1227)]
+
+"It is only recently," says Bury in his notes to Gibbon's _Decline
+and Fall of the Roman Empire_, "that European history has begun to
+understand that the successes of the Mongol army which overran
+Poland and occupied Hungary in the spring of A.D. 1241 were won by
+consummate strategy and were not due to a mere overwhelming
+superiority of numbers.  But this fact has not yet become a matter
+of common knowledge; the vulgar opinion which represents the
+Tartars as a wild horde carrying all before them solely by their
+multitude, and galloping through Eastern Europe without a
+strategic plan, rushing at all obstacles and overcoming them by
+mere weight, still prevails. . . .
+
+"It was wonderful how punctually and effectually the arrangements
+were carried out in operations extending from the Lower Vistula to
+Transylvania.  Such a campaign was quite beyond the {289} power of
+any European army of the time, and it was beyond the vision of any
+European commander.  There was no general in Europe, from
+Frederick II downward, who was not a tyro in strategy compared to
+Subutai.  It should also be noticed that the Mongols embarked upon
+the enterprise with full knowledge of the political situation of
+Hungary and the condition of Poland--they had taken care to inform
+themselves by a well-organized system of spies; on the other hand,
+the Hungarians and the Christian powers, like childish barbarians,
+knew hardly anything about their enemies."
+
+[Map: The Ottoman Empire before 1453]
+
+But though the Mongols were victorious at Liegnitz, they did not
+continue their drive westward.  They were getting into woodlands
+and hilly country, which did not suit their tactics; and so they
+turned southward and prepared to settle in Hungary, massacring or
+assimilating the kindred Magyar, even as these had previously
+massacred and assimilated the mixed Scythians and Avars and Huns
+before them.  From the Hungarian plain they would probably have
+made raids west and south as the Hungarians had done in the ninth
+century, the Avars in the seventh and eighth and the Huns in the
+fifth.  But Ogdai died suddenly, and in 1242 there was trouble
+{290} about the succession, and recalled by this, the undefeated
+hosts of Mongols began to pour back across Hungary and Roumania
+towards the east.
+
+Thereafter the Mongols concentrated their attention upon their
+Asiatic conquests.  By the middle of the thirteenth century they
+had conquered the Sung Empire.  Mangu Khan succeeded Ogdai Khan as
+Great Khan in 1251, and made his brother Kublai Khan governor of
+China.  In 1280 Kublai Khan had been formally recognized Emperor
+of China, and so founded the Yuan dynasty which lasted until 1368.
+While the last ruins of the Sung rule were going down in China,
+another brother of Mangu, Hulagu, was conquering Persia and Syria.
+The Mongols displayed a bitter animosity to Islam at this time,
+and not only massacred the population of Bagdad when they captured
+that city, but set to work to destroy the immemorial irrigation
+system which had kept Mesopotamia incessantly prosperous and
+populous from the early days of Sumeria.  From that time until our
+own Mesopotamia has been a desert of ruins, sustaining only a
+scanty population.  Into Egypt the Mongols never penetrated; the
+Sultan of Egypt completely defeated an army of Hulagu's in
+Palestine in 1260.
+
+After that disaster the tide of Mongol victory ebbed.  The
+dominions of the Great Khan fell into a number of separate states.
+The eastern Mongols became Buddhists, like the Chinese; the
+western became Moslim.  The Chinese threw off the rule of the Yuan
+dynasty in 1368, and set up the native Ming dynasty which
+flourished from 1368 to 1644.  The Russians remained tributary to
+the Tartar hordes upon the south-east steppes until 1480, when the
+Grand Duke of Moscow repudiated his allegiance and laid the
+foundation of modern Russia.
+
+In the fourteenth century there was a brief revival of Mongol
+vigour under Timurlane, a descendant of Jengis Khan.  He
+established himself in Western Turkestan, assumed the title of
+Grand Khan in 1369, and conquered from Syria to Delhi.  He was the
+most savage and destructive of all the Mongol conquerors.  He
+established an empire of desolation that did not survive his
+death.  In 1505, however, a descendant of this Timur, an
+adventurer named Baber, got together an army with guns and swept
+down upon the {292} plains of India.  His grandson Akbar
+(1556-1605) completed his conquests, and this Mongol (or "Mogul"
+as the Arabs called it) dynasty ruled in Delhi over the greater
+part of India until the eighteenth century.
+
+=====================================================================
+
+{291}
+
+[Illustration: TARTAR HORSEMEN]
+
+====================================================================
+
+[Map: The Ottoman Empire at the death of Suleiman the Magnificent,
+1566 A.D.]
+
+One of the consequences of the first great sweep of Mongol
+conquest in the thirteenth century was to drive a certain tribe of
+Turks, the Ottoman Turks, out of Turkestan into Asia Minor.  They
+extended and consolidated their power in Asia Minor, crossed the
+Dardanelles and conquered Macedonia, Serbia and Bulgaria, until at
+last Constantinople remained like an island amongst the Ottoman
+dominions.  In 1453 the Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad II, took
+Constantinople, attacking it from the European side with a great
+number of guns.  This event caused intense excitement in Europe
+and there was talk of a crusade, but the day of the crusades was
+past.
+
+In the course of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Sultans
+conquered Bagdad, Hungary, Egypt and most of North Africa, and
+their fleet made them masters of the Mediterranean.  They very
+nearly took Vienna, and they exacted it tribute from the Emperor.
+There were but two items to offset the general ebb of Christian
+{293} dominion in the fifteenth century.  One was the restoration
+of the independence of Moscow (1480); the other was the gradual
+reconquest of Spain by the Christians. In 1492, Granada, the last
+Moslem state in the peninsula, fell to King Ferdinand of Aragon
+and his Queen Isabella of Castile.
+
+But it was not until as late as 1571 that the naval battle of
+Lepanto broke the prick of the Ottomans, and restored the
+Mediterranean waters to Christian ascendancy.
+
+
+
+
+{294}
+
+XLIX
+
+THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS
+
+
+Throughout the twelfth century there were many signs that the
+European intelligence was recovering courage and leisure, and
+preparing to take up again the intellectual enterprises of the
+first Greek scientific enquiries and such speculations as those of
+the Italian Lucretius.  The causes of this revival were many and
+complex.  The suppression of private war, the higher standards of
+comfort and security that followed the crusades, and the
+stimulation of men's minds by the experiences of these expeditions
+were no doubt necessary preliminary conditions.  Trade was
+reviving; cities were recovering ease and safety; the standard of
+education was arising in the church and spreading among laymen.
+The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were a period of growing,
+independent or quasi-independent cities; Venice, Florence, Genoa,
+Lisbon, Paris, Bruges, London, Antwerp, Hamburg, Nuremberg,
+Novgorod, Wisby and Bergen for example.  They were all trading
+cities with many travellers, and where men trade and travel they
+talk and think.  The polemics of the Popes and princes, the
+conspicuous savagery and wickedness of the persecution of
+heretics, were exciting men to doubt the authority of the church
+and question and discuss fundamental things.
+
+We have seen how the Arabs were the means of restoring Aristotle
+to Europe, and how such a prince as Frederick II acted as a
+channel through which Arabic philosophy and science played upon
+the renascent European mind.  Still more influential in the
+stirring up of men's ideas were the Jews.  Their very existence
+was a note of interrogation to the claims of the church.  And
+finally the secret, fascinating enquiries of the alchemists were
+spreading far and wide and setting men to the petty, furtive and
+yet fruitful resumption of experimental science.
+
+{295}
+
+And the stir in men's minds was by no means confined now to the
+independent and well educated.  The mind of the common man was
+awake in the world as it had never been before in all the
+experience of mankind.  In spite of priest and persecution,
+Christianity does seem to have carried a mental ferment wherever
+its teaching reached.  It established a direct relation between
+the conscience of the individual man and the God of Righteousness,
+so that now if need arose he had the courage to form his own
+judgment upon prince or prelate or creed.
+
+As early as the eleventh century philosophical discussion had
+begun again in Europe, and there were great and growing
+universities at Paris, Oxford, Bologna and other centres.  There
+medieval "schoolmen" took up again and thrashed out a series of
+questions upon the value and meaning of words that were a
+necessary preliminary to clear thinking in the scientific age that
+was to follow.  And standing by himself because of his distinctive
+genius was Roger Bacon (circa 1210 to circa 1293), a Franciscan of
+Oxford, the father of modern experimental science.  His name
+deserves a prominence in our history second only to that of
+Aristotle.
+
+His writings are one long tirade against ignorance.  He told his
+age it was ignorant, an incredibly bold thing to do.  Nowadays a
+man may tell the world it is as silly as it is solemn, that all
+its methods are still infantile and clumsy and its dogmas childish
+assumptions, without much physical danger; but these peoples of
+the middle ages when they were not actually being massacred or
+starving or dying of pestilence, were passionately convinced of
+the wisdom, the completeness and finality of their beliefs, and
+disposed to resent any reflections upon them very bitterly.  Roger
+Bacon's writings were like a flash of light in a profound
+darkness.  He combined his attack upon the ignorance of his times
+with a wealth of suggestion for the increase of knowledge.  In his
+passionate insistence upon the need of experiment and of
+collecting knowledge, the spirit of Aristotle lives again in him.
+"Experiment, experiment," that is the burthen of Roger Bacon.
+
+Yet of Aristotle himself Roger Bacon fell foul.  He fell foul of
+him because men, instead of facing facts boldly, sat in rooms and
+pored over the bad Latin translations which were then all that was
+{296} available of the master.  "If I had my way," he wrote, in
+his intemperate fashion, "I should burn all the books of
+Aristotle, for the study of them can only lead to a loss of time,
+produce error, and increase ignorance," a sentiment that Aristotle
+would probably have echoed could he have returned to a world in
+which his works were not so much read as worshipped--and that, as
+Roger Bacon showed, in these most abominable translations.
+
+[Illustration: AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS]
+
+{297}
+
+Throughout his books, a little disguised by the necessity of
+seeming to square it all with orthodoxy for fear of the prison and
+worse, Roger Bacon shouted to mankind, "Cease to be ruled by
+dogmas and authorities; _look at the world!_" Four chief sources
+of ignorance he denounced; respect for authority, custom, the
+sense of the ignorant crowd, and the vain, proud unteachableness
+of our dispositions.  Overcome but these, and a world of power
+would open to men:--
+
+"Machines for navigating are possible without rowers, so that
+great ships suited to river or ocean, guided by one man, may be
+borne with greater speed than if they were full of men.  Likewise
+cars may be made so that without a draught animal they may be
+moved _cum impetu inoestimable_, as we deem the scythed chariots
+to have been from which antiquity fought.  And flying machines are
+possible, so that a man may sit in the middle turning some device
+by which artificial wings may beat the air in the manner of a
+flying bird."
+
+So Roger Bacon wrote, but three more centuries were to elapse
+before men began any systematic attempts to explore the hidden
+stores of power and interest he realized so clearly existed
+beneath the dull surface of human affairs.
+
+But the Saracenic world not only gave Christendom the stimulus of
+its philosophers and alchemists; it also gave it paper.  It is
+scarcely too much to say that paper made the intellectual revival
+of Europe possible.  Paper originated in China, where its use
+probably goes back to the second century B.C.  In 751 the Chinese
+made an attack upon the Arab Moslems in Samarkand; they were
+repulsed, and among the prisoners taken from them were some
+skilled papermakers, from whom the art was learnt.  Arabic paper
+manuscripts from the ninth century onward still exist.  The
+manufacture entered Christendom either through Greece or by the
+capture of Moorish paper-mills during the Christian reconquest of
+Spain.  But under the Christian Spanish the product deteriorated
+sadly.  Good paper was not made in Christian Europe until the end
+of the thirteenth century, and then it was Italy which led the
+world.  Only by the fourteenth century did the manufacture reach
+Germany, and not until the end of that century was it abundant and
+{298} cheap enough for the printing of books to be a practicable
+business proposition.  Thereupon printing followed naturally and
+necessarily, for printing is the most obvious of inventions, and
+the intellectual life of the world entered upon a new and far more
+vigorous phase.  It ceased to be a little trickle from mind to
+mind; it became a broad flood, in which thousands and presently
+scores and hundreds of thousands of minds participated.
+
+One immediate result of this achievement of printing was the
+appearance of an abundance of Bibles in the world.  Another was a
+cheapening of school-books.  The knowledge of reading spread
+swiftly.  There was not only a great increase of books in the
+world, but the books that were now made were plainer to read and
+so easier to understand.  Instead of toiling at a crabbed text
+arid then thinking over its significance, readers now could think
+unimpeded as they read.  With this increase in the facility of
+reading, the reading public grew.  The book ceased to be a highly
+decorated toy or a scholar's mystery.  People began to write books
+to be read as well as looked at by ordinary people.  They wrote in
+the ordinary language and not in Latin.  With the fourteenth
+century the real history of the European literature begins.
+
+So far we have been dealing only with the Saracenic share in the
+European revival.  Let us turn now to the influence of the Mongol
+conquests.  They stimulated the geographical imagination of Europe
+enormously.  For a time under the Great Khan, all Asia and Western
+Europe enjoyed an open intercourse; all the roads were temporarily
+open, and representatives of every nation appeared at the court of
+Karakorum.  The barriers between Europe and Asia set up by the
+religious feud of Christianity and Islam were lowered.  Great
+hopes were entertained by the papacy for the conversion of the
+Mongols to Christianity.  Their only religion so far had been
+Shumanism, a primitive paganism.  Envoys of the Pope, Buddhist
+priests from India, Parisian and Italian and Chinese artificers,
+Byzantine and Armenian merchants, mingled with Arab officials and
+Persian and Indian astronomers and mathematicians at the Mongol
+court.  We hear too much in history of the campaigns and massacres
+of the Mongols, and not enough of their curiosity and desire for
+learning.  Not perhaps as an originative people, but as
+transmitters {299} of knowledge and method their influence upon
+the world's history has been very great.  And everything one can
+learn of the vague and romantic personalities of Jengis or Kublai
+tends to confirm the impression that these men were at least as
+understanding and creative monarchs as either that flamboyant but
+egotistical figure Alexander the Great or that raiser of political
+ghosts, that energetic but illiterate theologian Charlemagne.
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA]
+
+One of the most interesting of these visitors to the Mongol Court
+was a certain Venetian, Marco Polo, who afterwards set down his
+story in a book.  He went to China about 1272 with his father and
+uncle, who had already once made the journey.  The Great Khan had
+been deeply impressed by the elder Polos; they were the first men
+of the "Latin" peoples he had seen; and he sent them back with
+enquiries for teachers and learned men who could explain
+Christianity to him, and for various other European things that
+had aroused his curiosity.  Their visit with Marco was their
+second visit.
+
+The three Polos started by way of Palestine and not by the Crimea,
+as in their previous expedition.  They had with them a gold tablet
+and other indications from the Great Khan that must have greatly
+facilitated their journey.  The Great Khan had asked for some oil
+from the lamp that burns in the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem; and
+so thither they first went, and then by way of Cilicia into
+Armenia.  They went thus far north because the Sultan of Egypt was
+raiding the Mongol domains at this time.  Thence they came by way
+of Mesopotamia to Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, as if they
+contemplated a sea voyage.  At Ormuz they met merchants from
+India.  For some reason they did not take ship, but instead turned
+northward through the Persian deserts, and so by way of Balkh over
+{300} the Pamir to Kashgar, and by way of Kotan and the Lob Nor
+into the Hwang-ho valley and on to Pekin.  At Pekin was the Great
+Khan, and they were hospitably entertained.
+
+[Illustration: ANOTHER ANCIENT NEGRO BRONZE OF A EUROPEAN]
+
+Marco particularly pleased Kublai; he was young and clever, and it
+is clear he had mastered the Tartar language very thoroughly.  He
+was given an official position and sent on several missions,
+chiefly in south-west China.  The tale he had to tell of vast
+stretches of smiling and prosperous country, "all the way
+excellent hostelries for travellers," and "fine vineyards, fields,
+and gardens," of "many abbeys" of Buddhist monks, of manufactures
+of "cloth of silk and gold and many fine taffetas," a "constant
+succession of cities and boroughs," and so on, first roused the
+incredulity and then fired the imagination of all Europe.  He told
+of Burmah, and of its great armies with hundreds of elephants, and
+how these animals were defeated by the Mongol bowmen, and also of
+the Mongol conquest of Pegu.  He told of Japan, and greatly
+exaggerated the amount of gold in that country.  For three years
+Marco ruled the city of Yang-chow as governor, and he probably
+impressed the Chinese inhabitants as being little more of a
+foreigner than any Tartar would have been.  He may also have been
+sent on a mission to India.  Chinese records mention a certain
+Polo attached to the imperial council in 1277, a very valuable
+confirmation of the general truth of the Polo story.
+
+The publication of Marco Polo's travels produced a profound effect
+upon the European imagination.  The European literature, and
+especially the European romance of the fifteenth century, echoes
+with the names in Marco Polo's story, with Cathay (North China)
+and Cambulac (Pekin) and the like.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP]
+
+Two centuries later, among the readers of the Travels of Marco
+Polo was a certain Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, who
+{301} conceived the brilliant idea of sailing westward round the
+world to China.  In Seville there is a copy of the Travels with
+marginal notes by Columbus.  There were many reasons why the
+thought of a Genoese should be turned in this direction.  Until
+its capture by the Turks in 1453 Constantinople had been an
+impartial trading mart between the Western world and the East, and
+the Genoese had traded there freely.  But the "Latin" Venetians,
+the bitter rivals of the Genoese, had been the allies and helpers
+of the Turks against the Greeks, and with the coming of the Turks
+Constantinople turned an {302} unfriendly face upon Genoese trade.
+The long forgotten discovery that the world was round had
+gradually resumed its sway over men's minds.  The idea of going
+westward to China was therefore a fairly obvious one.  It was
+encouraged by two things.  The mariner's compass had now been
+invented and men were no longer left to the mercy of a fine night
+and the stars to determine the direction in which they were
+sailing, and the Normans, Catalonians and Genoese and Portuguese
+had already pushed out into the Atlantic as far as the Canary
+Isles, Madeira and the Azores.
+
+Yet Columbus found many difficulties before he could get ships to
+put his idea to the test.  He went from one European Court to
+another.  Finally at Granada, just won from the Moors, he secured
+the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and was able to set out
+across the unknown ocean in three small ships.  After a voyage of
+two months and nine days he came to a land which he believed to be
+India, but which was really a new continent, whose distinct
+existence the old world had never hitherto suspected.  He returned
+to Spain with gold, cotton, strange beasts and birds, and two
+wild-eyed painted Indians to be baptized.  They were called
+Indians because, to the end of his days, he believed that this
+land he had found was India.  Only in the course of several years
+did men begin to realize that the whole new continent of America
+was added to the world's resources.
+
+The success of Columbus stimulated overseas enterprise enormously.
+In 1497 the Portuguese sailed round Africa to India, and in 1515
+there were Portuguese ships in Java.  In 1519 Magellan, a
+Portuguese sailor in Spanish employment, sailed out of Seville
+westward with five ships, of which one, the _Vittoria_, came back
+up the river to Seville in 1522, the first ship that had ever
+circumnavigated the world.  Thirty-one men were aboard her,
+survivors of two-hundred-and-eighty who had started.  Magellan
+himself had been killed in the Philippine Isles.
+
+Printed paper books, a new realization of the round world as a
+thing altogether attainable, a new vision of strange lands,
+strange animals and plants, strange manners and customs,
+discoveries overseas and in the skies and in the ways and
+materials of life burst upon the European mind. The Greek
+classics, buried and forgotten for so {303} long, were speedily
+being printed and studied, and were colouring men's thoughts with
+the dreams of Plato and the traditions of an age of republican
+freedom and dignity.  The Roman dominion had first brought law and
+order to Western Europe, and the Latin Church had restored it; but
+under both Pagan and Catholic Rome curiosity and innovation were
+subordinate to and restrained by organization.  The reign of the
+Latin mind was now drawing to an end.  Between the thirteenth and
+the sixteenth century the European Aryans, thanks to the
+stimulating influence of Semite and Mongol and the rediscovery of
+the Greek classics, broke away from the Latin tradition and rose
+again to the intellectual and material leadership of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+{304}
+
+L
+
+THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH
+
+
+The Latin Church itself was enormously affected by this mental
+rebirth.  It was dismembered; and even the portion that survived
+was extensively renewed.
+
+We have told how nearly the church came to the autocratic
+leadership of all Christendom in the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, and how in the fourteenth and fifteenth its power over
+men's minds and affairs declined.  We have described how popular
+religious enthusiasm which had in earlier ages been its support
+and power was turned against it by its pride, persecutions and
+centralization, and how the insidious scepticism of Frederick II
+bore fruit in a growing insubordination of the princes.  The Great
+Schism had reduced its religious and political prestige to
+negligible proportions.  The forces of insurrection struck it now
+from both sides.
+
+The teachings of the Englishman Wycliffe spread widely throughout
+Europe.  In 1398 a learned Czech, John Huss, delivered a series of
+lectures upon Wycliffe's teachings in the university of Prague.
+This teaching spread rapidly beyond the educated class and aroused
+great popular enthusiasm.  In 1414-18 a Council of the whole
+church was held at Constance to settle the Great Schism.  Huss was
+invited to this Council under promise of a safe conduct from the
+emperor, seized, put on trial for heresy and burnt alive (1415).
+So far from tranquillizing the Bohemian people, this led to an
+insurrection of the Hussites in that country, the first of a
+series of religious wars that inaugurated the break-up of Latin
+Christendom.  Against this insurrection Pope Martin V, the Pope
+specially elected at Constance as the head of a reunited
+Christendom, preached a Crusade.
+
+Five Crusades in all were launched upon this sturdy little people
+and all of them failed.  All the unemployed ruffianism of Europe
+was {305} turned upon Bohemia in the fifteenth century, just as in
+the thirteenth it had been turned upon the Waldenses.  But the
+Bohemian Czechs, unlike the Waldenses, believed in armed
+resistance.  The Bohemian Crusade dissolved and streamed away from
+the battlefield at the sound of the Hussites' waggons and the
+distant chanting of their troops; it did not even wait to fight
+(battle of Domazlice, 1431).  In 1436 an agreement was patched up
+with the Hussites by a new Council of the church at Basle in which
+many of the special objections to Latin practice were conceded.
+
+[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF LUTHER]
+
+In the fifteenth century a great pestilence had produced much
+social disorganization throughout Europe.  There had been extreme
+misery and discontent among the common people, and peasant risings
+against the landlords and the wealthy in England and France.
+After the Hussite Wars these peasant insurrections increased in
+gravity in Germany and took on a religious character.  Printing
+came in as an influence upon this development.  By the middle of
+the fifteenth century there were printers at work with movable
+type {306} in Holland and the Rhineland.  The art spread to Italy
+and England, where Caxton was printing in Westminster in 1477.
+The immediate consequence was a great increase and distribution of
+Bibles, and greatly increased facilities for widespread popular
+controversies.  The European world became a world of readers, to
+an extent that had never happened to any community in the past.
+And this sudden irrigation of the general mind with clearer ideas
+and more accessible information occurred just at a time when the
+church was confused and divided and not in a position to defend
+itself effectively, and when many princes were looking for means
+to weaken its hold upon the vast wealth it claimed in their
+dominions.
+
+In Germany the attack upon the church gathered round the
+personality of an ex-monk, Martin Luther (1483-1546), who appeared
+in Wittenberg in 1517 offering disputations against various
+orthodox doctrines and practices.  At first he disputed in Latin
+in the fashion of the Schoolmen.  Then he took up the new weapon
+of the printed word and scattered his views far and wide in German
+addressed to the ordinary people.  An attempt was made to suppress
+him as Huss had been suppressed, but the printing press had
+changed conditions and he had too many open and secret friends
+among the German princes for this fate to overtake him.
+
+For now in this age of multiplying ideas and weakened faith there
+were many rulers who saw their advantage in breaking the religious
+ties between their people and Rome.  They sought to make
+themselves in person the heads of a more nationalized religion.
+England, Scotland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, North Germany and
+Bohemia, one after another, separated themselves from the Roman
+Communion.  They have remained separated ever since.
+
+The various princes concerned cared very little for the moral and
+intellectual freedom of their subjects.  They used the religious
+doubts and insurgence of their peoples to strengthen them against
+Rome, but they tried to keep a grip upon the popular movement as
+soon as that rupture was achieved and a national church set up
+under the control of the crown.  But there has always been a
+curious vitality in the teaching of Jesus, a direct appeal to
+righteousness and a man's self-respect over every loyalty and
+every subordination, lay or ecclesiastical.  None of these
+princely churches broke {307} off without also breaking off a
+number of fragmentary sects that would admit the intervention of
+neither prince nor Pope between a man and his God.  In England and
+Scotland, for example, there was a number of sects who now held
+firmly to the Bible as their one guide in life and belief.  They
+refused the disciplines of a state church.  In England these
+dissentients were the Non-conformists, who played a very large
+part in the polities of that country in the seventeenth {308} and
+eighteenth centuries.  In England they carried their objection to
+a princely head to the church so far as to decapitate King Charles
+I (1649), and for eleven prosperous years England was a republic
+under Non-conformist rule.
+
+[Illustration: A MAJOLICA DISH PAINTED IN COLOURS]
+
+The breaking away of this large section of Northern Europe from
+Latin Christendom is what is generally spoken of as the
+Reformation.  But the shock and stress of these losses produced
+changes perhaps as profound in the Roman Church itself.  The
+church was reorganized and a new spirit came into its life.  One
+of the dominant figures in this revival was a young Spanish
+soldier, Inigo Lopez de Recalde, better known to the world as St.
+Ignatius of Loyola.  After some romantic beginnings he became a
+priest (1538) and was permitted to found the Society of Jesus, a
+direct attempt to bring the generous and chivalrous traditions of
+military discipline into the service of religion.  This Society of
+Jesus, the Jesuits, became one of the greatest teaching and
+missionary societies the world has ever seen.  It carried
+Christianity to India, China and America.  It arrested the rapid
+disintegration of the Roman Church.  It raised the standard of
+education throughout the whole Catholic world; it raised the level
+of Catholic intelligence and quickened the Catholic conscience
+everywhere; it stimulated Protestant Europe to competitive
+educational efforts.  The vigorous and aggressive Roman Catholic
+Church we know to-day is largely the product of this Jesuit
+revival.
+
+
+
+
+{309}
+
+LI
+
+THE EMPEROR CHARLES V
+
+
+The Holy Roman Empire came to a sort of climax in the reign of the
+Emperor Charles V.  He was one of the most extraordinary monarchs
+that Europe has ever seen.  For a time he had the air of being the
+greatest monarch since Charlemagne.
+
+His greatness was not of his own making.  It was largely the
+creation of his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I
+(1459-1519).  Some families have fought, others have intrigued
+their way to world power; the Habsburgs married their way.
+Maximilian began his career with Austria, Styria, part of Alsace
+and other districts, the original Habsburg patrimony; he
+married--the lady's name scarcely matters to us--the Netherlands
+and Burgundy.  Most of Burgundy slipped from him after his first
+wife's death, but the Netherlands he held.  Then he tried
+unsuccessfully to marry Brittany.  He became Emperor in succession
+to his father, Frederick III, in 1493, and married the duchy of
+Milan.  Finally he married his son to the weak-minded daughter of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, the Ferdinand and Isabella of Columbus,
+who not only reigned over a freshly united Spain and over Sardinia
+and the kingdom of the two Sicilies, but over all America west of
+Brazil.  So it was that this Charles V, his grandson, inherited
+most of the American continent and between a third and a half of
+what the Turks had left of Europe.  He succeeded to the
+Netherlands in 1506.  When his grandfather Ferdinand died in 1516,
+he became practically king of the Spanish dominions, his mother
+being imbecile; and his grandfather Maximilian dying in 1519, he
+was in 1520 elected Emperor at the still comparatively tender age
+of twenty.
+
+He was a fair young man with a not very intelligent face, a thick
+upper lip and a long clumsy chin.  He found himself in a world of
+young and vigorous personalities.  It was an age of brilliant
+young {310} monarchs.  Francis I had succeeded to the French
+throne in 1515 at the age of twenty-one, Henry VIII had become
+King of England in 1509 at eighteen.  It was the age of Baber in
+India (1526-1530) and Suleiman the Magnificent in Turkey (1520),
+both exceptionally capable monarchs, and the Pope Leo X (1513) was
+also a very distinguished Pope.  The Pope and Francis I attempted
+to prevent the election of Charles as Emperor because they dreaded
+the concentration of so much power in the hands of one man.  Both
+Francis I and Henry VIII offered themselves to the imperial
+electors.  But there was now a long established tradition of
+Habsburg Emperors (since 1273), and some energetic bribery secured
+the election for Charles.
+
+At first the young man was very much a magnificent puppet in the
+hands of his ministers.  Then slowly he began to assert himself
+and take control.  He began to realize something of the
+threatening complexities of his exalted position.  It was a
+position as unsound as it was splendid.
+
+From the very outset of his reign he was faced by the situation
+created by Luther's agitations in Germany.  The Emperor had one
+reason for siding with the reformers in the opposition of the Pope
+to his election.  But he had been brought up in Spain, that most
+Catholic of countries, and he decided against Luther.  So he came
+into conflict with the Protestant princes and particularly the
+Elector of Saxony.  He found himself in the presence of an opening
+rift that was to split the outworn fabric of Christendom into two
+contending camps.  His attempts to close that rift were strenuous
+and honest and ineffective.  There was an extensive peasant revolt
+in Germany which interwove with the general political and
+religious disturbance.  And these internal troubles were
+complicated by attacks upon the Empire from east and west alike.
+On the west of Charles was his spirited rival, Francis I; to the
+east was the ever advancing Turk, who was now in Hungary, in
+alliance with Francis and clamouring for certain arrears of
+tribute from the Austrian dominions.  Charles had the money and
+army of Spain at his disposal, but it was extremely difficult to
+get any effective support in money from Germany.  His social and
+political troubles were complicated by financial distresses.  He
+was forced to ruinous borrowing.
+
+{311}
+
+[Illustration: THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN]
+
+{312}
+
+On the whole, Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII, was successful
+against Francis I and the Turk.  Their chief battlefield was North
+Italy; the generalship was dull on both sides; their advances and
+retreats depended mainly on the arrival of reinforcements.  The
+German army invaded France, failed to take Marseilles, fell back
+into Italy, lost Milan, and was besieged in Pavia.  Francis I made
+a long and unsuccessful siege of Pavia, was caught by fresh German
+forces, defeated, wounded and taken prisoner.  But thereupon the
+Pope and Henry VIII, still haunted by the fear of his attaining
+excessive power, turned against Charles.  The German troops in
+Milan, under the Constable of Bourbon, being unpaid, forced rather
+than followed their commander into a raid upon Rome.  They stormed
+the city and pillaged it (1527).  The Pope took refuge in the
+Castle of St. Angelo while the looting and slaughter went on.  He
+bought off the German troops at last by the payment of four
+hundred thousand ducats.  Ten years of such confused fighting
+impoverished all Europe.  At last the Emperor found himself
+triumphant in Italy.  In 1530, he was crowned by the Pope--he was
+the last German Emperor to be so crowned--at Bologna.
+
+Meanwhile the Turks were making great headway in Hungary.  They
+had defeated and killed the king of Hungary in 1526, they held
+Buda-Pesth, and in 1529 Suleiman the Magnificent very nearly took
+Vienna.  The Emperor was greatly concerned by these advances, and
+did his utmost to drive back the Turks, but he found the greatest
+difficulty in getting the German princes to unite even with this
+formidable enemy upon their very borders.  Francis I remained
+implacable for a time, and there was a new French war; but in 1538
+Charles won his rival over to a more friendly attitude after
+ravaging the south of France.  Francis and Charles then formed an
+alliance against the Turk.  But the Protestant princes, the German
+princes who were resolved to break away from Rome, had formed a
+league, the Schmalkaldic League, against the Emperor, and in the
+place of a great campaign to recover Hungary for Christendom
+Charles had to turn his mind to the gathering internal struggle in
+Germany.  Of that struggle he saw only the opening war.  It was a
+struggle, a sanguinary irrational bickering of princes, for
+ascendancy, now {313} flaming into war and destruction, now
+sinking back to intrigues and diplomacies; it was a snake's sack
+of princely policies that was to go on writhing incurably right
+into the nineteenth century and to waste and desolate Central
+Europe again and again.
+
+The Emperor never seems to have grasped the true forces at work in
+these gathering troubles.  He was for his time and station an
+exceptionally worthy man, and he seems to have taken the religious
+dissensions that were tearing Europe into warring fragments as
+genuine theological differences.  He gathered diets and councils
+in futile attempts at reconciliation.  Formul� and confessions
+were tried over.  The student of German history must struggle with
+the details of the Religious Peace of Nuremberg, the settlement at
+the Diet of Ratisbon, the Interim of Augsburg, and the like.  Here
+we do but mention them as details in the worried life of this
+culminating Emperor.  As a matter of fact, hardly one of the
+multifarious princes and rulers in Europe seems to have been
+acting in good faith.  The widespread religious trouble of the
+world, the desire of the common people for truth and social
+righteousness, the spreading knowledge of the time, all those
+things were merely counters in the imaginations of princely
+diplomacy.  Henry VIII of England, who had begun his career with a
+book against heresy, and who had been rewarded by the Pope with
+the title of "Defender of the Faith," being anxious to divorce his
+first wife in favour of a young lady named Anne Boleyn, and
+wishing also to loot the vast wealth of the church in England,
+joined the company of Protestant princes in 1530.  Sweden, Denmark
+and Norway had already gone over to the Protestant side.
+
+The German religious war began in 1546, a few months after the
+death of Martin Luther.  We need not trouble about the incidents
+of the campaign.  The Protestant Saxon army was badly beaten at
+Lochau.  By something very like a breach of faith Philip of Hesse,
+the Emperor's chief remaining antagonist, was caught and
+imprisoned, and the Turks were bought off by the promise of an
+annual tribute.  In 1547, to the great relief of the Emperor,
+Francis I died.  So by 1547 Charles got to a kind of settlement,
+and made his last efforts to effect peace where there was no
+peace.  In 1552 all Germany was at war again, only a precipitate
+flight from Innsbruck {314} saved Charles from capture, and in
+1552, with the treaty of Passau, came another unstable
+equilibrium....
+
+Such is the brief outline of the politics of the Empire for
+thirty-two years.  It is interesting to note how entirely the
+European mind was concentrated upon the struggle for European
+ascendancy.  Neither Turks, French, English nor Germans had yet
+discovered any political interest in the great continent of
+America, nor any significance in the new sea routes to Asia.
+Great things were happening in America; Cortez with a mere handful
+of men had conquered the great Neolithic empire of Mexico for
+Spain, Pizarro had crossed the Isthmus of Panama (1530) and
+subjugated another wonder-land, Peru.  But as yet these events
+meant no more to Europe than a useful and stimulating influx of
+silver to the Spanish treasury.
+
+It was after the treaty of Passau that Charles began to display
+his distinctive originality of mind.  He was now entirely bored
+and disillusioned by his imperial greatness.  A sense of the
+intolerable futility of these European rivalries came upon him.
+He had never been of a very sound constitution, he was naturally
+indolent and he was suffering greatly from gout.  He abdicated.
+He made over all his sovereign rights in Germany to his brother
+Ferdinand, and Spain and the Netherlands he resigned to his son
+Philip.  Then in a sort of magnificent dudgeon he retired to a
+monastery at Yuste, among the oak and chestnut forests in the
+hills to the north of the Tagus valley.  There he died in 1558.
+
+Much has been written in a sentimental vein of this retirement,
+this renunciation of the world by this tired majestic Titan,
+world-weary, seeking in an austere solitude his peace with God.
+But his retreat was neither solitary nor austere; he had with him
+nearly a hundred and fifty attendants: his establishment had all
+the splendour and indulgences without the fatigues or a court, and
+Philip II was a dutiful son to whom his father's advice was a
+command.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ST. PETER'S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH
+ALTAR]
+
+And if Charles had lost his living interest in the administration
+of European affairs, there were other motives of a more immediate
+sort to stir him.  Says Prescott: "In the almost daily
+correspondence between Quixada, or Gaztelu, and the Secretary of
+State at Valladolid, there is scarcely a letter that does not turn
+more or less on the Emperor's eating or his illness.  The one
+seems naturally to follow, {315} like a running commentary, on the
+other.  It is rare that such topics have formed the burden of
+communications with the department of state.  It must have been no
+easy matter for the secretary to preserve his gravity in the
+perusal of despatches in which politics and gastronomy were so
+strangely mixed together.  The courier from Valladolid to Lisbon
+was ordered to make a detour, so as to take Jarandilla in his
+route, and bring supplies to the royal table.  On {316} Thursdays
+he was to bring fish to serve for the _jour maigre_ that was to
+follow.  The trout in the neighbourhood Charles thought too small,
+so others of a larger size were to be sent from Valladolid.  Fish
+of every kind was to his taste, as, indeed, was anything that in
+its nature or habits at all approached to fish.  Eels, frogs,
+oysters, occupied an important place in the royal bill of fare.
+Potted fish, especially anchovies, found great favour with him;
+and he regretted that he had not brought a better supply of these
+from the Low Countries.  On an eel-pasty he particularly
+doted." ...  [6]
+
+In 1554 Charles had obtained a bull from Pope Julius III granting
+him a dispensation from fasting, and allowing him to break his
+fast early in the morning even when he was to take the sacrament.
+
+Eating and doctoring! it was a return to elemental things.  He had
+never acquired the habit of reading, but he would be read aloud to
+at meals after the fashion of Charlemagne, and would make what one
+narrator describes as a "sweet and heavenly commentary."  He also
+amused himself with mechanical toys, by listening to music or
+sermons, and by attending to the imperial business that still came
+drifting in to him.  The death of the Empress, to whom he was
+greatly attached, had turned his mind towards religion, which in
+his case took a punctilious and ceremonial form; every Friday in
+Lent he scourged himself with the rest of the monks with such good
+will as to draw blood.  These exercises and the gout released a
+bigotry in Charles that had hitherto been restrained by
+considerations of policy.  The appearance of Protestant teaching
+close at hand in Valladolid roused him to fury.  "Tell the grand
+inquisitor and his council from me to be at their posts, and to
+lay the axe at the root of the evil before it spreads
+further." .... He expressed a doubt whether it would not be well,
+in so black an affair, to dispense with the ordinary course of
+justice, and to show no mercy; "lest the criminal, if pardoned,
+should have the opportunity of repeating his crime."  He
+recommended, as an example, his own mode or proceeding in the
+Netherlands, "where all who remained obstinate in their errors
+were burned alive, and those who were admitted to penitence
+were beheaded."
+
+And almost symbolical of his place and role in history was his
+{317} preoccupation with funerals.  He seems to have had an
+intuition that something great was dead in Europe and sorely
+needed burial, that there was a need to write Finis, overdue.  He
+not only attended every actual funeral that was celebrated at
+Yuste, but he had services conducted for the absent dead, he held
+a funeral service in memory of his wife on the anniversary of her
+death, and finally he celebrated his own obsequies.
+
+"The chapel was hung with black, and the blaze of hundreds of
+wax-lights was scarcely sufficient to dispel the darkness.  The
+brethren in their conventual dress, and all the Emperor's
+household clad in deep mourning, gathered round a huge catafalque,
+shrouded also in black, which had been raised in the centre of the
+chapel.  The service for the burial of the dead was then
+performed; and, amidst the dismal wail of the monks, the prayers
+ascended for the departed spirit, that it might be received into
+the mansions of the blessed.  The sorrowful attendants were melted
+to tears, as the image of their master's death was presented to
+their minds--or they were touched, it may be, with compassion by
+this pitiable display of weakness.  Charles, muffled in a dark
+mantle, and bearing a lighted candle in his hand, mingled with his
+household, the spectator of his own obsequies; and the doleful
+ceremony was concluded by his placing the taper in the hands of
+the priest, in sign of his surrendering up his soul to the
+Almighty."
+
+Within two months of this masquerade he was dead.  And the brief
+greatness of the Holy Roman Empire died with him.  His realm was
+already divided between his brother and his son.  The Holy Roman
+Empire struggled on indeed to the days of Napoleon I but as an
+invalid and dying thing.  To this day its unburied tradition still
+poisons the political air.
+
+[6]  Prescott's Appendix to Robertson's _History of Charles V_.
+
+
+
+
+{318}
+
+LII
+
+THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND MONARCHY AND
+PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE
+
+
+The Latin Church was broken, the Holy Roman Empire was in extreme
+decay; the history of Europe from the opening of the sixteenth
+century onward is a story of peoples feeling their way darkly to
+some new method of government, better adapted to the new
+conditions that were arising.  In the Ancient World, over long
+periods of time, there had been changes of dynasty and even
+changes of ruling race and language, but the form of government
+through monarch and temple remained fairly stable, and still more
+stable was the ordinary way of living.  In this modern Europe
+since the sixteenth century the dynastic changes are unimportant,
+and the interest of history lies in the wide and increasing
+variety of experiments in political and social organization.
+
+The political history of the world from the sixteenth century
+onward was, we have said, an effort, a largely unconscious effort,
+of mankind to adapt its political and social methods to certain
+new conditions that had now arisen.  The effort to adapt was
+complicated by the fad that the conditions themselves were
+changing with a steadily increasing rapidity.  The adaptation,
+mainly unconscious and almost always unwilling (for man in general
+hates voluntary change), has lagged more and more behind the
+alterations in conditions.  From the sixteenth century onward the
+history of mankind is a story of political and social institutions
+becoming more and more plainly misfits, less comfortable and more
+vexatious, and of the slow reluctant realization of the need for a
+conscious and deliberate reconstruction of the whole scheme of
+human societies in the face of needs and possibilities new to all
+the former experiences of life.
+
+What are these changes in the conditions of human life that have
+disorganized that balance of empire, priest, peasant and trader,
+with {319} periodic refreshment by barbaric conquest, that has
+held human affairs in the Old World in a sort of working rhythm
+for more than a hundred centuries?
+
+They are manifold and various, for human affairs are
+multitudinously complex; but the main changes seem all to turn
+upon one cause, namely the growth and extension of a knowledge of
+the nature of things, beginning first of all in small groups of
+intelligent people and spreading at first slowly, and in the last
+five hundred years very rapidly, to larger and larger proportions
+of the general population.
+
+But there has also been a great change in human conditions due to
+a change in the spirit of human life.  This change has gone on
+side by side with the increase and extension of knowledge, and is
+subtly connected with it.  There has been an increasing
+disposition to treat a life based on the common and more
+elementary desires and gratifications as unsatisfactory, and to
+seek relationship with and service and participation in a larger
+life.  This is the common characteristic of all the great
+religions that have spread throughout the world in the last twenty
+odd centuries, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam alike.  They have
+had to do with the spirit of man in a way that the older religions
+did not have to do.  They are forces quite different in their
+nature and effect from the old fetishistic blood-sacrifice
+religions of priest and temple that they have in part modified and
+in part replaced.  They have gradually evolved a self-respect in
+the individual and a sense of participation and responsibility in
+the common concerns of mankind that did not exist among the
+populations of the earlier civilizations.
+
+The first considerable change in the conditions of political and
+social life was the simplification and extended use of writing in
+the ancient civilizations which made larger empires and wider
+political understandings practicable and inevitable.  The next
+movement forward came with the introduction of the horse, and
+later on of the camel as a means of transport, the use of wheeled
+vehicles, the extension of roads and the increased military
+efficiency due to the discovery of terrestrial iron.  Then
+followed the profound economic disturbances due to the device of
+coined money and the change in the nature of debt, proprietorship
+and trade due to this convenient but dangerous convention.  The
+empires grew in size and range, and {320} men's ideas grew
+likewise to correspond with these things.  Came the disappearance
+of local gods, the age of theocrasia, and the teaching of the
+great world religions.  Came also the beginnings of reasoned and
+recorded history and geography, the first realization by man of
+his profound ignorance, and the first systematic search for
+knowledge.
+
+For a time the scientific process which began so brilliantly in
+Greece and Alexandria was interrupted.  The raids of the Teutonic
+barbarians, the westward drive of the Mongolian peoples,
+convulsive religious reconstruction and great pestilences put
+enormous strains upon political and social order.  When
+civilization emerged again from this phase of conflict and
+confusion, slavery was no longer the basis of economic life; and
+the first paper-mills were preparing a new medium for collective
+information and co-operation in printed matter.  Gradually at this
+point and that, the search for knowledge, the systematic
+scientific process, was resumed.
+
+And now from the sixteenth century onward, as an inevitable
+by-product of systematic thought, appeared a steadily increasing
+series of inventions and devices affecting the intercommunication
+and interaction of men with one another.  They all tended towards
+wider range of action, greater mutual benefits or injuries, and
+increased co-operation, and they came faster and faster.  Men's
+minds had not been prepared for anything of the sort, and until
+the great catastrophes at the beginning of the twentieth century
+quickened men's minds, the historian has very little to tell of
+any intelligently planned attempts to meet the new conditions this
+increasing flow of inventions was creating.  The history of
+mankind for the last four centuries is rather like that of an
+imprisoned sleeper, stirring clumsily and uneasily while the
+prison that restrains and shelters him catches fire, not waking
+but incorporating the crackling and warmth of the fire with
+ancient and incongruous dreams, than like that of a man
+consciously awake to danger and opportunity.
+
+Since history is the story not of individual lives but of
+communities, it is inevitable that the inventions that figure most
+in the historical record are inventions affecting communications.
+In the sixteenth century the chief new things that we have to note
+are the appearance of printed paper and the sea-worthy,
+ocean-going sailing ship using the new device of the mariner's
+compass.  The former {321} cheapened, spread, and revolutionized
+teaching, public information and discussion, and the fundamental
+operations of political activity.  The latter made the round world
+one.  But almost equally important was the increased utilization
+and improvement of guns and gunpowder which the Mongols had first
+brought westward in the thirteenth century.  This destroyed the
+practical immunity of barons in their castles and of walled
+cities.  Guns swept away feudalism.  Constantinople fell to guns.
+Mexico and Peru fell before the terror of the Spanish guns.
+
+[Illustration: CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO
+BECOMES AUTOCRAT OF THE ENGLISH REPUBLIC]
+
+The seventeenth century saw the development of systematic
+scientific publication, a less conspicuous but ultimately far more
+pregnant innovation.  Conspicuous among the leaders in this great
+forward step was Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) afterwards Lord
+{322} Verulam, Lord Chancellor of England.  He was the pupil and
+perhaps the mouthpiece of another Englishman; Dr. Gilbert, the
+experimental philosopher of Colchester (1540-1603).  This second
+Bacon, like the first, preached observation and experiment, and he
+used the inspiring and fruitful form of a Utopian story, _The New
+Atlantis_, to express his dream of a great service of scientific
+research.
+
+Presently arose the Royal Society of London, the Florentine
+Society, and later other national bodies for the encouragement of
+research and the publication and exchange of knowledge.  These
+European scientific societies became fountains not only of
+countless inventions but also of a destructive criticism of the
+grotesque theological history of the world that had dominated and
+crippled human thought for many centuries.
+
+Neither the seventeenth nor the eighteenth century witnessed any
+innovations so immediately revolutionary in human conditions as
+printed paper and the ocean-going ship, but there was a steady
+accumulation of knowledge and scientific energy that was to bear
+its full fruits in the nineteenth century.  The exploration and
+mapping of the world went on.  Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand
+appeared on the map.  In Great Britain in the eighteenth century
+coal coke began to be used for metallurgical purposes, leading to
+a considerable cheapening of iron and to the possibility of
+casting and using it in larger pieces than had been possible
+before, when it had been smelted with wood charcoal.  Modern
+machinery dawned.
+
+Like the trees of the celestial city, science bears bud and flower
+and fruit at the same time and continuously.  With the onset of
+the nineteenth century the real fruition of
+science--which indeed henceforth may never cease--began.  First
+came steam and steel, the railway, the great liner, vast bridges
+and buildings, machinery of almost limitless power, the
+possibility of a bountiful satisfaction of every material human
+need, and then, still more wonderful, the hidden treasures of
+electrical science were opened to men ....
+
+We have compared the political and social life of man from the
+sixteenth century onward to that of a sleeping prisoner who lies
+and dreams while his prison burns about him.  In the sixteenth
+century the European mind was still going on with its Latin
+Imperial dream, {323} its dream of a Holy Roman Empire, united
+under a Catholic Church.  But just as some uncontrollable element
+in our composition will insist at times upon introducing into our
+dreams the most absurd and destructive comments, so thrust into
+this dream we find the sleeping face and craving stomach of the
+Emperor Charles V, while Henry VIII of England and Luther tear the
+unity of Catholicism to shreds.
+
+[Illustration: THE COURT AT VERSAILLES]
+
+In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the dream turned to
+personal monarchy.  The history of nearly all Europe during this
+period tells with variations the story of an attempt to
+consolidate a monarchy, to make it absolute and to extend its
+power over weaker adjacent regions, and of the steady resistance,
+first of the landowners and then with the increase of foreign
+trade and home industry, of the growing trading and moneyed class,
+to the exaction and interference of the crown.  There is no
+universal victory of either side; here it is the King who gets the
+upper hand while there it is the {324} man of private property who
+beats the King.  In one case we find a King becoming the sun and
+centre of his national world, while just over his borders a sturdy
+mercantile class maintains a republic.  So wide a range of
+variation shows how entirely experimental, what local accidents,
+were all the various governments of this period.
+
+A very common figure in these national dramas is the King's
+minister, often in the still Catholic countries a prelate, who
+stands behind the King, serves him and dominates him by his
+indispensable services.
+
+Here in the limits set to us it is impossible to tell these
+various national dramas in detail.  The trading folk of Holland
+went Protestant and republican, and cast off the rule of Philip II
+of Spain, the son of the Emperor Charles V.  In England Henry VIII
+and his minister Wolsey, Queen Elizabeth and her minister
+Burleigh, prepared the foundations of an absolutism that was
+wrecked by the folly of James I and Charles I.  Charles I was
+beheaded for treason to his people (1649), a new turn in the
+political thought of Europe.  For a dozen years (until 1660)
+Britain was a republic; and the crown was an unstable power, much
+overshadowed by Parliament, until George III (1760-1820) made a
+strenuous and partly successful effort to restore its
+predominance.  The King of France, on the other hand, was the most
+successful of all the European Kings in perfecting monarchy.  Two
+great ministers, Richelieu (1585-1642) and Mazarin
+(1602-1661), built up the power of the crown in that country, and
+the process was aided by the long reign and very considerable
+abilities of King Louis XIV, "the Grand Monarque" (1643-1715).
+
+Louis XIV was indeed the pattern King of Europe.  He was, within
+his limitations, an exceptionally capable King; his ambition was
+stronger than his baser passions, and he guided his country
+towards bankruptcy through the complication of a spirited foreign
+policy with an elaborate dignity that still extorts our
+admiration.  His immediate desire was to consolidate and extend
+France to the Rhine and Pyrenees, and to absorb the Spanish
+Netherlands; his remoter view saw the French Kings as the possible
+successors of Charlemagne in a recast Holy Roman Empire.  He made
+bribery a state method almost more important than warfare.
+Charles II of {325} England was in his pay, and so were most of
+the Polish nobility, presently to be described.  His money, or
+rather the money of the tax-paying classes in France, went
+everywhere.  But his prevailing occupation was splendour.  His
+great palace at Versailles with its salons, its corridors, its
+mirrors, its terraces and fountains and parks and prospects, was
+the envy and admiration of the world.
+
+[Illustration: THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION]
+
+He provoked a universal imitation.  Every king and princelet in
+Europe was building his own Versailles as much beyond his means as
+his subjects and credits would permit.  Everywhere the nobility
+rebuilt or extended their chateaux to the new pattern.  A great
+industry of beautiful and elaborate fabrics and furnishings
+developed.  The luxurious arts flourished everywhere; sculpture in
+alabaster, faience, gilt woodwork, metal work, stamped leather,
+much music, magnificent painting, beautiful printing and bindings,
+fine crockery, fine vintages.  Amidst the mirrors and fine
+furniture went a strange race of "gentlemen" in tall powdered
+wigs, silks and laces, poised upon high red heels, supported by
+amazing canes; and still more wonderful "ladies," under towers of
+powdered hair and wearing vast expansions of silk and satin
+sustained on wire.  Through it all postured the great Louis, the
+sun of his world, unaware of the meagre and sulky and bitter faces
+that watched him from those lower darknesses to which his sunshine
+did not penetrate.
+
+[Map: Central Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648]
+
+The German people remained politically divided throughout this
+period of the monarchies and experimental governments, and a
+considerable {326} number of ducal and princely courts aped the
+splendours of Versailles on varying scales.  The Thirty Years' War
+(1618-48), a devastating scramble among the Germans, Swedes and
+Bohemians for fluctuating political advantages, sapped the
+energies of Germany for a century.  A map must show the crazy
+patchwork in which this struggle ended, a map of Europe according
+to the peace of Westphalia (1648).  One sees a tangle of
+principalities, dukedoms, free states and the like, some partly in
+and partly out of the Empire.  Sweden's arm, the reader will note,
+reached far into Germany; and except for a few islands of
+territory within the imperial boundaries France was still far from
+the Rhine.  Amidst this patchwork the {327} Kingdom of Prussia--it
+became a Kingdom in 1701--rose steadily to prominence and
+sustained a series of successful wars.  Frederick the Great of
+Prussia (1740-86) had his Versailles at Potsdam, where his court
+spoke French, read French literature and rivalled the culture of
+the French King.
+
+In 1714 the Elector of Hanover became King of England, adding one
+more to the list of monarchies half in and half out of the empire.
+
+The Austrian branch of the descendants of Charles V retained the
+title of Emperor; the Spanish branch retained Spain.  But now
+there was also an Emperor of the East again.  After the fall of
+Constantinople (1453), the grand duke of Moscow, Ivan the Great
+(1462-1505), claimed to be heir to the Byzantine throne and
+adopted the Byzantine double-headed eagle upon his arms.  His
+grandson, Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584), assumed the
+imperial title of C�sar (Tsar).  But only in the latter half of
+the seventeenth century did Russia cease to seem remote and
+Asiatic to the European mind.  The Tsar Peter the Great
+(1682-1725) brought Russia into the arena of Western affairs.  He
+built a new capital for his empire, Petersburg upon the Neva, that
+played the part of a window between Russia and Europe, and he set
+up his Versailles at Peterhof eighteen miles away, employing a
+French architect who gave him a terrace, fountains, cascades,
+picture gallery, park and all the recognized appointments of Grand
+Monarchy.  In Russia as in Prussia French became the language of
+the court.
+
+Unhappily placed between Austria, Prussia and Russia was the
+Polish kingdom, an ill-organized state of great landed proprietors
+too jealous of their own individual grandeur to permit more than a
+nominal kingship to the monarch they elected.  Her fate was
+division among these three neighbours, in spite of the efforts of
+France to retain her as an independent ally.  Switzerland at this
+time was a group of republican cantons; Venice was a republic;
+Italy like so much of Germany was divided among minor dukes and
+princes.  The Pope ruled like a prince in the papal states, too
+fearful now of losing the allegiance of the remaining Catholic
+princes to interfere between them and their subjects or to remind
+the world of the commonweal of Christendom. There remained indeed
+no common {328} political idea in Europe at all; Europe was given
+over altogether to division and diversity.
+
+All these sovereign princes and republics carried on schemes of
+aggrandizement against each other.  Each one of them pursued a
+"foreign policy" of aggression against its neighbours and of
+aggressive alliances.  We Europeans still live to-day in the last
+phase of this age of the multifarious sovereign states, and still
+suffer from the hatreds, hostilities and suspicions it engendered.
+The history of this time becomes more and more manifestly
+"gossip," more and more unmeaning and wearisome to a modern
+intelligence.  You are told of how this war was caused by this
+King's mistress, and how the jealousy of one minister for another
+caused that.  A tittle-tattle of bribes and rivalries disgusts the
+intelligent student.  The more permanently significant fact is
+that in spite of the obstruction of a score of frontiers, reading
+and thought still spread and increased and inventions multiplied.
+The eighteenth century saw the appearance of a literature
+profoundly sceptical and critical of the courts and policies of
+the time.  In such a book as Voltaire's _Candide_ we have the
+expression of an infinite weariness with the planless confusion of
+the European world.
+
+
+
+
+{329}
+
+LIII
+
+THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS
+
+
+While Central Europe thus remained divided and confused, the
+Western Europeans and particularly the Dutch, the Scandinavians,
+the Spanish, the Portuguese, the French and the British were
+extending the area of their struggles across the seas of all the
+world.  The printing press had dissolved the political ideas of
+Europe into a vast and at first indeterminate fermentation, but
+that other great innovation, the ocean-going sailing ship, was
+inexorably extending the range of European experience to the
+furthermost limits of salt water.
+
+The first overseas settlements of the Dutch and Northern Atlantic
+Europeans were not for colonization but for trade and mining.  The
+Spaniards were first in the field; they claimed dominion over the
+whole of this new world of America.  Very soon however the
+Portuguese asked for a share.  The Pope--it was one of the last
+acts of Rome as mistress of the world--divided the new continent
+between these two first-comers, giving Portugal Brazil and
+everything else east of a line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde
+islands, and all the rest to Spain (1494).  The Portuguese at this
+time were also pushing overseas enterprise southward and eastward.
+In 1497 Vasco da Gama had sailed from Lisbon round the Cape to
+Zanzibar and then to Calicut in India.  In 1515 there were
+Portuguese ships in Java and the Moluccas, and the Portuguese were
+setting up and fortifying trading stations round and about the
+coasts of the Indian Ocean.  Mozambique, Goa, and two smaller
+possessions in India, Macao in China and a part of Timor are to
+this day Portuguese possessions.
+
+The nations excluded from America by the papal settlement paid
+little heed to the rights of Spain and Portugal.  The English, the
+Danes and Swedes, and presently the Dutch, were soon staking {330}
+out claims in North America and the West Indies, and his Most
+Catholic Majesty of France heeded the papal settlement as little
+as any Protestant.  The wars of Europe extended themselves to
+these claims and possessions.
+
+[Map: Britain, France & Spain in America, 1750]
+
+In the long run the English were the most successful in this
+scramble for overseas possessions. The Danes and Swedes were too
+{331} deeply entangled in the complicated affairs of Germany to
+sustain effective expeditions abroad.  Sweden was wasted upon the
+German battlefields by a picturesque king, Gustavus Adolphus, the
+Protestant "Lion of the North."  The Dutch were the heirs of such
+small settlements as Sweden made in America, and the Dutch were
+too near French aggressions to hold their own against the British.
+In the far East the chief rivals for empire were the British,
+Dutch and French, and in America the British, French and Spanish.
+The British had the supreme advantage of a water frontier, the
+"silver streak" of the English Channel, against Europe.  The
+tradition of the Latin Empire entangled them least.
+
+[Illustration: EUROPEANS TIGER HUNTING IN INDIA]
+
+France has always thought too much in terms of Europe.  Throughout
+the eighteenth century she was wasting her opportunities of
+expansion in West and East alike in order to dominate Spain, Italy
+and the German confusion.  The religious and political dissensions
+of Britain in the seventeenth century had driven many {332} of the
+English to seek a permanent home in America.  They struck root and
+increased and multiplied, giving the British a great advantage in
+the American struggle.  In 1756 and 1760 the French lost Canada to
+the British and their American colonists, and a few years later
+the British trading company found itself completely dominant over
+French, Dutch and Portuguese in the peninsula of India.  The great
+Mongol Empire of Baber, Akbar and their successors had now far
+gone in decay, and the story of its practical capture by a London
+trading company, the British East India Company, is one of the
+most extraordinary episodes in the whole history of conquest.
+
+[Illustration: THE LAST EFFORT AND FALL OF TIPPOO SULTAN]
+
+This East India Company had been originally at the time of its
+incorporation under Queen Elizabeth no more than a company of sea
+adventurers.  Step by step they had been forced to raise troops
+and arm their ships.  And now this trading company, with its
+tradition of gain, found itself dealing not merely in spices and
+dyes and tea and jewels, but in the revenues and territories of
+princes {333} and the destinies of India.  It had come to buy and
+sell, and it found itself achieving a tremendous piracy.  There
+was no one to challenge its proceedings.  Is it any wonder that
+its captains and commanders and officials, nay, even its clerks
+and common soldiers, came back to England loaded with spoils?
+
+Men under such circumstances, with a great and wealthy land at
+their mercy, could not determine what they might or might not do.
+It was a strange land to them, with a strange sunlight; its brown
+people seemed a different race, outside their range of sympathy;
+its mysterious temples sustained fantastic standards of behaviour.
+Englishmen at home were perplexed when presently these generals
+and officials came back to make dark accusations against each
+other of extortions and cruelties.  Upon Clive Parliament passed a
+vote of censure.  He committed suicide in 1774.  In 1788 Warren
+Hastings, a second great Indian administrator, was impeached and
+acquitted (1792).  It was a strange and unprecedented situation in
+the world's history.  The English Parliament found itself ruling
+over a London trading company, which in its turn was dominating an
+empire far greater and more populous than all the domains of the
+British crown.  To the bulk of the English people India was a
+remote, fantastic, almost inaccessible land, to which adventurous
+poor young men went out, to return after many years very rich and
+very choleric old gentlemen.  It was difficult for the English to
+conceive what the life of these countless brown millions in the
+eastern sunshine could be.  Their imaginations declined the task.
+India remained romantically unreal.  It was impossible for the
+English, therefore, to exert any effective supervision and control
+over the company's proceedings.
+
+And while the Western European powers were thus fighting for these
+fantastic overseas empires upon every ocean in the world, two
+great land conquests were in progress in Asia.  China had thrown
+off the Mongol yoke in 1360, and flourished under the great native
+dynasty of the Mings until 1644.  Then the Manchus, another Mongol
+people, reconquered China and remained masters of China until
+1912.  Meanwhile Russia was pushing East and growing to greatness
+in the world's affairs.  The rise of this great central power of
+the old world, which is neither altogether of the East nor {334}
+altogether of the West, is one of the utmost importance to our
+human destiny.  Its expansion is very largely due to the
+appearance of a Christian steppe people, the Cossacks, who formed
+a barrier between the feudal agriculture of Poland and Hungary to
+the west and the Tartar to the east.  The Cossacks were the wild
+east of Europe, and in many ways not unlike the wild west of the
+United States in the middle nineteenth century.  All who had made
+Russia too hot to hold them, criminals as well as the persecuted
+innocent, rebellious serfs, religious secretaries, thieves,
+vagabonds, murderers, sought asylum in the southern steppes and
+there made a fresh start and fought for life and freedom against
+Pole, Russian and Tartar alike.  Doubtless fugitives from the
+Tartars to the east also contributed to the Cossack mixture.
+Slowly these border folk were incorporated in the Russian imperial
+service, much as the highland clans of Scotland were converted
+into regiments by the British government.  New lands were offered
+them in Asia.  They became a weapon against the dwindling power of
+the Mongolian nomads, first in Turkestan and then across Siberia
+as far as the Amur.
+
+The decay of Mongol energy in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries is very difficult to explain.  Within two or three
+centuries from the days of Jengis and Timurlane Central Asia had
+relapsed from a period of world ascendancy to extreme political
+impotence.  Changes of climate, unrecorded pestilences, infections
+of a malarial type, may have played their part in this
+recession--which may be only a temporary recession measured by the
+scale of universal history--of the Central Asian peoples.  Some
+authorities think that the spread of Buddhist teaching from China
+also had a pacifying influence upon them.  At any rate, by the
+sixteenth century the Mongol, Tartar and Turkish peoples were no
+longer pressing outward, but were being invaded, subjugated and
+pushed back both by Christian Russia in the west and by China in
+the east.
+
+All through the seventeenth century the Cossacks were spreading
+eastward from European Russia, and settling wherever they found
+agricultural conditions.  Cordons of forts and stations formed a
+moving frontier to these settlements to the south, where the
+Turkomans were still strong and active; to the north-east,
+however, Russia had no frontier until she reached right to the
+Pacific ....
+
+
+
+
+{335}
+
+LIV
+
+THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The third quarter of the eighteenth century thus saw the
+remarkable and unstable spectacle of a Europe divided against
+itself, and no longer with any unifying political or religious
+idea, yet through the immense stimulation of men's imaginations by
+the printed book, the printed map, and the opportunity of the new
+ocean-going shipping, able in a disorganized and contentious
+manner to dominate all the coasts of the world.  It was a
+planless, incoherent ebullition of enterprise due to temporary and
+almost accidental advantages over the rest of mankind.  By virtue
+of these advantages this new and still largely empty continent of
+America was peopled mainly from Western European sources, and
+South Africa and Australia and New Zealand marked down as
+prospective homes for a European population.
+
+The motive that had sent Columbus to America and Vasco da Gama to
+India was the perennial first motive of all sailors since the
+beginning of things--trade.  But while in the already populous and
+productive East the trade motive remained dominant, and the
+European settlements remained trading settlements from which the
+European inhabitants hoped to return home to spend their money,
+the Europeans in America, dealing with communities at a very much
+lower level of productive activity, found a new inducement for
+persistence in the search for gold and silver.  Particularly did
+the mines of Spanish America yield silver.  The Europeans had to
+go to America not simply as armed merchants but as prospectors,
+miners, searchers after natural products, and presently as
+planters.  In the north they sought furs.  Mines and plantations
+necessitated settlements.  They obliged people to set up permanent
+overseas homes.  Finally in some cases, as when the English
+Puritans went to New England in the early seventeenth {336}
+century to escape religious persecution, when in the eighteenth
+Oglethorpe sent people from the English debtors' prisons to
+Georgia, and when in the end of the eighteenth the Dutch sent
+orphans to the Cape of Good Hope, the Europeans frankly crossed
+the seas to find new homes for good.  In the nineteenth century,
+and especially after the coming of the steamship, the stream of
+European emigration to the new empty lands of America and
+Australia rose for some decades to the scale of a great migration.
+
+So there grew up permanent overseas populations of Europeans, and
+the European culture was transplanted to much larger areas than
+those in which it had been developed.  These new communities
+bringing a ready-made civilization with them to these new lands
+grew up, as it were, unplanned and unperceived; the statecraft of
+Europe did not foresee them, and was unprepared with any ideas
+about their treatment.  The politicians and ministers of Europe
+continued to regard them as essentially expeditionary
+establishments, sources of revenue, "possessions" and
+"dependencies," long after their peoples had developed a keen
+sense of their separate social life.  And also they continued to
+treat them as helplessly subject to the mother country long after
+the population had spread inland out of reach of any effectual
+punitive operations from the sea.
+
+Because until right into the nineteenth century, it must be
+remembered, the link of all these overseas empires was the
+oceangoing sailing ship.  On land the swiftest thing was still the
+horse, and the cohesion and unity of political systems on land was
+still limited by the limitations of horse communications.
+
+Now at the end of the third quarter of the eighteenth century the
+northern two-thirds of North America was under the British crown.
+France had abandoned America.  Except for Brazil, which was
+Portuguese, and one or two small islands and areas in French,
+British, Danish and Dutch hands, Florida, Louisiana, California
+and all America to the south was Spanish.  It was the British
+colonies south of Maine and Lake Ontario that first demonstrated
+the inadequacy of the sailing ship to hold overseas populations
+together in one political system.
+
+These British colonies were very miscellaneous in their origin and
+character.  There were French, Swedish and Dutch settlements {337}
+as well as British; there were British Catholics in Maryland and
+British ultra-Protestants in New England, and while the New
+Englanders farmed their own land and denounced slavery, the
+British in Virginia and the south were planters employing a
+swelling multitude of imported negro slaves.  There was no natural
+common unity in such states.  To get from one to the other might
+mean a coasting voyage hardly less tedious than the transatlantic
+crossing.  But the union that diverse origin and natural
+conditions denied the British Americans was forced upon them by
+the selfishness and stupidity of the British government in London.
+They were taxed without any voice in the spending of the taxes;
+their trade was sacrificed to British interests; the highly
+profitable slave trade was maintained by the British government in
+spite of the opposition of the Virginians
+who--though quite willing to hold and use slaves--feared to be
+swamped by an ever-growing barbaric black population.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON]
+
+Britain at that time was lapsing towards an intenser form of
+monarchy, and the obstinate personality of George III (1760-1820)
+did much to force on a struggle between the home and the colonial
+governments.
+
+The conflict was precipitated by legislation which favoured the
+London East India Company at the expense of the American shipper.
+Three cargoes of tea which were imported under the new conditions
+were thrown overboard in Boston harbour by a band of men disguised
+as Indians (1773).  {338} Fighting only began in 1775 when the
+British government attempted to arrest two of the American leaders
+at Lexington near Boston.  The first shots were fired in Lexington
+by the British; the first fighting occurred at Concord.
+
+[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON]
+
+So the American War of Independence began, though for more than a
+year the colonists showed themselves extremely unwilling to sever
+their links with the mother land.  It was not until the middle of
+1776 that the Congress of the insurgent states issued "The
+Declaration of Independence."  George Washington, who like many of
+the leading colonists of the time had had a military training in
+the wars against the French, was made commander-in-chief.  In 1777
+a British general, General Burgoyne, in an attempt to reach New
+York from Canada, was defeated at Freemans Farm and obliged to
+surrender at Saratoga.  In the same year the French and Spanish
+declared war upon Great Britain, greatly hampering her sea
+communications.  A second British army under General Cornwallis
+was caught in the Yorktown peninsula in Virginia and obliged to
+capitulate in 1781.  In 1783 peace was made in Paris, and the
+Thirteen Colonies from Maine to Georgia became a union of
+independent sovereign States.  So the United States of America
+came into existence.  Canada remained loyal to the British flag.
+
+[Map: The United States, showing extent of settlement in 1790]
+
+For four years these States had only a very feeble central
+government under certain Articles of Confederation, and they
+seemed destined to break up into separate independent communities.
+Their immediate separation was delayed by the hostility of the
+British and a certain aggressiveness on the part of the French
+which brought {340} home to them the immediate dangers of
+division.  A Constitution was drawn up and ratified in 1788
+establishing a more efficient Federal government with a President
+holding very considerable powers, and the weak sense of national
+unity was invigorated by a second war with Britain in 1812.
+Nevertheless the area covered by the States was so wide and their
+interests so diverse at that time, that--given only the means of
+communication then available--a disintegration of the Union into
+separate states on the European scale of size was merely a
+question of time.  Attendance at Washington meant a long, tedious
+and insecure journey for the senators and congressmen of the
+remoter districts, and the mechanical impediments to the diffusion
+of a common education and a common literature and intelligence
+were practically insurmountable.  Forces were at work in the world
+however that were to arrest the process of differentiation
+altogether.  Presently came the river steamboat and then the
+railway and the telegraph to save the United States from
+fragmentation, and weave its dispersed people together again into
+the first of great modern nations.
+
+Twenty-two years later the Spanish colonies in America were to
+follow the example of the Thirteen and break their connection with
+Europe.  But being more dispersed over the continent and separated
+by great mountainous chains and deserts and forests and by the
+Portuguese Empire of Brazil, they did not achieve a union among
+themselves.  They became a constellation of republican states,
+very prone at first to wars among themselves and to revolutions.
+
+Brazil followed a rather different line towards the inevitable
+separation.  In 1807 the French armies under Napoleon had occupied
+the mother country of Portugal, and the monarchy had fled to
+Brazil.  From that time on until they separated, Portugal was
+rather a dependency of Brazil than Brazil of Portugal.  In 1822
+Brazil declared itself a separate Empire under Pedro I, a son of
+the Portuguese King.  But the new world has never been very
+favourable to monarchy.  In 1889 the Emperor of Brazil was shipped
+off quietly to Europe, and the United States of Brazil fell into
+line with the rest of republican America.
+
+
+
+
+{341}
+
+LV
+
+THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY IN FRANCE
+
+
+Britain had hardly lost the Thirteen Colonies in America before a
+profound social and political convulsion at the very heart of
+Grand Monarchy was to remind Europe still more vividly of the
+essentially temporary nature of the political arrangements of the
+world.
+
+We have said that the French monarchy was the most successful of
+the personal monarchies in Europe.  It was the envy and model of a
+multitude of competing and minor courts.  But it flourished on a
+basis of injustice that led to its dramatic collapse.  It was
+brilliant and aggressive, but it was wasteful of the life and
+substance of its common people.  The clergy and nobility were
+protected from taxation by a system of exemption that threw the
+whole burden of the state upon the middle and lower classes.  The
+peasants were ground down by taxation; the middle classes were
+dominated and humiliated by the nobility.
+
+In 1787 this French monarchy found itself bankrupt and obliged to
+call representatives of the different classes of the realm into
+consultation upon the perplexities of defective income and
+excessive expenditure.  In 1789 the States General, a gathering of
+the nobles, clergy and commons, roughly equivalent to the earlier
+form of the British Parliament, was called together at Versailles.
+It had not assembled since 1610.  For all that time France had
+been an absolute monarchy.  Now the people found a means of
+expressing their long fermenting discontent.  Disputes immediately
+broke out between the three estates, due to the resolve of the
+Third Estate, the Commons, to control the Assembly.  The Commons
+got the better of these disputes and the States General became a
+National Assembly, clearly resolved to keep the crown in order, as
+the British {342} Parliament kept the British crown in order.  The
+king (Louis XVI) prepared for a struggle and brought up troops
+from the provinces.  Whereupon Paris and France revolted.
+
+The collapse of the absolute monarchy was very swift.  The
+grim-looking prison of the Bastille was stormed by the people of
+Paris, and the insurrection spread rapidly throughout France.  In
+the east and north-west provinces many chateaux belonging to the
+nobility were burnt by the peasants, their title-deeds carefully
+destroyed, and the owners murdered or driven away.  In a month the
+ancient and decayed system of the aristocratic order had
+collapsed.  Many of the leading princes and courtiers of the
+queen's party fled abroad.  A provisional city government was set
+up in Paris and in most of the other large cities, and a new armed
+force, the National Guard, a force designed primarily and plainly
+to resist the forces of the crown, was brought into existence by
+these municipal bodies.  The National Assembly found itself called
+upon to create a new political and social system for a new age.
+
+It was a task that tried the powers of that gathering to the
+utmost.  It made a great sweep of the chief injustices of the
+absolutist regime; it abolished tax exemptions, serfdom,
+aristocratic titles and privileges and sought to establish a
+constitutional monarchy in Paris.  The king abandoned Versailles
+and its splendours and kept a diminished state in the palace of
+the Tuileries in Paris.
+
+For two years it seemed that the National Assembly might struggle
+through to an effective modernized government.  Much of its work
+was sound and still endures, if much was experimental and had to
+be undone.  Much was ineffective.  There was a clearing up of the
+penal code; torture, arbitrary imprisonment and persecutions for
+heresy were abolished.  The ancient provinces of France, Normandy,
+Burgundy and the like gave place to eighty departments.  Promotion
+to the highest ranks in the army was laid open to men of every
+class.  An excellent and simple system of law courts was set up,
+but its value was much vitiated by having the judges appointed by
+popular election for short periods of time.  This made the crowd a
+sort of final court of appeal, and the judges, like the members of
+the Assembly, were forced to play to the gallery.  And the whole
+vast property of the church was seized and administered {343} by
+the state; religious establishments not engaged in education or
+works of charity were broken up, and the salaries of the clergy
+made a charge upon the nation.  This in itself was not a bad thing
+for the lower clergy in France, who were often scandalously
+underpaid in comparison with the richer dignitaries.  But in
+addition the choice of priests and bishops was made elective,
+which struck at the very root idea of the Roman Church, which
+centred everything upon the Pope, and in which all authority is
+from above downward.  Practically the National Assembly wanted at
+one blow to make the church in France Protestant, in organization
+if not in doctrine.  Everywhere there were disputes and conflicts
+between the state priests created by the National Assembly and the
+recalcitrant (non-juring) priests who were loyal to Rome.
+
+In 1791 the experiment of Constitutional monarchy in France was
+brought to an abrupt end by the action of the king and queen,
+working in concert with their aristocratic and monarchist friends
+abroad.  Foreign armies gathered on the Eastern frontier and one
+night in June the king and queen and their children slipped away
+from the Tuileries and fled to join the foreigners and the
+aristocratic exiles.  They were caught at Varennes and brought
+back to Paris, and an France flamed up into a passion of patriotic
+republicanism.  A Republic was proclaimed, open war with Austria
+and Prussia ensued, and the king was tried and executed (January,
+1793) on the model already set by England, for treason to his
+people.
+
+And now followed a strange phase in the history of the French
+people.  There arose a great flame of enthusiasm for France and
+the Republic.  There was to be an end to compromise at home and
+abroad; at home royalists and every form of disloyalty were to be
+stamped out; abroad France was to be the protector and helper of
+all revolutionaries.  All Europe, all the world, was to become
+Republican.  The youth of France poured into the Republican
+armies; a new and wonderful song spread through the land, a song
+that still warms the blood like wine, the Marseillaise.  Before
+that chant and the leaping columns of French bayonets and their
+enthusiastically served guns the foreign armies rolled back;
+before the end of 1792 the French armies had gone far beyond the
+utmost achievements of Louis XIV; everywhere they stood on {344}
+foreign soil.  They were in Brussels, they had overrun Savoy, they
+had raided to Mayence; they had seized the Scheldt from Holland.
+Then the French Government did an unwise thing.  It had been
+exasperated by the expulsion of its representative from England
+upon the execution of Louis, and it declared war against England.
+It was an unwise thing to do, because the revolution which had
+given France a new enthusiastic infantry and a brilliant artillery
+released from its aristocratic officers and many cramping
+conditions had destroyed the discipline of the navy, and the
+English were supreme upon the sea.  And this provocation united
+all England against France, whereas there had been at first a very
+considerable liberal movement in Great Britain in sympathy with
+the revolution.
+
+[Illustration: THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI]
+
+Of the fight that France made in the next few years against a
+European coalition we cannot tell in any detail.  She drove the
+Austrians for ever out of Belgium, and made Holland a republic.
+The Dutch fleet, frozen in the Texel, surrendered to a handful of
+{345} cavalry without firing its guns.  For some time the French
+thrust towards Italy was hung up, and it was only in 1796 that a
+new general, Napoleon Bonaparte, led the ragged and hungry
+republican armies in triumph across Piedmont to Mantua and Verona.
+Says C. F. Atkinson,  [7]  "What astonished the Allies most of all
+was the number and the velocity of the Republicans.  These
+improvised armies had in fact nothing to delay them.  Tents were
+unprocurable for want of money, untransportable for want of the
+enormous number of wagons that would have been required, and also
+unnecessary, for the discomfort that would have caused wholesale
+desertion in professional armies was cheerfully borne by the men
+of 1793-94.   Supplies for armies of then unheard-of size could
+not be carried in convoys, and the French soon became familiar
+with 'living on the country.'  Thus 1793 saw the birth of the
+modern system of war--rapidity of movement, full development of
+national strength, bivouacs, requisitions and force as against
+cautious manoeuvring, small professional armies, tents and full
+rations, and chicane.  The first represented the
+decision-compelling spirit, the second the spirit of risking
+little to gain a little ... ."
+
+And while these ragged hosts of enthusiasts were chanting the
+Marseillaise and fighting for _la France_, manifestly never quite
+clear in their minds whether they were looting or liberating the
+countries into which they poured, the republican enthusiasm in
+Paris was spending itself in a far less glorious fashion.  The
+revolution was now under the sway of a fanatical leader,
+Robespierre.  This man is difficult to judge; he was a man of poor
+physique, naturally timid, and a prig.  But he had that most
+necessary gift for power, faith.  He set himself to save the
+Republic as he conceived it, and he imagined it could be saved by
+no other man than he.  So that to keep in power was to save the
+Republic.  The living spirit of the Republic, it seemed, had
+sprung from a slaughter of royalists and the execution of the
+king.  There were insurrections; one in the west, in the district
+of La Vend�e, where the people rose against the conscription and
+against the dispossession of the orthodox clergy, and were led by
+noblemen and priests; one in the south, where Lyons and Marseilles
+had risen and the royalists of Toulon {346} had admitted an
+English and Spanish garrison.  To which there seemed no more
+effectual reply than to go on killing royalists.
+
+The Revolutionary Tribunal went to work, and a steady slaughtering
+began.  The invention of the guillotine was opportune to this
+mood.  The queen was guillotined, most of Robespierre's
+antagonists were guillotined, atheists who argued that there was
+no Supreme Being were guillotined; day by day, week by week, this
+infernal new machine chopped off heads and more heads and more.
+The reign of Robespierre lived, it seemed, on blood; and needed
+more and more, as an opium-taker needs more and more opium.
+
+[Illustration: THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE,
+OCTOBER 16, 1793]
+
+Finally in the summer of 1794 Robespierre himself was overthrown
+and guillotined.  He was succeeded by a Directory of five men
+which carried on the war of defence abroad and held France
+together at home for five years.  Their reign formed a curious
+interlude in this history of violent changes.  They took things
+{347} as they found them.  The propagandist zeal of the revolution
+carried the French armies into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland,
+south Germany and north Italy.  Everywhere kings were expelled and
+republics set up.  But such propagandist zeal as animated the
+Directorate did not prevent the looting of the treasures of the
+liberated peoples to relieve the financial embarrassment of the
+French Government.  Their wars became less and less the holy wars
+of freedom, and more and more like the aggressive wars of the
+ancient regime.  The last feature of Grand Monarchy that France
+was disposed to discard was her tradition of foreign policy.  One
+discovers it still as vigorous under the Directorate as if there
+had been no revolution.
+
+Unhappily for France and the world a man arose who embodied in its
+intensest form this national egotism of the French.  He gave that
+country ten years of glory and the humiliation of a final defeat.
+This was that same Napoleon Bonaparte who had led the armies of
+the Directory to victory in Italy.
+
+Throughout the five years of the Directorate he had been scheming
+and working for self-advancement.  Gradually he clambered to
+supreme power.  He was a man of severely limited understanding but
+of ruthless directness and great energy.  He had begun life as an
+extremist of the school of Robespierre; he owed his first
+promotion to that side; but he had no real grasp of the new forces
+that were working in Europe.  His utmost political imagination
+carried him to a belated and tawdry attempt to restore the Western
+Empire.  He tried to destroy the remains of the old Holy Roman
+Empire, intending to replace it by a new one centring upon Paris.
+The Emperor in Vienna ceased to be the Holy Roman Emperor and
+became simply Emperor of Austria.  Napoleon divorced his French
+wife in order to marry an Austrian princess.
+
+He became practically monarch of France as First Consul in 1799,
+and he made himself Emperor of France in 1804 in direct imitation
+of Charlemagne.  He was crowned by the Pope in Paris, taking the
+crown from the Pope and putting it upon his own head himself as
+Charlemagne had directed.  His son was crowned King of Rome.
+
+For some years Napoleon's reign was a career of victory.  He {348}
+conquered most of Italy and Spain, defeated Prussia and Austria,
+and dominated all Europe west of Russia.  But he never won the
+command of the sea from the British and his fleets sustained a
+conclusive defeat inflicted by the British Admiral Nelson at
+Trafalgar (1805).  Spain rose against him in 1808 and a British
+army under Wellington thrust the French armies slowly northward
+out of the peninsula.  In 1811 Napoleon came into conflict with
+the Tsar Alexander I, and in 1812 he invaded Russia with a great
+conglomerate army of 600,000 men, that was defeated and largely
+destroyed by the Russians and the Russian winter.  Germany rose
+against him, Sweden turned against him.  The French armies were
+beaten back and at Fontainebleau Napoleon abdicated (1814).  He
+was exiled to Elba, returned to France for one last effort in 1815
+and was defeated by the allied British, Belgians and Prussians at
+Waterloo.  He died a British prisoner at St. Helena in 1821.
+
+The forces released by the French revolution were wasted and
+finished.  A great Congress of the victorious allies met at Vienna
+to restore as far as possible the state of affairs that the great
+storm had rent to pieces.  For nearly forty years a sort of peace,
+a peace of exhausted effort, was maintained in Europe.
+
+[7]  In his article, "French Revolutionary Wars," in the
+Encyclop�dia Britannica.
+
+
+
+
+{349}
+
+LVI
+
+THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL OF NAPOLEON
+
+
+Two main causes prevented that period from being a complete social
+and international peace, and prepared the way for the cycle of
+wars between 1854 and 1871.  The first of these was the tendency
+of the royal courts concerned, towards the restoration of unfair
+privilege and interference with freedom of thought and writing and
+teaching.  The second was the impossible system of boundaries
+drawn by the diplomatists of Vienna.
+
+The inherent disposition of monarchy to march back towards past
+conditions was first and most particularly manifest in Spain.
+Here even the Inquisition was restored.  Across the Atlantic the
+Spanish colonies had followed the example of the United States and
+revolted against the European Great Power System, when Napoleon
+set his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne in 1810.  The George
+Washington of South America was General Bolivar.  Spain was unable
+to suppress this revolt, it dragged on much as the United States
+War of Independence had dragged on, and at last the suggestion was
+made by Austria, in accordance with the spirit of the Holy
+Alliance, that the European monarch should assist Spain in this
+struggle.  This was opposed by Britain in Europe, but it was the
+prompt action of President Monroe of the United States in 1823
+which conclusively warned off this projected monarchist
+restoration.  He announced that the United States would regard any
+extension of the European system in the Western Hemisphere as a
+hostile act.  Thus arose the Monroe Doctrine, the doctrine that
+there must be no extension of extra-American government in
+America, which has kept the Great Power system out of America for
+nearly a hundred years and permitted the new states of Spanish
+America to work out their destinies along their own lines.
+
+{350}
+
+But if Spanish monarchism lost its colonies, it could at least,
+under the protection of the Concert of Europe, do what it chose in
+Europe.  A popular insurrection in Spain was crushed by a French
+army in 1823, with a mandate from a European congress, and
+simultaneously Austria suppressed a revolution in Naples.
+
+In 1824 Louis XVIII died, and was succeeded by Charles X.  Charles
+set himself to destroy the liberty of the press and universities,
+and to restore absolute government; the sum of a billion francs
+was voted to compensate the nobles for the chateau burnings and
+sequestrations of 1789.  In 1830 Paris rose against this
+embodiment of the ancient regime, and replaced him by Louis
+Philippe, the son of that Philip, Duke of Orleans, who was
+executed during the Terror.  The other continental monarchies, in
+face of the open approval of the revolution by Great Britain and a
+strong liberal ferment in Germany and Austria, did not interfere
+in this affair.  After all, France was still a monarchy.  This man
+Louis Philippe (1830-48) remained the constitutional King of
+France for eighteen years.
+
+Such were the uneasy swayings of the peace of the Congress of
+Vienna, which were provoked by the reactionary proceedings of the
+monarchists.  The stresses that arose from the unscientific
+boundaries planned by the diplomatists at Vienna gathered force
+more deliberately, but they were even more dangerous to the peace
+of mankind.  It is extraordinarily inconvenient to administer
+together the affairs of peoples speaking different languages and
+so reading different literatures and having different general
+ideas, especially if those differences are exacerbated by
+religious disputes.  Only some strong mutual interest, such as the
+common defensive needs of the Swiss mountaineers, can justify a
+close linking of peoples of dissimilar languages and faiths; and
+even in Switzerland there is the utmost local autonomy.  When, as
+in Macedonia, populations are mixed in a patchwork of villages and
+districts, the cantonal system is imperatively needed.  But if the
+reader will look at the map of Europe as the Congress of Vienna
+drew it, he will see that this gathering seems almost as if it had
+planned the maximum of local exasperation.
+
+It destroyed the Dutch Republic, quite needlessly, it lumped {351}
+together the Protestant Dutch with the French-speaking Catholics
+of the old Spanish (Austrian) Netherlands, and set up a kingdom of
+the Netherlands.  It handed over not merely the old republic of
+Venice, but all of North Italy as far as Milan to the
+German-speaking Austrians.  French-speaking Savoy it combined with
+pieces of Italy to restore the kingdom of Sardinia.  Austria and
+Hungary, already a sufficiently explosive mixture of discordant
+nationalities, Germans, Hungarians, Czecho-Slovaks, Jugo-Slavs,
+Roumanians, and now Italians, was made still more impossible by
+confirming Austria's Polish acquisitions of 1772 and 1795.  The
+Catholic and republican-spirited Polish people were chiefly given
+over to the less civilized rule of the
+Greek-orthodox Tsar, but important districts went to Protestant
+Prussia.  The Tsar was also confirmed in his acquisition of the
+entirely alien Finns.  The very dissimilar Norwegian and Swedish
+peoples were bound together under one king.  Germany, the reader
+will see, was left in a particularly dangerous state of muddle.
+Prussia and Austria were both partly in and partly out of a German
+confederation, which included a multitude of minor states.  The
+King of Denmark came into the German confederation by virtue of
+certain German-speaking possessions in Holstein.  Luxembourg was
+included in the German confederation, though its ruler was also
+King of the Netherlands, and though many of its peoples talked
+French.
+
+Here was a complete disregard of the fact that the people who talk
+German and base their ideas on German literature, the people who
+talk Italian and base their ideas on Italian literature, and the
+people who talk Polish and base their ideas on Polish literature,
+will all be far better off and most helpful and least obnoxious to
+the rest of mankind if they conduct their own affairs in their own
+idiom within the ring-fence of their own speech.  Is it any wonder
+that one of the most popular songs in Germany during this period
+declared that wherever the German tongue was spoken, there was the
+German Fatherland!
+
+In 1830 French-speaking Belgium, stirred up by the current
+revolution in France, revolted against its Dutch association in
+the kingdom of the Netherlands.  The powers, terrified at the
+possibilities of a republic or of annexation to France, hurried in
+to pacify {353} this situation, and gave the Belgians a monarch,
+Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg Gotha.  There were also ineffectual
+revolts in Italy and Germany in 1830, and a much more serious one
+in Russian Poland.  A republican government held out in Warsaw for
+a year against Nicholas I (who succeeded Alexander in 1825), and
+was then stamped out of existence with great violence and cruelty.
+The Polish language was banned, and the Greek Orthodox church was
+substituted for the Roman Catholic as the state religion ....
+
+====================================================================
+
+{352}
+
+[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION)]
+
+====================================================================
+
+[Map: Europe after the Congress of Vienna]
+
+In 1821 there was an insurrection of the Greeks against the Turks.
+For six years they fought a desperate war, while the governments
+of Europe looked on.  Liberal opinion protested against this
+inactivity; volunteers from every European country joined the
+insurgents, and at last Britain, France and Russia took joint
+action.  The Turkish fleet was destroyed by the French and English
+at the battle of Navarino (1827), and the Tsar invaded Turkey.  By
+the treaty of Adrianople (1829) Greece was declared free, but
+{354} she was not permitted to resume her ancient republican
+traditions.  A German king was found for Greece, one Prince Otto
+of Bavaria, and Christian governors were set up in the Danubian
+provinces (which are now Roumania) and Serbia (a part of the
+Jugo-Slav region).  Much blood had still to run however before
+the Turk
+was altogether expelled from these lands.
+
+
+
+
+{355}
+
+LVII
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+
+Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the
+opening years of the nineteenth century, while these conflicts of
+the powers and princes were going on in Europe, and the patchwork
+of the treaty of Westphalia (1648) was changing kaleidoscopically
+into the patchwork of the treaty of Vienna (1815), and while the
+sailing ship was spreading European influence throughout the
+world, a steady growth of knowledge and a general clearing up of
+men's ideas about the world in which they lived was in progress in
+the European and Europeanized world.
+
+It went on disconnected from political life, and producing
+throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries no striking
+immediate results in political life.  Nor was it affecting popular
+thought very profoundly during this period.  These reactions were
+to come later, and only in their full force in the latter half of
+the nineteenth century.  It was a process that went on chiefly in
+a small world of prosperous and
+independent-spirited people.  Without what the English call the
+"private gentleman," the scientific process could not have begun
+in Greece, and could not have been renewed in Europe.  The
+universities played a part but not a leading part in the
+philosophical and scientific thought of this period.  Endowed
+learning is apt to be timid and conservative learning, lacking in
+initiative and resistent to innovation, unless it has the spur of
+contact with independent minds.
+
+We have already noted the formation of the Royal Society in 1662
+and its work in realizing the dream of Bacon's _New Atlantis_.
+Throughout the eighteenth century there was much clearing up of
+general ideas about matter and motion, much mathematical advance,
+a systematic development of the use of optical glass in microscope
+and telescope, a renewed energy in classificatory natural {356}
+history, a great revival of anatomical science.  The science of
+geology--foreshadowed by Aristotle and anticipated by Leonardo da
+Vinci (1452-1519)--began its great task of interpreting the Record
+of the Rocks.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY ROLLING STOCK ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER
+RAILWAY IN THE FIRST DAYS OF THE RAILWAY]
+
+The progress of physical science reacted upon metallurgy.
+Improved metallurgy, affording the possibility of a larger and
+bolder handling of masses of metal and other materials, reacted
+upon practical inventions.  Machinery on a new scale and in a new
+abundance appeared to revolutionize industry.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY TRAVELLING ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER
+RAILWAY, 1833]
+
+In 1804 Trevithick adapted the Watt engine to transport and made
+the first locomotive.  In 1825 the first railway, between Stockton
+and Darlington, was opened, and Stephenson's "Rocket," with a
+thirteen-ton train, got up to a speed of forty-four miles per
+hour.  From 1830 onward railways multiplied.  By the middle of the
+century a network of railways had spread all over Europe.
+
+Here was a sudden change in what had long been a fixed condition
+of human life, the maximum rate of land transport.  After the
+Russian disaster, Napoleon travelled from near Vilna to Paris in
+312 hours.  This was a journey of about 1,400 miles.  He was
+travelling with every conceivable advantage, and he averaged {357}
+under 5 miles an hour.  An ordinary traveller could not have done
+this distance in twice the time.  These were about the same
+maximum rates of travel as held good between Rome and Gaul in the
+first century A.D.  Then suddenly came this tremendous change.
+The railways reduced this journey for any ordinary traveller to
+less than forty-eight hours.  That is to say, they reduced the
+chief European distances to about a tenth of what they had been.
+They made it possible to carry out administrative work in areas
+ten times as great as any that had hitherto been workable under
+one administration.  The full significance of that possibility in
+Europe still remains to be realized.  Europe is still netted in
+boundaries drawn in the horse and road era.  In America the
+effects were immediate.  To the United States of America,
+sprawling westward, it meant the possibility of a continuous
+access to Washington, however far the frontier travelled across
+the continent.  It meant unity, sustained on a scale that would
+otherwise have been impossible.
+
+[Illustration: THE STEAMBOAT: _CLERMONT_, 1807, U.S.A.]
+
+The steamboat was, if anything, a little ahead of the steam engine
+in its earlier phases.  There was a steamboat, the _Charlotte
+Dundas_, on the Firth of Clyde Canal in 1802, and in 1807 an
+American {358} named Fulton had a steamer, the Clermont, with
+British-built engines, upon the Hudson River above New York.  The
+first steamship to put to sea was also an American, the Phoenix,
+which went from New York (Hoboken) to Philadelphia.  So, too, was
+the first ship using steam (she also had sails) to cross the
+Atlantic, the Savannah (1819).  All these were paddle-wheel boats
+and paddle-wheel boats are not adapted to work in heavy seas.  The
+paddles smash too easily, and the boat is then disabled.  The
+screw steamship followed rather slowly.  Many difficulties had to
+be surmounted before the screw was a practicable thing.  Not until
+the middle of the century did the tonnage of steamships upon the
+sea begin to overhaul that of sailing ships.  After that the
+evolution in sea transport was rapid.  For the first time men
+began to cross the seas and oceans with some certainty as to the
+date of their arrival.  The transatlantic crossing, which had been
+an uncertain adventure of several weeks--which might stretch to
+months--was accelerated, until in 1910 it was brought down, in the
+case of the fastest boats, to under five days, with a practically
+notifiable hour of arrival.
+
+Concurrently with the development of steam transport upon land and
+sea a new and striking addition to the facilities of human
+intercourse arose out of the investigations of Volta, Galvani and
+Faraday into various electrical phenomena.  The electric telegraph
+came into existence in 1835.  The first underseas cable was laid
+in 1851 between France and England.  In a few years the telegraph
+system had spread over the civilized world, and news which had
+hitherto travelled slowly from point to point became practically
+simultaneous throughout the earth.
+
+These things, the steam railway and the electric telegraph, were
+to the popular imagination of the middle nineteenth century the
+most striking and revolutionary of inventions, but they were only
+the most conspicuous and clumsy first fruits of a far more
+extensive process.  Technical knowledge and skill were developing
+with an extraordinary rapidity, and to an extraordinary extent
+measured by the progress of any previous age.  Far less
+conspicuous at first in everyday life, but finally far more
+important, was the extension of man's power over various
+structural materials.  Before the middle of the eighteenth century
+iron was reduced from its ores by {359} means of wood charcoal,
+was handled in small pieces, and hammered and wrought into shape.
+It was material for a craftsman.  Quality and treatment were
+enormously dependent upon the experience and sagacity of the
+individual iron-worker.  The largest masses of iron that could be
+dealt with under those conditions amounted at most (in the
+sixteenth century) to two or three tons.  (There was a very
+definite upward limit, therefore, to the size of cannon.)  The
+blast-furnace rose in the eighteenth century and developed with
+the use of coke.  Not before the eighteenth century do we find
+rolled sheet iron (1728) and rolled rods and bars (1783).
+Nasmyth's steam hammer came as late as 1838.
+
+The ancient world, because of its metallurgical inferiority, could
+not use steam.  The steam engine, even the primitive pumping
+engine, could not develop before sheet iron was available.  The
+early engines seem to the modern eye very pitiful and clumsy bits
+of ironmongery, but they were the utmost that the metallurgical
+science of the time could do.  As late as 1856 came the Bessemer
+process, and presently (1864) the open-hearth process, in which
+steel and every sort of iron could be melted, purified and cast in
+a manner and upon a scale hitherto unheard of.  To-day in the
+electric furnace one may see tons of incandescent steel swirling
+about like boiling milk in a saucepan.  Nothing in the previous
+practical advances of mankind is comparable in its consequences to
+the complete mastery over enormous masses of steel and iron and
+over their texture and quality which man has now achieved.  The
+railways and early engines of all sorts were the mere first
+triumphs of the new metallurgical methods.  Presently came ships
+of iron and steel, vast bridges, and a new way of building with
+steel upon a gigantic scale.  Men realized too late that they had
+planned their railways with far too timid a gauge, that they could
+have organized their travelling with far more steadiness and
+comfort upon a much bigger scale.
+
+Before the nineteenth century there were no ships in the world
+much over 2,000 tons burthen; now there is nothing wonderful about
+a 50,000-ton liner.  There are people who sneer at this kind of
+progress as being a progress in "mere size," but that sort of
+sneering merely marks the intellectual limitations of those who
+indulge in it.  {360} The great ship or the steel-frame building
+is not, as they imagine, a magnified version of the small ship or
+building of the past; it is a thing different in kind, more
+lightly and strongly built, of finer and stronger materials;
+instead of being a thing of precedent and
+rule-of-thumb, it is a thing of subtle and intricate calculation.
+In the old house or ship, matter was dominant--the material and
+its needs had to be slavishly obeyed; in the new, matter had been
+captured, changed, coerced.  Think of the coal and iron and sand
+dragged out of the banks and pits, wrenched, wrought, molten and
+cast, to be flung at last, a slender glittering pinnacle of steel
+and glass, six hundred feet above the crowded city!
+
+We have given these particulars of the advance in man's knowledge
+of the metallurgy of steel and its results by way of illustration.
+A parallel story could be told of the metallurgy of copper and
+tin, and of a multitude of metals, nickel and aluminium to name
+but two, unknown before the nineteenth century dawned.  It is in
+this great and growing mastery over substances, over different
+sorts of glass, over rocks and plasters and the like, over colours
+and textures, that the main triumphs of the mechanical revolution
+have thus far been achieved.  Yet we are still in the stage of the
+first fruits in the matter.  We have the power, but we have still
+to learn how to use our power.  Many of the first employments of
+these gifts of science have been vulgar, tawdry, stupid or
+horrible.  The artist and the adaptor have still hardly begun to
+work with the endless variety of substances now at their disposal.
+
+Parallel with this extension of mechanical possibilities the new
+science of electricity grew up.  It was only in the eighties of
+the nineteenth century that this body of enquiry began to yield
+results to impress the vulgar mind.  Then suddenly came electric
+light and electric traction, and the transmutation of forces, the
+possibility of sending power, that could be changed into
+mechanical motion or light or heat as one chose, along a copper
+wire, as water is sent along a pipe, began to come through to the
+ideas of ordinary people....
+
+The British and French were at first the leading peoples in this
+great proliferation of knowledge; but presently the Germans, who
+had learnt humility under Napoleon, showed such zeal and
+pertinacity in scientific enquiry as to overhaul these leaders.
+British {361} science was largely the creation of Englishmen and
+Scotchmen working outside the ordinary centres of erudition.
+
+[Illustration: EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL]
+
+[Illustration: MODEL OF ARKWRIGHT'S SPINNING JENNY, 1769]
+
+The universities of Britain were at this time in a state of
+educational retrogression, largely given over to a pedantic
+conning of the Latin and Greek classics.  French education, too,
+was dominated by the classical tradition of the Jesuit schools,
+and consequently it was not difficult for the Germans to organize
+a body of investigators, small indeed in relation to the
+possibilities of the case, but large in proportion to the little
+band of British and French inventors and experimentalists.  And
+though this work of research and experiment was making Britain and
+France the most rich and {362} powerful countries in the world, it
+was not making scientific and inventive men rich and powerful.
+There is a necessary unworldliness about a sincere scientific man;
+he is too preoccupied with his research to plan and scheme how to
+make money out of it.  The economic exploitation of his
+discoveries falls very easily and naturally, therefore, into the
+hands of a more acquisitive type; and so we find that the crops of
+rich men which every fresh phase of scientific and technical
+progress has produced in Great Britain, though they have not
+displayed quite the same passionate desire to insult and kill the
+goose that laid the national golden eggs as the scholastic and
+clerical professions, have been quite content to let that
+profitable creature starve.  Inventors and discoverers came by
+nature, they thought, for cleverer people to profit by.
+
+In this matter the Germans were a little wiser.  The German
+"learned" did not display the same vehement hatred of the new
+learning.  They permitted its development.  The German business
+man and manufacturer again had not quite the same contempt for the
+man of science as had his British competitor.  Knowledge, these
+Germans believed, might be a cultivated crop, responsive to
+fertilizers.  They did concede, therefore, a certain amount of
+opportunity to the scientific mind; their public expenditure on
+scientific work was relatively greater, and this expenditure was
+abundantly rewarded.  By the latter half of the nineteenth century
+the German scientific worker had made German a necessary language
+for every science student who wished to keep abreast with the
+latest work in his department, and in certain branches, and
+particularly in chemistry, Germany acquired a very great
+superiority over her western neighbours.  The scientific effort of
+the sixties and seventies in Germany began to tell after the
+eighties, and the German gained steadily upon Britain and France
+in technical and industrial prosperity.
+
+A fresh phase in the history of invention opened when in the
+eighties a new type of engine came into use, an engine in which
+the expansive force of an explosive mixture replaced the expansive
+force of steam.  The light, highly efficient engines that were
+thus made possible were applied to the automobile, and developed
+at last to reach such a pitch of lightness and efficiency as to
+render flight--{363} long known to be possible--a practical
+achievement.  A successful flying machine--but not a machine large
+enough to take up a human body--was made by Professor Langley of
+the Smithsonian Institute of Washington as early as 1897.  By 1909
+the aeroplane was available for human locomotion.  There had
+seemed to be a pause in the increase of human speed with the
+perfection of railways and automobile road traction, but with the
+flying machine came fresh reductions in the effective distance
+between one point of the earth's surface and another.  In the
+eighteenth century the distance from London to Edinburgh was an
+eight days' journey; in 1918 the British Civil Air Transport
+Commission reported that the journey from London to Melbourne,
+halfway round the earth, would probably in a few years' time be
+accomplished in that same period of eight days.
+
+[Illustration: AN EARLY WEAVING MACHINE]
+
+Too much stress must not be laid upon these striking reductions in
+the time distances of one place from another.  They are merely one
+aspect of a much profounder and more momentous enlargement of
+human possibility.  The science of agriculture and agricultural
+chemistry, for instance, made quite parallel advances during the
+nineteenth century.  Men learnt so to fertilize the soil as to
+produce quadruple and quintuple the crops got from the same area
+in the seventeenth century.  There was a still more extraordinary
+advance in medical science; the average duration of life rose, the
+daily efficiency increased, the waste of life through ill-health
+diminished.
+
+{364}
+
+Now here altogether we have such a change in human life as to
+constitute a fresh phase of history.  In a little more than a
+century this mechanical revolution has been brought about.  In
+that time man made a stride in the material conditions of his life
+vaster than he had done during the whole long interval between the
+pal�olithic stage and the age of cultivation, or between the days
+of Pepi in Egypt and those of George III.  A new gigantic material
+framework for human affairs has come into existence.  Clearly it
+demands great readjustments of our social, economical and
+political methods.  But these readjustments have necessarily
+waited upon the development of the mechanical revolution, and they
+are still only in their opening stage
+to-day.
+
+
+
+
+{365}
+
+LVIII
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
+
+
+There is a tendency in many histories to confuse together what we
+have here called the mechanical revolution, which was an entirely
+new thing in human experience arising out of the development of
+organized science, a new step like the invention of agriculture or
+the discovery of metals, with something else, quite different in
+its origins, something for which there was already an historical
+precedent, the social and financial development which is called
+the _industrial revolution_.  The two processes were going on
+together, they were constantly reacting upon each other, but they
+were in root and essence different.  There would have been an
+industrial revolution of sorts if there had been no coal, no
+steam, no machinery; but in that case it would probably have
+followed far more closely upon the lines of the social and
+financial developments of the later years of the Roman Republic.
+It would have repeated the story of dispossessed free cultivators,
+gang labour, great estates, great financial fortunes, and a
+socially destructive financial process.  Even the factory method
+came before power and machinery.  Factories were the product not
+of machinery, but of the "division of labour."  Drilled and
+sweated workers were making such things as millinery cardboard
+boxes and furniture, and colouring maps and book illustrations and
+so forth, before even water-wheels had been used for industrial
+purposes.  There were factories in Rome in the days of Augustus.
+New books, for instance, were dictated to rows of copyists in the
+factories of the book-sellers.  The attentive student of Defoe and
+of the political pamphlets of Fielding will realize that the idea
+of herding poor people into establishments to work collectively
+for their living was already current in Britain before the close
+of the seventeenth century.  There are intimations of it even as
+early as More's _Utopia_ (1516).  It was a social and not a
+mechanical development.
+
+{366}
+
+Up to past the middle of the eighteenth century the social and
+economic history of western Europe was in fact retreading the path
+along which the Roman state had gone in the last three centuries
+B.C.  But the political disunions of Europe, the political
+convulsions against monarchy, the recalcitrance of the common folk
+and perhaps also the greater accessibility of the western European
+intelligence to mechanical ideas and inventions, turned the
+process into quite novel directions.  Ideas of human solidarity,
+thanks to Christianity, were far more widely diffused in the newer
+European world, political power was not so concentrated, and the
+man of energy anxious to get rich turned his mind, therefore, very
+willingly from the ideas of the slave and of gang labour to the
+idea of mechanical power and the machine.
+
+The mechanical revolution, the process of mechanical invention and
+discovery, was a new thing in human experience and it went on
+regardless of the social, political, economic and industrial
+consequences it might produce.  The industrial revolution, on the
+other hand, like most other human affairs, was and is more and
+more profoundly changed and deflected by the constant variation in
+human conditions caused by the mechanical revolution.  And the
+essential difference between the amassing of riches, the
+extinction of small farmers and small business men, and the phase
+of big finance in the latter centuries of the Roman Republic on
+the one hand, and the very similar concentration of capital in the
+eighteenth and nineteenth centuries on the other, lies in the
+profound difference in the character of labour that the mechanical
+revolution was bringing about.  The power of the old world was
+human power; everything depended ultimately upon the driving power
+of human muscle, the muscle of ignorant and subjugated men.  A
+little animal muscle, supplied by draft oxen, horse traction and
+the like, contributed.  Where a weight had to be lifted, men
+lifted it; where a rock had to be quarried, men chipped it out;
+where a field had to be ploughed, men and oxen ploughed it; the
+Roman equivalent of the steamship was the galley with its bank of
+sweating rowers.  A vast proportion of mankind in the early
+civilizations were employed in purely mechanical drudgery.  At its
+onset, power-driven machinery did not seem to promise any release
+from such unintelligent toil.  Great gangs {367} of men were
+employed in excavating canals, in making railway cuttings and
+embankments, and the like.  The number of miners increased
+enormously.  But the extension of facilities and the output of
+commodities increased much more.  And as the nineteenth century
+went on, the plain logic of the new situation asserted itself more
+clearly.  Human beings were no longer wanted as a source of mere
+indiscriminated power.  What could be done mechanically by a human
+being could be done faster and better by a machine.  The human
+being was needed now only where choice and intelligence had to be
+exercised.  Human beings were wanted only as human beings.  The
+_drudge_, on whom all the previous civilizations had rested, the
+creature of mere obedience, the man whose brains were superfluous,
+had become unnecessary to the welfare of mankind.
+
+[Illustration: INCIDENT IN THE DAYS OF THE SLAVE TRADE]
+
+This was as true of such ancient industries as agriculture and
+mining as it was of the newest metallurgical processes.  For
+ploughing, sowing and harvesting, swift machines came forward to
+do the work of scores of men.  The Roman civilization was built
+upon cheap and degraded human beings; modern civilization is being
+rebuilt upon {368} cheap mechanical power.  For a hundred years
+power has been getting cheaper and labour dearer.  If for a
+generation or so machinery has had to wait its turn in the mine,
+it is simply because for a time men were cheaper than machinery.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY FACTORY, IN COLEBROOKDALE]
+
+Now here was a change-over of quite primary importance in human
+affairs.  The chief solicitude of the rich and of the ruler in the
+old civilization had been to keep up a supply of drudges.  As the
+nineteenth century went on, it became more and more plain to the
+intelligent directive people that the common man had now to be
+something better than a drudge.  He had to be educated--if only to
+secure "industrial efficiency."  He had to understand what he was
+about.  From the days of the first Christian propaganda, popular
+education had been smouldering in Europe, just as it had
+smouldered in Asia wherever Islam has set its foot, because of the
+necessity of making the believer understand a little of the belief
+by which he is {369} saved, and of enabling him to read a little
+in the sacred books by which his belief is conveyed.  Christian
+controversies, with their competition for adherents, ploughed the
+ground for the harvest of popular education.  In England, for
+instance, by the thirties and forties of the nineteenth century,
+the disputes of the sects and the necessity of catching adherents
+young had produced a series of competing educational organizations
+for children, the church "National" schools, the dissenting
+"British" schools, and even Roman Catholic elementary schools.
+The second half of the nineteenth century was a period of rapid
+advance in popular education throughout all the Westernized world.
+There was no parallel advance in the education of the upper
+classes--some advance, no doubt, but nothing to correspond--and so
+the great gulf that had divided that world hitherto into the
+readers and the non-reading mass became little more than a
+slightly perceptible difference in educational level.  At the back
+of this process was the mechanical revolution, apparently
+regardless of social conditions, but really insisting inexorably
+upon the complete abolition of a totally illiterate class
+throughout the world.
+
+The economic revolution of the Roman Republic had never been
+clearly apprehended by the common people of Rome.  The ordinary
+Roman citizen never saw the changes through which he lived,
+clearly and comprehensively as we see them.  But the industrial
+revolution, as it went on towards the end of the nineteenth
+century, was more and more distinctly _seen_ as one whole process
+by the common people it was affecting, because presently they
+could read and discuss and communicate, and because they went
+about and saw things as no commonalty had ever done before.
+
+
+
+
+{370}
+
+LIX
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS
+
+
+The institutions and customs and political ideas of the ancient
+civilizations grew up slowly, age by age, no man designing and no
+man foreseeing.  It was only in that great century of human
+adolescence, the sixth century B.C., that men began to think
+clearly about their relations to one another, and first to
+question and first propose to alter and rearrange the established
+beliefs and laws and methods of human government.
+
+We have told of the glorious intellectual dawn of Greece and
+Alexandria, and how presently the collapse of the slave-holding
+civilizations and the clouds of religious intolerance and
+absolutist government darkened the promise of that beginning.  The
+light of fearless thinking did not break through the European
+obscurity again effectually until the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries.  We have tried to show something of the share of the
+great winds of Arab curiosity and Mongol conquest in this gradual
+clearing of the mental skies of Europe.  And at first it was
+chiefly material knowledge that increased.  The first fruits of
+the recovered manhood of the race were material achievements and
+material power.  The science of human relationship, of individual
+and social psychology, of education and of economics, are not only
+more subtle and intricate in themselves but also bound up
+inextricably with much emotional matter.  The advances made in
+them have been slower and made against greater opposition.  Men
+will listen dispassionately to the most diverse suggestions about
+stars or molecules, but ideas about our ways of life touch and
+reflect upon everyone about us.
+
+And just as in Greece the bold speculations of Plato came before
+Aristotle's hard search for fact, so in Europe the first political
+enquiries of the new phase were put in the form of "Utopian"
+stories, directly imitated from Plato's _Republic_ and his _Laws_.
+Sir Thomas {371} More's _Utopia_ is a curious imitation of Plato
+that bore fruit in a new English poor law.  The Neapolitan
+Campanella's _City of the Sun_ was more fantastic and less
+fruitful.
+
+By the end of the seventeenth century we find a considerable and
+growing literature of political and social science was being
+produced.  Among the pioneers in this discussion was John Locke,
+the son of an English republican, an Oxford scholar who first
+directed his attention to chemistry and medicine.  His treatises
+on government, toleration and education show a mind fully awake to
+the possibilities of social reconstruction.  Parallel with and a
+little later than John Locke in England, Montesquieu
+(1689-1755) in France subjected social, political and religious
+institutions to a searching and fundamental analysis.  He stripped
+the magical prestige from the absolutist monarchy in France.  He
+shares with Locke the credit for clearing away many of the false
+ideas that had hitherto prevented deliberate and conscious
+attempts to reconstruct human society.
+
+The generation that followed him in the middle and later decades
+of the eighteenth century was boldly speculative upon the moral
+and intellectual clearings he had made.  A group of brilliant
+writers, the "Encyclop�dists," mostly rebel spirits from the
+excellent schools of the Jesuits, set themselves to scheme out a
+new world (1766).  Side by side with the Encyclop�dists were the
+Economists or Physiocrats, who were making bold and crude
+enquiries into the production and distribution of food and goods.
+Morelly, the author of the _Code de La Nature_, denounced the
+institution of private property and proposed a communistic
+organization of society.  He was the precursor of that large and
+various school of collectivist thinkers in the nineteenth century
+who are lumped together as Socialists.
+
+What is Socialism?  There are a hundred definitions of Socialism
+and a thousand sects of Socialists.  Essentially Socialism is no
+more and no less than a criticism of the idea of property in the
+light of the public good.  We may review the history of that idea
+through the ages very briefly.  That and the idea of
+internationalism are the two cardinal ideas upon which most of our
+political life is turning.
+
+{372}
+
+[Illustration: CARL MARX]
+
+The idea of property arises out of the combative instincts of the
+species.  Long before men were men, the ancestral ape was a
+proprietor.  Primitive property is what a beast will fight for.
+The dog and his bone, the tigress and her lair, the roaring stag
+and his herd, these are proprietorship blazing.  No more
+nonsensical expression is conceivable in sociology than the term
+"primitive communism."  The Old Man of the family tribe of early
+pal�olithic times insisted {373} upon his proprietorship in his
+wives and daughters, in his tools, in his visible universe.  If
+any other man wandered into his visible universe he fought him,
+and if he could he slew him.  The tribe grew in the course of
+ages, as Atkinson showed convincingly in his _Primal Law_, by the
+gradual toleration by the Old Man of the existence of the younger
+men, and of their proprietorship in the wives they captured from
+outside the tribe, and in the tools and ornaments they made and
+the game they slew.  Human society grew by a compromise between
+this one's property and that.  It was a compromise with instinct
+which was forced upon men by the necessity of driving some other
+tribe out of its visible universe.  If the hills and forests and
+streams were not _your_ land or _my_ land, it was because they had
+to be our land.  Each of us would have preferred to have it _my_
+land, but that would not work.  In that case the other fellows
+would have destroyed us.  Society, therefore, is from its
+beginning a _mitigation of ownership_.  Ownership in the beast and
+in the primitive savage was far more intense a thing than it is in
+the civilized world to-day.  It is rooted more strongly in our
+instincts than in our reason.
+
+In the natural savage and in the untutored man to-day there is no
+limitation to the sphere of ownership.  Whatever you can fight
+for, you can own; women-folk, spared captive, captured beast,
+forest glade, stone-pit or what not.  As the community grew, a
+sort of law came to restrain internecine fighting, men developed
+rough-and-ready methods of settling proprietorship.  Men could own
+what they were the first to make or capture or claim.  It seemed
+natural that a debtor who could not pay should become the property
+of his creditor.  Equally natural was it that after claiming a
+patch of land a man should exact payments from anyone who wanted
+to use it.  It was only slowly, as the possibilities of organized
+life dawned on men, that this unlimited property in anything
+whatever began to be recognized as a nuisance.  Men found
+themselves born into a universe all owned and claimed, nay! they
+found themselves born owned and claimed.  The social struggles of
+the earlier civilization are difficult to trace now, but the
+history we have told of the Roman Republic shows a community
+waking up to the idea that debts may become a public inconvenience
+and should then be repudiated, and that the unlimited ownership of
+land is also an inconvenience.  We {374} find that later Babylonia
+severely limited the rights of property in slaves.  Finally, we
+find in the teaching of that great revolutionist, Jesus of
+Nazareth, such an attack upon property as had never been before.
+Easier it was, he said, for a camel to go through the eye of a
+needle than for the owner of great possessions to enter the
+kingdom of heaven.  A steady, continuous criticism of the
+permissible scope of property seems to have been going on in the
+world for the last twenty-five or thirty centuries.  Nineteen
+hundred years after Jesus of Nazareth we find all the world that
+has come under the Christian teaching persuaded that there could
+be no property in human beings.  And also the idea that a man may
+"do what he likes with his own" was very much shaken in relation
+to other sorts of property.
+
+But this world of the closing eighteenth century was still only in
+the interrogative stage in this matter.  It had got nothing clear
+enough, much less settled enough, to act upon.  One of its primary
+impulses was to protect property against the greed and waste of
+kings and the exploitation of noble adventurers.  It was largely
+to protect private property from taxation that the French
+Revolution began.  But the equalitarian formul� of the Revolution
+carried it into a criticism of the very property it had risen to
+protect.  How can men be free and equal when numbers of them have
+no ground to stand upon and nothing to eat, and the owners will
+neither feed nor lodge them unless they toil?  Excessively--the
+poor complained.
+
+To which riddle the reply of one important political group was to
+set about "dividing up."  They wanted to intensify and
+universalize property.  Aiming at the same end by another route,
+there were the primitive socialists--or, to be more exact,
+communists--who wanted to "abolish" private property altogether.
+The state (a democratic state was of course understood) was to own
+all property.
+
+It is paradoxical that different men seeking the same ends of
+liberty and happiness should propose on the one hand to make
+property as absolute as possible, and on the other to put an end
+to it altogether.  But so it was.  And the clue to this paradox is
+to be found in the fact that ownership is not one thing but a
+multitude of different things.
+
+{375}
+
+It was only as the nineteenth century developed that men began to
+realize that property was not one simple thing, but a great
+complex of ownerships of different values and consequences, that
+many things (such as one's body, the implements of an artist,
+clothing, toothbrushes) are very profoundly and incurably one's
+personal property, and that there is a very great range of things,
+railways, machinery of various sorts, homes, cultivated gardens,
+pleasure boats, for example, which need each to be considered very
+particularly to determine how far and under what limitations it
+may come under private ownership, and how far it falls into the
+public domain and may be administered and let out by the state in
+the collective interest.  On the practical side these questions
+pass into politics, and the problem of making and sustaining
+efficient state administration.  They open up issues in social
+psychology, and interact with the enquiries of educational
+science.  The criticism of property is still a vast and passionate
+ferment rather than a science.  On the one hand are the
+Individualists, who would protect and enlarge our present freedoms
+with what we possess, and on the other the Socialists who would in
+many directions pool our ownerships and restrain our proprietory
+acts.  In practice one will find every gradation between the
+extreme individualist, who will scarcely tolerate a tax of any
+sort to support a government, and the communist who would deny any
+possessions at all.  The ordinary socialist of
+to-day is what is called a collectivist; he would allow a
+considerable amount of private property but put such affairs as
+education, transport, mines, land-owning, most mass productions of
+staple articles, and the like, into the hands of a highly
+organized state.  Nowadays there does seem to be a gradual
+convergence of reasonable men towards a moderate socialism
+scientifically studied and planned.  It is realized more and more
+clearly that the untutored man does not co-operate easily and
+successfully in large undertakings, and that every step towards a
+more complex state and every function that the state takes over
+from private enterprise, necessitates a corresponding educational
+advance and the organization of a proper criticism and control.
+Both the press and the political methods of the contemporary state
+are far too crude for any large extension of collective
+activities.
+
+But for a time the stresses between employer and employed and
+{376} particularly between selfish employers and reluctant
+workers, led to a world-wide dissemination of the very harsh and
+elementary form of communism which is associated with the name of
+Marx.  Marx based his theories on a belief that men's minds are
+limited by their economic necessities, and that there is a
+necessary conflict of interests in our present civilization
+between the prosperous and employing classes of people and the
+employed mass.  With the advance in education necessitated by the
+mechanical revolution, this great employed majority will become
+more and more class-conscious and more and more solid in
+antagonism to the (class-conscious) ruling minority.  In some way
+the class-conscious workers would seize power, he prophesied, and
+inaugurate a new social state.  The antagonism, the insurrection,
+the possible revolution are understandable enough, but it does not
+follow that a new social state or anything but a socially
+destructive process will ensue.  Put to the test in Russia,
+Marxism, as we shall note later, has proved singularly uncreative.
+
+[Illustration: SCIENCE IN THE COAL MINE]
+
+{377}
+
+Marx sought to replace national antagonism by class antagonisms;
+Marxism has produced in succession a First, a Second and a Third
+Workers' International.  But from the starting point of modern
+individualistic thought it is also possible to reach international
+ideas.  From the days of that great English economist, Adam Smith,
+onward there has been an increasing realization that for
+world-wide prosperity free and unencumbered trade about the earth
+is needed.  The individualist with his hostility to the state is
+hostile also to tariffs and boundaries and all the restraints upon
+free act and movement that national boundaries seem to justify.
+It is interesting to see two lines of thought, so diverse in
+spirit, so different in substance as this class-war socialism of
+the Marxists and the individualistic free-trading philosophy of
+the British business men of the Victorian age heading at last, in
+spite of these primary differences, towards the same intimations
+of a new world-wide treatment of human affairs outside the
+boundaries and limitations of any existing state.  The logic of
+reality triumphs over the logic of theory.  We begin to perceive
+that from widely divergent starting points individualist theory
+and socialist theory are part of a common search, a search for
+more spacious social and political ideas and interpretations, upon
+which men may contrive to work together, a search that began again
+in Europe and has intensified as men's confidence in the ideas of
+the Holy Roman Empire and in Christendom decayed, and as the age
+of discovery broadened their horizons from the world of the
+Mediterranean to the whole wide world.
+
+To bring this description of the elaboration and development of
+social, economic and political ideas right down to the discussions
+of the present day, would be to introduce issues altogether too
+controversial for the scope and intentions of this book.  But
+regarding these things, as we do here, from the vast perspectives
+of the student of world history, we are bound to recognize that
+this reconstruction of these directive ideas in the human mind is
+still an unfinished task--we cannot even estimate yet how
+unfinished the task may be.  Certain common beliefs do seem to be
+emerging, and their influence is very perceptible upon the
+political events and public acts of to-day; but at present they
+are not clear enough nor convincing enough to compel men
+definitely and systematically towards their realization.  {378}
+Men's acts waver between tradition and the new, and on the whole
+they rather gravitate towards the traditional.  Yet, compared with
+the thought of even a brief lifetime ago, there does seem to be an
+outline shaping itself of a new order in human affairs.  It is a
+sketchy outline, vanishing into vagueness at this point and that,
+{379} and fluctuating in detail and formul�, yet it grows
+steadfastly clearer, and its main lines change less and less.
+
+[Illustration: CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL OF THE FORTH BRIDGE]
+
+It is becoming plainer and plainer each year that in many respects
+and in an increasing range of affairs, mankind is becoming one
+community, and that it is more and more necessary that in such
+matters there should be a common world-wide control.  For example,
+it is steadily truer that the whole planet is now one economic
+community, that the proper exploitation of its natural resources
+demands one comprehensive direction, and that the greater power
+and range that discovery has given human effort makes the present
+fragmentary and contentious administration of such affairs more
+and more wasteful and dangerous.  Financial and monetary
+expedients also become world-wide interests to be dealt with
+successfully only on world-wide lines.  Infectious diseases and
+the increase and migrations of population are also now plainly
+seen to be world-wide concerns.  The greater power and range of
+human activities has also made war disproportionately destructive
+and disorganizing, and, even as a clumsy way of settling issues
+between government and government and people and people,
+ineffective.  All these things clamour for controls and
+authorities of a greater range and greater comprehensiveness than
+any government that has hitherto existed.
+
+But it does not follow that the solution of these problems lies in
+some super-government of all the world arising by conquest or by
+the coalescence of existing governments.  By analogy with existing
+institutions men have thought of the Parliament of Mankind, of a
+World Congress, of a President or Emperor of the Earth.  Our first
+natural reaction is towards some such conclusion, but the
+discussion and experiences of half a century of suggestions and
+attempts has on the whole discouraged belief in that first obvious
+idea.  Along that line to world unity the resistances are too
+great.  The drift of thought seems now to be in the direction of a
+number of special committees or organizations, with world-wide
+power delegated to them by existing governments in this group of
+matters or that, bodies concerned with the waste or development of
+natural wealth, with the equalization of labour conditions, with
+world peace, with currency, population and health, and so forth.
+
+{380}
+
+The world may discover that all its common interests are being
+managed as one concern, while it still fails to realize that a
+world government exists.  But before even so much human unity is
+attained, before such international arrangements can be put above
+patriotic suspicions and jealousies, it is necessary that the
+common mind of the race should be possessed of that idea of human
+unity, and that the idea of mankind as one family should be a
+matter of universal instruction and understanding.
+
+For a score of centuries or more the spirit of the great universal
+religions has been struggling to maintain and extend that idea of
+a universal human brotherhood, but to this day the spites, angers
+and distrusts of tribal, national and racial friction obstruct,
+and successfully obstruct, the broader views and more generous
+impulses which would make every man the servant of all mankind.
+The idea of human brotherhood struggles now to possess the human
+soul, just as the idea of Christendom struggled to possess the
+soul of Europe in the confusion and disorder of the sixth and
+seventh centuries of the Christian era.  The dissemination and
+triumph of such ideas must be the work of a multitude of devoted
+and undistinguished missionaries, and no contemporary writer can
+presume to guess how far such work has gone or what harvest it may
+be preparing.
+
+Social and economic questions seem to be inseparably mingled with
+international ones.  The solution in each case lies in an appeal
+to that same spirit of service which can enter and inspire the
+human heart.  The distrust, intractability and egotism of nations
+reflects and is reflected by the distrust, intractability and
+egotism of the individual owner and worker in the face of the
+common good.  Exaggerations of possessiveness in the individual
+are parallel and of a piece with the clutching greed of nations
+and emperors.  They are products of the same instinctive
+tendencies, and the same ignorances and traditions.
+Internationalism is the socialism of nations.  No one who has
+wrestled with these problems can feel that there yet exists a
+sufficient depth and strength of psychological science and a
+sufficiently planned-out educational method and organization for
+any real and final solution of these riddles of human intercourse
+and cooperation.  We are as incapable of planning a really
+effective peace organization of the world to-day as were men in
+1820 to plan an {381} electric railway system, but for all we know
+the thing is equally practicable and may be as nearly at hand.
+
+No man can go beyond his own knowledge, no thought can reach
+beyond contemporary thought, and it is impossible for us to guess
+or foretell how many generations of humanity may have to live in
+war and waste and insecurity and misery before the dawn of the
+great peace to which all history seems to be pointing, peace in
+the heart and peace in the world, ends our night of wasteful and
+aimless living.  Our proposed solutions are still vague and crude.
+Passion and suspicion surround them.  A great task of intellectual
+reconstruction is going on, it is still incomplete, and our
+conceptions grow clearer and more exact--slowly, rapidly, it is
+hard to tell which.  But as they grow clearer they will gather
+power over the minds and imaginations of men.  Their present lack
+of grip is due to their lack of assurance and exact rightness.
+They are misunderstood because they are variously and confusingly
+presented.  But with precision and certainty the new vision of the
+world will gain compelling power.  It may presently gain power
+very rapidly.  And a great work of educational reconstruction will
+follow logically and necessarily upon that clearer understanding.
+
+
+
+
+{382}
+
+LX
+
+THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+The region of the world that displayed the most immediate and
+striking results from the new inventions in transport was North
+America.  Politically the United States embodied, and its
+constitution crystallized, the liberal ideas of the middle
+eighteenth century.  It dispensed with state-church or crown, it
+would have no titles, it protected property very jealously as a
+method of freedom, and--the exact practice varied at first in the
+different states--it gave nearly every adult male citizen a vote.
+Its method of voting was barbarically crude, and as a consequence
+its political life fell very soon under the control of highly
+organized party machines, but that did not prevent the newly
+emancipated population developing an energy, enterprise and public
+spirit far beyond that of any other contemporary population.
+
+Then came that acceleration of locomotion to which we have already
+called attention.  It is a curious thing that America, which owes
+most to this acceleration in locomotion, has felt it least.  The
+United States have taken the railway, the river steamboat, the
+telegraph and so forth as though they were a natural part of their
+growth.  They were not.  These things happened to come along just
+in time to save American unity.  The United States of to-day were
+made first by the river steamboat, and then by the railway.
+Without these things, the present United States, this vast
+continental nation, would have been altogether impossible.  The
+westward flow of population would have been far more sluggish.  It
+might never have crossed the great central plains.  It took nearly
+two hundred years for effective settlement to reach from the coast
+to Missouri, much less than halfway across the continent.  The
+first state established beyond the river was the steamboat state
+of Missouri in 1821.  But the rest of the distance to the Pacific
+was done in a few decades.
+
+{383}
+
+If we had the resources of the cinema it would be interesting to
+show a map of North America year by year from 1600 onward, with
+little dots to represent hundreds of people, each dot a hundred,
+and stars to represent cities of a hundred thousand people.
+
+For two hundred years the reader would see that stippling creeping
+slowly along the coastal districts and navigable waters, spreading
+still more gradually into Indiana, Kentucky and so forth.  Then
+somewhere about 1810 would come a change.  Things would get more
+lively along the river courses.  The dots would be multiplying and
+spreading.  That would be the steamboat.  The pioneer dots would
+be spreading soon over Kansas and Nebraska from a number of
+jumping-off places along the great rivers.
+
+Then from about 1850 onward would come the black lines of the
+railways, and after that the little black dots would not simply
+creep but run.  They would appear now so rapidly, it would be
+almost as though they were being put on by some sort of spraying
+machine.  And suddenly here and then there would appear the first
+stars to indicate the first great cities of a hundred thousand
+people.  First one or two and then a multitude of cities--each
+like a knot in the growing net of the railways.
+
+The growth of the United States is a process that has no precedent
+in the world's history; it is a new kind of occurrence.  Such a
+community could not have come into existence before, and if it
+had, without railways it would certainly have dropped to pieces
+long before now.  Without railways or telegraph it would be far
+easier to administer California from Pekin than from Washington.
+But this great population of the United States of America has not
+only grown outrageously; it has kept uniform.  Nay, it has become
+more uniform.  The man of San Francisco is more like the man of
+New York to-day than the man of Virginia was like the man of New
+England a century ago.  And the process of assimilation goes on
+unimpeded.  The United States is being woven by railway, by
+telegraph, more and more into one vast unity, speaking, thinking
+and acting harmoniously with itself.  Soon aviation will be
+helping in the work.
+
+This great community of the United States is an altogether new
+thing in history.  There have been great empires before with
+populations exceeding 100 millions, but these were associations of
+divergent {384} peoples; there has never been one single people on
+this scale before.  We want a new term for this new thing.  We
+call the United States a country just as we call France or Holland
+a country.  But the two things are as different as an automobile
+and a one-horse shay.  They are the creations of different periods
+and different conditions; they are going to work at a different
+pace and in an entirely different way.  The United States in scale
+and possibility is halfway between a European state and a United
+States of all the world.
+
+But on the way to this present greatness and security the American
+people passed through one phase of dire conflict.  The river
+steamboats, the railways, the telegraph, and their associate
+facilities, did not come soon enough to avert a deepening conflict
+of interests and ideas between the southern and northern states of
+the Union.  The former were slave-holding states; the latter,
+states in which all men were free.  The railways and steamboats at
+first did but bring into sharper conflict an already established
+difference between the two sections of the United States.  The
+increasing unification due to the new means of transport made the
+question whether the southern spirit or the northern should
+prevail an ever more urgent one.  There was little possibility of
+compromise.  The northern spirit was free and individualistic; the
+southern made for great estates and a conscious gentility ruling
+over a dusky subject multitude.
+
+Every new territory that was organized into a state as the tide of
+population swept westward, every new incorporation into the fast
+growing American system, became a field of conflict between the
+two ideas, whether it should become a state of free citizens, or
+whether the estate and slavery system should prevail.  From 1833
+an American anti-slavery society was not merely resisting the
+extension of the institution but agitating the whole country for
+its complete abolition.  The issue flamed up into open conflict
+over the admission of Texas to the Union.  Texas had originally
+been a part of the republic of Mexico, but it was largely
+colonized by Americans from the slave-holding states, and it
+seceded from Mexico, established its independence in 1835, and was
+annexed to the United States in 1844.  Under the Mexican law
+slavery had been forbidden in Texas, but now the South claimed
+Texas for slavery and got it.
+
+{385}
+
+Meanwhile the development of ocean navigation was bringing a
+growing swarm of immigrants from Europe to swell the spreading
+population of the northern states, and the raising of Iowa,
+Wisconsin, Minnesota and Oregon, all northern farm lands, to state
+level, gave the anti-slavery North the possibility of predominance
+both in the Senate and the House of Representatives.  The
+cotton-growing South, irritated by the growing threat of the
+Abolitionist movement, and fearing this predominance in Congress,
+began to talk of secession from the Union.  Southerners began to
+dream of annexations to the south of them in Mexico and the West
+Indies, and of great slave state, detached from the North and
+reaching to Panama.
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN RIVER STEAMERS]
+
+The return of Abraham Lincoln as an anti-extension President in
+1860 decided the South to split the Union.  South Carolina passed
+an "ordinance of secession" and prepared for war.  Mississippi,
+Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas joined her, and a
+convention met at Montgomery in Alabama, elected Jefferson Davis
+president of the "Confederated States" of America, and adopted a
+constitution specifically upholding "the institution of negro
+slavery."
+
+{386}
+
+Abraham Lincoln was, it chanced, a man entirely typical of the new
+people that had grown up after the War of Independence.  His early
+years had been spent as a drifting particle in the general
+westward flow of the population.  He was born in Kentucky (1809),
+was taken to Indiana as a boy and later on to Illinois.  Life was
+rough in the backwoods of Indiana in those days; the house was a
+mere log cabin in the wilderness, and his schooling was poor and
+casual.  But his mother taught him to read early, and he became a
+voracious reader.  At seventeen he was a big athletic youth, a
+great wrestler and runner.  He worked for a time as clerk in a
+store, went into business as a storekeeper with a drunken partner,
+and contracted debts that he did not fully pay off for fifteen
+years.  In 1834, when he was still only five and twenty, he was
+elected member of the House of Representatives for the State of
+Illinois.  In Illinois particularly the question of slavery flamed
+because the great leader of the party for the extension of slavery
+in the national Congress was Senator Douglas of Illinois.  Douglas
+was a man of great ability and prestige, and for some years
+Lincoln fought against him by speech and pamphlet, rising steadily
+to the position of his most formidable and finally victorious
+antagonist.  Their culminating struggle was the presidential
+campaign of 1860, and on the fourth of March, 1861, Lincoln was
+inaugurated President, with the southern states already in active
+secession from the rule of the federal government at Washington,
+and committing acts of war.
+
+This civil war in America was fought by improvised armies that
+grew steadily from a few score thousands to hundreds of
+thousands--until at last the Federal forces exceeded a million
+men; it was fought over a vast area between New Mexico and the
+eastern sea, Washington and Richmond were the chief objectives.
+It is beyond our scope here to tell of the mounting energy of
+that epic struggle that rolled to and fro across the hills and
+woods of Tennessee and Virginia and down the Mississippi.  There
+was a terrible waste and killing of men.  Thrust was followed by
+counter thrust; hope gave way to despondency, and returned and was
+again disappointed.  Sometimes Washington seemed within the
+Confederate grasp; again the Federal armies were driving towards
+Richmond.  The Confederates, outnumbered and far poorer in
+resources, fought under {387} a general of supreme ability,
+General Lee.  The generalship of the Union was far inferior.
+Generals were dismissed, new generals appointed; until at last,
+under Sherman and Grant, came victory over the ragged and
+depleted South.  In October, 1864, a Federal army under Sherman
+broke through the Confederate left and marched down from Tennessee
+through Georgia to the coast, right across the Confederate
+country, and then turned up through the {388} Carolinas, coming in
+upon the rear of the Confederate armies.  Meanwhile Grant held Lee
+before Richmond until Sherman closed on him.  On April 9th, 1865,
+Lee and his army surrendered at Appomattox Court House, and within
+a month all the remaining secessionist armies had laid down their
+arms and the Confederacy was at an end.
+
+[Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN]
+
+This four years' struggle had meant an enormous physical and moral
+strain for the people of the United States.  The principle of
+state autonomy was very dear to many minds, and the North seemed
+in effect to be forcing abolition upon the South.  In the border
+states brothers and cousins, even fathers and sons, would take
+opposite sides and find themselves in antagonistic armies.  The
+North felt its cause a righteous one, but for great numbers of
+people it was not a full-bodied and unchallenged righteousness.
+But for Lincoln there was no doubt.  He was a clear-minded man in
+the midst of much confusion.  He stood for union; he stood for the
+wide peace of America.  He was opposed to slavery, but slavery he
+held to be a secondary issue; his primary purpose was that the
+United States should not be torn into two contrasted and jarring
+fragments.
+
+When in the opening stages of the war Congress and the Federal
+generals embarked upon a precipitate emancipation, Lincoln opposed
+and mitigated their enthusiasm.  He was for emancipation by stages
+and with compensation.  It was only in January, 1865, that the
+situation had ripened to a point when Congress could propose to
+abolish slavery for ever by a constitutional amendment, and the
+war was already over before this amendment was ratified by the
+states.
+
+As the war dragged on through 1862 and 1863, the first passions
+and enthusiasms waned, and America learnt all the phases of war
+weariness and war disgust.  The President found himself with
+defeatists, traitors, dismissed generals, tortuous party
+politicians, and a doubting and fatigued people behind him and
+uninspired generals and depressed troops before him; his chief
+consolation must have been that Jefferson Davis at Richmond could
+be in little better case.  The English government misbehaved, and
+permitted the Confederate agents in England to launch and man
+three swift privateer ships--the _Alabama_ is the best remembered
+of them--which {389} chased United States shipping from the seas.
+The French army in Mexico was trampling the Monroe Doctrine in the
+dirt.  Came subtle proposals from Richmond to drop the war, leave
+the issues of the war for subsequent discussion, and turn, Federal
+and Confederate in alliance, upon the French in Mexico.  But
+Lincoln would not listen to such proposals unless the supremacy of
+the Union was maintained.  The Americans might do such things as
+one people but not as two.
+
+He held the United States together through long weary months of
+reverses and ineffective effort, through black phases of division
+and failing courage; and there is no record that he ever faltered
+from his purpose.  There were times when there was nothing to be
+done, when he sat in the White House silent and motionless, a grim
+monument of resolve; times when he relaxed his mind by jesting and
+broad anecdotes.
+
+He saw the Union triumphant.  He entered Richmond the day after
+its surrender, and heard of Lee's capitulation.  He returned to
+Washington, and on April 11th made his last public address.  His
+theme was reconciliation and the reconstruction of loyal
+government in the defeated states.  On the evening of April 14th
+he went to Ford's theatre in Washington, and as he sat looking at
+the stage, he was shot in the back of the head and killed by an
+actor named Booth who had some sort of grievance against him, and
+who had crept into the box unobserved.  But Lincoln's work was
+done; the Union was saved.
+
+At the beginning of the war there was no railway to the Pacific
+coast; after it the railways spread like a swiftly growing plant
+until now they have clutched and held and woven all the vast
+territory of the United States into one indissoluble mental and
+material unity--the greatest real community--until the common folk
+of China have learnt to read--in the world.
+
+
+
+
+{390}
+
+LXI
+
+THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE
+
+
+We have told how after the convulsion of the French Revolution and
+the Napoleonic adventure, Europe settled down again for a time to
+an insecure peace and a sort of modernized revival of the
+political conditions of fifty years before.  Until the middle of
+the century the new facilities in the handling of steel and the
+railway and steamship produced no marked political consequences.
+But the social tension due to the development of urban
+industrialism grew.  France remained a conspicuously uneasy
+country.  The revolution of 1830 was followed by another in 1848.
+Then Napoleon III, a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, became first
+President, and then (in 1852) Emperor.
+
+He set about rebuilding Paris, and changed it from a picturesque
+seventeenth century insanitary city into the spacious Latinized
+city of marble it is to-day.  He set about rebuilding France, and
+made it into a brilliant-looking modernized imperialism.  He
+displayed a disposition to revive that competitiveness of the
+Great Powers which had kept Europe busy with futile wars during
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.  The Tsar Nicholas I of
+Russia (1825-1856) was also becoming aggressive and pressing
+southward upon the Turkish Empire with his eyes on Constantinople.
+
+After the turn of the century Europe broke out into a fresh cycle
+of wars.  They were chiefly "balance-of-power" and ascendancy
+wars.  England, France and Sardinia assailed Russia in the Crimean
+war in defence of Turkey; Prussia (with Italy as an ally) and
+Austria fought for the leadership of Germany, France liberated
+North Italy from Austria at the price of Savoy, and Italy
+gradually unified itself into one kingdom.  Then Napoleon III was
+so ill advised as to attempt adventures in Mexico, during the
+American Civil War; he set up an Emperor Maximilian there and
+abandoned him hastily to {391} his fate--he was shot by the
+Mexicans--when the victorious Federal Government showed its teeth.
+
+[Map: Map of Europe, 1848-1871]
+
+In 1870 came a long-pending struggle for predominance in Europe
+between France and Prussia.  Prussia had long foreseen and
+prepared for this struggle, and France was rotten with financial
+corruption.  Her defeat was swift and dramatic.  The Germans
+invaded France in August, one great French army under the Emperor
+capitulated at Sedan in September, another surrendered in October
+at Metz, and in January 1871, Paris, after a siege and
+bombardment, fell into German hands.  Peace was signed at
+Frankfort surrendering the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the
+Germans.  {392} Germany, excluding Austria, was unified as an
+empire, and the King of Prussia was added to the galaxy of
+European C�sars, as the German Emperor.
+
+For the next forty-three years Germany was the leading power upon
+the European continent.  There was a Russo-Turkish war in 1877-8,
+but thereafter, except for certain readjustments in the Balkans,
+European frontiers remained uneasily stable for thirty years.
+
+
+
+
+{393}
+
+LXII
+
+THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY
+
+
+The end of the eighteenth century was a period of disrupting
+empires and disillusioned expansionists.  The long and tedious
+journey between Britain and Spain and their colonies in America
+prevented any really free coming and going between the home land
+and the daughter lands, and so the colonies separated into new and
+distinct communities, with distinctive ideas and interests and
+even modes of speech.  As they grew they strained more and more at
+the feeble and uncertain link of shipping that had joined them.
+Weak trading-posts in the wilderness, like those of France in
+Canada, or trading establishments in great alien communities, like
+those of Britain in India, might well cling for bare existence to
+the nation which gave them support and a reason for their
+existence.  That much and no more seemed to many thinkers in the
+early part of the nineteenth century to be the limit set to
+overseas rule.  In 1820 the sketchy great European "empires"
+outside of Europe that had figured so bravely in the maps of the
+middle eighteenth century, had shrunken to very small dimensions.
+Only the Russian sprawled as large as ever across Asia.
+
+The British Empire in 1815 consisted of the thinly populated
+coastal river and lake regions of Canada, and a great hinterland
+of wilderness in which the only settlements as yet were the
+fur-trading stations of the Hudson Bay Company, about a third of
+the Indian peninsula, under the rule of the East India Company,
+the coast districts of the Cape of Good Hope inhabited by blacks
+and rebellious-spirited Dutch settlers; a few trading stations on
+the coast of West Africa, the rock of Gibraltar, the island of
+Malta, Jamaica, a few minor slave-labour possessions in the West
+Indies, British Guiana in South America, and, on the other side of
+the world, two dumps for convicts at Botany Bay in Australia and
+in Tasmania.  Spain retained Cuba and a few settlements in the
+Philippine Islands.  {394} Portugal had in Africa some vestiges of
+her ancient claims.  Holland had various islands and possessions
+in the East Indies and Dutch Guiana, and Denmark an island or so
+in the West Indies.  France had one or two West Indian islands and
+French Guiana.  This seemed to be as much as the European powers
+needed, or were likely to acquire of the rest of the world.  Only
+the East India Company showed any spirit of expansion.
+
+While Europe was busy with the Napoleonic wars the East India
+Company, under a succession of Governors-General, was playing much
+the same role in India that had been played before by Turkoman and
+such-like invaders from the north.  And after the peace of Vienna
+it went on, levying its revenues, making wars, sending ambassadors
+to Asiatic powers, a quasi-independent state, however, with a
+marked disposition to send wealth westward.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail how the British Company made its
+way to supremacy sometimes as the ally of this power, sometimes as
+that, and finally as the conqueror of all.  Its power spread to
+Assam, Sind, Oudh.  The map of India began to take on the outlines
+familiar to the English schoolboy of to-day, a patchwork of native
+states embraced and held together by the great provinces under
+direct British rule. . . .
+
+In 1859, following upon a serious mutiny of the native troops in
+India, this empire of the East India Company was annexed to the
+British Crown.  By an Act entitled _An Act for the Better
+Government of India_, the Governor-General became a Viceroy
+representing the Sovereign, and the place of the Company was taken
+by a Secretary of State for India responsible to the British
+Parliament.  In 1877, Lord Beaconsfield, to complete the work,
+caused Queen Victoria to be proclaimed Empress of India.
+
+Upon these extraordinary lines India and Britain are linked at the
+present time.  India is still the empire of the Great Mogul, but
+the Great Mogul has been replaced by the "crowned republic" of
+Great Britain.  India is an autocracy without an autocrat.  Its
+rule combines the disadvantage of absolute monarchy with the
+impersonality and irresponsibility of democratic officialdom.  The
+Indian with a complaint to make has no visible monarch to go to;
+his Emperor is a golden symbol; he must circulate pamphlets in
+England {395} or inspire a question in the British House of
+Commons.  The more occupied Parliament is with British affairs,
+the less attention India will receive, and the more she will be at
+the mercy of her small group of higher officials.
+
+[Illustration: RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE GORGE, VICTORIA FALLS, OF
+THE ZAMBESI, SOUTHERN RHODESIA]
+
+Apart from India, there was no great expansion of any European
+Empire until the railways and the steamships were in effective
+action.  A considerable school of political thinkers in Britain
+was disposed to regard overseas possessions as a source of
+weakness to the kingdom.  The Australian settlements developed
+slowly until in 1842 the discovery of valuable copper mines, and
+in 1851 of gold, gave them a new importance.  Improvements in
+transport were also making Australian wool an increasingly
+marketable commodity in Europe.  {396} Canada, too, was not
+remarkably progressive until 1849; it was troubled by dissensions
+between its French and British inhabitants, there were several
+serious revolts, and it was only in 1867 that a new constitution
+creating a Federal Dominion of Canada relieved its internal
+strains.  It was the railway that altered the Canadian outlook.
+It enabled Canada, just as it enabled the United States, to expand
+westward, to market its corn and other produce in Europe, and in
+spite of its swift and extensive growth, to remain in language and
+sympathy and interests one community.  The railway, the steamship
+and the telegraph cable were indeed changing all the conditions of
+colonial development.
+
+Before 1840, English settlements had already begun in New Zealand,
+and a New Zealand Land Company had been formed to exploit the
+possibilities of the island.  In 1840 New Zealand also was added
+to the colonial possessions of the British Crown.
+
+Canada, as we have noted, was the first of the British possessions
+to respond richly to the new economic possibilities that the new
+methods of transport were opening.  Presently the republics of
+South America, and particularly the Argentine Republic, began to
+feel in their cattle trade and coffee growing the increased
+nearness of the European market.  Hitherto the chief commodities
+that had attracted the European powers into unsettled and barbaric
+regions had been gold or other metals, spices, ivory, or slaves.
+But in the latter quarter of the nineteenth century the increase
+of the European populations was obliging their governments to look
+abroad for staple foods; and the growth of scientific
+industrialism was creating a demand for new raw materials, fats
+and greases of every kind, rubber, and other hitherto disregarded
+substances.  It was plain that Great Britain and Holland and
+Portugal were reaping a great and growing commercial advantage
+from their very considerable control of tropical and sub-tropical
+products.  After 1871 Germany, and presently France and later
+Italy, began to look for unannexed raw-material areas, or for
+Oriental countries capable of profitable modernization.
+
+So began a fresh scramble all over the world, except in the
+American region where the Monroe Doctrine now barred such
+adventures, for politically unprotected lands.
+
+{397}
+
+[Map: The British Empire in 1815]
+
+Close to Europe was the continent of Africa, full of vaguely known
+possibilities.  In 1850 it was a continent of black mystery; only
+Egypt and the coast were known.  Here we have no space to tell the
+amazing story of the explorers and adventurers who first pierced
+the African darkness, and of the political agents, administrators,
+traders, settlers and scientific men who followed in their track.
+Wonderful races of men like the pygmies, strange beasts like the
+okapi, marvellous fruits and flowers and insects, terrible
+diseases, astounding scenery of forest and mountain, enormous
+inland seas and gigantic rivers and cascades were revealed; a
+whole new world.  Even remains (at Zimbabwe) of some unrecorded
+and vanished civilization, the southward enterprise of an early
+people, were discovered.  Into this new world came the Europeans,
+and found the rifle already there in the hands of the Arab
+slave-traders, and negro life in disorder.
+
+By 1900, in half a century, all Africa was mapped, explored,
+estimated and divided between the European powers.  Little heed
+was given to the welfare of the natives in this scramble.  The
+Arab slaver was indeed curbed rather than expelled, but the greed
+for rubber, which was a wild product collected under compulsion by
+the natives in the Belgian Congo, a greed exacerbated by the clash
+of inexperienced European administrators with the native {398}
+population, led to horrible atrocities.  No European power has
+perfectly clean hands in this matter.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail how Great Britain got possession
+of Egypt in 1883 and remained there in spite of the fact that
+Egypt was technically a part of the Turkish Empire, nor how nearly
+this scramble led to war between France and Great Britain in 1898,
+when a certain Colonel Marchand, crossing Central Africa from the
+west coast, tried at Fashoda to seize the Upper Nile.
+
+Nor can we tell how the British Government first let the Boers, or
+Dutch settlers, of the Orange River district and the Transvaal set
+up independent republics in the inland parts of South Africa, and
+then repented and annexed the Transvaal Republic in 1877; nor how
+the Transvaal Boers fought for freedom and won it after the battle
+of Majuba Hill (1881).  Majuba Hill was made to rankle in the
+memory of the English people by a persistent press campaign.  A
+war with both republics broke out in 1899, a three years' war
+enormously costly to the British people, which ended at last in
+the surrender of the two republics.
+
+Their period of subjugation was a brief one.  In 1907, after the
+downfall of the imperialist government which had conquered them,
+the Liberals took the South African problem in hand, and these
+former republics became free and fairly willing associates with
+Cape Colony and  Natal in a Confederation of all the states of
+South Africa as one self-governing republic under the British
+Crown.
+
+In a quarter of a century the partition of Africa was completed.
+There remained unannexed three comparatively small countries:
+Liberia, a settlement of liberated negro slaves on the west coast;
+Morocco, under a Moslem Sultan; and Abyssinia, a barbaric country,
+with an ancient and peculiar form of Christianity, which had
+successfully maintained its independence against Italy at the
+battle of Adowa in 1896.
+
+
+
+
+{399}
+
+LXIII
+
+EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA AND THE RISE OF JAPAN
+
+
+It is difficult to believe that any large number of people really
+accepted this headlong painting of the map of Africa in European
+colours as a permanent new settlement of the worlds affairs, but
+it is the duty of the historian to record that it was so accepted.
+There was but a shallow historical background to the European mind
+in the nineteenth century, and no habit of penetrating criticism.
+The quite temporary advantages that the mechanical revolution in
+the west had given the Europeans over the rest of the old world
+were regarded by people, blankly ignorant of such events as the
+great Mongol conquests, as evidences of a permanent and assured
+European leadership of mankind.  They had no sense of the
+transferability of science and its fruits.  They did not realize
+that Chinamen and Indians could carry on the work of research as
+ably as Frenchmen or Englishmen.  They believed that there was
+some innate intellectual drive in the west, and some innate
+indolence and conservatism in the east, that assured the Europeans
+a world predominance for ever.
+
+The consequence of this infatuation was that the various European
+foreign offices set themselves not merely to scramble with the
+British for the savage and undeveloped regions of the world's
+surface, but also to carve up the populous and civilized countries
+of Asia as though these people also were no more than raw material
+for exploitation.  The inwardly precarious but outwardly splendid
+imperialism of the British ruling class in India, and the
+extensive and profitable possessions of the Dutch in the East
+Indies, filled the rival Great Powers with dreams of similar
+glories in Persia, in the disintegrating Ottoman Empire, and in
+Further India, China and Japan.
+
+{400}
+
+In 1898 Germany seized Kiau Chau in China.  Britain responded by
+seizing Wei-hai-wei, and the next year the Russians took
+possession of Port Arthur.  A flame of hatred for the Europeans
+swept through China.  There were massacres of Europeans and
+Christian converts, and in 1900 an attack upon and siege of the
+European legations in Pekin.  A combined force of Europeans made a
+punitive expedition to Pekin, rescued the legations, and stole an
+enormous amount of valuable property.  The Russians then seized
+Manchuria, and in 1904, the British invaded Tibet....
+
+But now a new Power appeared in the struggle of the Great Powers,
+Japan.  Hitherto Japan has played but a small part in this
+history; her secluded civilization has not contributed very
+largely to the general shaping of human destinies; she has
+received much, but she has given little.  The Japanese proper are
+of the Mongolian race.  Their civilization, their writing and
+their literary and artistic traditions are derived from the
+Chinese.  Their history is an interesting and romantic one; they
+developed a feudal system and a system of chivalry in the earlier
+centuries of the Christian era; their attacks upon Korea and China
+are an Eastern equivalent of the English wars in France.  Japan
+was first brought into contact with Europe in the sixteenth
+century; in 1542 some Portuguese reached it in a Chinese junk, and
+in 1549 a Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, began his teaching
+there.  For a time Japan welcomed European intercourse, and the
+Christian missionaries made a great number of converts.  A certain
+William Adams became the most trusted European adviser of the
+Japanese, and showed them how to build big ships.  There were
+voyages in Japanese-built ships to India and Peru.  Then arose
+complicated quarrels between the Spanish Dominicans, the
+Portuguese Jesuits, and the English and Dutch Protestants, each
+warning the Japanese against the political designs of the others.
+The Jesuits, in a phase of ascendancy, persecuted and insulted the
+Buddhists with great acrimony.  In the end the Japanese came to
+the conclusion that the Europeans were an intolerable nuisance,
+and that Catholic Christianity in particular was a mere cloak for
+the political dreams of the Pope and the Spanish monarchy--already
+in possession of the Philippine Islands; there was a great
+persecution of the Christians, and in 1638 Japan was absolutely
+{401} closed to Europeans, and remained closed for over 200 years.
+During those two centuries the Japanese were as completely cut off
+from the rest of the world as though they lived upon another
+planet.  It was forbidden to build any ship larger than a mere
+coasting boat.  No Japanese could go abroad, and no European enter
+the country.
+
+[Illustration: JAPANESE SOLDIER ON THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+For two centuries Japan remained outside the main current of
+history.  She lived on in a state of picturesque feudalism in
+which about five per cent of the population, the _samurai_, or
+fighting men, and the nobles and their families, tyrannized
+without restraint over the rest of the population.  Meanwhile the
+great world outside went on to wider visions and new powers.
+Strange shipping became more frequent, passing the Japanese
+headlands; sometimes ships were wrecked and sailors brought
+ashore.  Through the Dutch settlement in the island of Deshima,
+their one link with the outer universe, came warnings that Japan
+was not keeping pace with the power of the Western world.  In 1837
+a ship sailed into Yedo Bay flying a strange flag of stripes and
+stars, and carrying some Japanese sailors she had picked up far
+adrift in the Pacific.  She was driven off by cannon shot.  This
+flag presently reappeared on other ships.  One in 1849 came to
+demand the liberation {402} of eighteen shipwrecked American
+sailors.  Then in 1853 came four American warships under Commodore
+Perry, and refused to be driven away.  He lay at anchor in
+forbidden waters, and sent messages to the two rulers who at that
+time shared the control of Japan.  In 1854 he returned with ten
+ships, amazing ships propelled by steam, and equipped with big
+guns, and he made proposals for trade and intercourse that the
+Japanese had no power to resist.  He landed with a guard of 500
+men to sign the treaty.  Incredulous crowds watched this
+visitation from the outer world, marching through the streets.
+
+Russia, Holland and Britain followed in the wake of America.  A
+great nobleman whose estates commanded the Straits of Shimonoseki
+saw fit to fire on foreign vessels, and a bombardment by a fleet
+of British, French, Dutch and American warships destroyed his
+batteries and scattered his swordsmen.  Finally an allied squadron
+(1865), at anchor off Kioto, imposed a ratification of the
+treaties which opened Japan to the world.
+
+The humiliation of the Japanese by these events was intense.  With
+astonishing energy and intelligence they set themselves to bring
+their culture and organization to the level of the European
+Powers.  Never in all the history of mankind did a nation make
+such a stride as Japan then did.  In 1866 she was a medieval
+people, a fantastic caricature of the extremest romantic
+feudalism; in 1899 hers was a completely Westernized people, on a
+level with the most advanced European Powers.  She completely
+dispelled the persuasion that Asia was in some irrevocable way
+hopelessly behind Europe.  She made all European progress seem
+sluggish by comparison.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail of Japan's war with China in
+1894-95.  It demonstrated the extent of her Westernization.  She
+had an efficient Westernized army and a small but sound fleet.
+But the significance of her renascence, though it was appreciated
+by Britain and the United States, who were already treating her as
+if she were a European state, was not understood by the other
+Great Powers engaged in the pursuit of new Indias in Asia.  Russia
+was pushing down through Manchuria to Korea.  France was already
+established far to the south in Tonkin and Annam, Germany was
+{403} prowling hungrily on the look-out for some settlement.  The
+three Powers combined to prevent Japan reaping any fruits from the
+Chinese war.  She was exhausted by the struggle, and they
+threatened her with war.
+
+[Illustration: A STREET IN TOKIO]
+
+Japan submitted for a time and gathered her forces.  Within ten
+years she was ready for a struggle with Russia, which marks an
+epoch in the history of Asia, the close of the period of European
+arrogance.  The Russian people were, of course, innocent and
+ignorant of this trouble that was being made for them halfway
+round the world, and the wiser Russian statesmen were against
+these foolish thrusts; but a gang of financial adventurers,
+including the Grand Dukes, his cousins, surrounded the Tsar.  They
+had gambled deeply in the prospective looting of Manchuria and
+China, and they would suffer no withdrawal.  So there began a
+transportation of great armies of Japanese soldiers across the sea
+to Port Arthur and Korea, and the sending of endless trainloads of
+Russian peasants along the Siberian railway to die in those
+distant battlefields.
+
+{404}
+
+The Russians, badly led and dishonestly provided, were beaten on
+sea and land alike.  The Russian Baltic Fleet sailed round Africa
+to be utterly destroyed in the Straits of Tshushima.  A
+revolutionary movement among the common people of Russia,
+infuriated by this remote and reasonless slaughter, obliged the
+Tsar to end the war (1905); he returned the southern half of
+Saghalien, which had been seized by Russia in 1875, evacuated
+Manchuria, resigned Korea to Japan.  The European invasion of Asia
+was coming to an end and the retraction of Europe's tentacles was
+beginning.
+
+
+
+
+{405}
+
+LXIV
+
+THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914
+
+
+We may note here briefly the varied nature of the constituents of
+the British Empire in 1914 which the steamship and railway had
+brought together.  It was and is a quite unique political
+combination; nothing of the sort has ever existed before.
+
+First and central to the whole system was the "crowned republic"
+of the United British Kingdom, including (against the will of a
+considerable part of the Irish people) Ireland.  The majority of
+the British Parliament, made up of the three united parliaments of
+England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, determines the headship,
+the quality and policy of the ministry, and determines it largely
+on considerations arising out of British domestic politics.  It is
+this ministry which is the effective supreme government, with
+powers of peace and war, over all the rest of the empire.
+
+Next in order of political importance to the British States were
+the "crowned republics" of Australia, Canada, Newfoundland (the
+oldest British possession, 1583), New Zealand and South Africa,
+all practically independent and self-governing states in alliance
+with Great Britain, but each with a representative of the Crown
+appointed by the Government in office;
+
+Next the Indian Empire, an extension of the Empire of the Great
+Mogul with its dependent and "protected" states reaching now from
+Beluchistan to Burma, and including Aden, in all of which empire
+the British Crown and the India Office (under Parliamentary
+control) played the role of the original Turkoman dynasty;
+
+Then the ambiguous possession of Egypt, still nominally a part of
+the Turkish Empire and still retaining its own monarch, the
+Khedive, but under almost despotic British official rule;
+
+Then the still more ambiguous "Anglo-Egyptian" Sudan province,
+{407} occupied and administered jointly by the British and by the
+(British controlled) Egyptian Government;
+
+Then a number of partially self-governing communities, some
+British in origin and some not, with elected legislatures and an
+appointed executive, such as Malta, Jamaica, the Bahamas and
+Bermuda;
+
+Then the Crown colonies, in which the rule of the British Home
+Government (through the Colonial Office) verged on autocracy, as
+in Ceylon, Trinidad and Fiji (where there was an appointed
+council), and Gibraltar and St. Helena (where there was a
+governor);
+
+Then great areas of (chiefly) tropical lands, raw-product areas,
+with politically weak and under-civilized native communities which
+were nominally protectorates, and administered either by a High
+Commissioner set over native chiefs (as in Basutoland) or over a
+chartered company (as in Rhodesia).  In some cases the Foreign
+Office, in some cases the Colonial Office, and in some cases the
+India Office, has been concerned in acquiring the possessions that
+fell into this last and least definite class of all, but for the
+most part the Colonial Office was now responsible for them.
+
+[Illustration: GIBRALTAR]
+
+====================================================================
+
+{406}
+
+[Map: OVERSEAS EMPIRES of EUROPEAN POWERS, January 1914]
+
+====================================================================
+
+It will be manifest, therefore, that no single office and no
+single brain had ever comprehended the British Empire as a whole.
+It was a mixture of growths and accumulations entirely different
+from anything that has ever been called an empire before.  It
+guaranteed a wide peace and security; that is why it was endured
+and sustained by many men of the "subject" races--in spite of
+official tyrannies {408} and insufficiencies, and of much
+negligence on the part of the "home" public.  Like the Athenian
+Empire, it was an overseas empire; its ways were sea ways, and its
+common link was the British Navy.  Like all empires, its cohesion
+was dependent physically upon a method of communication; the
+development of seamanship, ship-building and steamships between
+the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries had made it a possible and
+convenient Pax--the "Pax Britannica," and fresh developments of
+air or swift land transport might at any time make it
+inconvenient.
+
+[Illustration: STREET IN HONG KONG]
+
+
+
+
+{409}
+
+LXV
+
+THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18
+
+
+The progress in material science that created this vast
+steamboat-and-railway republic of America and spread this
+precarious British steamship empire over the world, produced
+quite other effects upon the congested nations upon the continent
+of Europe.  They found themselves confined within boundaries fixed
+during the horse-and-high-road period of human life, and their
+expansion overseas had been very largely anticipated by Great
+Britain.  Only Russia had any freedom to expand eastward; and she
+drove a great railway across Siberia until she entangled herself
+in a conflict with Japan, and pushed south-eastwardly towards the
+borders of Persia and India to the annoyance of Britain.  The rest
+of the European Powers were in a state of intensifying congestion.
+In order to realize the full possibilities of the new apparatus of
+human life they had to rearrange their affairs upon a broader
+basis, either by some sort of voluntary union or by a union
+imposed upon them by some predominant power.  The tendency
+of modern thought was in the direction of the former alternative,
+but all the force of political tradition drove Europe towards the
+latter.
+
+The downfall of the "empire" of Napoleon III, the establishment of
+the new German Empire, pointed men's hopes and fears towards the
+idea of a Europe consolidated under German auspices.  For
+thirty-six years of uneasy peace the polities of Europe centred
+upon that possibility.  France, the steadfast rival of Germany for
+European ascendancy since the division of the empire of
+Charlemagne, sought to correct her own weakness by a close
+alliance with Russia, and Germany linked herself closely with the
+Austrian Empire (it had ceased to be the Holy Roman Empire in the
+days of Napoleon I) and less successfully with the new kingdom of
+Italy.  {410} At first Great Britain stood as usual half in and
+half out of continental affairs.  But she was gradually forced
+into a close association with the Franco-Russian group by the
+aggressive development of a great German navy.  The grandiose
+imagination of the Emperor William II (1888-1918) thrust Germany
+into premature overseas enterprise that ultimately brought not
+only Great Britain but Japan and the United States into the
+circle of her enemies.
+
+[Illustration: BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD]
+
+All these nations armed.  Year after year the proportion of
+national production devoted to the making of guns, equipment,
+battleships and the like, increased. Year after year the balance
+{411} of things seemed trembling towards war, and then war would
+be averted.  At last it came.  Germany and Austria struck at
+France and Russia and Serbia; the German armies marching through
+Belgium, Britain immediately came into the war on the side of
+Belgium, bringing in Japan as her ally, and very soon Turkey
+followed on the German side.  Italy entered the war against
+Austria in 1915, and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in the
+October of that year.  In 1916 Rumania, and in 1917 the United
+States and China were forced into war against Germany.  It is not
+within the scope of this history to define the exact share of
+blame for this vast catastrophe.  The more interesting question is
+not why the Great War was begun but why the Great War was not
+anticipated and prevented.  It is a far graver thing for mankind
+that scores of millions of people were too "patriotic," stupid, or
+apathetic to prevent this disaster by a movement towards European
+unity upon frank and generous lines, than that a small number of
+people may have been active in bringing it about.
+
+[Illustration: THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH
+TOWN)]
+
+It is impossible within the space at our command here to trace the
+intricate details of the war.  Within a few months it became
+apparent that the progress of modern technical science had changed
+{412} the nature of warfare very profoundly.  Physical science
+gives power, power over steel, over distance, over disease;
+whether that power is used well or ill depends upon the moral and
+political intelligence of the world.  The governments of Europe,
+inspired by antiquated policies of hate and suspicion, found
+themselves with unexampled powers both of destruction and
+resistance in their hands.  The war became a consuming fire round
+and about the world, causing losses both to victors and vanquished
+out of all proportion to the issues involved.  The first phase of
+the war was a tremendous rush of the Germans upon Paris and an
+invasion of East Prussia by the Russians.  Both attacks were held
+and turned.  Then the power of the defensive developed; there was
+a rapid elaboration of trench warfare until for a time the
+opposing armies lay entrenched in long lines right across Europe,
+unable to make any advance without enormous losses.  The armies
+were millions strong, and behind them entire populations were
+organized for the supply of food and munitions to the front.  Then
+was a cessation of nearly every sort of productive activity except
+such as contributed to military operations.  All the able-bodied
+manhood of Europe was drawn into the armies or navies or into the
+improvised factories that served {413} them.  There was an
+enormous replacement of men by women in industry.  Probably more
+than half the people in the belligerent countries of Europe
+changed their employment altogether during this stupendous
+struggle.  They were socially uprooted and transplanted.
+Education and normal scientific work were restricted or diverted
+to immediate military ends, and the distribution of news was
+crippled and corrupted by military control and "propaganda"
+activities.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR]
+
+The phase of military deadlock passed slowly into one of
+aggression upon the combatant populations behind the fronts by the
+destruction of food supplies and by attacks through the air.  And
+also there was a steady improvement in the size and range of the
+guns employed and of such ingenious devices as poison-gas shells
+and the small mobile forts known as tanks, to break down the
+resistance of troops in the trenches.  The air offensive was the
+most revolutionary of all the new methods.  It carried warfare
+from two dimensions into three.  Hitherto in the history of
+mankind war had gone on only where the armies marched and met.
+Now it went on everywhere.  First the Zeppelin and then the
+bombing aeroplane carried war over and past the front to an
+ever-increasing area of civilian activities beyond.  The old
+distinction maintained in civilized warfare between the civilian
+and combatant population disappeared.  Everyone who grew food, or
+who sewed a garment, everyone who felled a tree or repaired a
+house, every railway station and every warehouse was held to be
+fair game for destruction.  The air offensive increased in range
+and terror with every month in the war.  At last great areas of
+Europe were in a state of siege and subject to nightly raids.
+Such exposed cities as London and Paris passed sleepless night
+after sleepless night while the bombs burst, the anti-aircraft
+guns maintained an intolerable racket, and the fire engines and
+ambulances rattled headlong through the darkened and deserted
+streets.  The effects upon the minds and health of old people and
+of young children were particularly distressing and destructive.
+
+Pestilence, that old follower of warfare, did not arrive until the
+very end of the fighting in 1918.  For four years medical science
+staved off any general epidemic; then came a great outbreak of
+{414} influenza about the world which destroyed many millions of
+people.  Famine also was staved off for some time.  By the
+beginning of 1918 however most of Europe was in a state of
+mitigated and regulated famine.  The production of food throughout
+the world had fallen very greatly through the calling off of
+peasant mankind to the fronts, and the distribution of such food
+as was produced was impeded by the havoc wrought by the submarine,
+by the rupture of customary routes through the closing of
+frontiers, and by the disorganization of the transport system of
+the world.  The various governments took possession of the
+dwindling food supplies, and, with more or less success, rationed
+their populations.  By the fourth year the whole world was
+suffering from shortages of clothing and housing and of most of
+the normal gear of life as well as of food.  Business and economic
+life were profoundly disorganized.  Every-one was worried, and
+most people were leading lives of unwonted discomfort.
+
+The actual warfare ceased in November, 1918.  After a supreme
+effort in the spring of 1918 that almost carried the Germans to
+Paris, the Central Powers collapsed.  They had come to an end of
+their spirit and resources.
+
+
+
+
+{415}
+
+LXVI
+
+THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA
+
+
+But a good year and more before the collapse of the Central Powers
+the half oriental monarchy of Russia, which had professed to be
+the continuation of the Byzantine Empire, had collapsed.  The
+Tsardom had been showing signs of profound rottenness for some
+years before the war; the court was under the sway of a fantastic
+religious impostor, Rasputin, and the public administration, civil
+and military, was in a state of extreme inefficiency and
+corruption.  At the outset of the war there was a great flare of
+patriotic enthusiasm in Russia.  A vast conscript army was called
+up, for which there was neither adequate military equipment nor a
+proper supply of competent officers, and this great host, ill
+supplied and badly handled, was hurled against the German and
+Austrian frontiers.
+
+There can be no doubt that the early appearance of Russian armies
+in East Prussia in September, 1914, diverted the energies and
+attention of the Germans from their first victorious drive upon
+Paris.  The sufferings and deaths of scores of thousands of
+ill-led Russian peasants saved France from complete overthrow in
+that momentous opening campaign, and made all western Europe the
+debtors of that great and tragic people.  But the strain of the
+war upon this sprawling, ill-organized empire was too heavy for
+its strength.  The Russian common soldiers were sent into battle
+without guns to support them, without even rifle ammunition; they
+were wasted by their officers and generals in a delirium of
+militarist enthusiasm.  For a time they seemed to be suffering
+mutely as the beasts suffer; but there is a limit to the endurance
+even of the most ignorant.  A profound disgust for Tsardom was
+creeping through these armies of betrayed and wasted men.  From
+the close of 1915 onward Russia was a source of deepening anxiety
+to her Western Allies.  Throughout 1916 she remained largely on
+{416} the defensive, and there were rumours of a separate peace
+with Germany.
+
+On December 29th, 1916, the monk Rasputin was murdered at a dinner
+party in Petrograd, and a belated attempt was made to put the
+Tsardom in order.  By March things were moving rapidly; food riots
+in Petrograd developed into a revolutionary insurrection; there
+was an attempted suppression of the Duma, the representative body,
+there were attempted arrests of liberal leaders, the formation of
+a provisional government under Prince Lvoff, and an abdication
+(March 15th) by the Tsar.  For a time it seemed that a moderate
+and controlled revolution might be possible--perhaps under a new
+Tsar.  Then it became evident that the destruction of popular
+confidence in Russia had gone too far for any such adjustments.
+The Russian people were sick to death of the old order of things
+in Europe, of Tsars and wars and of Great Powers; it wanted
+relief, and that speedily, from unendurable miseries.  The Allies
+had no understanding of Russian realities; their diplomatists were
+ignorant of Russian, genteel persons with their attention directed
+to the Russian Court rather than to Russia, they blundered
+steadily with the new situation.  There was little goodwill among
+these diplomatists for republicanism, and a manifest disposition
+to embarrass the new government as much as possible.  At the head
+of the Russian republican government was an eloquent and
+picturesque leader, Kerensky, who found himself assailed by the
+forces of a profounder revolutionary movement, the "social
+revolution," at home and cold-shouldered by the Allied governments
+abroad.  His Allies would neither let him give the Russian
+peasants the land for which they craved nor peace beyond their
+frontiers.  The French and the British press pestered their
+exhausted ally for a fresh offensive, but when presently the
+Germans made a strong attack by sea and land upon Riga, the
+British Admiralty quailed before the prospect of a Baltic
+expedition in relief.  The new Russian Republic had to fight
+unsupported.  In spite of their naval predominance and the bitter
+protests of the great English admiral, Lord Fisher (1841-1920), it
+is to be noted that the British and their Allies, except for some
+submarine attacks, left the Germans the complete mastery of the
+Baltic throughout the war.
+
+{417}
+
+The Russian masses, however, were resolute to end the war.  At any
+cost.  There had come into existence in Petrograd a body
+representing the workers and common soldiers, the Soviet, and this
+body clamoured for an international conference of socialists at
+Stockholm.  Food riots were occurring in Berlin at this time, war
+weariness in Austria and Germany was profound, and there can be
+little doubt, in the light of subsequent events, that such a
+conference would have precipitated a reasonable peace on
+democratic lines in 1917 and a German revolution.  Kerensky
+implored his Western allies to allow this conference to take
+place, but, fearful of a worldwide outbreak of socialism and
+republicanism, they refused, in spite of the favourable response
+of a small majority of the British Labour Party.  Without either
+moral or physical help from the Allies, the unhappy "moderate"
+Russian Republic still fought on and made a last desperate
+offensive effort in July.  It failed after some preliminary
+successes, and there came another great slaughtering of Russians.
+
+The limit of Russian endurance was reached.  Mutinies broke out in
+the Russian armies, and particularly upon the northern front, and
+on November 7th, 1917, Kerensky's government was overthrown and
+power was seized by the Soviets, dominated by the Bolshevik
+socialists under Lenin, and pledged to make peace regardless of
+the Western powers.  On March 2nd, 1918, a separate peace between
+Russia and Germany was signed at Brest-Litovsk.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{418}
+
+[Illustration: A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE]
+
+====================================================================
+
+It speedily became evident that these Bolshevik socialists were
+men of a very different quality from the rhetorical
+constitutionalists and revolutionaries of the Kerensky phase.
+They were fanatical Marxist communists.  They believed that their
+accession to power in Russia was only the opening of a world-wide
+social revolution, and they set about changing the social and
+economic order with the thoroughness of perfect faith and absolute
+inexperience.  The western European and the American governments
+were themselves much too ill-informed and incapable to guide or
+help this extraordinary experiment, and the press set itself to
+discredit and the ruling classes to wreck these usurpers upon any
+terms and at any cost to themselves or to Russia.  A propaganda of
+abominable and disgusting inventions went on unchecked in the
+press of the {419} world; the Bolshevik leaders were represented
+as incredible monsters glutted with blood and plunder and living
+lives of sensuality before which the realities of the Tsarist
+court during the Rasputin regime paled to a white purity.
+Expeditions were launched at the exhausted country, insurgents and
+raiders were encouraged, armed and subsidized, and no method of
+attack was too mean or too monstrous for the frightened enemies of
+the Bolshevik regime.  In 1919, the Russian Bolsheviks, ruling a
+country already exhausted and disorganized by five years of
+intensive warfare, were fighting a British Expedition at
+Archangel, Japanese invaders in Eastern Siberia, Roumanians with
+French and Greek contingents in the south, the Russian Admiral
+Koltchak in Siberia and General Deniken, supported by the French
+fleet, in the Crimea.  In July of that year an Esthonian army,
+under General Yudenitch, almost got to Petersburg.  In 1920 the
+Poles, incited by the French, made a new attack on Russia; and a
+new reactionary raider, General Wrangel, took over the task of
+General Deniken in invading and devastating his own country.  In
+March, 1921, the sailors at Cronstadt revolted.  The Russian
+Government under its president, Lenin, survived all these various
+attacks.  It showed an amazing tenacity, and the common people of
+Russia sustained it unswervingly under conditions of extreme
+hardship.  By the end of 1921 both Britain and Italy had made a
+sort of recognition of the communist rule.
+
+But if the Bolshevik Government was successful in its struggle
+against foreign intervention and internal revolt, it was far less
+happy in its attempts to set up a new social order based upon
+communist ideas in Russia.  The Russian peasant is a small
+land-hungry proprietor, as far from communism in his thoughts and
+methods as a whale is from flying; the revolution gave him the
+land of the great landowners but could not make him grow food for
+anything but negotiable money, and the revolution, among other
+things, had practically destroyed the value of money.
+Agricultural production, already greatly disordered by the
+collapse of the railways through war-strain, shrank to a mere
+cultivation of food by the peasants for their own consumption.
+The towns starved.  Hasty and ill-planned attempts to make over
+industrial production {420} in accordance with communist ideas
+were equally unsuccessful.  By 1920 Russia presented the
+unprecedented spectacle of a modern civilization in complete
+collapse.  Railways were rusting and passing out of use, towns
+were falling into ruin, everywhere there was an immense mortality.
+Yet the country still fought with its enemies at its gates.  In
+1921 came a drought and a great famine among the peasant
+cultivators in the war-devastated south-east provinces.  Millions
+of people starved.
+
+But the question of the distresses and the possible recuperation
+of Russia brings us too close to current controversies to be
+discussed here.
+
+
+
+
+{421}
+
+LXVII
+
+THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD
+
+
+The scheme and scale upon which this History is planned do not
+permit us to enter into the complicated and acrimonious disputes
+that centre about the treaties, and particularly of the treaty of
+Versailles, which concluded the Great War.  We are beginning to
+realize that that conflict, terrible and enormous as it was, ended
+nothing, began nothing and settled nothing.  It killed millions of
+people; it wasted and impoverished the world.  It smashed Russia
+altogether.  It was at best an acute and frightful reminder that
+we were living foolishly and confusedly without much plan or
+foresight in a dangerous and unsympathetic universe.  The crudely
+organized egotisms and passions of national and imperial greed
+that carried mankind into that tragedy, emerged from it
+sufficiently unimpaired to make some other similar disaster highly
+probable so soon as the world has a little recovered from its war
+exhaustion and fatigue.  Wars and revolutions make nothing; their
+utmost service to mankind is that, in a very rough and painful
+way, they destroy superannuated and obstructive things.  The great
+war lifted the threat of German imperialism from Europe, and
+shattered the imperialism of Russia.  It cleared away a number of
+monarchies.  But a multitude of flags still waves in Europe, the
+frontiers still exasperate, great armies accumulate fresh stores
+of equipment.
+
+The Peace Conference at Versailles was a gathering very ill
+adapted to do more than carry out the conflicts and defeats of the
+war to their logical conclusions.  The Germans, Austrians, Turks
+and Bulgarians were permitted no share in its deliberations; they
+were only to accept the decisions it dictated to them.  From the
+point of view of human welfare the choice of the place of meeting
+was particularly unfortunate.  It was at Versailles in 1871 that,
+with every circumstance of triumphant vulgarity, the new German
+{422} Empire had been proclaimed.  The suggestion of a
+melodramatic reversal of that scene, in the same Hall of Mirrors,
+was overpowering.
+
+Whatever generosities had appeared in the opening phases of the
+Great War had long been exhausted.  The populations of the
+victorious countries were acutely aware of their own losses and
+sufferings, and entirely regardless of the fact that the defeated
+had paid in the like manner.  The war had arisen as a natural and
+inevitable consequence of the competitive nationalisms of Europe
+and the absence of any Federal adjustment of these competitive
+forces; war is the necessary logical consummation of independent
+sovereign nationalities living in too small an area with too
+powerful an armament; and if the great war had not come in the
+form it did it would have come in some similar form--just as it
+will certainly return upon a still more disastrous scale in twenty
+or thirty years' time if no political unification anticipates and
+prevents it.  States organized for war will make wars as surely as
+hens will lay eggs, but the feeling of these distressed and
+war-worn countries disregarded this fact, and the whole of the
+defeated peoples were treated as morally and materially
+responsible for all the damage, as they would no doubt have
+treated the victor peoples had the issue of war been different.
+The French and English thought the Germans were to blame, the
+Germans thought the Russians, French and English were to blame,
+and only an intelligent minority thought that there was anything
+to blame in the fragmentary political constitution of Europe.  The
+treaty of Versailles was intended to be exemplary and vindictive;
+it provided tremendous penalties for the vanquished; it sought to
+provide compensations for the wounded and suffering victors by
+imposing enormous debts upon nations already bankrupt, and its
+attempts to reconstitute international relations by the
+establishment of a League of Nations against war were manifestly
+insincere and inadequate.
+
+[Illustration: PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT]
+
+So far as Europe was concerned it is doubtful if there would have
+been any attempt whatever to organize international relations for
+a permanent peace.  The proposal of the League of Nations was
+brought into practical politics by the President of the United
+States of America, President Wilson.  Its chief support was in
+America.  So far the United States, this new modern state, had
+{423} developed no distinctive ideas of international relationship
+beyond the Monroe Doctrine, which protected the new world from
+European interference.  Now suddenly it was called upon for its
+mental contribution to the vast problem of the time.  It had none.
+The natural disposition of the American people was towards a
+permanent world peace.  With this however was linked a strong
+traditional distrust of old-world polities and a habit of
+isolation from old-world entanglements.  The Americans had hardly
+begun to think out an American solution of world problems when the
+submarine campaign of the Germans dragged them into the war on the
+side of the anti-German allies.  President Wilson's scheme of a
+League of Nations was an attempt at short notice to create a
+distinctively American world project.  It was a sketchy,
+inadequate and dangerous scheme.  In Europe however it was taken
+as a matured American point of view.  The generality of mankind in
+1918-19 was intensely weary of war and anxious at almost any
+sacrifice to erect {424} barriers against its recurrence, but
+there was not a single government in the old world willing to
+waive one iota of its sovereign independence to attain any such
+end.  The public utterances of President Wilson leading up to the
+project of a World League of Nations seemed for a time to appeal
+right over the heads of the governments to the peoples of the
+world; they were taken as expressing the ripe intentions of
+America, and the response was enormous.  Unhappily President
+Wilson had to deal with governments and not with peoples; he was a
+man capable of tremendous flashes of vision and yet when put to
+the test egotistical and limited, and the great wave of enthusiasm
+he evoked passed and was wasted.
+
+Says Dr. Dillon in his book, _The Peace Conference_: "Europe, when
+the President touched its shores, was as clay ready for the
+creative potter.  Never before were the nations so eager to follow
+a Moses who would take them to the long-promised land where wars
+are prohibited and blockades unknown.  And to their thinking he
+was just that great leader.  In France men bowed down before him
+with awe and affection.  Labour leaders in Paris told me that they
+shed tears of joy in his presence, and that their comrades would
+go through fire and water to help him to realize his noble
+schemes.  To the working classes in Italy his name was a heavenly
+clarion at the sound of which the earth would be renewed.  The
+Germans regarded him and his doctrine as their sheet-anchor of
+safety.  The fearless Herr Muehlon said: 'If President Wilson were
+to address the Germans and pronounce a severe sentence upon them,
+they would accept it with resignation and without a murmur and set
+to work at once.'  In German-Austria his fame was that of a
+saviour, and the mere mention of his name brought balm to the
+suffering and surcease of sorrow to the afflicted ... ."
+
+Such were the overpowering expectations that President Wilson
+raised.  How completely he disappointed them and how weak and
+futile was the League of Nations he made is too long and too
+distressful a story to tell here.  He exaggerated in his person
+our common human tragedy, he was so very great in his dreams and
+so incapable in his performance.  America dissented from the acts
+of its President and would not join the League Europe accepted
+from him.  There was a slow realization on the part of the
+American {425} people that it had been rushed into something for
+which it was totally unprepared.  There was a corresponding
+realization on the part of Europe that America had nothing ready
+to give to the old world in its extremity.  Born prematurely and
+crippled at its birth, that League has become indeed, with its
+elaborate and unpractical constitution and its manifest
+limitations of power, a serious obstacle in the way of any
+effective reorganization of international relationships.  The
+problem would be a clearer one if the League did not yet exist.
+Yet that world-wide blaze of enthusiasm that first welcomed the
+project, that readiness of men everywhere round and about the
+earth, of men, that is, as distinguished from governments, for a
+world control of war, is a thing to be recorded with emphasis in
+any history.  Behind the short-sighted governments that divide and
+mismanage human affairs, a real force for world unity and world
+order exists and grows.
+
+From 1918 onward the world entered upon an age of conferences.  Of
+these the Conference at Washington called by President Harding
+(1921) has been the most successful and suggestive.  Notable, too,
+is the Genoa Conference (1922) for the appearance of German and
+Russian delegates at its deliberations.  We will not discuss this
+long procession of conferences and tentatives in any detail.  It
+becomes more and more clearly manifest that a huge work of
+reconstruction has to be done by mankind if a crescendo of such
+convulsions and world massacres as that of the great war is to be
+averted.  No such hasty improvisation as the League of Nations, no
+patched-up system of Conferences between this group of states and
+that, which change nothing with an air of settling everything,
+will meet the complex political needs of the new age that lies
+before us.  A systematic development and a systematic application
+of the sciences of human relationship, of personal and group
+psychology, of financial and economic science and of education,
+sciences still only in their infancy, is required.  Narrow and
+obsolete, dead and dying moral and political ideas have to be
+replaced by a clearer and a simpler conception of the common
+origins and destinies of our kind.
+
+[Illustration: A PEACEFUL GARDEN IN ENGLAND]
+
+But if the dangers, confusions and disasters that crowd upon man
+in these days are enormous beyond any experience of the past, it
+is because science has brought him such powers as he never had
+{426} before.  And the scientific method of fearless thought,
+exhaustively lucid statement, and exhaustively criticized
+planning, which has given him these as yet uncontrollable powers,
+gives him also the hope of controlling these powers.  Man is still
+only adolescent.  His troubles are not the troubles of senility
+and exhaustion but of increasing and still undisciplined strength.
+When we look at all {427} history as one process, as we have been
+doing in this book, when we see the steadfast upward struggle of
+life towards vision and control, then we see in their true
+proportions the hopes and dangers of the present time.  As yet we
+are hardly in the earliest dawn of human greatness.  But in the
+beauty of flower and sunset, in the happy and perfect movement of
+young animals and in the delight of ten thousand various
+landscapes, we have some intimations of what life can do for us,
+and in some few works of plastic and pictorial art, in some great
+music, in a few noble buildings and happy gardens, we have an
+intimation of what the human will can do with material
+possibilities.  We have dreams; we have at present undisciplined
+but ever increasing power.  Can we doubt that presently our race
+will more than realize our boldest imaginations, that it will
+achieve unity and peace, that it will live, the children of our
+blood and lives will live, in a world made more splendid and
+lovely than any palace or garden that we know, going on from
+strength to strength in an ever widening circle of adventure and
+achievement?  What man has done, the little triumphs of his
+present state, and all this history we have told, form but the
+prelude to the things that man has got to do.
+
+
+
+
+{429}
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
+
+
+About the year 1000 B.C. the Aryan peoples were establishing
+themselves in the peninsulas of Spain, Italy and the Balkans, and
+they were established in North India; Cnossos was already
+destroyed and the spacious times of Egypt, of Thothmes III,
+Amenophis III and Rameses II were three or four centuries away.
+Weak monarchs of the XXIst Dynasty were ruling in the Nile Valley.
+Israel was united under her early kings; Saul or David or possibly
+even Solomon may have been reigning.  Sargon I (2750 B.C.) of the
+Akkadian Sumerian Empire was a remote memory in Babylonian
+history, more remote than is Constantine the Great from the world
+of the present day.  Hammurabi had been dead a thousand years.
+The Assyrians were already dominating the less military
+Babylonians.  In 1100 B.C. Tiglath Pileser I had taken Babylon.
+But there was no permanent conquest; Assyria and Babylonia were
+still separate empires.  In China the new Chow dynasty was
+flourishing.  Stonehenge in England was already some hundreds of
+years old.
+
+The next two centuries saw a renascence of Egypt under the XXIInd
+Dynasty, the splitting up of the brief little Hebrew kingdom of
+Solomon, the spreading of the Greeks in the Balkans, South Italy
+and Asia Minor, and the days of Etruscan predominance in Central
+Italy.  We begin our list of ascertainable dates with
+
+  B.C.
+  800. The building of Carthage.
+  790. The Ethiopian conquest of Egypt (founding the XXVth Dynasty).
+  776. First Olympiad.
+  753. Rome built.
+  745. Tiglath Pileser III conquered Babylonia and founded the New
+    Assyrian Empire.
+  722. Sargon II armed the Assyrians with iron weapons.
+  721. He deported the Israelites.
+  680. Esarhaddon took Thebes in Egypt (overthrowing the Ethiopian
+    XXVth Dynasty).
+  664. Psammetichus I restored the freedom of Egypt and founded the
+    XXVIth Dynasty (to 610).
+  608. Necho of Egypt defeated Josiah, king of Judah, at the battle
+    of Megiddo.
+  606. Capture of Nineveh by the Chaldeans and Medes.
+       Foundation of the Chaldean Empire.
+  604. Necho pushed to the Euphrates and was overthrown by
+    Nebuchadnezzar II.
+      (Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews to Babylon.)
+  550. Cyrus the Persian succeeded Cyaxares the Mede.
+       Cyrus conquered Croesus.
+       Buddha lived about this time.
+       So also did Confucius and Lao Tse.
+  539. Cyrus took Babylon and founded the Persian Empire.
+  521. Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, ruled from the Hellespont
+    to the Indus.
+       His expedition to Scythia.
+
+{430}
+
+  490. Battle of Marathon.
+  480. Battles of Thermopyl� and Salamis.
+  479. The battles of Platea and Mycale completed the repulse of
+    Persia.
+  474. Etruscan fleet destroyed by the Sicilian Greeks.
+  431. Peloponnesian War began (to 404)
+  401. Retreat of the Ten Thousand.
+  359. Philip became king of Macedonia.
+  338. Battle of Ch�ronia.
+  336. Macedonian troops crossed into Asia.  Philip murdered.
+  334. Battle of the Granicus.
+  333. Battle of Issus.
+  331. Battle of Arbela.
+  330. Darius III killed.
+  323. Death of Alexander the Great.
+  321. Rise of Chandragupta in the Punjab.
+       The Romans completely beaten by the Samnites at the battle of
+    the Caudine Forks.
+  281. Pyrrhus invaded Italy.
+  280. Battle of Heraclea.
+  279. Battle of Ausculum.
+  278. Gauls raided into Asia Minor and settled in Galatia.
+  275. Pyrrhus left Italy.
+  264. First Punic War. (Asoka began to reign in Behar--to 227.)
+  260. Battle of Myl�.
+  256. Battle of Ecnomus.
+  246. Shi-Hwang-ti became King of Ts'in.
+  220. Shi-Hwang-ti became Emperor of China.
+  214. Great Wall of China begun.
+  210. Death of Shi-Hwang-ti.
+  202. Battle of Zama.
+  146. Carthage destroyed.
+  133. Attalus bequeathed Pergamum to Rome.
+  102. Marius drove back Germans.
+  100. Triumph of Marius. (Chinese conquering the Tarim valley.)
+  89. All Italians became Roman citizens.
+  73. The revolt of the slaves under Spartacus.
+  71. Defeat and end of Spartacus.
+  66. Pompey led Roman troops to the Caspian and Euphrates.  He
+    encountered the Alani.
+  48. Julius C�sar defeated Pompey at Pharsalos.
+  44. Julius C�sar assassinated.
+  27. Augustus C�sar princeps (until 14 A.D.).
+  4. True date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+  A.D. Christian Era began.
+
+  14. Augustus died.  Tiberius emperor.
+  30. Jesus of Nazareth crucified.
+  41. Claudius (the first emperor of the legions) made emperor by
+    pretorian guard after murder of Caligula.
+  68. Suicide of Nero. (Galba, Otho, Vitellus, emperors in
+    succession.)
+  69. Vespasian.
+  102. Pan Chau on the Caspian Sea.
+  117. Hadrian succeeded Trajan.  Roman Empire at its greatest
+    extent.
+  138. (The Indo-Scythians at this time were destroying the last
+    traces of Hellenic rule in India.)
+  161. Marcus Aurelius succeeded Antoninus Pius.
+  164. Great plague began, and lasted to the death of M. Aurelius
+    (180).  This also devastated all Asia.
+      (Nearly a century of war and disorder began in the Roman
+    Empire.)
+  220. End of the Han dynasty.  Beginning of four hundred years of
+    division in China.
+  227. Ardashir I (first Sassanid shah) put an end to Arsacid line
+    in Persia.
+  242. Mani began his teaching.
+  247. Goths crossed Danube in a great raid.
+  251. Great victory of Goths.  Emperor Decius killed.
+  260. Sapor I, the second Sassanid shah, took Antioch, captured the
+    Emperor Valerian, and was cut up on his return from Asia {431}
+    Minor by Odenathus of Palmyra.
+  277. Mani crucified in Persia.
+  284. Diocletian became emperor.
+  303. Diocletian persecuted the Christians.
+  311. Galerius abandoned the persecution of the Christians.
+  312. Constantine the Great became emperor.
+  323. Constantine presided over the Council of Nic�a.
+  337. Constantine baptized on his deathbed.
+  361-3. Julian the Apostate attempted to substitute Mithraism for
+    Christianity.
+  392. Theodosius the Great emperor of east and west.
+  395. Theodosius the Great died.  Honorius and Arcadius redivided
+    the empire with Stilicho and Alaric as their masters and
+    protectors.
+  410. The Visigoths under Alaric captured Rome.
+  425. Vandals settling in south of Spain.  Huns in Pannonia, Goths
+    in Dalmatia.  Visigoths and Suevi in Portugal and North Spain.
+    English invading Britain.
+  439. Vandals took Carthage.
+  451. Attila raided Gaul and was defeated by Franks, Alemanni and
+    Romans at Troyes.
+  453. Death of Attila.
+  455. Vandals sacked Rome.
+  470. Odoacer, king of a medley of Teutonic tribes, informed
+    Constantinople that there was no emperor in the West.  End of
+    the Western Empire.
+  493. Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, conquered Italy and became King of
+    Italy, but was nominally subject to Constantinople.  (Gothic
+    kings in Italy.  Goths settled on special confiscated lands as a
+    garrison.)
+  527. Justinian emperor.
+  529. Justinian closed the schools at Athens, which had flourished
+    nearly a thousand years.  Belisarius (Justinian's general) took
+    Naples.
+  531. Chosroes I began to reign.
+  543. Great plague in Constantinople.
+  553. Goths expelled from Italy by Justinian.  Justinian died.  The
+    Lombards conquered most of North Italy (leaving Ravenna and Rome
+    Byzantine).
+  570. Muhammad born.
+  579. Chosroes I died.
+       (The Lombards dominant in Italy.)
+  590. Plague raged in Rome.  Chosroes II began to reign.
+  610. Heraclius began to reign.
+  619. Chosroes II held Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus, and armies on
+    Hellespont.  Tang dynasty began in China.
+  622. The Hegira.
+  627. Great Persian defeat at Nineveh by Heraclius.  Tai-tsung
+    became Emperor of China.
+  628. Kavadh II murdered and succeeded his father, Chosroes II.
+       Muhammad wrote letters to all the rulers of the earth.
+  629. Muhammad returned to Mecca.
+  632. Muhammad died. Abu Bekr Caliph.
+  634. Battle of the Yarmuk.  Moslems took Syria.  Omar second
+    Caliph.
+  635. Tai-tsung received Nestorian missionaries.
+  637. Battle of Kadessia.
+  638. Jerusalem surrendered to the Caliph Omar.
+  642. Heraclius died.
+  643. Othman third Caliph.
+  655. Defeat of the Byzantine fleet by the Moslems.
+  668. The Caliph Moawija attacked Constantinople by sea.
+  687. Pepin of Hersthal, mayor of the palace, reunited Austrasia
+    and Neustria.
+  711. Moslem army invaded Spain from Africa.
+
+{432}
+
+  715. The domains of the Caliph Walid I extended from the Pyrenees
+    to China.
+  717-18. Suleiman, son and successor of Walid, failed to take
+    Constantinople.
+  732. Charles Martel defeated the Moslems near Poitiers.
+  751. Pepin crowned King of the French.
+  768. Pepin died.
+  771. Charlemagne sole king.
+  774. Charlemagne conquered Lombardy.
+  786. Haroun-al-Raschid Abbasid Caliph in Bagdad (to 809).
+  795. Leo III became Pope (to 816).
+  800. Leo crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West.
+  802. Egbert, formerly an English refugee at the court of
+    Charlemagne, established himself as King of Wessex.
+  810. Krum of Bulgaria defeated and killed the Emperor Nicephorus.
+  814. Charlemagne died.
+  828. Egbert became first King of England.
+  843. Louis the Pious died, and the Carlovingian Empire went to
+    pieces.  Until 962 there was no regular succession of Holy Roman
+    Emperors, though the title appeared intermittently.
+  850. About this time Rurik (a Northman) became ruler of Novgorod
+    and Kieff.
+  852. Boris first Christian King of Bulgaria (to 884).
+  865. The fleet of the Russians (Northmen) threatened
+    Constantinople.
+  904. Russian (Northmen) fleet off Constantinople.
+  912. Rolf the Ganger established himself in Normandy.
+  919. Henry the Fowler elected King of Germany.
+  936. Otto I became King of Germany in succession to his father,
+    Henry the Fowler.
+  941. Russian fleet again threatened Constantinople.
+  962. Otto I, King of Germany, crowned Emperor (first Saxon
+    Emperor) by John XII.
+  987. Hugh Capet became King of France.  End of the Carlovingian
+    line of French kings.
+  1016. Canute became King of England, Denmark and Norway.
+  1043. Russian fleet threatened Constantinople.
+  1066. Conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy.
+  1071. Revival of Islam under the Seljuk Turks.  Battle of
+    Melasgird.
+  1073. Hildebrand became Pope (Gregory VII) to 1085.
+  1084. Robert Guiscard, the Norman, sacked Rome.
+  1087-99. Urban II Pope.
+  1095. Urban II at Clermont summoned the First Crusade.
+  1096. Massacre of the People's Crusade.
+  1099. Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem.
+  1147. The Second Crusade.
+  1169. Saladin Sultan of Egypt.
+  1176. Frederick Barbarossa acknowledged supremacy of the Pope
+    (Alexander III) at Venice.
+  1187. Saladin captured Jerusalem.
+  1189. The Third Crusade.
+  1198. Innocent III Pope (to 1216).  Frederick II (aged four), King
+    of Sicily, became his ward.
+  1202. The Fourth Crusade attacked the Eastern Empire.
+  1204. Capture of Constantinople by the Latins.
+  1214. Jengis Khan took Pekin.
+  1226. St. Francis of Assisi died. (The Franciscans.)
+  1227. Jengis Khan died.  Khan from the Caspian to the Pacific, and
+    was succeeded by Ogdai Khan.
+  1228. Frederick II embarked upon the Sixth Crusade, and acquired
+    Jerusalem.
+  1240. Mongols destroyed Kieff. Russia tributary to the Mongols.
+
+{433}
+
+  1241. Mongol victory in Liegnitz in Silesia.
+  1250. Frederick II, the last Hohenstaufen Emperor, died.  German
+    interregnum until 1273.
+  1251. Mangu Khan became Great Khan.  Kublai Khan governor of
+    China.
+  1258. Hulagu Khan took and destroyed Bagdad.
+  1260. Kublai Khan became Great Khan.
+  1261. The Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latins.
+  1273. Rudolf of Habsburg elected Emperor.  The Swiss formed their
+    Everlasting League.
+  1280. Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty in China.
+  1292. Death of Kublai Khan.
+  1293. Roger Bacon, the prophet of experimental science, died.
+  1348. The Great Plague, the Black Death.
+  1360. In China the Mongol (Yuan) dynasty fell, and was succeeded
+    by the Ming dynasty (to 1644).
+  1377. Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome.
+  1378. The Great Schism.  Urban VI in Rome, Clement VII at Avignon.
+  1398. Huss preached Wycliffism at Prague.
+  1414-18. The Council of Constance.
+        Huss burnt (1415).
+  1417. The Great Schism ended.
+  1453. Ottoman Turks under Muhammad II took Constantinople.
+  1480. Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow, threw off the Mongol
+    allegiance.
+  1481. Death of the Sultan Muhammad II while preparing for the
+    conquest of Italy.
+  1486. Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope.
+  1492. Columbus crossed the Atlantic to America.
+  1498. Maximilian I became Emperor.
+  1498. Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape to India.
+  1499. Switzerland became an independent republic.
+  1500. Charles V born.
+  1509. Henry VIII King of England.
+  1513. Leo X Pope.
+  1515. Francis I King of France.
+  1520. Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan (to 1566), who ruled from
+    Bagdad to Hungary.  Charles V Emperor.
+  1525. Baber won the battle of Panipat, captured Delhi, and founded
+    the Mogul Empire.
+  1527. The German troops in Italy, under the Constable of Bourbon,
+  took and pillaged Rome.
+  1529. Suleiman besieged Vienna.
+  1530. Charles V crowned by the Pope.  Henry VIII began his quarrel
+    with the Papacy.
+  1539. The Society of Jesus founded.
+  1546. Martin Luther died.
+  1547. Ivan IV (the Terrible) took the Title of Tsar of Russia.
+  1556. Charles V abdicated.  Akbar, Great Mogul (to 1605).
+    Ignatius of Loyola died.
+  1558. Death of Charles V.
+  1566. Suleiman the Magnificent died.
+  1603. James I King of England and Scotland.
+  1620. _Mayflower_ expedition founded New Plymouth.  First negro
+    slaves landed at Jamestown (Va.).
+  1625. Charles I of England.
+  1626. Sir Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam) died.
+  1643. Louis XIV began his reign of seventy-two year's.
+  1644. The Manchus ended the Ming dynasty.
+  1648. Treaty of Westphalia.  There-by Holland and Switzerland were
+   recognized as free republics and Prussia became important.  The
+   treaty gave a complete victory neither to the Imperial Crown nor
+   to the Princes.
+
+{434}
+
+  1648. War of the Fronde; it ended in the complete victory of the
+    French crown.
+  1649. Execution of Charles I of England.
+  1658. Aurungzeb Great Mogul.  Cromwell died.
+  1660. Charles II of England.
+  1674. Nieuw Amsterdam finally became British by treaty and was
+    renamed New York.
+  1683. The last Turkish attack on Vienna defeated by John III of
+    Poland.
+  1689. Peter the Great of Russia. (To 1725.)
+  1701. Frederick I first King of Prussia.
+  1707. Death of Aurungzeb.  The empire of the Great Mogul
+    disintegrated.
+  1713. Frederick the Great of Prussia born.
+  1715. Louis XV of France.
+  1755-63. Britain and France struggled for America and India.
+    France in alliance with Austria and Russia against Prussia and
+    Britain (1756-63); the Seven Years' War.
+  1759. The British general, Wolfe, took Quebec.
+  1760. George III of Britain.
+  1763. Peace of Paris; Canada ceded to Britain.  British dominant
+    in India.
+  1769. Napoleon Bonaparte born.
+  1774. Louis XVI began his reign.
+  1776. Declaration of Independence by the United States of America.
+  1783. Treaty of Peace between Britain and the new United States of
+    America.
+  1787. The Constitutional Convention of Philadelphia set up the
+    Federal Government of the United States.  France discovered to
+    be bankrupt.
+  1788. First Federal Congress of the United States at New York.
+  1789. The French States-General assembled.  Storming of the
+    Bastille.
+  1791. Flight to Varennes.
+  1792. France declared war on Austria.  Prussia declared war on
+    France.  Battle of Valmy.  France became a republic.
+  1793. Louis XVI beheaded.
+  1794. Execution of Robespierre and end of the Jacobin republic.
+  1795. The Directory.  Bonaparte suppressed a revolt and went to
+  Italy as commander-in-chief.
+  1798. Bonaparte went to Egypt.  Battle of the Nile.
+  1799. Bonaparte returned to France.  He became First Consul with
+    enormous powers.
+  1804. Bonaparte became Emperor.  Francis II took the title of
+    Emperor of Austria in 1805, and in 1806 he dropped the title of
+    Holy Roman Emperor.  So the "Holy Roman Empire" came to an end.
+  1806. Prussia overthrown at Jena.
+  1808. Napoleon made his brother Joseph King of Spain.
+  1810. Spanish America became republican.
+  1812. Napoleon's retreat from Moscow.
+  1814. Abdication of Napoleon.  Louis XVIII.
+  1824. Charles X of France.
+  1825. Nicholas I of Russia.  First railway, Stockton to
+    Darlington.
+  1827. Battle of Navarino.
+  1829. Greece independent.
+  1830. A year of disturbance.  Louis Philippe ousted Charles X.
+    Belgium broke away from Holland.  Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
+    became king of this new country, Belgium.  Russian Poland
+    revolted ineffectually.
+  1835. The word "socialism" first used.
+  1837. Queen Victoria.
+  1840. Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
+  1852. Napoleon III Emperor of the French.
+  1854-56. Crimean War.
+
+{435}
+
+  1856. Alexander II of Russia.
+  1861. Victor Emmanuel First King of Italy.  Abraham Lincoln became
+    President, U. S. A.  The American Civil War began.
+  1865. Surrender of Appomattox Court House.  Japan opened to the
+    world.
+  1870. Napoleon III declared war against Prussia.
+  1871. Paris surrendered (January).  The King of Prussia became
+    "German Emperor."  The Peace of Frankfort.
+  1878. The Treaty of Berlin.  The Armed Peace of forty-six years
+    began in western Europe.
+  1888. Frederick II (March), William II (June), German Emperors.
+  1912. China became a republic.
+  1914. The Great War in Europe began.
+  1917. The two Russian revolutions.  Establishment of the Bolshevik
+    regime in Russia.
+  1918. The Armistice.
+  1920. First meeting of the League of Nations, from which Germany,
+    Austria, Russia and Turkey were excluded and at which the United
+    States was not represented.
+  1921. The Greeks, in complete disregard of the League of Nations,
+    make war upon the Turks.
+  1922. Great defeat of the Greeks in Asia Minor by the Turks.
+
+
+
+
+{439}
+
+  INDEX
+
+
+  A
+
+  ABOLITIONIST movement, 384
+  Abraham the Patriarch, 116
+  Abu Bekr, 249, 252, 431
+  Abyssinia, 398
+  Actium, battle of, 195
+  Adam and Eve, 116
+  Adams, William, 400
+  Aden, 405
+  Adowa, battle of, 398
+  Adrianople, 229
+  Adrianople, Treaty of, 353
+  Adriatic Sea, 178, 228
+  �gatian Isles, 182
+  �gean peoples, 92, 94, 100, 108, 117, 174
+  �olic Greeks, 108, 130
+  Aeroplanes, 4, 363, 413
+  �schylus 139
+  Afghanistan, 163
+  Africa, 72, 92, 122, 123, 182, 253, 258, 302
+  Africa, Central, 397
+  Africa, North, 65, 94, 180, 192, 232, 292, 394, 397, 431
+  Africa, South, 72, 335, 398, 405
+  Africa, West, 393
+  "Age of Confusion," the, 168, 173
+  Agriculturalists, primitive, 66, 68
+  Agriculture, 203; slaves in, 203
+  Ahab, 119
+  Air-breathing vertebrata, 23, 24
+  Air-raids, 413
+  Aix-la-Chapelle, 265
+  Akbar, 292, 332, 433
+  Akkadian and Akkadians, 90, 122, 429
+  Alabama, 385
+  _Alabama_, the, 388
+  Alani, 227, 430
+  Alaric, 230, 232, 431
+  Albania, 179
+  Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Prince Consort), 434
+  Alchemists, 257, 294
+  Aldebaran, 257
+  Alemanni, 200, 431
+  Alexander I, Tsar, 348
+  Alexander II of Russia, 435
+  Alexander III, Pope, 274, 432
+  Alexander the Great, 142, 146 _et seq._, 163, 186, 240, 299, 430
+  Alexandretta, 147
+  Alexandria, 147, 151, 209, 222, 239
+  Alexandria, library at, 151
+  Alexandria, museum of, 150, 180
+  Alexius Comnenus, 268
+  Alfred the Great, 263
+  Alg�, 13
+  Algebra, 257, 282
+  Algiers, 185
+  Algol, 257
+  Allah, 252
+  Alligators, 28
+  Alphabets, 79, 127
+  Alps, the, 37, 197
+  Alsace, 200, 309, 391
+  Aluminium, 360
+  Amenophis III, 96, 429
+  Amenophis IV, 96
+  America, 263, 302, 309, 314, 324, 335, 336, 422-23, 434
+  America, North, 12, 330, 336, 382
+  American Civil War, 386, 435
+  American civilizations, primitive, 73 _et seq._
+  American warships in Japanese waters, 402
+  Ammonites, 30, 36
+  Amorites, 90
+  Amos, the prophet, 124
+  Amphibia, 24
+  Amphitheatres, 208
+  Amur, 334
+  Anagni, 284
+  Anatomy, 24, 355
+  Anaxagoras, 138
+  Anaximander of Miletus, 132
+  Andes, 37
+  Angles, 230
+  Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 405
+  Animals, (_See_ Mammalia)
+  Annam, 402
+  Anti-aircraft guns, 413
+  Antigonus, 149
+  Antioch, 243, 271, 431
+  Antiochus III, 183
+  Anti-Slavery Society, 384
+  Antoninus Pius, 195, 430
+  Antony, Mark, 194
+  Antwerp, 294
+  Anubis, 210
+  Apes, 43, 44; anthropoid, 45
+  Apis 209, 211
+  Apollonius, 151
+  Appian Way, 191
+  Appomattox Court House, 388, 435
+  Aquileia, 235
+  Arabia, 77, 88, 91, 122, 123, 248
+  Arabic figures, 257
+  Arabic language, 243
+  Arabs, 253 _et seq._, 294; culture of, 267
+  Arbela, battle of, 147, 431
+  Arcadius, 230, 431
+  Archangel, 419
+  Archimedes, 151
+  Ardashir I, 241, 430
+  Argentine Republic, 396
+  Arians, 224
+  Aristocracy, 130
+  Aristotle, 142, 144, 146, 256, 282, 294, 295, 356, 370
+  Armadillo, 74
+  Armenia, 192, 268, 287, 299
+  Armenians, 100, 108
+  Armistice, the, 435
+  Arno, the, 178
+  Arsacid dynasty, 199, 431
+  Artizans, 152
+  Aryan language, 95, 100, 106
+  Aryans, 95, 104 _et seq._, 122, 128, 151, 174, 176, 185, 197, 198,
+    233, 303, 429
+  Ascalon, 117
+  Asceticism, 158-60, 213
+  Ashdod, 117
+  Asia, 72, 197, 227, 287, 298, 329 _et seq._, 333, 399 _et seq._,
+    403 _et seq._, 430
+  Asia, Central, 108, 122, 134, 148, 185, 245-247, 255, 334
+  Asia Minor, 92, 94, 108, 127, 134, 148, 180, 192-93, 238, 243,
+    258, 271, 292, 429, 430, 431
+  Asia, Western, 65
+  Asoka, King, 163 _et seq._,  180, 430
+  Assam, 394
+  Asses, 77, 83, 102, 112
+  Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus), 97, 98, 109, 110
+  Assyria, 109, 115, 119, 121, 122, 429
+  Assyrians, 84, 96, 97, 98, 108, 429
+  Astronomy, early, 70, 74
+  Athanasian Creed, 224
+  Athenians, 135
+  Athens, 129, 135-36, 139, 150, 185, 204, 431
+  Athens, schools of philosophy in, 238
+  Atkinson, C. F., 345
+  Atkinson, J. J., 61, 373
+  Atlantic, 122, 302
+  Attalus, 430
+  Attila, 234, 235, 238, 431
+  Augsburg, Interim of, 313
+  Augustus C�sar, Roman Emperor, 195, 214
+  Aurelian, Emperor, 200
+  Aurochs, 197
+  Aurungzeb, 434
+  Ausculum, battle of, 178, 430
+  Australia, 72, 322, 336, 395, 405
+  Austrasia, 431
+  Austria, 309, 327, 347-48, 349-52, 390, 411, 434
+  Austrian Empire, 409
+  Austrians, 344, 351
+  Automobiles, 362
+  Avars, 289
+  Avebury, 106
+  Averroes, 282
+  Avignon, 285, 433
+  Axis of earth, 1, 2
+  Azilian age, 57, 65
+  Azilian rock pictures, 57, 78
+  Azoic rocks, 11
+  Azores, 302
+
+  B
+
+  Baber, 290, 310, 332, 433
+  Baboons, 43
+  Babylon, 90, 94, 96, 97, 101, 102, 111, 112, 114, 115-16, 119,
+    121, 122, 134, 147, 148, 373, 429
+  Babylonian calendar, 68
+  Babylonian Empire, 90, 91, 109, 110
+  Babylonians, 108
+  Bacon, Roger, 293-97, 433
+  Bacon, Sir Francis, 321, 355, 433
+  Bagdad, 256, 267, 290, 292, 432, 433
+  Bahamas, 407
+  Baldwin of Flanders, 272
+  Balkan peninsula, 108, 200, 230, 392, 429
+  Balkh, 299
+  Balloons, altitude attained by, 4
+  Baltic, 415
+  Baltic Fleet, Russian, 404
+  Baluchistan, 405
+  Barbarians, 227 _et seq._, 230, 320
+  Barbarossa, Frederick, (_See_ Frederick I)
+  Bards, 106, 234
+  Barrows, 104
+  Barter, 83, 102
+  Basketwork, 65
+  Basle, Council of, 305
+  Basque race, 92, 107
+  Bastille, 342, 434
+  Basutoland, 407
+  Beaconsfield, Lord, 394
+  Bedouins, 122, 248
+  Beetles, 26
+  Behar, 180, 430
+  Behring Straits, 52, 71, 73
+  Bel Marduk, 109, 111, 112, 114
+  Belgium, 185, 344, 347, 352, 411, 434
+  Belisarius, 431
+  Belshazzar, 112
+  Beluchistan, 149
+  Benares, 156, 160
+  Beneventum, 179
+  Berbers, 71, 92
+  Bergen, 294
+  Berlin, Treaty of, 435
+  Bermuda, 407
+  Bessemer process, 359
+  Beth-shan, 118
+  Bible, 1, 68, 100, 112, 115, 116, 119, 121, 122, 184, 286, 298,
+    306-07, (_Cf._ Hebrew Bible)
+  Birds, flight of, 4; the earliest, 31; development of, 32
+  Bison, 56
+  Black Death, the, 433
+  Black Sea, 71, 94-95, 108, 129, 200
+  Blood sacrifice, 167, 186, 212 (_See also_ Sacrifice)
+  Boats,  91, 136
+  Boer republic, 187
+  Boers, 398
+  Bohemia, 236, 306
+  Bohemians, 304-05, 326
+  Bokhara, 256
+  Boleyn, Anne, 313
+  Bolivar, General, 349
+  Bologna, 295, 312
+  Bolsheviks (and Bolshevism), 417-19, 435
+  Bone carvings, 53
+  Bone implements, 45, 46
+  Boniface VIII, Pope, 283-84
+  "Book religions," 226
+  Books, 153, 298, 302
+  Bo�tes, 257
+  Boris, King of Bulgaria, 432
+  Bosnia, 228
+  Bosphorus, 135
+  Boston, 337-38
+  Bostra, 243
+  Botany Bay, 393
+  Bourbon, Constable of, 312, 433
+  Bowmen, 145, 155, 300
+  Brahmins and Brahminism, 165, 166
+  Brain, 42
+  Brazil, 329, 336, 340
+  Breathing, 24
+  Brest-Litovsk, 417
+  Britain, 106, 122, 174, 185, 203, 236, 349, 353, 402, 431, 434,
+    (_See also_ England, Great Britain)
+  British, 329, 331
+  British Civil Air Transport Commission, 363
+  British East Indian Company, (_See_ East India Company)
+  British Empire, 407; (in 1815) 393; (in 1914) 405
+  British Guiana, 393
+  British Navy, 408
+  "British schools," the, 369
+  Brittany, 309
+  Broken Hill, South Africa, 52
+  Bronze, 80, 87, 102, 104
+  Bruges, 294
+  Brussels, 344
+  Brythonic Celts, 107
+  Buda-Pesth, 312
+  Buddha, 133, 156, 172, 213, 429; life of, 158; his teaching,
+    161-62
+  Buddhism (and Buddhists), 166, 172, 222, 255, 290, 319, 334, 400,
+    (_See also_ Buddha)
+  Bulgaria, 135, 229, 245, 292, 411, 432
+  Bull fights, Cretan, 93
+  Burgoyne, General, 338
+  Burgundy, 309, 342
+  Burial, early, 102, 104
+  Burleigh, Lord, 324
+  Burma, 166, 300, 405
+  Burning the dead, 104
+  Bury, J, B, 288
+  Bushmen, 54
+  Byzantine Army, 253
+  Byzantine Empire, 238, 271-72
+  Byzantine fleet, 431
+  Byzantium, 228, 243, 267, 268, (_See also_ Constantinople)
+
+  C
+
+  Cabul, 148
+  C�sar, Augustus, 430
+  C�sar, Julius, 187, 192, 193, 194, 195, 430
+  C�sar, title, etc., 212, 223, 240, 327
+  Cainozoic period, 37 _et seq._
+  Cairo, 256
+  Calendar, 68
+  Calicut, 329
+  California, 336, 383
+  Caligula, 195, 430
+  Caliphs, 252
+  "Cambulac," 300
+  Cambyses, 112, 134
+  Camels, 42, 102, 112, 196, 319
+  Campanella, 371
+  Canaan, 116
+  Canada, 332, 396, 405, 434
+  Canary Islands, 302
+  Cann�, 182
+  Canossa, 274
+  Canton, 247
+  Canute, 263, 432
+  Cape Colony, 398
+  Cape of Good Hope, 336, 393, 433
+  Capet, Hugh, 266, 432
+  Carboniferous age,  (_See_ Coal swamps)
+  Cardinals, 277 _et seq._
+  Caria, 98
+  Carians, 94
+  Caribou, 73
+  Carlovingian Empire, 432
+  Carnac, 106
+  Carolinas, 388
+  Carrh�, 194
+  Carthage, 92, 122, 123, 134, 176, 179, 182, 183, 185, 232, 429-30,
+    431
+  Carthaginians, 179, 182
+  Caspian Sea, 71, 88, 108, 148, 193, 197, 430
+  Caste, 157, 165
+  Catalonians, 302
+  "Cathay," 300
+  Catholicism, 237, 337, 351. (_See also_ Papacy, Roman Catholic)
+  Cato, 187
+  Cattle, 77, 83
+  Caudine Forks, 430
+  Cavalry, 145, 148, 178
+  Cave drawings, 53, 56, 57
+  Caxton, William, 306
+  Celibacy, 275
+  Celts, 106, 107, 193
+  Centipedes, 23
+  Ceylon, 165, 407
+  Ch�ronia, battle of, 145, 146, 430
+  Chalcedon, 243
+  Chaldean Empire, 109
+  Chaldeans, 109, 110-11, 115, 429
+  Chandragupta, 163, 430
+  Chariots, 96, 100, 101-02, 112, 119, 145, 148
+  Charlemagne, 259, 261, 264-65, 272, 309, 432
+  Charles I, King of England, 308, 314, 433
+  Charles II, King of England, 324, 434
+  Charles V, Emperor, 309, 310, 314, 316, 433
+  Charles X, King of France, 350, 434
+  Charles the Great, (_See_ Charlemagne)
+  _Charlotte Dundas_, steamboat, 357
+  Chelonia, 27
+  Chemists, Arab, 257.  (_Cf._ Alchemists)
+  Cheops, 83
+  Chephren, 83
+  China, 76, 84, 103, 166, 167 _et seq._, 173, 174, 233, 245 et
+    seq., 248, 287, 290, 297, 333, 399-400, 402-03, 411, 429-31,
+    432, 433, 435.  (_See also_ Chow, Han, Kin, Ming, Shang, Sung,
+    Suy, Ts'in, and Yuan dynasties)
+  China, culture and civilization in, 247
+  China, Empire of, 196 _et seq._
+  China, Great Wall of, 173, 430
+  China, North, 173
+  Chinese picture writing, 79, 167
+  Chosroes I, 243, 431
+  Chosroes II, 243, 431
+  Chow dynasty, 168, 173, 429
+  Christ.  (_See_ Jesus)
+  Christian conception of Jesus, 214
+  Christianity (and Christians), 224, 255, 272, 295, 319, 400, 431
+  Christianity, doctrinal, development of, 222 _et seq._
+  Christianity, spirit of, 224
+  Chronicles, book of, 116, 119
+  Chronology, primitive, 68
+  Ch'u, 173
+  Church, the, 68
+  Cicero, 193
+  Cilicia, 299
+  Cimmerians, 100
+  Circumcision, 70
+  Circumnavigation, 302
+  Cities, Sumerian, 78
+  Citizenship, 187 _et seq._, 236, 237
+  City states, Greek, 129 _et seq._, Chinese, 168
+  Civilization, 100
+  Civilization, Hellenic, 139, 150 _et seq._
+  Civilization, Japanese, 400
+  Civilization, pre-historic, 71
+  Civilization, primitive, 76, 167
+  Civilization, Roman, 185
+  Claudius, Emperor, 195, 430
+  Clay documents, 77, 80, 111
+  Clement V, Pope, 285
+  Clement VII, Pope, 285, 433
+  Cleopatra, 194
+  Clermont, 432
+  _Clermont_, steamboat, 358
+  Climate, changes of, 21, 37
+  Clive, 333
+  Clothing, 77
+  Clothing of Cretan women, 93
+  Clouds, 8
+  Clovis, 259
+  Clyde, Firth of, 357
+  Cnossos (Crete), 92, 94, 95, 101, 108, 127, 429
+  Coal, 26
+  Coal swamps, the age of, 21 _et seq._
+  Coinage, 114, 176, 201, 319
+  Coke, 322
+  Collectivists, 375
+  Colonies, 394 _et seq._, 407
+  Columbus, Christopher, 300-01, _et seq._, 335, 433
+  Communism (and Communists), 374-75, 417
+  Comnenus, Alexius.  (_See_ Alexius)
+  Comparative anatomy, science of, 25, (_Cf._ Anatomy)
+  Concord, Mass., 338
+  Confederated States of America, 385
+  Confucius, 133, 168 _et seq._, 173, 429
+  Congo, 397
+  Conifers, 26, 36
+  Constance, Council of, 286, 304,�433
+  Constantine the Great, 187, 226, 228, 229, 241, 429, 431
+  Constantinople, 229, 238, 239, 243, 253, 258, 263-64, 270 _et
+    seq._, 272, 283, 292, 301, 321, 327, 431, 432, 433.  (_See also_
+    Byzantium)
+  Consuls, Roman, 193
+  Copper, 74, 80, 102, 360, 395
+  Cordoba, 256
+  Corinth, 129
+  Cornwallis, General, 338
+  Corsets, 93
+  Corsica, 182, 185, 232
+  Cortez, 314
+  Cossacks, 334
+  Cotton fabrics, 102
+  Couvade, the, 70
+  Crabs, 23
+  Crassus, 192, 194, 199
+  Creation of the world, story of, 1, 116
+  Creed religions, 240
+  Cretan script, 94
+  Crete, 92, 108
+  Crimea, 419
+  Crimean War, 390, 434
+  Crocodiles, 28
+  Croesus, 111, 429
+  Cro-Magnon race, 51, 54, 65
+  Cromwell, Oliver, 434
+  Cronstadt, 419
+  Crucifixion, 204
+  Crusades, 267 _et seq._, 281, 304-05, 432
+  Crustacea, 13
+  Ctesiphon, 244
+  Cuba, 393
+  Cultivation, the beginnings of, 65 _et seq._
+  Culture, Heliolithic, 69
+  Culture, Japanese, 402
+  Cuneiform, 78
+  Currents, 18
+  Cyaxares, 109-10, 429
+  Cycads, 26, 36
+  Cyrus the Persian, 111, 116, 121, 123, 134, 429
+  Czech language, 236
+  Czecho-Slovaks, 351
+  Czechs, 304
+
+  D
+
+  Dacia, 195, 200, 203, 227, 236
+  D�dalus, 94
+  Dalmatia, 431
+  Damascus, 243, 253, 431
+  Danes, 329, 330
+  Danube, 135, 200, 227, 430
+  Dardanelles, 136, 147, 292
+  Darius I, 112, 134, 135, 136, 429
+  Darius III, 147, 148,�430
+  Darlington, 356, 434
+  David, King, 118-19, 429
+  Da Vinci, Leonardo, 356
+  Davis, Jefferson, 385, 388
+  Dawn Man.  (_See_ Eoanthropus)
+  Dead, burning the, 104; burial of (_See_ Burial)
+  Debtors' prisons, 336
+  Deciduous trees, 36
+  Decius, Emperor, 200, 432
+  Declaration of Independence, 334, 434
+  _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (Gibbon's), 288-89
+  Deer, 42, 56
+  Defender of the Faith, title of, 313
+  Defoe, Daniel, 365
+  Delhi, 292, 433
+  Democracy, 131, 132, 270
+  Deniken, General, 419
+  Denmark, 306, 313, 394, 432
+  Deshima, 401
+  Devonian system, 19
+  Diaz, 433
+  Dictator, Roman, 194
+  Dillon, Dr., 424
+  Dinosaurs, 28, 31, 36
+  Diocletian, Emperor, 224, 226, 227
+  Dionysius, 170
+  Diplodocus Carnegii, measurement of, 28
+  Diseases, infectious, 379
+  Ditchwater, animal and plant life in, 13
+  Dogs, 42
+  Domazlice, battle of, 305
+  Dominic, St., 276
+  Dominican Order, 276, 285, 400
+  Dorian Greeks, 108, 130
+  Douglas, Senator, 386
+  Dover, Straits of, 193
+  Dragon flies, 23
+  Drama, Greek, 139
+  Dravidian civilization, 108
+  Dravidians, 71
+  Duck-billed platypus, 34
+  Duma, the, 416
+  Durazzo, 268
+  Dutch, 329, 331, 332, 399
+  Dutch Guiana, 394
+  Dutch Republic, 350
+  Dyeing, 75
+
+  E
+
+  Earth, the, shape of, 1; rotation of, 1; distance from the sun, 2;
+    age and origin of, 5; surface of, 21
+  Earthquakes, 95
+  East India Company, 332, 337, 393, 394
+  East Indies, 394, 399
+  Ebro, 182
+  Ecbatana, 109, 114
+  Echidna, the, 34
+  Eclipses, 8
+  Ecnomus, battle of, 181, 430
+  Economists, French, 371
+  Edessa, 271
+  Education, 294, 361, 368, 369
+  Egbert, King of Wessex, 263, 432
+  Egg-laying mammals, 34
+  Eggs, 24, 26, 31, 102
+  Egypt (and Egyptians), 71, 78, 90, 91, 92, 96, 98, 100-101, 115,
+    119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 134, 138, 147, 174, 208, 209, 210, 238,
+    253, 267, 290, 292, 396, 398, 405, 429, 431, 434
+  Egyptian script, 78, 79
+  Elamites, 88, 90, 174
+  Elba, 348
+  Electric light, 360
+  Electric traction, 360
+  Electricity, 322, 358, 360
+  Elephants, 42, 127, 149, 178, 181, 253, 300
+  Elixir of life, 257
+  Elizabeth, Queen, 324, 332
+  Emigration, 336
+  Emperor, title of, 327
+  Employer and employed, 375
+  "Encyclop�dists," the, 371
+  England (and English), 306, 390, 431
+  England, Norman Conquest of, 266
+  England, overseas possessions, 330
+  English Channel, 331
+  English language, 95
+  Entelodonts, 42
+  Eoanthropus, 47
+  Eoliths, 45
+  Ephesus, 149
+  Ephthalites, 199
+  Epics, 106, 127, 129, 131
+  Epirus, 131, 178, 179
+  Epistles, the, 222
+  Eratosthenes, 151
+  Erech, Sumerian city of, 78
+  Esarhaddon, 429
+  Essenes, 213
+  Esthonia, 245
+  Esthonians, 419
+  Ethiopian dynasty, 429
+  Ethiopians, 96, 233
+  Etruscans, 94, 100, 176, 430
+  Euclid, 151
+  Euphrates, 77, 110, 127, 129, 174, 196, 429, 430
+  Euripides, 139
+  Europe, 200
+  Europe, Central, 329
+  Europe, Concert of, 350
+  Europe, Western, 53, 298
+  European overseas populations, 336
+  Europeans, intellectual revival of, 294 _et seq._
+  Europeans, North Atlantic, 329
+  Europeans, Western, 329
+  Everlasting League, 433
+  Evolution, 16, 42
+  Excommunication, 275, 281, 285
+  Execution, Greek method of, 140
+  Ezekiel, 124
+
+  F
+
+  Factory system, 365
+  Family groups, 61
+  Famine, 420
+  Faraday, 358
+  Fashoda, 398
+  Fatherhood of God, the, 215, 224, 251
+  Fear, 61
+  Feathers, 32
+  Ferdinand of Aragon, King, 293, 302, 309
+  Ferns, 23, 26
+  Fertilizers, 363
+  Fetishism, 63, 64
+  Feudal system, 258, 400, 401, 402
+  Fielding, Henry, 365
+  Fiji, 407
+  Finance, 134
+  Finland, 245
+  Finns, 351
+  Fish, the age of, 16 _et seq._; the first known vertebrata, 19;
+    evolution of, 30
+  Fisher, Lord, 416
+  Fishing, 57
+  Fleming, Bishop, 286
+  Flint implements, 44, 47
+  Flood, story of the, 91, 116
+  Florence, 294
+  Florentine Society, 322
+  Florida, 336, 385
+  Flying machines, 94, 363
+  Fontainebleau, 348
+  Food, rationing of, 414
+  Food riots, 417
+  Forests, 56, 197
+  Fossils, 13, 43.  (_Cf._ Rocks)
+  Fowl, the domestic, 88, 102
+  France, 106, 185, 230, 259, 263, 312, 336, 342, 353, 390, 391,
+    394, 396, 402, 409, 411, 434
+  Francis I, King of France, 310, 312, 313, 433
+  Francis II, Emperor of Austria, 434
+  Francis of Assisi, St., 276, 432
+  Franciscan Order, 276, 285, 432
+  Frankfort, Peace of, 391, 435
+  Franks, 200, 227, 235, 259, 265, 431
+  Frazer, Sir J. G., 66
+  Frederick I (Barbarossa), 274, 432
+  Frederick I, King of Prussia, 434
+  Frederick II, German Emperor, 279, 280 _et seq._, 288, 289, 294,
+    304, 435
+  Frederick II, King of Sicily, 432
+  Frederick the Great of Prussia, 327, 434
+  Freeman's Farm, 338
+  French, 329, 331, 332, 419
+  French Guiana, 394
+  French language, 203, 327, 328, 419
+  French Revolution, 342 _et seq._, 374
+  Frogs, 24
+  Fronde, war of the, 434
+  Fulton, Robert, 358
+  Furnace, blast, 359; electric, 359
+  Furs, 335
+
+  G
+
+  Galatia, 430
+  Galatians, 193
+  Galba, 430
+  Galerius, Emperor, 226, 431
+  Galleys, 91, 92, 181, 263
+  Galvani, 258
+  Gamma, Vasco da, 329, 335, 433
+  Ganges, 156
+  Gath, 117
+  Gaul, 203, 235, 236, 357, 431
+  Gauls, 154, 178, 179, 180, 182, 193, 430
+  Gautama.  (_See_ Buddha)
+  Gaza, 117, 147
+  Gaztelu, 314
+  Genoa (and Genoese), 294, 300, 301, 302
+  Genoa Conference, 425
+  Genseric, 232
+  Geology, 11 _et seq._, 356
+  George III, King of England, 324, 337, 434
+  Georgia, 336, 339, 385, 387
+  German Empire, 409
+  German language, 95, 236, 260
+  Germans, 268, 288, 310, 351, 360-61, 362
+  Germany, 197, 326, 347, 348, 362, 390, 396, 402, 409, 410, 411
+  Germany, North, 306
+  Gibbon, E., 234, 288
+  Gibraltar, 71, 92, 94, 253, 393, 407
+  Gigantosaurus, measurement of, 28
+  Gilbert, Dr., 322
+  Gilboa, Mount, 118
+  Gills, 24
+  Giraffes, 42
+  Gizeh, pyramids at, 83
+  Glacial Ages, 22, 37, 44
+  Gladiators, 205
+  Glass, 102
+  Glyptodon, 74
+  Goa, 329
+  Goats, 77
+  God, idea of one true, 249
+  God of Judaism, 123, 209, 213, 214, 215
+  Godfrey of Bouillon, 432
+  Gods, 111, 123, 129, 165, 184, 186, 201 _et seq._, 208 _et seq._,
+    240
+  Goidelic�Celts, 106
+  Gold, 74, 80, 83, 102, 300, 395
+  _Golden Bough_, Frazer's, 66
+  Good Hope, Cape of.  (See Cape)
+  Gospels, the, 214 _et seq._, 222
+  Gothic kingdom, 259
+  Gothland, 197, 200
+  Goths, 181, 200, 227, 228, 430, 431
+  Granada, 293, 301
+  Granicus, battle of the, 146, 430
+  Grant, General, 387, 388
+  Graphite, 15
+  Grass, 37, 51
+  Great Britain, 396, 410
+  Great Mogul, Empire of, 394, 434
+  Great Powers, 399 _et seq._
+  Great Schism.  (_See_ Papal schism)
+  Great War, the, 411 _et seq._, 421, 435
+  Greece, 92, 94, 108, 127, 139 _et seq._, 145 _et seq._, 434
+  Greece, war with Persia, 134 _et seq._
+  Greek language, 95, 202, 203
+  Greeks, 92, 100, 101, 108, 122 _et seq._, 135, 150, 174, 186, 271,
+    272, 301, 353, 419, 429, 430, 433
+  Greenland, 263
+  Gregory I, Pope, 263
+  Gregory VII, Pope (Hildebrand), 268, 272, 274, 275, 278, 432
+  Gregory IX, Pope, 281
+  Gregory XI, Pope, 285, 433
+  Gregory the Great, 272
+  Grimaldi race, 51, 54, 65
+  Guillotine, the, 346
+  Guiscard, Robert, 432
+  Gunpowder, 287, 321
+  Guns, 321, 413
+  Gustavus Adolphus, 331
+  Gymnastic displays, Cretan, 93
+
+  H
+
+  Habsburgs, 283, 309, 310
+  Hadrian, 174, 430
+  Halicarnassus, 138
+  Hamburg, 294
+  Hamitic people, 71
+  Hammurabi, 90, 92, 104, 429
+  Han dynasty, 196, 200, 245, 430
+  Hannibal, 182
+  Hanover, Elector of, 327
+  Harding, President, 425
+  Harold Hardrada, 266
+  Harold, King of England, 266
+  Haroun-al-Raschid, 267, 432
+  Hastings, battle of, 266
+  Hastings, Warren, 333
+  Hatasu, Queen of Egypt, 96
+  Hathor, 209
+  Heaven, Kingdom of, 216, 217
+  Hebrew Bible, 1, 115, 116.  (Cf. Bible)
+  Hebrew literature, 100
+  Hebrews, 100, 115.  (_See also_ Jews)
+  Hegira, 431
+  Heidelberg man, 45
+  Heliolithic culture, 69, 71, 167, 174
+  Heliolithic peoples, 107
+  Hellenic tribes, 100.  (_See also_ Greeks)
+  Hellespont, 430, 431
+  Helots, 130, 203
+  Hen.  (_See_ Fowl)
+  Henry IV, King, 274
+  Henry VI, Emperor, 279
+  Henry VIII, King of England, 310, 312, 313, 324, 433
+  Henry the Fowler, 265, 432
+  Heraclea, battle of, 178, 430
+  Heraclitus of Ephesus, 132, 156, 161
+  Heraclius, Emperor, 243, 247, 253, 431
+  Herat, 148
+  Herbivorous reptiles, 28
+  Hercules, Pillars of, (_See_ Gibraltar)
+  Hero, 151, 152
+  Herodotus, 138, 139
+  Herophilus, 151
+  Hiero, 182
+  Hieroglyphics, 79, 124
+  Hildebrand. (_See_ Gregory VII)
+  Himalayas, the, 37
+  Hipparchus, 151
+  Hippopotamus, 43
+  Hiram, King of Sidon, 118, 119, 122
+  _History of Charles V_, 316
+  Hittites, 96, 97, 98, 108
+  Hohenstaufens, 283
+  Holland, 306, 344, 347, 394, 396, 402, 433, 434
+  Holstein, 351
+  Holy Alliance, 349
+  Holy Roman Empire, 264, 309, 317, 323, 347, 377, 409, 432, 434
+  Homer, 129
+  Honorius, 230, 431
+  Honorius III, Pope, 281
+  Horse, 51, 56, 94, 96, 97, 112, 167, 319, 336; evolution of the,
+    42
+  Horsetails, 23
+  Horus, 209, 210, 211
+  Hottentots, 54
+  Hsia, 287
+  Hudson Bay Company, 393
+  Hudson River, 358
+  Hulagu Khan, 290, 433
+  Human sacrifice, 182, 186.  (_Cf._ Blood Sacrifice, Sacrifice)
+  Hungarians, 263, 289, 351
+  Hungary, 185, 203, 227, 245, 258, 263, 289, 290, 292, 310, 312,
+    351
+  Hungary, plain of, 234
+  Huns, 88, 167, 168, 174, 197, 198, 227, 232, 233, 245, 263, 289,
+    431
+  Hunting, 56
+  Huss, John, 304, 433
+  Hussites, 305
+  Hwang-ho river, 173
+  Hwang-ho valley, 300
+  Hyksos, 90, 96
+  Hyracodons, 42
+  Hystaspes, 430
+
+  I
+
+  Iberians, 71, 92
+  Ice age, 43. �(_Cf._ Glacial ages)
+  Iceland, 263
+  Ichthyosaurs, 29, 36
+  Ignatius of Loyola, St., 308, 434
+  _Iliad_, 127
+  Illinois, 386
+  Illyria, 179, 182
+  Immolation of human beings, 102
+  Immortality, idea of, 210, 211, 224
+  Imperialism, 399
+  Implements, 46, 48, 56, 57, 65, 87
+  Implements, use of, by animals, 44, 45
+  India, 71, 84, 104, 108, 122, 149, 156, 163, 164, 196, 199, 287,
+    302, 335, 394-95, 399, 409, 433, 434
+  Indian Empire, 405
+  Indian Ocean, 329
+  Indiana, 383, 386
+  Individualists, 375 _et seq._
+  Individuality in reproduction, 16 _et seq._
+  Indo-Scythians, 199, 430
+  Indus, 149, 429
+  Industrial revolution, 365 _et seq._
+  Infantry, 178
+  Influenza, 414
+  Innocent III, Pope, 276, 279, 280, 432
+  Innocent IV, Pope, 281
+  Innsbruck, 313
+  Inquisition, the, 276, 349
+  Insects, 26, 31
+  Interdicts, papal, 275
+  Interglacial period, 44
+  Internationalism, 380
+  Invertebrata, 13
+  Investitures, 275
+  Ionic Greeks, 108, 130
+  Iowa, 385
+  Ireland, 106, 405
+  Iron, 80, 87, 94, 97, 102, 104, 168, 319, 321, 358, 359
+  Irrigation, 290
+  Isabella of Castile, Queen, 293, 302, 309
+  Isaiah, 125, 133, 156
+  Isis, 209, 210, 211, 212
+  Islam, 251, 252, 432
+  Islamism, 267, 319.  (_See also_ Moslem, Muhammedanism)
+  Isocrates, 145
+  Israel, judges of, 118
+  Israel, kings of, 118, 119, 121
+  Issus, battle of, 147, 430
+  Italian language, 203
+  Italians, 107, 351
+  Italica, 202
+  Italy, 94, 108, 129, 134, 176, 180, 230, 236, 312, 327, 347, 390,
+    396, 409, 411, 429, 431, 434
+  Italy, Central, 429
+  Italy, North, 263, 312, 351, 390, 429, 431
+  Italy, South, 429
+  Ivan III (the Great), 327, 433
+  Ivan IV (the Terrible), 327, 433
+
+  J
+
+  Jacobin republic, 434
+  Jamaica, 393, 407
+  James I, King of England and Scotland, 324, 433
+  Jamestown (Va.), 433
+  Japan, 166, 300, 399, 400-01 _et seq._, 409, 410, 435
+  Japanese, 419
+  Jarandilla, 315
+  Java, 302, 329
+  Jaw-bone, Heidelberg, 45-46; Piltdown, 46
+  Jehovah, 125
+  Jena, 434
+  Jengis Khan, 287, 298, 334, 432
+  Jerusalem, 115, 116, 119, 121, 123, 124, 184, 215, 243, 267, 271,
+    272, 299, 431, 432
+  Jerusalem, Temple of, 119, 184
+  Jesuits, 308, 400, 433
+  Jesus, life and teaching of, 214 _et seq._, 224, 270, 306, 374,
+    430
+  Jews, 123, 124, 147, 184, 213, 215, 255, 256, 270, 294
+  Jews, early history of, 115 _et seq._
+  Jews, literature of, 115
+  Jewish religion and sacred books, 116
+  John III of Poland, 434
+  John XI, Pope, 272
+  John XII, Pope, 272, 432
+  Joppa, 117
+  Joseph, King of Spain, 349, 434
+  Josiah, King of Judah, 110, 115, 116, 429
+  Judah, 115, 119
+  Judah, kings of, 119
+  Judea, 115, 183, 214
+  Judea, priests and prophets in, 122 _et seq._
+  Judges, book of, 117
+  Judges of Israel, 118
+  Jugo-Slavia, 354
+  Jugo-Slavs, 351
+  Jugurtha, 192
+  Julian the Apostate, 431
+  Julius III, 316
+  Junks, Chinese, 400
+  Jupiter (god), 211, 212
+  Jupiter (planet), 2, 3
+  Jupiter Capitolinus, 184
+  Jupiter Serapis, 226
+  Justinian I, 232, 238, 243, 431
+  Jutes, 230
+
+  K
+
+  Kaaba, the, 249
+  Kadessia, battle of, 253, 431
+  Kalinga, 163
+  Kansas, 383
+  Karakorum, 287, 298
+  Karnak, 101
+  Kashgar, 300
+  Kashmir, Buddhists in, 165
+  Kavadh, 243, 244, 431
+  Kentucky, 383, 386
+  Kerensky, 416, 417
+  Khans, 287 _et seq._
+  Khyber Pass, 148, 199
+  Kiau Chau, 400
+  Kieff, 287, 432
+  Kin dynasty, 287
+  Kings, book of, 119
+  Kioto, 402
+  Ki-wi, the, 32
+  Koltchak, Admiral, 419
+  Koran, the, 251, 255
+  Korea, 400, 402
+  Kotan, 300
+  Krum of Bulgaria, 432
+  Kublai Khan, 290, 298, 300, 433
+  Kushan dynasty, 199
+
+  L
+
+  Labyrinth, Cretan, 127
+  Lahore, 287
+  Lake Ontario, 336
+  Land scorpions, 23
+  Langley, Professor, 363
+  Languages of mankind, 94, 95, 100, 106, 107, 108, 134, 145, 156,
+    176, 201, 202, 203, 230, 236, 243, 245, 259, 325, 328
+  Lao Tse, 133, 170 _et seq._, 222, 429
+  Lapland, 233
+  Latin Emperor, 259
+  Latin language, 201, 202, 203, 236, 259.  (_Cf. also_ Languages)
+  Latins, the, 271, 272, 432
+  Law, 238
+  _Laws_, Plato's, 142
+  League of Nations, 422, 423, 424, 425, 435
+  Learning, 255
+  Lee, General, 387, 389
+  Legionaries, 229
+  Lemurs, 43
+  Lenin, 417, 419
+  Leo III, Pope, 265, 272, 432
+  Leo X, Pope, 310, 312, 433
+  Leonidas, 136
+  Leopold I, 353
+  Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 434
+  Lepanto, battle of, 293
+  Lepidus, 194
+  Lexington, 338
+  Liberia, 398
+  Libraries, 151, 164, 170
+  Liegnitz, battle of, 288, 289, 433
+  Life, beginnings of, the Record of the Rocks, 11 _et seq._;
+    progressive nature of, 16; of what it consists, 16; theory of
+    Natural Selection, 18; a teachable type: advent of, 39
+  Lincoln, Abraham, 385, 386, 388, 389, 435; assassination of, 389
+  Linen, 102
+  Lions, 42, 127
+  Lisbon, 294, 315, 329
+  Literary criticism, evolution of, 205
+  Literature, European, 298
+  Literature, pre-historic, 115
+  Lizards, 27, 28
+  Llamas, 42
+  Lob Nor, 300
+  Lochau, battle of, 313
+  Locke, John, 371
+  Logic, science of, 144
+  Lombard kingdom, 259
+  Lombards, 431
+  Lombardy, 431
+  London, 294, 413
+  Lopez de Recalde, Inigo, 308, (_See also_ Ignatius of Loyola)
+  Lorraine, 391
+  Louis XIV, 324, 433
+  Louis XV, 434
+  Louis XVI, 342, 343, 434
+  Louis XVIII, 350, 434
+  Louis Philippe, 350, 434,
+  Louis the Pious, 265, 432
+  Louisiana, 336, 385
+  Lu, state of, 170
+  Lucretius, 294
+  Lucullus, 192
+  Lunar month, 68
+  Lung, the, 24
+  Luther, Martin, 306, 310, 433
+  Luxembourg, 351
+  Luxor, 101
+  Lvoff, Prince, 416
+  Lyceum, Athens, 142, 144
+  Lydia, 98, 134
+  Lydians, 94
+  Lyons, 345
+
+  M
+
+  Macao, 329
+  Macaulay, Lord, 187
+  Maccabeans, 184
+  Macedonia and Macedonians, 131, 135, 139, 145, 179, 292, 350
+  Machinery, 322, 356
+  Madeira, 122, 302
+  Madras, 163
+  Magellan, Ferdinand, 302
+  Magic, 172
+  Magna Gr�cia, 129, 178
+  Magnesia, battle of, 183
+  Magyars, 263, 264, 270, 289
+  Mahaffy, Professor, 151
+  Maine, 336, 339
+  Majuba Hill, battle of, 398
+  Malta, 393, 407
+  Mammals, the earliest, 33; viviparous, 33; egg-laying, 34; the Age
+    of, 37 _et seq._
+  Mammoth, 43, 49
+  Man, brotherhood of, 216, 224, 380
+  Man, 43; Heidelberg, 45; Eoanthropus, 47; Neanderthal, 47, 48 _et
+    seq._; earliest known, 53 _et seq._
+  Manchu, 333, 433
+  Manchuria, 197, 400,�402, 403, 404
+  Mangu Khan, 290, 433
+  Mani, 241, 270, 430, 431
+  Manich�ans, 243, 255
+  Mankind, racial divisions of, 54, 71
+  Mantua, 345
+  Maoris, 71
+  Marathon, 136
+  Marathon, battle of, 430
+  Marchand, Colonel, 398
+  Marcus Aurelius, 174, 430
+  Marie Antoinette, 343, 346
+  Mariner's compass, 302, 320
+  Marius, 191, 192, 237, 430
+  "Marriage of East and West," 149
+  Mars (planet), 2, 3
+  Marseillaise, the, 343, 345
+  Marseilles, 129, 182, 312, 345
+  Martel, Charles, 259, 432
+  Marlin V, Pope, 286, 304
+  Marx, 376
+  Maryland, 337
+  Mas d'Azil cave, 57
+  Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 390, 391
+  Maximilian I, Emperor, 309, 433
+  Maya writing, 74, 75
+  Mayence, 265, 344
+  _Mayflower_ expedition, 433
+  Mazarin, Cardinal, 324
+  Mecca, 248, 249, 251, 431
+  Mechanical revolution, 256 _et seq._, 366, 369
+  Medes, 100, 108, 109, 115, 122, 134, 155, 174, 429
+  Media, rebellion in, 136
+  Median Empire, 109, 110, 112
+  Medicine man, the, 64
+  Medina, 249
+  Mediterranean, 71, 91, 176, 292, 293; valley, 71
+  "Mediterranean" people, pre-Greek, 130
+  Megatherium, 74
+  Megiddo, battle of, 110, 115, 429
+  Melasgird, battle of, 268, 432
+  Mentality, primitive, 60, _et seq._
+  Mercury (planet), 2, 3
+  Mesopotamia, 77, 80, 96, 100, 109, 127, 174, 267, 290, 299
+  Mesozoic period, 27; land life of, 28; sea life of, 30; scarcity
+    of bird and mammal life in, 32, 34; its difference from
+    Cainozoic period, 38
+  Messina, 179, 180
+  Messina, Straits of, 179
+  Metallurgy, 356, 359, 360
+  Metals, transmutation of, 257
+  Meteoric iron, 80, 94
+  Metz, 391
+  Mexico, 74, 76, 324, 321, 384, 385, 389, 399
+  Michael VII, Emperor, 268
+  Michael VIII.  (_See_ Pal�ologus)
+  Microscope, 355
+  Midianites, 117
+  Milan, 227, 235, 309, 312, 351
+  Miletus, 129
+  Millipedes, 23
+  Milton, 129
+  Ming dynasty, 290, 333, 433
+  Mining, 335
+  Minnesota, 385
+  Minos, 92, 95, 127, 131
+  Missionaries, 236, 247, 380, 400, 431
+  Mississippi (state), 385
+  Mississippi River, 386
+  Missouri, 382
+  Mithraism, 211, 212, 213, 222, 431
+  Mithras, 211, 213
+  Mnemonics, Chinese and Peruvian method of, 76
+  Moabites, 117
+  Moawija, Caliph, 431
+  Mogul dynasty, 292, 433
+  Moluccas, 329
+  Monarchy, 323, 341, 347
+  Monasticism, 213, 236
+  Money, 114, 176, 201, 319
+  Mongol conquests, influence of, 298
+  Mongol Court, the, 299
+  Mongol Empire, 332
+  Mongolia, 197
+  Mongolian language, 108
+  Mongolian peoples, 72, 73, 88, 167, 197, 227, 232, 233 _et seq._,
+    245, 258, 287 _et seq._, 298, 320, 333, 400, 433
+  Mongoloid tribes, 69
+  Monkeys, 43, 45
+  Monotheism, 251. (_See also_ Muhammad)
+  Monroe doctrine, 349, 389, 396, 423
+  Monroe, President, 349
+  Montesquieu, 371
+  Montgomery, 385
+  Month, the lunar, 68
+  Moon, the, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 68
+  Moorish paper-mills, 297
+  More, Sir Thomas, 365, 371
+  Morelly, 371
+  Morocco, 185, 398
+  Mortillet, 57
+  Moscow, 293, 434
+  Moscow, Grand Duke of, 290
+  Moses, 116
+  Moslem Empire, 253
+  Moslems, 297, 431, 432
+  Moslim, the, 253, 269, 271, 290
+  Mososaurs, 29
+  Moses, 23
+  Mounds, Neolithic, 70
+  Mountains, 197
+  Mozambique, 329
+  Muehlon, Herr, 424
+  Muhammad, prophet, 243, 247, 248 _et seq._, 270, 431
+  Muhammad II, Sultan, 292, 433
+  Mules, 102
+  Mummies, 70
+  Munitions, 412
+  Musk ox, 43
+  Mycal�, battle of, 136, 430
+  Mycen�, 92, 108
+  Mycerinus, 83
+  Myl�, battle of, 181, 430
+
+  N
+
+  Nabonidus, 111, 112
+  Nankin, 173
+  Naples, 178, 350, 431
+  Napoleon Bonaparte, 345, 347, 348, 356, 434
+  Napoleon III, 390, 434, 435
+  Nasmyth, 359
+  Natal, 398
+  "National schools," 369
+  Natural history, father of, 144
+  Natural Selection, theory of, 17
+  Nautilus, the pearly, 39
+  Navarino, battle of, 353, 434
+  Neanderthaler Man, 47, 48 _et seq._
+  Nebraska, 383
+  Nebuchadnezzar II (the Great), 102, 110, 115, 429
+  Nebul�, 4, 5
+  Necho II, 109, 110, 115, 122, 147, 429
+  Needles, bone, 57
+  Negroid tribes, 72, 88
+  Nelson, Horatio, 348
+  Neolithic age, 59, 65
+  Neolithic civilizations, primitive, 71 _et seq._
+  Neptune (planet), 2, 3
+  Nero, 195, 430
+  Nestorian missionaries, 431.  (_Cf._ Missionaries)
+  Netherlands, 259, 309, 351
+  Neustria, 431
+  Neva, 327
+  New Assyrian Empire, 97
+  _New Atlantis, The_, 322, 355
+  New England, 335, 337
+  New Mexico, 433
+  New Plymouth, 433
+  Newts, 24
+  New York, 358, 434
+  New Zealand, 322, 396, 405
+  Newfoundland, 405
+  Nic�a, 268, 270
+  Nic�a, Council of, 431
+  Nicephorus, Emperor, 432
+  Nicholas I, Tsar, 351, 390, 434
+  Nicholas II, Tsar, 416
+  Nickel, 360
+  Nicomedia, 227
+  Nieuw Amsterdam, 434.  (_Cf._ New York)
+  Nile, 83, 100, 129, 398; valley 90, 429
+  Nile, battle of the, 434
+  Nineveh, 94, 97, 101, 109, 114, 243, 429, 431
+  Nippur, 78
+  Nirvana, 161
+  Nish, 227
+  Noah's Ark, 91
+  Nogaret, Guillaume de, 284
+  Nomadic peoples, primitive, 84 _et seq._, (_Cf._ Nomads)
+  Nomads, 122, 155, 167, 168, 174, 198-200, 233-34, 245, 287, 334
+  Nonconformity, 307, 308
+  Nordic race, 72, 88, 104, 108, 134, 154, 155, 174, 178, 185, 197,
+    200, 233, 258, 261
+  Normandy, 263, 342, 432
+  Normandy, Duke of, 266
+  Normans, 263, 266, 279, 302
+  Northmen, 263, 264, 266, 268, 432
+  Norway, 306, 313, 432
+  Norwegians, 351
+  Novgorod, 294, 432
+  Nubians, 238
+  Numerals, Arabic, 282
+  Numidia, 191
+  Numidians, 182
+  Nuremberg, 294
+  Nuremberg, Peace of, 313
+
+  O
+
+  Ocean dredgings, deepest, 4
+  Ocean liners, 322, 336
+  Octavian. (_See_ Augustus)
+  Odenathus of Palmyra, 431
+  Odoacer, 236, 431
+  _Odyssey_, 127
+  Ogdai Khan, 287, 289, 432
+  Oglethorpe, 336
+  Okapi, 397
+  "Old Man," 372, 373
+  Old Testament, 115, 116
+  Olympiad, first, 176, 429
+  Olympian games, 131
+  Olympias, Queen, 146
+  Omar, Caliph, 431
+  Open-hearth process, 359
+  Orange River, 398
+  "Ordinance of secession," 385
+  Oregon, 385
+  Organic Evolution, 16
+  Ormuz, 299
+  Orsini family, 284
+  Orthodoxy, 240
+  Osiris, 200, 210, 211
+  Ostrogoths, 227, 431
+  Othman, 432
+  Otho, 430
+  Otto I, King of Germany, 265, 432
+  Otto of Bavaria, Prince, 354
+  Ottoman Empire, 202.  (_See also_ Turkey, Turks)
+  Oudh, 394
+  Ownership, 373, 374, 375
+  Oxen, 49, 104, 112
+  Oxford, 295
+
+  P
+
+  Padua, 235
+  P�stum, 176
+  Pal�ologus, Michael (Michael VIII), 283
+  Pal�olithic age, 13, 59, 66 (note)
+  Palermo, 181
+  Palestine, 290, 299
+  Pamirs, 196, 300
+  Panama, 385
+  Panama, Isthmus of, 314
+  Pan Chau, 197, 430
+  Panipat, battle of, 433
+  Pannonia, 203, 229, 232, 234, 431
+  Papacy (including Popes), 237, 261, 265, 277 _et seq._, 329 _et
+    seq._, 343
+  Papal schism (the Great Schism), 285, 394, 433
+  Paper, 153, 236, 255, 297, 320, 322
+  Papyrus, 78, 153
+  Parables, 216
+  _Paradise Lost_, 129
+  Parchment, 153
+  Paris, 294, 295, 342, 350, 356, 390, 391, 412, 413, 415, 435
+  Paris, Peace of, 338, 434
+  Parthian dynasty, 202
+  Parthians, 155, 192, 194, 198, 199, 245
+  Passau, Treaty of, 314
+  Patricians, Roman, 176, 188
+  Paul, St., 202, 223
+  Pavia, siege of, 312
+  _Peace Conference_, Dr. Dillon's, 424
+  Peasant revolts, 305, 310
+  Peculium, 206
+  Pedro I, 340
+  Pegu, 300
+  Pekin, 173, 287, 300, 383, 400, 432
+  Peloponnesian War, 139, 145, 430
+  Pentateuch, the, 116
+  "People's crusade," the, 270, 432.  (_Cf._ Crusades)
+  Pepi II, 83
+  Pepin I, 259
+  Pepin of Hersthal, 431
+  Pergamum, 154, 180, 183, 430
+  Pericles, 139, 140
+  Perry, Commodore, 402
+  Persepolis, 114, 148, 155
+  Persia, 77, 134 _et seq._, 165, 185, 192, 227, 243, 253, 255, 287,
+    399, 409, 430, 431
+  Persian Empire, 112, 134, 238, 429
+  Persian Gulf, 77, 78, 91, 299
+  Persian language, 95
+  Persians, 100, 108, 109, 115, 155, 174, 431
+  Peru, 74, 75, 314, 321
+  Pestilence, 305, 320, 334, 413, 430, 431, 433
+  Peter the Great, 327, 434
+  Peter the Hermit, 269, 270
+  Peterhof, 327
+  Petersburg, 127, 419.  (_See also_ Petrograd)
+  Petrograd, 416, 417.  (_See also_ Petersburg)
+  Petschenegs, 268
+  Phalanx, 145, 178
+  Pharaohs, the, 90, 96, 119, 131, 150, 188
+  Pharsalos, 430
+  Philadelphia, 358, 434
+  Philip, Duke of Orleans, 350
+  Philip, King of France, 285
+  Philip II, King of Spain, 314, 324
+  Philip of Hesse, 313
+  Philip of Macedon, 145, 146, 430
+  Philippine Islands, 302, 393, 400
+  Philistines, 100, 117
+  Philosopher's stone, 257
+  Philosophers and Philosophy, 133, 139, 152, 168, 239, 294, 295
+  Phoenicians, 92, 94, 107, 123, 147
+  _Phoenix_, steamship, 358
+  Phrygians, 100, 108
+  Physiocrats, 371
+  Picture writing, 56, 57, 78, 79, 167
+  Piedmont, 345
+  Pirates and Piracy, 92, 179, 180, 200, 263
+  Pithecanthropus erectus, 45
+  Pizarro, 314
+  Plague, (_See_ Pestilence)
+  Planetoids, 2
+  Planets, 2
+  Plant lice, 13
+  Plants, 22, 23, 36
+  Platea, battle of, 136, 430
+  Plato, 140, 142, 144, 170, 370-71
+  Platypus, duck-billed, 34
+  Plebeians, Roman, 176, 177, 187-88
+  Plesiosaurs, 29, 30, 36
+  Poison-gas, 413
+  Poitiers, 432
+  Poitiers, battle of, 253, 259
+  Poland, 288, 327, 353, 434
+  Poles, 288, 419
+  Political experiment, age of, 318 _et seq._
+  Political ideas, development of, 370 _et seq._
+  Political science, founder of, 144
+  Political worship, 412
+  Polo, Marco, 299-300
+  Polynesian races, 71
+  Pompey the Great, 192, 193, 196, 198, 430
+  Pontifex maximus, 237, 261
+  Popes.  (_See_ Papacy)
+  Population, 379, 383
+  Port Arthur, 400, 403
+  Portugal, 340, 394, 396, 431
+  Portuguese, 302, 329, 332, 400
+  Porus, King, 149
+  Potato, 76
+  Potsdam, 327
+  Pottery, 75, 87
+  Prague, 433
+  Prescott, 314
+  Priestcraft (including Priests), 64, 68, 69, 74, 75, 77, 83, 111,
+    114 _et seq._, 122, 131, 132, 167, 174, 275, 277
+  _Primal Law_, 61
+  Primates, 43.  (_Cf._ Mammalia)
+  Printing, 80 153, 247, 255, 298, 302, 305, 306, 320, 322, 329
+  Priscus, 234
+  Property, 274, 372, 374, 375
+  Prophet, Muhammad as, 249
+  Prophets, Jewish, 118, 122 _et seq._
+  Proprietorship, 373
+  Protestantism, 316, 324, 327, 351, 400
+  Proverbs, book of, 116
+  Prussia, 327, 348, 351, 390, 391, 392, 434, 435
+  Prussia, East, 412, 415
+  Psalms, 116
+  Psammetichus I, 109, 429
+  Psycho-analysis, 69
+  Pterodactyls, 28, 29, 31, 36
+  Ptolemy I, 149, 150, 151, 186, 211
+  Ptolemy II, 151, 186
+  Punic language, 203
+  Punic Wars, 180 _et seq._, 187, 188, 430
+  Punjab, 163, 199
+  Puritans, 335
+  Pygmies, 397
+  Pyramids, 69, 83, 100
+  Pyrenees, 253, 432
+  Pyrrhus, 178, 179, 430
+
+  Q
+
+  Quebec, 434
+  Quinqueremes, 180
+  Quixada, 314
+
+  R
+
+  Races of mankind, 71 _et seq._
+  Railways, 322, 350, 357, 382, 383, 384, 389, 395, 396, 409, 434
+  Rain, 9, 10
+  Rameses II, 96, 147, 429
+  Rasputin, 415, 416
+  Ratisbon, Diet of, 313
+  Ravenna, 431
+  Reading, 176
+  Rebus, 79
+  Red deer, 56
+  Red Sea, 91, 118, 122, 196
+  Reformation, the, 308
+  Reindeer, 43, 49, 51, 56, 73
+  Religion, and the creation of the world, 1; and organic evolution,
+    16; primitive, 61, 64
+  Religions, 172, 222 _et seq._, 240 _et seq._, 319.  (_Cf._
+  Buddhism, Christianity, etc.)
+  Religious developments under the Roman Empire, 208 _et seq._
+  Religious wars, 270, 304, 313.  (_Cf._ Crusades)
+  Reptiles, the age of, 26 _et seq._; mental life of, 38
+  Reproduction, 17 _et seq._
+  _Republic_, Plato's, 142
+  Republic, the Assimilative, 187
+  Republics, 187 _et seq._, 236, 308, 324, 328, 340, 343, 344, 416,
+    433, 434, 435
+  Republicans, the first, 131
+  _Retreat of the Ten Thousand_, 150
+  Revolution, 342 _et seq._, 349 _et seq._, 390, 404, 416, 435
+  Rhine, 200, 227
+  Rhine languages, 236
+  Rhineland, 270, 306
+  Rhinoceros, 43, 49
+  Rhodes, 108
+  Rhodesia, 407
+  Rhodesian man, 52
+  Richelieu, Cardinal, 324
+  Richmond, U.S.A., 386, 388, 389
+  Roads, 114, 187
+  Robertson, 316
+  Robespierre, 345, 346, 434
+  Robinson, J. H., 284
+  "Rocket," Stephenson's, 356
+  Rock pictures, 57, 78
+  Rocks as record of beginnings of life, 11 _et seq._
+
+  S
+
+  Sabellians, 224
+  Sabre-toothed tiger, 43
+  Sacrifice, 102, 103, 167, 174, 182, 186, 211, 212.  (_Cf._ also
+    Blood sacrifice, Human sacrifice)
+  Sagas, 106
+  Saghalien, 404
+  Sailing ships, 91, 336
+  St. Angelo, castle of, 312
+  St. Helena, 407
+  St. Sophia, church of, 238
+  Saladin, 272, 432
+  Salamis, battle of, 180, 430
+  Salamis, bay of, 136
+  Salerno, 282
+  Samarkand, 256, 297
+  Samnites, 430
+  Samos, 129
+  Samson, 116
+  Samurai, 401
+  San Francisco, 383
+  Sandstones, 26
+  Sanskrit, 95, 107, 156
+  Sapor I, 430
+  Saracens, 264, 265, 297
+  Saratoga, 338
+  Sardanapalus (Assurbanipal), 98, 109, 111
+  Sardinia, 182, 185, 232, 309, 351, 390
+  Sardis, 98
+  Sargon I, 90, 92, 109, 122, 429
+  Sargon II, 97, 109, 429
+  Sarmatians, 100
+  Sassanid dynasty, 227, 241, 430
+  Saturn (planet), 2, 3
+  Saul, King of Israel, 118, 429
+  Saul of Tarsus.  (_See_ Paul, St.)
+  _Savannah_, steamship, 358
+  Savoy, 334, 351, 390
+  Saxons, 230, 265
+  Saxony, Elector of, 310
+  Scandinavians, 329
+  Scarabeus beetle, 209
+  Scheldt, 344
+  Schmalkaldic League, 312
+  Science, 144
+  Science and religion, 243
+  Science, exploitation of, 362
+  Science, physical, 412
+  Scientific societies, 322
+  Scipio Africanus, 182, 187
+  Scorpion, sea, 13, 18, 23
+  Scotland, 306, 307
+  Scott, Michael, 282
+  Scythia, 429
+  Scythians, 100, 108, 134, 135
+  Sea trade, 91
+  Sea worms, 13
+  Seasons, the, 68
+  Seaweed, 13
+  Sedan, 391
+  Seed-bearing trees, 26
+  Seleucid dynasty, 183, 186, 196, 199
+  Seleucus I, 149, 163
+  Seljuks, 267, 268, 272, 432
+  Semites and Semitic peoples, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 107, 115, 122,
+    134, 174, 233, 256, 258
+  Semitic language, 202, 243
+  Sennacherib, 97
+  Serapeum, 211, 213
+  Serapis, 211, 212
+  Serbia, 179, 200, 227, 228, 292, 354, 411
+  Serfdom, 207
+  Seven Years' War, 434
+  Severus, Septimius, 202
+  Seville, 202, 213, 302
+  Shang dynasty, 103, 168
+  Sheep, 77
+  Shell necklaces, 56
+  Shellfish, 13
+  Shells, as protection against drying, 18
+  Sherman, General, 387, 388
+  Shi Hwang-ti, 173, 180, 430
+  Shimonoseki, Straits of, 402
+  Shipbuilding, 359, 360, 400
+  Ships, 91, 119, 122, 149, 180, 196, 320, 322, 336
+  Shishak, 119
+  Shrubs, 16
+  Shumanism, 298
+  Siam, 166
+  Siberia, 334
+  Siberia, Eastern, 419
+  Siberian railway, 403, 409
+  Sicilies, Two, 287
+  Sicily, 108, 122, 129, 134, 178, 179, 182, 185, 188, 232, 263,
+    279, 280
+  Sidon, 92, 122, 123, 134, 147
+  Silurian system, 19
+  Silver, 80, 102, 335
+  Sind, 394
+  Sirmium, 227
+  Skins, use of; for clothing, 56 for writing, 75; inflated as
+    boats, 91
+  Skull, Rhodesian, 52
+  Slavery (and slaves), 94, 102, 188, 191, 194, 203 _et seq._, 236,
+    320, 337, 373, 374, 384-86, 388, 430, 433
+  Slavonic language, 236
+  Slavs, 263, 265
+  Smelting, 87, 104, 322
+  Smith, Adam, 377
+  Smith, Eliot, 69
+  Snakes, 27, 28
+  Social reform, 125
+  Socialism, 371, 416, 417, 434
+  Socialists, 375 _et seq._
+  Socialists, primitive, 374
+  Society, primitive, 60
+  Socrates, 140
+  Solomon, King, 119, 122, 127, 429
+  Solomon's temple, 119
+  Sophists, 140
+  Sophocles, 139
+  South Carolina, 385
+  Soviets, 417
+  Space, the world in, 1 _et seq._
+  Spain, 93, 106, 122, 123, 180, 185, 230, 232, 236, 253, 255, 256,
+    309, 348, 349, 350, 393, 429, 431; relics of first true man in,
+    53
+  Spain, North, 431
+  Spanish, 329, 331
+  Spanish language, 203
+  Sparta, 129, 130, 136, 203
+  Spartacus, 191, 192, 203, 430
+  Spartans, 136
+  Species, generation of, 17; new, 36
+  Speech, primitive human, 63
+  Spiders, 23
+  Spiral nebul�, 5
+  Spores, 24
+  Stagira, 142
+  Stamford Bridge, battle of, 286
+  Stars, 68, 257
+  State, modern idea of a, 375
+  State ownership, 374
+  States General, the, 341, 434
+  Steamboat, 340, 357 _et seq._, 374, 382, 395, 396
+  Steam engine, 151, 152, 359
+  Steam hammer, 359
+  Steam power, 322
+  Steel, 322, 359-60
+  Stephenson, George, 356
+  Stilicho, 230, 234, 431
+  Stockholm, 417
+  Stockton, 356, 434
+  Stone age, 53, 59
+  Stone implements, 45, 65
+  Stonehenge, 106, 429
+  Story-telling, primitive, 62
+  Styria, 309
+  Submarine campaign, 423
+  Subutai, 289
+  Sudan, the, 405
+  Suevi, 431
+  Suleiman the Magnificent, 310, 312, 432, 433
+  Sulla, 192, 237
+  Sumeria and Sumerians, 77, 78 _et seq._, 87, 88, 90, 91, 122
+  Sumerian Empire, 429
+  Sumerian language and writing, 77, 78, 79
+  Sun, the, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10
+  Sun worship, 211
+  Sung dynasty, 290
+  Susa, 114, 135, 148, 149, 155
+  Suy dynasty, 245
+  Swastika, 70
+  Sweden, 306, 313, 348
+  Swedes, 326, 329, 330, 351
+  Swimming bladder, 24
+  Switzerland, 327, 347, 350, 433
+  Syracuse, 151, 154, 170, 178
+  Syria, 88, 91, 115, 119, 122, 138, 238, 243, 249, 290, 431
+  Syrians, 96, 98
+
+  T
+
+  _Tabus_, the, 61
+  Tadpoles, 26
+  Tagus valley, 314
+  Tai-Tsung, 247, 431
+  Tang dynasty, 200, 245, 247, 287, 431
+  "Tanks," 413
+  Taoism, 174, 222.  (_See also_ Lao Tse)
+  Taranto, 178
+  Tarentum, 178
+  Tarim valley, 430
+  Tartars, 167, 197, 232, 243, 288, 290, 334
+  Tasmania, 59, 322, 393
+  Tattooing, 70
+  Taxation, 271, 337
+  Tea, 247, 337
+  Teeth, 19, 20
+  Telamon, battle of, 182
+  Telegraph, electric, 340, 358, 382, 384, 396
+  Telescope, 355
+  Temples, 77, 83, 101, 129, 131, 167, 174, 184, 186, 211, 212, 213,
+    240
+  Tennessee, 386
+  Testament, Old, 115, 116
+  Teutons, 431
+  Texas, 384, 385
+  Texel, 344
+  Thales, 131, 161
+  Thebes, 101, 102, 129, 136
+  Theocrasia, 209
+  Theodora, Empress, 238
+  Theodoric the Goth, 236, 431
+  Theodosius II, 234, 238
+  Theodosius the Great, 226, 229, 431
+  Thermopyl�, battle of, 136, 430
+  Thessaly, 145, 178
+  Thirty Years' War, 326
+  Thothmes III, 96, 127, 147, 429
+  Thought and research, 140
+  Thought, primitive, 60 _et seq._
+  Thrace, 135
+  Three Estates, council of the, 285
+  Three Teachings, the, 170
+  Tiberius C�sar, 195, 214, 430
+  Tibet, 196, 400
+  Tides, 18
+  Tigers, 42, 43
+  Tiglath Pileser I, 97, 429
+  Tiglath Pileser III, 97, 108, 109, 429
+  Tigris, 77, 84
+  Time, 5, 6
+  Timor, 329
+  Timurlane, 290, 334
+  Tin, 360
+  Tiryns, 108
+  Titanotherium, the, 39, 42
+  Tonkin, 402
+  Tortoises, 27, 28
+  Toulon, 345
+  Trade, early, 83, 88
+  Trade, Grecian, 129
+  Trade routes, 119
+  Traders, 132, 335
+  Traders, sea, 92
+  Trafalgar, battle of, 348
+  Trajan, 195, 430
+  Transport, 319, 358, 382
+  Transvaal, 398
+  Transylvania, 195
+  Trasimere, Lake, 182
+  Trench warfare, 412
+  Trevithick, 356
+  Tribal life, 61
+  Trilobites, 13
+  Trinidad, 407
+  Trinil, Java, 45
+  Trinitarians, 224
+  Trinity, doctrine of the, 224, 261
+  Triremes, 180
+  Triumvirates, 194
+  Trojans, 94
+  Troy, 92, 127
+  Troyes, battle of, 235, 431
+  Tsar, title of, 327
+  Tshushima, Straits of, 404
+  Ts'i, 173
+  Ts'in, 173, 431
+  Tuileries, 342, 343
+  Tunis, 185
+  Turkestan, 77, 108, 148, 196, 197, 198, 199, 245, 253, 287, 290,
+    292, 334
+  Turkey, 390, 411
+  Turkoman dynasty, 405
+  Turkomans, 334
+  Turks, 167, 197, 243, 245, 263, 267, 287, 292, 310, 312, 334, 353,
+    354, 434
+  Turtles, 27, 28
+  Tushratta, king of Mitanni, 97
+  Twelve tribes, the, 116
+  Tyrannosaurus, 28
+  Tyre, 92, 118, 119, 122, 123, 134, 147
+
+  U
+
+  Uintatheres, 42
+  Uncleanness, 68
+  United States, 357, 410, 411, 422, 434; Declaration of
+    Independence, 338; treaty with Britain, 339; expansion of, 382
+    _et seq._
+  Universities, 295, 304, 355, 361
+  Uranus, 2, 3
+  Urban II, Pope, 268, 272, 432
+  Urban VI, Pope, 285, 433
+  Utopias, 140, 142, 144
+
+  V
+
+  Valens, Emperor, 229
+  Valerian, 430
+  Valladolid, 314, 315, 316
+  Valmy, battle of, 434
+  Vandals, 227, 229, 230, 232, 431
+  Varennes, 343, 434
+  Vassalage, 259
+  Vatican, 265, 266, 272, 285
+  Vedas, 106
+  Vegetation of Mesozoic period, 28
+  Veii, 177, 178
+  Vend�e, 345
+  Venetia, 235
+  Venetians, 301
+  Venice, 235, 272, 274, 294, 327, 351, 432
+  Venus (goddess), 213
+  Venus (planet), 2, 3
+  Verona, 345
+  Versailles, 325, 327, 341, 342
+  Versailles, Peace Conference of, 421
+  Versailles, Treaty of, 421, 422
+  Vertebrata, 19; ancestors of, 20
+  Verulam, Lord, (_See_ Bacon, Sir Francis)
+  Vespasian, 430
+  Vesuvius, 191
+  Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, 435
+  Victoria, Queen, 394, 434
+  Vienna, 292, 312, 433, 434
+  Vienna, Congress of, 348, 349, 350
+  Vienna, Treaty of, 355
+  Vilna, 356
+  Vindhya Mountains, 159
+  Virginia, 337, 383, 386
+  Visigoths, 227, 229, 232, 235, 259, 431.  (_Cf._ Goths)
+  Vitellus, 430
+  _Vittoria_, ship, 302
+  Viviparous mammals, 33
+  Vivisection, Herophilus and, 151
+  Volcanoes, 37
+  Volga, 200, 227
+  Volta, 358
+  Voltaire, 328
+  Votes, 382
+
+  W
+
+  Waldenses, 276, 280, 305
+  Waldo, 276
+  Walid I, 432
+  War and Warfare, 96, 344, 390, 422
+  War of American Independence, 338 _et seq._
+  Warsaw, 353
+  Washington, 340, 357, 383, 386, 389
+  Washington, Conference of, 425
+  Washington, George, 338
+  Waterloo, battle of, 348
+  Watt engine, 356
+  Weapons, 100, 106
+  Weaving, 65, 75
+  Wei-hai-wei, 400
+  Wellington, Duke of, 348
+  West Indies, 330, 385, 393, 394
+  Western Empire, 431
+  Westminster, 306
+  Westphalia, Peace of, 326, 355, 433
+  Wheat, 66, 104
+  White Huns.  (_See_ Ephthalites)
+  William Duke of Normandy (William I), 432
+  William II, German Emperor, 410, 435
+  Wilson, President, 422, 423, 424
+  Wings, birds', 32
+  Wisby, 294
+  Wisconsin, 385
+  "Wisdom lovers," the first, 133
+  Witchcraft, 68
+  Wittenberg, 306
+  Wolfe, General, 434
+  Wolsey, Cardinal, 324
+  Wood blocks for printing, 247
+  Wool, 102, 395
+  Workers' Internationals, 377
+  World, The, creation of, 1; in time, 5 _et seq._
+  Wrangel, General, 419
+  Writing, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 94, 124, 176; dawn of, 57
+  Wycliffe, John, and his followers, 286, 304, 433
+
+  X
+
+  Xavier, Francis, 400
+  Xenophon, 150
+  Xerxes, 136, 138, 147, 150
+
+  Y
+
+  Yang-Chow, 300
+  Yang-tse-Kiang, 173
+  Yangtse valley, 173
+  Yarmuk, battle of, the, 253, 431
+  Yedo Bay, 401
+  Yorktown, 338
+  Yuan dynasty, 290, 433
+  Yucatan, 74
+  Yudenitch, General, 419
+  Yuste, 314, 317
+
+  Z
+
+  Zama, battle of, 182, 430
+  Zanzibar, 329
+  Zarathustra, 241
+  Zeppelins, 413
+  Zero sign, 257
+  Zeus, 211
+  Zimbabwe, 397
+  Zoophytes, fossilized, 13
+  Zoroaster (and Zoroastrianism), 241, 243, 255
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells
+
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diff --git a/old/35461.txt b/old/35461.txt
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+++ b/old/35461.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,15296 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net
+
+
+Title: A Short History of the World
+
+Author: H. G. Wells
+
+Release Date: March 2, 2011 [EBook #35461]
+[Last updated: November 3, 2011]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Donald F. Behan
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A Short History of the World
+Illustrated
+
+BY
+
+H. G. Wells
+
+
+
+J. J. Little & Ives Company
+
+New York
+
+1922
+
+Copyright, 1922, by H. G. Wells
+
+
+
+{v}
+
+PREFACE
+
+This SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD is meant to be read
+straightforwardly almost as a novel is read.  It gives in the most
+general way an account of our present knowledge of history, shorn
+of elaborations and complications.  It has been amply illustrated
+and everything has been done to make it vivid and clear.  From it
+the reader should be able to get that general view of history
+which is so necessary a framework for the study of it particular
+period or the history of a particular country.  It may be found
+useful as a preparatory excursion before the reading of the
+author's much fuller and more explicit _Outline of History_ is
+undertaken.  But its especial end is to meet the needs of the busy
+general reader, too driven to study the maps and time charts of
+that _Outline_ in detail, who wishes to refresh and repair his
+faded or fragmentary conceptions of the great adventure of
+mankind.  It is not an abstract or condensation of that former
+work.  Within its aim the _Outline_ admits of no further
+condensation.  This is a much more generalized History, planned
+and written afresh.
+
+{vii}
+
+
+
+ CONTENTS
+
+  CHAPTER                                                        PAGE
+  I.       THE WORLD IN SPACE                                       1
+  II.      THE WORLD IN TIME                                        5
+  III.     THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE                                  11
+  IV.      THE AGE OF FISHES                                       16
+  V.       THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS                              21
+  VI.      THE AGE OF REPTILES                                     26
+  VII.     THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS                   31
+  VIII.    THE AGE OF MAMMALS                                      37
+  IX.      MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN                               43
+  X.       THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN                 48
+  XI.      THE FIRST TRUE MEN                                      53
+  XII.     PRIMITIVE THOUGHT                                       60
+  XIII.    THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION                           65
+  XIV.     PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS                       71
+  XV.      SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING                        77
+  XVI.     PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES                               84
+  XVII.    THE FIRST SEA-GOING PEOPLES                             91
+  XVIII.   EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA                              96
+  XIX.     THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS                                   104
+  XX.      THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I  109
+  XXI.     THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS                          115
+  XXII.    PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA                          122
+  XXIII.   THE GREEKS                                             127
+  XXIV.    THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS                    134
+  XXV.     THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE                                139
+  XXVI.    THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT                      145
+  XXVII.   THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA                   150
+
+{viii}
+
+  XXVIII.  THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA                             156
+  XXIX.    KING ASOKA                                             163
+  XXX.     CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE                                  167
+  XXXI.    ROME COMES INTO HISTORY                                174
+  XXXII.   ROME AND CARTHAGE                                      180
+  XXXIII.  THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE                         185
+  XXXIV.   BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA                                 196
+  XXXV.    THE COMMON MAN'S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE     201
+  XXXVI.   RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE           208
+  XXXVII.  THE TEACHING OF JESUS                                  214
+  XXXVIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY              222
+  XXXIX.   THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST     227
+  XL.      THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE             233
+  XLI.     THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES                     238
+  XLII.    THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA                 245
+  XLIII.   MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM                                     248
+  XLIV.    THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS                            253
+  XLV.     THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM                   258
+  XLVI.    THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION             267
+  XLVII.   RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM              277
+  XLVIII.  THE MONGOL CONQUESTS                                   287
+  XLIX.    THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS              294
+  L.       THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH                    304
+  LI.      THE EMPEROR CHARLES V                                  309
+  LII.     THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND MONARCHY
+                   AND PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE    318
+  LIII.    THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS  329
+  LIV.     THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE                       335
+
+{ix}
+
+  LV.      THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF
+                   MONARCHY IN FRANCE                             341
+  LVI.     THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED
+                   THE FALL OF NAPOLEON                           349
+  LVII.    THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE                  355
+  LVIII.   THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION                              365
+  LIX.     THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS   370
+  LX.      THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES                     382
+  LXI.     THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE          390
+  LXII.    THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF THE STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY  393
+  LXIII.   EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA, AND THE RISE OF JAPAN     399
+  LXIV.    THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914                             405
+  LXV.     THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND
+                   THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18                       409
+  LXVI.    THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA                    415
+  LXVII.   THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD   421
+           CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE                                    429
+           INDEX                                                  439
+
+
+{xi}
+
+ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+  Luminous Spiral Clouds of Matter                                  2
+  Nebula seen Edge-on                                               3
+  The Great Spiral Nebula                                           6
+  A Dark Nebula                                                     7
+  Another Spiral Nebula                                             8
+  Landscape before Life                                             9
+  Marine Life in the Cambrian Period                               12
+  Fossil Trilobite                                                 13
+  Early Palaeozoic Fossils of various Species of Lingula            14
+  Fossilized Footprints of a Labyrinthodont, Cheirotherium         15
+  Pterichthys Milleri                                              17
+  Fossil of Cladoselache                                           18
+  Sharks and Ganoids of the Devonian Period                        19
+  A Carboniferous Swamp                                            22
+  Skull of a Labyrinthodont, Capitosaurus                          23
+  Skeleton of a Labyrinthodont: The Eryops                         24
+  A Fossil Ichthyosaurus                                           27
+  A Pterodactyl                                                    28
+  The Diplodocus                                                   29
+  Fossil of Archeopteryx                                           32
+  Hesperornis in its Native Seas                                   33
+  The Ki-wi                                                        34
+  Slab of Marl Rich in Cainozoic Fossils                           35
+  Titanotherium Robustum                                           38
+  Skeleton of Giraffe-camel                                        40
+  Skeleton of Early Horse                                          40
+  Comparative Sizes of Brains of Rhinoceros and Dinoceras          41
+  A Mammoth                                                        44
+  Flint Implements from Piltdown Region                            45
+  A Pithecanthropean Man                                           46
+  The Heidelberg Man                                               46
+  The Piltdown Skull                                               47
+  A Neanderthaler                                                  49
+
+{xii}
+
+  Europe and Western Asia 50,000 years ago                   Map   50
+  Comparison of Modern Skull and Rhodesian Skull                   51
+  Altamira Cave Paintings                                          54
+  Later Palaeolithic Carvings                                       55
+  Bust of Cro-magnon Man                                           57
+  Later Palaeolithic Art                                            58
+  Relics of the Stone Age                                          62
+  Gray's Inn Lane Flint Implement                                  63
+  Somaliland Flint Implement                                       63
+  Neolithic Flint Implement                                        67
+  Australian Spearheads                                            68
+  Neolithic Pottery                                                69
+  Relationship of Human Races                                Map   72
+  A Maya Stele                                                     73
+  European Neolithic Warrior                                       75
+  Babylonian Brick                                                 78
+  Egyptian Cylinder Seals of First Dynasty                         79
+  The Sakhara Pyramids                                             80
+  The Pyramid of Cheops: Scene from Summit                         81
+  The Temple of Hathor                                             82
+  Pottery and Implements of the Lake Dwellers                      85
+  A Lake Village                                                   86
+  Flint Knives of 4500 B.C.                                        87
+  Egyptian Wall Paintings of Nomads                                87
+  Egyptian Peasants Going to Work                                  88
+  Stele of Naram Sin                                               89
+  The Treasure House at Mycenae                                     93
+  The Palace at Cnossos                                            95
+  Temple at Abu Simbel                                             97
+  Avenue of Sphinxes at Karnak                                     98
+  The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak                                     99
+  Frieze of Slaves                                                101
+  The Temple of Horus, Edfu                                       103
+  Archaic Amphora                                                 105
+  The Mound of Nippur                                             107
+  Median and Chaldean Empires                                Map  110
+  The Empire of Darius                                       Map  111
+  A Persian Monarch                                               112
+  The Ruins of Persepolis                                         113
+  The Great Porch of Xerxes                                       113
+
+{xiii}
+
+  The Land of the Hebrews                                    Map  117
+  Nebuchadnezzar's Mound at Babylon                               118
+  The Ishtar Gateway, Babylon                                     120
+  Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II                                 124
+  Captive Princes making Obeisance                                125
+  Statue of Meleager                                              128
+  Ruins of Temple of Zeus                                         130
+  The Temple of Neptune, Paestum                                   132
+  Greek Ships on Ancient Pottery                                  135
+  The Temple of Corinth                                           137
+  The Temple of Neptune at Cape Sunium                            138
+  Frieze of the Parthenon, Athens                                 140
+  The Acropolis, Athens                                           141
+  Theatre at Epidauros, Greece                                    141
+  The Caryatides of the Erechtheum                                142
+  Athene of the Parthenon                                         143
+  Alexander the Great                                             146
+  Alexander's Victory at Issus                                    147
+  The Apollo Belvedere                                            148
+  Aristotle                                                       152
+  Statuette of Maitreya                                           153
+  The Death of Buddha                                             154
+  Tibetan Buddha                                                  158
+  A Burmese Buddha                                                159
+  The Dhamekh Tower, Sarnath                                      160
+  A Chinese Buddhist Apostle                                      164
+  The Court of Asoka                                              165
+  Asoka Panel from Bharhut                                        165
+  The Pillar of Lions (Asokan)                                    166
+  Confucius                                                       169
+  The Great Wall of China                                         171
+  Early Chinese Bronze Bell                                       172
+  The Dying Gaul                                                  175
+  Ancient Roman Cisterns at Carthage                              177
+  Hannibal                                                        181
+  Roman Empire and its Alliances, 150 B.C.                   Map  183
+  The Forum, Rome                                                 188
+  Ruined Coliseum in Tunis                                        189
+  Roman Arch at Ctesiphon                                         190
+  The Column of Trajan, Rome                                      193
+
+{xiv}
+
+  Glazed Jar of Han Dynasty                                       197
+  Vase of Han Dynasty                                             198
+  Chinese Vessel in Bronze                                        199
+  A Gladiator (contemporary representation)                       202
+  A Street in Pompeii                                             204
+  The Coliseum, Rome                                              206
+  Interior of Coliseum                                            206
+  Mithras Sacrificing a Bull                                      210
+  Isis and Horus                                                  211
+  Bust of Emperor Commodus                                        212
+  Early Portrait of Jesus Christ                                  216
+  Road from Nazareth to Tiberias                                  217
+  David's Tower and Wall of Jerusalem                             218
+  A Street in Jerusalem                                           219
+  The Peter and Paul Mosaic at Rome                               223
+  Baptism of Christ (Ivory Panel)                                 225
+  Roman Empire and the Barbarians                            Map  228
+  Constantine's Pillar, Constantinople                            229
+  The Obelisk of Theodosius, Constantinople                       231
+  Head of Barbarian Chief                                         235
+  The Church of S. Sophia, Constantinople                         239
+  Roof-work in S. Sophia                                          240
+  Justinian and his Court                                         241
+  The Rock-hewn Temple at Petra                                   242
+  Chinese Earthenware of Tang Dynasty                             246
+  At Prayer in the Desert                                         250
+  Looking Across the Sea of Sand                                  251
+  Growth of Moslem Power                                     Map  254
+  The Moslem Empire                                          Map  254
+  The Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem                                   255
+  Cairo Mosques                                                   256
+  Frankish Dominions of Martel                               Map  260
+  Statue of Charlemagne                                           262
+  Europe at Death of Charlemagne                             Map  264
+  Crusader Tombs, Exeter Cathedral                                268
+  View of Cairo                                                   269
+  The Horses of S. Mark, Venice                                   271
+  Courtyard in the Alhambra                                       273
+  Milan Cathedral (showing spires)                                278
+  A Typical Crusader                                              280
+
+{xv}
+
+  Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes)                              283-4
+  The Empire of Jengis Khan                                  Map  288
+  Ottoman Empire before 1453                                 Map  289
+  Tartar Horsemen                                                 291
+  Ottoman Empire, 1566                                       Map  292
+  An Early Printing Press                                         296
+  Ancient Bronze from Benin                                       299
+  Negro Bronze-work                                               300
+  Early Sailing Ship (Italian Engraving)                          301
+  Portrait of Martin Luther                                       305
+  The Church Triumphant (Italian Majolica work, 1543)             307
+  Charles V (the Titian Portrait)                                 311
+  S. Peter's, Rome: the High Altar                                315
+  Cromwell Dissolves the Long Parliament                          321
+  The Court at Versailles                                         323
+  Sack of a Village, French Revolution                            325
+  Central Europe after Peace of Westphalia, 1648             Map  326
+  European Territory in America, 1750                        Map  330
+  Europeans Tiger Hunting in India                                331
+  Fall of Tippoo Sultan                                           332
+  George Washington                                               337
+  The Battle of Bunker Hill                                       338
+  The U.S.A., 1790                                                339
+  The Trial of Louis XVI                                          344
+  Execution of Marie Antoinette                                   346
+  Portrait of Napoleon                                            352
+  Europe after the Congress of Vienna                        Map  353
+  Early Rolling Stock, Liverpool and Manchester Railway           356
+  Passenger Train in 1833                                         356
+  The Steamboat Clermont                                          357
+  Eighteenth Century Spinning Wheel                               361
+  Arkwright's Spinning Jenny                                      361
+  An Early Weaving Machine                                        363
+  An Incident of the Slave Trade                                  367
+  Early Factory, in Colebrookdale                                 368
+  Carl Marx                                                       372
+  Electric Conveyor, in Coal Mine                                 376
+  Constructional Detail, Forth Bridge                             378
+  American River Steamer                                          385
+  Abraham Lincoln                                                 387
+
+{xvi}
+
+  Europe, 1848-71                                            Map  391
+  Victoria Falls, Zambesi                                         395
+  The British Empire, 1815                                   Map  397
+  Japanese Soldier, Eighteenth Century                            401
+  A Street in Tokio                                               403
+  Overseas Empires of Europe, 1914                           Map  406
+  Gibraltar                                                       407
+  Street in Hong Kong                                             408
+  British Tank in Battle                                          410
+  The Ruins of Ypres                                              411
+  Modern War: War Entanglements                                   412
+  A View in Petersburg under Bolshevik Rule                       418
+  Passenger Aeroplane in Flight                                   423
+  A Peaceful Garden in England                                    426
+
+
+
+
+
+
+{1}
+
+I
+
+THE WORLD IN SPACE
+
+
+The story of our world is a story that is still very imperfectly
+known. A couple of hundred years ago men possessed the history of
+little more than the last three thousand years.  What happened
+before that time was a matter of legend and speculation.  Over a
+large part of the civilized world it was believed and taught that
+the world had been created suddenly in 4004 B.C., though
+authorities differed as to whether this had occurred in the spring
+or autumn of that year. This fantastically precise misconception
+was based upon a too literal interpretation of the Hebrew Bible,
+and upon rather arbitrary theological assumptions connected
+therewith.  Such ideas have long since been abandoned by religious
+teachers, and it is universally recognized that the universe in
+which we live has to all appearances existed for an enormous
+period of time and possibly for endless time.  Of course there may
+be deception in these appearances, as a room may be made to seem
+endless by putting mirrors facing each other at either end.  But
+that the universe in which we live has existed only for six or
+seven thousand years may be regarded as an altogether exploded
+idea.
+
+The earth, as everybody knows nowadays, is a spheroid, a sphere
+slightly compressed, orange fashion, with a diameter of nearly
+8,000 miles.  Its spherical shape has been known at least to a
+limited number of intelligent people for nearly 2,500 years, but
+before that time it was supposed to be flat, and various ideas
+which now seem fantastic were entertained about its relations to
+the sky and the stars and planets.  We know now that it rotates
+upon its {2} axis (which is about 24 miles shorter than its
+equatorial diameter) every twenty-four hours, and that this is the
+cause of the alternations of day and night, that it circles about
+the sun in a slightly distorted and slowly variable oval path in a
+year. Its distance from the sun varies between ninety-one and a
+half millions at its nearest and ninety-four and a half million
+miles.
+
+[Illustration: "LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER"]
+
+About the earth circles a smaller sphere, the moon, at an average
+distance of 239,000 miles. Earth and moon are not the only bodies
+to travel round the sun.  There are also the planets, Mercury and
+Venus, at distances of thirty-six and sixty-seven millions of
+miles; and beyond the circle of the earth and disregarding a belt
+of numerous smaller bodies, the planetoids, there are Mars,
+Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune at mean distances of 141, 483,
+886, 1,782, and 1,793 millions of miles respectively.  These
+figures in {3} millions of miles are very difficult for the mind
+to grasp.  It may help the reader's imagination if we reduce the
+sun and planets to a smaller, more conceivable scale.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEBULA SEEN EDGE ON]
+
+If, then, we represent our earth as a little ball of one inch
+diameter, the sun would be a big globe nine feet across and 323
+yards away, that is about a fifth of a mile, four or five minutes'
+walking.  The moon would be a small pea two feet and a half from
+the world.  Between earth and sun there would be the two inner
+planets, Mercury and Venus, at distances of one hundred and
+twenty-five and two hundred and fifty yards from the sun. All
+round and about these bodies there would be emptiness until you
+came to Mars, a hundred and seventy-five feet beyond the earth;
+Jupiter {4} nearly a mile away, a foot in diameter; Saturn, a
+little smaller, two miles off; Uranus four miles off and Neptune
+six miles off.  Then nothingness and nothingness except for small
+particles and drifting scraps of attenuated vapour for thousands
+of miles. The nearest star to earth on this scale would be 40,000
+miles away.
+
+These figures will serve perhaps to give one some conception of
+the immense emptiness of space in which the drama of life goes on.
+
+For in all this enormous vacancy of space we know certainly of
+life only upon the surface of our earth. It does not penetrate
+much more than three miles down into the 4,000 miles that separate
+us from the centre of our globe, and it does not reach more than
+five miles above its surface.  Apparently all the limitlessness of
+space is otherwise empty and dead.
+
+The deepest ocean dredgings go down to five miles. The highest
+recorded flight of an aeroplane is little more than four miles.
+Men have reached to seven miles up in balloons, but at a cost of
+great suffering.  No bird can fly so high as five miles, and small
+birds and insects which have been carried up by aeroplanes drop
+off insensible far below that level.
+
+
+
+
+{5}
+
+II
+
+THE WORLD IN TIME
+
+
+In the last fifty years there has been much very fine and
+interesting speculation on the part of scientific men upon the age
+and origin of our earth.  Here we cannot pretend to give even a
+summary of such speculations because they involve the most subtle
+mathematical and physical considerations.  The truth is that the
+physical and astronomical sciences are still too undeveloped as
+yet to make anything of the sort more than an illustrative
+guesswork.  The general tendency has been to make the estimated
+age of our globe longer and longer.  It now seems probable that
+the earth has had an independent existence as a spinning planet
+flying round and round the sun for a longer period than
+2,000,000,000 years.  It may have been much longer than that. This
+is a length of time that absolutely overpowers the imagination.
+
+Before that vast period of separate existence, the sun and earth
+and the other planets that circulate round the sun may have been a
+great swirl of diffused matter in space.  The telescope reveals to
+us in various parts of the heavens luminous spiral clouds of
+matter, the spiral nebulae, which appear to be in rotation about a
+centre.  It is supposed by many astronomers that the sun and its
+planets were once such a spiral, and that their matter has
+undergone concentration into its present form. Through majestic
+aeons that concentration went on until in that vast remoteness of
+the past for which we have given figures, the world and its moon
+were distinguishable.  They were spinning then much faster than
+they are spinning now; they were at a lesser distance from the
+sun; they travelled round it very much faster, and they were
+probably incandescent or molten at the surface.  The sun itself
+was a much greater blaze in the heavens.
+
+{6}
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA]
+
+If we could go back through that infinitude of time and see the
+earth in this earlier stage of its history, we should behold a
+scene more like the interior of a blast furnace or the surface of
+a lava flow before it cools and cakes over than any other
+contemporary scene.  No water would be visible because all the
+water there was would still be superheated steam in a stormy
+atmosphere of sulphurous and metallic vapours.  Beneath this would
+swirl and boil an ocean of molten rock substance.  Across a sky of
+fiery clouds the glare of the hurrying sun and moon would sweep
+swiftly like hot breaths of flame.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{7}
+
+[Illustration:  A DARK NEBULA]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Slowly by degrees as one million of years followed another, this
+{8} fiery scene would lose its eruptive incandescence.  The
+vapours in the sky would rain down and become less dense overhead;
+great slaggy cakes of solidifying rock would appear upon the
+surface of the molten sea, and sink under it, to be replaced by
+other floating masses.  The sun and moon growing now each more
+distant and each smaller, would rush with diminishing swiftness
+across the heavens. The moon now, because of its smaller size,
+would be already cooled far below incandescence, and would be
+alternately obstructing and reflecting the sunlight in a series of
+eclipses and full moons.
+
+[Illustration: ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA]
+
+And so with a tremendous slowness through the vastness of time,
+the earth would grow more and more like the earth on which we
+live, until at last an age would come when, in the cooling air,
+steam would begin to condense into clouds, and the first rain
+would fall hissing upon the first rocks below.  For endless
+millenia the greater part of the earth's water would still be
+vaporized in the atmosphere, but there would now be hot streams
+running over the crystallizing {9} rocks below and pools and lakes
+into which these streams would be carrying detritus and depositing
+sediment.
+
+[Illustration: LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE]
+
+At last a condition of things must have been attained in which a
+man might have stood up on earth and looked about him and lived.
+If we could have visited the earth at that time we should have
+stood on great lava-like masses of rock without a trace of soil or
+touch of living vegetation, under a storm-rent sky.  Hot and
+violent winds, exceeding the fiercest tornado that ever blows, and
+downpours of rain such as our milder, slower earth to-day knows
+nothing of, might have assailed us.  The water of the downpour
+would have rushed by us, muddy with the spoils of the rocks,
+coming together into torrents, cutting deep gorges and canyons as
+they hurried past to deposit their sediment in the earliest seas.
+Through the clouds we should have glimpsed a great sun moving
+visibly across the sky, and in its wake and in the wake of the
+moon would have come a diurnal tide of earthquake and upheaval.
+And {10} the moon, which nowadays keeps one constant face to
+earth, would then have been rotating visibly and showing the side
+it now hides so inexorably.
+
+The earth aged.  One million years followed another, and the day
+lengthened, the sun grew more distant and milder, the moon's pace
+in the sky slackened; the intensity of rain and storm diminished
+and the water in the first seas increased and ran together into
+the ocean garment our planet henceforth wore.
+
+But there was no life as yet upon the earth; the seas were
+lifeless, and the rocks were barren.
+
+
+
+
+{11}
+
+III
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE
+
+
+As everybody knows nowadays, the knowledge we possess of life
+before the beginnings of human memory and tradition is derived
+from the markings and fossils of living things in the stratified
+rocks. We find preserved in shale and slate, limestone, and
+sandstone, bones, shells, fibres, stems, fruits, footmarks,
+scratchings and the like, side by side with the ripple marks of
+the earliest tides and the pittings of the earliest rain-falls. It
+is by the sedulous examination of this Record of the Rocks that
+the past history of the earth's life has been pieced together.
+That much nearly everybody knows to-day.  The sedimentary rocks do
+not lie neatly stratum above stratum; they have been crumpled,
+bent, thrust about, distorted and mixed together like the leaves
+of a library that has been repeatedly looted and burnt, and it is
+only as a result of many devoted lifetimes of work that the record
+has been put into order and read.  The whole compass of time
+represented by the record of the rocks is now estimated as
+1,600,000,000 years.
+
+The earliest rocks in the record are called by geologists the
+Azoic rocks, because they show no traces of life.  Great areas of
+these Azoic rocks lie uncovered in North America, and they are of
+such a thickness that geologists consider that they represent a
+period of at least half of the 1,600,000,000 which they assign to
+the whole geological record.  Let me repeat this profoundly
+significant fact.  Half the great interval of time since land and
+sea were first distinguishable on earth has left us no traces of
+life.  There are ripplings and rain marks still to be found in
+these rocks, but no marks nor vestiges of any living thing.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{12}
+
+[Illustration: MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Then, as we come up the record, signs of past life appear and
+increase.  The age of the world's history in which we find these
+past {13} traces is called by geologists the Lower Palaeozoic age.
+The first indications that life was astir are vestiges of
+comparatively simple and lowly things: the shells of small
+shellfish, the stems and flowerlike heads of zoophytes, seaweeds
+and the tracks and remains of sea worms and crustacea.  Very early
+appear certain creatures rather like plant-lice, crawling
+creatures which could roll themselves up into balls as the
+plant-lice do, the trilobites.  Later by a few million years or so
+come certain sea scorpions, more mobile and powerful creatures
+than the world had ever seen before.
+
+[Illustration: FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY MAGNIFIED)]
+
+None of these creatures were of very great size.  Among the
+largest were certain of the sea scorpions, which measured nine
+feet in length.  There are no signs whatever of land life of any
+sort, plant or animal; there are no fishes nor any vertebrated
+creatures in this part of the record.  Essentially all the plants
+and creatures which have left us their traces from this period of
+the earth's history are shallow-water and intertidal beings.  If
+we wished to parallel the flora and fauna of the Lower Palaeozoic
+rocks on the earth to-day, we should do it best, except in the
+matter of size, by taking a drop of water from a rock pool or
+scummy ditch and examining it under a microscope.  The little
+crustacea, the small shellfish, the zoophytes and algae we should
+find there would display a quite striking resemblance to these
+clumsier, larger prototypes that once were the crown of life upon
+our planet.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY PALAEOLITHIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF
+LINGULA]
+
+It is well, however, to bear in mind that the Lower Palaeozoic
+rocks probably do not give us anything at all representative of
+the first beginnings of life on our planet. Unless a creature has
+bones {14} or other hard parts, unless it wears a shell or is big
+enough and heavy enough to make characteristic footprints and
+trails in mud, it is unlikely to leave any fossilized traces of
+its existence behind.  To-day there are hundreds of thousands of
+species of small soft-bodied creatures in our world which it is
+inconceivable can ever leave any mark for future geologists to
+discover.  In the world's past, millions of millions of species of
+such creatures may have lived and multiplied and flourished and
+passed away without a trace remaining.  The waters of the warm and
+shallow lakes and seas of the so-called Azoic period may have
+teemed with an infinite variety {15} of lowly, jelly-like,
+shell-less and boneless creatures, and a multitude of green scummy
+plants may have spread over the sunlit intertidal rocks and
+beaches.  The Record of the Rocks is no more a complete record of
+life in the past than the books of a bank are a record of the
+existence of everybody in the neighbourhood.  It is only when a
+species begins to secrete a shell or a spicule or a carapace or a
+lime-supported stem, and so put by something for the future, that
+it goes upon the Record.  But in rocks of an age prior to those
+which bear any fossil traces, graphite, a form of uncombined
+carbon, is sometimes found, and some authorities consider that it
+may have been separated out from combination through the vital
+activities of unknown living things.
+
+[Illustration: FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT
+CHEIROTHERIUM]
+
+
+
+
+{16}
+
+IV
+
+THE AGE OF FISHES
+
+
+In the days when the world was supposed to have endured for only a
+few thousand years, it was supposed that the different species of
+plants and animals were fixed and final; they had all been created
+exactly as they are to-day, each species by itself.  But as men
+began to discover and study the Record of the Rocks this belief
+gave place to the suspicion that many species had changed and
+developed slowly through the course of ages, and this again
+expanded into a belief in what is called Organic Evolution, a
+belief that all species of life upon earth, animal and vegetable
+alike, are descended by slow continuous processes of change from
+some very simple ancestral form of life, some almost structureless
+living substance, far back in the so-called Azoic seas.
+
+This question of Organic Evolution, like the question of the age
+of the earth, has in the past been the subject of much bitter
+controversy.  There was a time when a belief in organic evolution
+was for rather obscure reasons supposed to be incompatible with
+sound Christian, Jewish and Moslem doctrine.  That time has
+passed, and the men of the most orthodox Catholic, Protestant,
+Jewish and Mohammedan belief are now free to accept this newer and
+broader view of a common origin of all living things.  No life
+seems to have happened suddenly upon earth.  Life grew and grows.
+Age by age through gulfs of time at which imagination reels, life
+has been growing from a mere stirring in the intertidal slime
+towards freedom, power and consciousness.
+
+Life consists of individuals. These individuals are definite
+things, they are not like the lumps and masses, nor even the
+limitless and motionless crystals, of non-living matter, and they
+have two characteristics no dead matter possesses.  They can
+assimilate other matter into themselves and make it part of
+themselves, and {17} they can reproduce themselves.  They eat and
+they breed.  They can give rise to other individuals, for the most
+part like themselves, but always also a little different from
+themselves.  There is a specific and family resemblance between an
+individual and its offspring, and there is an individual
+difference between every parent and every offspring it produces,
+and this is true in every species and at every stage of life.
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION
+SHOWING BODY ARMOUR]
+
+Now scientific men are not able to explain to us either why
+offspring should resemble nor why they should differ from their
+parents.  But seeing that offspring do at once resemble and
+differ, it is a matter rather of common sense than of scientific
+knowledge that, if the conditions under which a species live are
+changed, the species should undergo some correlated changes.
+Because in any generation of the species there must be a number of
+individuals whose individual differences make them better adapted
+to the new conditions under which the species has to live, and a
+number whose individuals whose individual differences make it
+rather harder for them to live.  And on the whole the former sort
+will live longer, bear more offspring, and reproduce themselves
+more abundantly than the latter, and so generation by generation
+the average of the species will change in the favourable
+direction.  This process, which is called Natural Selection, is
+not so much a scientific theory as a necessary deduction {18} from
+the facts of reproduction and individual difference.  There may be
+many forces at work varying, destroying and preserving species,
+about which science may still be unaware or undecided, but the man
+who can deny the operation of this process of natural selection
+upon life since its beginning must be either ignorant of the
+elementary facts of life or incapable of ordinary thought.
+
+Many scientific men have speculated about the first beginning of
+life and their speculations are often of great interest, but there
+is absolutely no definite knowledge and no convincing guess yet of
+the way in which life began.  But nearly all authorities are
+agreed that it probably began upon mud or sand in warm sunlit
+shallow brackish water, and that it spread up the beaches to the
+intertidal lines and out to the open waters.
+
+[Illustration: FOSSIL OF THE CLADOSELACHE, A DEVONIAN SHARK]
+
+That early world was a world of strong tides and currents.  An
+incessant destruction of individuals must have been going on
+through their being swept up the beaches and dried, or by their
+being swept out to sea and sinking down out of reach of air and
+sun.  Early conditions favoured the development of every tendency
+to root and hold on, every tendency to form an outer skin and
+casing to protect the stranded individual from immediate
+desiccation.  From the very earliest any tendency to sensitiveness
+to taste would turn the individual in the direction of food, and
+any sensitiveness to light would assist it to struggle back out of
+the darkness of the sea deeps and caverns or to wriggle back out
+of the excessive glare of the dangerous shallows.
+
+Probably the first shells and body armour of living things were
+protections against drying rather than against active enemies.
+But tooth and claw come early into our earthly history.
+
+We have already noted the size of the earlier water scorpions.
+For long ages such creatures were the supreme lords of life. Then
+{19} in a division of these Palaeozoic rocks called the Silurian
+division, which many geologists now suppose to be as old as five
+hundred million years, there appears a new type of being, equipped
+with eyes and teeth and swimming powers of an altogether more
+powerful kind.  These were the first known backboned animals, the
+earliest fishes, the first known Vertebrata.
+
+[Illustration: SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD]
+
+These fishes increase greatly in the next division of rocks, the
+rocks known as the Devonian system.  They are so prevalent that
+this period of the Record of the Rocks has been called the Age of
+{20} Fishes.  Fishes of a pattern now gone from the earth, and
+fishes allied to the sharks and sturgeons of to-day, rushed
+through the waters, leapt in the air, browsed among the seaweeds,
+pursued and preyed upon one another, and gave a new liveliness to
+the waters of the world.  None of these were excessively big by
+our present standards.  Few of them were more than two or three
+feet long, but there were exceptional forms which were as long as
+twenty feet.
+
+We know nothing from geology of the ancestors of these fishes.
+They do not appear to be related to any of the forms that preceded
+them.  Zoologists have the most interesting views of their
+ancestry, but these they derive from the study of the development
+of the eggs of their still living relations, and from other
+sources.  Apparently the ancestors of the vertebrata were
+soft-bodied and perhaps quite small swimming creatures who began first
+to develop hard parts as teeth round and about their mouths.  The
+teeth of a skate or dogfish cover the roof and floor of its mouth
+and pass at the lip into the flattened toothlike scales that
+encase most of its body.  As the fishes develop these teeth scales
+in the geological record, they swim out of the hidden darkness of
+the past into the light, the first vertebrated animals visible in
+the record.
+
+
+
+
+{21}
+
+V
+
+THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS
+
+
+The land during this Age of Fishes was apparently quite lifeless.
+Crags and uplands of barren rock lay under the sun and rain.
+There was no real soil--for as yet there were no earthworms which
+help to make a soil, and no plants to break up the rock particles
+into mould; there was no trace of moss or lichen.  Life was still
+only in the sea.
+
+Over this world of barren rock played great changes of climate.
+The causes of these changes of climate were very complex and they
+have still to be properly estimated.  The changing shape of the
+earth's orbit, the gradual shifting of the poles of rotation,
+changes in the shapes of the continents, probably even
+fluctuations in the warmth of the sun, now conspired to plunge
+great areas of the earth's surface into long periods of cold and
+ice and now again for millions of years spread a warm or equable
+climate over this planet.  There seem to have been phases of great
+internal activity in the world's history, when in the course of a
+few million years accumulated upthrusts would break out in lines
+of volcanic eruption and upheaval and rearrange the mountain and
+continental outlines of the globe, increasing the depth of the sea
+and the height of the mountains and exaggerating the extremes of
+climate.  And these would be followed by vast ages of comparative
+quiescence, when frost, rain and river would wear down the
+mountain heights and carry great masses of silt to fill and raise
+the sea bottoms and spread the seas, ever shallower and wider,
+over more and more of the land.  There have been "high and deep"
+ages in the world's history and "low and level" ages.  The reader
+must dismiss from his mind any idea that the surface of the earth
+has been growing steadily cooler since its crust grew solid.
+After that much cooling had been achieved, the internal
+temperature ceased to affect surface {22} conditions. There are
+traces of periods of superabundant ice and snow, of "Glacial
+Ages," that is, even in the Azoic period.
+
+It was only towards the close of the Age of Fishes, in a period of
+extensive shallow seas and lagoons, that life spread itself out in
+any effectual way from the waters on to the land.  No doubt the
+earlier types of the forms that now begin to appear in great
+abundance had already been developing in a rare and obscure manner
+for many scores of millions of years.  But now came their
+opportunity.
+
+[Illustration: A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP]
+
+Plants no doubt preceded animal forms in this invasion of the
+land, but the animals probably followed up the plant emigration
+{23} very closely.  The first problem that the plant had to solve
+was the problem of some sustaining stiff support to hold up its
+fronds to the sunlight when the buoyant water was withdrawn; the
+second was the problem of getting water from the swampy ground
+below to the tissues of the plant, now that it was no longer close
+at hand.  The two problems were solved by the development of woody
+tissue which both sustained the plant and acted as water carrier
+to the leaves.  The Record of the Rocks is suddenly crowded by a
+vast variety of woody swamp plants, many of them of great size,
+big tree mosses, tree ferns, gigantic horsetails and the like.
+And with these, age by age, there crawled out of the water a great
+variety of animal forms.  There were centipedes and millipedes;
+there were the first primitive insects; there were creatures
+related to the ancient king crabs and sea scorpions which became
+the earliest spiders and land scorpions, and presently there were
+vertebrated animals.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF A LABYRINTHODONT, CAPITOSAURUS]
+
+Some of the earlier insects were very large. There were dragon
+flies in this period with wings that spread out to twenty-nine
+inches.
+
+In various ways these new orders and genera had adapted themselves
+to breathing air.  Hitherto all animals had breathed air dissolved
+in water, and that indeed is what all animals still have to do.
+But now in divers fashions the animal kingdom was acquiring the
+power of supplying its own moisture where it was needed.  A man
+with a perfectly dry lung would suffocate to-day; {24} his lung
+surfaces must be moist in order that air may pass through them
+into his blood.  The adaptation to air breathing consists in all
+cases either in the development of a cover to the old-fashioned
+gills to stop evaporation, or in the development of tubes or other
+new breathing organs lying deep inside the body and moistened by a
+watery secretion.  The old gills with which the ancestral fish of
+the vertebrated line had breathed were inadaptable to breathing
+upon land, and in the case of this division of the animal kingdom
+it is the swimming bladder of the fish which becomes a new,
+deep-seated breathing organ, the lung.  The kind of animals
+known as amphibia, the frogs and newts of to-day, begin
+their lives in the water and breathe by gills; and subsequently
+the lung, developing in the same way as the swimming
+bladder of many fishes do, as a baglike outgrowth from the throat,
+takes over the business of breathing, the animal comes out on
+land, and the gills dwindle and the gill slits disappear.  (All
+except an outgrowth of one gill slit, which becomes the passage of
+the ear and ear-drum.)  The animal can now live only in the air,
+but it must return at least to the edge of the water to lay its
+eggs and reproduce its kind.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT; THE ERYOPS]
+
+All the air-breathing vertebrata of this age of swamps and plants
+belonged to the class amphibia.  They were nearly all of them
+forms related to the newts of to-day, and some of them attained a
+considerable size.  They were land animals, it is true, but they
+were land animals needing to live in and near moist and swampy
+places, and all the great trees of this period were equally {25}
+amphibious in their habits.  None of them had yet developed fruits
+and seeds of a kind that could fall on land and develop with the
+help only of such moisture as dew and rain could bring.  They all
+had to shed their spores in water, it would seem, if they were to
+germinate.
+
+It is one of the most beautiful interests of that beautiful
+science, comparative anatomy, to trace the complex and wonderful
+adaptations of living things to the necessities of existence in
+air.  All living things, plants and animals alike, are primarily
+water things.  For example all the higher vertebrated animals
+above the fishes, up to and including man, pass through a stage in
+their development in the egg or before birth in which they have
+gill slits which are obliterated before the young emerge.  The
+bare, water-washed eye of the fish is protected in the higher
+forms from drying up by eyelids and glands which secrete moisture.
+The weaker sound vibrations of air necessitate an ear-drum.  In
+nearly every organ of the body similar modifications and
+adaptations are to be detected, similar patchings-up to meet
+aerial conditions.
+
+This Carboniferous age, this age of the amphibia, was an age of
+life in the swamps and lagoons and on the low banks among these
+waters.  Thus far life had now extended.  The hills and high lands
+were still quite barren and lifeless.  Life had learnt to breathe
+air indeed, but it still had its roots in its native water; it
+still had to return to the water to reproduce its kind.
+
+
+
+
+{26}
+
+VI
+
+THE AGE OF REPTILES
+
+
+The abundant life of the Carboniferous period was succeeded by a
+vast cycle of dry and bitter ages.  They are represented in the
+Record of the Rocks by thick deposits of sandstones and the like,
+in which fossils are comparatively few.  The temperature of the
+world fluctuated widely, and there were long periods of glacial
+cold.  Over great areas the former profusion of swamp vegetation
+ceased, and, overlaid by these newer deposits, it began that
+process of compression and mineralization that gave the world most
+of the coal deposits of to-day.
+
+But it is during periods of change that life undergoes its most
+rapid modifications, and under hardship that it learns its hardest
+lessons.  As conditions revert towards warmth and moisture again
+we find a new series of animal and plant forms established,  We
+find in the record the remains of vertebrated animals that laid
+eggs which, instead of hatching out tadpoles which needed to live
+for a time in water, carried on their development before hatching
+to a stage so nearly like the adult form that the young could live
+in air from the first moment of independent existence.  Gills had
+been cut out altogether, and the gill slits only appeared as an
+embryonic phase.
+
+These new creatures without a tadpole stage were the Reptiles.
+Concurrently there had been a development of seed-bearing trees,
+which could spread their seed, independently of swamp or lakes.
+There were now palmlike cycads and many tropical conifers, though
+as yet there were no flowering plants and no grasses.  There was a
+great number of ferns.  And there was now also an increased
+variety of insects.  There were beetles, though bees and
+butterflies had yet to come.  But all the fundamental forms of a
+new real land fauna and flora had been laid down during these vast
+ages of severity.  {27} This new land life needed only the
+opportunity of favourable conditions to flourish and prevail.
+
+[Illustration: A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD]
+
+Age by age and with abundant fluctuations that mitigation came.
+The still incalculable movements of the earth's crust, the changes
+in its orbit, the increase and diminution of the mutual
+inclination of orbit and pole, worked together to produce a great
+spell of widely diffused warm conditions.  The period lasted
+altogether, it is now supposed, upwards of two hundred million
+years.  It is called the Mesozoic period, to distinguish it from
+the altogether vaster Palaeozoic and Azoic periods (together
+fourteen hundred millions) that preceded it, and from the
+Cainozoic or new life period that intervened between its close and
+the present time, and it is also called the Age of Reptiles
+because of the astonishing predominance and variety of this form
+of life.  It came to an end some eighty million  years ago.
+
+In the world to-day the genera of Reptiles are comparatively few
+and their distribution is very limited.  They are more various, it
+is true, than are the few surviving members of the order of the
+amphibia which once in the Carboniferous period ruled the world.
+We still have the snakes, the turtles and tortoises (the
+Chelonia), {28} the alligators and crocodiles, and the lizards.
+Without exception they are creatures requiring warmth all the year
+round; they cannot stand exposure to cold, and it is probable that
+all the reptilian beings of the Mesozoic suffered under the same
+limitation.  It was a hothouse fauna, living amidst a hothouse
+flora.  It endured no frosts.  But the world had at least attained
+a real dry land fauna and flora as distinguished from the mud and
+swamp fauna and flora of the previous heyday of life upon earth.
+
+[Illustration: A PTERODACTYL]
+
+All the sorts of reptile we know now were much more abundantly
+represented then, great turtles and tortoises, big crocodiles and
+many lizards and snakes, but in addition there was a number of
+series of wonderful creatures that have now vanished altogether
+from the earth.  There was a vast variety of beings called the
+Dinosaurs.  Vegetation was now spreading over the lower levels of
+the world, reeds, brakes of fern and the like; and browsing upon
+this abundance came a multitude of herbivorous reptiles, which
+increased in size as the Mesozoic period rose to its climax.  Some
+of these beasts exceeded in size any other land animals that have
+ever lived; they were as large as whales.  The _Diplodocus
+Carnegii_ for example measured eighty-four feet from snout to
+tail; the Gigantosaurus was even greater; it measured a hundred
+feet.  Living upon these monsters was a swarm of carnivorous
+Dinosaurs of a corresponding size.  One of these, the
+Tyrannosaurus, is figured and described in many books as the last
+word in reptilian frightfulness.
+
+{29}
+
+[Illustration: A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS,
+OVER EIGHTY FEET FROM SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP]
+
+While these great creatures pastured and pursued amidst the fronds
+and evergreens of the Mesozoic jungles, another now vanished tribe
+of reptiles, with a bat-like development of the fore limbs,
+pursued insects and one another, first leapt and parachuted and
+presently flew amidst the fronds and branches of the forest trees.
+These were the Pterodactyls. These were the first flying creatures
+with backbones; they mark a new achievement in the growing powers
+of vertebrated life.
+
+Moreover some of the reptiles were returning to the sea waters.
+Three groups of big swimming beings had invaded the sea from which
+their ancestors had come: the Mososaurs, the Plesiosaurs, and
+Ichthyosaurs.  Some of these again approached the proportions of
+our present whales.  The Ichthyosaurs seem to have been quite
+seagoing creatures, but the Plesiosaurs were a type of animal that
+has no cognate form to-day.  The body was stout and big with
+paddles, adapted either for swimming or crawling through marshes,
+or along the bottom of shallow waters.  The comparatively small
+{30} head was poised on a vast snake of neck, altogether outdoing
+the neck of the swan.  Either the Plesiosaur swam and searched for
+food under the water and fed as the swan will do, or it lurked
+under water and snatched at passing fish or beast.
+
+Such was the predominant land life throughout the Mesozoic age.
+It was by our human standards an advance upon anything that had
+preceded it.  It had produced land animals greater in size, range,
+power and activity, more "vital" as people say, than anything the
+world had seen before.  In the seas there had been no such advance
+but a great proliferation of new forms of life.  An enormous
+variety of squid-like creatures with chambered shells, for the
+most part coiled, had appeared in the shallow seas, the Ammonites.
+They had had predecessors in the Palaeozoic seas, but now was their
+age of glory.  To-day they have left no survivors at all; their
+nearest relation is the pearly Nautilus, an inhabitant of tropical
+waters.  And a new and more prolific type of fish with lighter,
+finer scales than the plate-like and tooth-like coverings that had
+hitherto prevailed, became and has since remained predominant in
+the seas and rivers.
+
+
+
+
+{31}
+
+VII
+
+THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS
+
+
+In a few paragraphs a picture of the lush vegetation and swarming
+reptiles of that first great summer of life, the Mesozoic period,
+has been sketched.  But while the Dinosaurs lorded it over the hot
+selvas and marshy plains and the Pterodactyls filled the forests
+with their flutterings and possibly with shrieks and croakings as
+they pursued the humming insect life of the still flowerless
+shrubs and trees, some less conspicuous and less abundant forms
+upon the margins of this abounding life were acquiring certain
+powers and learning certain lessons of endurance, that were to be
+of the utmost value to their race when at last the smiling
+generosity of sun and earth began to fade.
+
+A group of tribes and genera of hopping reptiles, small creatures
+of the dinosaur type, seem to have been pushed by competition and
+the pursuit of their enemies towards the alternatives of
+extinction or adaptation to colder conditions in the higher hills
+or by the sea.  Among these distressed tribes there was developed
+a new type of scale--scales that were elongated into quill-like
+forms and that presently branched into the crude beginnings of
+feathers.  These quill-like scales layover one another and formed
+a heat-retaining covering more efficient than any reptilian
+covering that had hitherto existed.  So they permitted an invasion
+of colder regions that were otherwise uninhabited.  Perhaps
+simultaneously with these changes there arose in these creatures a
+greater solicitude for their eggs.  Most reptiles are apparently
+quite careless about their eggs, which are left for sun and season
+to hatch.  But some of the varieties upon this new branch of the
+tree of life were acquiring a habit of guarding their eggs and
+keeping them warm with the warmth of their bodies.
+
+With these adaptations to cold other internal modifications {32}
+were going on that made these creatures, the primitive birds,
+warm-blooded and independent of basking.  The very earliest birds
+seem to have been seabirds living upon fish, and their fore limbs
+were not wings but paddles rather after the penguin type.  That
+peculiarly primitive bird, the New Zealand Ki-Wi, has feathers of
+a very simple sort, and neither flies nor appears to be descended
+from flying ancestors.  In the development of the birds, feathers
+came before wings.  But once the feather was developed the
+possibility of making a light spread of feathers led inevitably to
+the wing.  We know of the fossil remains of one bird at least
+which had reptilian teeth in its jaw and a long reptilian tail,
+but which also had a true bird's wing and which certainly flew and
+held its own among the pterodactyls of the Mesozoic time.
+Nevertheless birds were neither varied nor abundant in Mesozoic
+times.  If a man could go back to typical Mesozoic country, he
+might walk for days and never see or hear such a thing as a bird,
+though he would see a great abundance of pterodactyls and insects
+among the fronds and reeds.
+
+[Illustration: FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST
+BIRDS]
+
+And another thing he would probably never see, and that would be
+any sign of a mammal.  Probably the first mammals were in {33}
+existence millions of years before the first thing one could call
+a bird, but they were altogether too small and obscure and remote
+for attention.
+
+[Illustration: HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS]
+
+The earliest mammals, like the earliest birds, were creatures
+driven by competition and pursuit into a life of hardship and
+adaptation to cold.  With them also the scale became quill-like,
+and was developed into a heat-retaining covering; and they too
+underwent modifications, similar in kind though different in
+detail, to become warm-blooded and independent of basking.
+Instead of feathers they developed hairs, and instead of guarding
+and incubating their eggs they kept them warm and safe by
+retaining them inside their bodies until they were almost mature.
+Most of them became altogether vivaparous and brought their young
+into the world alive.  And even after their young were born they
+tended to maintain a protective and nutritive association with
+them.  Most {34} but not all mammals to-day have mammae and suckle
+their young.  Two mammals still live which lay eggs and which have
+not proper mammae, though they nourish their young by a nutritive
+secretion of the under skin; these are the duck-billed platypus
+and the echidna.  The echidna lays leathery eggs and then puts
+them into a pouch under its belly, and so carries them about warm
+and safe until they hatch.
+
+But just as a visitor to the Mesozoic world might have searched
+for days and weeks before finding a bird, so, unless he knew
+exactly where to go and look, he might have searched in vain for
+any traces of a mammal.  Both birds and mammals would have seemed
+very eccentric and secondary and unimportant creatures in Mesozoic
+times.
+
+[Illustration: THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND]
+
+====================================================================
+
+{35}
+
+[Illustration: SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL]
+
+====================================================================
+
+The Age of Reptiles lasted, it is now guessed, eighty million
+years.  Had any quasi-human intelligence been watching the world
+through that inconceivable length of time, how safe and eternal
+the sunshine and abundance must have seemed, how assured the
+wallowing prosperity of the dinosaurs and the flapping abundance
+of the flying lizards!  And then the mysterious rhythms and
+accumulating forces of the universe began to turn against that
+quasi-eternal stability.  That run of luck {36} for life was
+running out.  Age by age, myriad of years after myriad of years,
+with halts no doubt and retrogressions, came a change towards
+hardship and extreme conditions, came great alterations of level
+and great redistributions of mountain and sea.  We find one thing
+in the Record of the Rocks during the decadence of the long
+Mesozoic age of prosperity that is very significant of steadily
+sustained changes of condition, and that is a violent fluctuation
+of living forms and the appearance of new and strange species.
+Under the gathering threat of extinction the older orders and
+genera are displaying their utmost capacity for variation and
+adaptation.  The Ammonites for example in these last pages of the
+Mesozoic chapter exhibit a multitude of fantastic forms.  Under
+settled conditions there is no encouragement for novelties; they
+do not develop, they are suppressed; what is best adapted is
+already there.  Under novel conditions it is the ordinary type
+that suffers, and the novelty that may have a better chance to
+survive and establish itself....
+
+There comes a break in the Record of the Rocks that may represent
+several million years.  There is a veil here still, over even the
+outline of the history of life.  When it lifts again, the Age of
+Reptiles is at an end; the Dinosaurs, the Plesiosaurs and
+Ichthyosaurs, the Pterodactyls, the innumerable genera and species
+of Ammonite have all gone absolutely.  In all their stupendous
+variety they have died out and left no descendants.  The cold has
+killed them.  All their final variations were insufficient; they
+had never hit upon survival conditions.  The world had passed
+through a phase of extreme conditions beyond their powers of
+endurance, a slow and complete massacre of Mesozoic life has
+occurred, and we find now a new scene, a new and hardier flora,
+and a new and hardier fauna in possession of the world.
+
+It is still a bleak and impoverished scene with which this new
+volume of the book of life begins. The cycads and tropical
+conifers have given place very largely to trees that shed their
+leaves to avoid destruction by the snows of winter and to
+flowering plants and shrubs, and where there was formerly a
+profusion of reptiles, an increasing variety of birds and mammals
+is entering into their inheritance.
+
+
+
+
+{37}
+
+VIII
+
+THE AGE OF MAMMALS
+
+
+The opening of the next great period in the life of the earth, the
+Cainozoic period, was a period of upheaval and extreme volcanic
+activity.  Now it was that the vast masses of the Alps and
+Himalayas and the mountain backbone of the Rockies and Andes were
+thrust up, and that the rude outlines of our present oceans and
+continents appeared.  The map of the world begins to display a
+first dim resemblance to the map of to-day.  It is estimated now
+that between forty and eighty million years have elapsed from the
+beginnings of the Cainozoic period to the present time.
+
+At the outset of the Cainozoic period the climate of the world was
+austere.  It grew generally warmer until a fresh phase of great
+abundance was reached, after which conditions grew hard again and
+the earth passed into a series of extremely cold cycles, the
+Glacial Ages, from which apparently it is now slowly emerging.
+
+But we do not know sufficient of the causes of climatic change at
+present to forecast the possible fluctuations of climatic
+conditions that lie before us.  We may be moving towards
+increasing sunshine or lapsing towards another glacial age;
+volcanic activity and the upheaval of mountain masses may be
+increasing or diminishing; we do not know; we lack sufficient
+science.
+
+With the opening of this period the grasses appear; for the first
+time there is pasture in the world; and with the full development
+of the once obscure mammalian type, appear a number of interesting
+grazing animals and of carnivorous types which prey upon these.
+
+At first these early mammals seem to differ only in a few
+characters from the great herbivorous and carnivorous reptiles
+that ages before had flourished and then vanished from the earth.
+A {38} careless observer might suppose that in this second long
+age of warmth and plenty that was now beginning, nature was merely
+repeating the first, with herbivorous and carnivorous mammals to
+parallel the herbivorous and carnivorous dinosaurs, with birds
+replacing pterodactyls and so on.  But this would be an altogether
+superficial comparison.  The variety of the universe is infinite
+and incessant; it progresses eternally; history never repeats
+itself and no parallels are precisely true.  The differences
+between the life of the Cainozoic and Mesozoic periods are far
+profounder than the resemblances.
+
+
+[Illustration: A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD]
+
+The most fundamental of all these differences lies in the mental
+life of the two periods.  It arises essentially out of the
+continuing contact of parent and offspring which distinguishes
+mammalian and in a lesser degree bird life, from the life of the
+reptile.  With very few exceptions the reptile abandons its egg to
+hatch alone.  The young reptile has no knowledge whatever of its
+parent; its mental life, such as it is, begins and ends with its
+own experiences.  {39} It may tolerate the existence of its
+fellows but it has no communication with them; it never imitates,
+never learns from them, is incapable of concerted action with
+them.  Its life is that of an isolated individual.  But with the
+suckling and cherishing of young which was distinctive of the new
+mammalian and avian strains arose the possibility of learning by
+imitation, of communication, by warning cries and other concerted
+action, of mutual control and instruction.  A teachable type of
+life had come into the world.
+
+The earliest mammals of the Cainozoic period are but little
+superior in brain size to the more active carnivorous dinosaurs,
+but as we read on through the record towards modern times we find,
+in every tribe and race of the mammalian animals, a steady
+universal increase in brain capacity.  For instance we find at a
+comparatively early stage that rhinoceros-like beasts appear.
+There is a creature, the Titanotherium, which lived in the
+earliest division of this period.  It was probably very like a
+modern rhinoceros in its habits and needs.  But its brain capacity
+was not one tenth that of its living successor.
+
+The earlier mammals probably parted from their offspring as soon
+as suckling was over, but, once the capacity for mutual
+understanding has arisen, the advantages of continuing the
+association are very great; and we presently find a number of
+mammalian species displaying the beginnings of a true social life
+and keeping together in herds, packs and flocks, watching each
+other, imitating each other, taking warning from each other's acts
+and cries.  This is something that the world had not seen before
+among vertebrated animals.   Reptiles and fish may no doubt be
+found in swarms and shoals; they have been hatched in quantities
+and similar conditions have kept them together, but in the case of
+the social and gregarious mammals the association arises not
+simply from a community of external forces, it is sustained by an
+inner impulse.  They are not merely like one another and so found
+in the same places at the same times; they like one another and so
+they keep together.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{40}
+
+[Illustration: STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI--A GIRAFFE-CAMEL]
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS--EARLY HORSE]
+
+====================================================================
+
+This difference between the reptile world and the world of our
+human minds is one our sympathies seem unable to pass.  We cannot
+conceive in ourselves the swift uncomplicated urgency of a
+reptile's instinctive motives, its appetites, fears and hates.  We
+{41} cannot understand them in their simplicity because all our
+motives are complicated; our's are balances and resultants and not
+simple urgencies.  But the mammals and birds have
+self-restraint and consideration for other individuals, a social
+appeal, a self-control that is, at its lower level, after our own
+fashion.  We can in consequence establish relations with almost
+all sorts of them.  When they suffer they utter cries and make
+movements that rouse our feelings.  We can make understanding pets
+of them with a mutual recognition.  They can be tamed to
+self-restraint towards us, domesticated and taught.
+
+[Illustration: COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND
+DINOCERAS]
+
+That unusual growth of brain which is the central fact of
+Cainozoic times marks a new communication and interdependence of
+individuals.  It foreshadows the development of human societies of
+which we shall soon be telling.
+
+As the Cainozoic period unrolled, the resemblance of its flora and
+fauna to the plants and animals that inhabit the world to-day {42}
+increased.  The big clumsy Uintatheres and Titanotheres, the
+Entelodonts and Hyracodons, big clumsy brutes like nothing living,
+disappeared.  On the other hand a series of forms led up by steady
+degrees from grotesque and clumsy predecessors to the giraffes,
+camels, horses, elephants, deer, dogs and lions and tigers of the
+existing world.  The evolution of the horse is particularly
+legible upon the geological record.  We have a fairly complete
+series of forms from a small tapir-like ancestor in the early
+Cainozoic.  Another line of development that has now been pieced
+together with some precision is that of the llamas and camels.
+
+
+
+
+{43}
+
+IX
+
+MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN
+
+
+Naturalists divide the class _Mammalia_ into a number of orders.
+At the head of these is the order _Primates_, which includes the
+lemurs, the monkeys, apes and man.  Their classification was based
+originally upon anatomical resemblances and took no account of any
+mental qualities.
+
+Now the past history of the Primates is one very difficult to
+decipher in the geological record.  They are for the most part
+animals which live in forests like the lemurs and monkeys or in
+bare rocky places like the baboons.  They are rarely drowned and
+covered up by sediment, nor are most of them very numerous
+species, and so they do not figure so largely among the fossils as
+the ancestors of the horses, camels and so forth do.  But we know
+that quite early in the Cainozoic period, that is to say some
+forty million years ago or so, primitive monkeys and lemuroid
+creatures had appeared, poorer in brain and not so specialized as
+their later successors.
+
+The great world summer of the middle Cainozoic period drew at last
+to an end.  It was to follow those other two great summers in the
+history of life, the summer of the Coal Swamps and the vast summer
+of the Age of Reptiles.  Once more the earth spun towards an ice
+age.  The world chilled, grew milder for a time and chilled again.
+In the warm past hippopotami had wallowed through a lush
+sub-tropical vegetation, and a tremendous tiger with fangs like
+sabres, the sabre-toothed tiger, had hunted its prey where now the
+journalists of Fleet Street go to and fro.  Now came a bleaker age
+and still bleaker ages.  A great weeding and extinction of species
+occurred.  A woolly rhinoceros, adapted to a cold climate, and the
+mammoth, a big woolly cousin of the elephants, the Arctic musk ox
+and the reindeer passed across the scene.  Then century by century
+the Arctic ice cap, the wintry death of the great Ice Age, crept
+{44} southward.  In England it came almost down to the Thames, in
+America it reached Ohio.  There would be warmer spells of a few
+thousand years and relapses towards a bitterer cold.
+
+[Illustration: A MAMMOTH]
+
+Geologists talk of these wintry phases as the First, Second, Third
+and Fourth Glacial Ages, and of the interludes as Interglacial
+periods.  We live to-day in a world that is still impoverished and
+scarred by that terrible winter.  The First Glacial Age was coming
+on 600,000 years ago; the Fourth Glacial Age reached its bitterest
+some fifty thousand years ago.  And it was amidst the snows of
+this long universal winter that the first man-like beings lived
+upon our planet.
+
+By the middle Cainozoic period there have appeared various apes
+with many quasi-human attributes of the jaws and leg bones, but it
+is only as we approach these Glacial Ages that we find traces of
+creatures that we can speak of as "almost human."  These traces
+are not bones but implements.  In Europe, in deposits of this
+period, between half a million and a million years old, we find
+flints {45} and stones that have evidently been chipped
+intentionally by some handy creature desirous of hammering,
+scraping or fighting with the sharpened edge.  These things have
+been called "Eoliths" (dawn stones).  In Europe there are no bones
+nor other remains of the creature which made these objects, simply
+the objects themselves.  For all the certainty we have it may have
+been some entirely un-human but intelligent monkey.  But at Trinil
+in Java, in accumulations of this age, a piece of a skull and
+various teeth and bones have been found of a sort of ape man, with
+a brain case bigger than that of any living apes, which seems to
+have walked erect.  This creature is now called _Pithecanthropus
+erectus_, the walking ape man, and the little trayful of its bones
+is the only help our imaginations have as yet in figuring to,
+ourselves the makers of the Eoliths.
+
+[Illustration: FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN PILTDOWN REGION]
+
+It is not until we come to sands that are almost a quarter of a
+million years old that we find any other particle of a sub-human
+being.  But there are plenty of implements, and they are steadily
+improving in quality as we read on through the record.  They are
+no longer clumsy Eoliths; they are now shapely instruments made
+with considerable skill.  _And they are much bigger than the
+similar implements afterwards made by true man._ Then, in a
+sandpit at Heidelberg, appears a single quasi-human jaw-bone, a
+clumsy jaw-bone, absolutely chinless, far heavier than a true
+human jaw-bone and narrower, so that it is improbable the
+creature's tongue could have moved about for articulate speech.
+On the strength of this jaw-bone, scientific men suppose this
+creature to have been a heavy, almost human monster, possibly with
+huge limbs and hands, possibly with a thick felt of hair, and they
+call it the Heidelberg Man.
+
+{46}
+
+This jaw-bone is, I think, one of the most tormenting objects in
+the world to our human curiosity.  To see it is like looking
+through a defective glass into the past and catching just one
+blurred and tantalizing glimpse of this Thing, shambling through
+the bleak wilderness, clambering to avoid the sabre-toothed tiger,
+watching the woolly rhinoceros in the woods.  Then before we can
+scrutinize the monster, he vanishes.  Yet the soil is littered
+abundantly with the indestructible implements he chipped out for
+his uses.
+
+[Illustration: A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS
+ERECTUS BY PROF. RUTOT]
+
+[Illustration: THE HEIDELBERG MAN]
+
+Still more fascinatingly enigmatical are the remains of a creature
+found at Piltdown in Sussex in a deposit that may indicate an age
+between a hundred and a hundred and fifty thousand years ago,
+though some authorities would put these particular remains back in
+time to before the Heidelberg jaw-bone.  Here there {47} are the
+remains of a thick sub-human skull much larger than any existing
+ape's, and a chimpanzee-like jaw-bone which may or may not belong
+to it, and, in addition, a bat-shaped piece of elephant bone
+evidently carefully manufactured, through which a hole had
+apparently been bored.  There is also the thigh-bone of a deer
+with cuts upon it like a tally.  That is all.
+
+[Illustration: THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ORIGINAL
+FRAGMENT]
+
+What sort of beast was this creature which sat and bored holes in
+bones?
+
+Scientific men have named him Eoanthropus, the Dawn Man.  He
+stands apart from his kindred; a very different being either from
+the Heidelberg creature or from any living ape.  No other vestige
+like him is known.  But the gravels and deposits of from one
+hundred thousand years onward are increasingly rich in implements
+of flint and similar stone.  And these implements are no longer
+rude "Eoliths." The archaeologists are presently able to
+distinguish scrapers, borers, knives, darts, throwing stones and
+hand axes ....
+
+We are drawing very near to man.  In our next section we shall
+have to describe the strangest of all these precursors of
+humanity, the Neanderthalers, the men who were almost, but not
+quite, true men.
+
+But it may be well perhaps to state quite clearly here that no
+scientific man supposes either of these creatures, the Heidelberg
+Man or _Eoanthropus_, to be direct ancestors of the men of to-day.
+These are, at the closest, related forms.
+
+
+
+
+{48}
+
+X
+
+THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN
+
+
+About fifty or sixty thousand years ago, before the climax of the
+Fourth Glacial Age, there lived a creature on earth so like a man
+that until a few years ago its remains were considered to be
+altogether human.  We have skulls and bones of it and a great
+accumulation of the large implements it made and used.  It made
+fires.  It sheltered in caves from the cold.  It probably dressed
+skins roughly and wore them.  It was right-handed as men are.
+
+Yet now the ethnologists tell us these creatures were not true
+men.  They were of a different species of the same genus.  They
+had heavy protruding jaws and great brow ridges above the eyes and
+very low foreheads.  Their thumbs were not opposable to the
+fingers as men's are; their necks were so poised that they could
+not turn back their heads and look up to the sky.  They probably
+slouched along, head down and forward.  Their chinless jaw-bones
+resemble the Heidelberg jaw-bone and are markedly unlike human
+jaw-bones.  And there were great differences from the human
+pattern in their teeth.  Their cheek teeth were more complicated
+in structure than ours, more complicated and not less so; they had
+not the long fangs of our cheek teeth; and also these quasi-men
+had not the marked canines (dog teeth) of an ordinary human being.
+The capacity of their skulls was quite human, but the brain was
+bigger behind and lower in front than the human brain.  Their
+intellectual faculties were differently arranged.  They were not
+ancestral to the human line. Mentally and physically they were
+upon a different line from the human line.
+
+Skulls and bones of this extinct species of man were found at
+Neanderthal {49} among other places, and from that place these
+strange proto-men have been christened Neanderthal Men, or
+Neanderthalers. They must have endured in Europe for many hundreds
+or even thousands of years.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT]
+
+At that time the climate and geography of our world was very
+different from what they are at the present time. Europe for
+example was covered with ice reaching as far south as the Thames
+and into Central Germany and Russia; there was no Channel
+separating Britain from France; the Mediterranean and the Red Sea
+were great valleys, with perhaps a chain of lakes in their deeper
+portions, and a great inland sea spread from the present Black Sea
+across South Russia and far into Central Asia.  Spain and all of
+Europe not actually under ice consisted of bleak uplands under a
+harder climate than that of Labrador, and it was only when North
+Africa was reached that one would have found a temperate climate.
+Across the cold steppes of Southern Europe with its sparse arctic
+vegetation, drifted such hardy creatures as the woolly mammoth,
+and woolly rhinoceros, great oxen and reindeer, no doubt following
+the vegetation northward in spring and southward in autumn.
+
+{50}
+
+[Map: Possible Outline of Europe and Western Asia at the Maximum
+of the Fourth Ice Age (about 50,000 years ago)]
+
+Such was the scene through which the Neanderthaler wandered,
+gathering such subsistence as he could from small game or fruits
+and berries and roots.  Possibly he was mainly a vegetarian,
+chewing twigs and roots.  His level elaborate teeth suggest a
+largely vegetarian dietary.  But we also find the long marrow
+bones of great animals in his caves, cracked to extract the
+marrow.  His weapons could not have been of much avail in open
+conflict with great beasts, but it is supposed that he attacked
+them with spears at difficult river crossings and even constructed
+pitfalls for them.  Possibly he followed the herds and preyed upon
+any dead that were killed in fights, and perhaps he played the
+part of jackal to the sabre-toothed tiger which still survived in
+his day.  Possibly in the bitter hardships of the Glacial Ages
+this creature had taken to attacking animals after long ages of
+vegetarian adaptation.
+
+We cannot guess what this Neanderthal man looked like. He may have
+been very hairy and very unhuman-looking indeed.  It is even
+doubtful if he went erect.  He may have used his knuckles as well
+as his feet to hold himself up. Probably he went about {51} alone
+or in small family groups.  It is inferred from the structure of
+his jaw that he was incapable of speech as we understand it.
+
+For thousands of years these Neanderthalers were the highest
+animals that the European area had ever seen; and then some thirty
+or thirty-five thousand years ago as the climate grew warmer a
+race of kindred beings, more intelligent, knowing more, talking
+and co-operating together, came drifting into the Neanderthaler's
+world from the south.  They ousted the Neanderthalers from their
+caves and squatting places; they hunted the same food; they
+probably made war upon their grisly predecessors and killed them
+off.  These newcomers from the south or the east--for at present
+we do not know their region of origin--who at last drove the
+Neanderthalers out of existence altogether, were beings of our own
+blood and kin, the first True Men.  Their brain-cases and thumbs
+and necks and teeth were anatomically the same as our own.  In a
+cave at Cro-Magnon and in another at Grimaldi, a number of
+skeletons have been found, the earliest truly human remains that
+are so far known.
+
+So it is our race comes into the Record of the Rocks, and the
+story of mankind begins.
+
+[Illustration: COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN
+SKULL]
+
+The world was growing liker our own in those days though the
+climate was still austere.  The glaciers of the Ice Age were
+receding in Europe; the reindeer of France and Spain presently
+gave way to great herds of horses as grass increased upon the
+steppes, and the {52} mammoth became more and more rare in
+southern Europe and finally receded northward altogether ....
+
+We do not know where the True Men first originated.  But in the
+summer of 1921, an extremely interesting skull was found together
+with pieces of a skeleton at Broken Hill in South Africa, which
+seems to be a relic of a third sort of man, intermediate in its
+characteristics between the Neanderthaler and the human being.
+The brain-case indicates a brain bigger in front and smaller
+behind than the Neanderthaler's, and the skull was poised erect
+upon the backbone in a quite human way.  The teeth also and the
+bones are quite human.  But the face must have been ape-like with
+enormous brow ridges and a ridge along the middle of the skull.
+The creature was indeed a true man, so to speak, with an ape-like,
+Neanderthaler face.  This Rhodesian Man is evidently still closer
+to real men than the Neanderthal Man.
+
+This Rhodesian skull is probably only the second of what in the
+end may prove to be a long list of finds of sub-human species
+which lived on the earth in the vast interval of time between the
+beginnings of the Ice Age and the appearance of their common heir,
+and perhaps their common exterminator, the True Man.  The
+Rhodesian skull itself may not be very ancient.  Up to the time of
+publishing this book there has been no exact determination of its
+probable age. It may be that this sub-human creature survived in
+South Africa until quite recent times.
+
+
+
+
+{53}
+
+XI
+
+THE FIRST TRUE MEN
+
+
+The earliest signs and traces at present known to science, of a
+humanity which is indisputably kindred with ourselves, have been
+found in western Europe and particularly in France and Spain.
+Bones, weapons, scratchings upon bone and rock, carved fragments
+of bone, and paintings in caves and upon rock surfaces dating, it
+is supposed, from 30,000 years ago or more, have been discovered
+in both these countries. Spain is at present the richest country
+in the world in these first relics of our real human ancestors.
+
+Of course our present collections of these things are the merest
+beginnings of the accumulations we may hope for in the future,
+when there are searchers enough to make a thorough examination of
+all possible sources and when other countries in the world, now
+inaccessible to archaeologists, have been explored in some detail.
+The greater part of Africa and Asia has never even been traversed
+yet by a trained observer interested in these matters and free to
+explore, and we must be very careful therefore not to conclude
+that the early true men were distinctively inhabitants of western
+Europe or that they first appeared in that region.
+
+In Asia or Africa or submerged beneath the sea of to-day there may
+be richer and much earlier deposits of real human remains than
+anything that has yet come to light.  I write in Asia or Africa,
+and I do not mention America because so far there have been no
+finds at all of any of the higher Primates, either of great apes,
+sub-men, Neanderthalers nor early true men.  This development of
+life seems to have been an exclusively old world development, and
+it was only apparently at the end of the Old Stone Age that human
+beings first made their way across the land connexion that is now
+cut by Behring Straits, into the American continent.
+
+{54}
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA,
+NORTH SPAIN]
+
+These first real human beings we know of in Europe appear already
+to have belonged to one or other of at least two very distinct
+races. One of these races was of a very high type indeed; it was
+tall and big brained.  One of the women's skulls found exceeds in
+capacity that of the average man of to-day.  One of the men's
+skeletons is over six feet in height.  The physical type resembled
+that of the North American Indian.  From the Cro-Magnon cave in
+which the first skeletons were found these people have been called
+Cro-Magnards.  They were savages, but savages of a high order.
+The second race, the race of the Grimaldi cave remains, was
+distinctly negroid in its characters.  Its nearest living
+affinities are the Bushmen and Hottentots of South Africa.  It is
+interesting to find at the very outset of the known human story,
+that mankind was already racially divided into at least two main
+varieties; and one is tempted to such unwarrantable guesses as
+that the former race was probably brownish rather than black and
+that it came from the East or North, and that the latter was
+blackish rather than brown and came from the equatorial south.
+
+{55}
+
+[Illustration: BONE CARVINGS OF THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD]
+
+{56}
+
+And these savages of perhaps forty thousand years ago were so
+human that they pierced shells to make necklaces, painted
+themselves, carved images of bone and stone, scratched figures on
+rocks and bones, and painted rude but often very able sketches of
+beasts and the like upon the smooth walls of caves and upon
+inviting rock surfaces.  They made a great variety of implements,
+much smaller in scale and finer than those of the Neanderthal men.
+We have now in our museums great quantities of their implements,
+their statuettes, their rock drawings and the like.
+
+The earliest of them were hunters.  Their chief pursuit was the
+wild horse, the little bearded pony of that time.  They followed
+it as it moved after pasture.  And also they followed the bison.
+They knew the mammoth, because they have left us strikingly
+effective pictures of that creature.  To judge by one rather
+ambiguous drawing they trapped and killed it.
+
+They hunted with spears and throwing stones.  They do not seem to
+have had the bow, and it is doubtful if they had yet learnt to
+tame any animals.  They had no dogs.  There is one carving of a
+horse's head and one or two drawings that suggest a bridled horse,
+with a twisted skin or tendon round it.  But the little horses of
+that age and region could not have carried a man, and if the horse
+was domesticated it was used as a led horse.  It is doubtful and
+improbable that they had yet learnt the rather unnatural use of
+animal's milk as food.
+
+They do not seem to have erected any buildings though they may
+have had tents of skins, and though they made clay figures they
+never rose to the making of pottery.  Since they had no cooking
+implements their cookery must have been rudimentary or
+nonexistent.  They knew nothing of cultivation and nothing of any
+sort of basket work or woven cloth. Except for their robes of skin
+or fur they were naked painted savages.
+
+These earliest known men hunted the open steppes of Europe for a
+hundred centuries perhaps, and then slowly drifted and changed
+before a change of climate.  Europe, century by century, was
+growing milder and damper. Reindeer receded northward and
+eastward, and bison and horse followed.  The steppes gave way to
+forests, and red deer took the place of horse and bison. There is
+a {57} change in the character of the implements with this change
+in their application.  River and lake fishing becomes of great
+importance to men, and fine implements of bone increased.  "The
+bone needles of this age," says de Mortillet, "are much superior
+to those of later, even historical times, down to the Renaissance.
+The Romans, for example, never had needles comparable to those of
+this epoch."
+
+[Illustration: THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN]
+
+Almost fifteen or twelve thousand years ago a fresh people drifted
+into the south of Spain, and left very remarkable drawings of
+themselves upon exposed rock faces there.  These were the Azilians
+(named from the Mas d'Azil cave).  They had the bow; they seem to
+have worn feather headdresses; they drew vividly; but also they
+had reduced their drawings to a sort of symbolism--a man for
+instance would be represented by a vertical dab with two or three
+horizontal dabs--that suggest the dawn of the writing idea.
+Against hunting sketches there are often marks like tallies.  One
+drawing shows two men smoking out a bees' nest.
+
+{58}
+
+[Illustration: FIGHT OF BOWMEN]
+
+{59}
+
+These are the latest of the men that we call Palaeolithic (Old
+Stone Age) because they had only chipped implements.  By ten or
+twelve thousand years a new sort of life has dawned in Europe, men
+have learnt not only to chip but to polish and grind stone
+implements, and they have begun cultivation.  The Neolithic Age
+(New Stone Age) was beginning.
+
+It is interesting to note that less than a century ago there still
+survived in a remote part of the world, in Tasmania, a race of
+human beings at a lower level of physical and intellectual
+development than any of these earliest races of mankind who have
+left traces in Europe.  These people had long ago been cut off by
+geographical changes from the rest of the species, and from
+stimulation and improvement.  They seem to have degenerated rather
+than developed.  They lived a base life subsisting upon shellfish
+and small game.  They had no habitations but only squatting
+places.  They were real men of our species, but they had neither
+the manual dexterity nor the artistic powers of the first true
+men.
+
+
+
+
+{60}
+
+XII
+
+PRIMITIVE THOUGHT
+
+
+And now let us indulge in a very interesting speculation; how did
+it feel to be a man in those early days of the human adventure?
+How did men think and what did they think in those remote days of
+hunting and wandering four hundred centuries ago before seed time
+and harvest began.  Those were days long before the written record
+of any human impressions, and we are left almost entirely to
+inference and guesswork in our answers to these questions.
+
+The sources to which scientific men have gone in their attempts to
+reconstruct that primitive mentality are very various.  Recently
+the science of psycho-analysis, which analyzes the way in which
+the egotistic and passionate impulses of the child are restrained,
+suppressed, modified or overlaid, to adapt them to the needs of
+social life, seems to have thrown a considerable amount of light
+upon the history of primitive society; and another fruitful source
+of suggestion has been the study of the ideas and customs of such
+contemporary savages as still survive.  Again there is a sort of
+mental fossilization which we find in folk-lore and the deep-lying
+irrational superstitions and prejudices that still survive among
+modern civilized people.  And finally we have in the increasingly
+numerous pictures, statues, carvings, symbols and the like, as we
+draw near to our own time, clearer and clearer indications of what
+man found interesting and worthy of record and representation.
+
+Primitive man probably thought very much as a child thinks, that
+is to say in a series of imaginative pictures.  He conjured up
+images or images presented themselves to his mind, and he acted in
+accordance with the emotions they aroused.  So a child or an
+uneducated person does to-day.  Systematic thinking is apparently
+a comparatively late development in human experience; it has not
+{61} played any great part in human life until within the last
+three thousand years.  And even to-day those who really control
+and order their thoughts are but a small minority of mankind.
+Most of the world still lives by imagination and passion.
+
+Probably the earliest human societies, in the opening stages of
+the true human story, were small family groups.  Just as the
+flocks and herds of the earlier mammals arose out of families
+which remained together and multiplied, so probably did the
+earliest tribes.  But before this could happen a certain restraint
+upon the primitive egotisms of the individual had to be
+established.  The fear of the father and respect for the mother
+had to be extended into adult life, and the natural jealousy of
+the old man of the group for the younger males as they grew up had
+to be mitigated.  The mother on the other hand was the natural
+adviser and protector of the young.  Human social life grew up out
+of the reaction between the crude instinct of the young to go off
+and pair by themselves as they grew up, on the one hand, and the
+dangers and disadvantages of separation on the other.  An
+anthropological writer of great genius, J. J. Atkinson, in his
+_Primal Law_, has shown how much of the customary law of savages,
+the _Tabus_, that are so remarkable a fact in tribal life, can be
+ascribed to such a mental adjustment of the needs of the primitive
+human animal to a developing social life, and the later work of
+the psycho-analysts has done much to confirm his interpretation of
+these possibilities.
+
+Some speculative writers would have us believe that respect and
+fear of the Old Man and the emotional reaction of the primitive
+savage to older protective women, exaggerated in dreams and
+enriched by fanciful mental play, played a large part in the
+beginnings of primitive religion and in the conception of gods and
+goddesses.  Associated with this respect for powerful or helpful
+personalities was a dread and exaltation of such personages after
+their deaths, due to their reappearance in dreams.  It was easy to
+believe they were not truly dead but only fantastically
+transferred to a remoteness of greater power.
+
+The dreams, imaginations and fears of a child are far more vivid
+and real than those of a modern adult, and primitive man was
+always something of a child. He was nearer to the animals {62}
+also, and he could suppose them to have motives and reactions like
+his own.  He could imagine animal helpers, animal enemies, animal
+gods.  One needs to have been an imaginative child oneself to
+realize again how important, significant, portentous or friendly,
+strangely shaped rocks, lumps of wood, exceptional trees or the
+like may have appeared to the men of the Old Stone Age, and how
+dream and fancy would create stories and legends about such things
+that would become credible as they told them.  Some of these
+stories would be good enough to remember and tell again.  The
+women would tell them to the children and so establish a
+tradition.  To this day most imaginative children invent long
+stories in which some favourite doll or animal or some fantastic
+semi-human being figures as the hero, and primitive man probably
+did the same--with a much stronger disposition to believe his hero
+real.
+
+[Illustration: RELICS OF THE STONE AGE]
+
+For the very earliest of the true men that we know of were
+probably quite talkative beings.  In that way they have differed
+from the Neanderthalers and had an advantage over them.  The
+Neanderthaler may have been a dumb animal. Of course the primitive
+{63} human speech was probably a very scanty collection of names,
+and may have been eked out with gestures and signs.
+
+There is no sort of savage so low as not to have a kind of science
+of cause and effect.  But primitive man was not very critical in
+his associations of cause with effect; he very easily connected an
+effect with something quite wrong as its cause. "You do so and
+so," he said, "and so and so happens."  You give a child a
+poisonous berry and it dies.  You eat the heart of a valiant enemy
+and you become strong.  There we have two bits of cause and effect
+association, one true one false.  We call the system of cause and
+effect in the mind of a savage, Fetish; but Fetish is simply
+savage science.  It differs from modern science in that it is
+totally unsystematic and uncritical and so more frequently wrong.
+
+[Illustration: WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE]
+
+In many cases it is not difficult to link cause and effect, in
+{64} many others erroneous ideas were soon corrected by
+experience; but there was a large series of issues of very great
+importance to primitive man, where he sought persistently for
+causes and found explanations that were wrong but not sufficiently
+wrong nor so obviously wrong as to be detected.  It was a matter
+of great importance to him that game should be abundant or fish
+plentiful and easily caught, and no doubt he tried and believed in
+a thousand charms, incantations and omens to determine these
+desirable results.  Another great concern of his was illness and
+death.  Occasionally infections crept through the land and men
+died of them.  Occasionally men were stricken by illness and died
+or were enfeebled without any manifest cause.  This too must have
+given the hasty, emotional mind of primitive man much feverish
+exercise.  Dreams and fantastic guesses made him blame this, or
+appeal for help to that man or beast or thing.  He had the child's
+aptitude for fear and panic.
+
+Quite early in the little human tribe, older, steadier minds
+sharing the fears, sharing the imaginations, but a little more
+forceful than the others, must have asserted themselves, to
+advise, to prescribe, to command. This they declared unpropitious
+and that imperative, this an omen of good and that an omen of
+evil.  The expert in Fetish, the Medicine Man, was the first
+priest.  He exhorted, he interpreted dreams, he warned, he
+performed the complicated hocus pocus that brought luck or averted
+calamity.  Primitive religion was not so much what we now call
+religion as practice and observance, and the early priest dictated
+what was indeed an arbitrary primitive practical science.
+
+
+
+
+{65}
+
+XIII
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION
+
+
+We are still very ignorant about the beginnings of cultivation and
+settlement in the world although a vast amount of research and
+speculation has been given to these matters in the last fifty
+years.  All that we can say with any confidence at present is that
+somewhen about 15,000 and 12,000 B.C. while the Azilian people
+were in the south of Spain and while the remnants of the earlier
+hunters were drifting northward and eastward, somewhere in North
+Africa or Western Asia or in that great Mediterranean valley that
+is now submerged under the waters of the Mediterranean sea, there
+were people who, age by age, were working out two vitally
+important things; they were beginning cultivation and they were
+domesticating animals.  They were also beginning to make, in
+addition to the chipped implements of their hunter forebears,
+implements of polished stone.  They had discovered the possibility
+of basketwork and roughly woven textiles of plant fibre, and they
+were beginning to make a rudely modelled pottery.
+
+They were entering upon a new phase in human culture, the
+Neolithic phase (New Stone Age) as distinguished from the
+Palaeolithic (Old Stone) phase of the Cro-Magnards, the Grimaldi
+people, the Azilians and their like.  [1]  Slowly these Neolithic
+people spread over the warmer parts of the world; and the arts
+they had mastered, the plants and animals they had learnt to use,
+spread by imitation and acquisition even more widely than they
+did.  By 10,000 B.C., most of mankind was at the Neolithic level.
+
+{66}
+
+Now the ploughing of land, the sowing of seed, the reaping of
+harvest, threshing and grinding, may seem the most obviously
+reasonable steps to a modern mind just as to a modern mind it is a
+commonplace that the world is round.  What else could you do?
+people will ask.  What else can it be?  But to the primitive man
+of twenty thousand years ago neither of the systems of action and
+reasoning that seem so sure and manifest to us to-day were at all
+obvious.  He felt his way to effectual practice through a
+multitude of trials and misconceptions, with fantastic and
+unnecessary elaborations and false interpretations at every turn.
+Somewhere in the Mediterranean region, wheat grew wild; and man
+may have learnt to pound and then grind up its seeds for food long
+before he learnt to sow.  He reaped before he sowed.
+
+And it is a very remarkable thing that throughout the world
+wherever there is sowing and harvesting there is still traceable
+the vestiges of a strong primitive association of the idea of
+sowing with the idea of a blood sacrifice, and primarily of the
+sacrifice of a human being.  The study of the original
+entanglement of these two things is a profoundly attractive one to
+the curious mind; the interested reader will find it very fully
+developed in that monumental work, Sir J. G. Frazer's _Golden
+Bough_.  It was an entanglement, we must remember, in the
+childish, dreaming, myth-making primitive mind; no reasoned
+process will explain it.  But in that world of 12,000 to 20,000
+years ago, it would seem that whenever seed time came round to the
+Neolithic peoples there was a human sacrifice.  And it was not the
+sacrifice of any mean or outcast person; it was the sacrifice
+usually of a chosen youth or maiden, a youth more often who was
+treated with profound deference and even worship up to the moment
+of his immolation.  He was a sort of sacrificial god-king, and all
+the details of his killing had become a ritual directed by the
+old, knowing men and sanctioned by the accumulated usage of ages.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{67}
+
+[Illustration: NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+At first primitive men, with only a very rough idea of the
+seasons, must have found great difficulty in determining when was
+the propitious moment for the seed-time sacrifice and the sowing.
+There is some reason for supposing that there was an early stage
+in human experience when men had no idea of a year. The first {68}
+chronology was in lunar months; it is supposed that the years of
+the Biblical patriarchs are really moons, and the Babylonian
+calendar shows distinct traces of an attempt to reckon seed time
+by taking thirteen lunar months to see it round. This lunar
+influence upon the calendar reaches down to our own days. If usage
+did not dull our sense of its strangeness we should think it a
+very remarkable thing indeed that the Christian Church does not
+commemorate the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Christ on the
+proper anniversaries but on dates that vary year by year with the
+phases of the moon.
+
+[Illustration: NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY]
+
+It may be doubted whether the first agriculturalists made any
+observation of the stars.  It is more likely that stars were first
+observed by migratory herdsmen, who found them a convenient mark
+of direction.  But once their use in determining seasons was
+realized, their importance to agriculture became very great.  The
+seed-time sacrifice was linked up with the southing or northing of
+some prominent star.  A myth and worship of that star was for
+primitive man an almost inevitable consequence.
+
+It is easy to see how important the man of knowledge and
+experience, the man who knew about the blood sacrifice and the
+stars, became in this early Neolithic world.
+
+The fear of uncleanness and pollution, and the methods of
+cleansing that were advisable, constituted another source of power
+for the knowledgeable men and women. For there have always been
+witches as well as wizards, and priestesses as well as priests.
+The early priest was really not so much a {69} religious man as a
+man of applied science.  His science was generally empirical and
+often bad; he kept it secret from the generality of men very
+jealously; but that does not alter the fact that his primary
+function was knowledge and that his primary use was a practical
+use.
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY]
+
+Twelve or fifteen thousand years ago, in all the warm and fairly
+well-watered parts of the Old World these Neolithic human
+communities, with their class and tradition of priests and
+priestesses and their cultivated fields and their development of
+villages and little walled cities, were spreading.  Age by age a
+drift and exchange of ideas went on between these communities.
+Eliot Smith and Rivers have used the term "Heliolithic culture"
+for the culture of these first agricultural peoples.
+"Heliolithic" (Sun and Stone) is not perhaps the best possible
+word to use for this, but until scientific men give us a better
+one we shall have to use it.  Originating somewhere in the
+Mediterranean and western Asiatic area, it spread age by age
+eastward and from island to island across the Pacific until it may
+even have reached America and mingled with the more primitive ways
+of living of the Mongoloid immigrants coming down from the North.
+
+Wherever the brownish people with the Heliolithic culture went
+they took with them all or most of a certain group of curious
+ideas and practices.  Some of them are such queer ideas that they
+call for the explanation of the mental expert.  They made pyramids
+{70} and great mounds, and set up great circles of big stones,
+perhaps to facilitate the astronomical observation of the priests;
+they made mummies of some or all of their dead; they tattooed and
+circumcized; they had the old custom, known as the _couvade_, of
+sending the _father_ to bed and rest when a child was born, and
+they had as a luck symbol the well-known Swastika.
+
+If we were to make a map of the world with dots to show how far
+these group practices have left their traces, we should make a
+belt along the temperate and sub-tropical coasts of the world from
+Stonehenge and Spain across the world to Mexico and Peru.  But
+Africa below the equator, north central Europe, and north Asia
+would show none of these dottings; there lived races who were
+developing along practically independent lines.
+
+[1] The term Palaeolithic we may note is also used to cover the
+Neanderthaler and even the Eolithic implements.  The pre-human age
+is called the "Older Palaeolithic;" the age of true men using
+unpolished stones in the "Newer Palaeolithic."
+
+
+
+
+{71}
+
+XIV
+
+PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS
+
+
+About 10,000 B.C. the geography of the world was very similar in
+its general outline to that of the world to-day.  It is probable
+that by that time the great barrier across the Straits of
+Gibraltar that had hitherto banked back the ocean waters from the
+Mediterranean valley had been eaten through, and that the
+Mediterranean was a sea following much the same coastlines as it
+does now.  The Caspian Sea was probably still far more extensive
+than it is at present, and it may have been continuous with the
+Black Sea to the north of the Caucasus Mountains.  About this
+great Central Asian sea lands that are now steppes and deserts
+were fertile and habitable.  Generally it was a moister and more
+fertile world.  European Russia was much more a land of swamp and
+lake than it is now, and there may still have been a land
+connexion between Asia and America at Behring Straits.
+
+It would have been already possible at that time to have
+distinguished the main racial divisions of mankind as we know them
+to-day.  Across the warm temperate regions of this rather warmer
+and better-wooded world, and along the coasts, stretched the
+brownish peoples of the Heliolithic culture, the ancestors of the
+bulk of the living inhabitants of the Mediterranean world, of the
+Berbers, the Egyptians and of much of the population of South and
+Eastern Asia.  This great race had of course a number of
+varieties.  The Iberian or Mediterranean or "dark-white" race of
+the Atlantic and Mediterranean coast, the "Hamitic" peoples which
+include the Berbers and Egyptians, the Dravidians; the darker
+people of India, a multitude of East Indian people, many
+Polynesian races and the Maoris are all divisions of various value
+of this great main mass of humanity.  Its western varieties are
+whiter than its eastern.  In the forests of central and northern
+Europe a more blonde variety {72} of men with blue eyes was
+becoming distinguishable, branching off from the main mass of
+brownish people, a variety which many people now speak of as the
+Nordic race.  In the more open regions of northeastern Asia was
+another differentiation of this brownish humanity in the direction
+of a type with more oblique eyes, high cheek-bones, a yellowish
+skin, and very straight black hair, the Mongolian peoples.  In
+South Africa, Australia, in many tropical islands in the south of
+Asia were remains of the early negroid peoples. The central parts
+of Africa were already a region of racial intermixture.  Nearly
+all the coloured races of Africa to-day seem to be blends of the
+brownish peoples of the north with a negroid substratum.
+
+[Illustration: A Diagrammatic Summary of Current Ideas of the
+Relationship of Human Races]
+
+We have to remember that human races can all interbreed freely and
+that they separate, mingle and reunite as clouds do.  Human races
+do not branch out like trees with branches that never come
+together again.  It is a thing we need to bear constantly in mind,
+this remingling of races at any opportunity.  It will save us from
+many cruel delusions and prejudices if we do so.  People will use
+such a word as race in the loosest manner, and base the most
+preposterous generalizations upon it.  They will speak of a
+"British" {73} race or of a "European" race.  But nearly all the
+European nations are confused mixtures of brownish, dark-white,
+white and Mongolian elements.
+
+[Illustration: A MAYA STELE]
+
+It was at the Neolithic phase of human development that peoples of
+the Mongolian breed first made their way into America.  Apparently
+they came by way of Behring Straits and spread southward.  They
+found caribou, the American reindeer, in the north and great {74}
+herds of bison in the south.  When they reached South America
+there were still living the Glyptodon, a gigantic armadillo, and
+the Megatherium, a monstrous clumsy sloth as high as an elephant.
+They probably exterminated the latter beast, which was as helpless
+as it was big.
+
+The greater portion of these American tribes never rose above a
+hunting nomadic Neolithic life.  They never discovered the use of
+iron, and their chief metal possessions were native gold and
+copper.  But in Mexico, Yucatan and Peru conditions existed
+favourable to settled cultivation, and here about 1000 B.C. or so
+arose very interesting civilizations of a parallel but different
+type from the old-world civilization.  Like the much earlier
+primitive civilizations of the old world these communities
+displayed a great development of human sacrifice about the
+processes of seed time and harvest; but while in the old world, as
+we shall see, these primary ideas were ultimately mitigated,
+complicated and overlaid by others, in America they developed and
+were elaborated, to a very high degree of intensity.  These
+American civilized countries were essentially priest-ruled
+countries; their war chiefs and rulers were under a rigorous rule
+of law and omen.
+
+These priests carried astronomical science to a high level of
+accuracy.  They knew their year better than the Babylonians of
+whom we shall presently tell.  In Yucatan they had a kind of
+writing, the Maya writing, of the most curious and elaborate
+character.  So far as we have been able to decipher it, it was
+used mainly for keeping the exact and complicated calendars upon
+which the priests expended their intelligence.  The art of the
+Maya civilization came to a climax about 700 or 800 A.D.  The
+sculptured work of these people amazes the modern observer by its
+great plastic power and its frequent beauty, and perplexes him by
+a grotesqueness and by a sort of insane conventionality and
+intricacy outside the circle of his ideas.  There is nothing quite
+like it in the old world.  The nearest approach, and that is a
+remote one, is found in archaic Indian carvings.  Everywhere there
+are woven feathers and serpents twine in and out.  Many Maya
+inscriptions resemble a certain sort of elaborate drawing made by
+lunatics in European asylums, more than any other
+old-world work.  It is as if the Maya mind {75} had developed upon
+a different line from the old-world mind, had a different twist to
+its ideas, was not, by old-world standards, a rational mind at
+all.
+
+This linking of these aberrant American civilizations to the idea
+of a general mental aberration finds support in their
+extraordinary obsession by the shedding of human blood.  The
+Mexican civilization in particular ran blood; it offered thousands
+of human victims yearly.  The cutting open of living victims, the
+tearing out of the still beating heart, was an act that dominated
+the minds and lives of these strange priesthoods.  The public
+life, the national festivities all turned on this fantastically
+horrible act.
+
+[Illustration: NEOLITHIC WARRIOR]
+
+The ordinary existence of the common people in these communities
+was very like the ordinary existence of any other barbaric
+peasantry.  Their pottery, weaving and dyeing was very good.  The
+Maya writing was not only carven on stone but written and painted
+upon skins and the like.  The European and American museums
+contain many enigmatical Maya manuscripts of which at present
+little has been deciphered except the dates.  In Peru there were
+beginnings of a similar writing but they were superseded by a
+method of keeping records by knotting {76} cords.  A similar
+method of mnemonics was in use in China thousands of years ago.
+
+In the old world before 4000 or 5000 B.C., that is to say three or
+four thousand years earlier, there were primitive civilizations
+not unlike these American civilizations; civilizations based upon
+a temple, having a vast quantity of blood sacrifices and with an
+intensely astronomical priesthood.  But in the old world the
+primitive civilizations reacted upon one another and developed
+towards the conditions of our own world.  In America these
+primitive civilizations never progressed beyond this primitive
+stage.  Each of them was in a little world of its own.  Mexico it
+seems knew little or nothing of Peru, until the Europeans came to
+America.  The potato, which was the principal food stuff in Peru,
+was unknown in Mexico.
+
+Age by age these peoples lived and marvelled at their gods and
+made their sacrifices and died.  Maya art rose to high levels of
+decorative beauty.  Men made love and tribes made war.  Drought
+and plenty, pestilence and health, followed one another.  The
+priests elaborated their calendar and their sacrificial ritual
+through long centuries, but made little progress in other
+directions.
+
+
+
+
+{77}
+
+XV
+
+SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING
+
+
+The old world is a wider, more varied stage than the new.  By 6000
+or 7000 B.C. there were already quasi-civilized communities almost
+at the Peruvian level, appearing in various fertile regions of
+Asia and in the Nile valley.  At that time north Persia and
+western Turkestan and south Arabia were all more fertile than they
+are now, and there are traces of very early communities in these
+regions.  It is in lower Mesopotamia however and in Egypt that
+there first appear cities, temples, systematic irrigation, and
+evidences of a social organization rising above the level of a
+mere barbaric village-town.  In those days the Euphrates and
+Tigris flowed by separate mouths into the Persian Gulf, and it was
+in the country between them that the Sumerians built their first
+cities.  About the same time, for chronology is still vague, the
+great history of Egypt was beginning.
+
+These Sumerians appear to have been a brownish people with
+prominent noses.  They employed a sort of writing that has been
+deciphered, and their language is now known.  They had discovered
+the use of bronze and they built great tower-like temples of
+sun-dried brick. The clay of this country is very fine; they used
+it to write upon, and so it is that their inscriptions have been
+preserved to us.  They had cattle, sheep, goats and asses, but no
+horses.  They fought on foot, in close formation, carrying spears
+and shields of skin.  Their clothing was of wool and they shaved
+their heads.
+
+Each of the Sumerian cities seems generally to have been an
+independent state with a god of its own and priests of its own.
+But sometimes one city would establish an ascendancy over others
+and exact tribute from their population.  A very ancient
+inscription {78}at Nippur records the "empire," the first recorded
+empire, of the Sumerian city of Erech.  Its god and its
+priest-king claimed an authority from the Persian Gulf to
+the Red Sea.
+
+[Illustration: BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200
+B.C.]
+
+At first writing was merely an abbreviated method of pictorial
+record.  Even before Neolithic times men were beginning to write.
+The Azilian rock pictures to which we have already referred show
+the beginning of the process.  Many of them record hunts and
+expeditions, and in most of these the human figures are plainly
+drawn.  But in some the painter would not bother with head and
+limbs; he just indicated men by a vertical and one or two
+transverse strokes.  From this to a conventional condensed picture
+writing was an easy transition.  In Sumeria, where the writing was
+done on clay with a stick, the dabs of the characters soon became
+unrecognizably unlike the things they stood for, but in Egypt
+where men painted on walls and on strips of the papyrus reed (the
+first paper) the likeness to the thing imitated remained.  From
+the fact that the wooden styles used in Sumeria made wedge-shaped
+marks, the Sumerian writing is called cuneiform (= wedge-shaped).
+
+{79}
+
+[Illustration: EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY]
+
+An important step towards writing was made when pictures were used
+to indicate not the thing represented but some similar thing.  In
+the rebus dear to children of a suitable age, this is still done
+to-day.  We draw a camp with tents and a bell, and the child is
+delighted to guess that this is the Scotch name Campbell.  The
+Sumerian language was a language made up of accumulated syllables
+rather like some contemporary Amerindian languages, and it lent
+itself very readily to this syllabic method of writing words
+expressing ideas that could not be conveyed by pictures directly.
+Egyptian writing underwent parallel developments.  Later on, when
+foreign peoples with less distinctly syllabled methods of speech
+were to learn and use these picture scripts they were to make
+those further modifications and simplifications that developed at
+last into alphabetical writing.  All the true alphabets of the
+later world derived from a mixture of the Sumerian cuneiform and
+the Egyptian hieroglyphic (priest writing).  Later in China there
+was to develop a conventionalized picture writing, but in China it
+never got to the alphabetical stage.
+
+{80}
+
+The invention of writing was of very great importance in the
+development of human societies.  It put agreements, laws,
+commandments on record.  It made the growth of states larger than
+the old city states possible.  It made a continuous historical
+consciousness possible.  The command of the priest or king and his
+seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his
+death.  It is interesting to note that in ancient Sumeria seals
+were greatly used.  A king or a nobleman or a merchant would have
+his seal often very artistically carved, and would impress it on
+any clay document he wished to authorize.  So close had
+civilization got to printing six thousand years ago.  Then the
+clay was dried hard and became permanent.  For the reader must
+remember that in the land of Mesopotamia for countless years,
+letters, records and accounts were all written on comparatively
+indestructible tiles.  To that fact we owe a great wealth of
+recovered knowledge.
+
+[Illustration: THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS]
+
+Bronze, copper, gold, silver and, as a precious rarity, meteoric
+iron were known in both Sumeria and Egypt at a very early stage.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{81}
+
+[Illustration: VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF
+CHEOPS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+{82}
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Daily life in those first city lands of the old world must have
+been {83} very similar in both Egypt and Sumeria.  And except for
+the asses and cattle in the streets it must have been not unlike
+the life in the Maya cities of America three or four thousand
+years later.  Most of the people in peace time were busy with
+irrigation and cultivation--except on days of religious festivity.
+They had no money and no need for it.  They managed their small
+occasional trades by barter.  The princes and rulers who alone had
+more than a few possessions used gold and silver bars and precious
+stones for any incidental act of trade.  The temple dominated
+life; in Sumeria it was a great towering temple that went up to a
+roof from which the stars were observed; in Egypt it was a massive
+building with only a ground floor. In Sumeria the priest ruler was
+the greatest, most splendid of beings.  In Egypt however there was
+one who was raised above the priests; he was the living
+incarnation of the chief god of the land, the Pharaoh, the god
+king.
+
+There were few changes in the world in those days; men's days were
+sunny, toilsome and conventional.  Few strangers came into the
+land and such as did fared uncomfortably.  The priest directed
+life according to immemorial rules and watched the stars for seed
+time and marked the omens of the sacrifices and interpreted the
+warnings of dreams.  Men worked and loved and died, not unhappily,
+forgetful of the savage past of their race and heedless of its
+future.  Sometimes the ruler was benign.  Such was Pepi II, who
+reigned in Egypt for ninety years.  Sometimes he was ambitious and
+took men's sons to be soldiers and sent them against neighbouring
+city states to war and plunder, or he made them toil to build
+great buildings.  Such were Cheops and Chephren and Mycerinus, who
+built those vast sepulchral piles, the pyramids at Gizeh.  The
+largest of these is 450 feet high and the weight of stone in it is
+4,883,000 tons.  All this was brought down the Nile in boats and
+lugged into place chiefly by human muscle.  Its erection must have
+exhausted Egypt more than a great war would have done.
+
+
+
+{84}
+
+XVI
+
+PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES
+
+
+It was not only in Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley that men were
+settling down to agriculture and the formation of city states in
+the centuries between 6000 and 8000 B.C.  Wherever there were
+possibilities of irrigation and a steady all-the-year-round food
+supply men were exchanging the uncertainties and hardships of
+hunting and wandering for the routines of settlement.  On the
+upper Tigris a people called the Assyrians were founding cities;
+in the valleys of Asia Minor and on the Mediterranean shores and
+islands, there were small communities growing up to civilization.
+Possibly parallel developments of human life were already going on
+in favourable regions of India, and China.  In many parts of
+Europe where there were lakes well stocked with fish, little
+communities of men had long settled in dwellings built on piles
+over the water, and were eking out agriculture by fishing and
+hunting. But over much larger areas of the old world no such
+settlement was possible.  The land was too harsh, too thickly
+wooded or too arid, or the seasons too uncertain for mankind, with
+only the implements and science of that age to take root.
+
+For settlement under the conditions of the primitive civilizations
+men needed a constant water supply and warmth and sunshine.  Where
+these needs were not satisfied, man could live as a transient, as
+a hunter following his game, as a herdsman following the seasonal
+grass, but he could not settle.  The transition from the hunting
+to the herding life may have been very gradual.  From following
+herds of wild cattle or (in Asia) wild horses, men may have come
+to an idea of property in them, have learnt to pen them into
+valleys, have fought for them against wolves, wild dogs and other
+predatory beasts.
+
+{85}
+
+[Illustration: POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS]
+
+{86}
+
+[Illustration: A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE]
+
+So while the primitive civilizations of the cultivators were
+growing up chiefly in the great river valleys, a different way of
+living, the nomadic life, a life in constant movement to and fro
+from winter pasture to summer pasture, was also growing up.  The
+nomadic peoples were on the whole hardier than the
+agriculturalists; they were less prolific and numerous, they had
+no permanent temples and no highly organized priesthood; they had
+less gear; but the reader must not suppose that theirs was
+necessarily a less highly developed way of living on that account.
+In many ways this free life was a fuller life than that of the
+tillers of the soil.  The individual was more
+self-reliant; less of a unit in a crowd.  The leader was more
+important; the medicine man perhaps less so.
+
+[Illustration: NOMADS IN EGYPT]
+
+{87}
+
+Moving over large stretches of country the nomad took a wider view
+of life.  He touched on the confines of this settled land and
+that.  He was used to the sight of strange faces.  He had to
+scheme and treat for pasture with competing tribes.  He knew more
+of minerals than the folk upon the plough lands because he went
+over mountain passes and into rocky places.  He may have been a
+better metallurgist.  Possibly bronze and much more probably iron
+smelting were nomadic discoveries.  Some of the earliest
+implements of iron reduced from its ores have been found in
+Central Europe far away from the early civilizations.
+
+[Illustration: FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 B.C.]
+
+[Illustration: NOMADS IN EGYPT]
+
+On the other hand the settled folk had their textiles and their
+pottery and made many desirable things.  It was inevitable that as
+the two sorts of life, the agricultural and the nomadic
+differentiated, a certain amount of looting and trading should
+develop between the two.  In Sumeria particularly which had
+deserts and seasonal {88} country on either hand it must have been
+usual to have the nomads camping close to the cultivated fields,
+trading and stealing and perhaps tinkering, as gipsies do to this
+day.  (But hens they would not steal, because the domestic
+fowl--an Indian jungle fowl originally was not domesticated by man
+until about 1000 B.C.)  They would bring precious stones and things
+of metal and leather.  If they were hunters they would bring skins.
+They would get in exchange pottery and beads and glass, garments
+and suchlike manufactured things.
+
+[Illustration: EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK]
+
+Three main regions and three main kinds of wandering and
+imperfectly settled people there were in those remote days of the
+first civilizations in Sumeria and early Egypt.  Away in the
+forests of Europe were the blonde Nordic peoples, hunters and
+herdsmen, a lowly race.  The primitive civilizations saw very
+little of this race before 1500 B.C.  Away on the steppes of
+eastern Asia various Mongolian tribes, the Hunnish peoples, were
+domesticating the horse and developing a very wide sweeping habit
+of seasonal movement between their summer and winter camping
+places.  Possibly the Nordic and Hunnish peoples were still
+separated from one another by the swamps of Russia and the greater
+Caspian Sea of that time.  For very much of Russia there was swamp
+and lake.  In the deserts, which were growing more arid now, of
+Syria and Arabia, tribes of a dark white or brownish people, the
+Semitic tribes, were driving flocks of sheep and goats and asses
+from pasture to pasture.  It was these Semitic shepherds and
+certain more negroid people from southern Persia, the Elamites,
+who were the first nomads to come into close contact with the
+early civilizations.  They came {90} as traders and as raiders.
+Finally there arose leaders among them with bolder imaginations,
+and they became conquerors.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{89}
+
+[Illustration: STELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD]
+
+====================================================================
+
+About 2750 B.C. a great Semitic leader, Sargon, had conquered the
+whole Sumerian land and was master of all the world from the
+Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea.  He was an illiterate
+barbarian and his people, the Akkadians, learnt the Sumerian
+writing and adopted the Sumerian language as the speech of the
+officials and the learned.  The empire he founded decayed after
+two centuries, and after one inundation of Elamites a fresh
+Semitic people, the Amorites, by degrees established their rule
+over Sumeria.  They made their capital in what had hitherto been a
+small up-river town, Babylon, and their empire is called the first
+Babylonian Empire.  It was consolidated by a great king called
+Hammurabi (circa 2100 B.C.) who made the earliest code of laws yet
+known to history.
+
+The narrow valley of the Nile lies less open to nomadic invasion
+than Mesopotamia, but about the time of Hammurabi occurred a
+successful Semitic invasion of Egypt and a line of Pharaohs was
+set up, the Hyksos or "shepherd kings," which lasted for several
+centuries.  These Semitic conquerors never assimilated themselves
+with the Egyptians; they were always regarded with hostility as
+foreigners and barbarians; and they were at last expelled by a
+popular uprising about 1600 B.C.
+
+But the Semites had come into Sumeria for good and all, the two
+races assimilated and the Babylonian Empire became Semitic in its
+language and character.
+
+
+
+
+{91}
+
+XVII
+
+THE FIRST SEAGOING PEOPLES
+
+
+The earliest boats and ships must have come into use some
+twenty-five or thirty thousand years ago.  Man was probably
+paddling about on the water with a log of wood or an inflated skin
+to assist him, at latest in the beginnings of the Neolithic
+period.  A basketwork boat covered with skin and caulked was used
+in Egypt and Sumeria from the beginnings of our knowledge.  Such
+boats are still used there.  They are used to this day in Ireland
+and Wales and in Alaska; sealskin boats still make the crossing of
+Behring Straits.  The hollow log followed as tools improved.  The
+building of boats and then ships came in a natural succession.
+
+Perhaps the legend of Noah's Ark preserves the memory of some
+early exploit in shipbuilding, just as the story of the Flood, so
+widely distributed among the peoples of the world, may be the
+tradition of the flooding of the Mediterranean basin.
+
+There were ships upon the Red Sea long before the pyramids were
+built, and there were ships on the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf
+by 7000 B.C.  Mostly these were the ships of fishermen, but some
+were already trading and pirate ships--for knowing what we do of
+mankind we may guess pretty safely that the first sailors
+plundered where they could and traded where they had to do so.
+
+The seas on which these first ships adventured were inland seas on
+which the wind blew fitfully and which were often at a dead calm
+for days together, so that sailing did not develop beyond an
+accessory use.  It is only in the last four hundred years that the
+well-rigged, ocean-going, sailing ship has developed.  The ships
+of the ancient world were essentially rowing ships which hugged
+the shore and went into harbour at the first sign of rough
+weather.  As ships grew into big galleys they caused a demand for
+war captives as galley slaves.
+
+We have already noted the appearance of the Semitic people as
+wanderers and nomads in the region of Syria and Arabia, and how
+they conquered Sumeria and set up first the Akkadian and then the
+first Babylonian Empire.  In the west these same Semitic peoples
+{92} were taking to the sea.  They set up a string of harbour
+towns along the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean, of which Tyre
+and Sidon were the chief; and by the time of Hammurabi in Babylon,
+they had spread as traders, wanderers and colonizers over the
+whole Mediterranean basin.  These sea Semites were called the
+Phoenicians, They settled largely in Spain, pushing back the old
+Iberian Basque population and sending coasting expeditions through
+the straits of Gibraltar; and they set up colonies upon the north
+coast of Africa.  Of Carthage, one of these Phoenician cities, we
+shall have much more to tell later.
+
+But the Phoenicians were not the first people to have galleys in
+the Mediterranean waters.  There was already a series of towns and
+cities among the islands and coasts of that sea belonging to a
+race or races apparently connected by blood and language with the
+Basques to the west and the Berbers and Egyptians to the south,
+the AEgean peoples.  These peoples must not be confused with the
+Greeks, who come much later into our story; they were pre-Greek,
+but they had cities in Greece and Asia Minor; Mycenae and Troy for
+example, and they had a great and prosperous establishment at
+Cnossos in Crete.
+
+It is only in the last half century that the industry of
+excavating archaeologists has brought the extent and civilization
+of the AEgean peoples to our knowledge.  Cnossos has been most
+thoroughly explored; it was happily not succeeded by any city big
+enough to destroy its ruins, and so it is our chief source of
+information about this once almost forgotten civilization.
+
+The history of Cnossos goes back as far as the history of Egypt;
+the two countries were trading actively across the sea by 4000
+B.C.  By 2500 B.C., that is between the time of Sargon I and
+Hammurabi, Cretan civilization was at its zenith.
+
+Cnossos was not so much a town as a great palace for the Cretan
+monarch and his people.  It was not even fortified.  It was only
+fortified later as the Phoenicians grew strong, and as a new and
+more terrible breed of pirates, the Greeks, came upon the sea from
+the north.
+
+The monarch was called Minos, as the Egyptian monarch was called
+Pharaoh; and he kept his state in a palace fitted with running
+water, with bathrooms and the like conveniences such as we know of
+in no other ancient remains.  There he held great festivals and
+shows.  There was bull-fighting, singularly like the
+bull-fighting that {93} still survives in Spain; there was
+resemblance even in the costumes of the bull-fighters; and there
+were gymnastic displays.  The women's clothes were remarkably
+modern in spirit; they wore corsets and flounced dresses.  The
+pottery, the textile manufactures, the sculpture, painting,
+jewellery, ivory, metal and inlay work of these {94} Cretans was
+often astonishingly beautiful.  And they had a system of writing,
+but that still remains to be deciphered.
+
+[Illustration: THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCENAE]
+
+This happy and sunny and civilized life lasted for some score of
+centuries.  About 2000 B.C. Cnossos and Babylon abounded in
+comfortable and cultivated people who probably led very pleasant
+lives.  They had shows and they had religious festivals, they had
+domestic slaves to look after them and industrial slaves to make a
+profit for them.  Life must have seemed very secure in Cnossos for
+such people, sunlit and girdled by the blue sea.  Egypt of course
+must have appeared rather a declining country in those days under
+the rule of her half-barbaric shepherd kings, and if one took an
+interest in politics one must have noticed how the Semitic people
+seemed to be getting everywhere, ruling Egypt, ruling distant
+Babylon, building Nineveh on the upper Tigris, sailing west to the
+Pillars of Hercules (the straits of Gibraltar) and setting up
+their colonies on those distant coasts.
+
+There were some active arid curious minds in Cnossos, because
+later on the Greeks told legends of a certain skilful Cretan
+artificer, Daedalus, who attempted to make some sort of flying
+machine, perhaps a glider, which collapsed and fell into the sea.
+
+It is interesting to note some of the differences as well as the
+resemblances between the life of Cnossos and our own.  To a Cretan
+gentleman of 2500 B.C. iron was a rare metal which fell out of the
+sky and was curious rather than useful--for as yet only meteoric
+iron was known, iron had not been obtained from its ores.  Compare
+that with our modern state of affairs pervaded by iron everywhere.
+The horse again would be a quite legendary creature to our Cretan,
+a sort of super-ass which lived in the bleak northern lands far
+away beyond the Black Sea.  Civilization for him dwelt chiefly in
+AEgean Greece and Asia Minor, where Lydians and Carians and Trojans
+lived a life and probably spoke languages like his own.  There
+were Phoenicians and AEgeans settled in Spain and North Africa, but
+those were very remote regions to his imagination.  Italy was
+still a desolate land covered with dense forests; the
+brown-skinned Etruscans had not yet gone there from Asia Minor.  And
+one day perhaps this Cretan gentleman went down to the harbour and saw
+a captive who attracted his attention because he was very
+fair-complexioned {95} and had blue eyes.  Perhaps our Cretan tried to
+talk to him and was answered in an unintelligible gibberish.  This
+creature came from somewhere beyond the Black Sea and seemed to be
+an altogether benighted savage.  But indeed he was an Aryan
+tribesman, of a race and culture of which we shall soon have much
+to tell, and the strange gibberish he spoke was to differentiate
+some day into Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, German, English and
+most of the chief languages of the world.
+
+[Illustration: THE PALACE AT CNOSSOS]
+
+Such was Cnossos at its zenith, intelligent, enterprising, bright
+and happy.  But about 1400 B.C. disaster came perhaps very
+suddenly upon its prosperity.  The palace of Minos was destroyed,
+and its ruins have never been rebuilt or inhabited from that day
+to this.  We do not know how this disaster occurred.  The
+excavators note what appears to be scattered plunder and the marks
+of the fire.  But the traces of a very destructive earthquake have
+also been found.  Nature alone may have destroyed Cnossos, or the
+Greeks may have finished what the earthquake began.
+
+
+
+
+{96}
+
+XVIII
+
+EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA
+
+
+The Egyptians had never submitted very willingly to the rule of
+their Semitic shepherd kings and about 1600 A.D. a vigorous
+patriotic movement expelled these foreigners.  Followed a new
+phase or revival for Egypt, a period known to Egyptologists as the
+New Empire.  Egypt, which had not been closely consolidated before
+the Hyksos invasion, was now a united country; and the phase of
+subjugation and insurrection left her full of military spirit.
+The Pharaohs became aggressive conquerors.  They had now acquired
+the war horse and the war chariot, which the Hyksos had brought to
+them.  Under Thothmes III and Amenophis III Egypt had extended her
+rule into Asia as far as the Euphrates.
+
+We are entering now upon a thousand years of warfare between the
+once quite separated civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Nile.
+At first Egypt was ascendant.  The great dynasties, the
+Seventeenth Dynasty, which included Thothmes III and Amenophis III
+and IV and a great queen Hatasu, and the Nineteenth, when Rameses
+II, supposed by some to have been the Pharaoh of Moses, reigned
+for sixty-seven years, raised Egypt to high levels of prosperity.
+In between there were phases of depression for Egypt, conquest by
+the Syrians and later conquest by the Ethiopians from the South.
+In Mesopotamia Babylon ruled, then the Hittites and the Syrians of
+Damascus rose to a transitory predominance; at one time the
+Syrians conquered Egypt; the fortunes of the Assyrians of Nineveh
+ebbed and flowed; sometimes the city was a conquered city;
+sometimes the Assyrians ruled in Babylon and assailed Egypt.  Our
+space is too limited here to tell of the comings and goings of the
+armies of the Egyptians and of the various Semitic powers of Asia
+Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia.  They were armies now provided with
+vast droves of war chariots, for the horse--still used only for
+{97} war and glory--had spread by this time into the old
+civilizations from Central Asia.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE AT ABU SIMBEL]
+
+Great conquerors appear in the dim light of that distant time and
+pass, Tushratta, King of Mitanni, who captured Nineveh, Tiglath
+Pileser I of Assyria who conquered Babylon.  At last the Assyrians
+became the greatest military power of the time. Tiglath Pileser
+III conquered Babylon in 745 B.C. and founded what historians call
+the New Assyrian Empire.  Iron had also come now into civilization
+out of the north; the Hittites, the precursors of the Armenians,
+had it first and communicated its use to the Assyrians, and an
+Assyrian usurper, Sargon II, armed his troops with it.  Assyria
+became the first power to expound the doctrine of blood and iron.
+Sargon's son Sennacherib led an army to the borders of Egypt, and
+was defeated not by military strength but by the plague.
+Sennacherib's grandson Assurbanipal (who is also known in history
+{98} by his Greek name of Sardanapalus) did actually conquer Egypt
+in 670 B.C.  But Egypt was already a conquered country then under
+an Ethiopian dynasty.  Sardanapalus simply replaced one conqueror
+by another.
+
+[Illustration: AVENUE OF SPHINXES]
+
+If one had a series of political maps of this long period of
+history, this interval of ten centuries, we should have Egypt
+expanding and contracting like an amoeba under a microscope, and
+we should see these various Semitic states of the Babylonians, the
+Assyrians, the Hittites and the Syrians coming and going, eating
+each other up and disgorging each other again.  To the west of
+Asia Minor there would be little AEgean states like Lydia, whose
+capital was Sardis, and Caria.  But after about 1200 B.C. and
+perhaps earlier, a new set of names would come into the map of the
+ancient world from {100} the north-east and from the north-west.
+These would be the names of certain barbaric tribes, armed with
+iron weapons and using horse-chariots, who were becoming a great
+affliction to the AEgean and Semitic civilizations on the northern
+borders.  They all spoke variants of what once must have been the
+same language, Aryan.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{99}
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Round the north-east of the Black and Caspian Seas were coming the
+Medes and Persians.  Confused with these in the records of the
+time were Scythians and Samatians.  From north-east or
+north-west came the Armenians, from the north-west of the
+sea-barrier through the Balkan peninsula came Cimmerians,
+Phrygians and the Hellenic tribes whom now we call the Greeks.
+They were raiders and robbers and plunderers of cities, these
+Ayrans, east and west alike.  They were all kindred and similar
+peoples, hardy herdsmen who had taken to plunder.  In the east
+they were still only borderers and raiders, but in the west they
+were taking cities and driving out the civilized AEgean
+populations.  The AEgean peoples were so pressed that they were
+seeking new homes in lands beyond the Aryan range.  Some were
+seeking a settlement in the delta of the Nile and being repulsed
+by the Egyptians; some, the Etruscans, seem to have sailed from
+Asia Minor to found a state in the forest wildernesses of middle
+Italy; some built themselves cities upon the south-east coasts of
+the Mediterranean and became later that people known in history as
+the Philistines.
+
+Of these Aryans who came thus rudely upon the scene of the ancient
+civilizations we will tell more fully in a later section.  Here we
+note simply all this stir and emigration amidst the area of the
+ancient civilizations, that was set up by the swirl of the gradual
+and continuous advance of these Aryan barbarians out of the
+northern forests and wildernesses between 1600 and 600 B.C.
+
+And in a section to follow we must tell also of a little Semitic
+people, the Hebrews, in the hills behind the Phoenician and
+Philistine coasts, who began to be of significance in the world
+towards the end of this period.  They produced a literature of
+very great importance in subsequent history, a collection of
+books, histories, poems, books of wisdom and prophetic works, the
+Hebrew Bible.
+
+In Mesopotamia and Egypt the coming of the Aryans did not cause
+fundamental changes until after 600 B.C. The flight of {101} the
+AEgeans before the Greeks and even the destruction of Cnossos must
+have seemed a very remote disturbance to both the citizens of
+Egypt and of Babylon.  Dynasties came and went in these cradle
+states of civilization, but the main tenor of human life went on,
+with a slow increase in refinement and complexity age by age.  In
+Egypt the accumulated monuments of more ancient times--the
+pyramids were already in their third thousand of years and a show
+for visitors just as they are to-day--were supplemented by fresh
+and splendid buildings, more particularly in the time of the
+seventeenth and nineteenth dynasties.  The great temples at Karnak
+and Luxor date from this time.  All the chief monuments of
+Nineveh, the great temples, the winged bulls with human heads, the
+reliefs of kings and chariots and lion hunts, were done in these
+centuries between 1600 and 600 B.C., and this period also covers
+most of the splendours of Babylon.
+
+[Illustration: FRIEZE SHOWING EGYPTIAN FEMALE SLAVES CARRYING
+LUXURIOUS FOODS]
+
+Both from Mesopotamia and Egypt we now have abundant public
+records, business accounts, stories, poetry and private
+correspondence.  We know that life, for prosperous and influential
+people in such cities as Babylon and the Egyptian Thebes, was
+already almost as refined and as luxurious as that of comfortable
+and prosperous people to-day.  Such people lived an orderly and
+ceremonious life in beautiful and beautifully furnished and
+decorated houses, wore richly decorated clothing and lovely
+jewels; they had feasts and festivals, entertained one another
+with music and dancing, were waited upon by highly trained
+servants, were cared for by doctors and dentists.  They did not
+travel very much or very far, but boating {102} excursions were a
+common summer pleasure both on the Nile and on the Euphrates.  The
+beast of burthen was the ass; the horse was still used only in
+chariots for war and upon occasions of state.  The mule was still
+novel and the camel, though it was known in Mesopotamia, had not
+been brought into Egypt.  And there were few utensils of iron;
+copper and bronze remained the prevailing metals.  Fine linen and
+cotton fabrics were known as well as wool.  But there was no silk
+yet.  Glass was known and beautifully coloured, but glass things
+were usually small.  There was no clear glass and no optical use
+of glass.  People had gold stoppings in their teeth but no
+spectacles on their noses.
+
+One odd contrast between the life of old Thebes or Babylon and
+modern life was the absence of coined money.  Most trade was still
+done by barter.  Babylon was financially far ahead of Egypt.  Gold
+and silver were used for exchange and kept in ingots; and there
+were bankers, before coinage, who stamped their names and the
+weight on these lumps of precious metal.  A merchant or traveller
+would carry precious stones to sell to pay for his necessities.
+Most servants and workers were slaves who were paid not money but
+in kind.  As money came in slavery declined.
+
+A modern visitor to these crowning cities of the ancient world
+would have missed two very important articles of diet; there were
+no hens and no eggs.  A French cook would have found small joy in
+Babylon.  These things came from the East somewhere about the time
+of the last Assyrian empire.
+
+Religion like everything else had undergone great refinement.
+Human sacrifice for instance had long since disappeared; animals
+or bread dummies had been substituted for the victim.  (But the
+Phoenicians and especially the citizens of Carthage, their
+greatest settlement in Africa, were accused, later of immolating
+human beings.)  When a great chief had died in the ancient days it
+had been customary to sacrifice his wives and slaves and break
+spear and bow at his tomb so that he should not go unattended and
+unarmed in the spirit world.  In Egypt there survived of this dark
+tradition the pleasant custom of burying small models of house and
+shop and servants and cattle with the dead, models that give us
+to-day the liveliest realization of the safe and cultivated life
+of these ancient people, three thousand years and more ago.
+
+{103}
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF HORUS AT EDFU]
+
+Such was the ancient world before the coming of the Aryans out of
+the northern forests and plains.  In India and China there were
+parallel developments.  In the great valleys of both these regions
+agricultural city states of brownish peoples were growing up, but
+in India they do not seem to have advanced or coalesced so rapidly
+as the city states of Mesopotamia or Egypt.  They were nearer the
+level of the ancient Sumerians or of the Maya civilization of
+America.  Chinese history has still to be modernized by Chinese
+scholars and cleared of much legendary matter.  Probably China at
+this time was in advance of India.  Contemporary with the
+seventeenth dynasty in Egypt, there was a dynasty of emperors in
+China, the Shang dynasty, priest emperors over a loose-knit empire
+of subordinate kings.  The chief duty of these early emperors was
+to perform the seasonal sacrifices.  Beautiful bronze vessels from
+the time of the Shang dynasty still exist, and their beauty and
+workmanship compel us to recognize that many centuries of
+civilization must have preceded their manufacture.
+
+
+
+
+{104}
+
+XIX
+
+THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS
+
+
+Four thousand years ago, that is to say about 2000 B.C., central
+and south-eastern Europe and central Asia were probably warmer,
+moister and better wooded than they are now.  In these regions of
+the earth wandered a group of tribes mainly of the fair and
+blue-eyed Nordic race, sufficiently in touch with one another to
+speak merely variations of one common language from the Rhine to
+the Caspian Sea.  At that time they may not have been a very
+numerous people, and their existence was unsuspected by the
+Babylonians to whom Hammurabi was giving laws, or by the already
+ancient and cultivated land of Egypt which was tasting in those
+days for the first time the bitterness of foreign conquest.
+
+These Nordic people were destined to play a very important part
+indeed in the world's history.  They were a people of the
+parklands and the forest clearings; they had no horses at first
+but they had cattle; when they wandered they put their tents and
+other gear on rough ox waggons; when they settled for a time they
+may have made huts of wattle and mud.  They burnt their important
+dead; they did not bury them ceremoniously as the brunette peoples
+did.  They put the ashes of their greater leaders in urns and then
+made a great circular mound about them.  These mounds are the
+"round barrows" that occur all over north Europe.  The brunette
+people, their predecessors, did not burn their dead but buried
+them in a sitting position in elongated mounds; the "long
+barrows."
+
+The Aryans raised crops of wheat, ploughing with oxen, but they
+did not settle down by their crops; they would reap and move on.
+They had bronze, and somewhen about 1500 B.C. they acquired iron.
+They may have been the discoverers of iron smelting.  And somewhen
+vaguely about that time they also got the horse--which to begin
+with they used only for draught purposes.  Their social life did
+not centre upon a temple like that of the more settled people
+round the Mediterranean, and their chief men were leaders rather
+than priests.  They had an aristocratic social order rather than a
+{106} divine and regal order; from a very early stage they
+distinguished certain families as leaderly and noble.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{105}
+
+[Illustration: A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA]
+
+====================================================================
+
+They were a very vocal people.  They enlivened their wanderings by
+feasts, at which there was much drunkenness and at which a special
+sort of man, the bards, would sing and recite.  They had no
+writing until they had come into contact with civilization, and
+the memories of these bards were their living literature.  This
+use of recited language as an entertainment did much to make it a
+fine and beautiful instrument of expression, and to that no doubt
+the subsequent predominance of the languages derived from Aryan
+is, in part, to be ascribed.  Every Aryan people had its legendary
+history crystallized in bardic recitations, epics, sagas and
+vedas, as they were variously called.
+
+The social life of these people centred about the households of
+their leading men.  The hall of the chief where they settled for a
+time was often a very capacious timber building.  There were no
+doubt huts for herds and outlying farm buildings; but with most of
+the Aryan peoples this hall was the general centre, everyone went
+there to feast and hear the bards and take part in games and
+discussions.  Cowsheds and stabling surrounded it.  The chief and
+his wife and so forth would sleep on a dais or in an upper
+gallery; the commoner sort slept about anywhere, as people still
+do in Indian households.  Except for weapons, ornaments, tools and
+suchlike personal possessions there was a sort of patriarchal
+communism in the tribe.  The chief owned the cattle and grazing
+lands in the common interest; forest and rivers were the wild.
+
+This was the fashion of the people who were increasing and
+multiplying over the great spaces of central Europe and west
+central Asia during the growth of the great civilization of
+Mesopotamia and the Nile, and whom we find pressing upon the
+heliolithic peoples everywhere in the second millennium before
+Christ.  They were coming into France and Britain and into Spain.
+They pushed westward in two waves.  The first of these people who
+reached Britain and Ireland were armed with bronze weapons.  They
+exterminated or subjugated the people who had made the great stone
+monuments of Carnac in Brittany and Stonehenge and Avebury in
+England.  They reached Ireland. They are called the Goidelic
+Celts.  The {107} second wave of a closely kindred people, perhaps
+intermixed with other racial elements, brought iron with it into
+Great Britain, and is known as the wave of Brythonic Celts.  From
+them the Welsh derive their language.
+
+[Illustration: THE MOUND OF NIPPUR]
+
+Kindred Celtic peoples were pressing southward into Spain and
+coming into contact not only with the heliolithic Basque people
+who still occupied the country but with the Semitic Phoenician
+colonies of the sea coast.  A closely allied series of tribes, the
+Italians, were making their way down the still wild and wooded
+Italian peninsula.  They did not always conquer.  In the eighth
+century B.C. Rome appears in history, a trading town on the Tiber,
+inhabited by Aryan Latins but under the rule of Etruscan nobles
+and kings.
+
+At the other extremity of the Aryan range there was a similar
+progress southward of similar tribes.  Aryan peoples, speaking
+Sanskrit, had come down through the western passes into North
+{108} India long before 1000 B.C.  There they came into contact
+with a primordial brunette civilization, the Dravidian
+civilization, and learnt much from it.  Other Aryan tribes seem to
+have spread over the mountain masses of Central Asia far to the
+east of the present range of such peoples.  In Eastern Turkestan
+there are still fair, blue-eyed Nordic tribes, but now they speak
+Mongolian tongues.
+
+Between the Black and Caspian Seas the ancient Hittites had been
+submerged and "Aryanized" by the Armenians before 1000 B.C., and
+the Assyrians and Babylonians were already aware of a new and
+formidable fighting barbarism on the north-eastern frontiers, a
+group of tribes amidst which the Scythians, the Medes and the
+Persians remain as outstanding names.
+
+But it was through the Balkan peninsula that Aryan tribes made
+their first heavy thrust into the heart of the old-world
+civilization.  They were already coming southward and crossing
+into Asia Minor many centuries before 1000 B.C.  First came a
+group of tribes of whom the Phrygians were the most conspicuous,
+and then in succession the AEolic, the Ionic and the Dorian Greeks.
+By 1000 B.C. they had wiped out the ancient AEgean civilization
+both in the mainland of Greece and in most of the Greek islands;
+the cities of Mycenae and Tiryns were obliterated and Cnossos was
+nearly forgotten.  The Greeks had taken to the sea before 1000
+A.D., they had settled in Crete and Rhodes, and they were founding
+colonies in Sicily and the south of Italy after the fashion of the
+Phoenician trading cities that were dotted along the Mediterranean
+coasts.
+
+So it was, while Tiglath Pileser III and Sargon II and
+Sardanapalus were ruling in Assyria and fighting with Babylonia
+and Syria and Egypt, the Aryan peoples were learning the methods
+of civilization and making it over for their own purposes in Italy
+and Greece and north Persia.  The theme of history from the ninth
+century B.C. onward for six centuries is the story of how these
+Aryan peoples grew to power and enterprise and how at last they
+subjugated the whole Ancient World, Semitic, AEgean and Egyptian
+alike.  In form the Aryan peoples were altogether victorious; but
+the struggle of Aryan, Semitic and Egyptian ideas and methods was
+continued long after the sceptre was in Aryan hands.  It is indeed
+a struggle that goes on through all the rest of history and still
+in a manner continues to this day.
+
+
+
+
+{109}
+
+XX
+
+THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I
+
+
+We have already mentioned how Assyria became a great military
+power under Tiglath Pileser III and under the usurper Sargon II.
+Sargon was not this man's original name; he adopted it to flatter
+the conquered Babylonians by reminding them of that ancient
+founder of the Akkadian Empire, Sargon I, two thousand years
+before his time.  Babylon, for all that it was a conquered city,
+was of greater population and importance than Nineveh, and its
+great god Bel Marduk and its traders and priests had to be treated
+politely.  In Mesopotamia in the eighth century B.C. we are
+already far beyond the barbaric days when the capture of a town
+meant loot and massacre.  Conquerors sought to propitiate and win
+the conquered.  For a century and a half after Sargon the new
+Assyrian empire endured and, as we have noted, Assurbanipal
+(Sardanapalus) held at least lower Egypt.
+
+But the power and solidarity of Assyria waned rapidly.  Egypt by
+an effort threw off the foreigner under a Pharoah Psammetichus I,
+and under Necho II attempted a war of conquest in Syria.  By that
+time Assyria was grappling with foes nearer at hand, and could
+make but a poor resistance.  A Semitic people from south-east
+Mesopotamia, the Chaldeans, combined with Aryan Medes and Persians
+from the north-east against Nineveh, and in
+606 B.C.--for now we are coming down to exact chronology--took
+that city.
+
+There was a division of the spoils of Assyria.  A Median Empire
+was set up in the north under Cyaxares.   It included Nineveh, and
+its capital was Ecbatana.  Eastward it reached to the borders of
+India.  To the south of this in a great crescent was a new
+Chaldean Empire, the Second Babylonian Empire, which rose to a
+very great degree of wealth and power under the rule of
+Nebuchadnezzar the Great (the Nebuchadnezzar of the Bible). The
+last great days, the {110} greatest days of all, for Babylon
+began.  For a time the two Empires remained at peace, and the
+daughter of Nebuchadnezzar was married to Cyaxares.
+
+Meanwhile Necho II was pursuing his easy conquests in Syria.  He
+had defeated and slain King Josiah of Judah, a small country of
+which there is more to tell presently, at the battle of Megiddo in
+608 B.C., and he pushed on to the Euphrates to encounter not a
+decadent Assyria but a renascent Babylonia.  The Chaldeans dealt
+very vigorously with the Egyptians.  Necho was routed and driven
+back to Egypt, and the Babylonian frontier pushed down to the
+ancient Egyptian boundaries.
+
+From 606 until 589 B.C. the Second Babylonian Empire flourished
+insecurely.  It flourished so long as it kept the peace with the
+stronger, hardier Median Empire to the north.  And during these
+sixty-seven years not only life but learning flourished in the
+ancient city.
+
+[Map: Map showing the relation of the Median and Second Babylonian
+(Chaldaean) Empires in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar the Great]
+
+[Map: The Empire of Darius (tribute-paying countries) at its
+greatest extent]
+
+Even under the Assyrian monarchs and especially under
+Sardanapalus, Babylon had been a scene of great intellectual
+activity.  {111} Sardanapalus, though an Assyrian, had been quite
+Babylon-ized.  He made a library, a library not of paper but of
+the clay tablets that were used for writing in Mesopotamia since
+early Sumerian days.  His collection has been unearthed and is
+perhaps the most precious store of historical material in the
+world.  The last of the Chaldean line of Babylonian monarchs,
+Nabonidus, had even keener literary tastes.  He patronized
+antiquarian researches, and when a date was worked out by his
+investigators for the accession of Sargon I he commemorated the
+fact by inscriptions.  But there were many signs of disunion in
+his empire, and he sought to centralize it by bringing a number of
+the various local gods to Babylon and setting up temples to them
+there.  This device was to be practised quite successfully by the
+Romans in later times, but in Babylon it roused the jealousy of
+the powerful priesthood of Bel Marduk, the dominant god of the
+Babylonians.  They cast about for a possible alternative to
+Nabonidus and found it in Cyrus the Persian, the ruler of the
+adjacent Median Empire.  Cyrus had already distinguished himself
+by conquering Croesus, the rich king of Lydia in Eastern Asia
+Minor.  {112} He came up against Babylon, there was a battle
+outside the walls, and the gates of the city were opened to him
+(538 B.C.).  His soldiers entered the city without fighting.  The
+crown prince Belshazzar, the son of Nabonidus, was feasting, the
+Bible relates, when a hand appeared and wrote in letters of fire
+upon the wall these mystical words: _"Mene, Mene, Tekel,
+Upharsin,"_ which was interpreted by the prophet Daniel, whom he
+summoned to read the riddle, as "God has numbered thy kingdom and
+finished it; thou art weighed in the balance and found wanting and
+thy kingdom is given to the Medes and Persians."  Possibly the
+priests of Bel Marduk knew something about that writing on the
+wall.  Belshazzar was killed that night, says the Bible.
+Nabonidus was taken prisoner, and the occupation of the city was
+so peaceful that the services of Bel Marduk continued without
+intermission.
+
+[Illustration: PERSIAN MONARCH]
+
+Thus it was the Babylonian and Median empires were united.
+Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, subjugated Egypt.  Cambyses went mad
+and was accidentally killed, and was presently succeeded by Darius
+the Mede, Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, one of the chief
+councillors of Cyrus.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{113}
+
+[Illustration: THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS]
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+The Persian Empire of Darius I, the first of the new Aryan empires
+in the seat of the old civilizations, was the greatest empire the
+world had hitherto seen.  It included all Asia Minor and Syria,
+all the old Assyrian and Babylonian empires, Egypt, the Caucasus
+and Caspian regions, Media, Persia, and it extended into India as
+far as the Indus.  Such an empire was possible because the horse
+and rider and the chariot and the made-road had now been brought
+into the world.  Hitherto the ass and ox and the camel for desert
+use had afforded the swiftest method of {114} transport.  Great
+arterial roads were made by the Persian rulers to hold their new
+empire, and post horses were always in waiting for the imperial
+messenger or the traveller with an official permit.  Moreover the
+world was now beginning to use coined money, which greatly
+facilitated trade and intercourse.  But the capital of this vast
+empire was no longer Babylon.  In the long run the priesthood of
+Bel Marduk gained nothing by their treason.  Babylon though still
+important was now a declining city, and the great cities of the
+new empire were Persepolis and Susa and Ecbatana.  The capital was
+Susa.  Nineveh was already abandoned and sinking into ruins.
+
+
+
+
+{115}
+
+XXI
+
+THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS
+
+
+And now we can tell of the Hebrews, a Semitic people, not so
+important in their own time as in their influence upon the later
+history of the world.  They were settled in Judea long before 1000
+B.C., and their capital city after that time was Jerusalem.  Their
+story is interwoven with that of the great empires on either side
+of them, Egypt to the south and the changing empires of Syria,
+Assyria and Babylon to the north.  Their country was an inevitable
+high road between these latter powers and Egypt.
+
+Their importance in the world is due to the fact that they
+produced a written literature, a world history, a collection of
+laws, chronicles, psalms, books of wisdom, poetry and fiction and
+political utterances which became at last what Christians know as
+the Old Testament, the Hebrew Bible.  This literature appears in
+history in the fourth or fifth century B.C.
+
+Probably this literature was first put together in Babylon.  We
+have already told how the Pharaoh, Necho II, invaded the Assyrian
+Empire while Assyria was fighting for life against Medes, Persians
+and Chaldeans.  Josiah King of Judah opposed him, and was defeated
+and slain at Megiddo (608 B.C.).  Judah became a tributary to
+Egypt, and when Nebuchadnezzar the Great, the new Chaldean king in
+Babylon, rolled back Necho into Egypt, he attempted to manage
+Judah by setting up puppet kings in Jerusalem.  The experiment
+failed, the people massacred his Babylonian officials, and he then
+determined to break up this little state altogether, which had
+long been playing off Egypt against the northern empire.
+Jerusalem was sacked and burnt, and the remnant of the people was
+carried off captive to Babylon.
+
+{116}
+
+There they remained until Cyrus took Babylon (538 B.C.).  He then
+collected them together and sent them back to resettle their
+country and rebuild the walls and temple of Jerusalem.
+
+Before that time the Jews do not seem to have been a very
+civilized or united people.  Probably only a very few of them
+could read or write.  In their own history one never hears of the
+early books of the Bible being read; the first mention of a book
+is in the time of Josiah.  The Babylonian captivity civilized them
+and consolidated them.  They returned aware of their own
+literature, an acutely self-conscious and political people.
+
+Their Bible at that time seems to have consisted only of the
+Pentateuch, that is to say the first five books of the Old
+Testament as we know it.  In addition, as separate books they
+already had many of the other books that have since been
+incorporated with the Pentateuch into the present Hebrew Bible,
+Chronicles, the Psalms and Proverbs for example.
+
+The accounts of the Creation of the World, of Adam and Eve and of
+the Flood, with which the Bible begins, run closely parallel with
+similar Babylonian legends; they seem to have been part of the
+common beliefs of all the Semitic peoples. So too the stories of
+Moses and of Samson have Sumerian and Babylonian parallels.  But
+with the story of Abraham and onward begins something more special
+to the Jewish race.
+
+Abraham may have lived as early as the days of Hammurabi in
+Babylon.  He was a patriarchal Semitic nomad.  To the book of
+Genesis the reader must go for the story of his wanderings and for
+the stories of his sons and grandchildren and how they became
+captive in the Land of Egypt.  He travelled through Canaan, and
+the God of Abraham, says the Bible story, promised this smiling
+land of prosperous cities to him and to his children.
+
+And after a long sojourn in Egypt and after fifty years of
+wandering in the wilderness under the leadership of Moses, the
+children of Abraham, grown now to a host of twelve tribes, invaded
+the land of Canaan from the Arabian deserts to the East.  They may
+have done this somewhen between 1600 B.C. and 1300 B.C.; there are
+no Egyptian records of Moses nor of Canaan at this time to help
+out the story.  But at any rate they did not succeed in conquering
+any {117} more than the hilly backgrounds of the promised land.
+The coast was now in the hands, not of the Canaanites but of
+newcomers, those AEgean peoples, the Philistines; and their cities,
+Gaza, Gath, Ashdod, Ascalon and Joppa successfully withstood the
+Hebrew attack.  For many generations the children of Abraham
+remained an obscure people of the hilly back country engaged in
+incessant bickerings with the Philistines and with the kindred
+tribes about them, the Moabites, the Midianites and so forth.  The
+reader will find in the book of Judges a record of their struggles
+and disasters during this period.  For very largely it is a record
+of disasters and failures frankly told.
+
+[Map: The Land of the Hebrews]
+
+{118}
+
+For most of this period the Hebrews were ruled, so far as there
+was any rule among them, by priestly judges selected by the elders
+of the people, but at last somewhen towards 1000 B.C. they chose
+themselves a king, Saul, to lead them in battle.  But Saul's
+leading was no great improvement upon the leading of the Judges;
+he perished under the hail of Philistine arrows at the battle of
+Mount Gilboa, his armour went into the temple of the Philistine
+Venus, and his body was nailed to the walls of
+Beth-shan.
+
+[Illustration: MOUND AT BABYLON]
+
+His successor David was more successful and more politic.  With
+David dawned the only period of prosperity the Hebrew peoples were
+ever to know.  It was based on a close alliance with the
+Phoenician city of Tyre, whose King Hiram seems to have been a man
+of very great intelligence and enterprise.  He wished to secure a
+trade route to the Red Sea through the Hebrew hill country.
+Normally Phoenician trade went to the Red Sea by Egypt, but Egypt
+was in a state of profound disorder at this {119} time; there may
+have been other obstructions to Phoenician trade along this line,
+and at any rate Hiram established the very closest relations both
+with David and with his son and successor Solomon.  Under Hiram's
+auspices the walls, palace and temple of Jerusalem arose, and in
+return Hiram built and launched his ships on the Red Sea.  A very
+considerable trade passed northward and southward through
+Jerusalem.  And Solomon achieved a prosperity and magnificence
+unprecedented in the experience of his people.  He was even given
+a daughter of Pharaoh in marriage.
+
+But it is well to keep the proportion of things in mind.  At the
+climax of his glories Solomon was only a little subordinate king
+in a little city.  His power was so transitory that within a few
+years of his death, Shishak the first Pharaoh of the twenty-second
+dynasty, had taken Jerusalem and looted most of its splendours.
+The account of Solomon's magnificence given in the books of Kings
+and Chronicles is questioned by many critics.  They say that it
+was added to and exaggerated by the patriotic pride of later
+writers.  But the Bible account read carefully is not so
+overwhelming as it appears at the first reading.  Solomon's
+temple, if one works out the measurements, would go inside a small
+suburban church, and his fourteen hundred chariots cease to
+impress us when we learn from an Assyrian monument that his
+successor Ahab sent a contingent of two thousand to the Assyrian
+army.  It is also plainly manifest from the Bible narrative that
+Solomon spent himself in display and overtaxed and overworked his
+people.  At his death the northern part of his kingdom broke off
+from Jerusalem and became the independent kingdom of Israel.
+Jerusalem remained the capital city of Judah.
+
+The prosperity of the Hebrew people was short-lived.  Hiram died,
+and the help of Tyre ceased to strengthen Jerusalem.  Egypt grew
+strong again.  The history of the kings of Israel and the kings of
+Judah becomes a history of two little states ground between,
+first, Syria, then Assyria and then Babylon to the north and Egypt
+to the south.  It is a tale of disasters and of deliverances that
+only delayed disaster.  It is a tale of barbaric kings ruling a
+barbaric people. In 721 B.C. the kingdom of Israel was swept away
+into captivity by the Assyrians and its people utterly lost to
+history.  Judah struggled {121} on until in 604 B.C., as we have
+told, it shared the fate of Israel.  There may be details open to
+criticism in the Bible story of Hebrew history from the days of
+the Judges onward, but on the whole it is evidently a true story
+which squares with all that has been learnt in the excavation of
+Egypt and Assyria and Babylon during the past century.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{120}
+
+[Illustration: THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON]
+
+====================================================================
+
+It was in Babylon that the Hebrew people got their history
+together and evolved their tradition.  The people who came back to
+Jerusalem at the command of Cyrus were a very different people in
+spirit and knowledge from those who had gone into captivity.  They
+had learnt civilization.  In the development of their peculiar
+character a very great part was played by certain men, a new sort
+of men, the Prophets, to whom we must now direct our attention.
+These Prophets mark the appearance of new and remarkable forces in
+the steady development of human society.
+
+
+
+
+{122}
+
+XXII
+
+PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA
+
+
+The fall of Assyria and Babylon were only the first of a series of
+disasters that were to happen to the Semitic peoples.  In the
+seventh century B.C. it would have seemed as though the whole
+civilized world was to be dominated by Semitic rulers.  They ruled
+the great Assyrian empire and they had conquered Egypt; Assyria,
+Babylon, Syria were all Semitic, speaking languages that were
+mutually intelligible.  The trade of the world was in Semitic
+hands.  Tyre, Sidon, the great mother cities of the Phoenician
+coast, had thrown out colonies that grew at last to even greater
+proportion in Spain, Sicily and Africa.  Carthage, founded before
+800 B.C., had risen to a population of more than a million.  It
+was for a time the greatest city on earth.  Its ships went to
+Britain and out into the Atlantic.  They may have reached Madeira.
+We have already noted how Hiram co-operated with Solomon to build
+ships on the Red Sea for the Arabian and perhaps for the Indian
+trade.  In the time of the Pharaoh Necho, a Phoenician expedition
+sailed completely round Africa.
+
+At that time the Aryan peoples were still barbarians.  Only the
+Greeks were reconstructing a new civilization of the ruins of the
+one they had destroyed, and the Medes were becoming "formidable,"
+as an Assyrian inscription calls them, in central Asia.  In 800
+B.C. no one could have prophesied that before the third century
+B.C. every trace of Semitic dominion would be wiped out by
+Aryan-speaking conquerors, and that everywhere the Semitic peoples
+would be subjects or tributaries or scattered altogether.
+Everywhere except in the northern deserts of Arabia, where the
+Bedouin adhered steadily to the nomadic way of life, the ancient
+way of life of the Semites before Sargon I and his Akkadians went
+down to conquer Sumeria.  But the Arab Bedouin were never
+conquered by Aryan masters.
+
+{123}
+
+Now of all these civilized Semites who were beaten and overrun in
+these five eventful centuries one people only held together and
+clung to its ancient traditions and that was this little people,
+the Jews, who were sent back to build their city of Jerusalem by
+Cyrus the Persian.  And they were able to do this, because they
+had got together this literature of theirs, their Bible, in
+Babylon.  It is not so much the Jews who made the Bible as the
+Bible which made the Jews.  Running through this Bible were
+certain ideas, different from the ideas of the people about them,
+very stimulating and sustaining ideas, to which they were destined
+to cling through five and twenty centuries of hardship, adventure
+and oppression.
+
+Foremost of these Jewish ideas was this, that their God was
+invisible and remote, an invisible God in a temple not made with
+hands, a Lord of Righteousness throughout the earth.  All other
+peoples had national gods embodied in images that lived in
+temples.  If the image was smashed and the temple razed, presently
+that god died out.  But this was a new idea, this God of the Jews,
+in the heavens, high above priests and sacrifices.  And this God
+of Abraham, the Jews believed, had chosen them to be his peculiar
+people, to restore Jerusalem and make it the capital of
+Righteousness in the World.  They were a people exalted by their
+sense of a common destiny.  This belief saturated them all when
+they returned to Jerusalem after the captivity in Babylon.
+
+Is it any miracle that in their days of overthrow and subjugation
+many Babylonians and Syrians and so forth and later on many
+Phoenicians, speaking practically the same language and having
+endless customs, habits, tastes and traditions in common, should
+be attracted by this inspiring cult and should seek to share in
+its fellowship and its promise?  After the fall of Tyre, Sidon,
+Carthage and the Spanish Phoenician cities, the Phoenicians
+suddenly vanish from history; and as suddenly we find, not simply
+in Jerusalem but in Spain, Africa, Egypt, Arabia, the East,
+wherever the Phoenicians had set their feet, communities of Jews.
+And they were all held together by the Bible and by the reading of
+the Bible.  Jerusalem was from the first only their nominal
+capital; their real city was this book of books.  This is a new
+sort of thing in history.  It is something of which the seeds were
+sown long before, when the Sumerians {124} and Egyptians began to
+turn their hieroglyphics into writing.  The Jews were a new thing,
+a people without a king and presently without a temple (for as we
+shall tell Jerusalem itself was broken up in 70 A.D.), held
+together and consolidated out of heterogeneous elements by nothing
+but the power of the written word.
+
+And this mental welding of the Jews was neither planned nor
+foreseen nor done by either priests or statesmen.  Not only a new
+kind of community but a new kind of man comes into history with
+the development of the Jews.  In the days of Solomon the Hebrews
+looked like becoming a little people just like any other little
+people of that time clustering around court and temple, ruled by
+the wisdom of the priest and led by the ambition of the king.  But
+already, the reader may learn from the Bible, this new sort of man
+of which we speak, the Prophet, was in evidence.
+
+As troubles thicken round the divided Hebrews the importance of
+these Prophets increases.
+
+[Illustration: THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II]
+
+What were these Prophets?  They were men of the most diverse
+origins.  The Prophet Ezekiel was of the priestly caste and the
+Prophet Amos wore the goatskin mantle of a shepherd, but all had
+this in common, that they gave allegiance to no one but to the God
+of Righteousness and that they spoke directly to the people.  They
+{125} came without licence or consecration.  "Now the word of the
+Lord came unto me;" that was the formula.  They were intensely
+political.  They exhorted the people against Egypt, "that broken
+reed," or against Assyria or Babylon; they denounced the indolence
+of the priestly order or the flagrant sins of the King.  Some of
+them turned their attention to what we should now call "social
+reform."  The rich were "grinding the faces of the poor," the
+luxurious were consuming the children's bread; wealthy people made
+friends with and imitated the splendours and vices of foreigners;
+and this was hateful to Jehovah, the God of Abraham, who would
+certainly punish this land.
+
+[Illustration: ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK]
+
+These fulminations were written down and preserved and studied.
+They went wherever the Jews went, and wherever they went they
+spread a new religious spirit.  They carried the common man past
+priest and temple, past court and king and brought him face to
+face with the Rule of Righteousness.  That is their supreme
+importance in the history of mankind.  In the great utterances of
+Isaiah the prophetic voice rises to a pitch of splendid
+anticipation and foreshadows the whole earth united and at peace
+under one God.  Therein the Jewish prophecies culminate.
+
+All the Prophets did not speak in this fashion, and the
+intelligent reader of the prophetic books will find much hate in
+them, much prejudice, and much that will remind him of the
+propaganda pamphlets {126}of the present time.  Nevertheless it is
+the Hebrew Prophets of the period round and about the Babylonian
+captivity who mark the appearance of a new power in the world, the
+power of individual moral appeal, of an appeal to the free
+conscience of mankind against the fetish sacrifices and slavish
+loyalties that had hitherto bridled and harnessed our race.
+
+
+
+
+{127}
+
+XXIII
+
+THE GREEKS
+
+
+Now while after Solomon (whose reign was probably about 960 B.C.)
+the divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah were suffering
+destruction and deportation, and while the Jewish people were
+developing their tradition in captivity in Babylon, another great
+power over the human mind, the Greek tradition, was also arising.
+While the Hebrew prophets were working out a new sense of direct
+moral responsibility between the people and an eternal and
+universal God of Right, the Greek philosophers were training the
+human mind in a new method and spirit of intellectual adventure.
+
+The Greek tribes as we have told were a branch of the
+Aryan-speaking stem. They had come down among the AEgean cities and
+islands some centuries before 1000 B.C.  They were probably
+already in southward movement before the Pharaoh Thothmes hunted
+his first elephants beyond the conquered Euphrates.  For in those
+days there were elephants in Mesopotamia and lions in Greece.
+
+It is possible that it was a Greek raid that burnt Cnossos, but
+there are no Greek legends of such a victory though there are
+stories of Minos and his palace (the Labyrinth) and of the skill
+of the Cretan artificers.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{128}
+
+[Illustration: STATUE OF MELEAGER]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Like most of the Aryans these Greeks had singers and reciters
+whose performances were an important social link, and these handed
+down from the barbaric beginnings of their people two great epics,
+the _Iliad_, telling how a league of Greek tribes besieged and
+took and sacked the town of Troy in Asia Minor, and the _Odyssey_,
+being a long adventure story of the return of the sage captain,
+Odysseus, from Troy to his own island.  These epics were written
+down somewhen in the eighth or seventh century B.C., when the
+Greeks had acquired the use of an alphabet from their more
+civilized neighbours, but they {129} are supposed to have been in
+existence very much earlier.  Formerly they were ascribed to a
+particular blind bard, Homer, who was supposed to have sat down
+and composed them as Milton composed Paradise Lost.  Whether there
+really was such a poet, whether he composed or only wrote down and
+polished these epics and so forth, is a favourite quarrelling
+ground for the erudite.  We need not concern ourselves with such
+bickerings here.  The thing that matters from our point of view is
+that the Greeks were in possession of their epics in the eighth
+century B.C., and that they were a common possession and a link
+between their various tribes, giving them a sense of fellowship as
+against the outer barbarians.  They were a group of kindred
+peoples linked by the spoken and afterwards by the written word,
+and sharing common ideals of courage and behaviour.
+
+The epics showed the Greeks a barbaric people without iron,
+without writing, and still not living in cities.  They seem to
+have lived at first in open villages of huts around the halls of
+their chiefs outside the ruins of the AEgean cities they had
+destroyed.  Then they began to wall their cities and to adopt the
+idea of temples from the people they had conquered.  It has been
+said that the cities of the primitive civilizations grew up about
+the altar of some tribal god, and that the wall was added; in the
+cities of the Greeks the wall preceded the temple.  They began to
+trade and send out colonies.  By the seventh century B.C. a new
+series of cities had grown up in the valleys and islands of
+Greece, forgetful of the AEgean cities and civilization that had
+preceded them; Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Samos, Miletus
+among the chief.  There were already Greek settlements along the
+coast of the Black Sea and in Italy and Sicily.  The heel and toe
+of Italy was called Magna Graecia.  Marseilles was a Greek town
+established on the site of an earlier Phoenician colony.
+
+Now countries which are great plains or which have as a chief
+means of transport some great river like the Euphrates or Nile
+tend to become united under some common rule.  The cities of Egypt
+and the cities of Sumeria, for example, ran together under one
+system of government. But the Greek peoples were cut up among
+islands and mountain valleys; both Greece and Magna Graecia are
+very mountainous; and the tendency was all the other way.  When
+the {130} Greeks come into history they are divided up into a
+number of little states which showed no signs of coalescence.
+They are different even in race.  Some consist chiefly of citizens
+of this or that Greek tribe, Ionic, AEolian or Doric; some have a
+mingled population of Greeks and descendants of the pre-Greek
+"Mediterranean" folk; some have an unmixed free citizenship of
+Greeks lording it over an enslaved conquered population like the
+"Helots" in Sparta.  In some the old leaderly Aryan families have
+become a close aristocracy; in some there is a democracy of all
+the Aryan citizens; in some there are elected or even hereditary
+kings, in some usurpers or tyrants.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA]
+
+And the same geographical conditions that kept the Greek states
+divided and various, kept them small.  The largest states were
+smaller than many English counties, and it is doubtful if the
+population of any of their cities ever exceeded a third of a
+million.  Few came up even to 50,000.  There were unions of
+interest and sympathy but no coalescences.  Cities made leagues
+and alliances as {131} trade increased, and small cities put
+themselves under the protection of great ones.  Yet all Greece was
+held together in a certain community of feeling by two things, by
+the epics and by the custom of taking part every fourth year in
+the athletic contests at Olympia.  This did not prevent wars and
+feuds, but it mitigated something of the savagery of war between
+them, and a truce protected all travellers to and from the games.
+As time went on the sentiment of a common heritage grew and the
+number of states participating in the Olympic games increased
+until at last not only Greeks but competitors from the closely
+kindred countries of Epirus and Macedonia to the north were
+admitted.
+
+The Greek cities grew in trade and importance, and the quality of
+their civilization rose steadily in the seventh and sixth
+centuries B.C.  Their social life differed in many interesting
+points from the social life of the AEgean and river valley
+civilizations.  They had splendid temples but the priesthood was
+not the great traditional body it was in the cities of the older
+world, the-repository of all knowledge, the storehouse of ideas.
+They had leaders and noble families, but no quasi-divine monarch
+surrounded by an elaborately organized court.  Rather their
+organization was aristocratic, with leading families which kept
+each other in order.  Even their so-called "democracies" were
+aristocratic; every citizen had a share in public affairs and came
+to the assembly in a democracy, but everybody was not a _citizen_.
+The Greek democracies were not like our modern "democracies" in
+which everyone has a vote.  Many of the Greek democracies had a
+few hundred or a few thousand citizens and then many thousands of
+slaves, freedmen and so forth, with no share in public affairs.
+Generally in Greece affairs were in the hands of a community of
+substantial men.  Their kings and their tyrants alike were just
+men set in front of other men or usurping a leadership; they were
+not quasi-divine overmen like Pharaoh or Minos or the monarchs of
+Mesopotamia.  Both thought and government therefore had a freedom
+under Greek conditions such as they had known in none of the older
+civilizations.  The Greeks had brought down into cities the
+individualism, the personal initiative of the wandering life of
+the northern parklands.  They were the first republicans of
+importance in history.
+
+{132}
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), PAESTUM, SICILY]
+
+And we find that as they emerge from a condition of barbaric
+warfare a new thing becomes apparent in their intellectual life.
+We find men who are not priests seeking and recording knowledge
+and enquiring into the mysteries of life and being, in a way that
+has hitherto been the sublime privilege of priesthood or the
+presumptuous amusement of kings.  We find already in the sixth
+century B.C.--perhaps while Isaiah was still prophesying in
+Babylon--such men as Thales and Anaximander of Miletus and
+Heraclitus of Ephesus, who were what we should now call
+independent gentlemen, giving their minds to shrewd questionings
+of the world in which we live, asking what its real nature was,
+whence it came and what its destiny might be, and refusing all
+ready-made or evasive answers.  Of these questionings of the
+universe by the Greek mind, we shall have more to say a little
+later in this history.  These Greek enquirers {133} who begin to
+be remarkable in the sixth century B.C. are the first
+philosophers, the first "wisdom-lovers," in the world.
+
+And it may be noted here how important a century this sixth
+century B.C. was in the history of humanity.  For not only were
+these Greek philosophers beginning the research for clear ideas
+about this universe and man's place in it and Isaiah carrying
+Jewish prophecy to its sublimest levels, but as we shall tell
+later Gautama Buddha was then teaching in India and Confucius and
+Lao Tse in China.  From Athens to the Pacific the human mind was
+astir.
+
+
+
+
+{134}
+
+XXIV
+
+THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS
+
+
+While the Greeks in the cities in Greece, South Italy and Asia
+Minor were embarking upon free intellectual enquiry and while in
+Babylon and Jerusalem the last of the Hebrew prophets were
+creating a free conscience for mankind, two adventurous Aryan
+peoples, the Medes and the Persians, were in possession of the
+civilization of the ancient world and were making a great empire,
+the Persian empire, which was far larger in extent than any empire
+the world had seen hitherto.  Under Cyrus, Babylon and the rich
+and ancient civilization of Lydia had been added to the Persian
+rule; the Phoenician cities of the Levant and all the Greek cities
+in Asia Minor had been made tributary, Cambyses had subjected
+Egypt, and Darius I, the Mede, the third of the Persian rulers
+(521 B.C.), found himself monarch as it seemed of all the world.
+His couriers rode with his decrees from the Dardanelles to the
+Indus and from Upper Egypt to Central Asia.
+
+The Greeks in Europe, it is true, Italy, Carthage, Sicily and the
+Spanish Phoenician settlements, were not under the Persian Peace;
+but they treated it with respect and the only people who gave any
+serious trouble were the old parent hordes of Nordic people in
+South Russia and Central Asia, the Scythians, who raided the
+northern and north-eastern borders.
+
+Of course the population of this great Persian empire was not a
+population of Persians, The Persians were only the small
+conquering minority of this enormous realm.  The rest of the
+population was what it had been before the Persians came from time
+immemorial, only that Persian was the administrative language.
+Trade and finance were still largely Semitic, Tyre and Sidon as of
+old were the great Mediterranean ports and Semitic shipping plied
+upon the seas.  But many of these Semitic merchants and business
+people as {135} they went from place to place already found a
+sympathetic and convenient common history in the Hebrew tradition
+and the Hebrew scriptures.  A new element which was increasing
+rapidly in this empire was the Greek element.  The Greeks were
+becoming serious rivals to the Semites upon the sea, and their
+detached and vigorous intelligence made them useful and,
+unprejudiced officials.
+
+[Illustration: FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY]
+
+It was on account of the Scythians that Darius I invaded Europe.
+He wanted to reach South Russia, the homeland of the Scythian
+horsemen.  He crossed the Bosphorus with a great army and marched
+through Bulgaria to the Danube, crossed this by a bridge of boats
+and pushed far northward.  His army suffered terribly.  It was
+largely an infantry force and the mounted Scythians rode all round
+it, cut off its supplies, destroyed any stragglers and never came
+to a pitched battle.  Darius was forced into an inglorious
+retreat.
+
+He returned himself to Susa but he left an army in Thrace and
+Macedonia, and Macedonia submitted to Darius.  Insurrections of
+the Greek cities in Asia followed this failure, and the European
+Greeks were drawn into the contest.  Darius resolved upon the
+subjugation of the Greeks in Europe.  With the Phoenician fleet at
+his disposal he was able to subdue one island after another, and
+finally in 490 B.C. he made his main attack upon Athens.  A
+considerable Armada sailed from the ports of Asia Minor and the
+eastern Mediterranean, and the expedition landed its troops at
+Marathon to the north of Athens.  There they were met and signally
+defeated by the Athenians.
+
+{136}
+
+An extraordinary thing happened at this time.  The bitterest rival
+of Athens in Greece was Sparta, but now Athens appealed to Sparta,
+sending a herald, a swift runner, imploring the Spartans not to
+let Greeks become slaves to barbarians.  This runner (the
+prototype of all "Marathon" runners) did over a hundred miles of
+broken country in less than two days.  The Spartans responded
+promptly and generously; but when, in three days, the Spartan
+force reached Athens, there was nothing for it to do but to view
+the battlefield and the bodies of the defeated Persian soldiers.
+The Persian fleet had returned to Asia.  So ended the first
+Persian attack on Greece.
+
+The next was much more impressive.  Darius died soon after the
+news of his defeat at Marathon reached him, and for four years his
+son and successor, Xerxes, prepared a host to crush the Greeks.
+For a time terror united all the Greeks.  The army of Xerxes was
+certainly the greatest that had hitherto been assembled in the
+world.  It was a huge assembly of discordant elements.  It crossed
+the Dardanelles, 480 B.C., by a bridge of boats; and along the
+coast as it advanced moved an equally miscellaneous fleet carrying
+supplies.  At the narrow pass of Thermopylae a small force of 1400
+men under the Spartan Leonidas resisted this multitude, and after
+a fight of unsurpassed heroism was completely destroyed.  Every
+man was killed.  But the losses they inflicted upon the Persians
+were enormous, and the army of Xerxes pushed on to Thebes and
+Athens in a chastened mood.  Thebes surrendered and made terms.
+The Athenians abandoned their city and it was burnt.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{137}
+
+[Illustration: ALL THAT REMAINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF CORINTH]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Greece seemed in the hands of the conqueror, but again came
+victory against the odds and all expectations.  The Greek fleet,
+though not a third the size of the Persian, assailed it in the bay
+of Salamis and destroyed it.  Xerxes found himself and his immense
+army cut off from supplies and his heart failed him.  He retreated
+to Asia with one half of his army, leaving the rest to be defeated
+at Platea (479 B.C.) what time the remnants of the Persian fleet
+were hunted down by the Greeks and destroyed at Mycalae in Asia
+Minor.
+
+The Persian danger was at an end.  Most of the Greek cities in
+Asia became free.  All this is told in great detail and with much
+picturesqueness in the first of written histories, the _History_
+of {138} Herodotus.  This Herodotus was born about 484 B.C. in the
+Ionian city of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, and he visited Babylon
+and Egypt in his search for exact particulars.  From Mycalae onward
+Persia sank into a confusion of dynastic troubles.  Xerxes was
+murdered in 465 B.C. and rebellions in Egypt, Syria and Media
+broke up the brief order of that mighty realm.  The history of
+Herodotus lays stress on the weakness of Persia.  This history is
+indeed what we should now call propaganda--propaganda for Greece
+to unite and conquer Persia.  Herodotus makes one character,
+Aristagoras, go to the Spartans with a map of the known world and
+say to them: "These Barbarians are not valiant in fight.  You on
+the other hand have now attained the utmost skill in war .... No
+other nations in the world have what they possess: gold, silver,
+bronze, embroidered garments, beasts and slaves.  _All this you
+might have for yourselves, if you so desired._"
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM]
+
+
+
+
+{139}
+
+XXV
+
+THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE
+
+
+The century and a half that followed the defeat of Persia was one
+of very great splendour for the Greek civilization.  True that
+Greece was torn by a desperate struggle for ascendancy between
+Athens, Sparta and other states (the Peloponnesian War 431 to 404
+B.C.) and that in 338 B.C. the Macedonians became virtually
+masters of Greece; nevertheless during this period the thought and
+the creative and artistic impulse of the Greeks rose to levels
+that made their achievement a lamp to mankind for all the rest of
+history.
+
+The head and centre of this mental activity was Athens.  For over
+thirty years (466 to 428 B.C.) Athens was dominated by a man of
+great vigour and liberality of mind, Pericles, who set himself to
+rebuild the city from the ashes to which the Persians had reduced
+it. The beautiful ruins that still glorify Athens to-day are
+chiefly the remains of this great effort.  And he did not simply
+rebuild a material Athens.  He rebuilt Athens intellectually.  He
+gathered about him not only architects and sculptors but poets,
+dramatists, philosophers and teachers.  Herodotus came to Athens
+to recite his history (438 B.C.). Anaxagoras came with the
+beginnings of a scientific description of the sun and stars.
+AEschylus, Sophocles and Euripides one after the other carried the
+Greek drama to its highest levels or beauty and nobility.
+
+The impetus Pericles gave to the intellectual life of Athens lived
+on after his death, and in spite of the fact that the peace of
+Greece was now broken by the Peloponnesian War and a long and
+wasteful struggle for "ascendancy" was beginning.  Indeed the
+darkling of the political horizon seems for a time to have
+quickened rather than discouraged men's minds.
+
+Already long before the time of Pericles the peculiar freedom of
+Greek institutions had given great importance to skill in
+discussion.  {140} Decision rested neither with king nor with
+priest but in the assemblies of the people or of leading men.
+Eloquence and able argument became very desirable accomplishments
+therefore, and a class of teachers arose, the Sophists, who
+undertook to strengthen young men in these arts.  But one cannot
+reason without matter, and knowledge followed in the wake of
+speech.  The activities and rivalries of these Sophists led very
+naturally to an acute examination of style, of methods of thought
+and of the validity of arguments.  When Pericles died a certain
+Socrates was becoming prominent as an able and destructive critic
+of bad argument--and much of the teaching of the Sophists was bad
+argument.  A group of brilliant young men gathered about Socrates.
+In the end Socrates was executed for disturbing people's minds
+(399 B.C.), he was condemned after the dignified fashion of the
+Athens of those days to drink in his own house and among his own
+friends a poisonous draught made from hemlock, but the disturbance
+of people's minds went on in spite of his condemnation. His young
+men carried on his teaching.
+
+[Illustration: PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+{141}
+
+[Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS]
+
+[Illustration: THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Chief among these young men was Plato (427 to 347 B.C.) who
+presently began to teach philosophy in the grove of the Academy.
+His teaching fell into two main divisions, an examination of the
+foundations and methods of human thinking and an examination of
+political institutions.  He was the first man to write a Utopia,
+that is to say the plan of a community different from and better
+than any {142} existing community.  This shows an altogether
+unprecedented boldness in the human mind which had hitherto
+accepted social traditions and usages with scarcely a question.
+Plato said plainly to mankind: "Most of the social and political
+ills from which you suffer are under your control, given only the
+will and courage to change them.  You can live in another and a
+wiser fashion if you choose to think it out and work it out.  You
+are not awake to your own power."  That is a high adventurous
+teaching that has still to soak in to the common intelligence of
+our race.  One of his earliest works was the Republic, a dream of
+a communist aristocracy; his last unfinished work was the Laws, a
+scheme of regulation for another such Utopian state.
+
+[Illustration: THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM]
+
+The criticism of methods of thinking and methods of government was
+carried on after Plato's death by Aristotle, who had been his
+pupil and who taught in the Lyceum.  Aristotle came from the city
+of Stagira in Macedonia, and his father was court physician to the
+Macedonian king.  For a time Aristotle was tutor to Alexander,
+{144} the king's son, who was destined to achieve very great
+things of which we shall soon be telling.  Aristotle's work upon
+methods of thinking carried the science of Logic to a level at
+which it remained for fifteen hundred years or more, until the
+mediaeval schoolmen took up the ancient questions again.  He made
+no Utopias.  Before man could really control his destiny as Plato
+taught, Aristotle perceived that he needed far more knowledge and
+far more accurate knowledge than he possessed.  And so Aristotle
+began that systematic collection of knowledge which nowadays we
+call Science.  He sent out explorers to collect _facts_.  He was
+the father of natural history.  He was the founder of political
+science.  His students at the Lyceum examined and compared the
+constitutions of 158 different states ....
+
+{143}
+
+[Illustration: ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON]
+
+Here in the fourth century B.C. we find men who are practically
+"modern thinkers."  The child-like, dream-like methods of
+primitive thought had given way to a disciplined and critical
+attack upon the problems of life.  The weird and monstrous
+symbolism and imagery of the gods and god monsters, and all the
+taboos and awes and restraints that have hitherto encumbered
+thinking are here completely set aside.  Free, exact and
+systematic thinking has begun.  The fresh and unencumbered mind of
+these newcomers out of the northern forests has thrust itself into
+the mysteries of the temple and let the daylight in.
+
+
+
+
+{145}
+
+XXVI
+
+THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
+
+
+From 431 to 404 B.C. the Peloponnesian War wasted Greece.
+Meanwhile to the north of Greece, the kindred country of Macedonia
+was rising slowly to power and civilization.  The Macedonians
+spoke a language closely akin to Greek, and on several occasions
+Macedonian competitors had taken part in the Olympic games.  In
+359 B.C. a man of very great abilities and ambition became king of
+this little country--Philip.  Philip had previously been a hostage
+in Greece; he had had a thoroughly Greek education and he was
+probably aware of the ideas of Herodotus--which had also been
+developed by the philosopher Isocrates--of a possible conquest of
+Asia by a consolidated Greece.
+
+He set himself first to extend and organize his own realm and to
+remodel his army.  For a thousand years now the charging
+horse-chariot had been the decisive factor in battles, that and
+the close-fighting infantry.  Mounted horsemen had also fought,
+but as a cloud of skirmishers, individually and without
+discipline.  Philip made his infantry fight in a closely packed
+mass, the Macedonian phalanx, and he trained his mounted
+gentlemen, the knights or companions, to fight in formation and so
+invented cavalry.  The master move in most of his battles and in
+the battles of his son Alexander was a cavalry charge.  The
+phalanx _held_ the enemy infantry in front while the cavalry swept
+away the enemy horse on his wings and poured in on the flank and
+rear of his infantry.  Chariots were disabled by bowmen, who shot
+the horses.
+
+With this new army Philip extended his frontiers through Thessaly
+to Greece; and the battle of Chaeronia (338 B.C.), fought against
+Athens and her allies, put all Greece at his feet.  At last the
+dream of Herodotus was bearing fruit.  A congress of all the Greek
+states appointed Philip captain-general of the Graeco-Macedonian
+confederacy {146} against Persia, and in 336 B.C. his advanced
+guard crossed into Asia upon this long premeditated adventure.
+But he never followed it.  He was assassinated; it is believed at
+the instigation of his queen Olympias, Alexander's mother.  She
+was jealous because Philip had married a second wife.
+
+But Philip had taken unusual pains with his son's education.  He
+had not only secured Aristotle, the greatest philosopher in the
+world, as this boy's tutor, but he had shared his ideas with him
+and thrust military experience upon him.  At Chaeronia Alexander,
+who was then only eighteen years old, had been in command of the
+cavalry.  And so it was possible for this young man, who was still
+only twenty years old at the time of his accession, to take up his
+father's task at once and to proceed successfully with the Persian
+adventure.
+
+[Illustration: BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT]
+
+In 334 B.C.--for two years were needed to establish and confirm
+his position in Macedonia and Greece--he crossed into Asia,
+defeated a not very much bigger Persian army at the battle of the
+Granicus and captured a number of cities in Asia Minor.  He kept
+along the sea-coast.  It was necessary for him to reduce and
+garrison all the coast towns as he advanced because the Persians
+had control of the fleets of Tyre and Sidon and so had command of
+the sea.  {147} Had he left a hostile port in his rear the
+Persians might have landed forces to raid his communications and
+cut him off. At  Issus (333 B.C.) he met and smashed a vast
+conglomerate host under Darius III.  Like the host of Xerxes that
+had crossed the Dardanelles a century and a half before, it was an
+incoherent accumulation of contingents and it was encumbered with
+a multitude of court officials, the harem of Darius and many camp
+followers.  Sidon surrendered to Alexander but Tyre resisted
+obstinately.  Finally that great city was stormed and plundered
+and destroyed.  Gaza also was stormed, and towards the end of 332
+B.C. the conqueror entered Egypt and took over its rule from the
+Persians.
+
+[Illustration: ALEXANDER'S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS]
+
+At Alexandretta and at Alexandria in Egypt he built great cities,
+accessible from the land and so incapable of revolt.  To these the
+trade of the Phoenician cities was diverted.  The Phoenicians of
+the western Mediterranean suddenly disappear from history--and as
+immediately the Jews of Alexandria and the other new trading
+cities created by Alexander appear.
+
+In 331 B.C. Alexander marched out of Egypt upon Babylon as
+Thothmes and Rameses and Necho had done before him.  But he
+marched by way of Tyre.  At Arbela near the ruins of Nineveh,
+{148} which was already a forgotten city, he met Darius and fought
+the decisive battle of the war.  The Persian chariot charge
+failed, a Macedonian cavalry charge broke up the great composite
+host and the phalanx completed the victory.  Darius led the
+retreat.  He made no further attempt to resist the invader but
+fled northward into the country of the Medes.  Alexander marched
+on to Babylon, still prosperous and important, and then to Susa
+and Persepolis.  There after a drunken festival he burnt down the
+palace of Darius, the king of kings.
+
+[Illustration: THE APOLLO BELVEDERE]
+
+Thence Alexander presently made a military parade of central Asia,
+going to the utmost bounds of the Persian empire.  At first he
+turned northward.  Darius was pursued; and he was overtaken at
+dawn dying in his chariot, having been murdered by his own people.
+He was still living when the foremost Greeks reached him.
+Alexander came up to find him dead.  Alexander skirted the Caspian
+Sea, he went up into the mountains of western Turkestan, he came
+down by Herat (which he founded) and Cabul and the Khyber Pass
+into {149} India.  He fought a great battle on the Indus with an
+Indian king, Porus, and here the Macedonian troops met elephants
+for the first time and defeated them.  Finally he built himself
+ships, sailed down to the mouth of the Indus, and marched back by
+the coast of Beluchistan, reaching Susa again in 324 B.C. after an
+absence of six years.  He then prepared to consolidate and
+organize this vast empire he had won.  He sought to win over his
+new subjects.  He assumed the robes and tiara of a Persian
+monarch, and this roused the jealousy of his Macedonian
+commanders.  He had much trouble with them.  He arranged a number
+of marriages between these Macedonian officers and Persian and
+Babylonian women: the "Marriage of the East and West."  He never
+lived to effect the consolidation he had planned.  A fever seized
+him after a drinking bout in Babylon and he died in 323 B.C.
+
+Immediately this vast dominion fell to pieces.  One of his
+generals, Seleucus, retained most of the old Persian empire from
+the Indus to Ephesus; another, Ptolemy, seized Egypt, and
+Antigonus secured Macedonia.  The rest of the empire remained
+unstable, passing under the control of a succession of local
+adventurers.  Barbarian raids began from the north and grew in
+scope and intensity.  Until at last, as we shall tell, a new
+power, the power of the Roman republic, came out of the west to
+subjugate one fragment after another and weld them together into a
+new and more enduring empire.
+
+
+
+
+{150}
+
+XXVII
+
+THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+Before the time of Alexander Greeks had already been spreading as
+merchants, artists, officials, mercenary soldiers, over most of
+the Persian dominions.  In the dynastic disputes that followed the
+death of Xerxes, a band of ten thousand Greek mercenaries played a
+part under the leadership of Xenophon.  Their return to Asiatic
+Greece from Babylon is described in his Retreat of the _Ten
+Thousand_, one of the first war stories that was ever written by a
+general in command.  But the conquests of Alexander and the
+division of his brief empire among his subordinate generals,
+greatly stimulated this permeation of the ancient world by the
+Greeks and their language and fashions and culture.  Traces of
+this Greek dissemination are to be found far away in central Asia
+and in north-west India.  Their influence upon the development of
+Indian art was profound.
+
+For many centuries Athens retained her prestige as a centre of art
+and culture; her schools went on indeed to 529 A.D., that is to
+say for nearly a thousand years; but the leadership in the
+intellectual activity of the world passed presently across the
+Mediterranean to Alexandria, the new trading city that Alexander
+had founded.  Here the Macedonian general Ptolemy had become
+Pharaoh, with a court that spoke Greek.  He had become an intimate
+of Alexander before he became king, and he was deeply saturated
+with the ideas of Aristotle.  He set himself, with great energy
+and capacity, to organize knowledge and investigation.  He also
+wrote a history of Alexander's campaigns which, unhappily, is lost
+to the world.
+
+Alexander had already devoted considerable sums to finance the
+enquiries of Aristotle, but Ptolemy I was the first person to make
+a permanent endowment of science.  He set up a foundation in
+Alexandria which was formerly dedicated to the Muses, the Museum
+{151} of Alexandria.  For two or three generations the scientific
+work done at Alexandria was extraordinarily good.  Euclid,
+Eratosthenes who measured the size of the earth and came within
+fifty miles of its true diameter, Apollonius who wrote on conic
+sections, Hipparchus who made the first star map and catalogue,
+and Hero who devised the first steam engine are among the greater
+stars of an extraordinary constellation of scientific pioneers.
+Archimedes came from Syracuse to Alexandria to study, and was a
+frequent correspondent of the Museum.  Herophilus was one of the
+greatest of Greek anatomists, and is said to have practised
+vivisection.
+
+For a generation or so during the reigns of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy
+II there was such a blaze of knowledge and discovery at Alexandria
+as the world was not to see again until the sixteenth century A.D.
+But it did not continue.  There may have been several causes of
+this decline.  Chief among them, the late Professor Mahaffy
+suggested, was the fact that the Museum was a "royal" college and
+all its professors and fellows were appointed and paid by Pharaoh.
+This was all very well when Pharaoh was Ptolemy I, the pupil and
+friend of Aristotle.  But as the dynasty of the Ptolemies went on
+they became Egyptianized, they fell under the sway of Egyptian
+priests and Egyptian religious developments, they ceased to follow
+the work that was done, and their control stifled the spirit of
+enquiry altogether.  The Museum produced little good work after
+its first century of activity.
+
+Ptolemy I not only sought in the most modern spirit to organize
+the finding of fresh knowledge.  He tried also to set up an
+encyclopaedic storehouse of wisdom in the Library of Alexandria.
+It was not simply a storehouse, it was also a book-copying and
+book-selling organization.  A great army of copyists was set to
+work perpetually multiplying copies of books.
+
+Here then we have the definite first opening up of the
+intellectual process in which we live to-day; here we have the
+systematic gathering and distribution of knowledge.  The
+foundation of this Museum and Library marks one of the great
+epochs in the history of mankind.  It is the true beginning of
+Modern History.
+
+{152}
+
+[Illustration: ARISTOTLE]
+
+Both the work of research and the work of dissemination went on
+under serious handicaps.  One of these was the great social gap
+that separated the philosopher, who was a gentleman, from the
+trader and the artisan.  There were glass workers and metal
+workers in abundance in those days, but they were not in mental
+contact with the thinkers.  The glass worker was making the most
+beautifully coloured beads and phials and so forth, but he never
+made a Florentine flask or a lens.  Clear glass does not seem to
+have interested him.  The metal worker made weapons and jewellery
+but he never made a chemical balance.  The philosopher speculated
+loftily about atoms and the nature of things, but he had no
+practical experience of enamels and pigments and philters and so
+forth.  He was not interested in substances.  So Alexandria in its
+brief day of opportunity produced no microscopes and no
+chemistry.  And though Hero invented a steam engine it was never
+set either to pump or drive a boat or do any useful thing.  There
+were few practical applications of science except in the realm of
+medicine, and the progress of science was not stimulated and
+sustained by the interest and excitement of practical
+applications.  There was nothing to keep the work going therefore
+when the intellectual curiosity of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II {153}
+was withdrawn.  The discoveries of the Museum went on record in
+obscure manuscripts and never, until the revival of scientific
+curiosity at the Renascence, reached out to the mass of mankind.
+
+[Illustration: STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME]
+
+Nor did the Library produce any improvements in book making.  That
+ancient world had no paper made in definite sizes from rag pulp.
+Paper was a Chinese invention and it did not reach the western
+world until the ninth century A.D.  The only book materials were
+parchment and strips of the papyrus reed joined edge to edge.
+These strips were kept on rolls which were very unwieldy to wind
+to and fro and read, and very inconvenient for reference.  It was
+these things that prevented the development of paged and printed
+books.  Printing itself was known in the world it would seem as
+early as the Old Stone Age; there were seals in ancient Sumeria;
+but without abundant paper there was little advantage in printing
+books, an improvement that may further have been resisted by
+trades unionism on the part of the copyists employed.  Alexandria
+produced abundant books but not cheap books, and it never spread
+knowledge into the population of the ancient world below the level
+of a wealthy and influential class.
+
+So it was that this blaze of intellectual enterprise never reached
+beyond a small circle of people in touch with the group of
+philosophers collected by the first two Ptolemies.  It was like
+the light in a dark lantern which is shut off from the world at
+large.  Within the blaze may be blindingly bright, but
+nevertheless it is unseen.  The rest of the world went on its old
+ways unaware that the seed of scientific knowledge that was one
+day to revolutionize it altogether had been sown.  Presently a
+darkness of bigotry fell even upon {154} Alexandria. Thereafter
+for a thousand years of darkness the seed that Aristotle had sown
+lay hidden.  Then it stirred and began to germinate.  In a few
+centuries it had become that widespread growth of knowledge and
+clear ideas that is now changing the whole of human life.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEATH OF BUDDHA]
+
+Alexandria was not the only centre of Greek intellectual activity
+in the third century B.C.  There were many other cities that
+displayed a brilliant intellectual life amidst the disintegrating
+fragments of the brief empire of Alexander.  There was, for
+example, the Greek city of Syracuse in Sicily, where thought and
+science flourished for two centuries; there was Pergamum in Asia
+Minor, which also had a great library.  But this brilliant
+Hellenic world was now stricken by invasion from the north.  New
+Nordic barbarians, the Gauls, were striking down along the tracks
+that had once been followed by the ancestors of the Greeks and
+Phrygians and Macedonians.  They raided, shattered and destroyed.
+And in the wake of the Gauls came a new conquering people out of
+Italy, the Romans, who gradually subjugated all the western half
+of the vast realm of Darius and Alexander.  They were an able but
+unimaginative people, preferring law and profit to either science
+or art.  {155} New invaders were also coming down out of central
+Asia to shatter and subdue the Seleucid empire and to cut off the
+western world again from India.  These were the Parthians, hosts
+of mounted bowmen, who treated the Graeco-Persian empire of
+Persepolis and Susa in the third century B.C. in much the same
+fashion that the Medes and Persians had treated it in the seventh
+and sixth.  And there were now other nomadic peoples also coming
+out of the northeast, peoples who were not fair and Nordic and
+Aryan-speaking but yellow-skinned and black-haired and with a
+Mongolian speech.  But of these latter people we shall tell more
+in a subsequent chapter.
+
+
+
+
+{156}
+
+XXVIII
+
+THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA
+
+
+But now we must go back three centuries in our story to tell of a
+great teacher who came near to revolutionizing the religious
+thought and feeling of all Asia.  This was Gautama Buddha, who
+taught his disciples at Benares in India about the same time that
+Isaiah was prophesying among the Jews in Babylon and Heraclitus
+was carrying on his speculative enquiries into the nature of
+things at Ephesus.  All these men were in the world at the same
+time, in the sixth century B.C.--unaware of one another.
+
+This sixth century B.C. was indeed one of the most remarkable in
+all history.  Everywhere--for as we shall tell it was also the
+case in China--men's minds were displaying a new boldness.
+Everywhere they were waking up out of the traditions of kingships
+and priests and blood sacrifices and asking the most penetrating
+questions.  It is as if the race had reached a stage of
+adolescence--after a childhood of twenty thousand years.
+
+The early history of India is still very obscure.  Somewhen
+perhaps about 2000 B.C., an Aryan-speaking people came down from
+the north-west into India either in one invasion or in a series of
+invasions; and was able to spread its language and traditions over
+most of north India.  Its peculiar variety of Aryan speech was the
+Sanskrit.  They found a brunette people with a more elaborate
+civilization and less vigour of will, in possession of the country
+of the Indus and Ganges.  But they do not seem to have mingled
+with their predecessors as freely as did the Greeks and Persians.
+They remained aloof.  When the past of India becomes dimly visible
+to the historian, Indian society is already stratified into
+several layers, with a variable number of
+sub-divisions, which do not eat together nor intermarry nor
+associate freely.  And throughout history this {157}
+stratification into castes continues.  This makes the Indian
+population something different from the simple, freely
+inter-breeding European or Mongolian communities.  It is really a
+community of communities.
+
+Siddhattha Gautama was the son of an aristocratic family which
+ruled a small district on the Himalayan slopes.  He was married at
+nineteen to a beautiful cousin.  He hunted and played and went
+about in his sunny world of gardens and groves and irrigated
+rice-fields.  And it was amidst this life that a great discontent
+fell upon him.  It was the unhappiness of a fine brain that seeks
+employment.  He felt that the existence he was leading was not the
+reality of life, but a holiday--a holiday that had gone on too
+long.
+
+The sense of disease and mortality, the insecurity and the
+un-satisfactoriness of all happiness, descended upon the mind of
+Gautama.  While he was in this mood he met one of those wandering
+ascetics who already existed in great numbers in India.  These men
+lived under severe rules, spending much time in meditation and in
+religious discussion.  They were supposed to be seeking some
+deeper reality in life, and a passionate desire to do likewise
+took possession of Gautama.
+
+He was meditating upon this project, says the story, when the news
+was brought to him that his wife had been delivered of his
+first-born son. "This is another tie to break," said Gautama.
+
+He returned to the village amidst the rejoicings of his fellow
+clansmen.  There was a great feast and a Nautch dance to celebrate
+the birth of this new tie, and in the night Gautama awoke in a
+great agony of spirit, "like a man who is told that his house is
+on fire."  He resolved to leave his happy aimless life forthwith.
+He went softly to the threshold of his wife's chamber, and saw her
+by the light of a little oil lamp, sleeping sweetly, surrounded by
+flowers, with his infant son in her arms.  He felt a great craving
+to take up the child in one first and last embrace before he
+departed, but the fear of waking his wife prevented him, and at
+last he turned away and went out into the bright Indian moonshine
+and mounted his horse and rode off into the world.
+
+{158}
+
+[Illustration: TIBETAN BUDDHA]
+
+Very far he rode that night, and in the morning he stopped outside
+{159} the lands of his clan, and dismounted beside a sandy river.
+There he cut off his flowing locks with his sword, removed all his
+ornaments and sent them and his horse and sword back to his house.
+Going on he presently met a ragged man and exchanged clothes with
+him, and so having divested himself of all worldly entanglements
+he was free to pursue his search after wisdom.  He made his way
+southward to a resort of hermits and teachers in a hilly spur of
+the Vindhya Mountains.  There lived a number of wise men in a
+warren of caves, going into the town for their simple supplies and
+imparting their knowledge by word of mouth to such as cared to
+come to them.  Gautama became versed in all the metaphysics of his
+age.  But his acute intelligence was dissatisfied with the
+solutions offered him.
+
+[Illustration: A BURMESE BUDDHA]
+
+The Indian mind has always been disposed to believe that power and
+knowledge may be obtained by extreme asceticism, by fasting,
+sleeplessness, and self-torment, and these ideas Gautama now put
+to the test.  He betook himself with five disciple companions to
+the jungle and there he gave himself up to fasting and terrible
+penances.  His fame spread, "like the sound of a great {160} bell
+hung in the canopy of the skies."  But it brought him no sense of
+truth achieved.  One day he was walking up and down, trying to
+think in spite of his enfeebled state.  Suddenly he fell
+unconscious.  When he recovered, the preposterousness of these
+semi-magical ways to wisdom was plain to him.
+
+[Illustration: THE DHAMEKH TOWER]
+
+He horrified his companions by demanding ordinary food and
+refusing to continue his mortifications.  He had realized that
+whatever truth a man may reach is reached best by a nourished
+brain in a healthy body.  Such a conception was absolutely foreign
+to the ideas of the land and age.  His disciples deserted him, and
+went off in a melancholy state to Benares.  Gautama wandered
+alone.
+
+When the mind grapples with a great and intricate problem, it
+makes its advances step by step, with but little realization of
+the gains it has made, until suddenly, with an effect of abrupt
+illumination, it realizes its victory.  So it happened to Gautama.
+He had seated himself under a great tree by the side of a river to
+eat, when this sense of clear vision came to him.  It seemed to
+him that he saw life plain.  He is said to have sat all day and
+all night in profound thought, and then he rose up to impart his
+vision to the world.
+
+He went on to Benares and there he sought out and won back his
+lost disciples to his new teaching.  In the King's Deer Park at
+Benares they built themselves huts and set up a sort of school to
+which came many who were seeking after wisdom.
+
+The starting point of his teaching was his own question as a
+fortunate {161} young man, "Why am I not completely happy?"  It
+was an introspective question.  It was a question very different
+in quality from the frank and self-forgetful _externalized_
+curiosity with which Thales and Heraclitus were attacking the
+problems of the universe, or the equally self-forgetful burthen of
+moral obligation that the culminating prophets were imposing upon
+the Hebrew mind.  The Indian teacher did not forget self, he
+concentrated upon self and sought to destroy it.  All suffering,
+he taught, was due to the greedy desires of the individual.  Until
+man has conquered his personal cravings his life is trouble and
+his end sorrow.  There were three principal forms that the craving
+for life took and they were all evil.  The first was the desire of
+the appetites, greed and all forms of sensuousness, the second was
+the desire for a personal and egotistic immortality, the third was
+the craving for personal success, worldliness, avarice and the
+like.  All these forms of desire had to be overcome to escape from
+the distresses and chagrins of life.  When they were overcome,
+when self had vanished altogether, then serenity of soul, Nirvana,
+the highest good was attained.
+
+This was the gist of his teaching, a very subtle and metaphysical
+teaching indeed, not nearly so easy to understand as the Greek
+injunction to see and know fearlessly and rightly and the Hebrew
+command to fear God and accomplish righteousness.  It was a
+teaching much beyond the understanding of even Gautama's immediate
+disciples, and it is no wonder that so soon as his personal
+influence was withdrawn it became corrupted and coarsened.  There
+was a widespread belief in India at that time that at long
+intervals Wisdom came to earth and was incarnate in some chosen
+person who was known as the Buddha.  Gautama's disciples declared
+that he was a Buddha, the latest of the Buddhas, though there is
+no evidence that he himself ever accepted the title.  Before he
+was well dead, a cycle of fantastic legends began to be woven
+about him.  The human heart has always preferred a wonder story to
+a moral effort, and Gautama Buddha became very wonderful.
+
+Yet there remained a substantial gain in the world.  If Nirvana
+was too high and subtle for most men's imaginations, if the
+myth-making impulse in the race was too strong for the simple
+facts of Gautama's life, they could at least grasp something of
+the intention {162} of what Gautama called the Eight-fold way, the
+Aryan or Noble Path in life.  In this there was an insistence upon
+mental uprightness, upon right aims and speech, right conduct and
+honest livelihood.  There was a quickening of the conscience and
+an appeal to generous and self-forgetful ends.
+
+
+
+
+{163}
+
+XXIX
+
+KING ASOKA
+
+
+For some generations after the death of Gautama, these high and
+noble Buddhist teachings, this first plain teaching that the
+highest good for man is the subjugation of self, made
+comparatively little headway in the world.  Then they conquered
+the imagination of one of the greatest monarchs the world has ever
+seen.
+
+We have already mentioned how Alexander the Great came down into
+India and fought with Porus upon the Indus.  It is related by the
+Greek historians that a certain Chandragupta Maurya came into
+Alexander's camp and tried to persuade him to go on to the Ganges
+and conquer all India.  Alexander could not do this because of the
+refusal of his Macedonians to go further into what was for them an
+unknown world, and later on (303 B.C.) Chandragupta was able to
+secure the help or various hill tribes and realize his dream
+without Greek help.  He built up an empire in North India and was
+presently (303 B.C.) able to attack Seleucus I in the Punjab and
+drive the last vestige of Greek power out of India.  His son
+extended this new empire.  His grandson, Asoka, the monarch of
+whom we now have to tell, found himself in 264 B.C. ruling from
+Afghanistan to Madras.
+
+Asoka was at first disposed to follow the example of his father
+and grandfather and complete the conquest of the Indian peninsula.
+He invaded Kalinga (255 B.C.), a country on the east coast of
+Madras, he was successful in his military operations and--alone
+among conquerors--he was so disgusted by the cruelty and horror of
+war that he renounced it.  He would have no more of it.  He
+adopted the peaceful doctrines of Buddhism and declared that
+henceforth his conquests should be the conquests of religion.
+
+{164}
+
+[Illustration: A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty)]
+
+His reign for eight-and-twenty years was one of the brightest
+interludes in the troubled history of mankind.  He organized a
+great digging of wells in India and the planting of trees for
+shade.  He founded hospitals and public gardens and gardens for
+the growing of medicinal herbs.  He created a ministry for the
+care of the aborigines and subject races of India.  He made
+provision for the education of women.  He made vast benefactions
+to the Buddhist teaching orders, and tried to stimulate them to a
+better and more energetic criticism of their own accumulated
+literature.  For corruptions and superstitious accretions had
+accumulated very {165} speedily upon the pure and simple teaching
+of the great Indian master.  Missionaries went from Asoka to
+Kashmir, to Persia, to Ceylon and Alexandria.
+
+[Illustration: TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA]
+
+[Illustration: ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUT]
+
+Such was Asoka, greatest of kings.  He was far in advance of his
+age.  He left no prince and no organization of men to carry on his
+work, and within a century of his death the great days of his
+reign had become a glorious memory in a shattered and decaying
+India.  The priestly caste of the Brahmins, the highest and most
+privileged caste in the Indian social body, has always been
+opposed to the frank and open teaching of Buddha.  Gradually they
+undermined the Buddhist influence in the land.  The old monstrous
+gods, the innumerable cults of Hinduism, resumed their sway.
+Caste became {166} more rigorous and complicated.  For long
+centuries Buddhism and Brahminism flourished side by side, and
+then slowly Buddhism decayed and Brahminism in a multitude of
+forms replaced it.  But beyond the confines of India and the
+realms of caste Buddhism spread--until it had won China and Siam
+and Burma and Japan, countries in which it is predominant to this
+day.
+
+[Illustration: THE PILLAR OF LIONS]
+
+
+
+
+{167}
+
+XXX
+
+CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE
+
+
+We have still to tell of two other great men, Confucius and Lao
+Tse, who lived in that wonderful century which began the
+adolescence of mankind, the sixth century B.C.  In this history
+thus far we have told very little of the early story of China.  At
+present that early history is still very obscure, and we look to
+Chinese explorers and archaeolologists in the new China that is now
+arising to work out their past as thoroughly as the European past
+has been worked out during the last century.  Very long ago the
+first primitive Chinese civilizations arose in the great river
+valleys out of the primordial heliolithic culture.  They had, like
+Egypt and Sumeria, the general characteristics of that culture,
+and they centred upon temples in which priests and priest kings
+offered the seasonal blood sacrifices.  The life in those cities
+must have been very like the Egyptian and Sumerian life of six or
+seven thousand years ago and very like the Maya life of Central
+America a thousand years ago.
+
+If there were human sacrifices they had long given way to animal
+sacrifices before the dawn of history.  And a form of picture
+writing was growing up long before a thousand years B.C.
+
+And just as the primitive civilizations of Europe and western Asia
+were in conflict with the nomads of the desert and the nomads of
+the north, so the primitive Chinese civilizations had a great
+cloud of nomadic peoples on their northern borders.  There was a
+number of tribes akin in language and ways of living, who are
+spoken of in history in succession as the Huns, the Mongols, the
+Turks and Tartars.  They changed and divided and combined and
+re-combined, just as the Nordic peoples in north Europe and central
+Asia changed and varied in name rather than in nature.  These
+Mongolian nomads had horses earlier than the Nordic peoples, and
+it may {168} be that in the region of the Altai Mountains they
+made an independent discovery of iron somewhen after 1000 B.C.
+And just as in the western case so ever and again these eastern
+nomads would achieve a sort of political unity, and become the
+conquerors and masters and revivers of this or that settled and
+civilized region.
+
+It is quite possible that the earliest civilization of China was
+not Mongolian at all any more than the earliest civilization of
+Europe and western Asia was Nordic or Semitic.  It is quite
+possible that the earliest civilization of China was a brunette
+civilization and of a piece with the earliest Egyptian, Sumerian
+and Dravidian civilizations, and that when the first recorded
+history of China began there had already been conquests and
+intermixture.  At any rate we find that by 1750 B.C. China was
+already a vast system of little kingdoms and city states, all
+acknowledging a loose allegiance and paying more or less
+regularly, more or less definite feudal dues to one great priest
+emperor, the "Son of Heaven."  The "Shang" dynasty came to an end
+in 1125 B.C.  A "Chow" dynasty succeeded "Shang," and maintained
+China in a relaxing unity until the days of Asoka in India and of
+the Ptolemies in Egypt.  Gradually China went to pieces during
+that long "Chow" period.  Hunnish peoples came down and set up
+principalities; local rulers discontinued their tribute and became
+independent.  There was in the sixth century B.C., says one
+Chinese authority, five or six thousand practically independent
+states in China.  It was what the Chinese call in their records an
+"Age of Confusion."
+
+But this Age of Confusion was compatible with much intellectual
+activity and with the existence of many local centres of art and
+civilized living.  When we know more of Chinese history we shall
+find that China also had her Miletus and her Athens, her Pergamum
+and her Macedonia.  At present we must be vague and brief about
+this period of Chinese division simply because our knowledge is
+not sufficient for us to frame a coherent and consecutive story.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{169}
+
+[Illustration: CONFUCIUS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+And just as in divided Greece there were philosophers and in
+shattered and captive Jewry prophets, so in disordered China there
+were philosophers and teachers at this time.  In all these cases
+{170} insecurity and uncertainty seemed to have quickened the
+better sort of mind.  Confucius was a man of aristocratic origin
+and some official importance in a small state called Lu.  Here in
+a very parallel mood to the Greek impulse he set up a sort of
+Academy for discovering and teaching Wisdom.  The lawlessness and
+disorder of China distressed him profoundly.  He conceived an
+ideal of a better government and a better life, and travelled from
+state to state seeking a prince who would carry out his
+legislative and educational ideas.  He never found his prince; he
+found a prince, but court intrigues undermined the influence of
+the teacher and finally defeated his reforming proposals.  It is
+interesting to note that a century and a half later the Greek
+philosopher Plato also sought a prince, and was for a time adviser
+to the tyrant Dionysius who ruled Syracuse in Sicily.
+
+Confucius died a disappointed man.  "No intelligent ruler arises
+to take me as his master," he said, "and my time has come to die."
+But his teaching had more vitality than he imagined in his
+declining and hopeless years, and it became a great formative
+influence with the Chinese people.  It became one of what the
+Chinese call the Three Teachings, the other two being those of
+Buddha and of Lao Tse.
+
+The gist of the teaching of Confucius was the way of the noble or
+aristocratic man.  He was concerned with personal conduct as much
+as Gautama was concerned with the peace of self-forgetfulness and
+the Greek with external knowledge and the Jew with righteousness.
+He was the most public-minded of all great teachers.  He was
+supremely concerned by the confusion and miseries of the world,
+and he wanted to make men noble in order to bring about a noble
+world.  He sought to regulate conduct to an extraordinary extent;
+to provide sound rules for every occasion in life.  A polite,
+public-spirited gentleman, rather sternly self-disciplined, was
+the ideal he found already developing in the northern Chinese
+world and one to which he gave a permanent form.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{171}
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA]
+
+====================================================================
+The teaching of Lao Tse, who was for a long time in charge of the
+imperial library of the Chow dynasty, was much more mystical and
+vague and elusive than that of Confucius.  He seems to have
+preached a stoical indifference to the pleasures and powers of
+{172} the world and a return to an imaginary simple life of the
+past.  He left writings very contracted in style and very obscure.
+He wrote in riddles.  After his death his teachings, like the
+teachings of Gautama Buddha, were corrupted and overlaid by
+legends and had the most complex and extraordinary observances and
+superstitious ideas grafted upon them.  In China just as in India
+primordial ideas of magic and monstrous legends out of the
+childish past of our race struggled against the new thinking in
+the world and succeeded in plastering it over with grotesque,
+irrational and antiquated observances.  Both Buddhism and Taoism
+(which ascribes itself largely to Lao Tse) as one finds them in
+China now, are religions of monk, temple, priest and offering of a
+type as ancient in form, if not in thought, as the sacrificial
+religions of ancient Sumeria and Egypt.  But the teaching {173} of
+Confucius was not so overlaid because it was limited and plain and
+straightforward and lent itself to no such distortions.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL]
+
+North China, the China of the Hwang-ho River, became Confucian in
+thought and spirit; south China, Yang-tse-Kiang China, became
+Taoist.  Since those days a conflict has always been traceable in
+Chinese affairs between these two spirits, the spirit of the north
+and the spirit of the south, between (in latter times) Pekin and
+Nankin, between the official-minded, upright and conservative
+north, and the sceptical, artistic, lax and experimental south.
+
+The divisions of China of the Age of Confusion reached their worst
+stage in the sixth century B.C.  The Chow dynasty was so enfeebled
+and so discredited that Lao Tse left the unhappy court and retired
+into private life.
+
+Three nominally subordinate powers dominated the situation in
+those days, Ts'i and Ts'in, both northern powers, and Ch'u, which
+was an aggressive military power in the Yangtse valley.  At last
+Ts'i and Ts'in formed an alliance, subdued Ch'u and imposed a
+general treaty of disarmament and peace in China.  The power of
+Ts'in became predominant.  Finally about the time of Asoka in
+India the Ts'in monarch seized upon the sacrificial vessels of the
+Chow emperor and took over his sacrificial duties.  His son,
+Shi-Hwang-ti (king in 246 B.C., emperor in 220 B.C.), is called in
+the Chinese Chronicles "the First Universal Emperor."
+
+More fortunate than Alexander, Shi-Hwang-ti reigned for
+thirty-six years as king and emperor.  His energetic reign marks
+the beginning of a new era of unity and prosperity for the Chinese
+people.  He fought vigorously against the Hunnish invaders from
+the northern deserts, and he began that immense work, the Great
+Wall of China, to set a limit to their incursions.
+
+
+
+
+{174}
+
+XXXI
+
+ROME COMES INTO HISTORY
+
+
+The reader will note a general similarity in the history of all
+these civilizations in spite of the effectual separation caused by
+the great barriers of the Indian north-west frontier and of the
+mountain masses of Central Asia and further India.  First for
+thousands of years the heliolithic culture spread over all the
+warm and fertile river valleys of the old world and developed a
+temple system and priest rulers about its sacrificial traditions.
+Apparently its first makers were always those brunette peoples we
+have spoken of as the central race of mankind.  Then the nomads
+came in from the regions of seasonal grass and seasonal migrations
+and superposed their own characteristics and often their own
+language on the primitive civilization.  They subjugated and
+stimulated it, and were stimulated to fresh developments and made
+it here one thing and here another.  In Mesopotamia it was the
+Elamite and then the Semite, and at last the Nordic Medes and
+Persians and the Greeks who supplied the ferment; over the region
+of the AEgean peoples it was the Greeks; in India it was the
+Aryan-speakers; in Egypt there was a thinner infusion of conquerors
+into a more intensely saturated priestly civilization; in China,
+the Hun conquered and was absorbed and was followed by fresh Huns.
+China was Mongolized just as Greece and North India were Aryanized
+and Mesopotamia Semitized and Aryanized.  Everywhere the nomads
+destroyed much, but everywhere they brought in a new spirit of
+free enquiry and moral innovation.  They questioned the beliefs of
+immemorial ages.  They let daylight into the temples.  They set up
+kings who were neither priests nor gods but mere leaders among
+their captains and companions.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{175}
+
+[Illustration: THE DYING GAUL]
+
+====================================================================
+
+In the centuries following the sixth century B.C. we find
+everywhere a great breaking down of ancient traditions and a new
+spirit {176} of moral and intellectual enquiry awake, a spirit
+never more to be altogether stilled in the great progressive
+movement of mankind.  We find reading and writing becoming common
+and accessible accomplishments among the ruling and prosperous
+minority; they were no longer the jealously guarded secret of the
+priests.  Travel is increasing and transport growing easier by
+reason of horses and roads.  A new and easy device to facilitate
+trade has been found in coined money.
+
+Let us now transfer our attention back from China in the extreme
+east of the old world to the western half of the Mediterranean.
+Here we have to note the appearance of a city which was destined
+to play at last a very great part indeed in human affairs, Rome.
+
+Hitherto we have told very little about Italy in our story.  It
+was before 1000 B.C. a land of mountain and forest and thinly
+populated.  Aryan-speaking tribes had pressed down this peninsula
+and formed little towns and cities, and the southern extremity was
+studded with Greek settlements.  The noble ruins of Paestum
+preserve for us to this day something of the dignity and splendour
+of these early Greek establishments.  A non-Aryan people, probably
+akin to the AEgean peoples, the Etruscans, had established
+themselves in the central part of the peninsula.  They had
+reversed the usual process by subjugating various Aryan tribes.
+Rome, when it comes into the light of history, is a little trading
+city at a ford on the Tiber, with a Latin-speaking population
+ruled over by Etruscan kings.  The old chronologies gave 753 B.C.
+as the date of the founding of Rome, half a century later than the
+founding of the great Phoenician city of Carthage and twenty-three
+years after the first Olympiad.  Etruscan tombs of a much earlier
+date than 753 B.C. have, however, been excavated in the Roman
+Forum.
+
+In that red-letter century, the sixth century B.C., the Etruscan
+kings were expelled (510 B.C.) and Rome became an aristocratic
+republic with a lordly class of "patrician" families dominating a
+commonalty of "plebeians."  Except that it spoke Latin it was not
+unlike many aristocratic Greek republics.
+
+For some centuries the internal history of Rome was the story of a
+long and obstinate struggle for freedom and a share in the
+government on the part of the plebeians.  It would not be
+difficult to find {177} Greek parallels to this conflict, which
+the Greeks would have called a conflict of aristocracy with
+democracy.  In the end the plebeians broke down most of the
+exclusive barriers of the old families and established a working
+equality with them.  They destroyed the old exclusiveness, and
+made it possible and acceptable for Rome to extend her citizenship
+by the inclusion of more and more "outsiders."  For while she
+still struggled at home, she was extending her power abroad.
+
+[Illustration: REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE]
+
+The extension of Roman power began in the fifth century B.C.
+Until that time they had waged war, and generally unsuccessful
+war, with the Etruscans.  There was an Etruscan fort, Veii, only a
+few miles from Rome which the Romans had never been able to
+capture.  In 474 B.C., however, a great misfortune came to the
+Etruscans.  Their fleet was destroyed by the Greeks of Syracuse in
+Sicily.  {178} At the same time a wave of Nordic invaders came
+down upon them from the north, the Gauls.  Caught between Roman
+and Gaul, the Etruscans fell--and disappear from history.  Veii
+was captured by the Romans, The Gauls came through to Rome and
+sacked the city (390 B.C.) but could not capture the Capitol.  An
+attempted night surprise was betrayed by the cackling of some
+geese, and finally the invaders were bought off and retired to the
+north of Italy again.
+
+The Gaulish raid seems to have invigorated rather than weakened
+Rome.  The Romans conquered and assimilated the Etruscans, and
+extended their power over all central Italy from the Arno to
+Naples.  To this they had reached within a few years of 300 B.C.
+Their conquests in Italy were going on simultaneously with the
+growth of Philip's power in Macedonia and Greece, and the
+tremendous raid of Alexander to Egypt and the Indus.  The Romans
+had become notable people in the civilized world to the east of
+them by the break-up of Alexander's empire.
+
+To the north of the Roman power were the Gauls; to the south of
+them were the Greek settlements of Magna Graecia, that is to say of
+Sicily and of the toe and heel of Italy.  The Gauls were a hardy,
+warlike people and the Romans held that boundary by a line of
+forts and fortified settlements.  The Greek cities in the south
+headed by Tarentum (now Taranto) and by Syracuse in Sicily, did
+not so much threaten as fear the Romans.  They looked about for
+some help against these new conquerors.
+
+We have already told how the empire of Alexander fell to pieces
+and was divided among his generals and companions.  Among these
+adventurers was a kinsman of Alexander's named Pyrrhus, who
+established himself in Epirus, which is across the Adriatic Sea
+over against the heel of Italy.  It was his ambition to play the
+part of Philip of Macedonia to Magna Graecia, and to become
+protector and master-general of Tarentum, Syracuse and the rest of
+that part of the world.  He had what was then it very efficient
+modern army; he had an infantry phalanx, cavalry from
+Thessaly--which was now quite as good as the original Macedonian
+cavalry--and twenty fighting elephants; he invaded Italy and routed
+the Romans in two considerable battles, Heraclea (280 B.C.) and
+Ausculum (279 B.C.), and {179} having driven them north, he turned
+his attention to the subjugation of Sicily.
+
+But this brought against him a more formidable enemy than were the
+Romans at that time, the Phoenician trading city of Carthage,
+which was probably then the greatest city in the world.  Sicily
+was too near Carthage for a new Alexander to be welcome there, and
+Carthage was mindful of the fate that had befallen her mother city
+Tyre half a century before.  So she sent a fleet to encourage or
+compel Rome to continue the struggle, and she cut the overseas
+communications of Pyrrhus.  Pyrrhus found himself freshly assailed
+by the Romans, and suffered a disastrous repulse in an attack he
+had made upon their camp at Beneventum between Naples and Rome.
+
+And suddenly came news that recalled him to Epirus.  The Gauls
+were raiding south.  But this time they were not raiding down into
+Italy; the Roman frontier, fortified and guarded, had become too
+formidable for them.  They were raiding down through Illyria
+(which is now Serbia and Albania) to Macedonia and Epirus.
+Repulsed by the Romans, endangered at sea by the Carthaginians,
+and threatened at home by the Gauls, Pyrrhus abandoned his dream
+of conquest and went home (275 B.C.), and the power of Rome was
+extended to the Straits of Messina.
+
+On the Sicilian side of the Straits was the Greek city of Messina,
+and this presently fell into the hands of a gang of pirates.  The
+Carthaginians, who were already practically overlords of Sicily
+and allies of Syracuse, suppressed these pirates (270 B.C.) and
+put in a Carthaginian garrison there.  The pirates appealed to
+Rome and Rome listened to their complaint.  And so across the
+Straits of Messina the great trading power of Carthage and this
+new conquering people, the Romans, found themselves in antagonism,
+face to face.
+
+
+
+
+{180}
+
+XXXII
+
+ROME AND CARTHAGE
+
+
+It was in 264 B.C. that the great struggle between Rome and
+Carthage, the Punic Wars, began.  In that year Asoka was beginning
+his reign in Behar and Shi-Hwang-ti was a little child, the Museum
+in Alexandria was still doing good scientific work, and the
+barbaric Gauls were now in Asia Minor and exacting a tribute from
+Pergamum.  The different regions of the world were still separated
+by insurmountable distances, and probably the rest of mankind
+heard only vague and remote rumours of the mortal fight that went
+on for a century and a half in Spain, Italy, North Africa and the
+western Mediterranean, between the last stronghold of Semitic
+power and Rome, this newcomer among
+Aryan-speaking peoples.
+
+That war has left its traces upon issues that still stir the
+world.  Rome triumphed over Carthage, but the rivalry of Aryan and
+Semite was to merge itself later on in the conflict of Gentile and
+Jew.  Our history now is coming to events whose consequences and
+distorted traditions still maintain a lingering and expiring
+vitality in, and exercise a complicating and confusing influence
+upon, the conflicts and controversies of
+to-day.
+
+The First Punic War began in 264 B.C. about the pirates of
+Messina.  It developed into a struggle for the possession of all
+Sicily except the dominions of the Greek king of Syracuse.  The
+advantage of the sea was at first with the Carthaginians.  They
+had great fighting ships of what was hitherto an unheard-of size,
+quinqueremes, galleys with five banks of oars and a huge ram.  At
+the battle of Salamis, two centuries before, the leading
+battleships had only been triremes with three banks.  But the
+Romans, with extraordinary energy and in spite of the fact that
+they had little naval experience, set themselves to outbuild the
+Carthaginians.  They manned the new navy they created chiefly with
+Greek seamen, and they invented {181} grappling and boarding to
+make up for the superior seamanship of the enemy.  When the
+Carthaginian came up to ram or shear the oars of the Roman, huge
+grappling irons seized him and the Roman soldiers swarmed aboard
+him.  At Mylae (260 B.C.) and at Ecnomus (256 B.C.) the
+Carthaginians were disastrously beaten.  They repulsed a Roman
+landing near Carthage but were badly beaten at Palermo, losing one
+hundred and four elephants there--to grace such a triumphal
+procession through the Forum as Rome had never seen before.  But
+after that came two Roman defeats and then a Roman recovery.  The
+last naval forces of Carthage were defeated {182} by it last Roman
+effort at the battle of the AEgatian Isles (241 B.C.) and Carthage
+sued for peace.  All Sicily except the dominions of Hiero, king of
+Syracuse, was ceded to the Romans.
+
+[Illustration: HANNIBAL]
+
+For twenty-two years Rome and Carthage kept the peace.  Both had
+trouble enough at home.  In Italy the Gauls came south again,
+threatened Rome--which in a state of panic offered human
+_sacrifices to the Gods!_--and were routed at Telamon.  Rome
+pushed forward to the Alps, and even extended her dominions down
+the Adriatic coast to Illyria.  Carthage suffered from domestic
+insurrections and from revolts in Corsica and Sardinia, and
+displayed far less recuperative power.  Finally, an act of
+intolerable aggression, Rome seized and annexed the two revolting
+islands.
+
+Spain at that time was Carthaginian as far north as the river
+Ebro.  To that boundary the Romans restricted them.  Any crossing
+of the Ebro by the Carthaginians was to be considered an act of
+war against the Romans.  At last in 218 B.C. the Carthaginians,
+provoked by new Roman aggressions, did cross this river under a
+young general named Hannibal, one of the most brilliant commanders
+in the whole of history.  He marched his army from Spain over the
+Alps into Italy, raised the Gauls against the Romans, and carried
+on the Second Punic War in Italy itself for fifteen years.  He
+inflicted tremendous defeats upon the Romans at Lake Trasimere and
+at Cannae, and throughout all his Italian campaigns no Roman army
+stood against him and escaped disaster.  But a Roman army had
+landed at Marseilles and cut his communications with Spain; he had
+no siege train, and he could never capture Rome.  Finally the
+Carthaginians, threatened by the revolt of the Numidians at home,
+were forced back upon the defence of their own city in Africa, a
+Roman army crossed into Africa, and Hannibal experienced his first
+defeat under its walls at the battle of Zama (202 B.C.) at the
+hands of Scipio Africanus the Elder.  The battle of Zama ended
+this Second Punic War.  Carthage capitulated; she surrendered
+Spain and her war fleet; she paid an enormous indemnity and agreed
+to give up Hannibal to the vengeance of the Romans.  But Hannibal
+escaped and fled to Asia where later, being in danger of falling
+into the hands of his relentless enemies, he took poison and died.
+
+{183}
+
+For fifty-six years Rome and the shorn city of Carthage were at
+peace.  And meanwhile Rome spread her empire over confused and
+divided Greece, invaded Asia Minor, and defeated Antiochus III,
+the Seleucid monarch, at Magnesia in Lydia.  She made Egypt, still
+under the Ptolemies, and Pergamum and most of the small states of
+Asia Minor into "Allies," or, as we should call them now,
+"protected states."
+
+Meanwhile Carthage, subjugated and enfeebled, had been slowly
+regaining something of her former prosperity.  Her recovery
+revived the hate and suspicion of the Romans.  She was attacked
+upon the most shallow and artificial of quarrels (149 B.C.), she
+made an obstinate and bitter resistance, stood a long siege and
+was stormed (146 B.C.). The street fighting, or massacre, lasted
+six days; it was extraordinarily bloody, and when the citadel
+capitulated only about fifty thousand of the Carthaginian
+population remained alive out of a quarter of a million.  They
+were sold into slavery, and the city was burnt and elaborately
+destroyed.  The blackened ruins were ploughed and sown as a sort
+of ceremonial effacement.
+
+[Map: The Extent of the Roman Power & its Alliances about 150
+B.C.]
+
+So ended the Third Punic War.  Of all the Semitic states and
+cities that had flourished in the world five centuries before only
+one little country remained free under native rulers.  This was
+Judea, which had liberated itself from the Seleucids and was under
+the rule {184} of the native Maccabean princes.  By this time it
+had its Bible almost complete, and was developing the distinctive
+traditions of the Jewish world as we know it now.  It was natural
+that the Carthaginians, Phoenicians and kindred peoples dispersed
+about the world should find a common link in their practically
+identical language and in this literature of hope and courage.  To
+a large extent they were still the traders and bankers of the
+world.  The Semitic world had been submerged rather than replaced.
+
+Jerusalem, which has always been rather the symbol than the centre
+of Judaism, was taken by the Romans in 65 B.C.; and after various
+vicissitudes of quasi-independence and revolt was besieged by them
+in 70 A.D. and captured after a stubborn struggle.  The Temple was
+destroyed.  A later rebellion in 132 A.D. completed its
+destruction, and the Jerusalem we know to-day was rebuilt later
+under Roman auspices.  A temple to the Roman god, Jupiter
+Capitolinus, stood in the place of the Temple, and Jews were
+forbidden to inhabit the city.
+
+
+
+
+{185}
+
+XXXIII
+
+THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+Now this new Roman power which arose to dominate the western world
+in the second and first centuries B.C. was in several respects a
+different thing from any of the great empires that had hitherto
+prevailed in the civilized world.  It was not at first a monarchy,
+and it was not the creation of any one great conqueror.  It was
+not indeed the first of republican empires; Athens had dominated a
+group of Allies and dependents in the time of Pericles, and
+Carthage when she entered upon her fatal struggle with Rome was
+mistress of Sardinia and Corsica, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and
+most of Spain and Sicily.  But it was the first republican empire
+that escaped extinction and went on to fresh developments.
+
+The centre of this new system lay far to the west of the more
+ancient centres of empire, which had hitherto been the river
+valleys of Mesopotamia and Egypt.  This westward position enabled
+Rome to bring in to civilization quite fresh regions and peoples.
+The Roman power extended to Morocco and Spain, and was presently
+able to thrust north-westward over what is now France and Belgium
+to Britain and north-eastward into Hungary and South Russia.  But
+on the other hand it was never able to maintain itself in Central
+Asia or Persia because they were too far from its administrative
+centres.  It included therefore great masses of fresh Nordic
+Aryan-speaking peoples, it presently incorporated nearly all the
+Greek people in the world, and its population was less strongly
+Hamitic and Semitic than that of any preceding empire.
+
+For some centuries this Roman Empire did not fall into the grooves
+of precedent that had so speedily swallowed up Persian and Greek,
+and all that time it developed.  The rulers of the Medes and
+Persians became entirely Babylonized in a generation or so; they
+{186} took over the tiara of the king of kings and the temples and
+priesthoods of his gods; Alexander and his successors followed in
+the same easy path of assimilation; the Seleucid monarchs had much
+the same court and administrative methods as Nebuchadnezzar; the
+Ptolemies became Pharaohs and altogether Egyptian.  They were
+assimilated just as before them the Semitic conquerors of the
+Sumerians had been assimilated.  But the Romans ruled in their own
+city, and for some centuries kept to the laws of their own nature.
+The only people who exercised any great mental influence upon them
+before the second or third century A.D. were the kindred and
+similar Greeks.  So that the Roman Empire was essentially a first
+attempt to rule a great dominion upon mainly Aryan lines.  It was
+so far a new pattern in history, it was an expanded Aryan
+republic.  The old pattern of a personal conqueror ruling over a
+capital city that had grown up round the temple of a harvest god
+did not apply to it.  The Romans had gods and temples, but like
+the gods of the Greeks their gods were quasi-human immortals,
+divine patricians.  The Romans also had blood sacrifices and even
+made human ones in times of stress, things they may have learnt to
+do from their dusky Etruscan teachers; but until Rome was long
+past its zenith neither priest nor temple played a large part in
+Roman history.
+
+The Roman Empire was a growth, an unplanned novel growth; the
+Roman people found themselves engaged almost unawares in a vast
+administrative experiment.  It cannot be called a successful
+experiment.  In the end their empire collapsed altogether.  And it
+changed enormously in form and method from century to century.  It
+changed more in a hundred years than Bengal or Mesopotamia or
+Egypt changed in a thousand.  It was always changing.  It never
+attained to any fixity.
+
+In a sense the experiment failed.  In a sense the experiment
+remains unfinished, and Europe and America to-day are still
+working out the riddles of world-wide statescraft first confronted
+by the Roman people.
+
+It is well for the student of history to bear in mind the very
+great changes not only in political but in social and moral
+matters that went on throughout the period of Roman dominion.
+There is much too strong a tendency in people's minds to think of
+the Roman {187} rule as something finished and stable, firm,
+rounded, noble and decisive.  Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_,
+S.P.Q.R. the elder Cato, the Scipios, Julius Caesar, Diocletian,
+Constantine the Great, triumphs, orations, gladiatorial combats
+and Christian martyrs are all mixed up together in a picture of
+something high and cruel and dignified.  The items of that picture
+have to be disentangled.  They are collected at different points
+from a process of change profounder than that which separates the
+London of William the Conqueror from the London of to-day.
+
+We may very conveniently divide the expansion of Rome into four
+stages.  The first stage began after the sack of Rome by the Goths
+in 390 B.C. and went on until the end of the First Punic War (240
+B.C.).  We may call this stage the stage of the Assimilative
+Republic.  It was perhaps the finest, most characteristic stage in
+Roman history.  The age-long dissensions of patrician and plebeian
+were drawing to it close, the Etruscan threat had come to an end,
+no one was very rich yet nor very poor, and most men were
+public-spirited.  It was a republic like the republic of the
+South African Boers before 1900 or like the northern states of the
+American union between 1800 and 1850; a free-farmers republic.  At
+the outset of this stage Rome was a little state scarcely twenty
+miles square.  She fought the sturdy but kindred states about her,
+and sought not their destruction but coalescence.  Her centuries
+of civil dissension had trained her people in compromise and
+concessions.  Some of the defeated cities became altogether Roman
+with a voting share in the government, some became self-governing
+with the right to trade and marry in Rome; garrisons full of
+citizens were set up at strategic points and colonies of varied
+privileges founded among the freshly conquered people.  Great
+roads were made.  The rapid Latinization of all Italy was the
+inevitable consequence of such a policy.  In 89 B.C. all the free
+inhabitants of Italy became citizens of the city of Rome.
+Formally the whole Roman Empire became at last an extended city.
+In 212 A.D. every free man in the entire extent of the empire was
+given citizenship; the right, if he could get there, to vote in
+the town meeting in Rome.
+
+This extension of citizenship to tractable cities and to whole
+countries was the distinctive device of Roman expansion.  It {188}
+reversed the old process of conquest and assimilation altogether.
+By the Roman method the conquerors assimilated the conquered.
+
+[Illustration: THE FORUM AT ROME AS IT IS TO-DAY]
+
+But after the First Punic War and the annexation of Sicily, though
+the old process of assimilation still went on, another process
+arose by its side.  Sicily for instance was treated as a conquered
+prey.  It was declared an "estate" of the Roman people.  Its rich
+soil and industrious population was exploited to make Rome rich.
+The patricians and the more influential among the plebeians
+secured the major share of that wealth.  And the war also brought
+in a large supply of slaves.  Before the First Punic War the
+population of the republic had been largely a population of
+citizen farmers.  Military service was their privilege and
+liability.  While they were on active service their farms fell
+into debt and a new large-scale slave agriculture grew up; when
+they returned they found their produce in competition with
+slave-grown produce from Sicily and from the new estates at home.
+Times had changed.  The republic had {189} altered its character.
+Not only was Sicily in the hands of Rome, the common man was in
+the hands of the rich creditor and the rich competitor.  Rome had
+entered upon its second stage, the Republic of Adventurous Rich
+Men.
+
+[Illustration: RELICS OF ROMAN RULE]
+
+For two hundred years the Roman soldier farmers had struggled for
+freedom and a share in the government of their state; for a
+hundred years they had enjoyed their privileges.  The First Punic
+War wasted them and robbed them of all they had won.
+
+The value of their electoral privileges had also evaporated.  The
+governing bodies of the Roman republic were two in number.  The
+first and more important was the Senate.  This was a body
+originally of patricians and then of prominent men of all sorts,
+who were summoned to it first by certain powerful officials, the
+consuls and censors.  Like the British House of Lords it became a
+gathering of great landowners, prominent politicians, big business
+men and the {190} like.  It was much more like the British House
+of Lords than it was like the American Senate.  For three
+centuries, from the Punic Wars onward, it was the centre of Roman
+political thought and purpose.  The second body was the Popular
+Assembly.  This was supposed to be an assembly of _all_ the
+citizens of Rome.  When Rome was a little state twenty miles
+square this was a possible gathering.  When the citizenship of
+Rome had spread beyond the confines in Italy, it was an altogether
+impossible one.  Its meetings, proclaimed by
+horn-blowing from the Capitol and the city walls, became more and
+more a gathering of political hacks and city riff-raff.  In the
+fourth century B.C. the Popular Assembly was a considerable check
+upon the Senate, a competent representation of the claims and
+rights of the common man.  By the end of the Punic Wars it was an
+impotent relic of a vanquished popular control.  No effectual
+legal check remained upon the big men.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT ROMAN ARCH AT CTESIPHON NEAR BAGDAD]
+
+Nothing of the nature of representative government was ever
+introduced into the Roman republic.  No one thought of electing
+delegates to represent the will of the citizens.  This is a very
+important point for the student to grasp.  The Popular Assembly
+{191} never became the equivalent of the American House of
+Representatives or the British House of Commons.  In theory it was
+all the citizens; in practice it ceased to be anything at all
+worth consideration.
+
+The common citizen of the Roman Empire was therefore in a very
+poor case after the Second Punic War; he was impoverished, he had
+often lost his farm, he was ousted from profitable production by
+slaves, and he had no political power left to him to remedy these
+things.  The only methods of popular expression left to a people
+without any form of political expression are the strike and the
+revolt.  The story of the second and first centuries B.C., so far
+as internal politics go, is a story of futile revolutionary
+upheaval.  The scale of this history will not permit us to tell of
+the intricate struggles of that time, of the attempts to break up
+estates and restore the land to the free farmer, of proposals to
+abolish debts in whole or in part.  There was revolt and civil
+war.  In 73 B.C., the distresses of Italy were enhanced by a great
+insurrection, of the slaves under Spartacus.  The slaves of Italy
+revolted with some effect, for among them were the trained
+fighters of the gladiatorial shows.  For two years Spartacus held
+out in the crater of Vesuvius, which seemed at that time to be an
+extinct volcano.  This insurrection was defeated at last and
+suppressed with frantic cruelty.  Six thousand captured
+Spartacists were crucified along the Appian Way, the great highway
+that runs southward out of Rome (71 B.C.).
+
+The common man never made head against the forces that were
+subjugating and degrading him.  But the big rich men who were
+overcoming him were even in his defeat preparing a new power in
+the Roman world over themselves and him, the power of the army.
+
+Before the Second Punic War the army of Rome was a levy of free
+farmers, who, according to their quality, rode or marched afoot to
+battle.  This was a very good force for wars close at hand, but
+not the sort of army that will go abroad and bear long campaigns
+with patience.  And moreover as the slaves multiplied and the
+estates grew, the supply of free-spirited fighting farmers
+declined.  It was a popular leader named Marius who introduced a
+new factor.  North Africa after the overthrow of the Carthaginian
+civilization had become a semi-barbaric kingdom, the kingdom of
+Numidia.  {192} The Roman power fell into conflict with Jugurtha,
+king of this state, and experienced enormous difficulties in
+subduing him.  Marius was made consul, in a phase of public
+indignation, to end this discreditable war.  This he did by
+raising _paid troops_ and drilling them hard.  Jugurtha was
+brought in chains to Rome (106 B.C.) and Marius, when his time of
+office had expired, held on to his consulship illegally with his
+newly created legions.  There was no power in Rome to restrain
+him.
+
+With Marius began the third phase in the development of the Roman
+power, the Republic of the Military Commanders.  For now began a
+period in which the leaders of the paid legions fought for the
+mastery of the Roman world.  Against Marius was pitted the
+aristocratic Sulla who had served under him in Africa.  Each in
+turn made a great massacre of his political opponents.  Men were
+proscribed and executed by the thousand, and their estates were
+sold.  After the bloody rivalry of these two and the horror of the
+revolt of Spartacus, came a phase in which Lucullus and Pompey the
+Great and Crassus and Julius Caesar were the masters of armies and
+dominated affairs.  It was Crassus who defeated Spartacus.
+Lucullus conquered Asia Minor and penetrated to Armenia, and
+retired with great wealth into private life.  Crassus thrusting
+further invaded Persia and was defeated and slain by the
+Parthians.  After a long rivalry Pompey was defeated by Julius
+Caesar (48 B.C.) and murdered in Egypt, leaving Julius Caesar sole
+master of the Roman world.
+
+The figure of Julius Caesar is one that has stirred the human
+imagination out of all proportion to its merit or true importance.
+He has become a legend and a symbol.  For us he is chiefly
+important as marking the transition from the phase of military
+adventurers to the beginning of the fourth stage in Roman
+expansion, the Early Empire.  For in spite of the profoundest
+economic and political convulsions, in spite of civil war and
+social degeneration, throughout all this time the boundaries of
+the Roman state crept outward and continued to creep outward to
+their maximum about 100 A.D.  There had been something like an ebb
+during the doubtful phases of the Second Punic War, and again a
+manifest loss of vigour before the reconstruction of the army by
+Marius. The revolt of Spartacus {193} marked a third phase.
+Julius Caesar made his reputation as a military leader in Gaul,
+which is now France and Belgium.  (The chief tribes inhabiting
+this country belonged to the same Celtic people as the Gauls who
+had occupied north Italy for a time, and who had afterwards raided
+into Asia Minor and settled down as the Galatians.)  Caesar drove
+back a German invasion of Gaul and added all that country to the
+empire, and he twice crossed the Straits of Dover into Britain (55
+and 54 B.C.), where however he made no permanent conquest.
+Meanwhile Pompey the Great was consolidating Roman conquests that
+reached in the east to the Caspian Sea.
+
+[Illustration: THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME]
+
+At this time, the middle of the first century B.C., the Roman
+Senate was still the nominal centre of the Roman government,
+appointing consuls and other officials, granting powers and the
+like; and a number of politicians, among whom Cicero was an
+outstanding {194} figure, were struggling to preserve the great
+traditions of republican Rome and to maintain respect for its
+laws.  But the spirit of citizenship had gone from Italy with the
+wasting away of the free farmers; it was a land now of slaves and
+impoverished men with neither the understanding nor the desire for
+freedom.  There was nothing whatever behind these republican
+leaders in the Senate, while behind the great adventurers they
+feared and desired to control were the legions.  Over the heads of
+the Senate Crassus and Pompey and Caesar divided the rule of the
+Empire between them (The First Triumvirate).  When presently
+Crassus was killed at distant Carrhae by the Parthians, Pompey and
+Caesar fell out.  Pompey took up the republican side, and laws were
+passed to bring Caesar to trial for his breaches of law and his
+disobedience to the decrees of the Senate.
+
+It was illegal for a general to bring his troops out of the
+boundary of his command, and the boundary between Caesar's command
+and Italy was the Rubicon.  In 49 B.C. he crossed the Rubicon,
+saying "The die is cast" and marched upon Pompey and Rome.
+
+It had been the custom in Rome in the past, in periods of military
+extremity, to elect a "dictator" with practically unlimited powers
+to rule through the crisis.  After his overthrow of Pompey, Caesar
+was made dictator first for ten years and then (in 45 B.C.) for
+life.  In effect he was made monarch of the empire for life.
+There was talk of a king, a word abhorrent to Rome since the
+expulsion of the Etruscans five centuries before.  Caesar refused
+to be king, but adopted throne and sceptre.  After his defeat of
+Pompey, Caesar had gone on into Egypt and had made love to
+Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, the goddess queen of Egypt.
+She seems to have turned his head very completely.  He had brought
+back to Rome the Egyptian idea of a god-king.  His statue was set
+up in a temple with an inscription "To the Unconquerable God."
+The expiring republicanism of Rome flared up in a last protest,
+and Caesar was stabbed to death in the Senate at the foot of the
+statue of his murdered rival, Pompey the Great.
+
+Thirteen years more of this conflict of ambitious personalities
+followed.  There was a second Triumvirate of Lepidus, Mark Antony
+and Octavian Caesar, the latter the nephew of Julius Caesar.
+Octavian like his uncle took the poorer, hardier western provinces
+{195} where the best legions were recruited.  In 31 B.C., he
+defeated Mark Antony, his only serious rival, at the naval battle
+of Actium, and made himself sole master of the Roman world.  But
+Octavian was a man of different quality altogether from Julius
+Caesar.  He had no foolish craving to be God or King.  He had no
+queen-lover that he wished to dazzle.  He restored freedom to the
+Senate and people of Rome.  He declined to be dictator.  The
+grateful Senate in return gave him the reality instead of the
+forms of power.  He was to be called not King indeed, but
+"Princeps" and "Augustus."  He became Augustus Caesar, the first of
+the Roman emperors (27 B.C. to 14 A.D.).
+
+He was followed by Tiberius Caesar (14 to 37 A.D.) and he by
+others, Caligula, Claudius, Nero and so on up to Trajan (98 A.D.),
+Hadrian (117 A.D.), Antonius Pius (138 A.D.) and Marcus Aurelius
+(161-180 A.D.).  All these emperors were emperors of the legions.
+The soldiers made them, and some the soldiers destroyed.
+Gradually the Senate fades out of Roman-history, and the emperor
+and his administrative officials replace it.  The boundaries of
+the empire crept forward now to their utmost limits.  Most of
+Britain was added to the empire, Transylvania was brought in as a
+new province, Dacia; Trajan crossed the Euphrates.  Hadrian had an
+idea that reminds us at once of what had happened at the other end
+of the old world.  Like Shi-Hwang-ti he built walls against the
+northern barbarians; one across Britain and a palisade between the
+Rhine and the Danube.  He abandoned some of the acquisitions of
+Trajan.
+
+The expansion of the Roman Empire was at an end.
+
+
+
+
+{196}
+
+XXXIV
+
+BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA
+
+
+The second and first centuries B.C. mark a new phase in the
+history of mankind.  Mesopotamia and the eastern Mediterranean are
+no longer the centre of interest.  Both Mesopotamia and Egypt were
+still fertile, populous and fairly prosperous, but they were no
+longer the dominant regions of the world.  Power had drifted to
+the west and to the east.  Two great empires now dominated the
+world, this new Roman Empire and the renascent Empire of China.
+Rome extended its power to the Euphrates, but it was never able to
+get beyond that boundary.  It was too remote.  Beyond the
+Euphrates the former Persian and Indian dominions of the Seleucids
+fell under a number of new masters.  China, now under the Han
+dynasty, which had replaced the Ts'in dynasty at the death of
+Shi-Hwang-ti, had extended its power across Tibet and over the
+high mountain passes of the Pamirs into western Turkestan.  But
+there, too, it reached its extremes.  Beyond was too far.
+
+China at this time was the greatest, best organized and most
+civilized political system in the world.  It was superior in area
+and population to the Roman Empire at its zenith.  It was possible
+then for these two vast systems to flourish in the same world at
+the same time in almost complete ignorance of each other.  The
+means of communication both by sea and land was not yet
+sufficiently developed and organized for them to come to a direct
+clash.
+
+Yet they reacted upon each other in a very remarkable way, and
+their influence upon the fate of the regions that lay between
+them, upon central Asia and India, was profound.  A certain amount
+of trade trickled through, by camel caravans across Persia, for
+example, and by coasting ships by way of India and the Red Sea.
+In 66 B.C. Roman troops under Pompey followed in the footsteps of
+Alexander the Great, and marched up the eastern shores of the
+{197} Caspian Sea.  In 102 A.D. a Chinese expeditionary force
+under Pan Chau reached the Caspian, and sent emissaries to report
+upon the power of Rome.  But many centuries were still to pass
+before definite knowledge and direct intercourse were to link the
+great parallel worlds of Europe and Eastern Asia.
+
+To the north of both these great empires were barbaric
+wildernesses.  What is now Germany was largely forest lands; the
+forests extended far into Russia and made a home for the gigantic
+aurochs, a bull of almost elephantine size.  Then to the north of
+the great mountain masses of Asia stretched a band of deserts,
+steppes and then forests and frozen lands.  In the eastward lap of
+the elevated part of Asia was the great triangle of Manchuria.
+Large parts of these regions, stretching between South Russia and
+Turkestan into Manchuria, were and are regions of exceptional
+climatic insecurity.  Their rainfall has varied greatly in the
+course of a few centuries  They are lands treacherous to man.  For
+years they will carry pasture and sustain cultivation, and then
+will come an age of decline in humidity and a cycle of killing
+droughts.
+
+[Illustration: A CHINESE COVERED JAR OF GREEN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE]
+
+The western part of this barbaric north from the German forests to
+South Russia and Turkestan and from Gothland to the Alps was the
+region of origin of the Nordic peoples and of the Aryan speech.
+The eastern steppes and deserts of Mongolia was the region of
+origin of the Hunnish or Mongolian or Tartar or Turkish
+peoples--for all these several peoples were akin in language, race,
+and way of life.  And as the Nordic peoples seem to have been
+continually overflowing their own borders and pressing south upon
+the developing civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean
+coast, so the Hunnish {198} tribes sent their surplus as
+wanderers, raiders and conquerors into the settled regions of
+China.  Periods of plenty in the north would mean an increase in
+population there; a shortage of grass, a spell of cattle disease,
+would drive the hungry warlike tribesmen south.
+
+[Illustration: VASE OF BRONZE FORM, UNGLAZED STONEWARE]
+
+For a time there were simultaneously two fairly effective Empires
+in the world capable of holding back the barbarians and even
+forcing forward the frontiers of the imperial peace.  The thrust
+of the Han empire from north China into Mongolia was strong and
+continuous.  The Chinese population welled up over the barrier of
+the Great Wall.  Behind the imperial frontier guards came the
+Chinese farmer with horse and plough, ploughing up the grass lands
+and enclosing the winter pasture.  The Hunnish peoples raided and
+murdered the settlers, but the Chinese punitive expeditions were
+too much for them.  The nomads were faced with the choice of
+settling down to the plough and becoming Chinese tax-payers or
+shifting in search of fresh summer pastures.  Some took the former
+course and were absorbed.  Some drifted
+north-eastward and eastward over the mountain passes down into
+western Turkestan.
+
+This westward drive of the Mongolian horsemen was going on from
+200 B.C. onward.  It was producing a westward pressure upon the
+Aryan tribes, and these again were pressing upon the Roman
+frontiers ready to break through directly there was any weakness
+apparent.  The Parthians, who were apparently a Scythian people
+with some Mongolian admixture, came down to the Euphrates by the
+first century B.C.  They fought against Pompey the Great in {199}
+his eastern raid.  They defeated and killed Crassus.  They
+replaced the Seleucid monarchy in Persia by a dynasty of Parthian
+kings, the Arsacid dynasty.
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE VESSEL IN BRONZE, IN FORM OF A GOOSE]
+
+But for a time the line of least resistance for hungry nomads lay
+neither to the west nor the east but through central Asia and then
+south-eastward through the Khyber Pass into India.  It was India
+which received the Mongolian drive in these centuries of Roman and
+Chinese strength.  A series of raiding conquerors poured down
+through the Punjab into the great plains to loot and destroy.  The
+empire of Asoka was broken up, and for a time the history of India
+passes into darkness.  A certain Kushan dynasty founded by the
+"Indo-Scythians"--one of the raiding peoples--ruled for a time
+over North India and maintained a certain order.  These invasions
+went on for several centuries.  For a large part of the fifth
+century A.D. India was afflicted by the Ephthalites or White Huns,
+who levied tribute on the small Indian princes and held India in
+terror.  Every summer these Ephthalites pastured in western
+Turkestan, every autumn they came down through the passes to
+terrorize India.
+
+{200}
+
+In the second century A.D. a great misfortune came upon the Roman
+and Chinese empires that probably weakened the resistance of both
+to barbarian pressure.  This was a pestilence of unexampled
+virulence.  It raged for eleven years in China and disorganized
+the social framework profoundly.  The Han dynasty fell, and a new
+age of division and confusion began from which China did not
+fairly recover until the seventh century A.D. with the coming of
+the great Tang dynasty.
+
+The infection spread through Asia to Europe.  It raged throughout
+the Roman Empire from 164 to 180 A.D.  It evidently weakened the
+Roman imperial fabric very seriously.  We begin to hear of
+depopulation in the Roman provinces after this, and there was a
+marked deterioration in the vigour and efficiency of government.
+At any rate we presently find the frontier no longer invulnerable,
+but giving way first in this place and then in that.  A new Nordic
+people, the Goths, coming originally from Gothland in Sweden, had
+migrated across Russia to the Volga region and the shores of the
+Black Sea and taken to the sea and piracy.  By the end of the
+second century they may have begun to feel the westward thrust of
+the Huns.  In 247 they crossed the Danube in a great land raid,
+and defeated and killed the Emperor Decius in a battle in what is
+now Serbia. In 236 another Germanic people, the Franks, had broken
+bounds upon the lower Rhine, and the Alemanni had poured into
+Alsace.  The legions in Gaul beat back their invaders, but the
+Goths in the Balkan peninsula raided again and again.  The
+province of Dacia vanished from Roman history.
+
+A chill had come to the pride and confidence of Rome.  In 270-275
+Rome, which had been an open and secure city for three centuries,
+was fortified by the Emperor Aurelian.
+
+
+
+
+{201}
+
+XXXV
+
+THE COMMON MAN'S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+Before we tell of how this Roman empire which was built up in the
+two centuries B.C., and which flourished in peace and security
+from the days of Augustus Caesar onward for two centuries, fell
+into disorder and was broken up, it may be as well to devote some
+attention to the life of the ordinary people throughout this great
+realm.  Our history has come down now to within 2000 years of our
+own time; and the life of the civilized people, both under the
+Peace of Rome and the Peace of the Han dynasty, was beginning to
+resemble more and more clearly the life of their civilized
+successors to-day.
+
+In the western world coined money was now in common use; outside
+the priestly world there were many people of independent means who
+were neither officials of the government nor priests; people
+travelled about more freely than they had ever done before, and
+there were high roads and inns for them.  Compared with the past,
+with the time before 500 B.C., life had become much more loose.
+Before that date civilized men had been bound to a district or
+country, had been bound to a tradition and lived within a very
+limited horizon; only the nomads traded and travelled.
+
+But neither the Roman Peace nor the Peace of the Han dynasty meant
+a uniform civilization over the large areas they controlled.
+There were very great local differences and great contrasts and
+inequalities of culture between one district and another, just as
+there are to-day under the British Peace in India.  The Roman
+garrisons and colonies were dotted here and there over this great
+space, worshipping Roman gods and speaking the Latin language; but
+where there had been towns and cities before the coming of the
+Romans, they went on, subordinated indeed but managing their own
+affairs, and, for a time at least, worshipping their own gods in
+their own fashion.  Over Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt and the
+Hellenized East {202} generally, the Latin language never
+prevailed.  Greek ruled there invincibly.  Saul of Tarsus, who
+became the apostle Paul, was a Jew and a Roman citizen; but he
+spoke and wrote Greek and not Hebrew.  Even at the court of the
+Parthian dynasty, which had overthrown the Greek Seleucids in
+Persia, and was quite outside the Roman imperial boundaries, Greek
+was the fashionable language.  In some parts of Spain and in North
+Africa, the Carthaginian language also held on for a long time in
+spite of the destruction of Carthage.  Such a town as Seville, which
+had been a prosperous city long before the Roman name had been heard
+of, kept its Semitic goddess and preserved its Semitic speech for
+generations, in spite of a colony of Roman veterans at Italica a few
+miles away.  Septimius Severus, who was emperor from 193 to 211
+A.D., spoke Carthaginian as his mother speech.  He learnt Latin
+later as a foreign tongue; {203} and it is recorded that his sister
+never learnt Latin and conducted her Roman household in the
+Punic language.
+
+[Illustration: A GLADIATOR]
+
+In such countries as Gaul and Britain and in provinces like Dacia
+(now roughly Roumania) and Pannonia (Hungary south of the Danube),
+where there were no pre-existing great cities and temples and
+cultures, the Roman empire did however "Latinize."  It civilized
+these countries for the first time.  It created cities and towns
+where Latin was from the first the dominant speech, and where
+Roman gods were served and Roman customs and fashions followed.
+The Roumanian, Italian, French and Spanish languages, all
+variations and modifications of Latin, remain to remind us of this
+extension of Latin speech and customs.
+North-west Africa also became at last largely Latin-speaking.
+Egypt, Greece and the rest of the empire to the east were never
+Latinized.  They remained Egyptian and Greek in culture and
+spirit.  And even in Rome, among educated men, Greek was learnt as
+the language of a gentleman and Greek literature and learning were
+very, properly preferred to Latin.
+
+In this miscellaneous empire the ways of doing work and business
+were naturally also very miscellaneous.  The chief industry of the
+settled world was still largely agriculture.  We have told how in
+Italy the sturdy free farmers who were the backbone of the early
+Roman republic were replaced by estates worked by slave labour
+after the Punic wars.  The Greek world had had very various
+methods of cultivation, from the Arcadian plan, wherein every free
+citizen toiled with his own hands, to Sparta, wherein it was a
+dishonour to work and where agricultural work was done by a
+special slave class, the Helots.  But that was ancient history
+now, and over most of the Hellenized world the estate system and
+slave-gangs had spread.  The agricultural slaves were captives who
+spoke many different languages so that they could not understand
+each other, or they were born slaves; they had no solidarity to
+resist oppression, no tradition of rights, no knowledge, for they
+could not read nor write.  Although they came to form a majority
+of the country population they never made a successful
+insurrection.  The insurrection of Spartacus in the first century
+B.C. was an insurrection of the special slaves who were trained
+for the gladiatorial combats. The agricultural workers in Italy in
+the latter days of {204} the Republic and the early Empire
+suffered frightful indignities; they would be chained at night to
+prevent escape or have half the head shaved to make it difficult.
+They had no wives of their own; they could be outraged, mutilated
+and killed by their masters.  A master could sell his slave to
+fight beasts in the arena.  If a slave slew his master, all the
+slaves in his household and not merely the murderer were
+crucified.  In some parts of Greece, in Athens notably, the lot of
+the slave was never quite so frightful as this, but it was still
+detestable.  To such a population the barbarian invaders who
+presently broke through the defensive line of the legions, came
+not as enemies but as liberators.
+
+[Illustration: POMPEII]
+
+The slave system had spread to most industries and to every sort
+of work that could be done by gangs.  Mines and metallurgical
+operations, the rowing of galleys, road-making and big building
+operations were all largely slave occupations.  And almost all
+domestic service was performed by slaves.  There were poor
+free-men {205} and there were freed-men in the cities and upon the
+country side, working for themselves or even working for wages.
+They were artizans, supervisors and so forth, workers of a new
+money-paid class working in competition with slave workers; but we
+do not know what proportion they made of the general population.
+It probably varied widely in different places and at different
+periods.  And there were also many modifications of slavery, from
+the slavery that was chained at night and driven with whips to the
+farm or quarry, to the slave whose master found it advantageous to
+leave him to cultivate his patch or work his craft and own his
+wife like a free-man, provided he paid in a satisfactory quittance
+to his owner.
+
+There were armed slaves.  At the opening of the period of the
+Punic wars, in 264 B.C., the Etruscan sport of setting slaves to
+fight for their lives was revived in Rome.  It grew rapidly
+fashionable; and soon every great Roman rich man kept a retinue of
+gladiators, who sometimes fought in the arena but whose real
+business it was to act as his bodyguard of bullies.  And also
+there were learned slaves.  The conquests of the later Republic
+were among the highly civilized cities of Greece, North Africa and
+Asia Minor; and they brought in many highly educated captives.
+The tutor of a young Roman of good family was usually a slave.  A
+rich man would have a Greek slave as librarian, and slave
+secretaries and learned men.  He would keep his poet as he would
+keep a performing dog.  In this atmosphere of slavery the
+traditions of modern literary criticism were evolved.  The slaves
+still boast and quarrel in our reviews.  There were enterprising
+people who bought intelligent boy slaves and had them educated for
+sale.  Slaves were trained as book copyists, as jewellers, and for
+endless skilled callings.
+
+But there were very considerable changes in the position of a
+slave during the four hundred years between the opening days of
+conquest under the republic of rich men and the days of
+disintegration that followed the great pestilence.  In the second
+century B.C. war-captives were abundant, manners gross and brutal;
+the slave had no rights and there was scarcely an outrage the
+reader can imagine that was not practised upon slaves in those
+days.  But already in the first century A.D. there was a
+perceptible improvement in the attitude of the Roman civilization
+towards slavery.  Captives were not so abundant for one thing,
+{207} thing, and slaves were dearer.  And slave-owners began to
+realize that the profit and comfort they got from their slaves
+increased with the self-respect of these unfortunates.  But also
+the moral tone of the community was rising, and a sense of justice
+was becoming effective.  The higher mentality of Greece was
+qualifying the old Roman harshness.  Restrictions upon cruelty
+were made, a master might no longer sell his slave to fight
+beasts, a slave was given property rights in what was called his
+_peculium_, slaves were paid wages as an encouragement and
+stimulus, a form of slave marriage was recognized.  Very many
+forms of agriculture do not lend themselves to gang working, or
+require gang workers only at certain seasons.  In regions where
+such conditions prevailed the slave presently became a serf,
+paying his owner part of his produce or working for him at certain
+seasons.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{206}
+
+[Illustration: THE COLISEUM, ROME]
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AT IT APPEARS TO-DAY]
+
+====================================================================
+
+When we begin to realize how essentially this great Latin and
+Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the first two centuries A.D. was a
+slave state and how small was the minority who had any pride or
+freedom in their lives, we lay our hands on the clues to its decay
+and collapse.  There was little of what we should call family
+life, few homes of temperate living and active thought and study;
+schools and colleges were few and far between.  The free will and
+the free mind were nowhere to be found.  The great roads, the
+ruins of splendid buildings, the tradition of law and power it
+left for the astonishment of succeeding generations must not
+conceal from us that all its outer splendour was built upon
+thwarted wills, stifled intelligence, and crippled and perverted
+desires.  And even the minority who lorded it over that wide realm
+of subjugation and of restraint and forced labour were uneasy and
+unhappy in their souls; art and literature, science and
+philosophy, which are the fruits of free and happy minds, waned in
+that atmosphere.  There was much copying and imitation, an
+abundance of artistic artificers, much slavish pedantry among the
+servile men of learning, but the whole Roman empire in four
+centuries produced nothing to set beside the bold and noble
+intellectual activities of the comparatively little city of Athens
+during its one century of greatness.  Athens decayed under the
+Roman sceptre.  The science of Alexandria decayed.  The spirit of
+man, it seemed, was decaying in those days.
+
+
+
+
+{208}
+
+XXXVI
+
+RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+The soul of man under that Latin and Greek empire of the first two
+centuries of the Christian era was a worried and frustrated soul.
+Compulsion and cruelty reigned; there were pride and display but
+little honour; little serenity or steadfast happiness.  The
+unfortunate were despised and wretched; the fortunate were
+insecure and feverishly eager for gratifications.  In a great
+number of cities life centred on the red excitement of the arena,
+where men and beasts fought and were tormented and slain.
+Amphitheatres are the most characteristic of Roman ruins.  Life
+went on in that key.  The uneasiness of men's hearts manifested
+itself in profound religious unrest.
+
+From the days when the Aryan hordes first broke in upon the
+ancient civilizations, it was inevitable that the old gods of the
+temples and priesthoods should suffer great adaptations or
+disappear.  In the course of hundreds of generations the
+agricultural peoples of the brunette civilizations had shaped
+their lives and thoughts to the temple-centred life.  Observances
+and the fear of disturbed routines, sacrifices and mysteries,
+dominated their minds.  Their gods seem monstrous and illogical to
+our modern minds because we belong to an Aryanized world, but to
+these older peoples these deities had the immediate conviction and
+vividness of things seen in an intense dream.  The conquest of one
+city state by another in Sumeria or early Egypt meant a change or
+a renaming of gods or goddesses, but left the shape and spirit of
+the worship intact.  There was no change in its general character.
+The figures in the dream changed, but the dream went on and it was
+the same sort of dream.  And the early Semitic conquerors were
+sufficiently akin in spirit to the Sumerians to take over the
+religion of the Mesopotamian civilization they subjugated without
+any profound alteration.  Egypt was never {209} indeed subjugated
+to the extent of a religious revolution.  Under the Ptolemies and
+under the Caesars, her temples and altars and priesthoods remained
+essentially Egyptian.
+
+So long as conquests went on between people of similar social and
+religious habits it was possible to get over the clash between the
+god of this temple and region and the god of that by a process of
+grouping or assimilation.  If the two gods were alike in character
+they were identified.  It was really the same god under another
+name, said the priests and the people.  This fusion of gods is
+called theocrasia; and the age of the great conquests of the
+thousand years B.C. was an age of theocrasia.  Over wide areas the
+local gods were displaced by, or rather they were swallowed up in,
+a general god.  So that when at last Hebrew prophets in Babylon
+proclaimed one God of Righteousness in all the earth men's minds
+were fully prepared for that idea.
+
+But often the gods were too dissimilar for such an assimilation,
+and then they were grouped together in some plausible
+relationship.  A female god--and the AEgean world before the coming
+of the Greek was much addicted to Mother Gods--would be married to
+a male god, and an animal god or a star god would be humanized and
+the animal or astronomical aspect, the serpent or the sun or the
+star, made into an ornament or a symbol.  Or the god of a defeated
+people would become a malignant antagonist to the brighter gods.
+The history of theology is full of such adaptations, compromises
+and rationalizations of once local gods.
+
+As Egypt developed from city states into one united kingdom there
+was much of this theocrasia.  The chief god so to speak was
+Osiris, a sacrificial harvest god of whom Pharaoh was supposed to
+be the earthly incarnation.  Osiris was represented as repeatedly
+dying and rising again; he was not only the seed and the harvest
+but also by a natural extension of thought the means of human
+immortality.  Among his symbols was the wide-winged scarabeus
+beetle which buries its eggs to rise again, and also the effulgent
+sun which sets to rise.  Later on he was to be identified with
+Apis, the sacred bull.  Associated with him was the goddess Isis.
+Isis was also Hathor, a cow-goddess, and the crescent moon and the
+Star of the sea.  Osiris dies and she bears a child, Horus, who is
+also a {210} hawk-god and the dawn, and who grows to become Osiris
+again.  The effigies of Isis represent her as bearing the infant
+Horus in her arms and standing on the crescent moon.  These are
+not logical relationships, but they were devised by the human mind
+before the development of hard and systematic thinking and they
+have a dream-like coherence.  Beneath this triple group there are
+other and darker Egyptian gods, bad gods, the dog-headed Anubis,
+black night and the like, devourers, tempters, enemies of god and
+man.
+
+[Illustration: MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN]
+
+Every religious system does in the course of time fit itself to
+the shape of the human soul, and there can be no doubt that out of
+these illogical and even uncouth symbols, Egyptian people were
+able to fashion for themselves ways of genuine devotion and
+consolation.  The desire for immortality was very strong in the
+Egyptian mind, and the religious life of Egypt turned on that
+desire. The Egyptian {211} religion was an immortality religion as
+no other religion had ever been.  As Egypt went down under foreign
+conquerors and the Egyptian gods ceased to have any satisfactory
+political significance, this craving for a life of compensations
+here-after, intensified.
+
+[Illustration: ISIS AND HORUS]
+
+After the Greek conquest, the new city of Alexandria became the
+centre of Egyptian religious life, and indeed of the religious
+life of the whole Hellenic world.  A great temple, the Serapeum,
+was set up by Ptolemy I at which a sort of trinity of gods was
+worshipped. These were Serapis (who was Osiris-Apis rechristened),
+Isis and Horus. These were not regarded as separate gods but as
+three aspects of one god, and Serapis was identified with the
+Greek Zeus, the Roman Jupiter and the Persian sun-god.  This
+worship spread wherever the Hellenic influence extended, even into
+North India and Western China.  The idea of immortality, an
+immortality of compensations and consolation, was eagerly received
+by a world in which the common life was hopelessly wretched.
+Serapis was called "the saviour of souls."  "After death," said
+the hymns of that time, "we are still in the care of his
+providence."  Isis attracted many devotees.  Her images stood in
+her temples, as Queen of Heaven, bearing the infant Horus in her
+arms.  Candles were burnt before her, votive offerings were made
+to her, shaven priests consecrated to celibacy waited on her
+altar.
+
+The rise of the Roman empire opened the western European world to
+this growing cult.  The temples of Serapis-Isis, the chanting of
+the priests and the hope of immortal life, followed the Roman
+standards to Scotland and Holland.  But there were many rivals to
+the Serapis-Isis religion.  Prominent among these was Mithraism.
+This was a religion of Persian origin, and it {212} centred upon
+some now forgotten mysteries about Mithras sacrificing a sacred
+and benevolent bull.  Here we seem to have something more
+primordial than the complicated and sophisticated Serapis-Isis
+beliefs.  We are carried back directly to the blood sacrifices of
+the heliolithic stage in human culture.  The bull upon the
+Mithraic monuments always bleeds copiously from a wound in its
+side, and from this blood springs new life.  The votary to
+Mithraism actually bathed in the blood of the sacrificial bull.
+At his initiation he went beneath a scaffolding upon which a bull
+was killed so that the blood could actually run down on him.
+
+Both these religions, and the same is true of many other of the
+numerous parallel cults that sought the allegiance of the slaves
+and citizens under the earlier Roman emperors, are personal
+religions.  They aim at personal salvation and personal
+immortality.  The older religions were not personal like that;
+they were social.  The older fashion of divinity was god or
+goddess of the city first or of the state, and only secondarily of
+the individual.  The sacrifices were a public and not a private
+function.  They concerned collective practical needs in this world
+in which we live.  But the Greeks first and now the Romans had
+pushed religion out of politics.  Guided by the Egyptian tradition
+religion had retreated to the other world.
+
+[Illustration: BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, A.D. 180-192]
+
+These new private immortality religions took all the heart and
+emotion out of the old state religions, but they did not actually
+replace them.  A typical city under the earlier Roman emperors
+would have a number of temples to all sorts of gods.  There might
+be a temple to Jupiter of the Capitol, the great god of Rome, and
+there would probably be one to the reigning Caesar.  For the Caesars
+had learnt from the Pharaohs the possibility of being gods.  In
+such temples a cold and stately political worship went on; one
+would go and make an offering and burn a pinch of incense to show
+one's loyalty.  But it would be to the temple of Isis, the dear
+Queen of Heaven, one would go with the burthen {213} of one's
+private troubles for advice and relief.  There might be local and
+eccentric gods.  Seville, for example, long affected the worship
+of the old Carthaginian Venus.  In a cave or an underground temple
+there would certainly be an altar to Mithras, attended by
+legionaries and slaves.  And probably also there would be a
+synagogue where the Jews gathered to read their Bible and uphold
+their faith in the unseen God of all the Earth.
+
+Sometimes there would be trouble with the Jews about the political
+side of the state religion.  They held that their God was a
+jealous God intolerant of idolatry, and they would refuse to take
+part in the public sacrifices to Caesar.  They would not even
+salute the Roman standards for fear of idolatry.
+
+In the East long before the time of Buddha there had been
+ascetics, men and women who gave up most of the delights of life,
+who repudiated marriage and property and sought spiritual powers
+and an escape from the stresses and mortifications of the world in
+abstinence, pain and solitude.  Buddha himself set his face
+against ascetic extravagances, but many of his disciples followed
+a monkish life of great severity.  Obscure Greek cults practised
+similar disciplines even to the extent of self-mutilation.
+Asceticism appeared in the Jewish communities of Judea and
+Alexandria also in the first century B.C.  Communities of men
+abandoned the world and gave themselves to austerities and
+mystical contemplation.  Such was the sect of the Essenes.
+Throughout the first and second centuries A.D. there was an almost
+world-wide resort to such repudiations of life, a universal search
+for "salvation" from the distresses of the time.  The old sense of
+an established order, the old confidence in priest and temple and
+law and custom, had gone.  Amidst the prevailing slavery, cruelty,
+fear, anxiety, waste, display and hectic self-indulgence, went
+this epidemic of self-disgust and mental insecurity, this agonized
+search for peace even at the price of renunciation and voluntary
+suffering.  This it was that filled the Serapeum with weeping
+penitents and brought the converts into the gloom and gore of the
+Mithraic cave.
+
+
+
+
+{214}
+
+XXXVII
+
+THE TEACHING OF JESUS
+
+
+It was while Augustus Caesar, the first of the Emperors, was
+reigning in Rome that Jesus who is the Christ of Christianity was
+born in Judea.  In his name a religion was to arise which was
+destined to become the official religion of the entire Roman
+Empire.
+
+Now it is on the whole more convenient to keep history and
+theology apart.  A large proportion of the Christian world
+believes that Jesus was an incarnation of that God of all the
+Earth whom the Jews first recognized.  The historian, if he is to
+remain historian, can neither accept nor deny that interpretation.
+Materially Jesus appeared in the likeness of a man, and it is as a
+man that the historian must deal with him.
+
+He appeared in Judea in the reign of Tiberius Caesar.  He was a
+prophet.  He preached after the fashion of the preceding Jewish
+prophets.  He was a man of about thirty, and we are in the
+profoundest ignorance of his manner of life before his preaching
+began.
+
+Our only direct sources of information about the life and teaching
+of Jesus are the four Gospels.  All four agree in giving us a
+picture of a very definite personality.  One is obliged to say,
+"Here was a man.  This could not have been invented."
+
+But just as the personality of Gautama Buddha has been distorted
+and obscured by the stiff squatting figure, the gilded idol of
+later Buddhism, so one feels that the lean and strenuous
+personality of Jesus is much wronged by the unreality and
+conventionality that a mistaken reverence has imposed upon his
+figure in modern Christian art.  Jesus was a penniless teacher,
+who wandered about the dusty sun-bit country of Judea, living upon
+casual gifts of food; yet he is always represented clean, combed
+and sleek, in spotless raiment, erect and with something
+motionless about him as though {215} he was gliding through the
+air.  This alone has made him unreal and incredible to many people
+who cannot distinguish the core of the story from the ornamental
+and unwise additions of the unintelligently devout.
+
+We are left, if we do strip this record of these difficult
+accessories, with the figure of a being, very human, very earnest
+and passionate, capable of swift anger, and teaching a new and
+simple and profound doctrine--namely, the universal loving
+Fatherhood of God and the coming of the Kingdom of Heaven.  He was
+clearly a person--to use a common phrase--of intense personal
+magnetism.  He attracted followers and filled them with love and
+courage.  Weak and ailing people were heartened and healed by his
+presence.  Yet he was probably of a delicate physique, because of
+the swiftness with which he died under the pains of crucifixion.
+There is a tradition that he fainted when, according to the
+custom, he was made to bear his cross to the place of execution.
+He went about the country for three years spreading his doctrine
+and then he came to Jerusalem and was accused of trying to set up
+a strange kingdom in Judea; he was tried upon this charge, and
+crucified together with two thieves.  Long before these two were
+dead his sufferings were over.
+
+The doctrine of the Kingdom of Heaven, which was the main teaching
+of Jesus, is certainly one of the most revolutionary doctrines
+that ever stirred and changed human thought.  It is small wonder
+if the world of that time failed to grasp its full significance,
+and recoiled in dismay from even a half apprehension of its
+tremendous challenges to the established habits and institutions
+of mankind.  For the doctrine of the Kingdom of Heaven, as Jesus
+seems to have preached it, was no less than a bold and
+uncompromising demand for a complete change and cleansing of the
+life of our struggling race, an utter cleansing, without and
+within.  To the gospels the reader must go for all that is
+preserved of this tremendous teaching; here we are only concerned
+with the jar of its impact upon established ideas.
+
+The Jews were persuaded that God, the one God of the whole world,
+was a righteous god, but they also thought of him as a trading god
+who had made a bargain with their Father Abraham {216} about them,
+a very good bargain indeed for them, to bring them at last to
+predominance in the earth. With dismay and anger they heard Jesus
+sweeping away their dear securities.  God, he taught, was no
+bargainer; there were no chosen people and no favourites in the
+Kingdom of Heaven.  God was the loving father of all life, as
+incapable of showing favour as the universal sun.  And all men
+were brothers--sinners alike and beloved sons alike--of this
+divine father.  In the parable of the Good Samaritan Jesus cast
+scorn upon that natural tendency we all obey, to glorify our own
+people and to minimize the righteousness of other creeds and other
+races.  In the parable of the labourers he thrust aside the
+obstinate claim of the Jews to have a special claim upon God.  All
+whom God takes into the kingdom, he taught, God serves alike;
+there is no distinction in his treatment, because there is no
+measure to his bounty.  From all moreover, as the parable of the
+buried talent witnesses, and as the incident of the widow's mite
+enforces, he demands the utmost.  There are no privileges, no
+rebates and no excuses in the Kingdom of Heaven.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS
+CHRIST IN WHICH THE TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN]
+
+{217}
+
+But it is not only the intense tribal patriotism of the Jews that
+Jesus outraged.  They were a people of intense family loyalty, and
+he would have swept away all the narrow and restrictive family
+affections in the great flood of the love of God.  The whole
+kingdom of Heaven was to be the family of his followers.  We are
+told that, "While he yet talked to the people, behold, his mother
+and his brethren stood without, desiring to speak with him.  Then
+one said unto him, Behold, thy mother and thy brethren stand
+without, desiring to speak with thee.  But he answered and said
+unto him that told him, Who is my mother? and who are my brethren?
+And he stretched forth his hands towards his disciples, and said,
+Behold my mother and my brethren!  For whosoever shall do the will
+of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, and
+sister, and mother."  [2]
+
+[Illustration: THE ROAD FROM NAZARETH TO TIBERIAS]
+
+And not only did Jesus strike at patriotism and the bonds of
+family loyalty in the name of God's universal fatherhood and
+brotherhood of all mankind, but it is clear that his teaching
+condemned all the gradations of the economic system, all private
+wealth, and {218} personal advantages.  All men belonged to the
+kingdom; all their possessions belonged to the kingdom; the
+righteous life for all men, the only righteous life, was the
+service of God's will with all that we had, with all that we were.
+Again and again he denounced private riches and the reservation of
+any private life.
+
+[Illustration: DAVID'S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM]
+
+"And when he was gone forth into the way, there came one running,
+and kneeled to him, and asked him, Good Master, what shall I do
+that I may inherit eternal life?  And Jesus said to him, Why
+callest thou me good? there is none good but one, that is God.
+Thou knowest the commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not
+kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Defraud not, Honour
+thy father and mother.  And he answered and said unto him, Master,
+all these things have I observed from my youth.  Then Jesus
+beholding him loved him, and said unto him, One thing thou
+lackest; go thy way, sell whatsoever thou hast, and give to the
+poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven; and come, take up
+the cross, and follow me.  And he was sad at that saying, and went
+away grieved; for he had great possessions.
+
+"And Jesus looked round about, and saith unto his disciples, How
+hardly shall they that have riches enter into the Kingdom of God!
+And the disciples were astonished at his words.  But Jesus
+answered again, and saith unto them, Children, how hard is it for
+them that trust in riches to enter into the Kingdom of God!  It is
+{220} easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than
+for a rich man to enter into the Kingdom of God."  [3]
+
+====================================================================
+
+{219}
+
+[Illustration: A STREET IN JERUSALEM]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Moreover, in his tremendous prophecy of this kingdom which was to
+make all men one together in God, Jesus had small patience for the
+bargaining righteousness of formal religion.  Another large part
+of his recorded utterances is aimed against the meticulous
+observance of the rules of the pious career.  "Then the Pharisees
+and scribes asked him, Why walk not thy disciples according to the
+tradition of the elders, but eat bread with unwashen hands?  He
+answered and said unto them, Well hath Isaiah prophesied of you
+hypocrites, as it is written,
+
+"This people honoureth me with their lips,
+
+"But their heart is far from me.
+
+"Howbeit in vain do they worship me,
+
+"Teaching for doctrines the commandments of men.
+
+"For laying aside the commandment of God, ye hold the tradition of
+men, as the washing of pots and cups: and many other such things
+ye do.  And he said unto them, Full well ye reject the commandment
+of God, that ye may keep your own tradition."  [4]
+
+It was not merely a moral and a social revolution that Jesus
+proclaimed; it is clear from a score of indications that his
+teaching had a political bent of the plainest sort.  It is true
+that he said his kingdom was not of this world, that it was in the
+hearts of men and not upon a throne; but it is equally clear that
+wherever and in what measure his kingdom was set up in the hearts
+of men, the outer world would be in that measure revolutionized
+and made new.
+
+Whatever else the deafness and blindness of his hearers may have
+missed in his utterances, it is plain they did not miss his
+resolve to revolutionize the world.  The whole tenor of the
+opposition to him and the circumstances of his trial and execution
+show clearly that to his contemporaries he seemed to propose
+plainly, and did propose plainly, to change and fuse and enlarge
+all human life.
+
+In view of what he plainly said, is it any wonder that all who
+were rich and prosperous felt a horror of strange things, a
+swimming of their world at his teaching?  He was dragging out all
+the little private reservations they had made from social service
+into the light {221} of a universal religious life.  He was like
+some terrible moral huntsman digging mankind out of the snug
+burrows in which they had lived hitherto.  In the white blaze of
+this kingdom of his there was to be no property, no privilege, no
+pride and precedence; no motive indeed and no reward but love.  Is
+it any wonder that men were dazzled and blinded and cried out
+against him?  Even his disciples cried out when he would not spare
+them the light.  Is it any wonder that the priests realized that
+between this man and themselves there was no choice but that he or
+priestcraft should perish?  Is it any wonder that the Roman
+soldiers, confronted and amazed by something soaring over their
+comprehension and threatening all their disciplines, should take
+refuge in wild laughter, and crown him with thorns and robe him in
+purple and make a mock Caesar of him?  For to take him seriously
+was to enter upon a strange and alarming life, to abandon habits,
+to control instincts and impulses, to essay an incredible
+happiness. . . .
+
+[2]  Matt. xii, 46-50.
+
+[3]  Mark x. 17-25.
+
+[4]  Mark vii, 1-9.
+
+
+
+
+{222}
+
+XXXVIII
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY
+
+
+In the four gospels we find the personality and teachings of Jesus
+but very little of the dogmas of the Christian church.  It is in
+the epistles, a series of writings by the immediate followers of
+Jesus, that the broad lines of Christian belief are laid down.
+
+Chief among the makers of Christian doctrine was St. Paul.  He had
+never seen Jesus nor heard him preach.  Paul's name was originally
+Saul, and he was conspicuous at first as an active persecutor of
+the little band of disciples after the crucifixion.  Then he was
+suddenly converted to Christianity, and he changed his name to
+Paul.  He was a man of great intellectual vigour and deeply and
+passionately interested in the religious movements of the time.
+He was well versed in Judaism and in the Mithraism and Alexandrian
+religion of the day.  He carried over many of their ideas and
+terms of expression into Christianity.  He did very little to
+enlarge or develop the original teaching of Jesus, the teaching of
+the Kingdom of Heaven.  But he taught that Jesus was not only the
+promised Christ, the promised leader of the Jews, but also that
+his death was a sacrifice, like the deaths of the ancient
+sacrificial victims of the primordial civilizations, for the
+redemption of mankind.
+
+When religions flourish side by side they tend to pick up each
+other's ceremonial and other outward peculiarities.  Buddhism, for
+example, in China has now almost the same sort of temples and
+priests and uses as Taoism, which follows in the teachings of Lao
+Tse.  Yet the original teachings of Buddhism and Taoism were
+almost flatly opposed.  And it reflects no doubt or discredit upon
+the essentials of Christian teaching that it took over not merely
+such formal things as the shaven priest, the votive offering, the
+altars, candles, chanting and images of the Alexandrian and
+Mithraic faiths, but adopted even their devotional phrases and
+their theological {223} ideas.  All these religions were
+flourishing side by side with many less prominent cults.  Each was
+seeking adherents, and there must have been a constant going and
+coming of converts between them.  Sometimes one or other would be
+in favour with the government.  But Christianity was regarded with
+more suspicion than its rivals because, like the Jews, its
+adherents would not perform acts of worship to the God Caesar.
+This made it a seditious religion, quite apart from the
+revolutionary spirit of the teachings of Jesus himself.
+
+[Illustration: MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE,
+ON GOLD BACKGROUND]
+
+St. Paul familiarized his disciples with the idea that Jesus, like
+{224} Osiris, was a god who died to rise again and give men
+immortality.  And presently the spreading Christian community was
+greatly torn by complicated theological disputes about the
+relationship of this God Jesus to God the Father of Mankind.  The
+Arians taught that Jesus was divine, but distant from and inferior
+to the Father.  The Sabellians taught that Jesus was merely an
+aspect of the Father, and that God was Jesus and Father at the
+same time just as a man may be a father and an artificer at the
+same time; and the Trinitarians taught a more subtle doctrine that
+God was both one and three, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.  For a
+time it seemed that Arianism would prevail over its rivals, and
+then after disputes, violence and wars, the Trinitarian formula
+became the accepted formula of all Christendom.  It may be found
+in its completest expression in the Athanasian Creed.
+
+We offer no comment on these controversies here.  They do not sway
+history as the personal teaching of Jesus sways history.  The
+personal teaching of Jesus does seem to mark a new phase in the
+moral and spiritual life of our race.  Its insistence upon the
+universal Fatherhood of God and the implicit brotherhood of all
+men, its insistence upon the sacredness of every human personality
+as a living temple of God, was to have the profoundest effect upon
+all the subsequent social and political life of mankind.  With
+Christianity, with the spreading teachings of Jesus, a new respect
+appears in the world for man as man.  It may be true, as hostile
+critics of Christianity have urged, that St.. Paul preached
+obedience to slaves, but it is equally true that the whole spirit
+of the teachings of Jesus preserved in the gospels was against the
+subjugation of man by man.  And still more distinctly was
+Christianity opposed to such outrages upon human dignity as the
+gladiatorial combats in the arena.
+
+Throughout the first two centuries after Christ, the Christian
+religion spread throughout the Roman Empire, weaving together an
+ever-growing multitude of converts into a new community of ideas
+and will.  The attitude of the emperors varied between hostility
+and toleration.  There were attempts to suppress this new faith in
+both the second and third centuries; and finally in 303 and the
+following years a great persecution under the Emperor Diocletian.
+The considerable accumulations of Church property were {225}
+seized, all bibles and religious writings were confiscated and
+destroyed, Christians were put out of the protection of the law
+and many executed.  The destruction of the books is particularly
+notable.  It shows how the power of the written word in holding
+together {226} the new faith was appreciated by the authorities.
+These "book religions," Christianity and Judaism, were religions
+that educated.  Their continued existence depended very largely on
+people being able to read and understand their doctrinal ideas.
+The older religions had made no such appeal to the personal
+intelligence.  In the ages of barbaric confusion that were now at
+hand in western Europe it was the Christian church that was mainly
+instrumental in preserving the tradition of learning.
+
+[Illustration: THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST]
+
+The persecution of Diocletian failed completely to suppress the
+growing Christian community.  In many provinces it was ineffective
+because the bulk of the population and many of the officials were
+Christian.  In 317 an edict of toleration was issued by the
+associated Emperor Galerius, and in 324 Constantine the Great, a
+friend and on his deathbed a baptized convert to Christianity,
+became sole ruler of the Roman world.  He abandoned all divine
+pretensions and put Christian symbols on the shields and banners
+of his troops.
+
+In a few years Christianity was securely established as the
+official religion of the empire.  The competing religions
+disappeared or were absorbed with extraordinary celerity, and in
+300 Theodosius the Great caused the great statue of Jupiter
+Serapis at Alexandria to be destroyed.  From the outset of the
+fifth century onward the only priests or temples in the Roman
+Empire were Christian priests and temples.
+
+
+
+
+{227}
+
+XXXIX
+
+THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST
+
+
+Throughout the third century the Roman Empire, decaying socially
+and disintegrating morally, faced the barbarians.  The emperors of
+this period were fighting military autocrats, and the capital of
+the empire shifted with the necessities of their military policy.
+Now the imperial headquarters would be at Milan in north Italy,
+now in what is now Serbia at Sirmium or Nish, now in Nicomedia in
+Asia Minor.  Rome halfway down Italy was too far from the centre
+of interest to be a convenient imperial seat.  It was a declining
+city.  Over most of the empire peace still prevailed and men went
+about without arms.  The armies continued to be the sole
+repositories of power; the emperors, dependent on their legions,
+became more and more autocratic to the rest of the empire and
+their state more and more like that of the Persian and other
+oriental monarchs.  Diocletian assumed a royal diadem and oriental
+robes.
+
+All along the imperial frontier, which ran roughly along the Rhine
+and Danube, enemies were now pressing.  The Franks and other
+German tribes had come up to the Rhine.  In north Hungary were the
+Vandals; in what was once Dacia and is now Roumania, the Visigoths
+or West Goths.  Behind these in south Russia were the East Goths
+or Ostrogoths, and beyond these again in the Volga region the
+Alans.  But now Mongolian peoples were forcing their way towards
+Europe.  The Huns were already exacting tribute from the Alans and
+Ostrogoths and pushing them to the west.
+
+In Asia the Roman frontiers were crumpling back under the push of
+a renascent Persia.  This new Persia, the Persia of the Sassenid
+kings, was to be a vigorous and on the whole a successful rival of
+the Roman Empire in Asia for the next three centuries.
+
+A glance at the map of Europe will show the reader the peculiar
+weakness of the empire.  The river Danube comes down to within
+{228} a couple of hundred miles of the Adriatic Sea in the region
+of what is now Bosnia and Serbia.  It makes a square re-entrant
+angle there.  The Romans never kept their sea communications in
+good order, and this two hundred mile strip of land was their line
+of communication between the western Latin-speaking part of the
+empire and the eastern Greek-speaking portion.  Against this
+square angle of the Danube the barbarian pressure was greatest.
+When they broke through there it was inevitable that the empire
+should fall into two parts.
+
+[Map: The Empire and the Barbarians]
+
+A more vigorous empire might have thrust forward and reconquered
+Dacia, but the Roman Empire lacked any such vigour.  Constantine
+the Great was certainly a monarch of great devotion and
+intelligence.  He beat back a raid of the Goths from just these
+vital Balkan regions, but he had no force to carry the frontier
+across the Danube.  He was too pre-occupied with the internal
+weaknesses of the empire.  He brought the solidarity and moral
+force of Christianity to revive the spirit of the declining
+empire, and he decided to create a new permanent capital at
+Byzantium upon the Hellespont.  This new-made Byzantium, which was
+re-christened Constantinople in his honour, was still building
+when he died.  Towards the end of his reign occurred a remarkable
+transaction.  The {229} Vandals, being pressed by the Goths, asked
+to be received into the Roman Empire.  They were assigned lands in
+Pannonia, which is now that part of Hungary west of the Danube,
+and their fighting men became nominally legionaries.  But these
+new legionaries remained under their own chiefs.  Rome failed to
+digest them.
+
+[Illustration: CONSTANTINE'S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE]
+
+Constantine died working to reorganize his great realm, and soon
+the frontiers were ruptured again and the Visigoths came almost to
+Constantinople. They defeated the Emperor Valens at Adrianople and
+made a settlement in what is now Bulgaria, similar to the
+settlement of the Vandals in Pannonia.  Nominally they were
+subjects of the emperor, practically they were conquerors.
+
+From 379 to 395 A.D. reigned the Emperor Theodosius the Great, and
+while he reigned the empire was still formally intact.  Over the
+armies of Italy and Pannonia presided Stilicho, a Vandal, over the
+armies in the Balkan peninsula, Alaric, a Goth.  When Theodosius
+died at the close of the fourth century he left {230} two sons.
+Alaric supported one of these, Arcadius, in Constantinople, and
+Stilicho the other, Honorius, in Italy.  In other words Alaric and
+Stilicho fought for the empire with the princes as puppets.  In
+the course of their struggle Alaric marched into Italy and after a
+short siege took Rome (410 A.D.).
+
+The opening half of the fifth century saw the whole of the Roman
+Empire in Europe the prey of robber armies of barbarians.  It is
+difficult to visualize the state of affairs in the world at that
+time.  Over France, Spain, Italy and the Balkan peninsula, the
+great cities that had flourished under the early empire still
+stood, impoverished, partly depopulated and falling into decay.
+Life in them must have been shallow, mean and full of uncertainty.
+Local officials asserted their authority and went on with their
+work with such conscience as they had, no doubt in the name of a
+now remote and inaccessible emperor.  The churches went on, but
+usually with illiterate priests.  There was little reading and
+much superstition and fear.  But everywhere except where looters
+had destroyed them, books and pictures and statuary and such-like
+works of art were still to be found.
+
+The life of the countryside had also degenerated.  Everywhere this
+Roman world was much more weedy and untidy than it had been.  In
+some regions war and pestilence had brought the land down to the
+level of a waste.  Roads and forests were infested with robbers.
+Into such regions the barbarians marched, with little or no
+opposition, and set up their chiefs as rulers, often with Roman
+official titles.  If they were half civilized barbarians they
+would give the conquered districts tolerable terms, they would
+take possession of the towns, associate and intermarry, and
+acquire (with an accent) the Latin speech; but the Jutes, the
+Angles and Saxons who submerged the Roman province of Britain were
+agriculturalists and had no use for towns, they seem to have swept
+south Britain clear of the Romanized population and they replaced
+the language by their own Teutonic dialects, which became at last
+English.
+
+It is impossible in the space at our disposal to trace the
+movements of all the various German and Slavonic tribes as they
+went to and fro in the disorganized empire in search of plunder
+and a pleasant home.  But let the Vandals serve as an example.
+They came into {232} history in east Germany.  They settled as we
+have told in Pannonia.  Thence they moved somewhen about 425 A.D.
+through the intervening provinces to Spain.  There they found
+Visigoths from South Russia and other German tribes setting up
+dukes and kings.  From Spain the Vandals under Genseric sailed for
+North Africa (429), captured Carthage (439), and built a fleet.
+They secured the mastery of the sea and captured and pillaged Rome
+(455), which had recovered very imperfectly from her capture and
+looting by Alaric half a century earlier.  Then the Vandals made
+themselves masters of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia and most of the
+other islands of the western Mediterranean.  They made, in fact, a
+sea empire very similar in its extent to the sea empire of
+Carthage seven hundred odd years before.  They were at the climax
+of their power about 477.  They were a mere handful of conquerors
+holding all this country.  In the next century almost all their
+territory had been reconquered for the empire of Constantinople
+during a transitory blaze of energy under Justinian I.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{231}
+
+[Illustration: BASE OF THE "OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,"
+CONSTANTINOPLE]
+
+====================================================================
+
+The story of the Vandals is but one sample of a host of similar
+adventures.  But now there was coming into the European world the
+least kindred and most redoubtable of all these devastators, the
+Mongolian Huns or Tartars, a yellow people active and able, such
+as the western world had never before encountered.
+
+
+
+
+{233}
+
+XL
+
+THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE
+
+
+This appearance of a conquering Mongolian people in Europe may be
+taken to mark a new stage in human history.  Until the last
+century or so before the Christian era, the Mongol and the Nordic
+peoples had not been in close touch.  Far away in the frozen lands
+beyond the northern forests the Lapps, a Mongolian people, had
+drifted westward as far as Lapland, but they played no part in the
+main current of history.  For thousands of years the western world
+carried on the dramatic interplay of the Aryan, Semitic and
+fundamental brunette peoples with very little interference (except
+for an Ethiopian invasion of Egypt or so) either from the black
+peoples to the south or from the Mongolian world in the far East.
+
+It is probable that there were two chief causes for the new
+westward drift of the nomadic Mongolians.  One was the
+consolidation of the great empire of China, its extension
+northward and the increase of its population during the prosperous
+period of the Han dynasty.  The other was some process of climatic
+change; a lesser rainfall that abolished swamps and forests
+perhaps, or a greater rainfall that extended grazing over desert
+steppes, or even perhaps both these processes going on in
+different regions but which anyhow facilitated a westward
+migration.  A third contributary cause was the economic
+wretchedness, internal decay and falling population of the Roman
+Empire.  The rich men of the later Roman Republic, and then the
+tax-gatherers of the military emperors had utterly consumed its
+vitality.  So we have the factors of thrust, means and
+opportunity.  There was pressure from the east, rot in the west
+and an open road.
+
+The Hun had reached the eastern boundaries of European Russia by
+the first century A.D., but it was not until the fourth and {234}
+fifth centuries A.D. that these horsemen rose to predominance upon
+the steppes.  The fifth century was the Hun's century.  The first
+Huns to come into Italy were mercenary bands in the pay of
+Stilicho the Vandal, the master of Honorius.  Presently they were
+in possession of Pannonia, the empty nest of the Vandals.
+
+By the second quarter of the fifth century a great war chief had
+arisen among the Huns, Attila.  We have only vague and tantalizing
+glimpses of his power.  He ruled not only over the Huns but over a
+conglomerate of tributary Germanic tribes; his empire extended
+from the Rhine cross the plains into Central Asia.  He exchanged
+ambassadors with China.  His head camp was in the plain of Hungary
+east of the Danube.  There he was visited by an envoy from
+Constantinople, Priscus, who has left us an account of his state.
+The way of living of these Mongols was very like the way of living
+of the primitive Aryans they had replaced.  The common folk were
+in huts and tents; the chiefs lived in great stockaded timber
+halls.  There were feasts and drinking and singing by the bards.
+The Homeric heroes and even the Macedonian companions of Alexander
+would probably have felt more at home in the camp-capital of
+Attila than they would have done in the cultivated and decadent
+court of Theodosius II, the son of Arcadius, who was then reigning
+in Constantinople.
+
+For a time it seemed as though the nomads under the leadership
+of the Huns and Attila would play the same part towards the
+Graeco-Roman civilization of the Mediterranean countries that the
+barbaric Greeks had played long ago to the AEgean civilization.  It
+looked like history repeating itself upon a larger stage.  But the
+Huns were much more wedded to the nomadic life than the early
+Greeks, who were rather migratory cattle farmers than true nomads.
+The Huns raided and plundered but did not settle.
+
+For some years Attila bullied Theodosius as he chose.  His armies
+devastated and looted right down to the walls of Constantinople,
+Gibbon says that he totally destroyed no less than seventy cities
+in the Balkan peninsula, and Theodosius bought him off by payments
+of tribute and tried to get rid of him for good by sending secret
+agents to assassinate him.  In 451 Attila turned his attention to
+the remains of the Latin-speaking half of the empire and invaded
+{235} Gaul.  Nearly every town in northern Gaul was sacked.
+Franks, Visigoths and the imperial forces united against him and
+he was defeated at Troyes in a vast dispersed battle in which a
+multitude of men, variously estimated as between 150,000 and
+300,000, were killed. This checked him in Gaul, but it did not
+exhaust his enormous military resources.  Next year he came into
+Italy by way of Venetia, burnt Aquileia and Padua and looted
+Milan.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF]
+
+Numbers of fugitives from these north Italian towns and
+particularly from Padua fled to islands in the lagoons at the head
+of the Adriatic and laid there the foundations of the city state
+of Venice, which was to become one of the greatest or the trading
+centres in the middle ages.
+
+In 453 Attila died suddenly after a great feast to celebrate his
+marriage to a young woman, and at his death this plunder
+confederation of his fell to pieces.  The actual Huns disappear
+from history, mixed into the surrounding more numerous
+Aryan-speaking populations.  {236} But these great Hun raids
+practically consummated the end of the Latin Roman Empire.  After
+his death ten different emperors ruled in Rome in twenty years,
+set up by Vandal and other mercenary troops.  The Vandals from
+Carthage took and sacked Rome in 455.  Finally in 476 Odoacer, the
+chief of the barbarian troops, suppressed a Pannonian who was
+figuring as emperor under the impressive name of Romulus
+Augustulus, and informed the Court of Constantinople that there
+was no longer an emperor in the west.  So ingloriously the Latin
+Roman Empire came to an end.  In 493 Theodoric the Goth became
+King of Rome.
+
+All over western and central Europe now barbarian chiefs were
+reigning as kings, dukes and the like, practically independent but
+for the most part professing some sort of shadowy allegiance to
+the emperor.  There were hundreds and perhaps thousands of such
+practically independent brigand rulers.  In Gaul, Spain and Italy
+and in Dacia the Latin speech still prevailed in locally distorted
+forms, but in Britain and east of the Rhine languages of the
+German group (or in Bohemia a Slavonic language, Czech) were the
+common speech.  The superior clergy and a small remnant of other
+educated men read and wrote Latin.  Everywhere life was insecure
+and property was held by the strong arm.  Castles multiplied and
+roads fell into decay.  The dawn of the sixth century was an age
+of division and of intellectual darkness throughout the western
+world.  Had it not been for the monks and Christian missionaries
+Latin learning might have perished altogether.
+
+Why had the Roman Empire grown and why had it so completely
+decayed?  It grew because at first the idea of citizenship held it
+together.  Throughout the days of the expanding republic, and even
+into the days of the early empire there remained a great number of
+men conscious of Roman citizenship, feeling it a privilege and an
+obligation to be a Roman citizen, confident of their rights under
+the Roman law and willing to make sacrifices in the name of Rome.
+The prestige of Rome as of something just and great and
+law-upholding spread far beyond the Roman boundaries.  But even as
+early as the Punic wars the sense of citizenship was being
+undermined by the growth of wealth and slavery.  Citizenship
+spread indeed but not the idea of citizenship.
+
+{237}
+
+The Roman Empire was after all a very primitive organization; it
+did not educate, did not explain itself to its increasing
+multitudes of citizens, did not invite their co-operation in its
+decisions.  There was no network of schools to ensure a common
+understanding, no distribution of news to sustain collective
+activity.  The adventurers who struggled for power from the days
+of Marius and Sulla onward had no idea of creating and calling in
+public opinion upon the imperial affairs.  The spirit of
+citizenship died of starvation and no one observed it die.  All
+empires, all states, all organizations of human society are, in
+the ultimate, things of understanding and will.  There remained no
+will for the Roman Empire in the World and so it came to an end.
+
+But though the Latin-speaking Roman Empire died in the fifth
+century, something else had been born within it that was to avail
+itself enormously of its prestige and tradition, and that was the
+Latin-speaking half of the Catholic Church.  This lived while the
+empire died because it appealed to the minds and wills of men,
+because it had books and a great system of teachers and
+missionaries to hold it together, things stronger than any law or
+legions.  Throughout the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. while the
+empire was decaying, Christianity was spreading to a universal
+dominion in Europe.  It conquered its conquerors, the barbarians.
+When Attila seemed disposed to march on Rome, the patriarch of
+Rome intercepted him and did what no armies could do, turning him
+back by sheer moral force.
+
+The Patriarch or Pope of Rome claimed to be the head of the entire
+Christian church.  Now that there were no more emperors, he began
+to annex imperial titles and claims.  He took the title of
+_pontifex maximus_, head sacrificial priest of the Roman dominion,
+the most ancient of all the titles that the emperors had enjoyed.
+
+
+
+
+{238}
+
+XLI
+
+THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES
+
+
+The Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire showed much
+more political tenacity than the western half.  It weathered the
+disasters of the fifth century A.D., which saw a complete and
+final breaking up of the original Latin Roman power.  Attila
+bullied the Emperor Theodosius II and sacked and raided almost to
+the walls of Constantinople, but that city remained intact.  The
+Nubians came down the Nile and looted Upper Egypt, but Lower Egypt
+and Alexandria were left still fairly prosperous.  Most of Asia
+Minor was held against the Sassanid Persians.
+
+The sixth century, which was an age of complete darkness for the
+West, saw indeed a considerable revival of the Greek power.
+Justinian I (527-565) was a ruler of very great ambition and
+energy, and he was married to the Empress Theodora, a woman of
+quite equal capacity who had begun life as an actress.  Justinian
+reconquered North Africa from the Vandals and most of Italy from
+the Goths.  He even regained the south of Spain.  He did not limit
+his energies to naval and military enterprises.  He founded a
+university, built the great church of Sta. Sophia in
+Constantinople and codified the Roman law.  But in order to
+destroy a rival to his university foundation he closed the schools
+of philosophy in Athens, which had been going on in unbroken
+continuity from the days of Plato, that is to say for nearly a
+thousand years.
+
+From the third century onwards the Persian Empire had been the
+steadfast rival of the Byzantine.  The two empires kept Asia
+Minor, Syria and Egypt in a state of perpetual unrest and waste.
+In the first century A.D., these lands were still at a high level
+of civilization, wealthy and with an abundant population, but the
+continual coming and going of armies, massacres, looting and war
+taxation wore them down steadily until only shattered and ruinous
+{239} cities remained upon a countryside of scattered peasants.
+In this melancholy process of impoverishment and disorder lower
+Egypt fared perhaps less badly than the rest of the world.
+Alexandria, like Constantinople, continued a dwindling trade
+between the east and the west.
+
+Science and political philosophy seemed dead now in both these
+warring and decaying empires.  The last philosophers of Athens,
+until their suppression, preserved the texts of the great
+literature of the past with an infinite reverence and want of
+understanding.  But there remained no class of men in the world,
+no free gentlemen with bold and independent habits of thought, to
+carry on the tradition of frank statement and enquiry embodied in
+these writings.  The social and political chaos accounts largely
+for the disappearance of this class, but there was also another
+reason why the human intelligence was sterile and feverish during
+this age.  In both Persia and Byzantium it was all age of
+intolerance.  Both empires were religious empires in a new way, in
+a way that greatly hampered the free activities of the human mind.
+
+[Illustration: THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA,
+CONSTANTINOPLE]
+
+{240}
+
+[Illustration: THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIA]
+
+Of course the oldest empires in the world were religious empires,
+centring upon the worship of a god or of a god-king.  Alexander
+was treated as a divinity and the Caesars were gods in so much as
+they had altars and temples devoted to them and the offering of
+incense was made a test of loyalty to the Roman state.  But these
+older religions were essentially religions of act and fact.  They
+did not invade the mind.  If a man offered his sacrifice and bowed
+to the god, he was left not only to think but to say practically
+whatever he liked about the affair.  But the new sort of religions
+that had come into the world, and particularly Christianity,
+turned inward.  These new faiths demanded not simply conformity
+but understanding belief.  Naturally fierce controversy ensued
+upon the exact meaning of the things believed.  These new
+religions were creed religions.  The world was confronted with a
+new word, Orthodoxy, and with a stern resolve to keep not only
+acts but speech {241} and private thought within the limits of a
+set teaching.  For to hold a wrong opinion, much more to convey it
+to other people, was no longer regarded as an intellectual defect
+but a moral fault that might condemn a soul to everlasting
+destruction.
+
+[Illustration: THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS
+COURT]
+
+Both Ardashir I who founded the Sassanid dynasty in the third
+century A.D., and Constantine the Great who reconstructed the
+Roman Empire in the fourth, turned to religious organizations for
+help, because in these organizations they saw a new means of using
+and controlling the wills of men.  And already before the end of
+the fourth century both empires were persecuting free talk and
+religious innovation.  In Persia Ardashir found the ancient
+Persian religion of Zoroaster (or Zarathushtra) with its priests
+and temples and a sacred fire that burnt upon its altars, ready
+for his purpose as a state religion.  Before the end of the third
+century Zoroastrianism was persecuting Christianity, and in 277
+A.D. Mani, the founder of {243} a new faith, the Manichaeans, was
+crucified and his body flayed.  Constantinople, on its side, was
+busy hunting out Christian heresies.  Manichaean ideas infected
+Christianity and had to be fought with the fiercest methods; in
+return ideas from Christianity affected the purity of the
+Zoroastrian doctrine.  All ideas became suspect.  Science, which
+demands before all things the free action of an untroubled mind,
+suffered a complete eclipse throughout this phase of intolerance.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{242}
+
+[Illustration: THE ROCK HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA]
+
+====================================================================
+
+War, the bitterest theology, and the usual vices of mankind
+constituted Byzantine life of those days.  It was picturesque, it
+was romantic; it had little sweetness or light.  When Byzantium
+and Persia were not fighting the barbarians from the north, they
+wasted Asia Minor and Syria in dreary and destructive hostilities.
+Even in close alliance these two empires would have found it a
+hard task to turn back the barbarians and recover their
+prosperity.  The Turks or Tartars first come into history as the
+allies first of one power and then of another.  In the sixth
+century the two chief antagonists were Justinian and Chosroes I;
+in the opening of the seventh the Emperor Heraclius was pitted
+against Chosroes II (580).
+
+At first and until after Heraclius had become Emperor (610)
+Chosroes II carried all before him.  He took Antioch, Damascus and
+Jerusalem and his armies reached Chalcedon, which is in Asia Minor
+over against Constantinople.  In 619 he conquered Egypt.  Then
+Heraclius pressed a counter attack home and routed a Persian army
+at Nineveh (627), although at that time there were still Persian
+troops at Chalcedon.  In 628 Chosroes II was deposed and murdered
+by his son, Kavadh, and an inconclusive peace was made between the
+two exhausted empires.
+
+Byzantium and Persia had fought their last war.  But few people as
+yet dreamt of the storm that was even then gathering in the
+deserts to put an end for ever to this aimless, chronic struggle.
+
+While Heraclius was restoring order in Syria a message reached
+him.  It had been brought in to the imperial outpost at Bostra
+south of Damascus; it was in Arabic, an obscure Semitic desert
+language, and it was read to the Emperor, if it reached him at
+all, by an interpreter.  It was from someone who called himself
+"Muhammad the Prophet of God."  It called upon the Emperor to
+{244} acknowledge the One True God and to serve him.  What the
+Emperor said is not recorded.
+
+A similar message came to Kavadh at Ctesiphon.  He was annoyed,
+tore up the letter, and bade the messenger begone.
+
+This Muhammad, it appeared, was a Bedouin leader whose
+headquarters were in the mean little desert town of Medina.  He
+was preaching a new religion of faith in the One True God.
+
+"Even so, O Lord!" he said; "rend thou his Kingdom from Kavadh."
+
+
+
+
+{245}
+
+XLII
+
+THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA
+
+
+Throughout the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, there
+was a steady drift of Mongolian peoples westward.  The Huns of
+Attila were merely precursors of this advance, which led at last
+to the establishment of Mongolian peoples in Finland, Esthonia,
+Hungary and Bulgaria, where their descendants, speaking languages
+akin to Turkish, survive to this day.  The Mongolian nomads were,
+in fact, playing a role towards the Aryanized civilizations of
+Europe and Persia and India that the Aryans had played to the
+AEgean and Semitic civilizations ten or fifteen centuries before.
+
+In Central Asia the Turkish peoples had taken root in what is now
+Western Turkestan, and Persia already employed many Turkish
+officials and Turkish mercenaries.  The Parthians had gone out of
+history, absorbed into the general population of Persia.  There
+were no more Aryan nomads in the history of Central Asia;
+Mongolian people had replaced them.  The Turks became masters of
+Asia from China to the Caspian.
+
+The same great pestilence at the end of the second century A.D.
+that had shattered the Roman Empire had overthrown the Han dynasty
+in China.  Then came a period of division and of Hunnish conquests
+from which China arose refreshed, more rapidly and more completely
+than Europe was destined to do.  Before the end of the sixth
+century China was reunited under the Suy dynasty, and this by the
+time of Heraclius gave place to the Tang dynasty, whose reign
+marks another great period of prosperity for China.
+
+Throughout the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries China was the
+most secure and civilized country in the world.  The Han dynasty
+had extended her boundaries in the north; the Suy and Tang
+dynasties now spread her civilization to the south, and China
+{247} began to assume the proportions she has to-day.  In Central
+Asia indeed she reached much further, extending at last, through
+tributary Turkish tribes, to Persia and the Caspian Sea.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{246}
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG
+DYNASTY, 616-906]
+
+====================================================================
+
+The new China that had arisen was a very different land from the
+old China of the Hans.  A new and more vigorous literary school
+appeared, there was a great poetic revival; Buddhism had
+revolutionized philosophical and religious thought.  There were
+great advances in artistic work, in technical skill and in all the
+amenities of life.  Tea was first used, paper manufactured and
+wood-block printing began.  Millions of people indeed were leading
+orderly, graceful and kindly lives in China during these centuries
+when the attenuated populations of Europe and Western Asia were
+living either in hovels, small walled cities or grim robber
+fortresses.  While the mind of the west was black with theological
+obsessions, the mind of China was open and tolerant and enquiring.
+
+One of the earliest monarchs of the Tang dynasty was Tai-tsung,
+who began to reign in 627, the year of the victory of Heraclius at
+Nineveh.  He received an embassy from Heraclius, who was probably
+seeking an ally in the rear of Persia.  From Persia itself came a
+party of Christian missionaries (635).  They were allowed to
+explain their creed to Tai-tsung and he examined a Chinese
+translation of their Scriptures.  He pronounced this strange
+religion acceptable, and gave permission for the foundation of a
+church and monastery.
+
+To this monarch also (in 628) came messengers from Muhammad.  They
+came to Canton on a trading ship.  They had sailed the whole way
+from Arabia along the Indian coasts.  Unlike Heraclius and Kavadh,
+Tai-Tsung gave these envoys a courteous hearing.  He expressed his
+interest in their theological ideas and assisted them to build a
+mosque in Canton, a mosque which survives, it is said, to this
+day, the oldest mosque in the world.
+
+
+
+
+{248}
+
+XLIII
+
+MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM
+
+
+A prophetic amateur of history surveying the world in the opening
+of the seventh century might have concluded very reasonably that
+it was only a question of a few centuries before the whole of
+Europe and Asia fell under Mongolian domination.  There were no
+signs of order or union in Western Europe, and the Byzantine and
+Persian Empires were manifestly bent upon a mutual destruction.
+India also was divided and wasted.  On the other hand China was a
+steadily expanding empire which probably at that time exceeded all
+Europe in population, and the Turkish people who were growing to
+power in Central Asia were disposed to work in accord with China.
+And such a prophecy would not have been an altogether vain one.  A
+time was to come in the thirteenth century when a Mongolian
+overlord would rule from the Danube to the Pacific, and Turkish
+dynasties were destined to reign over the entire Byzantine and
+Persian Empires, over Egypt and most of India.
+
+Where our prophet would have been most likely to have erred would
+have been in under-estimating the recuperative power of the Latin
+end of Europe and in ignoring the latent forces of the Arabian
+desert.  Arabia would have seemed what it had been for times
+immemorial, the refuge of small and bickering nomadic tribes.  No
+Semitic people had founded an empire now for more than a thousand
+years.
+
+Then suddenly the Bedouin flared out for a brief century of
+splendour.  They spread their rule and language from Spain to the
+boundaries of China.  They gave the world a new culture.  They
+created a religion that is still to this day one of the most vital
+forces in the world.
+
+{249}
+
+The man who fired this Arab flame appears first in history as the
+young husband of the widow of a rich merchant of the town of
+Mecca, named Muhammad.  Until he was forty he did very little to
+distinguish himself in the world.  He seems to have taken
+considerable interest in religious discussion.  Mecca was a pagan
+city at that time worshipping in particular a black stone, the
+Kaaba, of great repute throughout all Arabia and a centre of
+pilgrimages; but there were great numbers of Jews in the
+country--indeed all the southern portion of Arabia professed the
+Jewish faith--and there were Christian churches in Syria.
+
+About forty Muhammad began to develop prophetic characteristics
+like those of the Hebrew prophets twelve hundred years before him.
+He talked first to his wife of the One True God, and of the
+rewards and punishments of virtue and wickedness.  There can be no
+doubt that his thoughts were very strongly influenced by Jewish
+and Christian ideas.  He gathered about him a small circle of
+believers and presently began to preach in the town against the
+prevalent idolatry.  This made him extremely unpopular with his
+fellow townsmen because the pilgrimages to the Kaaba were the
+chief source of such prosperity as Mecca enjoyed.  He became
+bolder and more definite in his teaching, declaring himself to be
+the last chosen prophet of God entrusted with a mission to perfect
+religion.  Abraham, he declared, and Jesus Christ were his
+forerunners.  He had been chosen to complete and perfect the
+revelation of God's will.
+
+He produced verses which he said had been communicated to him by
+an angel, and he had a strange vision in which he was taken up
+through the Heavens to God and instructed in his mission.
+
+As his teaching increased in force the hostility of his fellow
+townsmen increased also.  At last a plot was made to kill him; but
+he escaped with his faithful friend and disciple, Abu Bekr, to the
+friendly town of Medina which adopted his doctrine.  Hostilities
+followed between Mecca and Medina which ended at last in a treaty.
+Mecca was to adopt the worship of the One True God and accept
+Muhammad as his prophet, but the adherents of the new _faith were
+still to make the pilgrimage to Mecca_ just as they had done when
+they were pagans.  So Muhammad established the One True God in
+{251} Mecca without injuring its pilgrim traffic.  In 629 Muhammad
+returned to Mecca as its master, a year after he had sent out
+these envoys of his to Heraclius, Tai-tsung, Kavadh and all the
+rulers of the earth.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{250}
+
+[Illustration: AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT]
+
+[Illustration: LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND]
+
+=====================================================================
+
+Then for four years more until his death in 632, Muhammad spread
+his power over the rest of Arabia.  He married a number of wives
+in his declining years, and his life on the whole was by modern
+standards unedifying.  He seems to have been a man compounded of
+very considerable vanity, greed, cunning, self-deception and quite
+sincere religious passion.  He dictated a book of injunctions and
+expositions, the Koran, which he declared was communicated to him
+from God.  Regarded as literature or philosophy the Koran is
+certainly unworthy of its alleged Divine authorship.
+
+Yet when the manifest defects of Muhammad's life and writings have
+been allowed for, there remains in Islam, this faith he imposed
+upon the Arabs, much power and inspiration.  One is its
+uncompromising monotheism; its simple enthusiastic faith in the
+rule and fatherhood of God and its freedom from theological
+complications.  Another is its complete detachment from the
+sacrificial priest and the temple.  It is an entirely prophetic
+religion, proof against any possibility of relapse towards blood
+sacrifices.  In the Koran the limited {252} and ceremonial nature
+of the pilgrimage to Mecca is stated beyond the possibility of
+dispute, and every precaution was taken by Muhammad to prevent the
+deification of himself after his death.  And a third element of
+strength lay in the insistence of Islam upon the perfect
+brotherhood and equality before God of all believers, whatever
+their colour, origin or status.
+
+These are the things that made Islam a power in human affairs.  It
+has been said that the true founder of the Empire of Islam was not
+so much Muhammad as his friend and helper, Abu Bekr.  If Muhammad,
+with his shifty character, was the mind and imagination of
+primitive Islam, Abu Bekr was its conscience and its will.
+Whenever Muhammad wavered Abu Bekr sustained him.  And when
+Muhammad died, Abu Bekr became Caliph (= successor), and with that
+faith that moves mountains, he set himself simply and sanely to
+organize the subjugation of the whole world to Allah--with little
+armies of 3,000 or 4,000 Arabs--according to those letters the
+prophet had written from Medina in 628 to all the monarchs of the
+world.
+
+
+
+
+{253}
+
+XLIV
+
+THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS
+
+
+There follows the most amazing story of conquest in the whole
+history of our race.  The Byzantine army was smashed at the battle
+of the Yarmuk (a tributary of the Jordan) in 634; and the Emperor
+Heraclius, his energy sapped by dropsy and his resources exhausted
+by the Persian war, saw his new conquests in Syria, Damascus,
+Palmyra, Antioch, Jerusalem and the rest fall almost without
+resistance to the Moslim.  Large elements in the population went
+over to Islam.  Then the Moslim turned east.  The Persians had
+found an able general in Rustam; they had a great host with a
+force of elephants; and for three days they fought the Arabs at
+Kadessia (637) and broke at last in headlong rout.
+
+The conquest of all Persia followed, and the Moslem Empire pushed
+far into Western Turkestan and eastward until it met the Chinese.
+Egypt fell almost without resistance to the new conquerors, who
+full of a fanatical belief in the sufficiency of the Koran, wiped
+out the vestiges of the book-copying industry of the Alexandria
+Library.  The tide of conquest poured along the north coast of
+Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar and Spain.  Spain was invaded
+in 710 and the Pyrenees Mountains were reached in 720.  In 732 the
+Arab advance had reached the centre of France, but here it was
+stopped for good at the battle of Poitiers and thrust back as far
+as the Pyrenees again.  The conquest of Egypt had given the Moslim
+a fleet, and for a time it looked as though they would take
+Constantinople.  They made repeated sea attacks between 672 and
+718 but the great city held out against them.
+
+The Arabs had little political aptitude and no political
+experience, and this great empire with its capital now at
+Damascus, which stretched from Spain to China, was destined to
+break up very speedily. From the very beginning doctrinal
+differences undermined {254} its unity.  But our interest here
+lies not with the story of its political disintegration but with
+its effect upon the human mind and upon the general destinies of
+our race.  The Arab intelligence had been flung across the world
+even more swiftly and dramatically than had the Greek a thousand
+years before.  The intellectual stimulation of the whole world
+west of China, the break-up of old ideas and development of new
+ones, was enormous.
+
+[Map: The Growth of the Moslem Power in 25 Years]
+
+[Map: the Moslem Empire, 750 A.D.]
+
+{255}
+
+In Persia this fresh excited Arabic mind came into contact not
+only with Manichaean, Zoroastrian and Christian doctrine, but with
+the scientific Greek literature, preserved not only in Greek but
+in Syrian translations.  It found Greek learning in Egypt also.
+Every-where, and particularly in Spain, it discovered an active
+Jewish tradition of speculation and discussion.  In Central Asia
+it met Buddhism and the material achievements of Chinese
+civilization.  It learnt the manufacture of paper--which made
+printed books possible--from the Chinese.  And finally it came
+into touch with Indian mathematics and philosophy.
+
+[Illustration: JERUSALEM, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR]
+
+Very speedily the intolerant self-sufficiency of the early days of
+faith, which made the Koran seem the only possible book, was
+dropped. Learning sprang up everywhere in the footsteps of the
+Arab conquerors.  By the eighth century there was an educational
+{256} organization throughout the whole "Arabized" world.  In the
+ninth learned men in the schools of Cordoba in Spain were
+corresponding with learned men in Cairo, Bagdad, Bokhara and
+Samarkand.  The Jewish mind assimilated very readily with the
+Arab, and for a time the two Semitic races worked together through
+the medium of Arabic.  Long after the political break-up and
+enfeeblement of the Arabs, this intellectual community of the
+Arab-speaking world endured.  It was still producing very
+considerable results in the thirteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF CAIRO MOSQUES]
+
+So it was that the systematic accumulation and criticism of facts
+which was first begun by the Greeks was resumed in this
+astonishing renascence of the Semitic world.  The seed of
+Aristotle and the museum of Alexandria that had lain so long
+inactive and neglected now germinated and began to grow towards
+fruition.  Very great advances were made in mathematical, medical
+and physical science.  {257} The clumsy Roman numerals were ousted
+by the Arabic figures we use to this day and the zero sign was
+first employed.  The very name _algebra_ is Arabic.  So is the
+word chemistry.  The names of such stars as Algol, Aldebaran and
+Bootes preserve the traces of Arab conquests in the sky.  Their
+philosophy was destined to reanimate the medieval philosophy of
+France and Italy and the whole Christian world.
+
+The Arab experimental chemists were called alchemists, and they
+were still sufficiently barbaric in spirit to keep their methods
+and results secret as far as possible.  They realized from the
+very beginning what enormous advantages their possible discoveries
+might give them, and what far-reaching consequences they might
+have on human life.  They came upon many metallurgical and
+technical devices of the utmost value, alloys and dyes,
+distilling, tinctures and essences, optical glass; but the two
+chief ends they sought, they sought in vain.  One was "the
+philosopher's stone"--a means of changing the metallic elements
+one into another and so getting a control of artificial gold, and
+the other was the _elixir vitoe_, a stimulant that would revivify
+age and prolong life indefinitely.  The crabbed patient
+experimenting of these Arab alchemists spread into the Christian
+world.  The fascination of their enquiries spread.  Very gradually
+the activities of these alchemists became more social and
+co-operative.  They found it profitable to exchange and compare
+ideas.  By insensible gradations the last of the alchemists became
+the first of the experimental philosophers.
+
+The old alchemists sought the philosopher's stone which was to
+transmute base metals to gold, and an elixir of immortality; they
+found the methods of modern experimental science which promise in
+the end to give man illimitable power over the world and over his
+own destiny.
+
+
+
+
+{258}
+
+XLV
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM
+
+
+It is worth while to note the extremely shrunken dimensions of the
+share of the world remaining under Aryan control in the seventh
+and eighth centuries.  A thousand years before, the Aryan-speaking
+races were triumphant over all the civilized world west of China.
+Now the Mongol had thrust as far as Hungary, nothing of Asia
+remained under Aryan rule except the Byzantine dominions in Asia
+Minor, and all Africa was lost and nearly all Spain.  The great
+Hellenic world had shrunken to a few possessions round the nucleus
+of the trading city of Constantinople, and the memory of the Roman
+world was kept alive by the Latin of the western Christian
+priests.  In vivid contrast to this tale of retrogression, the
+Semitic tradition had risen again from subjugation and obscurity
+after a thousand years of darkness.
+
+Yet the vitality of the Nordic peoples was not exhausted.
+Confined now to Central and North-Western Europe and terribly
+muddled in their social and political ideas, they were
+nevertheless building up gradually and steadily a new social order
+and preparing unconsciously for the recovery of a power even more
+extensive than that they had previously enjoyed.
+
+We have told how at the beginning of the sixth century there
+remained no central government in Western Europe at all.  That
+world was divided up among numbers of local rulers holding their
+own as they could.  This was too insecure a state of affairs to
+last; a system of co-operation and association grew up in this
+disorder, the feudal system, which has left its traces upon
+European life up to the present time.  This feudal system was a
+sort of crystallization of society about power.  Everywhere the
+lone man felt insecure and was prepared to barter a certain amount
+of his liberty for help and protection.  He sought a stronger man
+as his lord and protector; {259} he gave him military services and
+paid him dues, and in return he was confirmed in his possession of
+what was his.  His lord again found safety in vassalage to a still
+greater lord.  Cities also found it convenient to have feudal
+protectors, and monasteries and church estates bound themselves by
+similar ties.  No doubt in many cases allegiance was claimed
+before it was offered; the system grew downward as well as upward.
+So a sort of pyramidal system grew up, varying widely in different
+localities, permitting at first a considerable play of violence
+and private warfare but making steadily for order and a new reign
+of law.  The pyramids grew up until some became recognizable as
+kingdoms.  Already by the early sixth century a Frankish kingdom
+existed under its founder Clovis in what is now France and the
+Netherlands, and presently Visigothic and Lombard and Gothic
+kingdoms were in existence.
+
+The Moslim when they crossed the Pyrenees in 720 found this
+Frankish kingdom under the practical rule of Charles Martel, the
+Mayor of the Palace of a degenerate descendant of Clovis, and
+experienced the decisive defeat of Poitiers (732) at his hands.
+This Charles Martel was practically overlord of Europe north of
+the Alps from the Pyrenees to Hungary.  He ruled over a multitude
+of subordinate lords speaking French-Latin, and High and Low
+German languages.  His son Pepin extinguished the last descendants
+of Clovis and took the kingly state and title.  His grandson
+Charlemagne, who began to reign in 768, found himself lord of a
+realm so large that he could think of reviving the title of Latin
+Emperor.  He conquered North Italy and made himself master of
+Rome.
+
+Approaching the story of Europe as we do from the wider horizons
+of a world history we can see much more distinctly than the mere
+nationalist historian how cramping and disastrous this tradition
+of the Latin Roman Empire was.  A narrow intense struggle for this
+phantom predominance was to consume European energy for more than
+a thousand years.  Through all that period it is possible to trace
+certain unquenchable antagonisms; they run through the wits of
+Europe like the obsessions of a demented mind.  One driving force
+was this ambition of successful rulers, which Charlemagne (Charles
+the Great) embodied, to become Caesar.  The realm of Charlemagne
+consisted of a complex of feudal German states at {260} various
+stages of barbarism.  West of the Rhine, most of these German
+peoples had learnt to speak various Latinized dialects which fused
+at last to form French.  East of the Rhine, the racially similar
+German peoples did not lose their German speech.  On account of
+this, communication was difficult between these two groups of
+barbarian conquerors and a split easily brought about.  The split
+was made the more easy by the fact that the Frankish usage made it
+seem natural to divide the empire of Charlemagne among his sons at
+his death.  So one aspect of the history of Europe from the days
+of Charlemagne onwards is a history of first this monarch and his
+family and then that, struggling to a precarious headship of the
+kings, princes, dukes, bishops and cities of Europe, while a
+steadily deepening antagonism between the French and German
+speaking elements develops in the medley.  There was a formality
+of election for each emperor; and the climax of his ambition was
+to struggle to the possession of that worn-out, misplaced capital
+Rome and to a coronation there.
+
+[Map: Area more or less under Frankish dominion in the time of
+Charles Martel]
+
+{261}
+
+The next factor in the European political disorder was the resolve
+of the Church at Rome to make no temporal prince but the Pope of
+Rome himself emperor in effect.  He was already pontifex maximus;
+for all practical purposes he held the decaying city; if he had no
+armies he had at least a vast propaganda organization in his
+priests throughout the whole Latin world; if he had little power
+over men's bodies he held the keys of heaven and hell in their
+imaginations and could exercise much influence upon their souls.
+So throughout the middle ages while one prince manoeuvred against
+another first for equality, then for ascendancy, and at last for
+the supreme prize, the Pope of Rome, sometimes boldly, sometimes
+craftily, sometimes feebly--for the Popes were a succession of
+oldish men and the average reign of a Pope was not more than two
+years--manoeuvred for the submission of all the princes to himself
+as the ultimate overlord of Christendom.
+
+But these antagonisms of prince against prince and of Emperor
+against Pope do not by any means exhaust the factors of the
+European confusion.  There was still an Emperor in Constantinople
+speaking Greek and claiming the allegiance of all Europe.  When
+Charlemagne sought to revive the empire, it was merely the Latin
+end of the empire he revived.  It was natural that a sense of
+rivalry between Latin Empire and Greek Empire should develop very
+readily.  And still more readily did the rivalry of
+Greek-speaking Christianity and the newer Latin-speaking version
+develop.  The Pope of Rome claimed to be the successor of St.
+Peter, the chief of the apostles of Christ, and the head of the
+Christian community everywhere.  Neither the emperor nor the
+patriarch in Constantinople were disposed to acknowledge this
+claim.  A dispute about a fine point in the doctrine of the Holy
+Trinity consummated a long series of dissensions in a final
+rupture in 1054.  The Latin Church and the Greek Church became and
+remained thereafter distinct and frankly antagonistic.  This
+antagonism must be added to the others in our estimate of the
+conflicts that wasted Latin Christendom in the middle ages.
+
+Upon this divided world of Christendom rained the blows of three
+sets of antagonists.  About the Baltic and North Seas remained a
+series of Nordic tribes who were only very slowly and reluctantly
+{263} Christianized; these were the Northmen.  They had taken to
+the sea and piracy, and were raiding all the Christian coasts down
+to Spain.  They had pushed up the Russian rivers to the desolate
+central lands and brought their shipping over into the
+south-flowing rivers.  They had come out upon the Caspian and Black
+Seas as pirates also.  They set up principalities in Russia; they
+were the first people to be called Russians.  These Northmen
+Russians came near to taking Constantinople.  England in the early
+ninth century was a Christianized Low German country under a king,
+Egbert, a protege and pupil of Charlemagne.  The Northmen wrested
+half the kingdom from his successor Alfred the Great (886), and
+finally under Canute (1016) made themselves masters of the whole
+land.  Under Rolph the Ganger (912) another band of Northmen
+conquered the north of France, which became Normandy.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{262}
+
+[Illustration: STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE IN FRONT OF NOTRE DAME,
+PARIS]
+
+====================================================================
+
+Canute ruled not only over England but over Norway and Denmark,
+but his brief empire fell to pieces at his death through that
+political weakness of the barbaric peoples--division among a
+ruler's sons.  It is interesting to speculate what might have
+happened if this temporary union of the Northmen had endured.
+They were a race of astonishing boldness and energy.  They sailed
+in their galleys even to Iceland and Greenland.  They were the
+first Europeans to land on American soil.  Later on Norman
+adventurers were to recover Sicily from the Saracens and sack
+Rome.  It is a fascinating thing to imagine what a great northern
+sea-faring power might have grown out of Canute's kingdom,
+reaching from America to Russia.
+
+To the east of the Germans and Latinized Europeans was a medley of
+Slav tribes and Turkish peoples.  Prominent among these were the
+Magyars or Hungarians who were coming westward throughout the
+eighth and ninth centuries.  Charlemagne held them for a time, but
+after his death they established themselves in what is now
+Hungary; and after the fashion of their kindred predecessors, the
+Huns, raided every summer into the settled parts of Europe.  In
+938 they went through Germany into France, crossed the Alps into
+North Italy, and so came home, burning, robbing and destroying.
+
+Finally pounding away from the south at the vestiges of the {264}
+Roman Empire were the Saracens.  They had made themselves largely
+masters of the sea; their only formidable adversaries upon the
+water were the Northmen, the Russian Northmen out of the Black Sea
+and the Northmen of the west.
+
+[Map: Europe at the death of Charlemagne--814]
+
+Hemmed in by these more vigorous and aggressive peoples, amidst
+forces they did not understand and dangers they could not
+estimate, Charlemagne and after him a series of other ambitious
+spirits took up the futile drama of restoring the Western Empire
+under the name of the Holy Roman Empire.  From the time of
+Charlemagne onward this idea obsessed the political life of
+Western Europe, while in the East the Greek half of the Roman
+power decayed and dwindled until at last nothing remained of it at
+all but the corrupt trading city of Constantinople and a few miles
+of territory about it.  Politically the continent of Europe
+remained traditional and uncreative from the time of Charlemagne
+onward for a thousand years.
+
+{265}
+
+The name of Charlemagne looms large in European history but his
+personality is but indistinctly seen.  He could not read nor
+write, but he had a considerable respect for learning; he liked to
+be read aloud to at meals and he had a weakness for theological
+discussion.  At his winter quarters at
+Aix-la-Chapelle or Mayence he gathered about him a number of
+learned men and picked up much from their conversation.  In the
+summer he made war, against the Spanish Saracens, against the
+Slavs and Magyars, against the Saxons, and other still heathen
+German tribes.  It is doubtful whether the idea of becoming Caesar
+in succession to Romulus Augustulus occurred to him before his
+acquisition of North Italy, or whether it was suggested to him by
+Pope Leo III, who was anxious to make the Latin Church independent
+of Constantinople.
+
+There were the most extraordinary manoeuvres at Rome between the
+Pope and the prospective emperor in order to make it appear or not
+appear as if the Pope gave him the imperial crown.  The Pope
+succeeded in crowning his visitor and conqueror by surprise in St.
+Peter's on Christmas Day 800 A.D.  He produced a crown, put it on
+the head of Charlemagne and hailed him Caesar and Augustus.  There
+was great applause among the people.  Charlemagne was by no means
+pleased at the way in which the thing was done, it rankled in his
+mind as a defeat; and he left the most careful instructions to his
+son that he was not to let the Pope crown him emperor; he was to
+seize the crown into his own hands and put it on his own head
+himself.  So at the very outset of this imperial revival we see
+beginning the age-long dispute of Pope and Emperor for priority.
+But Louis the Pious, the son of Charlemagne, disregarded his
+father's instructions and was entirely submissive to the Pope.
+
+The empire of Charlemagne fell apart at the death of Louis the
+Pious and the split between the French-speaking Franks and the
+German-speaking Franks widened.  The next emperor to arise was
+Otto, the son of a certain Henry the Fowler, a Saxon, who had been
+elected King of Germany by an assembly of German princes and
+prelates in 919.  Otto descended upon Rome and was crowned emperor
+there in 962.  This Saxon line came to an end early in the
+eleventh century and gave place to other German rulers.  The
+feudal princes and nobles to the west who spoke various French
+dialects {266} did not fall under the sway of these German
+emperors after the Carlovingian line, the line that is descended
+from Charlemagne, had come to an end, and no part of Britain ever
+came into the Holy Roman Empire.  The Duke of Normandy, the King
+of France and a number of lesser feudal rulers remained outside.
+In 987 the Kingdom of France passed out of the possession of the
+Carlovingian line into the hands of Hugh Capet, whose descendants
+were still reigning in the eighteenth century.  At the time of
+Hugh Capet the King of France ruled only a comparatively small
+territory round Paris.
+
+In 1066 England was attacked almost simultaneously by an invasion
+of the Norwegian Northmen under King Harold Hardrada and by the
+Latinized Northmen under the Duke of Normandy.  Harold King of
+England defeated the former at the battle of Stamford Bridge, and
+was defeated by the latter at Hastings.  England was conquered by
+the Normans, and so cut off from Scandinavian, Teutonic and
+Russian affairs, and brought into the most intimate relations and
+conflicts with the French.  For the next four centuries the
+English were entangled in the conflicts of the French feudal
+princes and wasted upon the fields of France.
+
+
+
+
+{267}
+
+XLVI
+
+THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION
+
+
+It is interesting to note that Charlemagne corresponded with the
+Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid, the Haroun-al-Raschid of the _Arabian
+Nights_.  It is recorded that Haroun-al-Raschid sent ambassadors
+from Bagdad--which had now replaced Damascus as the Moslem
+capital--with a splendid tent, a water clock, an elephant and the
+keys of the Holy Sepulchre.  This latter present was admirably
+calculated to set the Byzantine Empire and this new Holy Roman
+Empire by the ears as to which was the proper protector of the
+Christians in Jerusalem.
+
+These presents remind us that while Europe in the ninth century
+was still a weltering disorder of war and pillage, there
+flourished a great Arab Empire in Egypt and Mesopotamia, far more
+civilized than anything Europe could show.  Here literature and
+science still lived; the arts flourished, and the mind of man
+could move without fear or superstition.  And even in Spain and
+North Africa where the Saracenic dominions were falling into
+political confusion there was a vigorous intellectual life.
+Aristotle was read and discussed by these Jews and Arabs during
+these centuries of European darkness.  They guarded the neglected
+seeds of science and philosophy.
+
+North-east of the Caliph's dominions was a number of Turkish
+tribes.  They had been converted to Islam, and they held the faith
+much more simply and fiercely than the actively intellectual Arabs
+and Persians to the south.  In the tenth century the Turks were
+growing strong and vigorous while the Arab power was divided and
+decaying.  The relations of the Turks to the Empire of the
+Caliphate became very similar to the relations of the Medes to the
+last Babylonian Empire fourteen centuries before.  In the eleventh
+century a group of Turkish tribes, the Seljuk Turks, came down
+into Mesopotamia and made the Caliph their nominal ruler but
+really their {268} captive and tool.  They conquered Armenia.
+Then they struck at the remnants of the Byzantine power in Asia
+Minor.  In 1071 the Byzantine army was utterly smashed at the
+battle of Melasgird, and the Turks swept forward until not a trace
+of Byzantine rule remained in Asia.  They took the fortress of
+Nicaea over against Constantinople, and prepared to attempt that
+city.
+
+The Byzantine emperor, Michael VII, was overcome with terror.  He
+was already heavily engaged in warfare with a band of Norman
+adventurers who had seized Durazzo, and with a fierce Turkish
+people, the Petschenegs, who were raiding over the Danube.  In his
+extremity he sought help where he could, and it is notable that he
+did not appeal to the western emperor but to the Pope of Rome as
+the head of Latin Christendom.  He wrote to Pope Gregory VII, and
+his successor Alexius Comnenus wrote still more urgently to Urban
+II.
+
+[Illustration: CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRAL]
+
+This was not a quarter of a century from the rupture of the Latin
+and Greek churches.  That controversy was still vividly alive in
+men's minds, and this disaster to Byzantium must have presented
+itself to the Pope as a supreme opportunity for reasserting the
+supremacy of the Latin Church over the dissentient Greeks.
+Moreover this occasion gave the Pope a chance to deal with two
+other matters that troubled western Christendom very greatly.  One
+was the custom of "private war" which disordered social life, and
+the other was the superabundant fighting energy of the Low Germans
+and Christianized Northmen and particularly of the Franks and
+Normans.  A religious war, the Crusade, the War of the Cross, was
+{269} preached against the Turkish captors of Jerusalem, and a
+truce to all warfare amongst Christians (1095).  The declared
+object of this war was the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre from the
+unbelievers.  A man called Peter the Hermit carried on a popular
+propaganda throughout France and Germany on broadly democratic
+lines.  He went clad in a coarse garment, barefooted on an ass, he
+carried a huge cross and harangued the crowd in street or
+market-place or church.  He denounced the cruelties practised upon
+the Christian pilgrims by the Turks, and the shame of the Holy
+Sepulchre being in any but Christian hands.  The fruits of
+centuries of Christian teaching became apparent in the response.
+A great wave of enthusiasm swept the western world, and popular
+Christendom discovered itself.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF CAIRO]
+
+Such a widespread uprising of the common people in relation to a
+single idea as now occurred was a new thing in the history of our
+race.  There is nothing to parallel it in the previous history of
+the {270} Roman Empire or of India or China.  On a smaller scale,
+however, there had been similar movements among the Jewish people
+after their liberation from the Babylonian captivity, and later on
+Islam was to display a parallel susceptibility to collective
+feeling.  Such movements were certainly connected with the new
+spirit that had come into life with the development of the
+missionary-teaching religions.  The Hebrew prophets, Jesus and his
+disciples, Mani, Muhammad, were all exhorters of men's individual
+souls.  They brought the personal conscience face to face with
+God.  Before that time religion had been much more a business of
+fetish, of pseudoscience, than of conscience.  The old kind of
+religion turned upon temple, initiated priest and mystical
+sacrifice, and ruled the common man like a slave by fear.  The new
+kind of religion made a man of him.
+
+The preaching of the First Crusade was the first stirring of the
+common people in European history.  It may be too much to call it
+the birth of modern democracy, but certainly at that time modern
+democracy stirred.  Before very long we shall find it stirring
+again, and raising the most disturbing social and religious
+questions.
+
+Certainly this first stirring of democracy ended very pitifully
+and lamentably.  Considerable bodies of common people, crowds
+rather than armies, set out eastward from France and the Rhineland
+and Central Europe without waiting for leaders or proper equipment
+to rescue the Holy Sepulchre.  This was the "people's crusade."
+Two great mobs blundered into Hungary, mistook the recently
+converted Magyars for pagans, committed atrocities and were
+massacred.  A third multitude with a similarly confused mind,
+after a great pogrom of the Jews in the Rhineland, marched
+eastward, and was also destroyed in Hungary.  Two other huge
+crowds, under the leadership of Peter the Hermit himself, reached
+Constantinople, crossed the Bosphorus, and were massacred rather
+than defeated by the Seljuk Turks.  So began and ended this first
+movement of the European people, as people.
+
+Next year (1097) the real fighting forces crossed the Bosphorus.
+Essentially they were Norman in leadership and spirit.  They
+stormed Nicaea, marched by much the same route as Alexander had
+followed fourteen centuries before, to Antioch.  The siege of
+Antioch {271} kept them a year, and in June 1099 they invested
+Jerusalem.  It was stormed after a month's siege.  The slaughter
+was terrible.  Men riding on horseback were splashed by the blood
+in the streets.  At nightfall on July 15th the Crusaders had
+fought their way into the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and
+overcome all opposition there: blood-stained, weary and "sobbing
+from excess of joy" they knelt down in prayer.
+
+[Illustration: THE HORSES OF S. MARK, VENICE]
+
+Immediately the hostility of Latin and Greek broke out again.  The
+Crusaders were the servants of the Latin Church, and the Greek
+patriarch of Jerusalem found himself in a far worse case under the
+triumphant Latins than under the Turks.  The Crusaders discovered
+themselves between Byzantine and Turk and fighting both.  Much of
+Asia Minor was recovered by the Byzantine Empire, and the Latin
+princes were left, a buffer between Turk and Greek, with Jerusalem
+and a few small principalities, of which Edessa was one of the
+chief, in Syria.  Their grip even on these possessions was
+precarious, and in 1144 Edessa fell to the Moslim, leading to an
+ineffective Second Crusade, which failed to recover Edessa but
+saved Antioch from a similar fate.
+
+{272}
+
+In 1169 the forces of Islam were rallied under a Kurdish
+adventurer named Saladin who had made himself master of Egypt.  He
+preached a Holy War against the Christians, recaptured Jerusalem
+in 1187, and so provoked the Third Crusade.  This failed to
+recover Jerusalem.  In the Fourth Crusade (1202-4) the Latin
+Church turned frankly upon the Greek Empire, and there was not
+even a pretence of fighting the Turks.  It started from Venice and
+in 1204 it stormed Constantinople.  The great rising trading city
+of Venice was the leader in this adventure, and most of the coasts
+and islands of the Byzantine Empire were annexed by the Venetians.
+A "Latin" emperor (Baldwin of Flanders) was set up in
+Constantinople and the Latin and Greek Church were declared to be
+reunited.  The Latin emperors ruled in Constantinople from 1204 to
+1261 when the Greek world shook itself free again from Roman
+predominance.
+
+The twelfth century then and the opening of the thirteenth was the
+age of papal ascendancy just as the eleventh was the age of the
+ascendancy of the Seljuk Turks and the tenth the age of the
+Northmen.  A united Christendom under the rule of the Pope came
+nearer to being a working reality than it ever was before or after
+that time.
+
+In those centuries a simple Christian faith was real and
+widespread over great areas of Europe.  Rome itself had passed
+through some dark and discreditable phases; few writers can be
+found to excuse the lives of Popes John XI and John XII in the
+tenth century; they were abominable creatures; but the heart and
+body of Latin Christendom had remained earnest and simple; the
+generality of the common priests and monks and nuns had lived
+exemplary and faithful lives.  Upon the wealth of confidence such
+lives created rested the power of the church.  Among the great
+Popes of the past had been Gregory the Great, Gregory I (590-604)
+and Leo III (795-816) who invited Charlemagne to be Caesar and
+crowned him in spite of himself.  Towards the close of the
+eleventh century there arose a great clerical statesman,
+Hildebrand, who ended his life as Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085).
+Next but one after him came Urban II (1087-1099), the Pope of the
+First Crusade.  These two were the founders of this period of
+papal greatness during which the Popes lorded it over the
+Emperors.  From Bulgaria to Ireland and {274} from Norway to
+Sicily and Jerusalem the Pope was supreme.  Gregory VII obliged
+the Emperor Henry IV to come in penitence to him at Canossa and to
+await forgiveness for three days and nights in the courtyard of
+the castle, clad in sackcloth and barefooted to the snow.  In 1176
+at Venice the Emperor Frederick (Frederick Barbarossa), knelt to
+Pope Alexander III and swore fealty to him.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{273}
+
+[Illustration: A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA]
+
+====================================================================
+
+The great power of the church in the beginning of the eleventh
+century lay in the wills and consciences of men.  It failed to
+retain the moral prestige on which its power was based.  In the
+opening decades of the fourteenth century it was discovered that
+the power of the Pope had evaporated.  What was it that destroyed
+the naive confidence of the common people of Christendom in the
+church so that they would no longer rally to its appeal and serve
+its purposes?
+
+The first trouble was certainly the accumulation of wealth by the
+church.  The church never died, and there was a frequent
+disposition on the part of dying childless people to leave lands
+to the church.  Penitent sinners were exhorted to do so.
+Accordingly in many European countries as much as a fourth of the
+land became church property.  The appetite for property grows with
+what it feeds upon.  Already in the thirteenth century it was
+being said everywhere that the priests were not good men, that
+they were always hunting for money and legacies.
+
+The kings and princes disliked this alienation of property very
+greatly.  In the place of feudal lords capable of military
+support, they found their land supporting abbeys and monks and
+nuns.  And these lands were really under foreign dominion.  Even
+before the time of Pope Gregory VII there had been a struggle
+between the princes and the papacy over the question of
+"investitures," the question that is of who should appoint the
+bishops.  If that power rested with the Pope and not the King,
+then the latter lost control not only of the consciences of his
+subjects but of a considerable part of his dominions.  For also
+the clergy claimed exemption from taxation.  They paid their taxes
+to Rome.  And not only that, but the church also claimed the right
+to levy a tax of one-tenth upon the property of the layman in
+addition to the taxes he paid his prince.
+
+{275}
+
+The history of nearly every country in Latin Christendom tells of
+the same phase in the eleventh century, a phase of struggle
+between monarch and Pope on the issue of investitures and
+generally it tells of a victory for the Pope.  He claimed to be
+able to excommunicate the prince, to absolve his subjects from
+their allegiance to him, to recognize a successor.  He claimed to
+be able to put a nation under an interdict, and then nearly all
+priestly functions ceased except the sacraments of baptism,
+confirmation and penance; the priests could neither hold the
+ordinary services, marry people, nor bury the dead.  With these
+two weapons it was possible for the twelfth century Popes to curb
+the most recalcitrant princes and overawe the most restive
+peoples.  These were enormous powers, and enormous powers are only
+to be used on extraordinary occasions.  The Popes used them at
+last with a frequency that staled their effect.  Within thirty
+years at the end of the twelfth century we find Scotland, France
+and England in turn under an interdict.  And also the Popes could
+not resist the temptation to preach crusades against offending
+princes--until the crusading spirit was extinct.
+
+It is possible that if the Church of Rome had struggled simply
+against the princes and had had a care to keep its hold upon the
+general mind, it might have achieved a permanent dominion over all
+Christendom.  But the high claims of the Pope were reflected as
+arrogance in the conduct of the clergy.  Before the eleventh
+century the Roman priests could marry; they had close ties with
+the people among whom they lived; they were indeed a part of the
+people.  Gregory VII made them celibates; he cut the priests off
+from too great an intimacy with the laymen in order to bind them
+more closely to Rome, but indeed he opened a fissure between the
+church and the commonalty.  The church had its own law courts.
+Cases involving not merely priests but monks, students, crusaders,
+widows, orphans and the helpless were reserved for the clerical
+courts, and so were all matters relating to wills, marriages and
+oaths and all cases of sorcery, heresy and blasphemy.  Whenever
+the layman found himself in conflict with the priest he had to go
+to a clerical court.  The obligations of peace and war fell upon
+his shoulders alone and left the priest free.  It is no great
+wonder that jealousy and hatred of the priests grew up in the
+Christian world.
+
+{276}
+
+Never did Rome seem to realize that its power was in the
+consciences of common men.  It fought against religious
+enthusiasm, which should have been its ally, and it forced
+doctrinal orthodoxy upon honest doubt and aberrant opinion.  When
+the church interfered in matters of morality it had the common man
+with it, but not when it interfered in matters of doctrine.  When
+in the south of France Waldo taught a return to the simplicity of
+Jesus in faith and life, Innocent III preached a crusade against
+the Waldenses, Waldo's followers, and permitted them to be
+suppressed with fire, sword, rape and the most abominable
+cruelties.  When again St. Francis of Assisi
+(1181-1226) taught the imitation of Christ and a life of poverty
+and service, his followers, the Franciscans, were persecuted,
+scourged, imprisoned and dispersed.  In 1318 four of them were
+burnt alive at Marseilles.  On the other hand the fiercely
+orthodox order of the Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic
+(1170-1221) was strongly supported by Innocent III, who with its
+assistance set up an organization, the Inquisition, for the
+hunting of heresy and the affliction of free thought.
+
+So it was that the church by excessive claims, by unrighteous
+privileges, and by an irrational intolerance destroyed that free
+faith of the common man which was the final source of all its
+power.  The story of its decline tells of no adequate foemen from
+without but continually of decay from within.
+
+
+
+
+{277}
+
+XLVII
+
+RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM
+
+
+One very great weakness of the Roman Church in its struggle to
+secure the headship of all Christendom was the manner in which the
+Pope was chosen.
+
+If indeed the papacy was to achieve its manifest ambition and
+establish one rule and one peace throughout Christendom, then it
+was vitally necessary that it should have a strong, steady and
+continuous direction.  In those great days of its opportunity it
+needed before all things that the Popes when they took office
+should be able men in the prime of life, that each should have his
+successor-designate with whom he could discuss the policy of the
+church, and that the forms and processes of election should be
+clear, definite, unalterable and unassailable.  Unhappily none of
+these things obtained.  It was not even clear who could vote in
+the election of a Pope, nor whether the Byzantine or Holy Roman
+Emperor had a voice in the matter.  That very great papal
+statesman Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII, 1073-1085) did much to
+regularize the election.  He confined the votes to the Roman
+cardinals and he reduced the Emperor's share to a formula of
+assent conceded to him by the church, but he made no provision for
+a successor-designate and he left it possible for the disputes of
+the cardinals to keep the See vacant, as in some cases it was kept
+vacant, for a year or more.
+
+The consequences of this want of firm definition are to be seen in
+the whole history of the papacy up to the sixteenth century.  From
+quite early times onward there were disputed elections and two or
+more men each claiming to be Pope.  The church would then be
+subjected to the indignity of going to the Emperor or some other
+outside arbiter to settle the dispute.  And the career of everyone
+of the great Popes ended in a note of interrogation.  At his death
+the church might be left headless and as ineffective as a
+decapitated {279} body.  Or he might be replaced by some old rival
+eager only to discredit and undo his work.  Or some enfeebled old
+man tottering on the brink of the grave might succeed him.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{278}
+
+[Illustration: MILAN CATHEDRAL]
+
+====================================================================
+
+It was inevitable that this peculiar weakness of the papal
+organization should attract the interference of the various German
+princes, the French King, and the Norman and French Kings who
+ruled in England; that they should all try to influence the
+elections, and have a Pope in their own interest established in
+the Lateran Palace at Rome.  And the more powerful and important
+the Pope became in European affairs, the more urgent did these
+interventions become.  Under the circumstances it is no great
+wonder that many of the Popes were weak and futile.  The
+astonishing thing is that many of them were able and courageous
+men.
+
+One of the most vigorous and interesting of the Popes of this
+great period was Innocent III (1198-1216) who was so fortunate as
+to become Pope before he was thirty-eight.  He and his successors
+were pitted against an even more interesting personality, the
+Emperor Frederick II; _Stupor mundi_ he was called, the Wonder of
+the world.  The struggle of this monarch against Rome is a turning
+place in history.  In the end Rome defeated him and destroyed his
+dynasty, but he left the prestige of the church and Pope so badly
+wounded that its wounds festered and led to its decay.
+
+Frederick was the son of the Emperor Henry VI and his mother was
+the daughter of Roger I, the Norman King of Sicily.  He inherited
+this kingdom in 1198 when he was a child of four years.  Innocent
+III had been made his guardian.  Sicily in those days had been but
+recently conquered by the Normans; the Court was half oriental and
+full of highly educated Arabs; and some of these were associated
+in the education of the young king.  No doubt they were at some
+pains to make their point of view clear to him.  He got a Moslem
+view of Christianity as well as a Christian view of Islam, and the
+unhappy result of this double system of instruction was a view,
+exceptional in that age of faith, that all religions were
+impostures.  He talked freely on the subject; his heresies and
+blasphemies are on record.
+
+As the young man grew up he found himself in conflict with his
+guardian.  Innocent III wanted altogether too much from his ward.
+{280} When the opportunity came for Frederick to succeed as
+Emperor, the Pope intervened with conditions.  Frederick must
+promise to put down heresy in Germany with a strong hand. Moreover
+he must relinquish his crown in Sicily and South Italy, because
+otherwise he would be too strong for the Pope.  And the German
+clergy were to be freed from all taxation.  Frederick agreed but
+with no intention of keeping his word.  The Pope had already
+induced the French King to make war upon his own subjects in
+France, the cruel and bloody crusade against the Waldenses; he
+wanted Frederick to do the same thing in Germany.  But Frederick
+being far more of a heretic than any of the simple pietists who
+had incurred the Pope's animosity, lacked the crusading impulse.
+And when Innocent urged him to crusade against the Moslim and
+recover Jerusalem he was equally ready to promise and equally
+slack in his performance.
+
+[Illustration: A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS]
+
+Having secured the imperial crown Frederick II stayed in Sicily,
+which he greatly preferred to Germany as a residence, and did
+nothing to redeem any of his promises to Innocent III, who died
+baffled in 1216.
+
+{281}
+
+Honorius III, who succeeded Innocent, could do no better with
+Frederick, and Gregory IX (1227) came to the papal throne
+evidently resolved to settle accounts with this young man at any
+cost.  He excommunicated him.  Frederick II was denied all the
+comforts of religion.  In the half-Arab Court of Sicily this
+produced singularly little discomfort.  And also the Pope
+addressed a public letter to the Emperor reciting his vices (which
+were indisputable), his heresies, and his general misconduct.  To
+this Frederick replied in a document of diabolical ability.  It
+was addressed to all the princes of Europe, and it made the first
+clear statement of the issue between the Pope and the princes.  He
+made a shattering attack upon the manifest ambition of the Pope to
+become the absolute ruler of all Europe.  He suggested a union of
+princes against this usurpation.   He directed the attention of
+the princes specifically to the wealth of the church.
+
+Having fired off this deadly missile Frederick resolved to perform
+his twelve-year-old promise and go upon a crusade.  This was the
+Sixth Crusade (1228).  It was as a crusade, farcical.  Frederick
+II went to Egypt and met and discussed affairs with the Sultan.
+These two gentlemen, both of sceptical opinions, exchanged
+congenial views, made a commercial convention to their mutual
+advantage, and agreed to transfer Jerusalem to Frederick.  This
+indeed was a new sort of crusade, a crusade by private treaty.
+Here was no blood splashing the conqueror, no "weeping with excess
+of joy."  As this astonishing crusader was an excommunicated man,
+he had to be content with a purely secular coronation as King of
+Jerusalem, taking the crown from the altar with his own hand--for
+all the clergy were bound to shun him.  He then returned to Italy,
+chased the papal armies which had invaded his dominions back to
+their own territories, and obliged the Pope to grant him
+absolution from his excommunication.  So a prince might treat the
+Pope in the thirteenth century, and there was now no storm of
+popular indignation to avenge him.  Those days were past.
+
+In 1239 Gregory IX resumed his struggle with Frederick,
+excommunicated him for a second time, and renewed that warfare of
+public abuse in which the papacy had already suffered severely.
+The controversy was revived after Gregory IX was dead, when
+Innocent IV {282} was Pope; and again a devastating letter, which
+men were bound to remember, was written by Frederick against the
+church.  He denounced the pride and irreligion of the clergy, and
+ascribed all the corruptions of the time to their pride and
+wealth.  He proposed to his fellow princes a general confiscation
+of church property--for the good of the church.  It was a
+suggestion that never afterwards left the imagination of the
+European princes.
+
+We will not go on to tell of his last years.  The particular
+events of his life are far less significant than its general
+atmosphere.  It is possible to piece together something of his
+court life in Sicily.  He was luxurious in his way of living, and
+fond of beautiful things.  He is described as licentious.  But it
+is clear that he was a man of very effectual curiosity and
+inquiry.  He gathered Jewish and Moslem as well as Christian
+philosophers at his court, and he did much to irrigate the Italian
+mind with Saracenic influences.  Through him the Arabic numerals
+and algebra were introduced to Christian students, and among other
+philosophers at his court was Michael Scott, who translated
+portions of Aristotle and the commentaries thereon of the great
+Arab philosopher Averroes (of Cordoba).  In 1224 Frederick founded
+the University of Naples, and he enlarged and enriched the great
+medical school at Salerno University.  He also founded a
+zoological garden.  He left a book on hawking, which shows him to
+have been an acute observer of the habits of birds, and he was one
+of the first Italians to write Italian verse.  Italian poetry was
+indeed born at his court.  He has been called by an able writer,
+"the first of the moderns," and the phrase expresses aptly the
+unprejudiced detachment of his intellectual side.
+
+A still more striking intimation of the decay of the living and
+sustaining forces of the papacy appeared when presently the Popes
+came into conflict with the growing power of the French King.
+During the lifetime of the Emperor Frederick II, Germany fell into
+disunion, and the French King began to play the role of guard,
+supporter and rival to the Pope that had hitherto fallen to the
+Hohenstaufen Emperors.  A series of Popes pursued the policy of
+supporting the French monarchs.  French princes were established
+in the kingdom of Sicily and Naples, with the support and approval
+of Rome, and the French Kings saw before them the possibility of
+{283} restoring and ruling the Empire of Charlemagne.  When,
+however, the German interregnum after the death of Frederick II,
+the last of the Hohenstaufens, came to all end and Rudolf of
+Habsburg was elected first Habsburg Emperor (1273), the policy of
+Rome began to fluctuate between France and Germany, veering about
+with the sympathies of each successive Pope.  In the East in 1261
+the Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latin emperors, and
+the founder of the new Greek dynasty, Michael Palaeologus, Michael
+VIII, after some unreal tentatives of reconciliation with the
+Pope, broke away from the Roman communion altogether, and with
+that, and the fall of the Latin kingdoms in Asia, the eastward
+ascendancy of the Popes came to an end.
+
+[Illustration: COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK
+OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+In 1294 Boniface VIII became Pope.  He was an Italian, hostile to
+the French, and full of a sense of the great traditions and
+mission of Rome.  For a time he carried things with a high hand.
+In 1300 he held a jubilee, and a vast multitude of pilgrims
+assembled in Rome.  "So great was the influx of money into the
+papal treasury, that two assistants were kept busy with the rakes
+collecting the {284} offerings that were deposited at the tomb of
+St. Peter."  [5]  But this festival was a delusive triumph.
+Boniface came into conflict with the French King in 1302, and in
+1303, as he was about to pronounce sentence of excommunication
+against that  monarch, he was surprised and arrested in his own
+ancestral palace at Anagni, by Guillaume de Nogaret.  This agent
+from the French King forced an entrance into the palace, made his
+way into the bedroom of the frightened Pope--he was lying in bed
+with a cross in his hands--and heaped threats and insults upon
+him.  The Pope was liberated a day or so later by the townspeople,
+and returned to Rome; but there he was seized upon and again made
+prisoner by the Orsini family, and in a few weeks' time the
+shocked and disillusioned old man died a prisoner in their hands.
+
+[Illustration: COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK
+OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+The people of Anagni did resent the first outrage, and rose
+against Nogaret to liberate Boniface, but then Anagni was the
+Pope's native town.  The important point to note is that the
+French King {285} in this rough treatment of the head of
+Christendom was acting with the full approval of his people; he
+had summoned a council of the Three Estates of France (lords,
+church and commons) and gained their consent before proceeding to
+extremities.  Neither in Italy, Germany nor England was there the
+slightest general manifestation of disapproval at this free
+handling of the sovereign pontiff.  The idea of Christendom had
+decayed until its power over the minds of men had gone.
+
+Throughout the fourteenth century the papacy did nothing to
+recover its moral sway.  The next Pope elected, Clement V, was a
+Frenchman, the choice of King Philip of France.  He never came to
+Rome.  He set up his court in the town of Avignon, which then
+belonged not to France but to the papal See, though embedded in
+French territory, and there his successors remained until 1377,
+when Pope Gregory XI returned to the Vatican palace in Rome.  But
+Gregory XI did not take the sympathies of the whole church with
+him.  Many of the cardinals were of French origin and their habits
+and associations were rooted deep at Avignon.  When in 1378
+Gregory XI died, and an Italian, Urban VI, was elected, these
+dissentient cardinals declared the election invalid, and elected
+another Pope, the anti-Pope, Clement VII.  This split is called
+the Great Schism.  The Popes remained in Rome, and all the
+anti-French powers, the Emperor, the King of England, Hungary,
+Poland and the North of Europe were loyal to them.  The
+anti-Popes, on the other hand, continued in Avignon, and were
+supported by the King of France, his ally the King of Scotland,
+Spain, Portugal and various German princes.  Each Pope
+excommunicated and cursed the adherents of his rival (1378-1417).
+
+Is it any wonder that presently all over Europe people began to
+think for themselves in matters of religion?
+
+The beginnings of the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which we
+have noted in the preceding chapters, were but two among many of
+the new forces that were arising in Christendom, either to hold or
+shatter the church as its own wisdom might decide.
+Those two orders the church did assimilate and use, though with a
+little violence in the case of the former.  But other forces were
+more frankly disobedient and critical.  A century and a half later
+{286} came Wycliffe (1320-1384). He was a learned Doctor at
+Oxford.  Quite late in his life he began a series of outspoken
+criticisms of the corruption of the clergy and the unwisdom of the
+church.  He organized a number of poor priests, the Wycliffites,
+to spread his ideas throughout England; and in order that people
+should judge between the church and himself, he translated the
+Bible into English.  He was a more learned and far abler man than
+either St. Francis or St. Dominic.  He had supporters in high
+places and a great following among the people; and though Rome
+raged against him, and ordered his imprisonment, he died a free
+man.  But the black and ancient spirit that was leading the
+Catholic Church to its destruction would not let his bones rest in
+the grave.  By a decree of the Council of Constance in 1415, his
+remains were ordered to be dug up and burnt, an order which was
+carried out at the command of Pope Martin V by Bishop Fleming in
+1428.  This desecration was not the act of some isolated fanatic;
+it was the official act of the church.
+
+[5]  J. H. Robinson.
+
+
+
+
+{287}
+
+XLVIII
+
+THE MONGOL CONQUESTS
+
+
+But in the thirteenth century, while this strange and finally
+ineffectual struggle to unify Christendom under the rule of the
+Pope was going on in Europe, far more momentous events were afoot
+upon the larger stage of Asia.  A Turkish people from the country
+to the north of China rose suddenly to prominence in the world's
+affairs, and achieved such a series of conquests as has no
+parallel in history.  These were the Mongols.  At the opening of
+the thirteenth century they were a horde of nomadic horsemen,
+living very much as their predecessors, the Huns, had done,
+subsisting chiefly upon meat and mare's milk and living in tents
+of skin.  They had shaken themselves free from Chinese dominion,
+and brought a number of other Turkish tribes into a military
+confederacy.  Their central camp was at Karakorum in Mongolia.
+
+At this time China was in a state of division.  The great dynasty
+of Tang had passed into decay by the tenth century, and after a
+phase of division into warring states, three main empires, that of
+Kin in the north with Pekin as its capital and that of Sung in the
+south with a capital at Nankin, and Hsia in the centre, remain.
+In 1214 Jengis Khan, the leader of the Mongol confederates, made
+war on the Kin Empire and captured Pekin (1214).  He then turned
+westward and conquered Western Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, India
+down to Lahore, and South Russia as far as Kieff.  He died master
+of a vast empire that reached from the Pacific to the Dnieper.
+
+His successor, Ogdai Khan, continued this astonishing career of
+conquest.  His armies were organized to a very high level of
+efficiency; and they had with them a new Chinese invention,
+gunpowder, which they used in small field guns.  He completed the
+conquest of the Kin Empire and then swept his hosts right across
+Asia to Russia (1235), an altogether amazing march.  Kieff was
+{288} destroyed in 1240, and nearly all Russia became tributary to
+the Mongols.  Poland was ravaged, and a mixed army of Poles and
+Germans was annihilated at the battle of Liegnitz in Lower Silesia
+in 1241.  The Emperor Frederick II does not seem to have made any
+great efforts to stay the advancing tide.
+
+[Map: The Empire of Jengis Khan at his death (1227)]
+
+"It is only recently," says Bury in his notes to Gibbon's _Decline
+and Fall of the Roman Empire_, "that European history has begun to
+understand that the successes of the Mongol army which overran
+Poland and occupied Hungary in the spring of A.D. 1241 were won by
+consummate strategy and were not due to a mere overwhelming
+superiority of numbers.  But this fact has not yet become a matter
+of common knowledge; the vulgar opinion which represents the
+Tartars as a wild horde carrying all before them solely by their
+multitude, and galloping through Eastern Europe without a
+strategic plan, rushing at all obstacles and overcoming them by
+mere weight, still prevails. . . .
+
+"It was wonderful how punctually and effectually the arrangements
+were carried out in operations extending from the Lower Vistula to
+Transylvania.  Such a campaign was quite beyond the {289} power of
+any European army of the time, and it was beyond the vision of any
+European commander.  There was no general in Europe, from
+Frederick II downward, who was not a tyro in strategy compared to
+Subutai.  It should also be noticed that the Mongols embarked upon
+the enterprise with full knowledge of the political situation of
+Hungary and the condition of Poland--they had taken care to inform
+themselves by a well-organized system of spies; on the other hand,
+the Hungarians and the Christian powers, like childish barbarians,
+knew hardly anything about their enemies."
+
+[Map: The Ottoman Empire before 1453]
+
+But though the Mongols were victorious at Liegnitz, they did not
+continue their drive westward.  They were getting into woodlands
+and hilly country, which did not suit their tactics; and so they
+turned southward and prepared to settle in Hungary, massacring or
+assimilating the kindred Magyar, even as these had previously
+massacred and assimilated the mixed Scythians and Avars and Huns
+before them.  From the Hungarian plain they would probably have
+made raids west and south as the Hungarians had done in the ninth
+century, the Avars in the seventh and eighth and the Huns in the
+fifth.  But Ogdai died suddenly, and in 1242 there was trouble
+{290} about the succession, and recalled by this, the undefeated
+hosts of Mongols began to pour back across Hungary and Roumania
+towards the east.
+
+Thereafter the Mongols concentrated their attention upon their
+Asiatic conquests.  By the middle of the thirteenth century they
+had conquered the Sung Empire.  Mangu Khan succeeded Ogdai Khan as
+Great Khan in 1251, and made his brother Kublai Khan governor of
+China.  In 1280 Kublai Khan had been formally recognized Emperor
+of China, and so founded the Yuan dynasty which lasted until 1368.
+While the last ruins of the Sung rule were going down in China,
+another brother of Mangu, Hulagu, was conquering Persia and Syria.
+The Mongols displayed a bitter animosity to Islam at this time,
+and not only massacred the population of Bagdad when they captured
+that city, but set to work to destroy the immemorial irrigation
+system which had kept Mesopotamia incessantly prosperous and
+populous from the early days of Sumeria.  From that time until our
+own Mesopotamia has been a desert of ruins, sustaining only a
+scanty population.  Into Egypt the Mongols never penetrated; the
+Sultan of Egypt completely defeated an army of Hulagu's in
+Palestine in 1260.
+
+After that disaster the tide of Mongol victory ebbed.  The
+dominions of the Great Khan fell into a number of separate states.
+The eastern Mongols became Buddhists, like the Chinese; the
+western became Moslim.  The Chinese threw off the rule of the Yuan
+dynasty in 1368, and set up the native Ming dynasty which
+flourished from 1368 to 1644.  The Russians remained tributary to
+the Tartar hordes upon the south-east steppes until 1480, when the
+Grand Duke of Moscow repudiated his allegiance and laid the
+foundation of modern Russia.
+
+In the fourteenth century there was a brief revival of Mongol
+vigour under Timurlane, a descendant of Jengis Khan.  He
+established himself in Western Turkestan, assumed the title of
+Grand Khan in 1369, and conquered from Syria to Delhi.  He was the
+most savage and destructive of all the Mongol conquerors.  He
+established an empire of desolation that did not survive his
+death.  In 1505, however, a descendant of this Timur, an
+adventurer named Baber, got together an army with guns and swept
+down upon the {292} plains of India.  His grandson Akbar
+(1556-1605) completed his conquests, and this Mongol (or "Mogul"
+as the Arabs called it) dynasty ruled in Delhi over the greater
+part of India until the eighteenth century.
+
+=====================================================================
+
+{291}
+
+[Illustration: TARTAR HORSEMEN]
+
+====================================================================
+
+[Map: The Ottoman Empire at the death of Suleiman the Magnificent,
+1566 A.D.]
+
+One of the consequences of the first great sweep of Mongol
+conquest in the thirteenth century was to drive a certain tribe of
+Turks, the Ottoman Turks, out of Turkestan into Asia Minor.  They
+extended and consolidated their power in Asia Minor, crossed the
+Dardanelles and conquered Macedonia, Serbia and Bulgaria, until at
+last Constantinople remained like an island amongst the Ottoman
+dominions.  In 1453 the Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad II, took
+Constantinople, attacking it from the European side with a great
+number of guns.  This event caused intense excitement in Europe
+and there was talk of a crusade, but the day of the crusades was
+past.
+
+In the course of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Sultans
+conquered Bagdad, Hungary, Egypt and most of North Africa, and
+their fleet made them masters of the Mediterranean.  They very
+nearly took Vienna, and they exacted it tribute from the Emperor.
+There were but two items to offset the general ebb of Christian
+{293} dominion in the fifteenth century.  One was the restoration
+of the independence of Moscow (1480); the other was the gradual
+reconquest of Spain by the Christians. In 1492, Granada, the last
+Moslem state in the peninsula, fell to King Ferdinand of Aragon
+and his Queen Isabella of Castile.
+
+But it was not until as late as 1571 that the naval battle of
+Lepanto broke the prick of the Ottomans, and restored the
+Mediterranean waters to Christian ascendancy.
+
+
+
+
+{294}
+
+XLIX
+
+THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS
+
+
+Throughout the twelfth century there were many signs that the
+European intelligence was recovering courage and leisure, and
+preparing to take up again the intellectual enterprises of the
+first Greek scientific enquiries and such speculations as those of
+the Italian Lucretius.  The causes of this revival were many and
+complex.  The suppression of private war, the higher standards of
+comfort and security that followed the crusades, and the
+stimulation of men's minds by the experiences of these expeditions
+were no doubt necessary preliminary conditions.  Trade was
+reviving; cities were recovering ease and safety; the standard of
+education was arising in the church and spreading among laymen.
+The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were a period of growing,
+independent or quasi-independent cities; Venice, Florence, Genoa,
+Lisbon, Paris, Bruges, London, Antwerp, Hamburg, Nuremberg,
+Novgorod, Wisby and Bergen for example.  They were all trading
+cities with many travellers, and where men trade and travel they
+talk and think.  The polemics of the Popes and princes, the
+conspicuous savagery and wickedness of the persecution of
+heretics, were exciting men to doubt the authority of the church
+and question and discuss fundamental things.
+
+We have seen how the Arabs were the means of restoring Aristotle
+to Europe, and how such a prince as Frederick II acted as a
+channel through which Arabic philosophy and science played upon
+the renascent European mind.  Still more influential in the
+stirring up of men's ideas were the Jews.  Their very existence
+was a note of interrogation to the claims of the church.  And
+finally the secret, fascinating enquiries of the alchemists were
+spreading far and wide and setting men to the petty, furtive and
+yet fruitful resumption of experimental science.
+
+{295}
+
+And the stir in men's minds was by no means confined now to the
+independent and well educated.  The mind of the common man was
+awake in the world as it had never been before in all the
+experience of mankind.  In spite of priest and persecution,
+Christianity does seem to have carried a mental ferment wherever
+its teaching reached.  It established a direct relation between
+the conscience of the individual man and the God of Righteousness,
+so that now if need arose he had the courage to form his own
+judgment upon prince or prelate or creed.
+
+As early as the eleventh century philosophical discussion had
+begun again in Europe, and there were great and growing
+universities at Paris, Oxford, Bologna and other centres.  There
+medieval "schoolmen" took up again and thrashed out a series of
+questions upon the value and meaning of words that were a
+necessary preliminary to clear thinking in the scientific age that
+was to follow.  And standing by himself because of his distinctive
+genius was Roger Bacon (circa 1210 to circa 1293), a Franciscan of
+Oxford, the father of modern experimental science.  His name
+deserves a prominence in our history second only to that of
+Aristotle.
+
+His writings are one long tirade against ignorance.  He told his
+age it was ignorant, an incredibly bold thing to do.  Nowadays a
+man may tell the world it is as silly as it is solemn, that all
+its methods are still infantile and clumsy and its dogmas childish
+assumptions, without much physical danger; but these peoples of
+the middle ages when they were not actually being massacred or
+starving or dying of pestilence, were passionately convinced of
+the wisdom, the completeness and finality of their beliefs, and
+disposed to resent any reflections upon them very bitterly.  Roger
+Bacon's writings were like a flash of light in a profound
+darkness.  He combined his attack upon the ignorance of his times
+with a wealth of suggestion for the increase of knowledge.  In his
+passionate insistence upon the need of experiment and of
+collecting knowledge, the spirit of Aristotle lives again in him.
+"Experiment, experiment," that is the burthen of Roger Bacon.
+
+Yet of Aristotle himself Roger Bacon fell foul.  He fell foul of
+him because men, instead of facing facts boldly, sat in rooms and
+pored over the bad Latin translations which were then all that was
+{296} available of the master.  "If I had my way," he wrote, in
+his intemperate fashion, "I should burn all the books of
+Aristotle, for the study of them can only lead to a loss of time,
+produce error, and increase ignorance," a sentiment that Aristotle
+would probably have echoed could he have returned to a world in
+which his works were not so much read as worshipped--and that, as
+Roger Bacon showed, in these most abominable translations.
+
+[Illustration: AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS]
+
+{297}
+
+Throughout his books, a little disguised by the necessity of
+seeming to square it all with orthodoxy for fear of the prison and
+worse, Roger Bacon shouted to mankind, "Cease to be ruled by
+dogmas and authorities; _look at the world!_" Four chief sources
+of ignorance he denounced; respect for authority, custom, the
+sense of the ignorant crowd, and the vain, proud unteachableness
+of our dispositions.  Overcome but these, and a world of power
+would open to men:--
+
+"Machines for navigating are possible without rowers, so that
+great ships suited to river or ocean, guided by one man, may be
+borne with greater speed than if they were full of men.  Likewise
+cars may be made so that without a draught animal they may be
+moved _cum impetu inoestimable_, as we deem the scythed chariots
+to have been from which antiquity fought.  And flying machines are
+possible, so that a man may sit in the middle turning some device
+by which artificial wings may beat the air in the manner of a
+flying bird."
+
+So Roger Bacon wrote, but three more centuries were to elapse
+before men began any systematic attempts to explore the hidden
+stores of power and interest he realized so clearly existed
+beneath the dull surface of human affairs.
+
+But the Saracenic world not only gave Christendom the stimulus of
+its philosophers and alchemists; it also gave it paper.  It is
+scarcely too much to say that paper made the intellectual revival
+of Europe possible.  Paper originated in China, where its use
+probably goes back to the second century B.C.  In 751 the Chinese
+made an attack upon the Arab Moslems in Samarkand; they were
+repulsed, and among the prisoners taken from them were some
+skilled papermakers, from whom the art was learnt.  Arabic paper
+manuscripts from the ninth century onward still exist.  The
+manufacture entered Christendom either through Greece or by the
+capture of Moorish paper-mills during the Christian reconquest of
+Spain.  But under the Christian Spanish the product deteriorated
+sadly.  Good paper was not made in Christian Europe until the end
+of the thirteenth century, and then it was Italy which led the
+world.  Only by the fourteenth century did the manufacture reach
+Germany, and not until the end of that century was it abundant and
+{298} cheap enough for the printing of books to be a practicable
+business proposition.  Thereupon printing followed naturally and
+necessarily, for printing is the most obvious of inventions, and
+the intellectual life of the world entered upon a new and far more
+vigorous phase.  It ceased to be a little trickle from mind to
+mind; it became a broad flood, in which thousands and presently
+scores and hundreds of thousands of minds participated.
+
+One immediate result of this achievement of printing was the
+appearance of an abundance of Bibles in the world.  Another was a
+cheapening of school-books.  The knowledge of reading spread
+swiftly.  There was not only a great increase of books in the
+world, but the books that were now made were plainer to read and
+so easier to understand.  Instead of toiling at a crabbed text
+arid then thinking over its significance, readers now could think
+unimpeded as they read.  With this increase in the facility of
+reading, the reading public grew.  The book ceased to be a highly
+decorated toy or a scholar's mystery.  People began to write books
+to be read as well as looked at by ordinary people.  They wrote in
+the ordinary language and not in Latin.  With the fourteenth
+century the real history of the European literature begins.
+
+So far we have been dealing only with the Saracenic share in the
+European revival.  Let us turn now to the influence of the Mongol
+conquests.  They stimulated the geographical imagination of Europe
+enormously.  For a time under the Great Khan, all Asia and Western
+Europe enjoyed an open intercourse; all the roads were temporarily
+open, and representatives of every nation appeared at the court of
+Karakorum.  The barriers between Europe and Asia set up by the
+religious feud of Christianity and Islam were lowered.  Great
+hopes were entertained by the papacy for the conversion of the
+Mongols to Christianity.  Their only religion so far had been
+Shumanism, a primitive paganism.  Envoys of the Pope, Buddhist
+priests from India, Parisian and Italian and Chinese artificers,
+Byzantine and Armenian merchants, mingled with Arab officials and
+Persian and Indian astronomers and mathematicians at the Mongol
+court.  We hear too much in history of the campaigns and massacres
+of the Mongols, and not enough of their curiosity and desire for
+learning.  Not perhaps as an originative people, but as
+transmitters {299} of knowledge and method their influence upon
+the world's history has been very great.  And everything one can
+learn of the vague and romantic personalities of Jengis or Kublai
+tends to confirm the impression that these men were at least as
+understanding and creative monarchs as either that flamboyant but
+egotistical figure Alexander the Great or that raiser of political
+ghosts, that energetic but illiterate theologian Charlemagne.
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA]
+
+One of the most interesting of these visitors to the Mongol Court
+was a certain Venetian, Marco Polo, who afterwards set down his
+story in a book.  He went to China about 1272 with his father and
+uncle, who had already once made the journey.  The Great Khan had
+been deeply impressed by the elder Polos; they were the first men
+of the "Latin" peoples he had seen; and he sent them back with
+enquiries for teachers and learned men who could explain
+Christianity to him, and for various other European things that
+had aroused his curiosity.  Their visit with Marco was their
+second visit.
+
+The three Polos started by way of Palestine and not by the Crimea,
+as in their previous expedition.  They had with them a gold tablet
+and other indications from the Great Khan that must have greatly
+facilitated their journey.  The Great Khan had asked for some oil
+from the lamp that burns in the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem; and
+so thither they first went, and then by way of Cilicia into
+Armenia.  They went thus far north because the Sultan of Egypt was
+raiding the Mongol domains at this time.  Thence they came by way
+of Mesopotamia to Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, as if they
+contemplated a sea voyage.  At Ormuz they met merchants from
+India.  For some reason they did not take ship, but instead turned
+northward through the Persian deserts, and so by way of Balkh over
+{300} the Pamir to Kashgar, and by way of Kotan and the Lob Nor
+into the Hwang-ho valley and on to Pekin.  At Pekin was the Great
+Khan, and they were hospitably entertained.
+
+[Illustration: ANOTHER ANCIENT NEGRO BRONZE OF A EUROPEAN]
+
+Marco particularly pleased Kublai; he was young and clever, and it
+is clear he had mastered the Tartar language very thoroughly.  He
+was given an official position and sent on several missions,
+chiefly in south-west China.  The tale he had to tell of vast
+stretches of smiling and prosperous country, "all the way
+excellent hostelries for travellers," and "fine vineyards, fields,
+and gardens," of "many abbeys" of Buddhist monks, of manufactures
+of "cloth of silk and gold and many fine taffetas," a "constant
+succession of cities and boroughs," and so on, first roused the
+incredulity and then fired the imagination of all Europe.  He told
+of Burmah, and of its great armies with hundreds of elephants, and
+how these animals were defeated by the Mongol bowmen, and also of
+the Mongol conquest of Pegu.  He told of Japan, and greatly
+exaggerated the amount of gold in that country.  For three years
+Marco ruled the city of Yang-chow as governor, and he probably
+impressed the Chinese inhabitants as being little more of a
+foreigner than any Tartar would have been.  He may also have been
+sent on a mission to India.  Chinese records mention a certain
+Polo attached to the imperial council in 1277, a very valuable
+confirmation of the general truth of the Polo story.
+
+The publication of Marco Polo's travels produced a profound effect
+upon the European imagination.  The European literature, and
+especially the European romance of the fifteenth century, echoes
+with the names in Marco Polo's story, with Cathay (North China)
+and Cambulac (Pekin) and the like.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP]
+
+Two centuries later, among the readers of the Travels of Marco
+Polo was a certain Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, who
+{301} conceived the brilliant idea of sailing westward round the
+world to China.  In Seville there is a copy of the Travels with
+marginal notes by Columbus.  There were many reasons why the
+thought of a Genoese should be turned in this direction.  Until
+its capture by the Turks in 1453 Constantinople had been an
+impartial trading mart between the Western world and the East, and
+the Genoese had traded there freely.  But the "Latin" Venetians,
+the bitter rivals of the Genoese, had been the allies and helpers
+of the Turks against the Greeks, and with the coming of the Turks
+Constantinople turned an {302} unfriendly face upon Genoese trade.
+The long forgotten discovery that the world was round had
+gradually resumed its sway over men's minds.  The idea of going
+westward to China was therefore a fairly obvious one.  It was
+encouraged by two things.  The mariner's compass had now been
+invented and men were no longer left to the mercy of a fine night
+and the stars to determine the direction in which they were
+sailing, and the Normans, Catalonians and Genoese and Portuguese
+had already pushed out into the Atlantic as far as the Canary
+Isles, Madeira and the Azores.
+
+Yet Columbus found many difficulties before he could get ships to
+put his idea to the test.  He went from one European Court to
+another.  Finally at Granada, just won from the Moors, he secured
+the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and was able to set out
+across the unknown ocean in three small ships.  After a voyage of
+two months and nine days he came to a land which he believed to be
+India, but which was really a new continent, whose distinct
+existence the old world had never hitherto suspected.  He returned
+to Spain with gold, cotton, strange beasts and birds, and two
+wild-eyed painted Indians to be baptized.  They were called
+Indians because, to the end of his days, he believed that this
+land he had found was India.  Only in the course of several years
+did men begin to realize that the whole new continent of America
+was added to the world's resources.
+
+The success of Columbus stimulated overseas enterprise enormously.
+In 1497 the Portuguese sailed round Africa to India, and in 1515
+there were Portuguese ships in Java.  In 1519 Magellan, a
+Portuguese sailor in Spanish employment, sailed out of Seville
+westward with five ships, of which one, the _Vittoria_, came back
+up the river to Seville in 1522, the first ship that had ever
+circumnavigated the world.  Thirty-one men were aboard her,
+survivors of two-hundred-and-eighty who had started.  Magellan
+himself had been killed in the Philippine Isles.
+
+Printed paper books, a new realization of the round world as a
+thing altogether attainable, a new vision of strange lands,
+strange animals and plants, strange manners and customs,
+discoveries overseas and in the skies and in the ways and
+materials of life burst upon the European mind. The Greek
+classics, buried and forgotten for so {303} long, were speedily
+being printed and studied, and were colouring men's thoughts with
+the dreams of Plato and the traditions of an age of republican
+freedom and dignity.  The Roman dominion had first brought law and
+order to Western Europe, and the Latin Church had restored it; but
+under both Pagan and Catholic Rome curiosity and innovation were
+subordinate to and restrained by organization.  The reign of the
+Latin mind was now drawing to an end.  Between the thirteenth and
+the sixteenth century the European Aryans, thanks to the
+stimulating influence of Semite and Mongol and the rediscovery of
+the Greek classics, broke away from the Latin tradition and rose
+again to the intellectual and material leadership of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+{304}
+
+L
+
+THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH
+
+
+The Latin Church itself was enormously affected by this mental
+rebirth.  It was dismembered; and even the portion that survived
+was extensively renewed.
+
+We have told how nearly the church came to the autocratic
+leadership of all Christendom in the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, and how in the fourteenth and fifteenth its power over
+men's minds and affairs declined.  We have described how popular
+religious enthusiasm which had in earlier ages been its support
+and power was turned against it by its pride, persecutions and
+centralization, and how the insidious scepticism of Frederick II
+bore fruit in a growing insubordination of the princes.  The Great
+Schism had reduced its religious and political prestige to
+negligible proportions.  The forces of insurrection struck it now
+from both sides.
+
+The teachings of the Englishman Wycliffe spread widely throughout
+Europe.  In 1398 a learned Czech, John Huss, delivered a series of
+lectures upon Wycliffe's teachings in the university of Prague.
+This teaching spread rapidly beyond the educated class and aroused
+great popular enthusiasm.  In 1414-18 a Council of the whole
+church was held at Constance to settle the Great Schism.  Huss was
+invited to this Council under promise of a safe conduct from the
+emperor, seized, put on trial for heresy and burnt alive (1415).
+So far from tranquillizing the Bohemian people, this led to an
+insurrection of the Hussites in that country, the first of a
+series of religious wars that inaugurated the break-up of Latin
+Christendom.  Against this insurrection Pope Martin V, the Pope
+specially elected at Constance as the head of a reunited
+Christendom, preached a Crusade.
+
+Five Crusades in all were launched upon this sturdy little people
+and all of them failed.  All the unemployed ruffianism of Europe
+was {305} turned upon Bohemia in the fifteenth century, just as in
+the thirteenth it had been turned upon the Waldenses.  But the
+Bohemian Czechs, unlike the Waldenses, believed in armed
+resistance.  The Bohemian Crusade dissolved and streamed away from
+the battlefield at the sound of the Hussites' waggons and the
+distant chanting of their troops; it did not even wait to fight
+(battle of Domazlice, 1431).  In 1436 an agreement was patched up
+with the Hussites by a new Council of the church at Basle in which
+many of the special objections to Latin practice were conceded.
+
+[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF LUTHER]
+
+In the fifteenth century a great pestilence had produced much
+social disorganization throughout Europe.  There had been extreme
+misery and discontent among the common people, and peasant risings
+against the landlords and the wealthy in England and France.
+After the Hussite Wars these peasant insurrections increased in
+gravity in Germany and took on a religious character.  Printing
+came in as an influence upon this development.  By the middle of
+the fifteenth century there were printers at work with movable
+type {306} in Holland and the Rhineland.  The art spread to Italy
+and England, where Caxton was printing in Westminster in 1477.
+The immediate consequence was a great increase and distribution of
+Bibles, and greatly increased facilities for widespread popular
+controversies.  The European world became a world of readers, to
+an extent that had never happened to any community in the past.
+And this sudden irrigation of the general mind with clearer ideas
+and more accessible information occurred just at a time when the
+church was confused and divided and not in a position to defend
+itself effectively, and when many princes were looking for means
+to weaken its hold upon the vast wealth it claimed in their
+dominions.
+
+In Germany the attack upon the church gathered round the
+personality of an ex-monk, Martin Luther (1483-1546), who appeared
+in Wittenberg in 1517 offering disputations against various
+orthodox doctrines and practices.  At first he disputed in Latin
+in the fashion of the Schoolmen.  Then he took up the new weapon
+of the printed word and scattered his views far and wide in German
+addressed to the ordinary people.  An attempt was made to suppress
+him as Huss had been suppressed, but the printing press had
+changed conditions and he had too many open and secret friends
+among the German princes for this fate to overtake him.
+
+For now in this age of multiplying ideas and weakened faith there
+were many rulers who saw their advantage in breaking the religious
+ties between their people and Rome.  They sought to make
+themselves in person the heads of a more nationalized religion.
+England, Scotland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, North Germany and
+Bohemia, one after another, separated themselves from the Roman
+Communion.  They have remained separated ever since.
+
+The various princes concerned cared very little for the moral and
+intellectual freedom of their subjects.  They used the religious
+doubts and insurgence of their peoples to strengthen them against
+Rome, but they tried to keep a grip upon the popular movement as
+soon as that rupture was achieved and a national church set up
+under the control of the crown.  But there has always been a
+curious vitality in the teaching of Jesus, a direct appeal to
+righteousness and a man's self-respect over every loyalty and
+every subordination, lay or ecclesiastical.  None of these
+princely churches broke {307} off without also breaking off a
+number of fragmentary sects that would admit the intervention of
+neither prince nor Pope between a man and his God.  In England and
+Scotland, for example, there was a number of sects who now held
+firmly to the Bible as their one guide in life and belief.  They
+refused the disciplines of a state church.  In England these
+dissentients were the Non-conformists, who played a very large
+part in the polities of that country in the seventeenth {308} and
+eighteenth centuries.  In England they carried their objection to
+a princely head to the church so far as to decapitate King Charles
+I (1649), and for eleven prosperous years England was a republic
+under Non-conformist rule.
+
+[Illustration: A MAJOLICA DISH PAINTED IN COLOURS]
+
+The breaking away of this large section of Northern Europe from
+Latin Christendom is what is generally spoken of as the
+Reformation.  But the shock and stress of these losses produced
+changes perhaps as profound in the Roman Church itself.  The
+church was reorganized and a new spirit came into its life.  One
+of the dominant figures in this revival was a young Spanish
+soldier, Inigo Lopez de Recalde, better known to the world as St.
+Ignatius of Loyola.  After some romantic beginnings he became a
+priest (1538) and was permitted to found the Society of Jesus, a
+direct attempt to bring the generous and chivalrous traditions of
+military discipline into the service of religion.  This Society of
+Jesus, the Jesuits, became one of the greatest teaching and
+missionary societies the world has ever seen.  It carried
+Christianity to India, China and America.  It arrested the rapid
+disintegration of the Roman Church.  It raised the standard of
+education throughout the whole Catholic world; it raised the level
+of Catholic intelligence and quickened the Catholic conscience
+everywhere; it stimulated Protestant Europe to competitive
+educational efforts.  The vigorous and aggressive Roman Catholic
+Church we know to-day is largely the product of this Jesuit
+revival.
+
+
+
+
+{309}
+
+LI
+
+THE EMPEROR CHARLES V
+
+
+The Holy Roman Empire came to a sort of climax in the reign of the
+Emperor Charles V.  He was one of the most extraordinary monarchs
+that Europe has ever seen.  For a time he had the air of being the
+greatest monarch since Charlemagne.
+
+His greatness was not of his own making.  It was largely the
+creation of his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I
+(1459-1519).  Some families have fought, others have intrigued
+their way to world power; the Habsburgs married their way.
+Maximilian began his career with Austria, Styria, part of Alsace
+and other districts, the original Habsburg patrimony; he
+married--the lady's name scarcely matters to us--the Netherlands
+and Burgundy.  Most of Burgundy slipped from him after his first
+wife's death, but the Netherlands he held.  Then he tried
+unsuccessfully to marry Brittany.  He became Emperor in succession
+to his father, Frederick III, in 1493, and married the duchy of
+Milan.  Finally he married his son to the weak-minded daughter of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, the Ferdinand and Isabella of Columbus,
+who not only reigned over a freshly united Spain and over Sardinia
+and the kingdom of the two Sicilies, but over all America west of
+Brazil.  So it was that this Charles V, his grandson, inherited
+most of the American continent and between a third and a half of
+what the Turks had left of Europe.  He succeeded to the
+Netherlands in 1506.  When his grandfather Ferdinand died in 1516,
+he became practically king of the Spanish dominions, his mother
+being imbecile; and his grandfather Maximilian dying in 1519, he
+was in 1520 elected Emperor at the still comparatively tender age
+of twenty.
+
+He was a fair young man with a not very intelligent face, a thick
+upper lip and a long clumsy chin.  He found himself in a world of
+young and vigorous personalities.  It was an age of brilliant
+young {310} monarchs.  Francis I had succeeded to the French
+throne in 1515 at the age of twenty-one, Henry VIII had become
+King of England in 1509 at eighteen.  It was the age of Baber in
+India (1526-1530) and Suleiman the Magnificent in Turkey (1520),
+both exceptionally capable monarchs, and the Pope Leo X (1513) was
+also a very distinguished Pope.  The Pope and Francis I attempted
+to prevent the election of Charles as Emperor because they dreaded
+the concentration of so much power in the hands of one man.  Both
+Francis I and Henry VIII offered themselves to the imperial
+electors.  But there was now a long established tradition of
+Habsburg Emperors (since 1273), and some energetic bribery secured
+the election for Charles.
+
+At first the young man was very much a magnificent puppet in the
+hands of his ministers.  Then slowly he began to assert himself
+and take control.  He began to realize something of the
+threatening complexities of his exalted position.  It was a
+position as unsound as it was splendid.
+
+From the very outset of his reign he was faced by the situation
+created by Luther's agitations in Germany.  The Emperor had one
+reason for siding with the reformers in the opposition of the Pope
+to his election.  But he had been brought up in Spain, that most
+Catholic of countries, and he decided against Luther.  So he came
+into conflict with the Protestant princes and particularly the
+Elector of Saxony.  He found himself in the presence of an opening
+rift that was to split the outworn fabric of Christendom into two
+contending camps.  His attempts to close that rift were strenuous
+and honest and ineffective.  There was an extensive peasant revolt
+in Germany which interwove with the general political and
+religious disturbance.  And these internal troubles were
+complicated by attacks upon the Empire from east and west alike.
+On the west of Charles was his spirited rival, Francis I; to the
+east was the ever advancing Turk, who was now in Hungary, in
+alliance with Francis and clamouring for certain arrears of
+tribute from the Austrian dominions.  Charles had the money and
+army of Spain at his disposal, but it was extremely difficult to
+get any effective support in money from Germany.  His social and
+political troubles were complicated by financial distresses.  He
+was forced to ruinous borrowing.
+
+{311}
+
+[Illustration: THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN]
+
+{312}
+
+On the whole, Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII, was successful
+against Francis I and the Turk.  Their chief battlefield was North
+Italy; the generalship was dull on both sides; their advances and
+retreats depended mainly on the arrival of reinforcements.  The
+German army invaded France, failed to take Marseilles, fell back
+into Italy, lost Milan, and was besieged in Pavia.  Francis I made
+a long and unsuccessful siege of Pavia, was caught by fresh German
+forces, defeated, wounded and taken prisoner.  But thereupon the
+Pope and Henry VIII, still haunted by the fear of his attaining
+excessive power, turned against Charles.  The German troops in
+Milan, under the Constable of Bourbon, being unpaid, forced rather
+than followed their commander into a raid upon Rome.  They stormed
+the city and pillaged it (1527).  The Pope took refuge in the
+Castle of St. Angelo while the looting and slaughter went on.  He
+bought off the German troops at last by the payment of four
+hundred thousand ducats.  Ten years of such confused fighting
+impoverished all Europe.  At last the Emperor found himself
+triumphant in Italy.  In 1530, he was crowned by the Pope--he was
+the last German Emperor to be so crowned--at Bologna.
+
+Meanwhile the Turks were making great headway in Hungary.  They
+had defeated and killed the king of Hungary in 1526, they held
+Buda-Pesth, and in 1529 Suleiman the Magnificent very nearly took
+Vienna.  The Emperor was greatly concerned by these advances, and
+did his utmost to drive back the Turks, but he found the greatest
+difficulty in getting the German princes to unite even with this
+formidable enemy upon their very borders.  Francis I remained
+implacable for a time, and there was a new French war; but in 1538
+Charles won his rival over to a more friendly attitude after
+ravaging the south of France.  Francis and Charles then formed an
+alliance against the Turk.  But the Protestant princes, the German
+princes who were resolved to break away from Rome, had formed a
+league, the Schmalkaldic League, against the Emperor, and in the
+place of a great campaign to recover Hungary for Christendom
+Charles had to turn his mind to the gathering internal struggle in
+Germany.  Of that struggle he saw only the opening war.  It was a
+struggle, a sanguinary irrational bickering of princes, for
+ascendancy, now {313} flaming into war and destruction, now
+sinking back to intrigues and diplomacies; it was a snake's sack
+of princely policies that was to go on writhing incurably right
+into the nineteenth century and to waste and desolate Central
+Europe again and again.
+
+The Emperor never seems to have grasped the true forces at work in
+these gathering troubles.  He was for his time and station an
+exceptionally worthy man, and he seems to have taken the religious
+dissensions that were tearing Europe into warring fragments as
+genuine theological differences.  He gathered diets and councils
+in futile attempts at reconciliation.  Formulae and confessions
+were tried over.  The student of German history must struggle with
+the details of the Religious Peace of Nuremberg, the settlement at
+the Diet of Ratisbon, the Interim of Augsburg, and the like.  Here
+we do but mention them as details in the worried life of this
+culminating Emperor.  As a matter of fact, hardly one of the
+multifarious princes and rulers in Europe seems to have been
+acting in good faith.  The widespread religious trouble of the
+world, the desire of the common people for truth and social
+righteousness, the spreading knowledge of the time, all those
+things were merely counters in the imaginations of princely
+diplomacy.  Henry VIII of England, who had begun his career with a
+book against heresy, and who had been rewarded by the Pope with
+the title of "Defender of the Faith," being anxious to divorce his
+first wife in favour of a young lady named Anne Boleyn, and
+wishing also to loot the vast wealth of the church in England,
+joined the company of Protestant princes in 1530.  Sweden, Denmark
+and Norway had already gone over to the Protestant side.
+
+The German religious war began in 1546, a few months after the
+death of Martin Luther.  We need not trouble about the incidents
+of the campaign.  The Protestant Saxon army was badly beaten at
+Lochau.  By something very like a breach of faith Philip of Hesse,
+the Emperor's chief remaining antagonist, was caught and
+imprisoned, and the Turks were bought off by the promise of an
+annual tribute.  In 1547, to the great relief of the Emperor,
+Francis I died.  So by 1547 Charles got to a kind of settlement,
+and made his last efforts to effect peace where there was no
+peace.  In 1552 all Germany was at war again, only a precipitate
+flight from Innsbruck {314} saved Charles from capture, and in
+1552, with the treaty of Passau, came another unstable
+equilibrium....
+
+Such is the brief outline of the politics of the Empire for
+thirty-two years.  It is interesting to note how entirely the
+European mind was concentrated upon the struggle for European
+ascendancy.  Neither Turks, French, English nor Germans had yet
+discovered any political interest in the great continent of
+America, nor any significance in the new sea routes to Asia.
+Great things were happening in America; Cortez with a mere handful
+of men had conquered the great Neolithic empire of Mexico for
+Spain, Pizarro had crossed the Isthmus of Panama (1530) and
+subjugated another wonder-land, Peru.  But as yet these events
+meant no more to Europe than a useful and stimulating influx of
+silver to the Spanish treasury.
+
+It was after the treaty of Passau that Charles began to display
+his distinctive originality of mind.  He was now entirely bored
+and disillusioned by his imperial greatness.  A sense of the
+intolerable futility of these European rivalries came upon him.
+He had never been of a very sound constitution, he was naturally
+indolent and he was suffering greatly from gout.  He abdicated.
+He made over all his sovereign rights in Germany to his brother
+Ferdinand, and Spain and the Netherlands he resigned to his son
+Philip.  Then in a sort of magnificent dudgeon he retired to a
+monastery at Yuste, among the oak and chestnut forests in the
+hills to the north of the Tagus valley.  There he died in 1558.
+
+Much has been written in a sentimental vein of this retirement,
+this renunciation of the world by this tired majestic Titan,
+world-weary, seeking in an austere solitude his peace with God.
+But his retreat was neither solitary nor austere; he had with him
+nearly a hundred and fifty attendants: his establishment had all
+the splendour and indulgences without the fatigues or a court, and
+Philip II was a dutiful son to whom his father's advice was a
+command.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ST. PETER'S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH
+ALTAR]
+
+And if Charles had lost his living interest in the administration
+of European affairs, there were other motives of a more immediate
+sort to stir him.  Says Prescott: "In the almost daily
+correspondence between Quixada, or Gaztelu, and the Secretary of
+State at Valladolid, there is scarcely a letter that does not turn
+more or less on the Emperor's eating or his illness.  The one
+seems naturally to follow, {315} like a running commentary, on the
+other.  It is rare that such topics have formed the burden of
+communications with the department of state.  It must have been no
+easy matter for the secretary to preserve his gravity in the
+perusal of despatches in which politics and gastronomy were so
+strangely mixed together.  The courier from Valladolid to Lisbon
+was ordered to make a detour, so as to take Jarandilla in his
+route, and bring supplies to the royal table.  On {316} Thursdays
+he was to bring fish to serve for the _jour maigre_ that was to
+follow.  The trout in the neighbourhood Charles thought too small,
+so others of a larger size were to be sent from Valladolid.  Fish
+of every kind was to his taste, as, indeed, was anything that in
+its nature or habits at all approached to fish.  Eels, frogs,
+oysters, occupied an important place in the royal bill of fare.
+Potted fish, especially anchovies, found great favour with him;
+and he regretted that he had not brought a better supply of these
+from the Low Countries.  On an eel-pasty he particularly
+doted." ...  [6]
+
+In 1554 Charles had obtained a bull from Pope Julius III granting
+him a dispensation from fasting, and allowing him to break his
+fast early in the morning even when he was to take the sacrament.
+
+Eating and doctoring! it was a return to elemental things.  He had
+never acquired the habit of reading, but he would be read aloud to
+at meals after the fashion of Charlemagne, and would make what one
+narrator describes as a "sweet and heavenly commentary."  He also
+amused himself with mechanical toys, by listening to music or
+sermons, and by attending to the imperial business that still came
+drifting in to him.  The death of the Empress, to whom he was
+greatly attached, had turned his mind towards religion, which in
+his case took a punctilious and ceremonial form; every Friday in
+Lent he scourged himself with the rest of the monks with such good
+will as to draw blood.  These exercises and the gout released a
+bigotry in Charles that had hitherto been restrained by
+considerations of policy.  The appearance of Protestant teaching
+close at hand in Valladolid roused him to fury.  "Tell the grand
+inquisitor and his council from me to be at their posts, and to
+lay the axe at the root of the evil before it spreads
+further." .... He expressed a doubt whether it would not be well,
+in so black an affair, to dispense with the ordinary course of
+justice, and to show no mercy; "lest the criminal, if pardoned,
+should have the opportunity of repeating his crime."  He
+recommended, as an example, his own mode or proceeding in the
+Netherlands, "where all who remained obstinate in their errors
+were burned alive, and those who were admitted to penitence
+were beheaded."
+
+And almost symbolical of his place and role in history was his
+{317} preoccupation with funerals.  He seems to have had an
+intuition that something great was dead in Europe and sorely
+needed burial, that there was a need to write Finis, overdue.  He
+not only attended every actual funeral that was celebrated at
+Yuste, but he had services conducted for the absent dead, he held
+a funeral service in memory of his wife on the anniversary of her
+death, and finally he celebrated his own obsequies.
+
+"The chapel was hung with black, and the blaze of hundreds of
+wax-lights was scarcely sufficient to dispel the darkness.  The
+brethren in their conventual dress, and all the Emperor's
+household clad in deep mourning, gathered round a huge catafalque,
+shrouded also in black, which had been raised in the centre of the
+chapel.  The service for the burial of the dead was then
+performed; and, amidst the dismal wail of the monks, the prayers
+ascended for the departed spirit, that it might be received into
+the mansions of the blessed.  The sorrowful attendants were melted
+to tears, as the image of their master's death was presented to
+their minds--or they were touched, it may be, with compassion by
+this pitiable display of weakness.  Charles, muffled in a dark
+mantle, and bearing a lighted candle in his hand, mingled with his
+household, the spectator of his own obsequies; and the doleful
+ceremony was concluded by his placing the taper in the hands of
+the priest, in sign of his surrendering up his soul to the
+Almighty."
+
+Within two months of this masquerade he was dead.  And the brief
+greatness of the Holy Roman Empire died with him.  His realm was
+already divided between his brother and his son.  The Holy Roman
+Empire struggled on indeed to the days of Napoleon I but as an
+invalid and dying thing.  To this day its unburied tradition still
+poisons the political air.
+
+[6]  Prescott's Appendix to Robertson's _History of Charles V_.
+
+
+
+
+{318}
+
+LII
+
+THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND MONARCHY AND
+PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE
+
+
+The Latin Church was broken, the Holy Roman Empire was in extreme
+decay; the history of Europe from the opening of the sixteenth
+century onward is a story of peoples feeling their way darkly to
+some new method of government, better adapted to the new
+conditions that were arising.  In the Ancient World, over long
+periods of time, there had been changes of dynasty and even
+changes of ruling race and language, but the form of government
+through monarch and temple remained fairly stable, and still more
+stable was the ordinary way of living.  In this modern Europe
+since the sixteenth century the dynastic changes are unimportant,
+and the interest of history lies in the wide and increasing
+variety of experiments in political and social organization.
+
+The political history of the world from the sixteenth century
+onward was, we have said, an effort, a largely unconscious effort,
+of mankind to adapt its political and social methods to certain
+new conditions that had now arisen.  The effort to adapt was
+complicated by the fad that the conditions themselves were
+changing with a steadily increasing rapidity.  The adaptation,
+mainly unconscious and almost always unwilling (for man in general
+hates voluntary change), has lagged more and more behind the
+alterations in conditions.  From the sixteenth century onward the
+history of mankind is a story of political and social institutions
+becoming more and more plainly misfits, less comfortable and more
+vexatious, and of the slow reluctant realization of the need for a
+conscious and deliberate reconstruction of the whole scheme of
+human societies in the face of needs and possibilities new to all
+the former experiences of life.
+
+What are these changes in the conditions of human life that have
+disorganized that balance of empire, priest, peasant and trader,
+with {319} periodic refreshment by barbaric conquest, that has
+held human affairs in the Old World in a sort of working rhythm
+for more than a hundred centuries?
+
+They are manifold and various, for human affairs are
+multitudinously complex; but the main changes seem all to turn
+upon one cause, namely the growth and extension of a knowledge of
+the nature of things, beginning first of all in small groups of
+intelligent people and spreading at first slowly, and in the last
+five hundred years very rapidly, to larger and larger proportions
+of the general population.
+
+But there has also been a great change in human conditions due to
+a change in the spirit of human life.  This change has gone on
+side by side with the increase and extension of knowledge, and is
+subtly connected with it.  There has been an increasing
+disposition to treat a life based on the common and more
+elementary desires and gratifications as unsatisfactory, and to
+seek relationship with and service and participation in a larger
+life.  This is the common characteristic of all the great
+religions that have spread throughout the world in the last twenty
+odd centuries, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam alike.  They have
+had to do with the spirit of man in a way that the older religions
+did not have to do.  They are forces quite different in their
+nature and effect from the old fetishistic blood-sacrifice
+religions of priest and temple that they have in part modified and
+in part replaced.  They have gradually evolved a self-respect in
+the individual and a sense of participation and responsibility in
+the common concerns of mankind that did not exist among the
+populations of the earlier civilizations.
+
+The first considerable change in the conditions of political and
+social life was the simplification and extended use of writing in
+the ancient civilizations which made larger empires and wider
+political understandings practicable and inevitable.  The next
+movement forward came with the introduction of the horse, and
+later on of the camel as a means of transport, the use of wheeled
+vehicles, the extension of roads and the increased military
+efficiency due to the discovery of terrestrial iron.  Then
+followed the profound economic disturbances due to the device of
+coined money and the change in the nature of debt, proprietorship
+and trade due to this convenient but dangerous convention.  The
+empires grew in size and range, and {320} men's ideas grew
+likewise to correspond with these things.  Came the disappearance
+of local gods, the age of theocrasia, and the teaching of the
+great world religions.  Came also the beginnings of reasoned and
+recorded history and geography, the first realization by man of
+his profound ignorance, and the first systematic search for
+knowledge.
+
+For a time the scientific process which began so brilliantly in
+Greece and Alexandria was interrupted.  The raids of the Teutonic
+barbarians, the westward drive of the Mongolian peoples,
+convulsive religious reconstruction and great pestilences put
+enormous strains upon political and social order.  When
+civilization emerged again from this phase of conflict and
+confusion, slavery was no longer the basis of economic life; and
+the first paper-mills were preparing a new medium for collective
+information and co-operation in printed matter.  Gradually at this
+point and that, the search for knowledge, the systematic
+scientific process, was resumed.
+
+And now from the sixteenth century onward, as an inevitable
+by-product of systematic thought, appeared a steadily increasing
+series of inventions and devices affecting the intercommunication
+and interaction of men with one another.  They all tended towards
+wider range of action, greater mutual benefits or injuries, and
+increased co-operation, and they came faster and faster.  Men's
+minds had not been prepared for anything of the sort, and until
+the great catastrophes at the beginning of the twentieth century
+quickened men's minds, the historian has very little to tell of
+any intelligently planned attempts to meet the new conditions this
+increasing flow of inventions was creating.  The history of
+mankind for the last four centuries is rather like that of an
+imprisoned sleeper, stirring clumsily and uneasily while the
+prison that restrains and shelters him catches fire, not waking
+but incorporating the crackling and warmth of the fire with
+ancient and incongruous dreams, than like that of a man
+consciously awake to danger and opportunity.
+
+Since history is the story not of individual lives but of
+communities, it is inevitable that the inventions that figure most
+in the historical record are inventions affecting communications.
+In the sixteenth century the chief new things that we have to note
+are the appearance of printed paper and the sea-worthy,
+ocean-going sailing ship using the new device of the mariner's
+compass.  The former {321} cheapened, spread, and revolutionized
+teaching, public information and discussion, and the fundamental
+operations of political activity.  The latter made the round world
+one.  But almost equally important was the increased utilization
+and improvement of guns and gunpowder which the Mongols had first
+brought westward in the thirteenth century.  This destroyed the
+practical immunity of barons in their castles and of walled
+cities.  Guns swept away feudalism.  Constantinople fell to guns.
+Mexico and Peru fell before the terror of the Spanish guns.
+
+[Illustration: CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO
+BECOMES AUTOCRAT OF THE ENGLISH REPUBLIC]
+
+The seventeenth century saw the development of systematic
+scientific publication, a less conspicuous but ultimately far more
+pregnant innovation.  Conspicuous among the leaders in this great
+forward step was Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) afterwards Lord
+{322} Verulam, Lord Chancellor of England.  He was the pupil and
+perhaps the mouthpiece of another Englishman; Dr. Gilbert, the
+experimental philosopher of Colchester (1540-1603).  This second
+Bacon, like the first, preached observation and experiment, and he
+used the inspiring and fruitful form of a Utopian story, _The New
+Atlantis_, to express his dream of a great service of scientific
+research.
+
+Presently arose the Royal Society of London, the Florentine
+Society, and later other national bodies for the encouragement of
+research and the publication and exchange of knowledge.  These
+European scientific societies became fountains not only of
+countless inventions but also of a destructive criticism of the
+grotesque theological history of the world that had dominated and
+crippled human thought for many centuries.
+
+Neither the seventeenth nor the eighteenth century witnessed any
+innovations so immediately revolutionary in human conditions as
+printed paper and the ocean-going ship, but there was a steady
+accumulation of knowledge and scientific energy that was to bear
+its full fruits in the nineteenth century.  The exploration and
+mapping of the world went on.  Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand
+appeared on the map.  In Great Britain in the eighteenth century
+coal coke began to be used for metallurgical purposes, leading to
+a considerable cheapening of iron and to the possibility of
+casting and using it in larger pieces than had been possible
+before, when it had been smelted with wood charcoal.  Modern
+machinery dawned.
+
+Like the trees of the celestial city, science bears bud and flower
+and fruit at the same time and continuously.  With the onset of
+the nineteenth century the real fruition of
+science--which indeed henceforth may never cease--began.  First
+came steam and steel, the railway, the great liner, vast bridges
+and buildings, machinery of almost limitless power, the
+possibility of a bountiful satisfaction of every material human
+need, and then, still more wonderful, the hidden treasures of
+electrical science were opened to men ....
+
+We have compared the political and social life of man from the
+sixteenth century onward to that of a sleeping prisoner who lies
+and dreams while his prison burns about him.  In the sixteenth
+century the European mind was still going on with its Latin
+Imperial dream, {323} its dream of a Holy Roman Empire, united
+under a Catholic Church.  But just as some uncontrollable element
+in our composition will insist at times upon introducing into our
+dreams the most absurd and destructive comments, so thrust into
+this dream we find the sleeping face and craving stomach of the
+Emperor Charles V, while Henry VIII of England and Luther tear the
+unity of Catholicism to shreds.
+
+[Illustration: THE COURT AT VERSAILLES]
+
+In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the dream turned to
+personal monarchy.  The history of nearly all Europe during this
+period tells with variations the story of an attempt to
+consolidate a monarchy, to make it absolute and to extend its
+power over weaker adjacent regions, and of the steady resistance,
+first of the landowners and then with the increase of foreign
+trade and home industry, of the growing trading and moneyed class,
+to the exaction and interference of the crown.  There is no
+universal victory of either side; here it is the King who gets the
+upper hand while there it is the {324} man of private property who
+beats the King.  In one case we find a King becoming the sun and
+centre of his national world, while just over his borders a sturdy
+mercantile class maintains a republic.  So wide a range of
+variation shows how entirely experimental, what local accidents,
+were all the various governments of this period.
+
+A very common figure in these national dramas is the King's
+minister, often in the still Catholic countries a prelate, who
+stands behind the King, serves him and dominates him by his
+indispensable services.
+
+Here in the limits set to us it is impossible to tell these
+various national dramas in detail.  The trading folk of Holland
+went Protestant and republican, and cast off the rule of Philip II
+of Spain, the son of the Emperor Charles V.  In England Henry VIII
+and his minister Wolsey, Queen Elizabeth and her minister
+Burleigh, prepared the foundations of an absolutism that was
+wrecked by the folly of James I and Charles I.  Charles I was
+beheaded for treason to his people (1649), a new turn in the
+political thought of Europe.  For a dozen years (until 1660)
+Britain was a republic; and the crown was an unstable power, much
+overshadowed by Parliament, until George III (1760-1820) made a
+strenuous and partly successful effort to restore its
+predominance.  The King of France, on the other hand, was the most
+successful of all the European Kings in perfecting monarchy.  Two
+great ministers, Richelieu (1585-1642) and Mazarin
+(1602-1661), built up the power of the crown in that country, and
+the process was aided by the long reign and very considerable
+abilities of King Louis XIV, "the Grand Monarque" (1643-1715).
+
+Louis XIV was indeed the pattern King of Europe.  He was, within
+his limitations, an exceptionally capable King; his ambition was
+stronger than his baser passions, and he guided his country
+towards bankruptcy through the complication of a spirited foreign
+policy with an elaborate dignity that still extorts our
+admiration.  His immediate desire was to consolidate and extend
+France to the Rhine and Pyrenees, and to absorb the Spanish
+Netherlands; his remoter view saw the French Kings as the possible
+successors of Charlemagne in a recast Holy Roman Empire.  He made
+bribery a state method almost more important than warfare.
+Charles II of {325} England was in his pay, and so were most of
+the Polish nobility, presently to be described.  His money, or
+rather the money of the tax-paying classes in France, went
+everywhere.  But his prevailing occupation was splendour.  His
+great palace at Versailles with its salons, its corridors, its
+mirrors, its terraces and fountains and parks and prospects, was
+the envy and admiration of the world.
+
+[Illustration: THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION]
+
+He provoked a universal imitation.  Every king and princelet in
+Europe was building his own Versailles as much beyond his means as
+his subjects and credits would permit.  Everywhere the nobility
+rebuilt or extended their chateaux to the new pattern.  A great
+industry of beautiful and elaborate fabrics and furnishings
+developed.  The luxurious arts flourished everywhere; sculpture in
+alabaster, faience, gilt woodwork, metal work, stamped leather,
+much music, magnificent painting, beautiful printing and bindings,
+fine crockery, fine vintages.  Amidst the mirrors and fine
+furniture went a strange race of "gentlemen" in tall powdered
+wigs, silks and laces, poised upon high red heels, supported by
+amazing canes; and still more wonderful "ladies," under towers of
+powdered hair and wearing vast expansions of silk and satin
+sustained on wire.  Through it all postured the great Louis, the
+sun of his world, unaware of the meagre and sulky and bitter faces
+that watched him from those lower darknesses to which his sunshine
+did not penetrate.
+
+[Map: Central Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648]
+
+The German people remained politically divided throughout this
+period of the monarchies and experimental governments, and a
+considerable {326} number of ducal and princely courts aped the
+splendours of Versailles on varying scales.  The Thirty Years' War
+(1618-48), a devastating scramble among the Germans, Swedes and
+Bohemians for fluctuating political advantages, sapped the
+energies of Germany for a century.  A map must show the crazy
+patchwork in which this struggle ended, a map of Europe according
+to the peace of Westphalia (1648).  One sees a tangle of
+principalities, dukedoms, free states and the like, some partly in
+and partly out of the Empire.  Sweden's arm, the reader will note,
+reached far into Germany; and except for a few islands of
+territory within the imperial boundaries France was still far from
+the Rhine.  Amidst this patchwork the {327} Kingdom of Prussia--it
+became a Kingdom in 1701--rose steadily to prominence and
+sustained a series of successful wars.  Frederick the Great of
+Prussia (1740-86) had his Versailles at Potsdam, where his court
+spoke French, read French literature and rivalled the culture of
+the French King.
+
+In 1714 the Elector of Hanover became King of England, adding one
+more to the list of monarchies half in and half out of the empire.
+
+The Austrian branch of the descendants of Charles V retained the
+title of Emperor; the Spanish branch retained Spain.  But now
+there was also an Emperor of the East again.  After the fall of
+Constantinople (1453), the grand duke of Moscow, Ivan the Great
+(1462-1505), claimed to be heir to the Byzantine throne and
+adopted the Byzantine double-headed eagle upon his arms.  His
+grandson, Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584), assumed the
+imperial title of Caesar (Tsar).  But only in the latter half of
+the seventeenth century did Russia cease to seem remote and
+Asiatic to the European mind.  The Tsar Peter the Great
+(1682-1725) brought Russia into the arena of Western affairs.  He
+built a new capital for his empire, Petersburg upon the Neva, that
+played the part of a window between Russia and Europe, and he set
+up his Versailles at Peterhof eighteen miles away, employing a
+French architect who gave him a terrace, fountains, cascades,
+picture gallery, park and all the recognized appointments of Grand
+Monarchy.  In Russia as in Prussia French became the language of
+the court.
+
+Unhappily placed between Austria, Prussia and Russia was the
+Polish kingdom, an ill-organized state of great landed proprietors
+too jealous of their own individual grandeur to permit more than a
+nominal kingship to the monarch they elected.  Her fate was
+division among these three neighbours, in spite of the efforts of
+France to retain her as an independent ally.  Switzerland at this
+time was a group of republican cantons; Venice was a republic;
+Italy like so much of Germany was divided among minor dukes and
+princes.  The Pope ruled like a prince in the papal states, too
+fearful now of losing the allegiance of the remaining Catholic
+princes to interfere between them and their subjects or to remind
+the world of the commonweal of Christendom. There remained indeed
+no common {328} political idea in Europe at all; Europe was given
+over altogether to division and diversity.
+
+All these sovereign princes and republics carried on schemes of
+aggrandizement against each other.  Each one of them pursued a
+"foreign policy" of aggression against its neighbours and of
+aggressive alliances.  We Europeans still live to-day in the last
+phase of this age of the multifarious sovereign states, and still
+suffer from the hatreds, hostilities and suspicions it engendered.
+The history of this time becomes more and more manifestly
+"gossip," more and more unmeaning and wearisome to a modern
+intelligence.  You are told of how this war was caused by this
+King's mistress, and how the jealousy of one minister for another
+caused that.  A tittle-tattle of bribes and rivalries disgusts the
+intelligent student.  The more permanently significant fact is
+that in spite of the obstruction of a score of frontiers, reading
+and thought still spread and increased and inventions multiplied.
+The eighteenth century saw the appearance of a literature
+profoundly sceptical and critical of the courts and policies of
+the time.  In such a book as Voltaire's _Candide_ we have the
+expression of an infinite weariness with the planless confusion of
+the European world.
+
+
+
+
+{329}
+
+LIII
+
+THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS
+
+
+While Central Europe thus remained divided and confused, the
+Western Europeans and particularly the Dutch, the Scandinavians,
+the Spanish, the Portuguese, the French and the British were
+extending the area of their struggles across the seas of all the
+world.  The printing press had dissolved the political ideas of
+Europe into a vast and at first indeterminate fermentation, but
+that other great innovation, the ocean-going sailing ship, was
+inexorably extending the range of European experience to the
+furthermost limits of salt water.
+
+The first overseas settlements of the Dutch and Northern Atlantic
+Europeans were not for colonization but for trade and mining.  The
+Spaniards were first in the field; they claimed dominion over the
+whole of this new world of America.  Very soon however the
+Portuguese asked for a share.  The Pope--it was one of the last
+acts of Rome as mistress of the world--divided the new continent
+between these two first-comers, giving Portugal Brazil and
+everything else east of a line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde
+islands, and all the rest to Spain (1494).  The Portuguese at this
+time were also pushing overseas enterprise southward and eastward.
+In 1497 Vasco da Gama had sailed from Lisbon round the Cape to
+Zanzibar and then to Calicut in India.  In 1515 there were
+Portuguese ships in Java and the Moluccas, and the Portuguese were
+setting up and fortifying trading stations round and about the
+coasts of the Indian Ocean.  Mozambique, Goa, and two smaller
+possessions in India, Macao in China and a part of Timor are to
+this day Portuguese possessions.
+
+The nations excluded from America by the papal settlement paid
+little heed to the rights of Spain and Portugal.  The English, the
+Danes and Swedes, and presently the Dutch, were soon staking {330}
+out claims in North America and the West Indies, and his Most
+Catholic Majesty of France heeded the papal settlement as little
+as any Protestant.  The wars of Europe extended themselves to
+these claims and possessions.
+
+[Map: Britain, France & Spain in America, 1750]
+
+In the long run the English were the most successful in this
+scramble for overseas possessions. The Danes and Swedes were too
+{331} deeply entangled in the complicated affairs of Germany to
+sustain effective expeditions abroad.  Sweden was wasted upon the
+German battlefields by a picturesque king, Gustavus Adolphus, the
+Protestant "Lion of the North."  The Dutch were the heirs of such
+small settlements as Sweden made in America, and the Dutch were
+too near French aggressions to hold their own against the British.
+In the far East the chief rivals for empire were the British,
+Dutch and French, and in America the British, French and Spanish.
+The British had the supreme advantage of a water frontier, the
+"silver streak" of the English Channel, against Europe.  The
+tradition of the Latin Empire entangled them least.
+
+[Illustration: EUROPEANS TIGER HUNTING IN INDIA]
+
+France has always thought too much in terms of Europe.  Throughout
+the eighteenth century she was wasting her opportunities of
+expansion in West and East alike in order to dominate Spain, Italy
+and the German confusion.  The religious and political dissensions
+of Britain in the seventeenth century had driven many {332} of the
+English to seek a permanent home in America.  They struck root and
+increased and multiplied, giving the British a great advantage in
+the American struggle.  In 1756 and 1760 the French lost Canada to
+the British and their American colonists, and a few years later
+the British trading company found itself completely dominant over
+French, Dutch and Portuguese in the peninsula of India.  The great
+Mongol Empire of Baber, Akbar and their successors had now far
+gone in decay, and the story of its practical capture by a London
+trading company, the British East India Company, is one of the
+most extraordinary episodes in the whole history of conquest.
+
+[Illustration: THE LAST EFFORT AND FALL OF TIPPOO SULTAN]
+
+This East India Company had been originally at the time of its
+incorporation under Queen Elizabeth no more than a company of sea
+adventurers.  Step by step they had been forced to raise troops
+and arm their ships.  And now this trading company, with its
+tradition of gain, found itself dealing not merely in spices and
+dyes and tea and jewels, but in the revenues and territories of
+princes {333} and the destinies of India.  It had come to buy and
+sell, and it found itself achieving a tremendous piracy.  There
+was no one to challenge its proceedings.  Is it any wonder that
+its captains and commanders and officials, nay, even its clerks
+and common soldiers, came back to England loaded with spoils?
+
+Men under such circumstances, with a great and wealthy land at
+their mercy, could not determine what they might or might not do.
+It was a strange land to them, with a strange sunlight; its brown
+people seemed a different race, outside their range of sympathy;
+its mysterious temples sustained fantastic standards of behaviour.
+Englishmen at home were perplexed when presently these generals
+and officials came back to make dark accusations against each
+other of extortions and cruelties.  Upon Clive Parliament passed a
+vote of censure.  He committed suicide in 1774.  In 1788 Warren
+Hastings, a second great Indian administrator, was impeached and
+acquitted (1792).  It was a strange and unprecedented situation in
+the world's history.  The English Parliament found itself ruling
+over a London trading company, which in its turn was dominating an
+empire far greater and more populous than all the domains of the
+British crown.  To the bulk of the English people India was a
+remote, fantastic, almost inaccessible land, to which adventurous
+poor young men went out, to return after many years very rich and
+very choleric old gentlemen.  It was difficult for the English to
+conceive what the life of these countless brown millions in the
+eastern sunshine could be.  Their imaginations declined the task.
+India remained romantically unreal.  It was impossible for the
+English, therefore, to exert any effective supervision and control
+over the company's proceedings.
+
+And while the Western European powers were thus fighting for these
+fantastic overseas empires upon every ocean in the world, two
+great land conquests were in progress in Asia.  China had thrown
+off the Mongol yoke in 1360, and flourished under the great native
+dynasty of the Mings until 1644.  Then the Manchus, another Mongol
+people, reconquered China and remained masters of China until
+1912.  Meanwhile Russia was pushing East and growing to greatness
+in the world's affairs.  The rise of this great central power of
+the old world, which is neither altogether of the East nor {334}
+altogether of the West, is one of the utmost importance to our
+human destiny.  Its expansion is very largely due to the
+appearance of a Christian steppe people, the Cossacks, who formed
+a barrier between the feudal agriculture of Poland and Hungary to
+the west and the Tartar to the east.  The Cossacks were the wild
+east of Europe, and in many ways not unlike the wild west of the
+United States in the middle nineteenth century.  All who had made
+Russia too hot to hold them, criminals as well as the persecuted
+innocent, rebellious serfs, religious secretaries, thieves,
+vagabonds, murderers, sought asylum in the southern steppes and
+there made a fresh start and fought for life and freedom against
+Pole, Russian and Tartar alike.  Doubtless fugitives from the
+Tartars to the east also contributed to the Cossack mixture.
+Slowly these border folk were incorporated in the Russian imperial
+service, much as the highland clans of Scotland were converted
+into regiments by the British government.  New lands were offered
+them in Asia.  They became a weapon against the dwindling power of
+the Mongolian nomads, first in Turkestan and then across Siberia
+as far as the Amur.
+
+The decay of Mongol energy in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries is very difficult to explain.  Within two or three
+centuries from the days of Jengis and Timurlane Central Asia had
+relapsed from a period of world ascendancy to extreme political
+impotence.  Changes of climate, unrecorded pestilences, infections
+of a malarial type, may have played their part in this
+recession--which may be only a temporary recession measured by the
+scale of universal history--of the Central Asian peoples.  Some
+authorities think that the spread of Buddhist teaching from China
+also had a pacifying influence upon them.  At any rate, by the
+sixteenth century the Mongol, Tartar and Turkish peoples were no
+longer pressing outward, but were being invaded, subjugated and
+pushed back both by Christian Russia in the west and by China in
+the east.
+
+All through the seventeenth century the Cossacks were spreading
+eastward from European Russia, and settling wherever they found
+agricultural conditions.  Cordons of forts and stations formed a
+moving frontier to these settlements to the south, where the
+Turkomans were still strong and active; to the north-east,
+however, Russia had no frontier until she reached right to the
+Pacific ....
+
+
+
+
+{335}
+
+LIV
+
+THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The third quarter of the eighteenth century thus saw the
+remarkable and unstable spectacle of a Europe divided against
+itself, and no longer with any unifying political or religious
+idea, yet through the immense stimulation of men's imaginations by
+the printed book, the printed map, and the opportunity of the new
+ocean-going shipping, able in a disorganized and contentious
+manner to dominate all the coasts of the world.  It was a
+planless, incoherent ebullition of enterprise due to temporary and
+almost accidental advantages over the rest of mankind.  By virtue
+of these advantages this new and still largely empty continent of
+America was peopled mainly from Western European sources, and
+South Africa and Australia and New Zealand marked down as
+prospective homes for a European population.
+
+The motive that had sent Columbus to America and Vasco da Gama to
+India was the perennial first motive of all sailors since the
+beginning of things--trade.  But while in the already populous and
+productive East the trade motive remained dominant, and the
+European settlements remained trading settlements from which the
+European inhabitants hoped to return home to spend their money,
+the Europeans in America, dealing with communities at a very much
+lower level of productive activity, found a new inducement for
+persistence in the search for gold and silver.  Particularly did
+the mines of Spanish America yield silver.  The Europeans had to
+go to America not simply as armed merchants but as prospectors,
+miners, searchers after natural products, and presently as
+planters.  In the north they sought furs.  Mines and plantations
+necessitated settlements.  They obliged people to set up permanent
+overseas homes.  Finally in some cases, as when the English
+Puritans went to New England in the early seventeenth {336}
+century to escape religious persecution, when in the eighteenth
+Oglethorpe sent people from the English debtors' prisons to
+Georgia, and when in the end of the eighteenth the Dutch sent
+orphans to the Cape of Good Hope, the Europeans frankly crossed
+the seas to find new homes for good.  In the nineteenth century,
+and especially after the coming of the steamship, the stream of
+European emigration to the new empty lands of America and
+Australia rose for some decades to the scale of a great migration.
+
+So there grew up permanent overseas populations of Europeans, and
+the European culture was transplanted to much larger areas than
+those in which it had been developed.  These new communities
+bringing a ready-made civilization with them to these new lands
+grew up, as it were, unplanned and unperceived; the statecraft of
+Europe did not foresee them, and was unprepared with any ideas
+about their treatment.  The politicians and ministers of Europe
+continued to regard them as essentially expeditionary
+establishments, sources of revenue, "possessions" and
+"dependencies," long after their peoples had developed a keen
+sense of their separate social life.  And also they continued to
+treat them as helplessly subject to the mother country long after
+the population had spread inland out of reach of any effectual
+punitive operations from the sea.
+
+Because until right into the nineteenth century, it must be
+remembered, the link of all these overseas empires was the
+oceangoing sailing ship.  On land the swiftest thing was still the
+horse, and the cohesion and unity of political systems on land was
+still limited by the limitations of horse communications.
+
+Now at the end of the third quarter of the eighteenth century the
+northern two-thirds of North America was under the British crown.
+France had abandoned America.  Except for Brazil, which was
+Portuguese, and one or two small islands and areas in French,
+British, Danish and Dutch hands, Florida, Louisiana, California
+and all America to the south was Spanish.  It was the British
+colonies south of Maine and Lake Ontario that first demonstrated
+the inadequacy of the sailing ship to hold overseas populations
+together in one political system.
+
+These British colonies were very miscellaneous in their origin and
+character.  There were French, Swedish and Dutch settlements {337}
+as well as British; there were British Catholics in Maryland and
+British ultra-Protestants in New England, and while the New
+Englanders farmed their own land and denounced slavery, the
+British in Virginia and the south were planters employing a
+swelling multitude of imported negro slaves.  There was no natural
+common unity in such states.  To get from one to the other might
+mean a coasting voyage hardly less tedious than the transatlantic
+crossing.  But the union that diverse origin and natural
+conditions denied the British Americans was forced upon them by
+the selfishness and stupidity of the British government in London.
+They were taxed without any voice in the spending of the taxes;
+their trade was sacrificed to British interests; the highly
+profitable slave trade was maintained by the British government in
+spite of the opposition of the Virginians
+who--though quite willing to hold and use slaves--feared to be
+swamped by an ever-growing barbaric black population.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON]
+
+Britain at that time was lapsing towards an intenser form of
+monarchy, and the obstinate personality of George III (1760-1820)
+did much to force on a struggle between the home and the colonial
+governments.
+
+The conflict was precipitated by legislation which favoured the
+London East India Company at the expense of the American shipper.
+Three cargoes of tea which were imported under the new conditions
+were thrown overboard in Boston harbour by a band of men disguised
+as Indians (1773).  {338} Fighting only began in 1775 when the
+British government attempted to arrest two of the American leaders
+at Lexington near Boston.  The first shots were fired in Lexington
+by the British; the first fighting occurred at Concord.
+
+[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON]
+
+So the American War of Independence began, though for more than a
+year the colonists showed themselves extremely unwilling to sever
+their links with the mother land.  It was not until the middle of
+1776 that the Congress of the insurgent states issued "The
+Declaration of Independence."  George Washington, who like many of
+the leading colonists of the time had had a military training in
+the wars against the French, was made commander-in-chief.  In 1777
+a British general, General Burgoyne, in an attempt to reach New
+York from Canada, was defeated at Freemans Farm and obliged to
+surrender at Saratoga.  In the same year the French and Spanish
+declared war upon Great Britain, greatly hampering her sea
+communications.  A second British army under General Cornwallis
+was caught in the Yorktown peninsula in Virginia and obliged to
+capitulate in 1781.  In 1783 peace was made in Paris, and the
+Thirteen Colonies from Maine to Georgia became a union of
+independent sovereign States.  So the United States of America
+came into existence.  Canada remained loyal to the British flag.
+
+[Map: The United States, showing extent of settlement in 1790]
+
+For four years these States had only a very feeble central
+government under certain Articles of Confederation, and they
+seemed destined to break up into separate independent communities.
+Their immediate separation was delayed by the hostility of the
+British and a certain aggressiveness on the part of the French
+which brought {340} home to them the immediate dangers of
+division.  A Constitution was drawn up and ratified in 1788
+establishing a more efficient Federal government with a President
+holding very considerable powers, and the weak sense of national
+unity was invigorated by a second war with Britain in 1812.
+Nevertheless the area covered by the States was so wide and their
+interests so diverse at that time, that--given only the means of
+communication then available--a disintegration of the Union into
+separate states on the European scale of size was merely a
+question of time.  Attendance at Washington meant a long, tedious
+and insecure journey for the senators and congressmen of the
+remoter districts, and the mechanical impediments to the diffusion
+of a common education and a common literature and intelligence
+were practically insurmountable.  Forces were at work in the world
+however that were to arrest the process of differentiation
+altogether.  Presently came the river steamboat and then the
+railway and the telegraph to save the United States from
+fragmentation, and weave its dispersed people together again into
+the first of great modern nations.
+
+Twenty-two years later the Spanish colonies in America were to
+follow the example of the Thirteen and break their connection with
+Europe.  But being more dispersed over the continent and separated
+by great mountainous chains and deserts and forests and by the
+Portuguese Empire of Brazil, they did not achieve a union among
+themselves.  They became a constellation of republican states,
+very prone at first to wars among themselves and to revolutions.
+
+Brazil followed a rather different line towards the inevitable
+separation.  In 1807 the French armies under Napoleon had occupied
+the mother country of Portugal, and the monarchy had fled to
+Brazil.  From that time on until they separated, Portugal was
+rather a dependency of Brazil than Brazil of Portugal.  In 1822
+Brazil declared itself a separate Empire under Pedro I, a son of
+the Portuguese King.  But the new world has never been very
+favourable to monarchy.  In 1889 the Emperor of Brazil was shipped
+off quietly to Europe, and the United States of Brazil fell into
+line with the rest of republican America.
+
+
+
+
+{341}
+
+LV
+
+THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY IN FRANCE
+
+
+Britain had hardly lost the Thirteen Colonies in America before a
+profound social and political convulsion at the very heart of
+Grand Monarchy was to remind Europe still more vividly of the
+essentially temporary nature of the political arrangements of the
+world.
+
+We have said that the French monarchy was the most successful of
+the personal monarchies in Europe.  It was the envy and model of a
+multitude of competing and minor courts.  But it flourished on a
+basis of injustice that led to its dramatic collapse.  It was
+brilliant and aggressive, but it was wasteful of the life and
+substance of its common people.  The clergy and nobility were
+protected from taxation by a system of exemption that threw the
+whole burden of the state upon the middle and lower classes.  The
+peasants were ground down by taxation; the middle classes were
+dominated and humiliated by the nobility.
+
+In 1787 this French monarchy found itself bankrupt and obliged to
+call representatives of the different classes of the realm into
+consultation upon the perplexities of defective income and
+excessive expenditure.  In 1789 the States General, a gathering of
+the nobles, clergy and commons, roughly equivalent to the earlier
+form of the British Parliament, was called together at Versailles.
+It had not assembled since 1610.  For all that time France had
+been an absolute monarchy.  Now the people found a means of
+expressing their long fermenting discontent.  Disputes immediately
+broke out between the three estates, due to the resolve of the
+Third Estate, the Commons, to control the Assembly.  The Commons
+got the better of these disputes and the States General became a
+National Assembly, clearly resolved to keep the crown in order, as
+the British {342} Parliament kept the British crown in order.  The
+king (Louis XVI) prepared for a struggle and brought up troops
+from the provinces.  Whereupon Paris and France revolted.
+
+The collapse of the absolute monarchy was very swift.  The
+grim-looking prison of the Bastille was stormed by the people of
+Paris, and the insurrection spread rapidly throughout France.  In
+the east and north-west provinces many chateaux belonging to the
+nobility were burnt by the peasants, their title-deeds carefully
+destroyed, and the owners murdered or driven away.  In a month the
+ancient and decayed system of the aristocratic order had
+collapsed.  Many of the leading princes and courtiers of the
+queen's party fled abroad.  A provisional city government was set
+up in Paris and in most of the other large cities, and a new armed
+force, the National Guard, a force designed primarily and plainly
+to resist the forces of the crown, was brought into existence by
+these municipal bodies.  The National Assembly found itself called
+upon to create a new political and social system for a new age.
+
+It was a task that tried the powers of that gathering to the
+utmost.  It made a great sweep of the chief injustices of the
+absolutist regime; it abolished tax exemptions, serfdom,
+aristocratic titles and privileges and sought to establish a
+constitutional monarchy in Paris.  The king abandoned Versailles
+and its splendours and kept a diminished state in the palace of
+the Tuileries in Paris.
+
+For two years it seemed that the National Assembly might struggle
+through to an effective modernized government.  Much of its work
+was sound and still endures, if much was experimental and had to
+be undone.  Much was ineffective.  There was a clearing up of the
+penal code; torture, arbitrary imprisonment and persecutions for
+heresy were abolished.  The ancient provinces of France, Normandy,
+Burgundy and the like gave place to eighty departments.  Promotion
+to the highest ranks in the army was laid open to men of every
+class.  An excellent and simple system of law courts was set up,
+but its value was much vitiated by having the judges appointed by
+popular election for short periods of time.  This made the crowd a
+sort of final court of appeal, and the judges, like the members of
+the Assembly, were forced to play to the gallery.  And the whole
+vast property of the church was seized and administered {343} by
+the state; religious establishments not engaged in education or
+works of charity were broken up, and the salaries of the clergy
+made a charge upon the nation.  This in itself was not a bad thing
+for the lower clergy in France, who were often scandalously
+underpaid in comparison with the richer dignitaries.  But in
+addition the choice of priests and bishops was made elective,
+which struck at the very root idea of the Roman Church, which
+centred everything upon the Pope, and in which all authority is
+from above downward.  Practically the National Assembly wanted at
+one blow to make the church in France Protestant, in organization
+if not in doctrine.  Everywhere there were disputes and conflicts
+between the state priests created by the National Assembly and the
+recalcitrant (non-juring) priests who were loyal to Rome.
+
+In 1791 the experiment of Constitutional monarchy in France was
+brought to an abrupt end by the action of the king and queen,
+working in concert with their aristocratic and monarchist friends
+abroad.  Foreign armies gathered on the Eastern frontier and one
+night in June the king and queen and their children slipped away
+from the Tuileries and fled to join the foreigners and the
+aristocratic exiles.  They were caught at Varennes and brought
+back to Paris, and an France flamed up into a passion of patriotic
+republicanism.  A Republic was proclaimed, open war with Austria
+and Prussia ensued, and the king was tried and executed (January,
+1793) on the model already set by England, for treason to his
+people.
+
+And now followed a strange phase in the history of the French
+people.  There arose a great flame of enthusiasm for France and
+the Republic.  There was to be an end to compromise at home and
+abroad; at home royalists and every form of disloyalty were to be
+stamped out; abroad France was to be the protector and helper of
+all revolutionaries.  All Europe, all the world, was to become
+Republican.  The youth of France poured into the Republican
+armies; a new and wonderful song spread through the land, a song
+that still warms the blood like wine, the Marseillaise.  Before
+that chant and the leaping columns of French bayonets and their
+enthusiastically served guns the foreign armies rolled back;
+before the end of 1792 the French armies had gone far beyond the
+utmost achievements of Louis XIV; everywhere they stood on {344}
+foreign soil.  They were in Brussels, they had overrun Savoy, they
+had raided to Mayence; they had seized the Scheldt from Holland.
+Then the French Government did an unwise thing.  It had been
+exasperated by the expulsion of its representative from England
+upon the execution of Louis, and it declared war against England.
+It was an unwise thing to do, because the revolution which had
+given France a new enthusiastic infantry and a brilliant artillery
+released from its aristocratic officers and many cramping
+conditions had destroyed the discipline of the navy, and the
+English were supreme upon the sea.  And this provocation united
+all England against France, whereas there had been at first a very
+considerable liberal movement in Great Britain in sympathy with
+the revolution.
+
+[Illustration: THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI]
+
+Of the fight that France made in the next few years against a
+European coalition we cannot tell in any detail.  She drove the
+Austrians for ever out of Belgium, and made Holland a republic.
+The Dutch fleet, frozen in the Texel, surrendered to a handful of
+{345} cavalry without firing its guns.  For some time the French
+thrust towards Italy was hung up, and it was only in 1796 that a
+new general, Napoleon Bonaparte, led the ragged and hungry
+republican armies in triumph across Piedmont to Mantua and Verona.
+Says C. F. Atkinson,  [7]  "What astonished the Allies most of all
+was the number and the velocity of the Republicans.  These
+improvised armies had in fact nothing to delay them.  Tents were
+unprocurable for want of money, untransportable for want of the
+enormous number of wagons that would have been required, and also
+unnecessary, for the discomfort that would have caused wholesale
+desertion in professional armies was cheerfully borne by the men
+of 1793-94.   Supplies for armies of then unheard-of size could
+not be carried in convoys, and the French soon became familiar
+with 'living on the country.'  Thus 1793 saw the birth of the
+modern system of war--rapidity of movement, full development of
+national strength, bivouacs, requisitions and force as against
+cautious manoeuvring, small professional armies, tents and full
+rations, and chicane.  The first represented the
+decision-compelling spirit, the second the spirit of risking
+little to gain a little ... ."
+
+And while these ragged hosts of enthusiasts were chanting the
+Marseillaise and fighting for _la France_, manifestly never quite
+clear in their minds whether they were looting or liberating the
+countries into which they poured, the republican enthusiasm in
+Paris was spending itself in a far less glorious fashion.  The
+revolution was now under the sway of a fanatical leader,
+Robespierre.  This man is difficult to judge; he was a man of poor
+physique, naturally timid, and a prig.  But he had that most
+necessary gift for power, faith.  He set himself to save the
+Republic as he conceived it, and he imagined it could be saved by
+no other man than he.  So that to keep in power was to save the
+Republic.  The living spirit of the Republic, it seemed, had
+sprung from a slaughter of royalists and the execution of the
+king.  There were insurrections; one in the west, in the district
+of La Vendee, where the people rose against the conscription and
+against the dispossession of the orthodox clergy, and were led by
+noblemen and priests; one in the south, where Lyons and Marseilles
+had risen and the royalists of Toulon {346} had admitted an
+English and Spanish garrison.  To which there seemed no more
+effectual reply than to go on killing royalists.
+
+The Revolutionary Tribunal went to work, and a steady slaughtering
+began.  The invention of the guillotine was opportune to this
+mood.  The queen was guillotined, most of Robespierre's
+antagonists were guillotined, atheists who argued that there was
+no Supreme Being were guillotined; day by day, week by week, this
+infernal new machine chopped off heads and more heads and more.
+The reign of Robespierre lived, it seemed, on blood; and needed
+more and more, as an opium-taker needs more and more opium.
+
+[Illustration: THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE,
+OCTOBER 16, 1793]
+
+Finally in the summer of 1794 Robespierre himself was overthrown
+and guillotined.  He was succeeded by a Directory of five men
+which carried on the war of defence abroad and held France
+together at home for five years.  Their reign formed a curious
+interlude in this history of violent changes.  They took things
+{347} as they found them.  The propagandist zeal of the revolution
+carried the French armies into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland,
+south Germany and north Italy.  Everywhere kings were expelled and
+republics set up.  But such propagandist zeal as animated the
+Directorate did not prevent the looting of the treasures of the
+liberated peoples to relieve the financial embarrassment of the
+French Government.  Their wars became less and less the holy wars
+of freedom, and more and more like the aggressive wars of the
+ancient regime.  The last feature of Grand Monarchy that France
+was disposed to discard was her tradition of foreign policy.  One
+discovers it still as vigorous under the Directorate as if there
+had been no revolution.
+
+Unhappily for France and the world a man arose who embodied in its
+intensest form this national egotism of the French.  He gave that
+country ten years of glory and the humiliation of a final defeat.
+This was that same Napoleon Bonaparte who had led the armies of
+the Directory to victory in Italy.
+
+Throughout the five years of the Directorate he had been scheming
+and working for self-advancement.  Gradually he clambered to
+supreme power.  He was a man of severely limited understanding but
+of ruthless directness and great energy.  He had begun life as an
+extremist of the school of Robespierre; he owed his first
+promotion to that side; but he had no real grasp of the new forces
+that were working in Europe.  His utmost political imagination
+carried him to a belated and tawdry attempt to restore the Western
+Empire.  He tried to destroy the remains of the old Holy Roman
+Empire, intending to replace it by a new one centring upon Paris.
+The Emperor in Vienna ceased to be the Holy Roman Emperor and
+became simply Emperor of Austria.  Napoleon divorced his French
+wife in order to marry an Austrian princess.
+
+He became practically monarch of France as First Consul in 1799,
+and he made himself Emperor of France in 1804 in direct imitation
+of Charlemagne.  He was crowned by the Pope in Paris, taking the
+crown from the Pope and putting it upon his own head himself as
+Charlemagne had directed.  His son was crowned King of Rome.
+
+For some years Napoleon's reign was a career of victory.  He {348}
+conquered most of Italy and Spain, defeated Prussia and Austria,
+and dominated all Europe west of Russia.  But he never won the
+command of the sea from the British and his fleets sustained a
+conclusive defeat inflicted by the British Admiral Nelson at
+Trafalgar (1805).  Spain rose against him in 1808 and a British
+army under Wellington thrust the French armies slowly northward
+out of the peninsula.  In 1811 Napoleon came into conflict with
+the Tsar Alexander I, and in 1812 he invaded Russia with a great
+conglomerate army of 600,000 men, that was defeated and largely
+destroyed by the Russians and the Russian winter.  Germany rose
+against him, Sweden turned against him.  The French armies were
+beaten back and at Fontainebleau Napoleon abdicated (1814).  He
+was exiled to Elba, returned to France for one last effort in 1815
+and was defeated by the allied British, Belgians and Prussians at
+Waterloo.  He died a British prisoner at St. Helena in 1821.
+
+The forces released by the French revolution were wasted and
+finished.  A great Congress of the victorious allies met at Vienna
+to restore as far as possible the state of affairs that the great
+storm had rent to pieces.  For nearly forty years a sort of peace,
+a peace of exhausted effort, was maintained in Europe.
+
+[7]  In his article, "French Revolutionary Wars," in the
+Encyclopaedia Britannica.
+
+
+
+
+{349}
+
+LVI
+
+THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL OF NAPOLEON
+
+
+Two main causes prevented that period from being a complete social
+and international peace, and prepared the way for the cycle of
+wars between 1854 and 1871.  The first of these was the tendency
+of the royal courts concerned, towards the restoration of unfair
+privilege and interference with freedom of thought and writing and
+teaching.  The second was the impossible system of boundaries
+drawn by the diplomatists of Vienna.
+
+The inherent disposition of monarchy to march back towards past
+conditions was first and most particularly manifest in Spain.
+Here even the Inquisition was restored.  Across the Atlantic the
+Spanish colonies had followed the example of the United States and
+revolted against the European Great Power System, when Napoleon
+set his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne in 1810.  The George
+Washington of South America was General Bolivar.  Spain was unable
+to suppress this revolt, it dragged on much as the United States
+War of Independence had dragged on, and at last the suggestion was
+made by Austria, in accordance with the spirit of the Holy
+Alliance, that the European monarch should assist Spain in this
+struggle.  This was opposed by Britain in Europe, but it was the
+prompt action of President Monroe of the United States in 1823
+which conclusively warned off this projected monarchist
+restoration.  He announced that the United States would regard any
+extension of the European system in the Western Hemisphere as a
+hostile act.  Thus arose the Monroe Doctrine, the doctrine that
+there must be no extension of extra-American government in
+America, which has kept the Great Power system out of America for
+nearly a hundred years and permitted the new states of Spanish
+America to work out their destinies along their own lines.
+
+{350}
+
+But if Spanish monarchism lost its colonies, it could at least,
+under the protection of the Concert of Europe, do what it chose in
+Europe.  A popular insurrection in Spain was crushed by a French
+army in 1823, with a mandate from a European congress, and
+simultaneously Austria suppressed a revolution in Naples.
+
+In 1824 Louis XVIII died, and was succeeded by Charles X.  Charles
+set himself to destroy the liberty of the press and universities,
+and to restore absolute government; the sum of a billion francs
+was voted to compensate the nobles for the chateau burnings and
+sequestrations of 1789.  In 1830 Paris rose against this
+embodiment of the ancient regime, and replaced him by Louis
+Philippe, the son of that Philip, Duke of Orleans, who was
+executed during the Terror.  The other continental monarchies, in
+face of the open approval of the revolution by Great Britain and a
+strong liberal ferment in Germany and Austria, did not interfere
+in this affair.  After all, France was still a monarchy.  This man
+Louis Philippe (1830-48) remained the constitutional King of
+France for eighteen years.
+
+Such were the uneasy swayings of the peace of the Congress of
+Vienna, which were provoked by the reactionary proceedings of the
+monarchists.  The stresses that arose from the unscientific
+boundaries planned by the diplomatists at Vienna gathered force
+more deliberately, but they were even more dangerous to the peace
+of mankind.  It is extraordinarily inconvenient to administer
+together the affairs of peoples speaking different languages and
+so reading different literatures and having different general
+ideas, especially if those differences are exacerbated by
+religious disputes.  Only some strong mutual interest, such as the
+common defensive needs of the Swiss mountaineers, can justify a
+close linking of peoples of dissimilar languages and faiths; and
+even in Switzerland there is the utmost local autonomy.  When, as
+in Macedonia, populations are mixed in a patchwork of villages and
+districts, the cantonal system is imperatively needed.  But if the
+reader will look at the map of Europe as the Congress of Vienna
+drew it, he will see that this gathering seems almost as if it had
+planned the maximum of local exasperation.
+
+It destroyed the Dutch Republic, quite needlessly, it lumped {351}
+together the Protestant Dutch with the French-speaking Catholics
+of the old Spanish (Austrian) Netherlands, and set up a kingdom of
+the Netherlands.  It handed over not merely the old republic of
+Venice, but all of North Italy as far as Milan to the
+German-speaking Austrians.  French-speaking Savoy it combined with
+pieces of Italy to restore the kingdom of Sardinia.  Austria and
+Hungary, already a sufficiently explosive mixture of discordant
+nationalities, Germans, Hungarians, Czecho-Slovaks, Jugo-Slavs,
+Roumanians, and now Italians, was made still more impossible by
+confirming Austria's Polish acquisitions of 1772 and 1795.  The
+Catholic and republican-spirited Polish people were chiefly given
+over to the less civilized rule of the
+Greek-orthodox Tsar, but important districts went to Protestant
+Prussia.  The Tsar was also confirmed in his acquisition of the
+entirely alien Finns.  The very dissimilar Norwegian and Swedish
+peoples were bound together under one king.  Germany, the reader
+will see, was left in a particularly dangerous state of muddle.
+Prussia and Austria were both partly in and partly out of a German
+confederation, which included a multitude of minor states.  The
+King of Denmark came into the German confederation by virtue of
+certain German-speaking possessions in Holstein.  Luxembourg was
+included in the German confederation, though its ruler was also
+King of the Netherlands, and though many of its peoples talked
+French.
+
+Here was a complete disregard of the fact that the people who talk
+German and base their ideas on German literature, the people who
+talk Italian and base their ideas on Italian literature, and the
+people who talk Polish and base their ideas on Polish literature,
+will all be far better off and most helpful and least obnoxious to
+the rest of mankind if they conduct their own affairs in their own
+idiom within the ring-fence of their own speech.  Is it any wonder
+that one of the most popular songs in Germany during this period
+declared that wherever the German tongue was spoken, there was the
+German Fatherland!
+
+In 1830 French-speaking Belgium, stirred up by the current
+revolution in France, revolted against its Dutch association in
+the kingdom of the Netherlands.  The powers, terrified at the
+possibilities of a republic or of annexation to France, hurried in
+to pacify {353} this situation, and gave the Belgians a monarch,
+Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg Gotha.  There were also ineffectual
+revolts in Italy and Germany in 1830, and a much more serious one
+in Russian Poland.  A republican government held out in Warsaw for
+a year against Nicholas I (who succeeded Alexander in 1825), and
+was then stamped out of existence with great violence and cruelty.
+The Polish language was banned, and the Greek Orthodox church was
+substituted for the Roman Catholic as the state religion ....
+
+====================================================================
+
+{352}
+
+[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION)]
+
+====================================================================
+
+[Map: Europe after the Congress of Vienna]
+
+In 1821 there was an insurrection of the Greeks against the Turks.
+For six years they fought a desperate war, while the governments
+of Europe looked on.  Liberal opinion protested against this
+inactivity; volunteers from every European country joined the
+insurgents, and at last Britain, France and Russia took joint
+action.  The Turkish fleet was destroyed by the French and English
+at the battle of Navarino (1827), and the Tsar invaded Turkey.  By
+the treaty of Adrianople (1829) Greece was declared free, but
+{354} she was not permitted to resume her ancient republican
+traditions.  A German king was found for Greece, one Prince Otto
+of Bavaria, and Christian governors were set up in the Danubian
+provinces (which are now Roumania) and Serbia (a part of the
+Jugo-Slav region).  Much blood had still to run however before
+the Turk
+was altogether expelled from these lands.
+
+
+
+
+{355}
+
+LVII
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+
+Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the
+opening years of the nineteenth century, while these conflicts of
+the powers and princes were going on in Europe, and the patchwork
+of the treaty of Westphalia (1648) was changing kaleidoscopically
+into the patchwork of the treaty of Vienna (1815), and while the
+sailing ship was spreading European influence throughout the
+world, a steady growth of knowledge and a general clearing up of
+men's ideas about the world in which they lived was in progress in
+the European and Europeanized world.
+
+It went on disconnected from political life, and producing
+throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries no striking
+immediate results in political life.  Nor was it affecting popular
+thought very profoundly during this period.  These reactions were
+to come later, and only in their full force in the latter half of
+the nineteenth century.  It was a process that went on chiefly in
+a small world of prosperous and
+independent-spirited people.  Without what the English call the
+"private gentleman," the scientific process could not have begun
+in Greece, and could not have been renewed in Europe.  The
+universities played a part but not a leading part in the
+philosophical and scientific thought of this period.  Endowed
+learning is apt to be timid and conservative learning, lacking in
+initiative and resistent to innovation, unless it has the spur of
+contact with independent minds.
+
+We have already noted the formation of the Royal Society in 1662
+and its work in realizing the dream of Bacon's _New Atlantis_.
+Throughout the eighteenth century there was much clearing up of
+general ideas about matter and motion, much mathematical advance,
+a systematic development of the use of optical glass in microscope
+and telescope, a renewed energy in classificatory natural {356}
+history, a great revival of anatomical science.  The science of
+geology--foreshadowed by Aristotle and anticipated by Leonardo da
+Vinci (1452-1519)--began its great task of interpreting the Record
+of the Rocks.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY ROLLING STOCK ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER
+RAILWAY IN THE FIRST DAYS OF THE RAILWAY]
+
+The progress of physical science reacted upon metallurgy.
+Improved metallurgy, affording the possibility of a larger and
+bolder handling of masses of metal and other materials, reacted
+upon practical inventions.  Machinery on a new scale and in a new
+abundance appeared to revolutionize industry.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY TRAVELLING ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER
+RAILWAY, 1833]
+
+In 1804 Trevithick adapted the Watt engine to transport and made
+the first locomotive.  In 1825 the first railway, between Stockton
+and Darlington, was opened, and Stephenson's "Rocket," with a
+thirteen-ton train, got up to a speed of forty-four miles per
+hour.  From 1830 onward railways multiplied.  By the middle of the
+century a network of railways had spread all over Europe.
+
+Here was a sudden change in what had long been a fixed condition
+of human life, the maximum rate of land transport.  After the
+Russian disaster, Napoleon travelled from near Vilna to Paris in
+312 hours.  This was a journey of about 1,400 miles.  He was
+travelling with every conceivable advantage, and he averaged {357}
+under 5 miles an hour.  An ordinary traveller could not have done
+this distance in twice the time.  These were about the same
+maximum rates of travel as held good between Rome and Gaul in the
+first century A.D.  Then suddenly came this tremendous change.
+The railways reduced this journey for any ordinary traveller to
+less than forty-eight hours.  That is to say, they reduced the
+chief European distances to about a tenth of what they had been.
+They made it possible to carry out administrative work in areas
+ten times as great as any that had hitherto been workable under
+one administration.  The full significance of that possibility in
+Europe still remains to be realized.  Europe is still netted in
+boundaries drawn in the horse and road era.  In America the
+effects were immediate.  To the United States of America,
+sprawling westward, it meant the possibility of a continuous
+access to Washington, however far the frontier travelled across
+the continent.  It meant unity, sustained on a scale that would
+otherwise have been impossible.
+
+[Illustration: THE STEAMBOAT: _CLERMONT_, 1807, U.S.A.]
+
+The steamboat was, if anything, a little ahead of the steam engine
+in its earlier phases.  There was a steamboat, the _Charlotte
+Dundas_, on the Firth of Clyde Canal in 1802, and in 1807 an
+American {358} named Fulton had a steamer, the Clermont, with
+British-built engines, upon the Hudson River above New York.  The
+first steamship to put to sea was also an American, the Phoenix,
+which went from New York (Hoboken) to Philadelphia.  So, too, was
+the first ship using steam (she also had sails) to cross the
+Atlantic, the Savannah (1819).  All these were paddle-wheel boats
+and paddle-wheel boats are not adapted to work in heavy seas.  The
+paddles smash too easily, and the boat is then disabled.  The
+screw steamship followed rather slowly.  Many difficulties had to
+be surmounted before the screw was a practicable thing.  Not until
+the middle of the century did the tonnage of steamships upon the
+sea begin to overhaul that of sailing ships.  After that the
+evolution in sea transport was rapid.  For the first time men
+began to cross the seas and oceans with some certainty as to the
+date of their arrival.  The transatlantic crossing, which had been
+an uncertain adventure of several weeks--which might stretch to
+months--was accelerated, until in 1910 it was brought down, in the
+case of the fastest boats, to under five days, with a practically
+notifiable hour of arrival.
+
+Concurrently with the development of steam transport upon land and
+sea a new and striking addition to the facilities of human
+intercourse arose out of the investigations of Volta, Galvani and
+Faraday into various electrical phenomena.  The electric telegraph
+came into existence in 1835.  The first underseas cable was laid
+in 1851 between France and England.  In a few years the telegraph
+system had spread over the civilized world, and news which had
+hitherto travelled slowly from point to point became practically
+simultaneous throughout the earth.
+
+These things, the steam railway and the electric telegraph, were
+to the popular imagination of the middle nineteenth century the
+most striking and revolutionary of inventions, but they were only
+the most conspicuous and clumsy first fruits of a far more
+extensive process.  Technical knowledge and skill were developing
+with an extraordinary rapidity, and to an extraordinary extent
+measured by the progress of any previous age.  Far less
+conspicuous at first in everyday life, but finally far more
+important, was the extension of man's power over various
+structural materials.  Before the middle of the eighteenth century
+iron was reduced from its ores by {359} means of wood charcoal,
+was handled in small pieces, and hammered and wrought into shape.
+It was material for a craftsman.  Quality and treatment were
+enormously dependent upon the experience and sagacity of the
+individual iron-worker.  The largest masses of iron that could be
+dealt with under those conditions amounted at most (in the
+sixteenth century) to two or three tons.  (There was a very
+definite upward limit, therefore, to the size of cannon.)  The
+blast-furnace rose in the eighteenth century and developed with
+the use of coke.  Not before the eighteenth century do we find
+rolled sheet iron (1728) and rolled rods and bars (1783).
+Nasmyth's steam hammer came as late as 1838.
+
+The ancient world, because of its metallurgical inferiority, could
+not use steam.  The steam engine, even the primitive pumping
+engine, could not develop before sheet iron was available.  The
+early engines seem to the modern eye very pitiful and clumsy bits
+of ironmongery, but they were the utmost that the metallurgical
+science of the time could do.  As late as 1856 came the Bessemer
+process, and presently (1864) the open-hearth process, in which
+steel and every sort of iron could be melted, purified and cast in
+a manner and upon a scale hitherto unheard of.  To-day in the
+electric furnace one may see tons of incandescent steel swirling
+about like boiling milk in a saucepan.  Nothing in the previous
+practical advances of mankind is comparable in its consequences to
+the complete mastery over enormous masses of steel and iron and
+over their texture and quality which man has now achieved.  The
+railways and early engines of all sorts were the mere first
+triumphs of the new metallurgical methods.  Presently came ships
+of iron and steel, vast bridges, and a new way of building with
+steel upon a gigantic scale.  Men realized too late that they had
+planned their railways with far too timid a gauge, that they could
+have organized their travelling with far more steadiness and
+comfort upon a much bigger scale.
+
+Before the nineteenth century there were no ships in the world
+much over 2,000 tons burthen; now there is nothing wonderful about
+a 50,000-ton liner.  There are people who sneer at this kind of
+progress as being a progress in "mere size," but that sort of
+sneering merely marks the intellectual limitations of those who
+indulge in it.  {360} The great ship or the steel-frame building
+is not, as they imagine, a magnified version of the small ship or
+building of the past; it is a thing different in kind, more
+lightly and strongly built, of finer and stronger materials;
+instead of being a thing of precedent and
+rule-of-thumb, it is a thing of subtle and intricate calculation.
+In the old house or ship, matter was dominant--the material and
+its needs had to be slavishly obeyed; in the new, matter had been
+captured, changed, coerced.  Think of the coal and iron and sand
+dragged out of the banks and pits, wrenched, wrought, molten and
+cast, to be flung at last, a slender glittering pinnacle of steel
+and glass, six hundred feet above the crowded city!
+
+We have given these particulars of the advance in man's knowledge
+of the metallurgy of steel and its results by way of illustration.
+A parallel story could be told of the metallurgy of copper and
+tin, and of a multitude of metals, nickel and aluminium to name
+but two, unknown before the nineteenth century dawned.  It is in
+this great and growing mastery over substances, over different
+sorts of glass, over rocks and plasters and the like, over colours
+and textures, that the main triumphs of the mechanical revolution
+have thus far been achieved.  Yet we are still in the stage of the
+first fruits in the matter.  We have the power, but we have still
+to learn how to use our power.  Many of the first employments of
+these gifts of science have been vulgar, tawdry, stupid or
+horrible.  The artist and the adaptor have still hardly begun to
+work with the endless variety of substances now at their disposal.
+
+Parallel with this extension of mechanical possibilities the new
+science of electricity grew up.  It was only in the eighties of
+the nineteenth century that this body of enquiry began to yield
+results to impress the vulgar mind.  Then suddenly came electric
+light and electric traction, and the transmutation of forces, the
+possibility of sending power, that could be changed into
+mechanical motion or light or heat as one chose, along a copper
+wire, as water is sent along a pipe, began to come through to the
+ideas of ordinary people....
+
+The British and French were at first the leading peoples in this
+great proliferation of knowledge; but presently the Germans, who
+had learnt humility under Napoleon, showed such zeal and
+pertinacity in scientific enquiry as to overhaul these leaders.
+British {361} science was largely the creation of Englishmen and
+Scotchmen working outside the ordinary centres of erudition.
+
+[Illustration: EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL]
+
+[Illustration: MODEL OF ARKWRIGHT'S SPINNING JENNY, 1769]
+
+The universities of Britain were at this time in a state of
+educational retrogression, largely given over to a pedantic
+conning of the Latin and Greek classics.  French education, too,
+was dominated by the classical tradition of the Jesuit schools,
+and consequently it was not difficult for the Germans to organize
+a body of investigators, small indeed in relation to the
+possibilities of the case, but large in proportion to the little
+band of British and French inventors and experimentalists.  And
+though this work of research and experiment was making Britain and
+France the most rich and {362} powerful countries in the world, it
+was not making scientific and inventive men rich and powerful.
+There is a necessary unworldliness about a sincere scientific man;
+he is too preoccupied with his research to plan and scheme how to
+make money out of it.  The economic exploitation of his
+discoveries falls very easily and naturally, therefore, into the
+hands of a more acquisitive type; and so we find that the crops of
+rich men which every fresh phase of scientific and technical
+progress has produced in Great Britain, though they have not
+displayed quite the same passionate desire to insult and kill the
+goose that laid the national golden eggs as the scholastic and
+clerical professions, have been quite content to let that
+profitable creature starve.  Inventors and discoverers came by
+nature, they thought, for cleverer people to profit by.
+
+In this matter the Germans were a little wiser.  The German
+"learned" did not display the same vehement hatred of the new
+learning.  They permitted its development.  The German business
+man and manufacturer again had not quite the same contempt for the
+man of science as had his British competitor.  Knowledge, these
+Germans believed, might be a cultivated crop, responsive to
+fertilizers.  They did concede, therefore, a certain amount of
+opportunity to the scientific mind; their public expenditure on
+scientific work was relatively greater, and this expenditure was
+abundantly rewarded.  By the latter half of the nineteenth century
+the German scientific worker had made German a necessary language
+for every science student who wished to keep abreast with the
+latest work in his department, and in certain branches, and
+particularly in chemistry, Germany acquired a very great
+superiority over her western neighbours.  The scientific effort of
+the sixties and seventies in Germany began to tell after the
+eighties, and the German gained steadily upon Britain and France
+in technical and industrial prosperity.
+
+A fresh phase in the history of invention opened when in the
+eighties a new type of engine came into use, an engine in which
+the expansive force of an explosive mixture replaced the expansive
+force of steam.  The light, highly efficient engines that were
+thus made possible were applied to the automobile, and developed
+at last to reach such a pitch of lightness and efficiency as to
+render flight--{363} long known to be possible--a practical
+achievement.  A successful flying machine--but not a machine large
+enough to take up a human body--was made by Professor Langley of
+the Smithsonian Institute of Washington as early as 1897.  By 1909
+the aeroplane was available for human locomotion.  There had
+seemed to be a pause in the increase of human speed with the
+perfection of railways and automobile road traction, but with the
+flying machine came fresh reductions in the effective distance
+between one point of the earth's surface and another.  In the
+eighteenth century the distance from London to Edinburgh was an
+eight days' journey; in 1918 the British Civil Air Transport
+Commission reported that the journey from London to Melbourne,
+halfway round the earth, would probably in a few years' time be
+accomplished in that same period of eight days.
+
+[Illustration: AN EARLY WEAVING MACHINE]
+
+Too much stress must not be laid upon these striking reductions in
+the time distances of one place from another.  They are merely one
+aspect of a much profounder and more momentous enlargement of
+human possibility.  The science of agriculture and agricultural
+chemistry, for instance, made quite parallel advances during the
+nineteenth century.  Men learnt so to fertilize the soil as to
+produce quadruple and quintuple the crops got from the same area
+in the seventeenth century.  There was a still more extraordinary
+advance in medical science; the average duration of life rose, the
+daily efficiency increased, the waste of life through ill-health
+diminished.
+
+{364}
+
+Now here altogether we have such a change in human life as to
+constitute a fresh phase of history.  In a little more than a
+century this mechanical revolution has been brought about.  In
+that time man made a stride in the material conditions of his life
+vaster than he had done during the whole long interval between the
+palaeolithic stage and the age of cultivation, or between the days
+of Pepi in Egypt and those of George III.  A new gigantic material
+framework for human affairs has come into existence.  Clearly it
+demands great readjustments of our social, economical and
+political methods.  But these readjustments have necessarily
+waited upon the development of the mechanical revolution, and they
+are still only in their opening stage
+to-day.
+
+
+
+
+{365}
+
+LVIII
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
+
+
+There is a tendency in many histories to confuse together what we
+have here called the mechanical revolution, which was an entirely
+new thing in human experience arising out of the development of
+organized science, a new step like the invention of agriculture or
+the discovery of metals, with something else, quite different in
+its origins, something for which there was already an historical
+precedent, the social and financial development which is called
+the _industrial revolution_.  The two processes were going on
+together, they were constantly reacting upon each other, but they
+were in root and essence different.  There would have been an
+industrial revolution of sorts if there had been no coal, no
+steam, no machinery; but in that case it would probably have
+followed far more closely upon the lines of the social and
+financial developments of the later years of the Roman Republic.
+It would have repeated the story of dispossessed free cultivators,
+gang labour, great estates, great financial fortunes, and a
+socially destructive financial process.  Even the factory method
+came before power and machinery.  Factories were the product not
+of machinery, but of the "division of labour."  Drilled and
+sweated workers were making such things as millinery cardboard
+boxes and furniture, and colouring maps and book illustrations and
+so forth, before even water-wheels had been used for industrial
+purposes.  There were factories in Rome in the days of Augustus.
+New books, for instance, were dictated to rows of copyists in the
+factories of the book-sellers.  The attentive student of Defoe and
+of the political pamphlets of Fielding will realize that the idea
+of herding poor people into establishments to work collectively
+for their living was already current in Britain before the close
+of the seventeenth century.  There are intimations of it even as
+early as More's _Utopia_ (1516).  It was a social and not a
+mechanical development.
+
+{366}
+
+Up to past the middle of the eighteenth century the social and
+economic history of western Europe was in fact retreading the path
+along which the Roman state had gone in the last three centuries
+B.C.  But the political disunions of Europe, the political
+convulsions against monarchy, the recalcitrance of the common folk
+and perhaps also the greater accessibility of the western European
+intelligence to mechanical ideas and inventions, turned the
+process into quite novel directions.  Ideas of human solidarity,
+thanks to Christianity, were far more widely diffused in the newer
+European world, political power was not so concentrated, and the
+man of energy anxious to get rich turned his mind, therefore, very
+willingly from the ideas of the slave and of gang labour to the
+idea of mechanical power and the machine.
+
+The mechanical revolution, the process of mechanical invention and
+discovery, was a new thing in human experience and it went on
+regardless of the social, political, economic and industrial
+consequences it might produce.  The industrial revolution, on the
+other hand, like most other human affairs, was and is more and
+more profoundly changed and deflected by the constant variation in
+human conditions caused by the mechanical revolution.  And the
+essential difference between the amassing of riches, the
+extinction of small farmers and small business men, and the phase
+of big finance in the latter centuries of the Roman Republic on
+the one hand, and the very similar concentration of capital in the
+eighteenth and nineteenth centuries on the other, lies in the
+profound difference in the character of labour that the mechanical
+revolution was bringing about.  The power of the old world was
+human power; everything depended ultimately upon the driving power
+of human muscle, the muscle of ignorant and subjugated men.  A
+little animal muscle, supplied by draft oxen, horse traction and
+the like, contributed.  Where a weight had to be lifted, men
+lifted it; where a rock had to be quarried, men chipped it out;
+where a field had to be ploughed, men and oxen ploughed it; the
+Roman equivalent of the steamship was the galley with its bank of
+sweating rowers.  A vast proportion of mankind in the early
+civilizations were employed in purely mechanical drudgery.  At its
+onset, power-driven machinery did not seem to promise any release
+from such unintelligent toil.  Great gangs {367} of men were
+employed in excavating canals, in making railway cuttings and
+embankments, and the like.  The number of miners increased
+enormously.  But the extension of facilities and the output of
+commodities increased much more.  And as the nineteenth century
+went on, the plain logic of the new situation asserted itself more
+clearly.  Human beings were no longer wanted as a source of mere
+indiscriminated power.  What could be done mechanically by a human
+being could be done faster and better by a machine.  The human
+being was needed now only where choice and intelligence had to be
+exercised.  Human beings were wanted only as human beings.  The
+_drudge_, on whom all the previous civilizations had rested, the
+creature of mere obedience, the man whose brains were superfluous,
+had become unnecessary to the welfare of mankind.
+
+[Illustration: INCIDENT IN THE DAYS OF THE SLAVE TRADE]
+
+This was as true of such ancient industries as agriculture and
+mining as it was of the newest metallurgical processes.  For
+ploughing, sowing and harvesting, swift machines came forward to
+do the work of scores of men.  The Roman civilization was built
+upon cheap and degraded human beings; modern civilization is being
+rebuilt upon {368} cheap mechanical power.  For a hundred years
+power has been getting cheaper and labour dearer.  If for a
+generation or so machinery has had to wait its turn in the mine,
+it is simply because for a time men were cheaper than machinery.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY FACTORY, IN COLEBROOKDALE]
+
+Now here was a change-over of quite primary importance in human
+affairs.  The chief solicitude of the rich and of the ruler in the
+old civilization had been to keep up a supply of drudges.  As the
+nineteenth century went on, it became more and more plain to the
+intelligent directive people that the common man had now to be
+something better than a drudge.  He had to be educated--if only to
+secure "industrial efficiency."  He had to understand what he was
+about.  From the days of the first Christian propaganda, popular
+education had been smouldering in Europe, just as it had
+smouldered in Asia wherever Islam has set its foot, because of the
+necessity of making the believer understand a little of the belief
+by which he is {369} saved, and of enabling him to read a little
+in the sacred books by which his belief is conveyed.  Christian
+controversies, with their competition for adherents, ploughed the
+ground for the harvest of popular education.  In England, for
+instance, by the thirties and forties of the nineteenth century,
+the disputes of the sects and the necessity of catching adherents
+young had produced a series of competing educational organizations
+for children, the church "National" schools, the dissenting
+"British" schools, and even Roman Catholic elementary schools.
+The second half of the nineteenth century was a period of rapid
+advance in popular education throughout all the Westernized world.
+There was no parallel advance in the education of the upper
+classes--some advance, no doubt, but nothing to correspond--and so
+the great gulf that had divided that world hitherto into the
+readers and the non-reading mass became little more than a
+slightly perceptible difference in educational level.  At the back
+of this process was the mechanical revolution, apparently
+regardless of social conditions, but really insisting inexorably
+upon the complete abolition of a totally illiterate class
+throughout the world.
+
+The economic revolution of the Roman Republic had never been
+clearly apprehended by the common people of Rome.  The ordinary
+Roman citizen never saw the changes through which he lived,
+clearly and comprehensively as we see them.  But the industrial
+revolution, as it went on towards the end of the nineteenth
+century, was more and more distinctly _seen_ as one whole process
+by the common people it was affecting, because presently they
+could read and discuss and communicate, and because they went
+about and saw things as no commonalty had ever done before.
+
+
+
+
+{370}
+
+LIX
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS
+
+
+The institutions and customs and political ideas of the ancient
+civilizations grew up slowly, age by age, no man designing and no
+man foreseeing.  It was only in that great century of human
+adolescence, the sixth century B.C., that men began to think
+clearly about their relations to one another, and first to
+question and first propose to alter and rearrange the established
+beliefs and laws and methods of human government.
+
+We have told of the glorious intellectual dawn of Greece and
+Alexandria, and how presently the collapse of the slave-holding
+civilizations and the clouds of religious intolerance and
+absolutist government darkened the promise of that beginning.  The
+light of fearless thinking did not break through the European
+obscurity again effectually until the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries.  We have tried to show something of the share of the
+great winds of Arab curiosity and Mongol conquest in this gradual
+clearing of the mental skies of Europe.  And at first it was
+chiefly material knowledge that increased.  The first fruits of
+the recovered manhood of the race were material achievements and
+material power.  The science of human relationship, of individual
+and social psychology, of education and of economics, are not only
+more subtle and intricate in themselves but also bound up
+inextricably with much emotional matter.  The advances made in
+them have been slower and made against greater opposition.  Men
+will listen dispassionately to the most diverse suggestions about
+stars or molecules, but ideas about our ways of life touch and
+reflect upon everyone about us.
+
+And just as in Greece the bold speculations of Plato came before
+Aristotle's hard search for fact, so in Europe the first political
+enquiries of the new phase were put in the form of "Utopian"
+stories, directly imitated from Plato's _Republic_ and his _Laws_.
+Sir Thomas {371} More's _Utopia_ is a curious imitation of Plato
+that bore fruit in a new English poor law.  The Neapolitan
+Campanella's _City of the Sun_ was more fantastic and less
+fruitful.
+
+By the end of the seventeenth century we find a considerable and
+growing literature of political and social science was being
+produced.  Among the pioneers in this discussion was John Locke,
+the son of an English republican, an Oxford scholar who first
+directed his attention to chemistry and medicine.  His treatises
+on government, toleration and education show a mind fully awake to
+the possibilities of social reconstruction.  Parallel with and a
+little later than John Locke in England, Montesquieu
+(1689-1755) in France subjected social, political and religious
+institutions to a searching and fundamental analysis.  He stripped
+the magical prestige from the absolutist monarchy in France.  He
+shares with Locke the credit for clearing away many of the false
+ideas that had hitherto prevented deliberate and conscious
+attempts to reconstruct human society.
+
+The generation that followed him in the middle and later decades
+of the eighteenth century was boldly speculative upon the moral
+and intellectual clearings he had made.  A group of brilliant
+writers, the "Encyclopaedists," mostly rebel spirits from the
+excellent schools of the Jesuits, set themselves to scheme out a
+new world (1766).  Side by side with the Encyclopaedists were the
+Economists or Physiocrats, who were making bold and crude
+enquiries into the production and distribution of food and goods.
+Morelly, the author of the _Code de La Nature_, denounced the
+institution of private property and proposed a communistic
+organization of society.  He was the precursor of that large and
+various school of collectivist thinkers in the nineteenth century
+who are lumped together as Socialists.
+
+What is Socialism?  There are a hundred definitions of Socialism
+and a thousand sects of Socialists.  Essentially Socialism is no
+more and no less than a criticism of the idea of property in the
+light of the public good.  We may review the history of that idea
+through the ages very briefly.  That and the idea of
+internationalism are the two cardinal ideas upon which most of our
+political life is turning.
+
+{372}
+
+[Illustration: CARL MARX]
+
+The idea of property arises out of the combative instincts of the
+species.  Long before men were men, the ancestral ape was a
+proprietor.  Primitive property is what a beast will fight for.
+The dog and his bone, the tigress and her lair, the roaring stag
+and his herd, these are proprietorship blazing.  No more
+nonsensical expression is conceivable in sociology than the term
+"primitive communism."  The Old Man of the family tribe of early
+palaeolithic times insisted {373} upon his proprietorship in his
+wives and daughters, in his tools, in his visible universe.  If
+any other man wandered into his visible universe he fought him,
+and if he could he slew him.  The tribe grew in the course of
+ages, as Atkinson showed convincingly in his _Primal Law_, by the
+gradual toleration by the Old Man of the existence of the younger
+men, and of their proprietorship in the wives they captured from
+outside the tribe, and in the tools and ornaments they made and
+the game they slew.  Human society grew by a compromise between
+this one's property and that.  It was a compromise with instinct
+which was forced upon men by the necessity of driving some other
+tribe out of its visible universe.  If the hills and forests and
+streams were not _your_ land or _my_ land, it was because they had
+to be our land.  Each of us would have preferred to have it _my_
+land, but that would not work.  In that case the other fellows
+would have destroyed us.  Society, therefore, is from its
+beginning a _mitigation of ownership_.  Ownership in the beast and
+in the primitive savage was far more intense a thing than it is in
+the civilized world to-day.  It is rooted more strongly in our
+instincts than in our reason.
+
+In the natural savage and in the untutored man to-day there is no
+limitation to the sphere of ownership.  Whatever you can fight
+for, you can own; women-folk, spared captive, captured beast,
+forest glade, stone-pit or what not.  As the community grew, a
+sort of law came to restrain internecine fighting, men developed
+rough-and-ready methods of settling proprietorship.  Men could own
+what they were the first to make or capture or claim.  It seemed
+natural that a debtor who could not pay should become the property
+of his creditor.  Equally natural was it that after claiming a
+patch of land a man should exact payments from anyone who wanted
+to use it.  It was only slowly, as the possibilities of organized
+life dawned on men, that this unlimited property in anything
+whatever began to be recognized as a nuisance.  Men found
+themselves born into a universe all owned and claimed, nay! they
+found themselves born owned and claimed.  The social struggles of
+the earlier civilization are difficult to trace now, but the
+history we have told of the Roman Republic shows a community
+waking up to the idea that debts may become a public inconvenience
+and should then be repudiated, and that the unlimited ownership of
+land is also an inconvenience.  We {374} find that later Babylonia
+severely limited the rights of property in slaves.  Finally, we
+find in the teaching of that great revolutionist, Jesus of
+Nazareth, such an attack upon property as had never been before.
+Easier it was, he said, for a camel to go through the eye of a
+needle than for the owner of great possessions to enter the
+kingdom of heaven.  A steady, continuous criticism of the
+permissible scope of property seems to have been going on in the
+world for the last twenty-five or thirty centuries.  Nineteen
+hundred years after Jesus of Nazareth we find all the world that
+has come under the Christian teaching persuaded that there could
+be no property in human beings.  And also the idea that a man may
+"do what he likes with his own" was very much shaken in relation
+to other sorts of property.
+
+But this world of the closing eighteenth century was still only in
+the interrogative stage in this matter.  It had got nothing clear
+enough, much less settled enough, to act upon.  One of its primary
+impulses was to protect property against the greed and waste of
+kings and the exploitation of noble adventurers.  It was largely
+to protect private property from taxation that the French
+Revolution began.  But the equalitarian formulae of the Revolution
+carried it into a criticism of the very property it had risen to
+protect.  How can men be free and equal when numbers of them have
+no ground to stand upon and nothing to eat, and the owners will
+neither feed nor lodge them unless they toil?  Excessively--the
+poor complained.
+
+To which riddle the reply of one important political group was to
+set about "dividing up."  They wanted to intensify and
+universalize property.  Aiming at the same end by another route,
+there were the primitive socialists--or, to be more exact,
+communists--who wanted to "abolish" private property altogether.
+The state (a democratic state was of course understood) was to own
+all property.
+
+It is paradoxical that different men seeking the same ends of
+liberty and happiness should propose on the one hand to make
+property as absolute as possible, and on the other to put an end
+to it altogether.  But so it was.  And the clue to this paradox is
+to be found in the fact that ownership is not one thing but a
+multitude of different things.
+
+{375}
+
+It was only as the nineteenth century developed that men began to
+realize that property was not one simple thing, but a great
+complex of ownerships of different values and consequences, that
+many things (such as one's body, the implements of an artist,
+clothing, toothbrushes) are very profoundly and incurably one's
+personal property, and that there is a very great range of things,
+railways, machinery of various sorts, homes, cultivated gardens,
+pleasure boats, for example, which need each to be considered very
+particularly to determine how far and under what limitations it
+may come under private ownership, and how far it falls into the
+public domain and may be administered and let out by the state in
+the collective interest.  On the practical side these questions
+pass into politics, and the problem of making and sustaining
+efficient state administration.  They open up issues in social
+psychology, and interact with the enquiries of educational
+science.  The criticism of property is still a vast and passionate
+ferment rather than a science.  On the one hand are the
+Individualists, who would protect and enlarge our present freedoms
+with what we possess, and on the other the Socialists who would in
+many directions pool our ownerships and restrain our proprietory
+acts.  In practice one will find every gradation between the
+extreme individualist, who will scarcely tolerate a tax of any
+sort to support a government, and the communist who would deny any
+possessions at all.  The ordinary socialist of
+to-day is what is called a collectivist; he would allow a
+considerable amount of private property but put such affairs as
+education, transport, mines, land-owning, most mass productions of
+staple articles, and the like, into the hands of a highly
+organized state.  Nowadays there does seem to be a gradual
+convergence of reasonable men towards a moderate socialism
+scientifically studied and planned.  It is realized more and more
+clearly that the untutored man does not co-operate easily and
+successfully in large undertakings, and that every step towards a
+more complex state and every function that the state takes over
+from private enterprise, necessitates a corresponding educational
+advance and the organization of a proper criticism and control.
+Both the press and the political methods of the contemporary state
+are far too crude for any large extension of collective
+activities.
+
+But for a time the stresses between employer and employed and
+{376} particularly between selfish employers and reluctant
+workers, led to a world-wide dissemination of the very harsh and
+elementary form of communism which is associated with the name of
+Marx.  Marx based his theories on a belief that men's minds are
+limited by their economic necessities, and that there is a
+necessary conflict of interests in our present civilization
+between the prosperous and employing classes of people and the
+employed mass.  With the advance in education necessitated by the
+mechanical revolution, this great employed majority will become
+more and more class-conscious and more and more solid in
+antagonism to the (class-conscious) ruling minority.  In some way
+the class-conscious workers would seize power, he prophesied, and
+inaugurate a new social state.  The antagonism, the insurrection,
+the possible revolution are understandable enough, but it does not
+follow that a new social state or anything but a socially
+destructive process will ensue.  Put to the test in Russia,
+Marxism, as we shall note later, has proved singularly uncreative.
+
+[Illustration: SCIENCE IN THE COAL MINE]
+
+{377}
+
+Marx sought to replace national antagonism by class antagonisms;
+Marxism has produced in succession a First, a Second and a Third
+Workers' International.  But from the starting point of modern
+individualistic thought it is also possible to reach international
+ideas.  From the days of that great English economist, Adam Smith,
+onward there has been an increasing realization that for
+world-wide prosperity free and unencumbered trade about the earth
+is needed.  The individualist with his hostility to the state is
+hostile also to tariffs and boundaries and all the restraints upon
+free act and movement that national boundaries seem to justify.
+It is interesting to see two lines of thought, so diverse in
+spirit, so different in substance as this class-war socialism of
+the Marxists and the individualistic free-trading philosophy of
+the British business men of the Victorian age heading at last, in
+spite of these primary differences, towards the same intimations
+of a new world-wide treatment of human affairs outside the
+boundaries and limitations of any existing state.  The logic of
+reality triumphs over the logic of theory.  We begin to perceive
+that from widely divergent starting points individualist theory
+and socialist theory are part of a common search, a search for
+more spacious social and political ideas and interpretations, upon
+which men may contrive to work together, a search that began again
+in Europe and has intensified as men's confidence in the ideas of
+the Holy Roman Empire and in Christendom decayed, and as the age
+of discovery broadened their horizons from the world of the
+Mediterranean to the whole wide world.
+
+To bring this description of the elaboration and development of
+social, economic and political ideas right down to the discussions
+of the present day, would be to introduce issues altogether too
+controversial for the scope and intentions of this book.  But
+regarding these things, as we do here, from the vast perspectives
+of the student of world history, we are bound to recognize that
+this reconstruction of these directive ideas in the human mind is
+still an unfinished task--we cannot even estimate yet how
+unfinished the task may be.  Certain common beliefs do seem to be
+emerging, and their influence is very perceptible upon the
+political events and public acts of to-day; but at present they
+are not clear enough nor convincing enough to compel men
+definitely and systematically towards their realization.  {378}
+Men's acts waver between tradition and the new, and on the whole
+they rather gravitate towards the traditional.  Yet, compared with
+the thought of even a brief lifetime ago, there does seem to be an
+outline shaping itself of a new order in human affairs.  It is a
+sketchy outline, vanishing into vagueness at this point and that,
+{379} and fluctuating in detail and formulae, yet it grows
+steadfastly clearer, and its main lines change less and less.
+
+[Illustration: CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL OF THE FORTH BRIDGE]
+
+It is becoming plainer and plainer each year that in many respects
+and in an increasing range of affairs, mankind is becoming one
+community, and that it is more and more necessary that in such
+matters there should be a common world-wide control.  For example,
+it is steadily truer that the whole planet is now one economic
+community, that the proper exploitation of its natural resources
+demands one comprehensive direction, and that the greater power
+and range that discovery has given human effort makes the present
+fragmentary and contentious administration of such affairs more
+and more wasteful and dangerous.  Financial and monetary
+expedients also become world-wide interests to be dealt with
+successfully only on world-wide lines.  Infectious diseases and
+the increase and migrations of population are also now plainly
+seen to be world-wide concerns.  The greater power and range of
+human activities has also made war disproportionately destructive
+and disorganizing, and, even as a clumsy way of settling issues
+between government and government and people and people,
+ineffective.  All these things clamour for controls and
+authorities of a greater range and greater comprehensiveness than
+any government that has hitherto existed.
+
+But it does not follow that the solution of these problems lies in
+some super-government of all the world arising by conquest or by
+the coalescence of existing governments.  By analogy with existing
+institutions men have thought of the Parliament of Mankind, of a
+World Congress, of a President or Emperor of the Earth.  Our first
+natural reaction is towards some such conclusion, but the
+discussion and experiences of half a century of suggestions and
+attempts has on the whole discouraged belief in that first obvious
+idea.  Along that line to world unity the resistances are too
+great.  The drift of thought seems now to be in the direction of a
+number of special committees or organizations, with world-wide
+power delegated to them by existing governments in this group of
+matters or that, bodies concerned with the waste or development of
+natural wealth, with the equalization of labour conditions, with
+world peace, with currency, population and health, and so forth.
+
+{380}
+
+The world may discover that all its common interests are being
+managed as one concern, while it still fails to realize that a
+world government exists.  But before even so much human unity is
+attained, before such international arrangements can be put above
+patriotic suspicions and jealousies, it is necessary that the
+common mind of the race should be possessed of that idea of human
+unity, and that the idea of mankind as one family should be a
+matter of universal instruction and understanding.
+
+For a score of centuries or more the spirit of the great universal
+religions has been struggling to maintain and extend that idea of
+a universal human brotherhood, but to this day the spites, angers
+and distrusts of tribal, national and racial friction obstruct,
+and successfully obstruct, the broader views and more generous
+impulses which would make every man the servant of all mankind.
+The idea of human brotherhood struggles now to possess the human
+soul, just as the idea of Christendom struggled to possess the
+soul of Europe in the confusion and disorder of the sixth and
+seventh centuries of the Christian era.  The dissemination and
+triumph of such ideas must be the work of a multitude of devoted
+and undistinguished missionaries, and no contemporary writer can
+presume to guess how far such work has gone or what harvest it may
+be preparing.
+
+Social and economic questions seem to be inseparably mingled with
+international ones.  The solution in each case lies in an appeal
+to that same spirit of service which can enter and inspire the
+human heart.  The distrust, intractability and egotism of nations
+reflects and is reflected by the distrust, intractability and
+egotism of the individual owner and worker in the face of the
+common good.  Exaggerations of possessiveness in the individual
+are parallel and of a piece with the clutching greed of nations
+and emperors.  They are products of the same instinctive
+tendencies, and the same ignorances and traditions.
+Internationalism is the socialism of nations.  No one who has
+wrestled with these problems can feel that there yet exists a
+sufficient depth and strength of psychological science and a
+sufficiently planned-out educational method and organization for
+any real and final solution of these riddles of human intercourse
+and cooperation.  We are as incapable of planning a really
+effective peace organization of the world to-day as were men in
+1820 to plan an {381} electric railway system, but for all we know
+the thing is equally practicable and may be as nearly at hand.
+
+No man can go beyond his own knowledge, no thought can reach
+beyond contemporary thought, and it is impossible for us to guess
+or foretell how many generations of humanity may have to live in
+war and waste and insecurity and misery before the dawn of the
+great peace to which all history seems to be pointing, peace in
+the heart and peace in the world, ends our night of wasteful and
+aimless living.  Our proposed solutions are still vague and crude.
+Passion and suspicion surround them.  A great task of intellectual
+reconstruction is going on, it is still incomplete, and our
+conceptions grow clearer and more exact--slowly, rapidly, it is
+hard to tell which.  But as they grow clearer they will gather
+power over the minds and imaginations of men.  Their present lack
+of grip is due to their lack of assurance and exact rightness.
+They are misunderstood because they are variously and confusingly
+presented.  But with precision and certainty the new vision of the
+world will gain compelling power.  It may presently gain power
+very rapidly.  And a great work of educational reconstruction will
+follow logically and necessarily upon that clearer understanding.
+
+
+
+
+{382}
+
+LX
+
+THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+The region of the world that displayed the most immediate and
+striking results from the new inventions in transport was North
+America.  Politically the United States embodied, and its
+constitution crystallized, the liberal ideas of the middle
+eighteenth century.  It dispensed with state-church or crown, it
+would have no titles, it protected property very jealously as a
+method of freedom, and--the exact practice varied at first in the
+different states--it gave nearly every adult male citizen a vote.
+Its method of voting was barbarically crude, and as a consequence
+its political life fell very soon under the control of highly
+organized party machines, but that did not prevent the newly
+emancipated population developing an energy, enterprise and public
+spirit far beyond that of any other contemporary population.
+
+Then came that acceleration of locomotion to which we have already
+called attention.  It is a curious thing that America, which owes
+most to this acceleration in locomotion, has felt it least.  The
+United States have taken the railway, the river steamboat, the
+telegraph and so forth as though they were a natural part of their
+growth.  They were not.  These things happened to come along just
+in time to save American unity.  The United States of to-day were
+made first by the river steamboat, and then by the railway.
+Without these things, the present United States, this vast
+continental nation, would have been altogether impossible.  The
+westward flow of population would have been far more sluggish.  It
+might never have crossed the great central plains.  It took nearly
+two hundred years for effective settlement to reach from the coast
+to Missouri, much less than halfway across the continent.  The
+first state established beyond the river was the steamboat state
+of Missouri in 1821.  But the rest of the distance to the Pacific
+was done in a few decades.
+
+{383}
+
+If we had the resources of the cinema it would be interesting to
+show a map of North America year by year from 1600 onward, with
+little dots to represent hundreds of people, each dot a hundred,
+and stars to represent cities of a hundred thousand people.
+
+For two hundred years the reader would see that stippling creeping
+slowly along the coastal districts and navigable waters, spreading
+still more gradually into Indiana, Kentucky and so forth.  Then
+somewhere about 1810 would come a change.  Things would get more
+lively along the river courses.  The dots would be multiplying and
+spreading.  That would be the steamboat.  The pioneer dots would
+be spreading soon over Kansas and Nebraska from a number of
+jumping-off places along the great rivers.
+
+Then from about 1850 onward would come the black lines of the
+railways, and after that the little black dots would not simply
+creep but run.  They would appear now so rapidly, it would be
+almost as though they were being put on by some sort of spraying
+machine.  And suddenly here and then there would appear the first
+stars to indicate the first great cities of a hundred thousand
+people.  First one or two and then a multitude of cities--each
+like a knot in the growing net of the railways.
+
+The growth of the United States is a process that has no precedent
+in the world's history; it is a new kind of occurrence.  Such a
+community could not have come into existence before, and if it
+had, without railways it would certainly have dropped to pieces
+long before now.  Without railways or telegraph it would be far
+easier to administer California from Pekin than from Washington.
+But this great population of the United States of America has not
+only grown outrageously; it has kept uniform.  Nay, it has become
+more uniform.  The man of San Francisco is more like the man of
+New York to-day than the man of Virginia was like the man of New
+England a century ago.  And the process of assimilation goes on
+unimpeded.  The United States is being woven by railway, by
+telegraph, more and more into one vast unity, speaking, thinking
+and acting harmoniously with itself.  Soon aviation will be
+helping in the work.
+
+This great community of the United States is an altogether new
+thing in history.  There have been great empires before with
+populations exceeding 100 millions, but these were associations of
+divergent {384} peoples; there has never been one single people on
+this scale before.  We want a new term for this new thing.  We
+call the United States a country just as we call France or Holland
+a country.  But the two things are as different as an automobile
+and a one-horse shay.  They are the creations of different periods
+and different conditions; they are going to work at a different
+pace and in an entirely different way.  The United States in scale
+and possibility is halfway between a European state and a United
+States of all the world.
+
+But on the way to this present greatness and security the American
+people passed through one phase of dire conflict.  The river
+steamboats, the railways, the telegraph, and their associate
+facilities, did not come soon enough to avert a deepening conflict
+of interests and ideas between the southern and northern states of
+the Union.  The former were slave-holding states; the latter,
+states in which all men were free.  The railways and steamboats at
+first did but bring into sharper conflict an already established
+difference between the two sections of the United States.  The
+increasing unification due to the new means of transport made the
+question whether the southern spirit or the northern should
+prevail an ever more urgent one.  There was little possibility of
+compromise.  The northern spirit was free and individualistic; the
+southern made for great estates and a conscious gentility ruling
+over a dusky subject multitude.
+
+Every new territory that was organized into a state as the tide of
+population swept westward, every new incorporation into the fast
+growing American system, became a field of conflict between the
+two ideas, whether it should become a state of free citizens, or
+whether the estate and slavery system should prevail.  From 1833
+an American anti-slavery society was not merely resisting the
+extension of the institution but agitating the whole country for
+its complete abolition.  The issue flamed up into open conflict
+over the admission of Texas to the Union.  Texas had originally
+been a part of the republic of Mexico, but it was largely
+colonized by Americans from the slave-holding states, and it
+seceded from Mexico, established its independence in 1835, and was
+annexed to the United States in 1844.  Under the Mexican law
+slavery had been forbidden in Texas, but now the South claimed
+Texas for slavery and got it.
+
+{385}
+
+Meanwhile the development of ocean navigation was bringing a
+growing swarm of immigrants from Europe to swell the spreading
+population of the northern states, and the raising of Iowa,
+Wisconsin, Minnesota and Oregon, all northern farm lands, to state
+level, gave the anti-slavery North the possibility of predominance
+both in the Senate and the House of Representatives.  The
+cotton-growing South, irritated by the growing threat of the
+Abolitionist movement, and fearing this predominance in Congress,
+began to talk of secession from the Union.  Southerners began to
+dream of annexations to the south of them in Mexico and the West
+Indies, and of great slave state, detached from the North and
+reaching to Panama.
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN RIVER STEAMERS]
+
+The return of Abraham Lincoln as an anti-extension President in
+1860 decided the South to split the Union.  South Carolina passed
+an "ordinance of secession" and prepared for war.  Mississippi,
+Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas joined her, and a
+convention met at Montgomery in Alabama, elected Jefferson Davis
+president of the "Confederated States" of America, and adopted a
+constitution specifically upholding "the institution of negro
+slavery."
+
+{386}
+
+Abraham Lincoln was, it chanced, a man entirely typical of the new
+people that had grown up after the War of Independence.  His early
+years had been spent as a drifting particle in the general
+westward flow of the population.  He was born in Kentucky (1809),
+was taken to Indiana as a boy and later on to Illinois.  Life was
+rough in the backwoods of Indiana in those days; the house was a
+mere log cabin in the wilderness, and his schooling was poor and
+casual.  But his mother taught him to read early, and he became a
+voracious reader.  At seventeen he was a big athletic youth, a
+great wrestler and runner.  He worked for a time as clerk in a
+store, went into business as a storekeeper with a drunken partner,
+and contracted debts that he did not fully pay off for fifteen
+years.  In 1834, when he was still only five and twenty, he was
+elected member of the House of Representatives for the State of
+Illinois.  In Illinois particularly the question of slavery flamed
+because the great leader of the party for the extension of slavery
+in the national Congress was Senator Douglas of Illinois.  Douglas
+was a man of great ability and prestige, and for some years
+Lincoln fought against him by speech and pamphlet, rising steadily
+to the position of his most formidable and finally victorious
+antagonist.  Their culminating struggle was the presidential
+campaign of 1860, and on the fourth of March, 1861, Lincoln was
+inaugurated President, with the southern states already in active
+secession from the rule of the federal government at Washington,
+and committing acts of war.
+
+This civil war in America was fought by improvised armies that
+grew steadily from a few score thousands to hundreds of
+thousands--until at last the Federal forces exceeded a million
+men; it was fought over a vast area between New Mexico and the
+eastern sea, Washington and Richmond were the chief objectives.
+It is beyond our scope here to tell of the mounting energy of
+that epic struggle that rolled to and fro across the hills and
+woods of Tennessee and Virginia and down the Mississippi.  There
+was a terrible waste and killing of men.  Thrust was followed by
+counter thrust; hope gave way to despondency, and returned and was
+again disappointed.  Sometimes Washington seemed within the
+Confederate grasp; again the Federal armies were driving towards
+Richmond.  The Confederates, outnumbered and far poorer in
+resources, fought under {387} a general of supreme ability,
+General Lee.  The generalship of the Union was far inferior.
+Generals were dismissed, new generals appointed; until at last,
+under Sherman and Grant, came victory over the ragged and
+depleted South.  In October, 1864, a Federal army under Sherman
+broke through the Confederate left and marched down from Tennessee
+through Georgia to the coast, right across the Confederate
+country, and then turned up through the {388} Carolinas, coming in
+upon the rear of the Confederate armies.  Meanwhile Grant held Lee
+before Richmond until Sherman closed on him.  On April 9th, 1865,
+Lee and his army surrendered at Appomattox Court House, and within
+a month all the remaining secessionist armies had laid down their
+arms and the Confederacy was at an end.
+
+[Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN]
+
+This four years' struggle had meant an enormous physical and moral
+strain for the people of the United States.  The principle of
+state autonomy was very dear to many minds, and the North seemed
+in effect to be forcing abolition upon the South.  In the border
+states brothers and cousins, even fathers and sons, would take
+opposite sides and find themselves in antagonistic armies.  The
+North felt its cause a righteous one, but for great numbers of
+people it was not a full-bodied and unchallenged righteousness.
+But for Lincoln there was no doubt.  He was a clear-minded man in
+the midst of much confusion.  He stood for union; he stood for the
+wide peace of America.  He was opposed to slavery, but slavery he
+held to be a secondary issue; his primary purpose was that the
+United States should not be torn into two contrasted and jarring
+fragments.
+
+When in the opening stages of the war Congress and the Federal
+generals embarked upon a precipitate emancipation, Lincoln opposed
+and mitigated their enthusiasm.  He was for emancipation by stages
+and with compensation.  It was only in January, 1865, that the
+situation had ripened to a point when Congress could propose to
+abolish slavery for ever by a constitutional amendment, and the
+war was already over before this amendment was ratified by the
+states.
+
+As the war dragged on through 1862 and 1863, the first passions
+and enthusiasms waned, and America learnt all the phases of war
+weariness and war disgust.  The President found himself with
+defeatists, traitors, dismissed generals, tortuous party
+politicians, and a doubting and fatigued people behind him and
+uninspired generals and depressed troops before him; his chief
+consolation must have been that Jefferson Davis at Richmond could
+be in little better case.  The English government misbehaved, and
+permitted the Confederate agents in England to launch and man
+three swift privateer ships--the _Alabama_ is the best remembered
+of them--which {389} chased United States shipping from the seas.
+The French army in Mexico was trampling the Monroe Doctrine in the
+dirt.  Came subtle proposals from Richmond to drop the war, leave
+the issues of the war for subsequent discussion, and turn, Federal
+and Confederate in alliance, upon the French in Mexico.  But
+Lincoln would not listen to such proposals unless the supremacy of
+the Union was maintained.  The Americans might do such things as
+one people but not as two.
+
+He held the United States together through long weary months of
+reverses and ineffective effort, through black phases of division
+and failing courage; and there is no record that he ever faltered
+from his purpose.  There were times when there was nothing to be
+done, when he sat in the White House silent and motionless, a grim
+monument of resolve; times when he relaxed his mind by jesting and
+broad anecdotes.
+
+He saw the Union triumphant.  He entered Richmond the day after
+its surrender, and heard of Lee's capitulation.  He returned to
+Washington, and on April 11th made his last public address.  His
+theme was reconciliation and the reconstruction of loyal
+government in the defeated states.  On the evening of April 14th
+he went to Ford's theatre in Washington, and as he sat looking at
+the stage, he was shot in the back of the head and killed by an
+actor named Booth who had some sort of grievance against him, and
+who had crept into the box unobserved.  But Lincoln's work was
+done; the Union was saved.
+
+At the beginning of the war there was no railway to the Pacific
+coast; after it the railways spread like a swiftly growing plant
+until now they have clutched and held and woven all the vast
+territory of the United States into one indissoluble mental and
+material unity--the greatest real community--until the common folk
+of China have learnt to read--in the world.
+
+
+
+
+{390}
+
+LXI
+
+THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE
+
+
+We have told how after the convulsion of the French Revolution and
+the Napoleonic adventure, Europe settled down again for a time to
+an insecure peace and a sort of modernized revival of the
+political conditions of fifty years before.  Until the middle of
+the century the new facilities in the handling of steel and the
+railway and steamship produced no marked political consequences.
+But the social tension due to the development of urban
+industrialism grew.  France remained a conspicuously uneasy
+country.  The revolution of 1830 was followed by another in 1848.
+Then Napoleon III, a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, became first
+President, and then (in 1852) Emperor.
+
+He set about rebuilding Paris, and changed it from a picturesque
+seventeenth century insanitary city into the spacious Latinized
+city of marble it is to-day.  He set about rebuilding France, and
+made it into a brilliant-looking modernized imperialism.  He
+displayed a disposition to revive that competitiveness of the
+Great Powers which had kept Europe busy with futile wars during
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.  The Tsar Nicholas I of
+Russia (1825-1856) was also becoming aggressive and pressing
+southward upon the Turkish Empire with his eyes on Constantinople.
+
+After the turn of the century Europe broke out into a fresh cycle
+of wars.  They were chiefly "balance-of-power" and ascendancy
+wars.  England, France and Sardinia assailed Russia in the Crimean
+war in defence of Turkey; Prussia (with Italy as an ally) and
+Austria fought for the leadership of Germany, France liberated
+North Italy from Austria at the price of Savoy, and Italy
+gradually unified itself into one kingdom.  Then Napoleon III was
+so ill advised as to attempt adventures in Mexico, during the
+American Civil War; he set up an Emperor Maximilian there and
+abandoned him hastily to {391} his fate--he was shot by the
+Mexicans--when the victorious Federal Government showed its teeth.
+
+[Map: Map of Europe, 1848-1871]
+
+In 1870 came a long-pending struggle for predominance in Europe
+between France and Prussia.  Prussia had long foreseen and
+prepared for this struggle, and France was rotten with financial
+corruption.  Her defeat was swift and dramatic.  The Germans
+invaded France in August, one great French army under the Emperor
+capitulated at Sedan in September, another surrendered in October
+at Metz, and in January 1871, Paris, after a siege and
+bombardment, fell into German hands.  Peace was signed at
+Frankfort surrendering the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the
+Germans.  {392} Germany, excluding Austria, was unified as an
+empire, and the King of Prussia was added to the galaxy of
+European Caesars, as the German Emperor.
+
+For the next forty-three years Germany was the leading power upon
+the European continent.  There was a Russo-Turkish war in 1877-8,
+but thereafter, except for certain readjustments in the Balkans,
+European frontiers remained uneasily stable for thirty years.
+
+
+
+
+{393}
+
+LXII
+
+THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY
+
+
+The end of the eighteenth century was a period of disrupting
+empires and disillusioned expansionists.  The long and tedious
+journey between Britain and Spain and their colonies in America
+prevented any really free coming and going between the home land
+and the daughter lands, and so the colonies separated into new and
+distinct communities, with distinctive ideas and interests and
+even modes of speech.  As they grew they strained more and more at
+the feeble and uncertain link of shipping that had joined them.
+Weak trading-posts in the wilderness, like those of France in
+Canada, or trading establishments in great alien communities, like
+those of Britain in India, might well cling for bare existence to
+the nation which gave them support and a reason for their
+existence.  That much and no more seemed to many thinkers in the
+early part of the nineteenth century to be the limit set to
+overseas rule.  In 1820 the sketchy great European "empires"
+outside of Europe that had figured so bravely in the maps of the
+middle eighteenth century, had shrunken to very small dimensions.
+Only the Russian sprawled as large as ever across Asia.
+
+The British Empire in 1815 consisted of the thinly populated
+coastal river and lake regions of Canada, and a great hinterland
+of wilderness in which the only settlements as yet were the
+fur-trading stations of the Hudson Bay Company, about a third of
+the Indian peninsula, under the rule of the East India Company,
+the coast districts of the Cape of Good Hope inhabited by blacks
+and rebellious-spirited Dutch settlers; a few trading stations on
+the coast of West Africa, the rock of Gibraltar, the island of
+Malta, Jamaica, a few minor slave-labour possessions in the West
+Indies, British Guiana in South America, and, on the other side of
+the world, two dumps for convicts at Botany Bay in Australia and
+in Tasmania.  Spain retained Cuba and a few settlements in the
+Philippine Islands.  {394} Portugal had in Africa some vestiges of
+her ancient claims.  Holland had various islands and possessions
+in the East Indies and Dutch Guiana, and Denmark an island or so
+in the West Indies.  France had one or two West Indian islands and
+French Guiana.  This seemed to be as much as the European powers
+needed, or were likely to acquire of the rest of the world.  Only
+the East India Company showed any spirit of expansion.
+
+While Europe was busy with the Napoleonic wars the East India
+Company, under a succession of Governors-General, was playing much
+the same role in India that had been played before by Turkoman and
+such-like invaders from the north.  And after the peace of Vienna
+it went on, levying its revenues, making wars, sending ambassadors
+to Asiatic powers, a quasi-independent state, however, with a
+marked disposition to send wealth westward.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail how the British Company made its
+way to supremacy sometimes as the ally of this power, sometimes as
+that, and finally as the conqueror of all.  Its power spread to
+Assam, Sind, Oudh.  The map of India began to take on the outlines
+familiar to the English schoolboy of to-day, a patchwork of native
+states embraced and held together by the great provinces under
+direct British rule. . . .
+
+In 1859, following upon a serious mutiny of the native troops in
+India, this empire of the East India Company was annexed to the
+British Crown.  By an Act entitled _An Act for the Better
+Government of India_, the Governor-General became a Viceroy
+representing the Sovereign, and the place of the Company was taken
+by a Secretary of State for India responsible to the British
+Parliament.  In 1877, Lord Beaconsfield, to complete the work,
+caused Queen Victoria to be proclaimed Empress of India.
+
+Upon these extraordinary lines India and Britain are linked at the
+present time.  India is still the empire of the Great Mogul, but
+the Great Mogul has been replaced by the "crowned republic" of
+Great Britain.  India is an autocracy without an autocrat.  Its
+rule combines the disadvantage of absolute monarchy with the
+impersonality and irresponsibility of democratic officialdom.  The
+Indian with a complaint to make has no visible monarch to go to;
+his Emperor is a golden symbol; he must circulate pamphlets in
+England {395} or inspire a question in the British House of
+Commons.  The more occupied Parliament is with British affairs,
+the less attention India will receive, and the more she will be at
+the mercy of her small group of higher officials.
+
+[Illustration: RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE GORGE, VICTORIA FALLS, OF
+THE ZAMBESI, SOUTHERN RHODESIA]
+
+Apart from India, there was no great expansion of any European
+Empire until the railways and the steamships were in effective
+action.  A considerable school of political thinkers in Britain
+was disposed to regard overseas possessions as a source of
+weakness to the kingdom.  The Australian settlements developed
+slowly until in 1842 the discovery of valuable copper mines, and
+in 1851 of gold, gave them a new importance.  Improvements in
+transport were also making Australian wool an increasingly
+marketable commodity in Europe.  {396} Canada, too, was not
+remarkably progressive until 1849; it was troubled by dissensions
+between its French and British inhabitants, there were several
+serious revolts, and it was only in 1867 that a new constitution
+creating a Federal Dominion of Canada relieved its internal
+strains.  It was the railway that altered the Canadian outlook.
+It enabled Canada, just as it enabled the United States, to expand
+westward, to market its corn and other produce in Europe, and in
+spite of its swift and extensive growth, to remain in language and
+sympathy and interests one community.  The railway, the steamship
+and the telegraph cable were indeed changing all the conditions of
+colonial development.
+
+Before 1840, English settlements had already begun in New Zealand,
+and a New Zealand Land Company had been formed to exploit the
+possibilities of the island.  In 1840 New Zealand also was added
+to the colonial possessions of the British Crown.
+
+Canada, as we have noted, was the first of the British possessions
+to respond richly to the new economic possibilities that the new
+methods of transport were opening.  Presently the republics of
+South America, and particularly the Argentine Republic, began to
+feel in their cattle trade and coffee growing the increased
+nearness of the European market.  Hitherto the chief commodities
+that had attracted the European powers into unsettled and barbaric
+regions had been gold or other metals, spices, ivory, or slaves.
+But in the latter quarter of the nineteenth century the increase
+of the European populations was obliging their governments to look
+abroad for staple foods; and the growth of scientific
+industrialism was creating a demand for new raw materials, fats
+and greases of every kind, rubber, and other hitherto disregarded
+substances.  It was plain that Great Britain and Holland and
+Portugal were reaping a great and growing commercial advantage
+from their very considerable control of tropical and sub-tropical
+products.  After 1871 Germany, and presently France and later
+Italy, began to look for unannexed raw-material areas, or for
+Oriental countries capable of profitable modernization.
+
+So began a fresh scramble all over the world, except in the
+American region where the Monroe Doctrine now barred such
+adventures, for politically unprotected lands.
+
+{397}
+
+[Map: The British Empire in 1815]
+
+Close to Europe was the continent of Africa, full of vaguely known
+possibilities.  In 1850 it was a continent of black mystery; only
+Egypt and the coast were known.  Here we have no space to tell the
+amazing story of the explorers and adventurers who first pierced
+the African darkness, and of the political agents, administrators,
+traders, settlers and scientific men who followed in their track.
+Wonderful races of men like the pygmies, strange beasts like the
+okapi, marvellous fruits and flowers and insects, terrible
+diseases, astounding scenery of forest and mountain, enormous
+inland seas and gigantic rivers and cascades were revealed; a
+whole new world.  Even remains (at Zimbabwe) of some unrecorded
+and vanished civilization, the southward enterprise of an early
+people, were discovered.  Into this new world came the Europeans,
+and found the rifle already there in the hands of the Arab
+slave-traders, and negro life in disorder.
+
+By 1900, in half a century, all Africa was mapped, explored,
+estimated and divided between the European powers.  Little heed
+was given to the welfare of the natives in this scramble.  The
+Arab slaver was indeed curbed rather than expelled, but the greed
+for rubber, which was a wild product collected under compulsion by
+the natives in the Belgian Congo, a greed exacerbated by the clash
+of inexperienced European administrators with the native {398}
+population, led to horrible atrocities.  No European power has
+perfectly clean hands in this matter.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail how Great Britain got possession
+of Egypt in 1883 and remained there in spite of the fact that
+Egypt was technically a part of the Turkish Empire, nor how nearly
+this scramble led to war between France and Great Britain in 1898,
+when a certain Colonel Marchand, crossing Central Africa from the
+west coast, tried at Fashoda to seize the Upper Nile.
+
+Nor can we tell how the British Government first let the Boers, or
+Dutch settlers, of the Orange River district and the Transvaal set
+up independent republics in the inland parts of South Africa, and
+then repented and annexed the Transvaal Republic in 1877; nor how
+the Transvaal Boers fought for freedom and won it after the battle
+of Majuba Hill (1881).  Majuba Hill was made to rankle in the
+memory of the English people by a persistent press campaign.  A
+war with both republics broke out in 1899, a three years' war
+enormously costly to the British people, which ended at last in
+the surrender of the two republics.
+
+Their period of subjugation was a brief one.  In 1907, after the
+downfall of the imperialist government which had conquered them,
+the Liberals took the South African problem in hand, and these
+former republics became free and fairly willing associates with
+Cape Colony and  Natal in a Confederation of all the states of
+South Africa as one self-governing republic under the British
+Crown.
+
+In a quarter of a century the partition of Africa was completed.
+There remained unannexed three comparatively small countries:
+Liberia, a settlement of liberated negro slaves on the west coast;
+Morocco, under a Moslem Sultan; and Abyssinia, a barbaric country,
+with an ancient and peculiar form of Christianity, which had
+successfully maintained its independence against Italy at the
+battle of Adowa in 1896.
+
+
+
+
+{399}
+
+LXIII
+
+EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA AND THE RISE OF JAPAN
+
+
+It is difficult to believe that any large number of people really
+accepted this headlong painting of the map of Africa in European
+colours as a permanent new settlement of the worlds affairs, but
+it is the duty of the historian to record that it was so accepted.
+There was but a shallow historical background to the European mind
+in the nineteenth century, and no habit of penetrating criticism.
+The quite temporary advantages that the mechanical revolution in
+the west had given the Europeans over the rest of the old world
+were regarded by people, blankly ignorant of such events as the
+great Mongol conquests, as evidences of a permanent and assured
+European leadership of mankind.  They had no sense of the
+transferability of science and its fruits.  They did not realize
+that Chinamen and Indians could carry on the work of research as
+ably as Frenchmen or Englishmen.  They believed that there was
+some innate intellectual drive in the west, and some innate
+indolence and conservatism in the east, that assured the Europeans
+a world predominance for ever.
+
+The consequence of this infatuation was that the various European
+foreign offices set themselves not merely to scramble with the
+British for the savage and undeveloped regions of the world's
+surface, but also to carve up the populous and civilized countries
+of Asia as though these people also were no more than raw material
+for exploitation.  The inwardly precarious but outwardly splendid
+imperialism of the British ruling class in India, and the
+extensive and profitable possessions of the Dutch in the East
+Indies, filled the rival Great Powers with dreams of similar
+glories in Persia, in the disintegrating Ottoman Empire, and in
+Further India, China and Japan.
+
+{400}
+
+In 1898 Germany seized Kiau Chau in China.  Britain responded by
+seizing Wei-hai-wei, and the next year the Russians took
+possession of Port Arthur.  A flame of hatred for the Europeans
+swept through China.  There were massacres of Europeans and
+Christian converts, and in 1900 an attack upon and siege of the
+European legations in Pekin.  A combined force of Europeans made a
+punitive expedition to Pekin, rescued the legations, and stole an
+enormous amount of valuable property.  The Russians then seized
+Manchuria, and in 1904, the British invaded Tibet....
+
+But now a new Power appeared in the struggle of the Great Powers,
+Japan.  Hitherto Japan has played but a small part in this
+history; her secluded civilization has not contributed very
+largely to the general shaping of human destinies; she has
+received much, but she has given little.  The Japanese proper are
+of the Mongolian race.  Their civilization, their writing and
+their literary and artistic traditions are derived from the
+Chinese.  Their history is an interesting and romantic one; they
+developed a feudal system and a system of chivalry in the earlier
+centuries of the Christian era; their attacks upon Korea and China
+are an Eastern equivalent of the English wars in France.  Japan
+was first brought into contact with Europe in the sixteenth
+century; in 1542 some Portuguese reached it in a Chinese junk, and
+in 1549 a Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, began his teaching
+there.  For a time Japan welcomed European intercourse, and the
+Christian missionaries made a great number of converts.  A certain
+William Adams became the most trusted European adviser of the
+Japanese, and showed them how to build big ships.  There were
+voyages in Japanese-built ships to India and Peru.  Then arose
+complicated quarrels between the Spanish Dominicans, the
+Portuguese Jesuits, and the English and Dutch Protestants, each
+warning the Japanese against the political designs of the others.
+The Jesuits, in a phase of ascendancy, persecuted and insulted the
+Buddhists with great acrimony.  In the end the Japanese came to
+the conclusion that the Europeans were an intolerable nuisance,
+and that Catholic Christianity in particular was a mere cloak for
+the political dreams of the Pope and the Spanish monarchy--already
+in possession of the Philippine Islands; there was a great
+persecution of the Christians, and in 1638 Japan was absolutely
+{401} closed to Europeans, and remained closed for over 200 years.
+During those two centuries the Japanese were as completely cut off
+from the rest of the world as though they lived upon another
+planet.  It was forbidden to build any ship larger than a mere
+coasting boat.  No Japanese could go abroad, and no European enter
+the country.
+
+[Illustration: JAPANESE SOLDIER ON THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+For two centuries Japan remained outside the main current of
+history.  She lived on in a state of picturesque feudalism in
+which about five per cent of the population, the _samurai_, or
+fighting men, and the nobles and their families, tyrannized
+without restraint over the rest of the population.  Meanwhile the
+great world outside went on to wider visions and new powers.
+Strange shipping became more frequent, passing the Japanese
+headlands; sometimes ships were wrecked and sailors brought
+ashore.  Through the Dutch settlement in the island of Deshima,
+their one link with the outer universe, came warnings that Japan
+was not keeping pace with the power of the Western world.  In 1837
+a ship sailed into Yedo Bay flying a strange flag of stripes and
+stars, and carrying some Japanese sailors she had picked up far
+adrift in the Pacific.  She was driven off by cannon shot.  This
+flag presently reappeared on other ships.  One in 1849 came to
+demand the liberation {402} of eighteen shipwrecked American
+sailors.  Then in 1853 came four American warships under Commodore
+Perry, and refused to be driven away.  He lay at anchor in
+forbidden waters, and sent messages to the two rulers who at that
+time shared the control of Japan.  In 1854 he returned with ten
+ships, amazing ships propelled by steam, and equipped with big
+guns, and he made proposals for trade and intercourse that the
+Japanese had no power to resist.  He landed with a guard of 500
+men to sign the treaty.  Incredulous crowds watched this
+visitation from the outer world, marching through the streets.
+
+Russia, Holland and Britain followed in the wake of America.  A
+great nobleman whose estates commanded the Straits of Shimonoseki
+saw fit to fire on foreign vessels, and a bombardment by a fleet
+of British, French, Dutch and American warships destroyed his
+batteries and scattered his swordsmen.  Finally an allied squadron
+(1865), at anchor off Kioto, imposed a ratification of the
+treaties which opened Japan to the world.
+
+The humiliation of the Japanese by these events was intense.  With
+astonishing energy and intelligence they set themselves to bring
+their culture and organization to the level of the European
+Powers.  Never in all the history of mankind did a nation make
+such a stride as Japan then did.  In 1866 she was a medieval
+people, a fantastic caricature of the extremest romantic
+feudalism; in 1899 hers was a completely Westernized people, on a
+level with the most advanced European Powers.  She completely
+dispelled the persuasion that Asia was in some irrevocable way
+hopelessly behind Europe.  She made all European progress seem
+sluggish by comparison.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail of Japan's war with China in
+1894-95.  It demonstrated the extent of her Westernization.  She
+had an efficient Westernized army and a small but sound fleet.
+But the significance of her renascence, though it was appreciated
+by Britain and the United States, who were already treating her as
+if she were a European state, was not understood by the other
+Great Powers engaged in the pursuit of new Indias in Asia.  Russia
+was pushing down through Manchuria to Korea.  France was already
+established far to the south in Tonkin and Annam, Germany was
+{403} prowling hungrily on the look-out for some settlement.  The
+three Powers combined to prevent Japan reaping any fruits from the
+Chinese war.  She was exhausted by the struggle, and they
+threatened her with war.
+
+[Illustration: A STREET IN TOKIO]
+
+Japan submitted for a time and gathered her forces.  Within ten
+years she was ready for a struggle with Russia, which marks an
+epoch in the history of Asia, the close of the period of European
+arrogance.  The Russian people were, of course, innocent and
+ignorant of this trouble that was being made for them halfway
+round the world, and the wiser Russian statesmen were against
+these foolish thrusts; but a gang of financial adventurers,
+including the Grand Dukes, his cousins, surrounded the Tsar.  They
+had gambled deeply in the prospective looting of Manchuria and
+China, and they would suffer no withdrawal.  So there began a
+transportation of great armies of Japanese soldiers across the sea
+to Port Arthur and Korea, and the sending of endless trainloads of
+Russian peasants along the Siberian railway to die in those
+distant battlefields.
+
+{404}
+
+The Russians, badly led and dishonestly provided, were beaten on
+sea and land alike.  The Russian Baltic Fleet sailed round Africa
+to be utterly destroyed in the Straits of Tshushima.  A
+revolutionary movement among the common people of Russia,
+infuriated by this remote and reasonless slaughter, obliged the
+Tsar to end the war (1905); he returned the southern half of
+Saghalien, which had been seized by Russia in 1875, evacuated
+Manchuria, resigned Korea to Japan.  The European invasion of Asia
+was coming to an end and the retraction of Europe's tentacles was
+beginning.
+
+
+
+
+{405}
+
+LXIV
+
+THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914
+
+
+We may note here briefly the varied nature of the constituents of
+the British Empire in 1914 which the steamship and railway had
+brought together.  It was and is a quite unique political
+combination; nothing of the sort has ever existed before.
+
+First and central to the whole system was the "crowned republic"
+of the United British Kingdom, including (against the will of a
+considerable part of the Irish people) Ireland.  The majority of
+the British Parliament, made up of the three united parliaments of
+England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, determines the headship,
+the quality and policy of the ministry, and determines it largely
+on considerations arising out of British domestic politics.  It is
+this ministry which is the effective supreme government, with
+powers of peace and war, over all the rest of the empire.
+
+Next in order of political importance to the British States were
+the "crowned republics" of Australia, Canada, Newfoundland (the
+oldest British possession, 1583), New Zealand and South Africa,
+all practically independent and self-governing states in alliance
+with Great Britain, but each with a representative of the Crown
+appointed by the Government in office;
+
+Next the Indian Empire, an extension of the Empire of the Great
+Mogul with its dependent and "protected" states reaching now from
+Beluchistan to Burma, and including Aden, in all of which empire
+the British Crown and the India Office (under Parliamentary
+control) played the role of the original Turkoman dynasty;
+
+Then the ambiguous possession of Egypt, still nominally a part of
+the Turkish Empire and still retaining its own monarch, the
+Khedive, but under almost despotic British official rule;
+
+Then the still more ambiguous "Anglo-Egyptian" Sudan province,
+{407} occupied and administered jointly by the British and by the
+(British controlled) Egyptian Government;
+
+Then a number of partially self-governing communities, some
+British in origin and some not, with elected legislatures and an
+appointed executive, such as Malta, Jamaica, the Bahamas and
+Bermuda;
+
+Then the Crown colonies, in which the rule of the British Home
+Government (through the Colonial Office) verged on autocracy, as
+in Ceylon, Trinidad and Fiji (where there was an appointed
+council), and Gibraltar and St. Helena (where there was a
+governor);
+
+Then great areas of (chiefly) tropical lands, raw-product areas,
+with politically weak and under-civilized native communities which
+were nominally protectorates, and administered either by a High
+Commissioner set over native chiefs (as in Basutoland) or over a
+chartered company (as in Rhodesia).  In some cases the Foreign
+Office, in some cases the Colonial Office, and in some cases the
+India Office, has been concerned in acquiring the possessions that
+fell into this last and least definite class of all, but for the
+most part the Colonial Office was now responsible for them.
+
+[Illustration: GIBRALTAR]
+
+====================================================================
+
+{406}
+
+[Map: OVERSEAS EMPIRES of EUROPEAN POWERS, January 1914]
+
+====================================================================
+
+It will be manifest, therefore, that no single office and no
+single brain had ever comprehended the British Empire as a whole.
+It was a mixture of growths and accumulations entirely different
+from anything that has ever been called an empire before.  It
+guaranteed a wide peace and security; that is why it was endured
+and sustained by many men of the "subject" races--in spite of
+official tyrannies {408} and insufficiencies, and of much
+negligence on the part of the "home" public.  Like the Athenian
+Empire, it was an overseas empire; its ways were sea ways, and its
+common link was the British Navy.  Like all empires, its cohesion
+was dependent physically upon a method of communication; the
+development of seamanship, ship-building and steamships between
+the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries had made it a possible and
+convenient Pax--the "Pax Britannica," and fresh developments of
+air or swift land transport might at any time make it
+inconvenient.
+
+[Illustration: STREET IN HONG KONG]
+
+
+
+
+{409}
+
+LXV
+
+THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18
+
+
+The progress in material science that created this vast
+steamboat-and-railway republic of America and spread this
+precarious British steamship empire over the world, produced
+quite other effects upon the congested nations upon the continent
+of Europe.  They found themselves confined within boundaries fixed
+during the horse-and-high-road period of human life, and their
+expansion overseas had been very largely anticipated by Great
+Britain.  Only Russia had any freedom to expand eastward; and she
+drove a great railway across Siberia until she entangled herself
+in a conflict with Japan, and pushed south-eastwardly towards the
+borders of Persia and India to the annoyance of Britain.  The rest
+of the European Powers were in a state of intensifying congestion.
+In order to realize the full possibilities of the new apparatus of
+human life they had to rearrange their affairs upon a broader
+basis, either by some sort of voluntary union or by a union
+imposed upon them by some predominant power.  The tendency
+of modern thought was in the direction of the former alternative,
+but all the force of political tradition drove Europe towards the
+latter.
+
+The downfall of the "empire" of Napoleon III, the establishment of
+the new German Empire, pointed men's hopes and fears towards the
+idea of a Europe consolidated under German auspices.  For
+thirty-six years of uneasy peace the polities of Europe centred
+upon that possibility.  France, the steadfast rival of Germany for
+European ascendancy since the division of the empire of
+Charlemagne, sought to correct her own weakness by a close
+alliance with Russia, and Germany linked herself closely with the
+Austrian Empire (it had ceased to be the Holy Roman Empire in the
+days of Napoleon I) and less successfully with the new kingdom of
+Italy.  {410} At first Great Britain stood as usual half in and
+half out of continental affairs.  But she was gradually forced
+into a close association with the Franco-Russian group by the
+aggressive development of a great German navy.  The grandiose
+imagination of the Emperor William II (1888-1918) thrust Germany
+into premature overseas enterprise that ultimately brought not
+only Great Britain but Japan and the United States into the
+circle of her enemies.
+
+[Illustration: BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD]
+
+All these nations armed.  Year after year the proportion of
+national production devoted to the making of guns, equipment,
+battleships and the like, increased. Year after year the balance
+{411} of things seemed trembling towards war, and then war would
+be averted.  At last it came.  Germany and Austria struck at
+France and Russia and Serbia; the German armies marching through
+Belgium, Britain immediately came into the war on the side of
+Belgium, bringing in Japan as her ally, and very soon Turkey
+followed on the German side.  Italy entered the war against
+Austria in 1915, and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in the
+October of that year.  In 1916 Rumania, and in 1917 the United
+States and China were forced into war against Germany.  It is not
+within the scope of this history to define the exact share of
+blame for this vast catastrophe.  The more interesting question is
+not why the Great War was begun but why the Great War was not
+anticipated and prevented.  It is a far graver thing for mankind
+that scores of millions of people were too "patriotic," stupid, or
+apathetic to prevent this disaster by a movement towards European
+unity upon frank and generous lines, than that a small number of
+people may have been active in bringing it about.
+
+[Illustration: THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH
+TOWN)]
+
+It is impossible within the space at our command here to trace the
+intricate details of the war.  Within a few months it became
+apparent that the progress of modern technical science had changed
+{412} the nature of warfare very profoundly.  Physical science
+gives power, power over steel, over distance, over disease;
+whether that power is used well or ill depends upon the moral and
+political intelligence of the world.  The governments of Europe,
+inspired by antiquated policies of hate and suspicion, found
+themselves with unexampled powers both of destruction and
+resistance in their hands.  The war became a consuming fire round
+and about the world, causing losses both to victors and vanquished
+out of all proportion to the issues involved.  The first phase of
+the war was a tremendous rush of the Germans upon Paris and an
+invasion of East Prussia by the Russians.  Both attacks were held
+and turned.  Then the power of the defensive developed; there was
+a rapid elaboration of trench warfare until for a time the
+opposing armies lay entrenched in long lines right across Europe,
+unable to make any advance without enormous losses.  The armies
+were millions strong, and behind them entire populations were
+organized for the supply of food and munitions to the front.  Then
+was a cessation of nearly every sort of productive activity except
+such as contributed to military operations.  All the able-bodied
+manhood of Europe was drawn into the armies or navies or into the
+improvised factories that served {413} them.  There was an
+enormous replacement of men by women in industry.  Probably more
+than half the people in the belligerent countries of Europe
+changed their employment altogether during this stupendous
+struggle.  They were socially uprooted and transplanted.
+Education and normal scientific work were restricted or diverted
+to immediate military ends, and the distribution of news was
+crippled and corrupted by military control and "propaganda"
+activities.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR]
+
+The phase of military deadlock passed slowly into one of
+aggression upon the combatant populations behind the fronts by the
+destruction of food supplies and by attacks through the air.  And
+also there was a steady improvement in the size and range of the
+guns employed and of such ingenious devices as poison-gas shells
+and the small mobile forts known as tanks, to break down the
+resistance of troops in the trenches.  The air offensive was the
+most revolutionary of all the new methods.  It carried warfare
+from two dimensions into three.  Hitherto in the history of
+mankind war had gone on only where the armies marched and met.
+Now it went on everywhere.  First the Zeppelin and then the
+bombing aeroplane carried war over and past the front to an
+ever-increasing area of civilian activities beyond.  The old
+distinction maintained in civilized warfare between the civilian
+and combatant population disappeared.  Everyone who grew food, or
+who sewed a garment, everyone who felled a tree or repaired a
+house, every railway station and every warehouse was held to be
+fair game for destruction.  The air offensive increased in range
+and terror with every month in the war.  At last great areas of
+Europe were in a state of siege and subject to nightly raids.
+Such exposed cities as London and Paris passed sleepless night
+after sleepless night while the bombs burst, the anti-aircraft
+guns maintained an intolerable racket, and the fire engines and
+ambulances rattled headlong through the darkened and deserted
+streets.  The effects upon the minds and health of old people and
+of young children were particularly distressing and destructive.
+
+Pestilence, that old follower of warfare, did not arrive until the
+very end of the fighting in 1918.  For four years medical science
+staved off any general epidemic; then came a great outbreak of
+{414} influenza about the world which destroyed many millions of
+people.  Famine also was staved off for some time.  By the
+beginning of 1918 however most of Europe was in a state of
+mitigated and regulated famine.  The production of food throughout
+the world had fallen very greatly through the calling off of
+peasant mankind to the fronts, and the distribution of such food
+as was produced was impeded by the havoc wrought by the submarine,
+by the rupture of customary routes through the closing of
+frontiers, and by the disorganization of the transport system of
+the world.  The various governments took possession of the
+dwindling food supplies, and, with more or less success, rationed
+their populations.  By the fourth year the whole world was
+suffering from shortages of clothing and housing and of most of
+the normal gear of life as well as of food.  Business and economic
+life were profoundly disorganized.  Every-one was worried, and
+most people were leading lives of unwonted discomfort.
+
+The actual warfare ceased in November, 1918.  After a supreme
+effort in the spring of 1918 that almost carried the Germans to
+Paris, the Central Powers collapsed.  They had come to an end of
+their spirit and resources.
+
+
+
+
+{415}
+
+LXVI
+
+THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA
+
+
+But a good year and more before the collapse of the Central Powers
+the half oriental monarchy of Russia, which had professed to be
+the continuation of the Byzantine Empire, had collapsed.  The
+Tsardom had been showing signs of profound rottenness for some
+years before the war; the court was under the sway of a fantastic
+religious impostor, Rasputin, and the public administration, civil
+and military, was in a state of extreme inefficiency and
+corruption.  At the outset of the war there was a great flare of
+patriotic enthusiasm in Russia.  A vast conscript army was called
+up, for which there was neither adequate military equipment nor a
+proper supply of competent officers, and this great host, ill
+supplied and badly handled, was hurled against the German and
+Austrian frontiers.
+
+There can be no doubt that the early appearance of Russian armies
+in East Prussia in September, 1914, diverted the energies and
+attention of the Germans from their first victorious drive upon
+Paris.  The sufferings and deaths of scores of thousands of
+ill-led Russian peasants saved France from complete overthrow in
+that momentous opening campaign, and made all western Europe the
+debtors of that great and tragic people.  But the strain of the
+war upon this sprawling, ill-organized empire was too heavy for
+its strength.  The Russian common soldiers were sent into battle
+without guns to support them, without even rifle ammunition; they
+were wasted by their officers and generals in a delirium of
+militarist enthusiasm.  For a time they seemed to be suffering
+mutely as the beasts suffer; but there is a limit to the endurance
+even of the most ignorant.  A profound disgust for Tsardom was
+creeping through these armies of betrayed and wasted men.  From
+the close of 1915 onward Russia was a source of deepening anxiety
+to her Western Allies.  Throughout 1916 she remained largely on
+{416} the defensive, and there were rumours of a separate peace
+with Germany.
+
+On December 29th, 1916, the monk Rasputin was murdered at a dinner
+party in Petrograd, and a belated attempt was made to put the
+Tsardom in order.  By March things were moving rapidly; food riots
+in Petrograd developed into a revolutionary insurrection; there
+was an attempted suppression of the Duma, the representative body,
+there were attempted arrests of liberal leaders, the formation of
+a provisional government under Prince Lvoff, and an abdication
+(March 15th) by the Tsar.  For a time it seemed that a moderate
+and controlled revolution might be possible--perhaps under a new
+Tsar.  Then it became evident that the destruction of popular
+confidence in Russia had gone too far for any such adjustments.
+The Russian people were sick to death of the old order of things
+in Europe, of Tsars and wars and of Great Powers; it wanted
+relief, and that speedily, from unendurable miseries.  The Allies
+had no understanding of Russian realities; their diplomatists were
+ignorant of Russian, genteel persons with their attention directed
+to the Russian Court rather than to Russia, they blundered
+steadily with the new situation.  There was little goodwill among
+these diplomatists for republicanism, and a manifest disposition
+to embarrass the new government as much as possible.  At the head
+of the Russian republican government was an eloquent and
+picturesque leader, Kerensky, who found himself assailed by the
+forces of a profounder revolutionary movement, the "social
+revolution," at home and cold-shouldered by the Allied governments
+abroad.  His Allies would neither let him give the Russian
+peasants the land for which they craved nor peace beyond their
+frontiers.  The French and the British press pestered their
+exhausted ally for a fresh offensive, but when presently the
+Germans made a strong attack by sea and land upon Riga, the
+British Admiralty quailed before the prospect of a Baltic
+expedition in relief.  The new Russian Republic had to fight
+unsupported.  In spite of their naval predominance and the bitter
+protests of the great English admiral, Lord Fisher (1841-1920), it
+is to be noted that the British and their Allies, except for some
+submarine attacks, left the Germans the complete mastery of the
+Baltic throughout the war.
+
+{417}
+
+The Russian masses, however, were resolute to end the war.  At any
+cost.  There had come into existence in Petrograd a body
+representing the workers and common soldiers, the Soviet, and this
+body clamoured for an international conference of socialists at
+Stockholm.  Food riots were occurring in Berlin at this time, war
+weariness in Austria and Germany was profound, and there can be
+little doubt, in the light of subsequent events, that such a
+conference would have precipitated a reasonable peace on
+democratic lines in 1917 and a German revolution.  Kerensky
+implored his Western allies to allow this conference to take
+place, but, fearful of a worldwide outbreak of socialism and
+republicanism, they refused, in spite of the favourable response
+of a small majority of the British Labour Party.  Without either
+moral or physical help from the Allies, the unhappy "moderate"
+Russian Republic still fought on and made a last desperate
+offensive effort in July.  It failed after some preliminary
+successes, and there came another great slaughtering of Russians.
+
+The limit of Russian endurance was reached.  Mutinies broke out in
+the Russian armies, and particularly upon the northern front, and
+on November 7th, 1917, Kerensky's government was overthrown and
+power was seized by the Soviets, dominated by the Bolshevik
+socialists under Lenin, and pledged to make peace regardless of
+the Western powers.  On March 2nd, 1918, a separate peace between
+Russia and Germany was signed at Brest-Litovsk.
+
+====================================================================
+
+{418}
+
+[Illustration: A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE]
+
+====================================================================
+
+It speedily became evident that these Bolshevik socialists were
+men of a very different quality from the rhetorical
+constitutionalists and revolutionaries of the Kerensky phase.
+They were fanatical Marxist communists.  They believed that their
+accession to power in Russia was only the opening of a world-wide
+social revolution, and they set about changing the social and
+economic order with the thoroughness of perfect faith and absolute
+inexperience.  The western European and the American governments
+were themselves much too ill-informed and incapable to guide or
+help this extraordinary experiment, and the press set itself to
+discredit and the ruling classes to wreck these usurpers upon any
+terms and at any cost to themselves or to Russia.  A propaganda of
+abominable and disgusting inventions went on unchecked in the
+press of the {419} world; the Bolshevik leaders were represented
+as incredible monsters glutted with blood and plunder and living
+lives of sensuality before which the realities of the Tsarist
+court during the Rasputin regime paled to a white purity.
+Expeditions were launched at the exhausted country, insurgents and
+raiders were encouraged, armed and subsidized, and no method of
+attack was too mean or too monstrous for the frightened enemies of
+the Bolshevik regime.  In 1919, the Russian Bolsheviks, ruling a
+country already exhausted and disorganized by five years of
+intensive warfare, were fighting a British Expedition at
+Archangel, Japanese invaders in Eastern Siberia, Roumanians with
+French and Greek contingents in the south, the Russian Admiral
+Koltchak in Siberia and General Deniken, supported by the French
+fleet, in the Crimea.  In July of that year an Esthonian army,
+under General Yudenitch, almost got to Petersburg.  In 1920 the
+Poles, incited by the French, made a new attack on Russia; and a
+new reactionary raider, General Wrangel, took over the task of
+General Deniken in invading and devastating his own country.  In
+March, 1921, the sailors at Cronstadt revolted.  The Russian
+Government under its president, Lenin, survived all these various
+attacks.  It showed an amazing tenacity, and the common people of
+Russia sustained it unswervingly under conditions of extreme
+hardship.  By the end of 1921 both Britain and Italy had made a
+sort of recognition of the communist rule.
+
+But if the Bolshevik Government was successful in its struggle
+against foreign intervention and internal revolt, it was far less
+happy in its attempts to set up a new social order based upon
+communist ideas in Russia.  The Russian peasant is a small
+land-hungry proprietor, as far from communism in his thoughts and
+methods as a whale is from flying; the revolution gave him the
+land of the great landowners but could not make him grow food for
+anything but negotiable money, and the revolution, among other
+things, had practically destroyed the value of money.
+Agricultural production, already greatly disordered by the
+collapse of the railways through war-strain, shrank to a mere
+cultivation of food by the peasants for their own consumption.
+The towns starved.  Hasty and ill-planned attempts to make over
+industrial production {420} in accordance with communist ideas
+were equally unsuccessful.  By 1920 Russia presented the
+unprecedented spectacle of a modern civilization in complete
+collapse.  Railways were rusting and passing out of use, towns
+were falling into ruin, everywhere there was an immense mortality.
+Yet the country still fought with its enemies at its gates.  In
+1921 came a drought and a great famine among the peasant
+cultivators in the war-devastated south-east provinces.  Millions
+of people starved.
+
+But the question of the distresses and the possible recuperation
+of Russia brings us too close to current controversies to be
+discussed here.
+
+
+
+
+{421}
+
+LXVII
+
+THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD
+
+
+The scheme and scale upon which this History is planned do not
+permit us to enter into the complicated and acrimonious disputes
+that centre about the treaties, and particularly of the treaty of
+Versailles, which concluded the Great War.  We are beginning to
+realize that that conflict, terrible and enormous as it was, ended
+nothing, began nothing and settled nothing.  It killed millions of
+people; it wasted and impoverished the world.  It smashed Russia
+altogether.  It was at best an acute and frightful reminder that
+we were living foolishly and confusedly without much plan or
+foresight in a dangerous and unsympathetic universe.  The crudely
+organized egotisms and passions of national and imperial greed
+that carried mankind into that tragedy, emerged from it
+sufficiently unimpaired to make some other similar disaster highly
+probable so soon as the world has a little recovered from its war
+exhaustion and fatigue.  Wars and revolutions make nothing; their
+utmost service to mankind is that, in a very rough and painful
+way, they destroy superannuated and obstructive things.  The great
+war lifted the threat of German imperialism from Europe, and
+shattered the imperialism of Russia.  It cleared away a number of
+monarchies.  But a multitude of flags still waves in Europe, the
+frontiers still exasperate, great armies accumulate fresh stores
+of equipment.
+
+The Peace Conference at Versailles was a gathering very ill
+adapted to do more than carry out the conflicts and defeats of the
+war to their logical conclusions.  The Germans, Austrians, Turks
+and Bulgarians were permitted no share in its deliberations; they
+were only to accept the decisions it dictated to them.  From the
+point of view of human welfare the choice of the place of meeting
+was particularly unfortunate.  It was at Versailles in 1871 that,
+with every circumstance of triumphant vulgarity, the new German
+{422} Empire had been proclaimed.  The suggestion of a
+melodramatic reversal of that scene, in the same Hall of Mirrors,
+was overpowering.
+
+Whatever generosities had appeared in the opening phases of the
+Great War had long been exhausted.  The populations of the
+victorious countries were acutely aware of their own losses and
+sufferings, and entirely regardless of the fact that the defeated
+had paid in the like manner.  The war had arisen as a natural and
+inevitable consequence of the competitive nationalisms of Europe
+and the absence of any Federal adjustment of these competitive
+forces; war is the necessary logical consummation of independent
+sovereign nationalities living in too small an area with too
+powerful an armament; and if the great war had not come in the
+form it did it would have come in some similar form--just as it
+will certainly return upon a still more disastrous scale in twenty
+or thirty years' time if no political unification anticipates and
+prevents it.  States organized for war will make wars as surely as
+hens will lay eggs, but the feeling of these distressed and
+war-worn countries disregarded this fact, and the whole of the
+defeated peoples were treated as morally and materially
+responsible for all the damage, as they would no doubt have
+treated the victor peoples had the issue of war been different.
+The French and English thought the Germans were to blame, the
+Germans thought the Russians, French and English were to blame,
+and only an intelligent minority thought that there was anything
+to blame in the fragmentary political constitution of Europe.  The
+treaty of Versailles was intended to be exemplary and vindictive;
+it provided tremendous penalties for the vanquished; it sought to
+provide compensations for the wounded and suffering victors by
+imposing enormous debts upon nations already bankrupt, and its
+attempts to reconstitute international relations by the
+establishment of a League of Nations against war were manifestly
+insincere and inadequate.
+
+[Illustration: PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT]
+
+So far as Europe was concerned it is doubtful if there would have
+been any attempt whatever to organize international relations for
+a permanent peace.  The proposal of the League of Nations was
+brought into practical politics by the President of the United
+States of America, President Wilson.  Its chief support was in
+America.  So far the United States, this new modern state, had
+{423} developed no distinctive ideas of international relationship
+beyond the Monroe Doctrine, which protected the new world from
+European interference.  Now suddenly it was called upon for its
+mental contribution to the vast problem of the time.  It had none.
+The natural disposition of the American people was towards a
+permanent world peace.  With this however was linked a strong
+traditional distrust of old-world polities and a habit of
+isolation from old-world entanglements.  The Americans had hardly
+begun to think out an American solution of world problems when the
+submarine campaign of the Germans dragged them into the war on the
+side of the anti-German allies.  President Wilson's scheme of a
+League of Nations was an attempt at short notice to create a
+distinctively American world project.  It was a sketchy,
+inadequate and dangerous scheme.  In Europe however it was taken
+as a matured American point of view.  The generality of mankind in
+1918-19 was intensely weary of war and anxious at almost any
+sacrifice to erect {424} barriers against its recurrence, but
+there was not a single government in the old world willing to
+waive one iota of its sovereign independence to attain any such
+end.  The public utterances of President Wilson leading up to the
+project of a World League of Nations seemed for a time to appeal
+right over the heads of the governments to the peoples of the
+world; they were taken as expressing the ripe intentions of
+America, and the response was enormous.  Unhappily President
+Wilson had to deal with governments and not with peoples; he was a
+man capable of tremendous flashes of vision and yet when put to
+the test egotistical and limited, and the great wave of enthusiasm
+he evoked passed and was wasted.
+
+Says Dr. Dillon in his book, _The Peace Conference_: "Europe, when
+the President touched its shores, was as clay ready for the
+creative potter.  Never before were the nations so eager to follow
+a Moses who would take them to the long-promised land where wars
+are prohibited and blockades unknown.  And to their thinking he
+was just that great leader.  In France men bowed down before him
+with awe and affection.  Labour leaders in Paris told me that they
+shed tears of joy in his presence, and that their comrades would
+go through fire and water to help him to realize his noble
+schemes.  To the working classes in Italy his name was a heavenly
+clarion at the sound of which the earth would be renewed.  The
+Germans regarded him and his doctrine as their sheet-anchor of
+safety.  The fearless Herr Muehlon said: 'If President Wilson were
+to address the Germans and pronounce a severe sentence upon them,
+they would accept it with resignation and without a murmur and set
+to work at once.'  In German-Austria his fame was that of a
+saviour, and the mere mention of his name brought balm to the
+suffering and surcease of sorrow to the afflicted ... ."
+
+Such were the overpowering expectations that President Wilson
+raised.  How completely he disappointed them and how weak and
+futile was the League of Nations he made is too long and too
+distressful a story to tell here.  He exaggerated in his person
+our common human tragedy, he was so very great in his dreams and
+so incapable in his performance.  America dissented from the acts
+of its President and would not join the League Europe accepted
+from him.  There was a slow realization on the part of the
+American {425} people that it had been rushed into something for
+which it was totally unprepared.  There was a corresponding
+realization on the part of Europe that America had nothing ready
+to give to the old world in its extremity.  Born prematurely and
+crippled at its birth, that League has become indeed, with its
+elaborate and unpractical constitution and its manifest
+limitations of power, a serious obstacle in the way of any
+effective reorganization of international relationships.  The
+problem would be a clearer one if the League did not yet exist.
+Yet that world-wide blaze of enthusiasm that first welcomed the
+project, that readiness of men everywhere round and about the
+earth, of men, that is, as distinguished from governments, for a
+world control of war, is a thing to be recorded with emphasis in
+any history.  Behind the short-sighted governments that divide and
+mismanage human affairs, a real force for world unity and world
+order exists and grows.
+
+From 1918 onward the world entered upon an age of conferences.  Of
+these the Conference at Washington called by President Harding
+(1921) has been the most successful and suggestive.  Notable, too,
+is the Genoa Conference (1922) for the appearance of German and
+Russian delegates at its deliberations.  We will not discuss this
+long procession of conferences and tentatives in any detail.  It
+becomes more and more clearly manifest that a huge work of
+reconstruction has to be done by mankind if a crescendo of such
+convulsions and world massacres as that of the great war is to be
+averted.  No such hasty improvisation as the League of Nations, no
+patched-up system of Conferences between this group of states and
+that, which change nothing with an air of settling everything,
+will meet the complex political needs of the new age that lies
+before us.  A systematic development and a systematic application
+of the sciences of human relationship, of personal and group
+psychology, of financial and economic science and of education,
+sciences still only in their infancy, is required.  Narrow and
+obsolete, dead and dying moral and political ideas have to be
+replaced by a clearer and a simpler conception of the common
+origins and destinies of our kind.
+
+[Illustration: A PEACEFUL GARDEN IN ENGLAND]
+
+But if the dangers, confusions and disasters that crowd upon man
+in these days are enormous beyond any experience of the past, it
+is because science has brought him such powers as he never had
+{426} before.  And the scientific method of fearless thought,
+exhaustively lucid statement, and exhaustively criticized
+planning, which has given him these as yet uncontrollable powers,
+gives him also the hope of controlling these powers.  Man is still
+only adolescent.  His troubles are not the troubles of senility
+and exhaustion but of increasing and still undisciplined strength.
+When we look at all {427} history as one process, as we have been
+doing in this book, when we see the steadfast upward struggle of
+life towards vision and control, then we see in their true
+proportions the hopes and dangers of the present time.  As yet we
+are hardly in the earliest dawn of human greatness.  But in the
+beauty of flower and sunset, in the happy and perfect movement of
+young animals and in the delight of ten thousand various
+landscapes, we have some intimations of what life can do for us,
+and in some few works of plastic and pictorial art, in some great
+music, in a few noble buildings and happy gardens, we have an
+intimation of what the human will can do with material
+possibilities.  We have dreams; we have at present undisciplined
+but ever increasing power.  Can we doubt that presently our race
+will more than realize our boldest imaginations, that it will
+achieve unity and peace, that it will live, the children of our
+blood and lives will live, in a world made more splendid and
+lovely than any palace or garden that we know, going on from
+strength to strength in an ever widening circle of adventure and
+achievement?  What man has done, the little triumphs of his
+present state, and all this history we have told, form but the
+prelude to the things that man has got to do.
+
+
+
+
+{429}
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
+
+
+About the year 1000 B.C. the Aryan peoples were establishing
+themselves in the peninsulas of Spain, Italy and the Balkans, and
+they were established in North India; Cnossos was already
+destroyed and the spacious times of Egypt, of Thothmes III,
+Amenophis III and Rameses II were three or four centuries away.
+Weak monarchs of the XXIst Dynasty were ruling in the Nile Valley.
+Israel was united under her early kings; Saul or David or possibly
+even Solomon may have been reigning.  Sargon I (2750 B.C.) of the
+Akkadian Sumerian Empire was a remote memory in Babylonian
+history, more remote than is Constantine the Great from the world
+of the present day.  Hammurabi had been dead a thousand years.
+The Assyrians were already dominating the less military
+Babylonians.  In 1100 B.C. Tiglath Pileser I had taken Babylon.
+But there was no permanent conquest; Assyria and Babylonia were
+still separate empires.  In China the new Chow dynasty was
+flourishing.  Stonehenge in England was already some hundreds of
+years old.
+
+The next two centuries saw a renascence of Egypt under the XXIInd
+Dynasty, the splitting up of the brief little Hebrew kingdom of
+Solomon, the spreading of the Greeks in the Balkans, South Italy
+and Asia Minor, and the days of Etruscan predominance in Central
+Italy.  We begin our list of ascertainable dates with
+
+  B.C.
+  800. The building of Carthage.
+  790. The Ethiopian conquest of Egypt (founding the XXVth Dynasty).
+  776. First Olympiad.
+  753. Rome built.
+  745. Tiglath Pileser III conquered Babylonia and founded the New
+    Assyrian Empire.
+  722. Sargon II armed the Assyrians with iron weapons.
+  721. He deported the Israelites.
+  680. Esarhaddon took Thebes in Egypt (overthrowing the Ethiopian
+    XXVth Dynasty).
+  664. Psammetichus I restored the freedom of Egypt and founded the
+    XXVIth Dynasty (to 610).
+  608. Necho of Egypt defeated Josiah, king of Judah, at the battle
+    of Megiddo.
+  606. Capture of Nineveh by the Chaldeans and Medes.
+       Foundation of the Chaldean Empire.
+  604. Necho pushed to the Euphrates and was overthrown by
+    Nebuchadnezzar II.
+      (Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews to Babylon.)
+  550. Cyrus the Persian succeeded Cyaxares the Mede.
+       Cyrus conquered Croesus.
+       Buddha lived about this time.
+       So also did Confucius and Lao Tse.
+  539. Cyrus took Babylon and founded the Persian Empire.
+  521. Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, ruled from the Hellespont
+    to the Indus.
+       His expedition to Scythia.
+
+{430}
+
+  490. Battle of Marathon.
+  480. Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis.
+  479. The battles of Platea and Mycale completed the repulse of
+    Persia.
+  474. Etruscan fleet destroyed by the Sicilian Greeks.
+  431. Peloponnesian War began (to 404)
+  401. Retreat of the Ten Thousand.
+  359. Philip became king of Macedonia.
+  338. Battle of Chaeronia.
+  336. Macedonian troops crossed into Asia.  Philip murdered.
+  334. Battle of the Granicus.
+  333. Battle of Issus.
+  331. Battle of Arbela.
+  330. Darius III killed.
+  323. Death of Alexander the Great.
+  321. Rise of Chandragupta in the Punjab.
+       The Romans completely beaten by the Samnites at the battle of
+    the Caudine Forks.
+  281. Pyrrhus invaded Italy.
+  280. Battle of Heraclea.
+  279. Battle of Ausculum.
+  278. Gauls raided into Asia Minor and settled in Galatia.
+  275. Pyrrhus left Italy.
+  264. First Punic War. (Asoka began to reign in Behar--to 227.)
+  260. Battle of Mylae.
+  256. Battle of Ecnomus.
+  246. Shi-Hwang-ti became King of Ts'in.
+  220. Shi-Hwang-ti became Emperor of China.
+  214. Great Wall of China begun.
+  210. Death of Shi-Hwang-ti.
+  202. Battle of Zama.
+  146. Carthage destroyed.
+  133. Attalus bequeathed Pergamum to Rome.
+  102. Marius drove back Germans.
+  100. Triumph of Marius. (Chinese conquering the Tarim valley.)
+  89. All Italians became Roman citizens.
+  73. The revolt of the slaves under Spartacus.
+  71. Defeat and end of Spartacus.
+  66. Pompey led Roman troops to the Caspian and Euphrates.  He
+    encountered the Alani.
+  48. Julius Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalos.
+  44. Julius Caesar assassinated.
+  27. Augustus Caesar princeps (until 14 A.D.).
+  4. True date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+  A.D. Christian Era began.
+
+  14. Augustus died.  Tiberius emperor.
+  30. Jesus of Nazareth crucified.
+  41. Claudius (the first emperor of the legions) made emperor by
+    pretorian guard after murder of Caligula.
+  68. Suicide of Nero. (Galba, Otho, Vitellus, emperors in
+    succession.)
+  69. Vespasian.
+  102. Pan Chau on the Caspian Sea.
+  117. Hadrian succeeded Trajan.  Roman Empire at its greatest
+    extent.
+  138. (The Indo-Scythians at this time were destroying the last
+    traces of Hellenic rule in India.)
+  161. Marcus Aurelius succeeded Antoninus Pius.
+  164. Great plague began, and lasted to the death of M. Aurelius
+    (180).  This also devastated all Asia.
+      (Nearly a century of war and disorder began in the Roman
+    Empire.)
+  220. End of the Han dynasty.  Beginning of four hundred years of
+    division in China.
+  227. Ardashir I (first Sassanid shah) put an end to Arsacid line
+    in Persia.
+  242. Mani began his teaching.
+  247. Goths crossed Danube in a great raid.
+  251. Great victory of Goths.  Emperor Decius killed.
+  260. Sapor I, the second Sassanid shah, took Antioch, captured the
+    Emperor Valerian, and was cut up on his return from Asia {431}
+    Minor by Odenathus of Palmyra.
+  277. Mani crucified in Persia.
+  284. Diocletian became emperor.
+  303. Diocletian persecuted the Christians.
+  311. Galerius abandoned the persecution of the Christians.
+  312. Constantine the Great became emperor.
+  323. Constantine presided over the Council of Nicaea.
+  337. Constantine baptized on his deathbed.
+  361-3. Julian the Apostate attempted to substitute Mithraism for
+    Christianity.
+  392. Theodosius the Great emperor of east and west.
+  395. Theodosius the Great died.  Honorius and Arcadius redivided
+    the empire with Stilicho and Alaric as their masters and
+    protectors.
+  410. The Visigoths under Alaric captured Rome.
+  425. Vandals settling in south of Spain.  Huns in Pannonia, Goths
+    in Dalmatia.  Visigoths and Suevi in Portugal and North Spain.
+    English invading Britain.
+  439. Vandals took Carthage.
+  451. Attila raided Gaul and was defeated by Franks, Alemanni and
+    Romans at Troyes.
+  453. Death of Attila.
+  455. Vandals sacked Rome.
+  470. Odoacer, king of a medley of Teutonic tribes, informed
+    Constantinople that there was no emperor in the West.  End of
+    the Western Empire.
+  493. Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, conquered Italy and became King of
+    Italy, but was nominally subject to Constantinople.  (Gothic
+    kings in Italy.  Goths settled on special confiscated lands as a
+    garrison.)
+  527. Justinian emperor.
+  529. Justinian closed the schools at Athens, which had flourished
+    nearly a thousand years.  Belisarius (Justinian's general) took
+    Naples.
+  531. Chosroes I began to reign.
+  543. Great plague in Constantinople.
+  553. Goths expelled from Italy by Justinian.  Justinian died.  The
+    Lombards conquered most of North Italy (leaving Ravenna and Rome
+    Byzantine).
+  570. Muhammad born.
+  579. Chosroes I died.
+       (The Lombards dominant in Italy.)
+  590. Plague raged in Rome.  Chosroes II began to reign.
+  610. Heraclius began to reign.
+  619. Chosroes II held Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus, and armies on
+    Hellespont.  Tang dynasty began in China.
+  622. The Hegira.
+  627. Great Persian defeat at Nineveh by Heraclius.  Tai-tsung
+    became Emperor of China.
+  628. Kavadh II murdered and succeeded his father, Chosroes II.
+       Muhammad wrote letters to all the rulers of the earth.
+  629. Muhammad returned to Mecca.
+  632. Muhammad died. Abu Bekr Caliph.
+  634. Battle of the Yarmuk.  Moslems took Syria.  Omar second
+    Caliph.
+  635. Tai-tsung received Nestorian missionaries.
+  637. Battle of Kadessia.
+  638. Jerusalem surrendered to the Caliph Omar.
+  642. Heraclius died.
+  643. Othman third Caliph.
+  655. Defeat of the Byzantine fleet by the Moslems.
+  668. The Caliph Moawija attacked Constantinople by sea.
+  687. Pepin of Hersthal, mayor of the palace, reunited Austrasia
+    and Neustria.
+  711. Moslem army invaded Spain from Africa.
+
+{432}
+
+  715. The domains of the Caliph Walid I extended from the Pyrenees
+    to China.
+  717-18. Suleiman, son and successor of Walid, failed to take
+    Constantinople.
+  732. Charles Martel defeated the Moslems near Poitiers.
+  751. Pepin crowned King of the French.
+  768. Pepin died.
+  771. Charlemagne sole king.
+  774. Charlemagne conquered Lombardy.
+  786. Haroun-al-Raschid Abbasid Caliph in Bagdad (to 809).
+  795. Leo III became Pope (to 816).
+  800. Leo crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West.
+  802. Egbert, formerly an English refugee at the court of
+    Charlemagne, established himself as King of Wessex.
+  810. Krum of Bulgaria defeated and killed the Emperor Nicephorus.
+  814. Charlemagne died.
+  828. Egbert became first King of England.
+  843. Louis the Pious died, and the Carlovingian Empire went to
+    pieces.  Until 962 there was no regular succession of Holy Roman
+    Emperors, though the title appeared intermittently.
+  850. About this time Rurik (a Northman) became ruler of Novgorod
+    and Kieff.
+  852. Boris first Christian King of Bulgaria (to 884).
+  865. The fleet of the Russians (Northmen) threatened
+    Constantinople.
+  904. Russian (Northmen) fleet off Constantinople.
+  912. Rolf the Ganger established himself in Normandy.
+  919. Henry the Fowler elected King of Germany.
+  936. Otto I became King of Germany in succession to his father,
+    Henry the Fowler.
+  941. Russian fleet again threatened Constantinople.
+  962. Otto I, King of Germany, crowned Emperor (first Saxon
+    Emperor) by John XII.
+  987. Hugh Capet became King of France.  End of the Carlovingian
+    line of French kings.
+  1016. Canute became King of England, Denmark and Norway.
+  1043. Russian fleet threatened Constantinople.
+  1066. Conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy.
+  1071. Revival of Islam under the Seljuk Turks.  Battle of
+    Melasgird.
+  1073. Hildebrand became Pope (Gregory VII) to 1085.
+  1084. Robert Guiscard, the Norman, sacked Rome.
+  1087-99. Urban II Pope.
+  1095. Urban II at Clermont summoned the First Crusade.
+  1096. Massacre of the People's Crusade.
+  1099. Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem.
+  1147. The Second Crusade.
+  1169. Saladin Sultan of Egypt.
+  1176. Frederick Barbarossa acknowledged supremacy of the Pope
+    (Alexander III) at Venice.
+  1187. Saladin captured Jerusalem.
+  1189. The Third Crusade.
+  1198. Innocent III Pope (to 1216).  Frederick II (aged four), King
+    of Sicily, became his ward.
+  1202. The Fourth Crusade attacked the Eastern Empire.
+  1204. Capture of Constantinople by the Latins.
+  1214. Jengis Khan took Pekin.
+  1226. St. Francis of Assisi died. (The Franciscans.)
+  1227. Jengis Khan died.  Khan from the Caspian to the Pacific, and
+    was succeeded by Ogdai Khan.
+  1228. Frederick II embarked upon the Sixth Crusade, and acquired
+    Jerusalem.
+  1240. Mongols destroyed Kieff. Russia tributary to the Mongols.
+
+{433}
+
+  1241. Mongol victory in Liegnitz in Silesia.
+  1250. Frederick II, the last Hohenstaufen Emperor, died.  German
+    interregnum until 1273.
+  1251. Mangu Khan became Great Khan.  Kublai Khan governor of
+    China.
+  1258. Hulagu Khan took and destroyed Bagdad.
+  1260. Kublai Khan became Great Khan.
+  1261. The Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latins.
+  1273. Rudolf of Habsburg elected Emperor.  The Swiss formed their
+    Everlasting League.
+  1280. Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty in China.
+  1292. Death of Kublai Khan.
+  1293. Roger Bacon, the prophet of experimental science, died.
+  1348. The Great Plague, the Black Death.
+  1360. In China the Mongol (Yuan) dynasty fell, and was succeeded
+    by the Ming dynasty (to 1644).
+  1377. Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome.
+  1378. The Great Schism.  Urban VI in Rome, Clement VII at Avignon.
+  1398. Huss preached Wycliffism at Prague.
+  1414-18. The Council of Constance.
+        Huss burnt (1415).
+  1417. The Great Schism ended.
+  1453. Ottoman Turks under Muhammad II took Constantinople.
+  1480. Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow, threw off the Mongol
+    allegiance.
+  1481. Death of the Sultan Muhammad II while preparing for the
+    conquest of Italy.
+  1486. Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope.
+  1492. Columbus crossed the Atlantic to America.
+  1498. Maximilian I became Emperor.
+  1498. Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape to India.
+  1499. Switzerland became an independent republic.
+  1500. Charles V born.
+  1509. Henry VIII King of England.
+  1513. Leo X Pope.
+  1515. Francis I King of France.
+  1520. Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan (to 1566), who ruled from
+    Bagdad to Hungary.  Charles V Emperor.
+  1525. Baber won the battle of Panipat, captured Delhi, and founded
+    the Mogul Empire.
+  1527. The German troops in Italy, under the Constable of Bourbon,
+  took and pillaged Rome.
+  1529. Suleiman besieged Vienna.
+  1530. Charles V crowned by the Pope.  Henry VIII began his quarrel
+    with the Papacy.
+  1539. The Society of Jesus founded.
+  1546. Martin Luther died.
+  1547. Ivan IV (the Terrible) took the Title of Tsar of Russia.
+  1556. Charles V abdicated.  Akbar, Great Mogul (to 1605).
+    Ignatius of Loyola died.
+  1558. Death of Charles V.
+  1566. Suleiman the Magnificent died.
+  1603. James I King of England and Scotland.
+  1620. _Mayflower_ expedition founded New Plymouth.  First negro
+    slaves landed at Jamestown (Va.).
+  1625. Charles I of England.
+  1626. Sir Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam) died.
+  1643. Louis XIV began his reign of seventy-two year's.
+  1644. The Manchus ended the Ming dynasty.
+  1648. Treaty of Westphalia.  There-by Holland and Switzerland were
+   recognized as free republics and Prussia became important.  The
+   treaty gave a complete victory neither to the Imperial Crown nor
+   to the Princes.
+
+{434}
+
+  1648. War of the Fronde; it ended in the complete victory of the
+    French crown.
+  1649. Execution of Charles I of England.
+  1658. Aurungzeb Great Mogul.  Cromwell died.
+  1660. Charles II of England.
+  1674. Nieuw Amsterdam finally became British by treaty and was
+    renamed New York.
+  1683. The last Turkish attack on Vienna defeated by John III of
+    Poland.
+  1689. Peter the Great of Russia. (To 1725.)
+  1701. Frederick I first King of Prussia.
+  1707. Death of Aurungzeb.  The empire of the Great Mogul
+    disintegrated.
+  1713. Frederick the Great of Prussia born.
+  1715. Louis XV of France.
+  1755-63. Britain and France struggled for America and India.
+    France in alliance with Austria and Russia against Prussia and
+    Britain (1756-63); the Seven Years' War.
+  1759. The British general, Wolfe, took Quebec.
+  1760. George III of Britain.
+  1763. Peace of Paris; Canada ceded to Britain.  British dominant
+    in India.
+  1769. Napoleon Bonaparte born.
+  1774. Louis XVI began his reign.
+  1776. Declaration of Independence by the United States of America.
+  1783. Treaty of Peace between Britain and the new United States of
+    America.
+  1787. The Constitutional Convention of Philadelphia set up the
+    Federal Government of the United States.  France discovered to
+    be bankrupt.
+  1788. First Federal Congress of the United States at New York.
+  1789. The French States-General assembled.  Storming of the
+    Bastille.
+  1791. Flight to Varennes.
+  1792. France declared war on Austria.  Prussia declared war on
+    France.  Battle of Valmy.  France became a republic.
+  1793. Louis XVI beheaded.
+  1794. Execution of Robespierre and end of the Jacobin republic.
+  1795. The Directory.  Bonaparte suppressed a revolt and went to
+  Italy as commander-in-chief.
+  1798. Bonaparte went to Egypt.  Battle of the Nile.
+  1799. Bonaparte returned to France.  He became First Consul with
+    enormous powers.
+  1804. Bonaparte became Emperor.  Francis II took the title of
+    Emperor of Austria in 1805, and in 1806 he dropped the title of
+    Holy Roman Emperor.  So the "Holy Roman Empire" came to an end.
+  1806. Prussia overthrown at Jena.
+  1808. Napoleon made his brother Joseph King of Spain.
+  1810. Spanish America became republican.
+  1812. Napoleon's retreat from Moscow.
+  1814. Abdication of Napoleon.  Louis XVIII.
+  1824. Charles X of France.
+  1825. Nicholas I of Russia.  First railway, Stockton to
+    Darlington.
+  1827. Battle of Navarino.
+  1829. Greece independent.
+  1830. A year of disturbance.  Louis Philippe ousted Charles X.
+    Belgium broke away from Holland.  Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
+    became king of this new country, Belgium.  Russian Poland
+    revolted ineffectually.
+  1835. The word "socialism" first used.
+  1837. Queen Victoria.
+  1840. Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
+  1852. Napoleon III Emperor of the French.
+  1854-56. Crimean War.
+
+{435}
+
+  1856. Alexander II of Russia.
+  1861. Victor Emmanuel First King of Italy.  Abraham Lincoln became
+    President, U. S. A.  The American Civil War began.
+  1865. Surrender of Appomattox Court House.  Japan opened to the
+    world.
+  1870. Napoleon III declared war against Prussia.
+  1871. Paris surrendered (January).  The King of Prussia became
+    "German Emperor."  The Peace of Frankfort.
+  1878. The Treaty of Berlin.  The Armed Peace of forty-six years
+    began in western Europe.
+  1888. Frederick II (March), William II (June), German Emperors.
+  1912. China became a republic.
+  1914. The Great War in Europe began.
+  1917. The two Russian revolutions.  Establishment of the Bolshevik
+    regime in Russia.
+  1918. The Armistice.
+  1920. First meeting of the League of Nations, from which Germany,
+    Austria, Russia and Turkey were excluded and at which the United
+    States was not represented.
+  1921. The Greeks, in complete disregard of the League of Nations,
+    make war upon the Turks.
+  1922. Great defeat of the Greeks in Asia Minor by the Turks.
+
+
+
+
+{439}
+
+  INDEX
+
+
+  A
+
+  ABOLITIONIST movement, 384
+  Abraham the Patriarch, 116
+  Abu Bekr, 249, 252, 431
+  Abyssinia, 398
+  Actium, battle of, 195
+  Adam and Eve, 116
+  Adams, William, 400
+  Aden, 405
+  Adowa, battle of, 398
+  Adrianople, 229
+  Adrianople, Treaty of, 353
+  Adriatic Sea, 178, 228
+  AEgatian Isles, 182
+  AEgean peoples, 92, 94, 100, 108, 117, 174
+  AEolic Greeks, 108, 130
+  Aeroplanes, 4, 363, 413
+  AEschylus 139
+  Afghanistan, 163
+  Africa, 72, 92, 122, 123, 182, 253, 258, 302
+  Africa, Central, 397
+  Africa, North, 65, 94, 180, 192, 232, 292, 394, 397, 431
+  Africa, South, 72, 335, 398, 405
+  Africa, West, 393
+  "Age of Confusion," the, 168, 173
+  Agriculturalists, primitive, 66, 68
+  Agriculture, 203; slaves in, 203
+  Ahab, 119
+  Air-breathing vertebrata, 23, 24
+  Air-raids, 413
+  Aix-la-Chapelle, 265
+  Akbar, 292, 332, 433
+  Akkadian and Akkadians, 90, 122, 429
+  Alabama, 385
+  _Alabama_, the, 388
+  Alani, 227, 430
+  Alaric, 230, 232, 431
+  Albania, 179
+  Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Prince Consort), 434
+  Alchemists, 257, 294
+  Aldebaran, 257
+  Alemanni, 200, 431
+  Alexander I, Tsar, 348
+  Alexander II of Russia, 435
+  Alexander III, Pope, 274, 432
+  Alexander the Great, 142, 146 _et seq._, 163, 186, 240, 299, 430
+  Alexandretta, 147
+  Alexandria, 147, 151, 209, 222, 239
+  Alexandria, library at, 151
+  Alexandria, museum of, 150, 180
+  Alexius Comnenus, 268
+  Alfred the Great, 263
+  Algae, 13
+  Algebra, 257, 282
+  Algiers, 185
+  Algol, 257
+  Allah, 252
+  Alligators, 28
+  Alphabets, 79, 127
+  Alps, the, 37, 197
+  Alsace, 200, 309, 391
+  Aluminium, 360
+  Amenophis III, 96, 429
+  Amenophis IV, 96
+  America, 263, 302, 309, 314, 324, 335, 336, 422-23, 434
+  America, North, 12, 330, 336, 382
+  American Civil War, 386, 435
+  American civilizations, primitive, 73 _et seq._
+  American warships in Japanese waters, 402
+  Ammonites, 30, 36
+  Amorites, 90
+  Amos, the prophet, 124
+  Amphibia, 24
+  Amphitheatres, 208
+  Amur, 334
+  Anagni, 284
+  Anatomy, 24, 355
+  Anaxagoras, 138
+  Anaximander of Miletus, 132
+  Andes, 37
+  Angles, 230
+  Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 405
+  Animals, (_See_ Mammalia)
+  Annam, 402
+  Anti-aircraft guns, 413
+  Antigonus, 149
+  Antioch, 243, 271, 431
+  Antiochus III, 183
+  Anti-Slavery Society, 384
+  Antoninus Pius, 195, 430
+  Antony, Mark, 194
+  Antwerp, 294
+  Anubis, 210
+  Apes, 43, 44; anthropoid, 45
+  Apis 209, 211
+  Apollonius, 151
+  Appian Way, 191
+  Appomattox Court House, 388, 435
+  Aquileia, 235
+  Arabia, 77, 88, 91, 122, 123, 248
+  Arabic figures, 257
+  Arabic language, 243
+  Arabs, 253 _et seq._, 294; culture of, 267
+  Arbela, battle of, 147, 431
+  Arcadius, 230, 431
+  Archangel, 419
+  Archimedes, 151
+  Ardashir I, 241, 430
+  Argentine Republic, 396
+  Arians, 224
+  Aristocracy, 130
+  Aristotle, 142, 144, 146, 256, 282, 294, 295, 356, 370
+  Armadillo, 74
+  Armenia, 192, 268, 287, 299
+  Armenians, 100, 108
+  Armistice, the, 435
+  Arno, the, 178
+  Arsacid dynasty, 199, 431
+  Artizans, 152
+  Aryan language, 95, 100, 106
+  Aryans, 95, 104 _et seq._, 122, 128, 151, 174, 176, 185, 197, 198,
+    233, 303, 429
+  Ascalon, 117
+  Asceticism, 158-60, 213
+  Ashdod, 117
+  Asia, 72, 197, 227, 287, 298, 329 _et seq._, 333, 399 _et seq._,
+    403 _et seq._, 430
+  Asia, Central, 108, 122, 134, 148, 185, 245-247, 255, 334
+  Asia Minor, 92, 94, 108, 127, 134, 148, 180, 192-93, 238, 243,
+    258, 271, 292, 429, 430, 431
+  Asia, Western, 65
+  Asoka, King, 163 _et seq._,  180, 430
+  Assam, 394
+  Asses, 77, 83, 102, 112
+  Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus), 97, 98, 109, 110
+  Assyria, 109, 115, 119, 121, 122, 429
+  Assyrians, 84, 96, 97, 98, 108, 429
+  Astronomy, early, 70, 74
+  Athanasian Creed, 224
+  Athenians, 135
+  Athens, 129, 135-36, 139, 150, 185, 204, 431
+  Athens, schools of philosophy in, 238
+  Atkinson, C. F., 345
+  Atkinson, J. J., 61, 373
+  Atlantic, 122, 302
+  Attalus, 430
+  Attila, 234, 235, 238, 431
+  Augsburg, Interim of, 313
+  Augustus Caesar, Roman Emperor, 195, 214
+  Aurelian, Emperor, 200
+  Aurochs, 197
+  Aurungzeb, 434
+  Ausculum, battle of, 178, 430
+  Australia, 72, 322, 336, 395, 405
+  Austrasia, 431
+  Austria, 309, 327, 347-48, 349-52, 390, 411, 434
+  Austrian Empire, 409
+  Austrians, 344, 351
+  Automobiles, 362
+  Avars, 289
+  Avebury, 106
+  Averroes, 282
+  Avignon, 285, 433
+  Axis of earth, 1, 2
+  Azilian age, 57, 65
+  Azilian rock pictures, 57, 78
+  Azoic rocks, 11
+  Azores, 302
+
+  B
+
+  Baber, 290, 310, 332, 433
+  Baboons, 43
+  Babylon, 90, 94, 96, 97, 101, 102, 111, 112, 114, 115-16, 119,
+    121, 122, 134, 147, 148, 373, 429
+  Babylonian calendar, 68
+  Babylonian Empire, 90, 91, 109, 110
+  Babylonians, 108
+  Bacon, Roger, 293-97, 433
+  Bacon, Sir Francis, 321, 355, 433
+  Bagdad, 256, 267, 290, 292, 432, 433
+  Bahamas, 407
+  Baldwin of Flanders, 272
+  Balkan peninsula, 108, 200, 230, 392, 429
+  Balkh, 299
+  Balloons, altitude attained by, 4
+  Baltic, 415
+  Baltic Fleet, Russian, 404
+  Baluchistan, 405
+  Barbarians, 227 _et seq._, 230, 320
+  Barbarossa, Frederick, (_See_ Frederick I)
+  Bards, 106, 234
+  Barrows, 104
+  Barter, 83, 102
+  Basketwork, 65
+  Basle, Council of, 305
+  Basque race, 92, 107
+  Bastille, 342, 434
+  Basutoland, 407
+  Beaconsfield, Lord, 394
+  Bedouins, 122, 248
+  Beetles, 26
+  Behar, 180, 430
+  Behring Straits, 52, 71, 73
+  Bel Marduk, 109, 111, 112, 114
+  Belgium, 185, 344, 347, 352, 411, 434
+  Belisarius, 431
+  Belshazzar, 112
+  Beluchistan, 149
+  Benares, 156, 160
+  Beneventum, 179
+  Berbers, 71, 92
+  Bergen, 294
+  Berlin, Treaty of, 435
+  Bermuda, 407
+  Bessemer process, 359
+  Beth-shan, 118
+  Bible, 1, 68, 100, 112, 115, 116, 119, 121, 122, 184, 286, 298,
+    306-07, (_Cf._ Hebrew Bible)
+  Birds, flight of, 4; the earliest, 31; development of, 32
+  Bison, 56
+  Black Death, the, 433
+  Black Sea, 71, 94-95, 108, 129, 200
+  Blood sacrifice, 167, 186, 212 (_See also_ Sacrifice)
+  Boats,  91, 136
+  Boer republic, 187
+  Boers, 398
+  Bohemia, 236, 306
+  Bohemians, 304-05, 326
+  Bokhara, 256
+  Boleyn, Anne, 313
+  Bolivar, General, 349
+  Bologna, 295, 312
+  Bolsheviks (and Bolshevism), 417-19, 435
+  Bone carvings, 53
+  Bone implements, 45, 46
+  Boniface VIII, Pope, 283-84
+  "Book religions," 226
+  Books, 153, 298, 302
+  Bootes, 257
+  Boris, King of Bulgaria, 432
+  Bosnia, 228
+  Bosphorus, 135
+  Boston, 337-38
+  Bostra, 243
+  Botany Bay, 393
+  Bourbon, Constable of, 312, 433
+  Bowmen, 145, 155, 300
+  Brahmins and Brahminism, 165, 166
+  Brain, 42
+  Brazil, 329, 336, 340
+  Breathing, 24
+  Brest-Litovsk, 417
+  Britain, 106, 122, 174, 185, 203, 236, 349, 353, 402, 431, 434,
+    (_See also_ England, Great Britain)
+  British, 329, 331
+  British Civil Air Transport Commission, 363
+  British East Indian Company, (_See_ East India Company)
+  British Empire, 407; (in 1815) 393; (in 1914) 405
+  British Guiana, 393
+  British Navy, 408
+  "British schools," the, 369
+  Brittany, 309
+  Broken Hill, South Africa, 52
+  Bronze, 80, 87, 102, 104
+  Bruges, 294
+  Brussels, 344
+  Brythonic Celts, 107
+  Buda-Pesth, 312
+  Buddha, 133, 156, 172, 213, 429; life of, 158; his teaching,
+    161-62
+  Buddhism (and Buddhists), 166, 172, 222, 255, 290, 319, 334, 400,
+    (_See also_ Buddha)
+  Bulgaria, 135, 229, 245, 292, 411, 432
+  Bull fights, Cretan, 93
+  Burgoyne, General, 338
+  Burgundy, 309, 342
+  Burial, early, 102, 104
+  Burleigh, Lord, 324
+  Burma, 166, 300, 405
+  Burning the dead, 104
+  Bury, J, B, 288
+  Bushmen, 54
+  Byzantine Army, 253
+  Byzantine Empire, 238, 271-72
+  Byzantine fleet, 431
+  Byzantium, 228, 243, 267, 268, (_See also_ Constantinople)
+
+  C
+
+  Cabul, 148
+  Caesar, Augustus, 430
+  Caesar, Julius, 187, 192, 193, 194, 195, 430
+  Caesar, title, etc., 212, 223, 240, 327
+  Cainozoic period, 37 _et seq._
+  Cairo, 256
+  Calendar, 68
+  Calicut, 329
+  California, 336, 383
+  Caligula, 195, 430
+  Caliphs, 252
+  "Cambulac," 300
+  Cambyses, 112, 134
+  Camels, 42, 102, 112, 196, 319
+  Campanella, 371
+  Canaan, 116
+  Canada, 332, 396, 405, 434
+  Canary Islands, 302
+  Cannae, 182
+  Canossa, 274
+  Canton, 247
+  Canute, 263, 432
+  Cape Colony, 398
+  Cape of Good Hope, 336, 393, 433
+  Capet, Hugh, 266, 432
+  Carboniferous age,  (_See_ Coal swamps)
+  Cardinals, 277 _et seq._
+  Caria, 98
+  Carians, 94
+  Caribou, 73
+  Carlovingian Empire, 432
+  Carnac, 106
+  Carolinas, 388
+  Carrhae, 194
+  Carthage, 92, 122, 123, 134, 176, 179, 182, 183, 185, 232, 429-30,
+    431
+  Carthaginians, 179, 182
+  Caspian Sea, 71, 88, 108, 148, 193, 197, 430
+  Caste, 157, 165
+  Catalonians, 302
+  "Cathay," 300
+  Catholicism, 237, 337, 351. (_See also_ Papacy, Roman Catholic)
+  Cato, 187
+  Cattle, 77, 83
+  Caudine Forks, 430
+  Cavalry, 145, 148, 178
+  Cave drawings, 53, 56, 57
+  Caxton, William, 306
+  Celibacy, 275
+  Celts, 106, 107, 193
+  Centipedes, 23
+  Ceylon, 165, 407
+  Chaeronia, battle of, 145, 146, 430
+  Chalcedon, 243
+  Chaldean Empire, 109
+  Chaldeans, 109, 110-11, 115, 429
+  Chandragupta, 163, 430
+  Chariots, 96, 100, 101-02, 112, 119, 145, 148
+  Charlemagne, 259, 261, 264-65, 272, 309, 432
+  Charles I, King of England, 308, 314, 433
+  Charles II, King of England, 324, 434
+  Charles V, Emperor, 309, 310, 314, 316, 433
+  Charles X, King of France, 350, 434
+  Charles the Great, (_See_ Charlemagne)
+  _Charlotte Dundas_, steamboat, 357
+  Chelonia, 27
+  Chemists, Arab, 257.  (_Cf._ Alchemists)
+  Cheops, 83
+  Chephren, 83
+  China, 76, 84, 103, 166, 167 _et seq._, 173, 174, 233, 245 et
+    seq., 248, 287, 290, 297, 333, 399-400, 402-03, 411, 429-31,
+    432, 433, 435.  (_See also_ Chow, Han, Kin, Ming, Shang, Sung,
+    Suy, Ts'in, and Yuan dynasties)
+  China, culture and civilization in, 247
+  China, Empire of, 196 _et seq._
+  China, Great Wall of, 173, 430
+  China, North, 173
+  Chinese picture writing, 79, 167
+  Chosroes I, 243, 431
+  Chosroes II, 243, 431
+  Chow dynasty, 168, 173, 429
+  Christ.  (_See_ Jesus)
+  Christian conception of Jesus, 214
+  Christianity (and Christians), 224, 255, 272, 295, 319, 400, 431
+  Christianity, doctrinal, development of, 222 _et seq._
+  Christianity, spirit of, 224
+  Chronicles, book of, 116, 119
+  Chronology, primitive, 68
+  Ch'u, 173
+  Church, the, 68
+  Cicero, 193
+  Cilicia, 299
+  Cimmerians, 100
+  Circumcision, 70
+  Circumnavigation, 302
+  Cities, Sumerian, 78
+  Citizenship, 187 _et seq._, 236, 237
+  City states, Greek, 129 _et seq._, Chinese, 168
+  Civilization, 100
+  Civilization, Hellenic, 139, 150 _et seq._
+  Civilization, Japanese, 400
+  Civilization, pre-historic, 71
+  Civilization, primitive, 76, 167
+  Civilization, Roman, 185
+  Claudius, Emperor, 195, 430
+  Clay documents, 77, 80, 111
+  Clement V, Pope, 285
+  Clement VII, Pope, 285, 433
+  Cleopatra, 194
+  Clermont, 432
+  _Clermont_, steamboat, 358
+  Climate, changes of, 21, 37
+  Clive, 333
+  Clothing, 77
+  Clothing of Cretan women, 93
+  Clouds, 8
+  Clovis, 259
+  Clyde, Firth of, 357
+  Cnossos (Crete), 92, 94, 95, 101, 108, 127, 429
+  Coal, 26
+  Coal swamps, the age of, 21 _et seq._
+  Coinage, 114, 176, 201, 319
+  Coke, 322
+  Collectivists, 375
+  Colonies, 394 _et seq._, 407
+  Columbus, Christopher, 300-01, _et seq._, 335, 433
+  Communism (and Communists), 374-75, 417
+  Comnenus, Alexius.  (_See_ Alexius)
+  Comparative anatomy, science of, 25, (_Cf._ Anatomy)
+  Concord, Mass., 338
+  Confederated States of America, 385
+  Confucius, 133, 168 _et seq._, 173, 429
+  Congo, 397
+  Conifers, 26, 36
+  Constance, Council of, 286, 304,.433
+  Constantine the Great, 187, 226, 228, 229, 241, 429, 431
+  Constantinople, 229, 238, 239, 243, 253, 258, 263-64, 270 _et
+    seq._, 272, 283, 292, 301, 321, 327, 431, 432, 433.  (_See also_
+    Byzantium)
+  Consuls, Roman, 193
+  Copper, 74, 80, 102, 360, 395
+  Cordoba, 256
+  Corinth, 129
+  Cornwallis, General, 338
+  Corsets, 93
+  Corsica, 182, 185, 232
+  Cortez, 314
+  Cossacks, 334
+  Cotton fabrics, 102
+  Couvade, the, 70
+  Crabs, 23
+  Crassus, 192, 194, 199
+  Creation of the world, story of, 1, 116
+  Creed religions, 240
+  Cretan script, 94
+  Crete, 92, 108
+  Crimea, 419
+  Crimean War, 390, 434
+  Crocodiles, 28
+  Croesus, 111, 429
+  Cro-Magnon race, 51, 54, 65
+  Cromwell, Oliver, 434
+  Cronstadt, 419
+  Crucifixion, 204
+  Crusades, 267 _et seq._, 281, 304-05, 432
+  Crustacea, 13
+  Ctesiphon, 244
+  Cuba, 393
+  Cultivation, the beginnings of, 65 _et seq._
+  Culture, Heliolithic, 69
+  Culture, Japanese, 402
+  Cuneiform, 78
+  Currents, 18
+  Cyaxares, 109-10, 429
+  Cycads, 26, 36
+  Cyrus the Persian, 111, 116, 121, 123, 134, 429
+  Czech language, 236
+  Czecho-Slovaks, 351
+  Czechs, 304
+
+  D
+
+  Dacia, 195, 200, 203, 227, 236
+  Daedalus, 94
+  Dalmatia, 431
+  Damascus, 243, 253, 431
+  Danes, 329, 330
+  Danube, 135, 200, 227, 430
+  Dardanelles, 136, 147, 292
+  Darius I, 112, 134, 135, 136, 429
+  Darius III, 147, 148,.430
+  Darlington, 356, 434
+  David, King, 118-19, 429
+  Da Vinci, Leonardo, 356
+  Davis, Jefferson, 385, 388
+  Dawn Man.  (_See_ Eoanthropus)
+  Dead, burning the, 104; burial of (_See_ Burial)
+  Debtors' prisons, 336
+  Deciduous trees, 36
+  Decius, Emperor, 200, 432
+  Declaration of Independence, 334, 434
+  _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (Gibbon's), 288-89
+  Deer, 42, 56
+  Defender of the Faith, title of, 313
+  Defoe, Daniel, 365
+  Delhi, 292, 433
+  Democracy, 131, 132, 270
+  Deniken, General, 419
+  Denmark, 306, 313, 394, 432
+  Deshima, 401
+  Devonian system, 19
+  Diaz, 433
+  Dictator, Roman, 194
+  Dillon, Dr., 424
+  Dinosaurs, 28, 31, 36
+  Diocletian, Emperor, 224, 226, 227
+  Dionysius, 170
+  Diplodocus Carnegii, measurement of, 28
+  Diseases, infectious, 379
+  Ditchwater, animal and plant life in, 13
+  Dogs, 42
+  Domazlice, battle of, 305
+  Dominic, St., 276
+  Dominican Order, 276, 285, 400
+  Dorian Greeks, 108, 130
+  Douglas, Senator, 386
+  Dover, Straits of, 193
+  Dragon flies, 23
+  Drama, Greek, 139
+  Dravidian civilization, 108
+  Dravidians, 71
+  Duck-billed platypus, 34
+  Duma, the, 416
+  Durazzo, 268
+  Dutch, 329, 331, 332, 399
+  Dutch Guiana, 394
+  Dutch Republic, 350
+  Dyeing, 75
+
+  E
+
+  Earth, the, shape of, 1; rotation of, 1; distance from the sun, 2;
+    age and origin of, 5; surface of, 21
+  Earthquakes, 95
+  East India Company, 332, 337, 393, 394
+  East Indies, 394, 399
+  Ebro, 182
+  Ecbatana, 109, 114
+  Echidna, the, 34
+  Eclipses, 8
+  Ecnomus, battle of, 181, 430
+  Economists, French, 371
+  Edessa, 271
+  Education, 294, 361, 368, 369
+  Egbert, King of Wessex, 263, 432
+  Egg-laying mammals, 34
+  Eggs, 24, 26, 31, 102
+  Egypt (and Egyptians), 71, 78, 90, 91, 92, 96, 98, 100-101, 115,
+    119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 134, 138, 147, 174, 208, 209, 210, 238,
+    253, 267, 290, 292, 396, 398, 405, 429, 431, 434
+  Egyptian script, 78, 79
+  Elamites, 88, 90, 174
+  Elba, 348
+  Electric light, 360
+  Electric traction, 360
+  Electricity, 322, 358, 360
+  Elephants, 42, 127, 149, 178, 181, 253, 300
+  Elixir of life, 257
+  Elizabeth, Queen, 324, 332
+  Emigration, 336
+  Emperor, title of, 327
+  Employer and employed, 375
+  "Encyclopaedists," the, 371
+  England (and English), 306, 390, 431
+  England, Norman Conquest of, 266
+  England, overseas possessions, 330
+  English Channel, 331
+  English language, 95
+  Entelodonts, 42
+  Eoanthropus, 47
+  Eoliths, 45
+  Ephesus, 149
+  Ephthalites, 199
+  Epics, 106, 127, 129, 131
+  Epirus, 131, 178, 179
+  Epistles, the, 222
+  Eratosthenes, 151
+  Erech, Sumerian city of, 78
+  Esarhaddon, 429
+  Essenes, 213
+  Esthonia, 245
+  Esthonians, 419
+  Ethiopian dynasty, 429
+  Ethiopians, 96, 233
+  Etruscans, 94, 100, 176, 430
+  Euclid, 151
+  Euphrates, 77, 110, 127, 129, 174, 196, 429, 430
+  Euripides, 139
+  Europe, 200
+  Europe, Central, 329
+  Europe, Concert of, 350
+  Europe, Western, 53, 298
+  European overseas populations, 336
+  Europeans, intellectual revival of, 294 _et seq._
+  Europeans, North Atlantic, 329
+  Europeans, Western, 329
+  Everlasting League, 433
+  Evolution, 16, 42
+  Excommunication, 275, 281, 285
+  Execution, Greek method of, 140
+  Ezekiel, 124
+
+  F
+
+  Factory system, 365
+  Family groups, 61
+  Famine, 420
+  Faraday, 358
+  Fashoda, 398
+  Fatherhood of God, the, 215, 224, 251
+  Fear, 61
+  Feathers, 32
+  Ferdinand of Aragon, King, 293, 302, 309
+  Ferns, 23, 26
+  Fertilizers, 363
+  Fetishism, 63, 64
+  Feudal system, 258, 400, 401, 402
+  Fielding, Henry, 365
+  Fiji, 407
+  Finance, 134
+  Finland, 245
+  Finns, 351
+  Fish, the age of, 16 _et seq._; the first known vertebrata, 19;
+    evolution of, 30
+  Fisher, Lord, 416
+  Fishing, 57
+  Fleming, Bishop, 286
+  Flint implements, 44, 47
+  Flood, story of the, 91, 116
+  Florence, 294
+  Florentine Society, 322
+  Florida, 336, 385
+  Flying machines, 94, 363
+  Fontainebleau, 348
+  Food, rationing of, 414
+  Food riots, 417
+  Forests, 56, 197
+  Fossils, 13, 43.  (_Cf._ Rocks)
+  Fowl, the domestic, 88, 102
+  France, 106, 185, 230, 259, 263, 312, 336, 342, 353, 390, 391,
+    394, 396, 402, 409, 411, 434
+  Francis I, King of France, 310, 312, 313, 433
+  Francis II, Emperor of Austria, 434
+  Francis of Assisi, St., 276, 432
+  Franciscan Order, 276, 285, 432
+  Frankfort, Peace of, 391, 435
+  Franks, 200, 227, 235, 259, 265, 431
+  Frazer, Sir J. G., 66
+  Frederick I (Barbarossa), 274, 432
+  Frederick I, King of Prussia, 434
+  Frederick II, German Emperor, 279, 280 _et seq._, 288, 289, 294,
+    304, 435
+  Frederick II, King of Sicily, 432
+  Frederick the Great of Prussia, 327, 434
+  Freeman's Farm, 338
+  French, 329, 331, 332, 419
+  French Guiana, 394
+  French language, 203, 327, 328, 419
+  French Revolution, 342 _et seq._, 374
+  Frogs, 24
+  Fronde, war of the, 434
+  Fulton, Robert, 358
+  Furnace, blast, 359; electric, 359
+  Furs, 335
+
+  G
+
+  Galatia, 430
+  Galatians, 193
+  Galba, 430
+  Galerius, Emperor, 226, 431
+  Galleys, 91, 92, 181, 263
+  Galvani, 258
+  Gamma, Vasco da, 329, 335, 433
+  Ganges, 156
+  Gath, 117
+  Gaul, 203, 235, 236, 357, 431
+  Gauls, 154, 178, 179, 180, 182, 193, 430
+  Gautama.  (_See_ Buddha)
+  Gaza, 117, 147
+  Gaztelu, 314
+  Genoa (and Genoese), 294, 300, 301, 302
+  Genoa Conference, 425
+  Genseric, 232
+  Geology, 11 _et seq._, 356
+  George III, King of England, 324, 337, 434
+  Georgia, 336, 339, 385, 387
+  German Empire, 409
+  German language, 95, 236, 260
+  Germans, 268, 288, 310, 351, 360-61, 362
+  Germany, 197, 326, 347, 348, 362, 390, 396, 402, 409, 410, 411
+  Germany, North, 306
+  Gibbon, E., 234, 288
+  Gibraltar, 71, 92, 94, 253, 393, 407
+  Gigantosaurus, measurement of, 28
+  Gilbert, Dr., 322
+  Gilboa, Mount, 118
+  Gills, 24
+  Giraffes, 42
+  Gizeh, pyramids at, 83
+  Glacial Ages, 22, 37, 44
+  Gladiators, 205
+  Glass, 102
+  Glyptodon, 74
+  Goa, 329
+  Goats, 77
+  God, idea of one true, 249
+  God of Judaism, 123, 209, 213, 214, 215
+  Godfrey of Bouillon, 432
+  Gods, 111, 123, 129, 165, 184, 186, 201 _et seq._, 208 _et seq._,
+    240
+  Goidelic.Celts, 106
+  Gold, 74, 80, 83, 102, 300, 395
+  _Golden Bough_, Frazer's, 66
+  Good Hope, Cape of.  (See Cape)
+  Gospels, the, 214 _et seq._, 222
+  Gothic kingdom, 259
+  Gothland, 197, 200
+  Goths, 181, 200, 227, 228, 430, 431
+  Granada, 293, 301
+  Granicus, battle of the, 146, 430
+  Grant, General, 387, 388
+  Graphite, 15
+  Grass, 37, 51
+  Great Britain, 396, 410
+  Great Mogul, Empire of, 394, 434
+  Great Powers, 399 _et seq._
+  Great Schism.  (_See_ Papal schism)
+  Great War, the, 411 _et seq._, 421, 435
+  Greece, 92, 94, 108, 127, 139 _et seq._, 145 _et seq._, 434
+  Greece, war with Persia, 134 _et seq._
+  Greek language, 95, 202, 203
+  Greeks, 92, 100, 101, 108, 122 _et seq._, 135, 150, 174, 186, 271,
+    272, 301, 353, 419, 429, 430, 433
+  Greenland, 263
+  Gregory I, Pope, 263
+  Gregory VII, Pope (Hildebrand), 268, 272, 274, 275, 278, 432
+  Gregory IX, Pope, 281
+  Gregory XI, Pope, 285, 433
+  Gregory the Great, 272
+  Grimaldi race, 51, 54, 65
+  Guillotine, the, 346
+  Guiscard, Robert, 432
+  Gunpowder, 287, 321
+  Guns, 321, 413
+  Gustavus Adolphus, 331
+  Gymnastic displays, Cretan, 93
+
+  H
+
+  Habsburgs, 283, 309, 310
+  Hadrian, 174, 430
+  Halicarnassus, 138
+  Hamburg, 294
+  Hamitic people, 71
+  Hammurabi, 90, 92, 104, 429
+  Han dynasty, 196, 200, 245, 430
+  Hannibal, 182
+  Hanover, Elector of, 327
+  Harding, President, 425
+  Harold Hardrada, 266
+  Harold, King of England, 266
+  Haroun-al-Raschid, 267, 432
+  Hastings, battle of, 266
+  Hastings, Warren, 333
+  Hatasu, Queen of Egypt, 96
+  Hathor, 209
+  Heaven, Kingdom of, 216, 217
+  Hebrew Bible, 1, 115, 116.  (Cf. Bible)
+  Hebrew literature, 100
+  Hebrews, 100, 115.  (_See also_ Jews)
+  Hegira, 431
+  Heidelberg man, 45
+  Heliolithic culture, 69, 71, 167, 174
+  Heliolithic peoples, 107
+  Hellenic tribes, 100.  (_See also_ Greeks)
+  Hellespont, 430, 431
+  Helots, 130, 203
+  Hen.  (_See_ Fowl)
+  Henry IV, King, 274
+  Henry VI, Emperor, 279
+  Henry VIII, King of England, 310, 312, 313, 324, 433
+  Henry the Fowler, 265, 432
+  Heraclea, battle of, 178, 430
+  Heraclitus of Ephesus, 132, 156, 161
+  Heraclius, Emperor, 243, 247, 253, 431
+  Herat, 148
+  Herbivorous reptiles, 28
+  Hercules, Pillars of, (_See_ Gibraltar)
+  Hero, 151, 152
+  Herodotus, 138, 139
+  Herophilus, 151
+  Hiero, 182
+  Hieroglyphics, 79, 124
+  Hildebrand. (_See_ Gregory VII)
+  Himalayas, the, 37
+  Hipparchus, 151
+  Hippopotamus, 43
+  Hiram, King of Sidon, 118, 119, 122
+  _History of Charles V_, 316
+  Hittites, 96, 97, 98, 108
+  Hohenstaufens, 283
+  Holland, 306, 344, 347, 394, 396, 402, 433, 434
+  Holstein, 351
+  Holy Alliance, 349
+  Holy Roman Empire, 264, 309, 317, 323, 347, 377, 409, 432, 434
+  Homer, 129
+  Honorius, 230, 431
+  Honorius III, Pope, 281
+  Horse, 51, 56, 94, 96, 97, 112, 167, 319, 336; evolution of the,
+    42
+  Horsetails, 23
+  Horus, 209, 210, 211
+  Hottentots, 54
+  Hsia, 287
+  Hudson Bay Company, 393
+  Hudson River, 358
+  Hulagu Khan, 290, 433
+  Human sacrifice, 182, 186.  (_Cf._ Blood Sacrifice, Sacrifice)
+  Hungarians, 263, 289, 351
+  Hungary, 185, 203, 227, 245, 258, 263, 289, 290, 292, 310, 312,
+    351
+  Hungary, plain of, 234
+  Huns, 88, 167, 168, 174, 197, 198, 227, 232, 233, 245, 263, 289,
+    431
+  Hunting, 56
+  Huss, John, 304, 433
+  Hussites, 305
+  Hwang-ho river, 173
+  Hwang-ho valley, 300
+  Hyksos, 90, 96
+  Hyracodons, 42
+  Hystaspes, 430
+
+  I
+
+  Iberians, 71, 92
+  Ice age, 43. .(_Cf._ Glacial ages)
+  Iceland, 263
+  Ichthyosaurs, 29, 36
+  Ignatius of Loyola, St., 308, 434
+  _Iliad_, 127
+  Illinois, 386
+  Illyria, 179, 182
+  Immolation of human beings, 102
+  Immortality, idea of, 210, 211, 224
+  Imperialism, 399
+  Implements, 46, 48, 56, 57, 65, 87
+  Implements, use of, by animals, 44, 45
+  India, 71, 84, 104, 108, 122, 149, 156, 163, 164, 196, 199, 287,
+    302, 335, 394-95, 399, 409, 433, 434
+  Indian Empire, 405
+  Indian Ocean, 329
+  Indiana, 383, 386
+  Individualists, 375 _et seq._
+  Individuality in reproduction, 16 _et seq._
+  Indo-Scythians, 199, 430
+  Indus, 149, 429
+  Industrial revolution, 365 _et seq._
+  Infantry, 178
+  Influenza, 414
+  Innocent III, Pope, 276, 279, 280, 432
+  Innocent IV, Pope, 281
+  Innsbruck, 313
+  Inquisition, the, 276, 349
+  Insects, 26, 31
+  Interdicts, papal, 275
+  Interglacial period, 44
+  Internationalism, 380
+  Invertebrata, 13
+  Investitures, 275
+  Ionic Greeks, 108, 130
+  Iowa, 385
+  Ireland, 106, 405
+  Iron, 80, 87, 94, 97, 102, 104, 168, 319, 321, 358, 359
+  Irrigation, 290
+  Isabella of Castile, Queen, 293, 302, 309
+  Isaiah, 125, 133, 156
+  Isis, 209, 210, 211, 212
+  Islam, 251, 252, 432
+  Islamism, 267, 319.  (_See also_ Moslem, Muhammedanism)
+  Isocrates, 145
+  Israel, judges of, 118
+  Israel, kings of, 118, 119, 121
+  Issus, battle of, 147, 430
+  Italian language, 203
+  Italians, 107, 351
+  Italica, 202
+  Italy, 94, 108, 129, 134, 176, 180, 230, 236, 312, 327, 347, 390,
+    396, 409, 411, 429, 431, 434
+  Italy, Central, 429
+  Italy, North, 263, 312, 351, 390, 429, 431
+  Italy, South, 429
+  Ivan III (the Great), 327, 433
+  Ivan IV (the Terrible), 327, 433
+
+  J
+
+  Jacobin republic, 434
+  Jamaica, 393, 407
+  James I, King of England and Scotland, 324, 433
+  Jamestown (Va.), 433
+  Japan, 166, 300, 399, 400-01 _et seq._, 409, 410, 435
+  Japanese, 419
+  Jarandilla, 315
+  Java, 302, 329
+  Jaw-bone, Heidelberg, 45-46; Piltdown, 46
+  Jehovah, 125
+  Jena, 434
+  Jengis Khan, 287, 298, 334, 432
+  Jerusalem, 115, 116, 119, 121, 123, 124, 184, 215, 243, 267, 271,
+    272, 299, 431, 432
+  Jerusalem, Temple of, 119, 184
+  Jesuits, 308, 400, 433
+  Jesus, life and teaching of, 214 _et seq._, 224, 270, 306, 374,
+    430
+  Jews, 123, 124, 147, 184, 213, 215, 255, 256, 270, 294
+  Jews, early history of, 115 _et seq._
+  Jews, literature of, 115
+  Jewish religion and sacred books, 116
+  John III of Poland, 434
+  John XI, Pope, 272
+  John XII, Pope, 272, 432
+  Joppa, 117
+  Joseph, King of Spain, 349, 434
+  Josiah, King of Judah, 110, 115, 116, 429
+  Judah, 115, 119
+  Judah, kings of, 119
+  Judea, 115, 183, 214
+  Judea, priests and prophets in, 122 _et seq._
+  Judges, book of, 117
+  Judges of Israel, 118
+  Jugo-Slavia, 354
+  Jugo-Slavs, 351
+  Jugurtha, 192
+  Julian the Apostate, 431
+  Julius III, 316
+  Junks, Chinese, 400
+  Jupiter (god), 211, 212
+  Jupiter (planet), 2, 3
+  Jupiter Capitolinus, 184
+  Jupiter Serapis, 226
+  Justinian I, 232, 238, 243, 431
+  Jutes, 230
+
+  K
+
+  Kaaba, the, 249
+  Kadessia, battle of, 253, 431
+  Kalinga, 163
+  Kansas, 383
+  Karakorum, 287, 298
+  Karnak, 101
+  Kashgar, 300
+  Kashmir, Buddhists in, 165
+  Kavadh, 243, 244, 431
+  Kentucky, 383, 386
+  Kerensky, 416, 417
+  Khans, 287 _et seq._
+  Khyber Pass, 148, 199
+  Kiau Chau, 400
+  Kieff, 287, 432
+  Kin dynasty, 287
+  Kings, book of, 119
+  Kioto, 402
+  Ki-wi, the, 32
+  Koltchak, Admiral, 419
+  Koran, the, 251, 255
+  Korea, 400, 402
+  Kotan, 300
+  Krum of Bulgaria, 432
+  Kublai Khan, 290, 298, 300, 433
+  Kushan dynasty, 199
+
+  L
+
+  Labyrinth, Cretan, 127
+  Lahore, 287
+  Lake Ontario, 336
+  Land scorpions, 23
+  Langley, Professor, 363
+  Languages of mankind, 94, 95, 100, 106, 107, 108, 134, 145, 156,
+    176, 201, 202, 203, 230, 236, 243, 245, 259, 325, 328
+  Lao Tse, 133, 170 _et seq._, 222, 429
+  Lapland, 233
+  Latin Emperor, 259
+  Latin language, 201, 202, 203, 236, 259.  (_Cf. also_ Languages)
+  Latins, the, 271, 272, 432
+  Law, 238
+  _Laws_, Plato's, 142
+  League of Nations, 422, 423, 424, 425, 435
+  Learning, 255
+  Lee, General, 387, 389
+  Legionaries, 229
+  Lemurs, 43
+  Lenin, 417, 419
+  Leo III, Pope, 265, 272, 432
+  Leo X, Pope, 310, 312, 433
+  Leonidas, 136
+  Leopold I, 353
+  Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 434
+  Lepanto, battle of, 293
+  Lepidus, 194
+  Lexington, 338
+  Liberia, 398
+  Libraries, 151, 164, 170
+  Liegnitz, battle of, 288, 289, 433
+  Life, beginnings of, the Record of the Rocks, 11 _et seq._;
+    progressive nature of, 16; of what it consists, 16; theory of
+    Natural Selection, 18; a teachable type: advent of, 39
+  Lincoln, Abraham, 385, 386, 388, 389, 435; assassination of, 389
+  Linen, 102
+  Lions, 42, 127
+  Lisbon, 294, 315, 329
+  Literary criticism, evolution of, 205
+  Literature, European, 298
+  Literature, pre-historic, 115
+  Lizards, 27, 28
+  Llamas, 42
+  Lob Nor, 300
+  Lochau, battle of, 313
+  Locke, John, 371
+  Logic, science of, 144
+  Lombard kingdom, 259
+  Lombards, 431
+  Lombardy, 431
+  London, 294, 413
+  Lopez de Recalde, Inigo, 308, (_See also_ Ignatius of Loyola)
+  Lorraine, 391
+  Louis XIV, 324, 433
+  Louis XV, 434
+  Louis XVI, 342, 343, 434
+  Louis XVIII, 350, 434
+  Louis Philippe, 350, 434,
+  Louis the Pious, 265, 432
+  Louisiana, 336, 385
+  Lu, state of, 170
+  Lucretius, 294
+  Lucullus, 192
+  Lunar month, 68
+  Lung, the, 24
+  Luther, Martin, 306, 310, 433
+  Luxembourg, 351
+  Luxor, 101
+  Lvoff, Prince, 416
+  Lyceum, Athens, 142, 144
+  Lydia, 98, 134
+  Lydians, 94
+  Lyons, 345
+
+  M
+
+  Macao, 329
+  Macaulay, Lord, 187
+  Maccabeans, 184
+  Macedonia and Macedonians, 131, 135, 139, 145, 179, 292, 350
+  Machinery, 322, 356
+  Madeira, 122, 302
+  Madras, 163
+  Magellan, Ferdinand, 302
+  Magic, 172
+  Magna Graecia, 129, 178
+  Magnesia, battle of, 183
+  Magyars, 263, 264, 270, 289
+  Mahaffy, Professor, 151
+  Maine, 336, 339
+  Majuba Hill, battle of, 398
+  Malta, 393, 407
+  Mammals, the earliest, 33; viviparous, 33; egg-laying, 34; the Age
+    of, 37 _et seq._
+  Mammoth, 43, 49
+  Man, brotherhood of, 216, 224, 380
+  Man, 43; Heidelberg, 45; Eoanthropus, 47; Neanderthal, 47, 48 _et
+    seq._; earliest known, 53 _et seq._
+  Manchu, 333, 433
+  Manchuria, 197, 400,.402, 403, 404
+  Mangu Khan, 290, 433
+  Mani, 241, 270, 430, 431
+  Manichaeans, 243, 255
+  Mankind, racial divisions of, 54, 71
+  Mantua, 345
+  Maoris, 71
+  Marathon, 136
+  Marathon, battle of, 430
+  Marchand, Colonel, 398
+  Marcus Aurelius, 174, 430
+  Marie Antoinette, 343, 346
+  Mariner's compass, 302, 320
+  Marius, 191, 192, 237, 430
+  "Marriage of East and West," 149
+  Mars (planet), 2, 3
+  Marseillaise, the, 343, 345
+  Marseilles, 129, 182, 312, 345
+  Martel, Charles, 259, 432
+  Marlin V, Pope, 286, 304
+  Marx, 376
+  Maryland, 337
+  Mas d'Azil cave, 57
+  Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 390, 391
+  Maximilian I, Emperor, 309, 433
+  Maya writing, 74, 75
+  Mayence, 265, 344
+  _Mayflower_ expedition, 433
+  Mazarin, Cardinal, 324
+  Mecca, 248, 249, 251, 431
+  Mechanical revolution, 256 _et seq._, 366, 369
+  Medes, 100, 108, 109, 115, 122, 134, 155, 174, 429
+  Media, rebellion in, 136
+  Median Empire, 109, 110, 112
+  Medicine man, the, 64
+  Medina, 249
+  Mediterranean, 71, 91, 176, 292, 293; valley, 71
+  "Mediterranean" people, pre-Greek, 130
+  Megatherium, 74
+  Megiddo, battle of, 110, 115, 429
+  Melasgird, battle of, 268, 432
+  Mentality, primitive, 60, _et seq._
+  Mercury (planet), 2, 3
+  Mesopotamia, 77, 80, 96, 100, 109, 127, 174, 267, 290, 299
+  Mesozoic period, 27; land life of, 28; sea life of, 30; scarcity
+    of bird and mammal life in, 32, 34; its difference from
+    Cainozoic period, 38
+  Messina, 179, 180
+  Messina, Straits of, 179
+  Metallurgy, 356, 359, 360
+  Metals, transmutation of, 257
+  Meteoric iron, 80, 94
+  Metz, 391
+  Mexico, 74, 76, 324, 321, 384, 385, 389, 399
+  Michael VII, Emperor, 268
+  Michael VIII.  (_See_ Palaeologus)
+  Microscope, 355
+  Midianites, 117
+  Milan, 227, 235, 309, 312, 351
+  Miletus, 129
+  Millipedes, 23
+  Milton, 129
+  Ming dynasty, 290, 333, 433
+  Mining, 335
+  Minnesota, 385
+  Minos, 92, 95, 127, 131
+  Missionaries, 236, 247, 380, 400, 431
+  Mississippi (state), 385
+  Mississippi River, 386
+  Missouri, 382
+  Mithraism, 211, 212, 213, 222, 431
+  Mithras, 211, 213
+  Mnemonics, Chinese and Peruvian method of, 76
+  Moabites, 117
+  Moawija, Caliph, 431
+  Mogul dynasty, 292, 433
+  Moluccas, 329
+  Monarchy, 323, 341, 347
+  Monasticism, 213, 236
+  Money, 114, 176, 201, 319
+  Mongol conquests, influence of, 298
+  Mongol Court, the, 299
+  Mongol Empire, 332
+  Mongolia, 197
+  Mongolian language, 108
+  Mongolian peoples, 72, 73, 88, 167, 197, 227, 232, 233 _et seq._,
+    245, 258, 287 _et seq._, 298, 320, 333, 400, 433
+  Mongoloid tribes, 69
+  Monkeys, 43, 45
+  Monotheism, 251. (_See also_ Muhammad)
+  Monroe doctrine, 349, 389, 396, 423
+  Monroe, President, 349
+  Montesquieu, 371
+  Montgomery, 385
+  Month, the lunar, 68
+  Moon, the, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 68
+  Moorish paper-mills, 297
+  More, Sir Thomas, 365, 371
+  Morelly, 371
+  Morocco, 185, 398
+  Mortillet, 57
+  Moscow, 293, 434
+  Moscow, Grand Duke of, 290
+  Moses, 116
+  Moslem Empire, 253
+  Moslems, 297, 431, 432
+  Moslim, the, 253, 269, 271, 290
+  Mososaurs, 29
+  Moses, 23
+  Mounds, Neolithic, 70
+  Mountains, 197
+  Mozambique, 329
+  Muehlon, Herr, 424
+  Muhammad, prophet, 243, 247, 248 _et seq._, 270, 431
+  Muhammad II, Sultan, 292, 433
+  Mules, 102
+  Mummies, 70
+  Munitions, 412
+  Musk ox, 43
+  Mycalae, battle of, 136, 430
+  Mycenae, 92, 108
+  Mycerinus, 83
+  Mylae, battle of, 181, 430
+
+  N
+
+  Nabonidus, 111, 112
+  Nankin, 173
+  Naples, 178, 350, 431
+  Napoleon Bonaparte, 345, 347, 348, 356, 434
+  Napoleon III, 390, 434, 435
+  Nasmyth, 359
+  Natal, 398
+  "National schools," 369
+  Natural history, father of, 144
+  Natural Selection, theory of, 17
+  Nautilus, the pearly, 39
+  Navarino, battle of, 353, 434
+  Neanderthaler Man, 47, 48 _et seq._
+  Nebraska, 383
+  Nebuchadnezzar II (the Great), 102, 110, 115, 429
+  Nebulae, 4, 5
+  Necho II, 109, 110, 115, 122, 147, 429
+  Needles, bone, 57
+  Negroid tribes, 72, 88
+  Nelson, Horatio, 348
+  Neolithic age, 59, 65
+  Neolithic civilizations, primitive, 71 _et seq._
+  Neptune (planet), 2, 3
+  Nero, 195, 430
+  Nestorian missionaries, 431.  (_Cf._ Missionaries)
+  Netherlands, 259, 309, 351
+  Neustria, 431
+  Neva, 327
+  New Assyrian Empire, 97
+  _New Atlantis, The_, 322, 355
+  New England, 335, 337
+  New Mexico, 433
+  New Plymouth, 433
+  Newts, 24
+  New York, 358, 434
+  New Zealand, 322, 396, 405
+  Newfoundland, 405
+  Nicaea, 268, 270
+  Nicaea, Council of, 431
+  Nicephorus, Emperor, 432
+  Nicholas I, Tsar, 351, 390, 434
+  Nicholas II, Tsar, 416
+  Nickel, 360
+  Nicomedia, 227
+  Nieuw Amsterdam, 434.  (_Cf._ New York)
+  Nile, 83, 100, 129, 398; valley 90, 429
+  Nile, battle of the, 434
+  Nineveh, 94, 97, 101, 109, 114, 243, 429, 431
+  Nippur, 78
+  Nirvana, 161
+  Nish, 227
+  Noah's Ark, 91
+  Nogaret, Guillaume de, 284
+  Nomadic peoples, primitive, 84 _et seq._, (_Cf._ Nomads)
+  Nomads, 122, 155, 167, 168, 174, 198-200, 233-34, 245, 287, 334
+  Nonconformity, 307, 308
+  Nordic race, 72, 88, 104, 108, 134, 154, 155, 174, 178, 185, 197,
+    200, 233, 258, 261
+  Normandy, 263, 342, 432
+  Normandy, Duke of, 266
+  Normans, 263, 266, 279, 302
+  Northmen, 263, 264, 266, 268, 432
+  Norway, 306, 313, 432
+  Norwegians, 351
+  Novgorod, 294, 432
+  Nubians, 238
+  Numerals, Arabic, 282
+  Numidia, 191
+  Numidians, 182
+  Nuremberg, 294
+  Nuremberg, Peace of, 313
+
+  O
+
+  Ocean dredgings, deepest, 4
+  Ocean liners, 322, 336
+  Octavian. (_See_ Augustus)
+  Odenathus of Palmyra, 431
+  Odoacer, 236, 431
+  _Odyssey_, 127
+  Ogdai Khan, 287, 289, 432
+  Oglethorpe, 336
+  Okapi, 397
+  "Old Man," 372, 373
+  Old Testament, 115, 116
+  Olympiad, first, 176, 429
+  Olympian games, 131
+  Olympias, Queen, 146
+  Omar, Caliph, 431
+  Open-hearth process, 359
+  Orange River, 398
+  "Ordinance of secession," 385
+  Oregon, 385
+  Organic Evolution, 16
+  Ormuz, 299
+  Orsini family, 284
+  Orthodoxy, 240
+  Osiris, 200, 210, 211
+  Ostrogoths, 227, 431
+  Othman, 432
+  Otho, 430
+  Otto I, King of Germany, 265, 432
+  Otto of Bavaria, Prince, 354
+  Ottoman Empire, 202.  (_See also_ Turkey, Turks)
+  Oudh, 394
+  Ownership, 373, 374, 375
+  Oxen, 49, 104, 112
+  Oxford, 295
+
+  P
+
+  Padua, 235
+  Paestum, 176
+  Palaeologus, Michael (Michael VIII), 283
+  Palaeolithic age, 13, 59, 66 (note)
+  Palermo, 181
+  Palestine, 290, 299
+  Pamirs, 196, 300
+  Panama, 385
+  Panama, Isthmus of, 314
+  Pan Chau, 197, 430
+  Panipat, battle of, 433
+  Pannonia, 203, 229, 232, 234, 431
+  Papacy (including Popes), 237, 261, 265, 277 _et seq._, 329 _et
+    seq._, 343
+  Papal schism (the Great Schism), 285, 394, 433
+  Paper, 153, 236, 255, 297, 320, 322
+  Papyrus, 78, 153
+  Parables, 216
+  _Paradise Lost_, 129
+  Parchment, 153
+  Paris, 294, 295, 342, 350, 356, 390, 391, 412, 413, 415, 435
+  Paris, Peace of, 338, 434
+  Parthian dynasty, 202
+  Parthians, 155, 192, 194, 198, 199, 245
+  Passau, Treaty of, 314
+  Patricians, Roman, 176, 188
+  Paul, St., 202, 223
+  Pavia, siege of, 312
+  _Peace Conference_, Dr. Dillon's, 424
+  Peasant revolts, 305, 310
+  Peculium, 206
+  Pedro I, 340
+  Pegu, 300
+  Pekin, 173, 287, 300, 383, 400, 432
+  Peloponnesian War, 139, 145, 430
+  Pentateuch, the, 116
+  "People's crusade," the, 270, 432.  (_Cf._ Crusades)
+  Pepi II, 83
+  Pepin I, 259
+  Pepin of Hersthal, 431
+  Pergamum, 154, 180, 183, 430
+  Pericles, 139, 140
+  Perry, Commodore, 402
+  Persepolis, 114, 148, 155
+  Persia, 77, 134 _et seq._, 165, 185, 192, 227, 243, 253, 255, 287,
+    399, 409, 430, 431
+  Persian Empire, 112, 134, 238, 429
+  Persian Gulf, 77, 78, 91, 299
+  Persian language, 95
+  Persians, 100, 108, 109, 115, 155, 174, 431
+  Peru, 74, 75, 314, 321
+  Pestilence, 305, 320, 334, 413, 430, 431, 433
+  Peter the Great, 327, 434
+  Peter the Hermit, 269, 270
+  Peterhof, 327
+  Petersburg, 127, 419.  (_See also_ Petrograd)
+  Petrograd, 416, 417.  (_See also_ Petersburg)
+  Petschenegs, 268
+  Phalanx, 145, 178
+  Pharaohs, the, 90, 96, 119, 131, 150, 188
+  Pharsalos, 430
+  Philadelphia, 358, 434
+  Philip, Duke of Orleans, 350
+  Philip, King of France, 285
+  Philip II, King of Spain, 314, 324
+  Philip of Hesse, 313
+  Philip of Macedon, 145, 146, 430
+  Philippine Islands, 302, 393, 400
+  Philistines, 100, 117
+  Philosopher's stone, 257
+  Philosophers and Philosophy, 133, 139, 152, 168, 239, 294, 295
+  Phoenicians, 92, 94, 107, 123, 147
+  _Phoenix_, steamship, 358
+  Phrygians, 100, 108
+  Physiocrats, 371
+  Picture writing, 56, 57, 78, 79, 167
+  Piedmont, 345
+  Pirates and Piracy, 92, 179, 180, 200, 263
+  Pithecanthropus erectus, 45
+  Pizarro, 314
+  Plague, (_See_ Pestilence)
+  Planetoids, 2
+  Planets, 2
+  Plant lice, 13
+  Plants, 22, 23, 36
+  Platea, battle of, 136, 430
+  Plato, 140, 142, 144, 170, 370-71
+  Platypus, duck-billed, 34
+  Plebeians, Roman, 176, 177, 187-88
+  Plesiosaurs, 29, 30, 36
+  Poison-gas, 413
+  Poitiers, 432
+  Poitiers, battle of, 253, 259
+  Poland, 288, 327, 353, 434
+  Poles, 288, 419
+  Political experiment, age of, 318 _et seq._
+  Political ideas, development of, 370 _et seq._
+  Political science, founder of, 144
+  Political worship, 412
+  Polo, Marco, 299-300
+  Polynesian races, 71
+  Pompey the Great, 192, 193, 196, 198, 430
+  Pontifex maximus, 237, 261
+  Popes.  (_See_ Papacy)
+  Population, 379, 383
+  Port Arthur, 400, 403
+  Portugal, 340, 394, 396, 431
+  Portuguese, 302, 329, 332, 400
+  Porus, King, 149
+  Potato, 76
+  Potsdam, 327
+  Pottery, 75, 87
+  Prague, 433
+  Prescott, 314
+  Priestcraft (including Priests), 64, 68, 69, 74, 75, 77, 83, 111,
+    114 _et seq._, 122, 131, 132, 167, 174, 275, 277
+  _Primal Law_, 61
+  Primates, 43.  (_Cf._ Mammalia)
+  Printing, 80 153, 247, 255, 298, 302, 305, 306, 320, 322, 329
+  Priscus, 234
+  Property, 274, 372, 374, 375
+  Prophet, Muhammad as, 249
+  Prophets, Jewish, 118, 122 _et seq._
+  Proprietorship, 373
+  Protestantism, 316, 324, 327, 351, 400
+  Proverbs, book of, 116
+  Prussia, 327, 348, 351, 390, 391, 392, 434, 435
+  Prussia, East, 412, 415
+  Psalms, 116
+  Psammetichus I, 109, 429
+  Psycho-analysis, 69
+  Pterodactyls, 28, 29, 31, 36
+  Ptolemy I, 149, 150, 151, 186, 211
+  Ptolemy II, 151, 186
+  Punic language, 203
+  Punic Wars, 180 _et seq._, 187, 188, 430
+  Punjab, 163, 199
+  Puritans, 335
+  Pygmies, 397
+  Pyramids, 69, 83, 100
+  Pyrenees, 253, 432
+  Pyrrhus, 178, 179, 430
+
+  Q
+
+  Quebec, 434
+  Quinqueremes, 180
+  Quixada, 314
+
+  R
+
+  Races of mankind, 71 _et seq._
+  Railways, 322, 350, 357, 382, 383, 384, 389, 395, 396, 409, 434
+  Rain, 9, 10
+  Rameses II, 96, 147, 429
+  Rasputin, 415, 416
+  Ratisbon, Diet of, 313
+  Ravenna, 431
+  Reading, 176
+  Rebus, 79
+  Red deer, 56
+  Red Sea, 91, 118, 122, 196
+  Reformation, the, 308
+  Reindeer, 43, 49, 51, 56, 73
+  Religion, and the creation of the world, 1; and organic evolution,
+    16; primitive, 61, 64
+  Religions, 172, 222 _et seq._, 240 _et seq._, 319.  (_Cf._
+  Buddhism, Christianity, etc.)
+  Religious developments under the Roman Empire, 208 _et seq._
+  Religious wars, 270, 304, 313.  (_Cf._ Crusades)
+  Reptiles, the age of, 26 _et seq._; mental life of, 38
+  Reproduction, 17 _et seq._
+  _Republic_, Plato's, 142
+  Republic, the Assimilative, 187
+  Republics, 187 _et seq._, 236, 308, 324, 328, 340, 343, 344, 416,
+    433, 434, 435
+  Republicans, the first, 131
+  _Retreat of the Ten Thousand_, 150
+  Revolution, 342 _et seq._, 349 _et seq._, 390, 404, 416, 435
+  Rhine, 200, 227
+  Rhine languages, 236
+  Rhineland, 270, 306
+  Rhinoceros, 43, 49
+  Rhodes, 108
+  Rhodesia, 407
+  Rhodesian man, 52
+  Richelieu, Cardinal, 324
+  Richmond, U.S.A., 386, 388, 389
+  Roads, 114, 187
+  Robertson, 316
+  Robespierre, 345, 346, 434
+  Robinson, J. H., 284
+  "Rocket," Stephenson's, 356
+  Rock pictures, 57, 78
+  Rocks as record of beginnings of life, 11 _et seq._
+
+  S
+
+  Sabellians, 224
+  Sabre-toothed tiger, 43
+  Sacrifice, 102, 103, 167, 174, 182, 186, 211, 212.  (_Cf._ also
+    Blood sacrifice, Human sacrifice)
+  Sagas, 106
+  Saghalien, 404
+  Sailing ships, 91, 336
+  St. Angelo, castle of, 312
+  St. Helena, 407
+  St. Sophia, church of, 238
+  Saladin, 272, 432
+  Salamis, battle of, 180, 430
+  Salamis, bay of, 136
+  Salerno, 282
+  Samarkand, 256, 297
+  Samnites, 430
+  Samos, 129
+  Samson, 116
+  Samurai, 401
+  San Francisco, 383
+  Sandstones, 26
+  Sanskrit, 95, 107, 156
+  Sapor I, 430
+  Saracens, 264, 265, 297
+  Saratoga, 338
+  Sardanapalus (Assurbanipal), 98, 109, 111
+  Sardinia, 182, 185, 232, 309, 351, 390
+  Sardis, 98
+  Sargon I, 90, 92, 109, 122, 429
+  Sargon II, 97, 109, 429
+  Sarmatians, 100
+  Sassanid dynasty, 227, 241, 430
+  Saturn (planet), 2, 3
+  Saul, King of Israel, 118, 429
+  Saul of Tarsus.  (_See_ Paul, St.)
+  _Savannah_, steamship, 358
+  Savoy, 334, 351, 390
+  Saxons, 230, 265
+  Saxony, Elector of, 310
+  Scandinavians, 329
+  Scarabeus beetle, 209
+  Scheldt, 344
+  Schmalkaldic League, 312
+  Science, 144
+  Science and religion, 243
+  Science, exploitation of, 362
+  Science, physical, 412
+  Scientific societies, 322
+  Scipio Africanus, 182, 187
+  Scorpion, sea, 13, 18, 23
+  Scotland, 306, 307
+  Scott, Michael, 282
+  Scythia, 429
+  Scythians, 100, 108, 134, 135
+  Sea trade, 91
+  Sea worms, 13
+  Seasons, the, 68
+  Seaweed, 13
+  Sedan, 391
+  Seed-bearing trees, 26
+  Seleucid dynasty, 183, 186, 196, 199
+  Seleucus I, 149, 163
+  Seljuks, 267, 268, 272, 432
+  Semites and Semitic peoples, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 107, 115, 122,
+    134, 174, 233, 256, 258
+  Semitic language, 202, 243
+  Sennacherib, 97
+  Serapeum, 211, 213
+  Serapis, 211, 212
+  Serbia, 179, 200, 227, 228, 292, 354, 411
+  Serfdom, 207
+  Seven Years' War, 434
+  Severus, Septimius, 202
+  Seville, 202, 213, 302
+  Shang dynasty, 103, 168
+  Sheep, 77
+  Shell necklaces, 56
+  Shellfish, 13
+  Shells, as protection against drying, 18
+  Sherman, General, 387, 388
+  Shi Hwang-ti, 173, 180, 430
+  Shimonoseki, Straits of, 402
+  Shipbuilding, 359, 360, 400
+  Ships, 91, 119, 122, 149, 180, 196, 320, 322, 336
+  Shishak, 119
+  Shrubs, 16
+  Shumanism, 298
+  Siam, 166
+  Siberia, 334
+  Siberia, Eastern, 419
+  Siberian railway, 403, 409
+  Sicilies, Two, 287
+  Sicily, 108, 122, 129, 134, 178, 179, 182, 185, 188, 232, 263,
+    279, 280
+  Sidon, 92, 122, 123, 134, 147
+  Silurian system, 19
+  Silver, 80, 102, 335
+  Sind, 394
+  Sirmium, 227
+  Skins, use of; for clothing, 56 for writing, 75; inflated as
+    boats, 91
+  Skull, Rhodesian, 52
+  Slavery (and slaves), 94, 102, 188, 191, 194, 203 _et seq._, 236,
+    320, 337, 373, 374, 384-86, 388, 430, 433
+  Slavonic language, 236
+  Slavs, 263, 265
+  Smelting, 87, 104, 322
+  Smith, Adam, 377
+  Smith, Eliot, 69
+  Snakes, 27, 28
+  Social reform, 125
+  Socialism, 371, 416, 417, 434
+  Socialists, 375 _et seq._
+  Socialists, primitive, 374
+  Society, primitive, 60
+  Socrates, 140
+  Solomon, King, 119, 122, 127, 429
+  Solomon's temple, 119
+  Sophists, 140
+  Sophocles, 139
+  South Carolina, 385
+  Soviets, 417
+  Space, the world in, 1 _et seq._
+  Spain, 93, 106, 122, 123, 180, 185, 230, 232, 236, 253, 255, 256,
+    309, 348, 349, 350, 393, 429, 431; relics of first true man in,
+    53
+  Spain, North, 431
+  Spanish, 329, 331
+  Spanish language, 203
+  Sparta, 129, 130, 136, 203
+  Spartacus, 191, 192, 203, 430
+  Spartans, 136
+  Species, generation of, 17; new, 36
+  Speech, primitive human, 63
+  Spiders, 23
+  Spiral nebulae, 5
+  Spores, 24
+  Stagira, 142
+  Stamford Bridge, battle of, 286
+  Stars, 68, 257
+  State, modern idea of a, 375
+  State ownership, 374
+  States General, the, 341, 434
+  Steamboat, 340, 357 _et seq._, 374, 382, 395, 396
+  Steam engine, 151, 152, 359
+  Steam hammer, 359
+  Steam power, 322
+  Steel, 322, 359-60
+  Stephenson, George, 356
+  Stilicho, 230, 234, 431
+  Stockholm, 417
+  Stockton, 356, 434
+  Stone age, 53, 59
+  Stone implements, 45, 65
+  Stonehenge, 106, 429
+  Story-telling, primitive, 62
+  Styria, 309
+  Submarine campaign, 423
+  Subutai, 289
+  Sudan, the, 405
+  Suevi, 431
+  Suleiman the Magnificent, 310, 312, 432, 433
+  Sulla, 192, 237
+  Sumeria and Sumerians, 77, 78 _et seq._, 87, 88, 90, 91, 122
+  Sumerian Empire, 429
+  Sumerian language and writing, 77, 78, 79
+  Sun, the, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10
+  Sun worship, 211
+  Sung dynasty, 290
+  Susa, 114, 135, 148, 149, 155
+  Suy dynasty, 245
+  Swastika, 70
+  Sweden, 306, 313, 348
+  Swedes, 326, 329, 330, 351
+  Swimming bladder, 24
+  Switzerland, 327, 347, 350, 433
+  Syracuse, 151, 154, 170, 178
+  Syria, 88, 91, 115, 119, 122, 138, 238, 243, 249, 290, 431
+  Syrians, 96, 98
+
+  T
+
+  _Tabus_, the, 61
+  Tadpoles, 26
+  Tagus valley, 314
+  Tai-Tsung, 247, 431
+  Tang dynasty, 200, 245, 247, 287, 431
+  "Tanks," 413
+  Taoism, 174, 222.  (_See also_ Lao Tse)
+  Taranto, 178
+  Tarentum, 178
+  Tarim valley, 430
+  Tartars, 167, 197, 232, 243, 288, 290, 334
+  Tasmania, 59, 322, 393
+  Tattooing, 70
+  Taxation, 271, 337
+  Tea, 247, 337
+  Teeth, 19, 20
+  Telamon, battle of, 182
+  Telegraph, electric, 340, 358, 382, 384, 396
+  Telescope, 355
+  Temples, 77, 83, 101, 129, 131, 167, 174, 184, 186, 211, 212, 213,
+    240
+  Tennessee, 386
+  Testament, Old, 115, 116
+  Teutons, 431
+  Texas, 384, 385
+  Texel, 344
+  Thales, 131, 161
+  Thebes, 101, 102, 129, 136
+  Theocrasia, 209
+  Theodora, Empress, 238
+  Theodoric the Goth, 236, 431
+  Theodosius II, 234, 238
+  Theodosius the Great, 226, 229, 431
+  Thermopylae, battle of, 136, 430
+  Thessaly, 145, 178
+  Thirty Years' War, 326
+  Thothmes III, 96, 127, 147, 429
+  Thought and research, 140
+  Thought, primitive, 60 _et seq._
+  Thrace, 135
+  Three Estates, council of the, 285
+  Three Teachings, the, 170
+  Tiberius Caesar, 195, 214, 430
+  Tibet, 196, 400
+  Tides, 18
+  Tigers, 42, 43
+  Tiglath Pileser I, 97, 429
+  Tiglath Pileser III, 97, 108, 109, 429
+  Tigris, 77, 84
+  Time, 5, 6
+  Timor, 329
+  Timurlane, 290, 334
+  Tin, 360
+  Tiryns, 108
+  Titanotherium, the, 39, 42
+  Tonkin, 402
+  Tortoises, 27, 28
+  Toulon, 345
+  Trade, early, 83, 88
+  Trade, Grecian, 129
+  Trade routes, 119
+  Traders, 132, 335
+  Traders, sea, 92
+  Trafalgar, battle of, 348
+  Trajan, 195, 430
+  Transport, 319, 358, 382
+  Transvaal, 398
+  Transylvania, 195
+  Trasimere, Lake, 182
+  Trench warfare, 412
+  Trevithick, 356
+  Tribal life, 61
+  Trilobites, 13
+  Trinidad, 407
+  Trinil, Java, 45
+  Trinitarians, 224
+  Trinity, doctrine of the, 224, 261
+  Triremes, 180
+  Triumvirates, 194
+  Trojans, 94
+  Troy, 92, 127
+  Troyes, battle of, 235, 431
+  Tsar, title of, 327
+  Tshushima, Straits of, 404
+  Ts'i, 173
+  Ts'in, 173, 431
+  Tuileries, 342, 343
+  Tunis, 185
+  Turkestan, 77, 108, 148, 196, 197, 198, 199, 245, 253, 287, 290,
+    292, 334
+  Turkey, 390, 411
+  Turkoman dynasty, 405
+  Turkomans, 334
+  Turks, 167, 197, 243, 245, 263, 267, 287, 292, 310, 312, 334, 353,
+    354, 434
+  Turtles, 27, 28
+  Tushratta, king of Mitanni, 97
+  Twelve tribes, the, 116
+  Tyrannosaurus, 28
+  Tyre, 92, 118, 119, 122, 123, 134, 147
+
+  U
+
+  Uintatheres, 42
+  Uncleanness, 68
+  United States, 357, 410, 411, 422, 434; Declaration of
+    Independence, 338; treaty with Britain, 339; expansion of, 382
+    _et seq._
+  Universities, 295, 304, 355, 361
+  Uranus, 2, 3
+  Urban II, Pope, 268, 272, 432
+  Urban VI, Pope, 285, 433
+  Utopias, 140, 142, 144
+
+  V
+
+  Valens, Emperor, 229
+  Valerian, 430
+  Valladolid, 314, 315, 316
+  Valmy, battle of, 434
+  Vandals, 227, 229, 230, 232, 431
+  Varennes, 343, 434
+  Vassalage, 259
+  Vatican, 265, 266, 272, 285
+  Vedas, 106
+  Vegetation of Mesozoic period, 28
+  Veii, 177, 178
+  Vendee, 345
+  Venetia, 235
+  Venetians, 301
+  Venice, 235, 272, 274, 294, 327, 351, 432
+  Venus (goddess), 213
+  Venus (planet), 2, 3
+  Verona, 345
+  Versailles, 325, 327, 341, 342
+  Versailles, Peace Conference of, 421
+  Versailles, Treaty of, 421, 422
+  Vertebrata, 19; ancestors of, 20
+  Verulam, Lord, (_See_ Bacon, Sir Francis)
+  Vespasian, 430
+  Vesuvius, 191
+  Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, 435
+  Victoria, Queen, 394, 434
+  Vienna, 292, 312, 433, 434
+  Vienna, Congress of, 348, 349, 350
+  Vienna, Treaty of, 355
+  Vilna, 356
+  Vindhya Mountains, 159
+  Virginia, 337, 383, 386
+  Visigoths, 227, 229, 232, 235, 259, 431.  (_Cf._ Goths)
+  Vitellus, 430
+  _Vittoria_, ship, 302
+  Viviparous mammals, 33
+  Vivisection, Herophilus and, 151
+  Volcanoes, 37
+  Volga, 200, 227
+  Volta, 358
+  Voltaire, 328
+  Votes, 382
+
+  W
+
+  Waldenses, 276, 280, 305
+  Waldo, 276
+  Walid I, 432
+  War and Warfare, 96, 344, 390, 422
+  War of American Independence, 338 _et seq._
+  Warsaw, 353
+  Washington, 340, 357, 383, 386, 389
+  Washington, Conference of, 425
+  Washington, George, 338
+  Waterloo, battle of, 348
+  Watt engine, 356
+  Weapons, 100, 106
+  Weaving, 65, 75
+  Wei-hai-wei, 400
+  Wellington, Duke of, 348
+  West Indies, 330, 385, 393, 394
+  Western Empire, 431
+  Westminster, 306
+  Westphalia, Peace of, 326, 355, 433
+  Wheat, 66, 104
+  White Huns.  (_See_ Ephthalites)
+  William Duke of Normandy (William I), 432
+  William II, German Emperor, 410, 435
+  Wilson, President, 422, 423, 424
+  Wings, birds', 32
+  Wisby, 294
+  Wisconsin, 385
+  "Wisdom lovers," the first, 133
+  Witchcraft, 68
+  Wittenberg, 306
+  Wolfe, General, 434
+  Wolsey, Cardinal, 324
+  Wood blocks for printing, 247
+  Wool, 102, 395
+  Workers' Internationals, 377
+  World, The, creation of, 1; in time, 5 _et seq._
+  Wrangel, General, 419
+  Writing, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 94, 124, 176; dawn of, 57
+  Wycliffe, John, and his followers, 286, 304, 433
+
+  X
+
+  Xavier, Francis, 400
+  Xenophon, 150
+  Xerxes, 136, 138, 147, 150
+
+  Y
+
+  Yang-Chow, 300
+  Yang-tse-Kiang, 173
+  Yangtse valley, 173
+  Yarmuk, battle of, the, 253, 431
+  Yedo Bay, 401
+  Yorktown, 338
+  Yuan dynasty, 290, 433
+  Yucatan, 74
+  Yudenitch, General, 419
+  Yuste, 314, 317
+
+  Z
+
+  Zama, battle of, 182, 430
+  Zanzibar, 329
+  Zarathustra, 241
+  Zeppelins, 413
+  Zero sign, 257
+  Zeus, 211
+  Zimbabwe, 397
+  Zoophytes, fossilized, 13
+  Zoroaster (and Zoroastrianism), 241, 243, 255
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells
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