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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 9, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 9, Slice 6
+       "English Language" to "Epsom Salts"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 17, 2011 [EBook #35306]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE ENGLISH LANGUAGE: "The writers of each district wrote in
+      the dialect familiar to them; and between extreme forms the
+      difference was so great as to amount to unintelligibility ..."
+      'familiar' amended from 'familar'.
+
+    ARTICLE ENGLISH LITERATURE: "Even more portentous in its superhuman
+      dignity was the style of Edward Gibbon, who combined with the
+      unspiritual optimism of Hume and Robertson a far more concentrated
+      devotion to his subject ..." 'combined' amended from 'conbined'.
+
+    ARTICLE ENTERITIS: "The chief symptom is diarrhoea. The term
+      "enteric fever" has recently come into use instead of "typhoid" for
+      the latter disease; but see Typhoid Fever." 'symptom' amended from
+      'sympton'.
+
+    ARTICLE ENTRE MINHO E DOURO: "The methods and implements of the
+      farmers are, however, most primitive, and at the beginning of the
+      20th century it was not unusual to see a mule, or even a woman,
+      harnessed with the team of oxen to an old-fashioned wooden plough."
+      'it' amended from 'is'.
+
+    ARTICLE ENTRE RIOS: "... a province of the eastern Argentine
+      Republic, forming the southern part of a region sometimes described
+      as the Argentine Mesopotamia ..." 'southern' amended from
+      'sourthern'.
+
+    ARTICLE EPHRAIM: "... and Ephraim's proud and ambitious character
+      is indicated in its demands as narrated in Josh. xvii. 14; Judg.
+      viii. 1-3, xii. 1-6. throughout, Ephraim played a distinctive and
+      prominent part; it probably excelled Manasseh in numerical strength
+      ..." 'throughout' amended from 'thoughout'.
+
+    ARTICLE EPIC POETRY: "... and Teofilo Folengo (1491-1544),
+      ridiculed the whole school in an Orlandino of 1526." 'Folengo'
+      amended from 'Folango'.
+
+    ARTICLE EPIDAURUS: "It was abandoned during the middle ages; its
+      inhabitants took possession of the promontory of Minoa ..."
+      'possession' amended from 'posession'.
+
+    ARTICLE EPILOGUE: "... and then explained to the audience what an
+      extremely interesting play it had been. In the second case, when
+      the author was less confident ..." 'extremely' amended from
+      'exremely'.
+
+    ARTICLE EPITHELIAL, ENDOTHELIAL: "It will be sufficient here to
+      give the more general characters possessed by these cells."
+      'sufficient' amended from 'sufficent'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME IX, SLICE VI
+
+       English Language to Epsom Salts
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  ENGLISH LANGUAGE                  EPHEBI
+  ENGLISH LAW                       EPHEMERIS
+  ENGLISH LITERATURE                EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE
+  ENGLISHRY                         EPHESUS
+  ENGRAVING                         EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF
+  ENGROSSING                        EPHOD
+  ENGYON                            EPHOR
+  ENID                              EPHORUS
+  ENIGMA                            EPHRAEM SYRUS
+  ENKHUIZEN                         EPHRAIM
+  ENNEKING, JOHN JOSEPH             EPHTHALITES
+  ENNIS                             ÉPI
+  ENNISCORTHY                       EPICENE
+  ENNISKILLEN, WILLIAM COLE         EPICHARMUS
+  ENNISKILLEN                       EPIC POETRY
+  ENNIUS, QUINTUS                   EPICTETUS
+  ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX            EPICURUS
+  ENNS                              EPICYCLE
+  ENOCH                             EPICYCLOID
+  ENOCH, BOOK OF                    EPIDAURUS
+  ENOMOTO, BUYO                     EPIDIORITE
+  ENOS                              EPIDOSITE
+  ENRIQUEZ GOMEZ, ANTONIO           EPIDOTE
+  ENSCHEDE                          EPIGONI
+  ENSENADA, CENON DE SOMODEVILLA    EPIGONION
+  ENSIGN                            EPIGRAM
+  ENSILAGE                          EPIGRAPHY
+  ENSTATITE                         EPILEPSY
+  ENTABLATURE                       EPILOGUE
+  ENTADA                            EPIMENIDES
+  ENTAIL                            ÉPINAL
+  ENTASIS                           EPINAOS
+  ENTERITIS                         ÉPINAY, LOUISE D'ESCLAVELLES D'
+  ENTHUSIASM                        EPIPHANIUS, SAINT
+  ENTHYMEME                         EPIPHANY, FEAST OF
+  ENTOMOLOGY                        EPIRUS
+  ENTOMOSTRACA                      EPISCOPACY
+  ENTRAGUES, CATHERINE DE BALZAC D' EPISCOPIUS, SIMON
+  ENTRECASTEAUX, BRUNI D'           EPISODE
+  ENTRE MINHO E DOURO               EPISTAXIS
+  ENTREPÔT                          EPISTEMOLOGY
+  ENTRE RIOS                        EPISTLE
+  ENVOY                             EPISTYLE
+  ENZIO                             EPISTYLIS
+  ENZYME                            EPITAPH
+  EOCENE                            EPITHALAMIUM
+  EON DE BEAUMONT                   EPITHELIAL and GLANDULAR TISSUES
+  EÖTVÖS, JÓZSEF                    EPITOME
+  EPAMINONDAS                       EPOCH
+  EPARCH                            EPODE
+  EPAULETTE                         EPONA
+  ÉPÉE, CHARLES-MICHEL              EPONYMOUS
+  ÉPÉE-DE-COMBAT                    EPPING
+  EPERJES                           EPPS
+  ÉPERNAY                           ÉPRÉMESNIL, JEAN JACQUES DUVAL D'
+  ÉPERNON                           EPSOM
+  EPHEBEUM                          EPSOM SALTS
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH LANGUAGE. In its historical sense, the name _English_ is now
+conveniently used to comprehend the language of the English people from
+their settlement in Britain to the present day, the various stages
+through which it has passed being distinguished as Old, Middle, and New
+or Modern English. In works yet recent, and even in some still current,
+the term is confined to the third, or at most extended to the second and
+third of these stages, since the language assumed in the main the
+vocabulary and grammatical forms which it now presents, the oldest or
+inflected stage being treated as a separate language, under the title of
+_Anglo-Saxon_, while the transition period which connects the two has
+been called _Semi-Saxon_. This view had the justification that, looked
+upon by themselves, either as vehicles of thought or as objects of study
+and analysis, Old English or Anglo-Saxon and Modern English are, for all
+practical ends, distinct languages,--as much so, for example, as Latin
+and Spanish. No amount of familiarity with Modern English, including its
+local dialects, would enable the student to read Anglo-Saxon,
+three-fourths of the vocabulary of which have perished and been
+reconstructed within 900 years;[1] nor would a knowledge even of these
+lost words give him the power, since the grammatical system, alike in
+accidence and syntax, would be entirely strange to him. Indeed, it is
+probable that a modern Englishman would acquire the power of reading and
+writing French in less time than it would cost him to attain to the same
+proficiency in Old English; so that if the test of distinct languages be
+their degree of practical difference from each other, it cannot be
+denied that "Anglo-Saxon" is a distinct language from Modern English.
+But when we view the subject historically, recognizing the fact that
+living speech is subject to continuous change in certain definite
+directions, determined by the constitution and circumstances of mankind,
+as an evolution or development of which we can trace the steps, and
+that, owing to the abundance of written materials, this evolution
+appears so gradual in English that we can nowhere draw distinct lines
+separating its successive stages, we recognize these stages as merely
+temporary phases of an individual whole, and speak of the English
+language as used alike by Cynewulf, by Chaucer, by Shakespeare and by
+Tennyson.[2] It must not be forgotten, however, that in this wide sense
+the English language includes, not only the literary or courtly forms of
+speech used at successive periods, but also the popular and, it may be,
+altogether unwritten dialects that exist by their side. Only on this
+basis, indeed, can we speak of Old, Middle and Modern English as the
+same _language_, since in actual fact the precise _dialect_ which is now
+the cultivated language, or "Standard English," is not the descendant of
+that dialect which was the cultivated language or "Englisc" of Alfred,
+but of a sister dialect then sunk in comparative obscurity,--even as the
+direct descendant of Alfred's Englisc is now to be found in the
+non-literary rustic speech of Wiltshire and Somersetshire. Causes which,
+linguistically considered, are external and accidental, have shifted
+the political and intellectual centre of England, and along with it
+transferred literary and official patronage from one form of English to
+another; if the centre of influence had happened to be fixed at York or
+on the banks of the Forth, both would probably have been neglected for a
+third.
+
+The English language, thus defined, is not "native" to Britain, that is,
+it was not found there at the dawn of history, but was introduced by
+foreign immigrants at a date many centuries later. At the Roman Conquest
+of the island the languages spoken by the natives belonged all (so far
+as is known) to the Celtic branch of the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic
+family, modern forms of which still survive in Wales, Ireland, the
+Scottish Highlands, Isle of Man and Brittany, while one has at no
+distant date become extinct in Cornwall (see CELT: Language). Brythonic
+dialects, allied to Welsh and Cornish, were apparently spoken over the
+greater part of Britain, as far north as the firths of Forth and Clyde;
+beyond these estuaries and in the isles to the west, including Ireland
+and Man, Goidelic dialects, akin to Irish and Scottish Gaelic,
+prevailed. The long occupation of south Britain by the Romans (A.D.
+43-409)--a period, it must not be forgotten, equal to that from the
+Reformation to the present day, or nearly as long as the whole duration
+of modern English--familiarized the provincial inhabitants with Latin,
+which was probably the ordinary speech of the towns. Gildas, writing
+nearly a century and a half after the renunciation of Honorius in 410,
+addressed the British princes in that language;[3] and the linguistic
+history of Britain might have been not different from that of Gaul,
+Spain and the other provinces of the Western Empire, in which a local
+type of Latin, giving birth to a neo-Latinic language, finally
+superseded the native tongue except in remote and mountainous
+districts,[4] had not the course of events been entirely changed by the
+Teutonic conquests of the 5th and 6th centuries.
+
+The Angles, Saxons, and their allies came of the Teutonic stock, and
+spoke a tongue belonging to the Teutonic or Germanic branch of the
+Indo-Germanic (Indo-European) family, the same race and form of speech
+being represented in modern times by the people and languages of
+Holland, Germany, Denmark, the Scandinavian peninsula and Iceland, as
+well as by those of England and her colonies. Of the original home of
+the so-called primitive Aryan race (q.v.), whose language was the parent
+Indo-European, nothing is certainly known, though the subject has called
+forth many conjectures; the present tendency is to seek it in Europe
+itself. The tribe can hardly have occupied an extensive area at first,
+but its language came by degrees to be diffused over the greater part of
+Europe and some portion of Asia. Among those whose Aryan descent is
+generally recognized as beyond dispute are the Teutons, to whom the
+Angles and Saxons belonged.
+
+The Teutonic or Germanic people, after dwelling together in a body,
+appear to have scattered in various directions, their language gradually
+breaking up into three main groups, which can be already clearly
+distinguished in the 4th century A.D., North Germanic or Scandinavian,
+West Germanic or Low and High German, and East Germanic, of which the
+only important representative is Gothic. Gothic, often called
+Moeso-Gothic, was the language of a people of the Teutonic stock, who,
+passing down the Danube, invaded the borders of the Empire, and obtained
+settlements in the province of Moesia, where their language was
+committed to writing in the 4th century; its literary remains are of
+peculiar value as the oldest specimens, by several centuries, of
+Germanic speech. The dialects of the invaders of Britain belonged to the
+West Germanic branch, and within this to the Low German group,
+represented at the present day by Dutch, Frisian, and the various
+"Platt-Deutsch" dialects of North Germany. At the dawn of history the
+forefathers of the English appear to have been dwelling between and
+about the estuaries and lower courses of the Rhine and the Weser, and
+the adjacent coasts and isles; at the present day the most English or
+Angli-form dialects of the European continent are held to be those of
+the North Frisian islands of Amrum and Sylt, on the west coast of
+Schleswig. It is well known that the greater part of the ancient
+Friesland has been swept away by the encroachments of the North Sea, and
+the _disjecta membra_ of the Frisian race, pressed by the sea in front
+and more powerful nationalities behind, are found only in isolated
+fragments from the Zuider Zee to the coasts of Denmark. Many Frisians
+accompanied the Angles and Saxons to Britain, and Old English was in
+many respects more closely connected with Old Frisian than with any
+other Low German dialect. Of the Geatas, Eotas or "Jutes," who,
+according to Bede, occupied Kent and the Isle of Wight, and formed a
+third tribe along with the Angles and Saxons, it is difficult to speak
+linguistically. The speech of Kent certainly formed a distinct dialect
+in both the Old English and the Middle English periods, but it has
+tended to be assimilated more and more to neighbouring southern
+dialects, and is at the present day identical with that of Sussex, one
+of the old Saxon kingdoms. Whether the speech of the Isle of Wight ever
+showed the same characteristic differences as that of Kent cannot now be
+ascertained, but its modern dialect differs in no respect from that of
+Hampshire, and shows no special connexion with that of Kent. It is at
+least entirely doubtful whether Bede's Geatas came from Jutland; on
+linguistic grounds we should expect that they occupied a district lying
+not to the north of the Angles, but between these and the old Saxons.
+
+The earliest specimens of the language of the Germanic invaders of
+Britain that exist point to three well-marked dialect groups: the
+Anglian (in which a further distinction may be made between the
+Northumbrian and the Mercian, or South-Humbrian); the Saxon, generally
+called West-Saxon from the almost total lack of sources outside the
+West-Saxon domain; and the Kentish. The Kentish and West-Saxon are
+sometimes, especially in later times, grouped together as southern
+dialects as opposed to midland and northern. These three groups were
+distinguished from each other by characteristic points of phonology and
+inflection. Speaking generally, the Anglian dialects may be
+distinguished by the absence of certain normal West-Saxon vowel-changes,
+and the presence of others not found in West-Saxon, and also by a strong
+tendency to confuse and simplify inflections, in all which points,
+moreover, Northumbrian tended to deviate more widely than Mercian.
+Kentish, on the other hand, occupied a position intermediate between
+Anglian and West-Saxon, early Kentish approaching more nearly to
+Mercian, owing perhaps to early historical connexion between the two,
+and late Kentish tending to conform to West-Saxon characteristics, while
+retaining several points in common with Anglian. Though we cannot be
+certain that these dialectal divergences date from a period previous to
+the occupation of Britain, such evidence as can be deduced points to the
+existence of differences already on the continent, the three dialects
+corresponding in all likelihood to Bede's three tribes, the Angles,
+Saxons and Geatas.
+
+As it was amongst the _Engle_ or Angles of Northumbria that literary
+culture first appeared, and as an Angle or _Englisc_ dialect was the
+first to be used for vernacular literature, _Englisc_ came eventually to
+be a general name for all forms of the vernacular as opposed to Latin,
+&c.; and even when the West-Saxon of Alfred became in its turn the
+literary or classical form of speech, it was still called Englisc or
+_English_. The origin of the name _Angul-Seaxan_ (Anglo-Saxons) has been
+disputed, some maintaining that it means a union of Angles and Saxons,
+others (with better foundation) that it meant _English Saxons_, or
+Saxons of England or of the Angel-cynn as distinguished from Saxons of
+the Continent (see _New English Dictionary_, s.v.). Its modern use is
+mainly due to the little band of scholars who in the 16th and 17th
+centuries turned their attention to the long-forgotten language of
+Alfred and Ælfric, which, as it differed so greatly from the English of
+their own day, they found it convenient to distinguish by a name which
+was applied to themselves by those who spoke it.[5] To these scholars
+"Anglo-Saxon" and "English" were separated by a gulf which it was
+reserved for later scholarship to bridge across, and show the historical
+continuity of the English of all ages.
+
+As already hinted, the English language, in the wide sense, presents
+three main stages of development--Old, Middle and Modern--distinguished
+by their inflectional characteristics. The latter can be best summarized
+in the words of Dr Henry Sweet in his _History of English Sounds_:[6]
+"Old English is the period of _full_ inflections (_nama_, _gifan_,
+_caru_), Middle English of _levelled_ inflections (_naame_, _given_,
+_caare_), and Modern English of _lost_ inflections (_name_, _give_,
+_care_ = _nam_, _giv_, _car_). We have besides two periods of
+transition, one in which _nama_ and _name_ exist side by side, and
+another in which final e [with other endings] is beginning to drop." By
+_lost_ inflections it is meant that only very few remain, and those
+mostly non-syllabic, as the _-s_ in stones and loves, the _-ed_ in
+loved, the _-r_ in their, as contrasted with the Old English stán_-as_,
+lufað, luf_-od-e_ and luf_-od-on_, þá_-ra_. Each of these periods may
+also be divided into two or three; but from the want of materials it is
+difficult to make any such division for all dialects alike in the first.
+
+As to the chronology of the successive stages, it is of course
+impossible to lay down any exclusive series of dates, since the
+linguistic changes were inevitably gradual, and also made themselves
+felt in some parts of the country much earlier than in others, the north
+being always in advance of the midland, and the south much later in its
+changes. It is easy to point to periods at which Old, Middle and Modern
+English were fully developed, but much less easy to draw lines
+separating these stages; and even if we recognize between each part a
+"transition" period or stage, the determination of the beginning and end
+of this will to a certain extent be a matter of opinion. But bearing
+these considerations in mind, and having special reference to the
+midland dialect from which literary English is mainly descended, the
+following may be given as approximate dates, which if they do not
+demarcate the successive stages, at least include them:--
+
+  Old English or Anglo-Saxon                   to 1100
+  Transition Old English ("Semi-Saxon")   1100 to 1150
+  Early Middle English                    1150 to 1250
+  (Normal) Middle English                 1250 to 1400
+  Late and Transition Middle English      1400 to 1485
+  Early Modern or Tudor English           1485 to 1611
+  Seventeenth century transition          1611 to 1688
+  Modern or current English               1689 onward
+
+Dr Sweet has reckoned Transition Old English (Old Transition) from 1050
+to 1150, Middle English thence to 1450, and Late or Transition Middle
+English (Middle Transition) 1450 to 1500. As to the Old Transition see
+further below.
+
+The OLD ENGLISH or Anglo-Saxon tongue, as introduced into Britain, was
+highly inflectional, though its inflections at the date when it becomes
+known to us were not so full as those of the earlier Gothic, and
+considerably less so than those of Greek and Latin during their
+classical periods. They corresponded more closely to those of modern
+literary German, though both in nouns and verbs the forms were more
+numerous and distinct; for example, the German _guten_ answers to
+_three_ Old English forms,--_gódne_, _gódum_, _gódan_; _guter_ to
+_two_--_gódre_, _gódra_; _liebten_ to _two_,--_lufodon_ and _lufeden_.
+Nouns had four cases. _Nominative_, _Accusative_ (only sometimes
+distinct), _Genitive_, _Dative_, the latter used also with prepositions
+to express locative, instrumental, and most ablative relations; of a
+distinct _instrumental_ case only vestiges occur. There were several
+declensions of nouns, the main division being that known in Germanic
+languages generally as strong and weak,--a distinction also extending to
+adjectives in such wise that every adjective assumed either the strong
+or the weak inflection as determined by associated grammatical forms.
+The first and second personal pronouns possessed a dual number = _we
+two_, _ye two_; the third person had a complete declension of the stem
+he, instead of being made up as now of the three stems seen in _he_,
+_she_, _they_. The verb distinguished the subjunctive from the
+indicative mood, but had only two inflected tenses, present and past
+(more accurately, that of incomplete and that of completed or "perfect"
+action)--the former also used for the future, the latter for all the
+shades of past time. The order of the sentence corresponded generally to
+that of German. Thus from King Alfred's additions to his translation of
+Orosius: "Donne þy ylcan dæge hi hine to þæm ade beran wyllað þonne
+todælað hi his feoh þaet þær to lafe bið æfter þæm gedrynce and þæm
+plegan, on fif oððe syx, hwilum on ma, swa swa þaes feos andefn bið"
+("Then on the same day [that] they him to the pile bear will, then
+divide they his property that there to remainder shall be after the
+drinking and the sports, into five or six, at times into more, according
+as the property's value is").
+
+The poetry was distinguished by alliteration, and the abundant use of
+figurative and metaphorical expressions, of bold compounds and archaic
+words never found in prose. Thus in the following lines from Beowulf
+(ed. Thorpe, l. 645, Zupitza 320):--
+
+  Stræt wæs stán-fáh, stig wisode
+  Gumum ætgædere. gúð-byrne scán
+  Heard hond-locen. hring-iren scir
+  Song in searwum, þa hie to sele furðum
+  In hyra gry're geatwum gangan cwomon.
+
+Trans.:--
+
+  The street was stone-variegated, the path guided
+  (The) men together; the war-mailcoat shone,
+  Hard hand-locked. Ring-iron sheer (bright ring-mail)
+  Sang in (their) cunning-trappings, as they to hall forth
+  In their horror-accoutrements going came.
+
+The Old English was a homogeneous language, having very few foreign
+elements in it, and forming its compounds and derivatives entirely from
+its own resources. A few Latin appellatives learned from the Romans in
+the German wars had been adopted into the common West Germanic tongue,
+and are found in English as in the allied dialects. Such were _stræte_
+(street, _via strata_), _camp_ (battle), _cásere_ (Cæsar), _míl_ (mile),
+_pín_ (punishment), _mynet_ (money), _pund_ (pound), _wín_ (wine);
+probably also _cyrice_ (church), _biscop_ (bishop), _læden_ (Latin
+language), _cése_ (cheese), _butor_ (butter), _pipor_ (pepper), _olfend_
+(camel, elephantus), _ynce_ (inch, uncia), and a few others. The
+relations of the first invaders to the Britons were to a great extent
+those of destroyers; and with the exception of the proper names of
+places and prominent natural features, which as is usual were retained
+by the new population, few British words found their way into the Old
+English. Among these are named _broc_ (a badger), _bréc_ (breeches),
+_clút_ (clout), _púl_ (pool), and a few words relating to the employment
+of field or household menials. Still fewer words seem to have been
+adopted from the provincial Latin, almost the only certain ones being
+castra, applied to the Roman towns, which appeared in English as
+_cæstre_, _ceaster_, now found in composition as -_caster_, -_chester_,
+-_cester_, and _culina_ (kitchen), which gave _cylen_ (kiln). The
+introduction and gradual adoption of Christianity, brought a new series
+of Latin words connected with the offices of the church, the
+accompaniments of higher civilization, the foreign productions either
+actually made known, or mentioned in the Scriptures and devotional
+books. Such were _mynster_ (monasterium), _munuc_ (monk), _nunne_ (nun),
+_maesse_ (mass), _schol_ (school), _oelmesse_ (eleemosyna), _candel_
+(candela), _turtle_ (turtur), _fic_ (ficus), _cedar_ (cedrus). These
+words, whose number increased from the 7th to the 10th century, are
+commonly called _Latin of the second period_, the Latin of the first
+period including the Latin words brought by the English from the
+continent, as well as those picked up in Britain either from the Roman
+provincials or the Welsh. The Danish invasions of the 8th and 10th
+centuries resulted in the establishment of extensive Danish and
+Norwegian populations, about the basin of the Humber and its
+tributaries, and above Morecambe Bay. Although these Scandinavian
+settlers must have greatly affected the language of their own
+localities, but few traces of their influence are to be found in the
+literature of the Old English period. As with the greater part of the
+words adopted from the Celtic, it was not until after the dominion of
+the Norman had overlaid all preceding conquests, and the new English
+began to emerge from the ruins of the old, that Danish words in any
+number made their appearance in books, as equally "native" with the
+Anglo-Saxon.
+
+The earliest specimens we have of English date to the end of the 7th
+century, and belong to the Anglian dialect, and particularly to
+Northumbrian, which, under the political eminence of the early
+Northumbrian kings from Edwin to Ecgfrið, aided perhaps by the learning
+of the scholars of Ireland and Iona, first attained to literary
+distinction. Of this literature in its original form mere fragments
+exist, one of the most interesting of which consists of the verses
+uttered by Bede on his deathbed, and preserved in a nearly contemporary
+MS.:--
+
+  Fore there neid faerae . naenig uuiurthit
+  thonc snotturra . than him tharf sie,
+  to ymb-hycggannæ . aer his hin-iongae,
+  huaet his gastae . godaes aeththa yflaes,
+  aefter deoth-daege . doemid uueorthae.
+
+Trans.:--
+
+  Before the inevitable journey becomes not any
+  Thought more wise than (that) it is needful for him,
+  To consider, ere his hence-going,
+  What, to his ghost, of good or ill,
+  After death-day, doomed may be.
+
+But our chief acquaintance with Old English is in its West-Saxon form,
+the earliest literary remains of which date to the 9th century, when
+under the political supremacy of Wessex and the scholarship of King
+Alfred it became the literary language of the English nation, the
+classical "Anglo-Saxon." If our materials were more extensive, it would
+probably be necessary to divide the Old English into several periods; as
+it is, considerable differences have been shown to exist between the
+"early West-Saxon" of King Alfred and the later language of the 11th
+century, the earlier language having numerous phonetic and inflectional
+distinctions which are "levelled" in the later, the inflectional changes
+showing that the tendency to pass from the synthetical to the analytical
+stage existed quite independently of the Norman Conquest. The northern
+dialect, whose literary career had been cut short in the 8th century by
+the Danish invasions, reappears in the 10th in the form of glosses to
+the Latin gospels and a service-book, often called the _Ritual of
+Durham_, where we find that, owing to the confusion which had so long
+reigned in the north, and to special Northumbrian tendencies, e.g. the
+dropping of the inflectional n in both verbs and nouns, this dialect had
+advanced in the process of inflection-levelling far beyond the sister
+dialects of Mercian and the south, so as already to anticipate the forms
+of Early Middle English.
+
+Among the literary remains of the Old English may be mentioned the epic
+poem of Beowulf, the original nucleus of which has been supposed to date
+to heathen and even continental times, though we now possess it only in
+a later form; the poetical works of Cynewulf; those formerly ascribed to
+Cædmon; several works of Alfred, two of which, his translation of
+Orosius and of _The Pastoral Care_ of St Gregory, are contemporary
+specimens of his language; the Old English or Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; the
+theological works of Ælfric (including translations of the Pentateuch
+and the gospels) and of Wulfstan; and many works both in prose and
+verse, of which the authors are unknown.
+
+The earliest specimens, the inscriptions on the Ruthwell and Bewcastle
+crosses, are in a Runic character; but the letters used in the
+manuscripts generally are a British variety of the Roman alphabet which
+the Anglo-Saxons found in the island, and which was also used by the
+Welsh and Irish.[7] Several of the Roman letters had in Britain
+developed forms, and retained or acquired values, unlike those used on
+the continent, in particular [glyphs] (d f g r s t). The letters _q_
+and _z_ were not used, _q_ being represented by _cw_, and _k_ was a rare
+alternative to _c_; _u_ or _v_ was only a vowel, the consonantal power
+of _v_ being represented as in Welsh by _f_. The Runes called _thorn_
+and _wen_, having the consonantal values now expressed by _th_ and _w_,
+for which the Roman alphabet had no character, were at first expressed
+by _th_, ð (a contraction for [g][g] or [g]h), and _v_ or _u_; but at a
+later period the characters þ and [p] were revived from the old Runic
+alphabet. Contrary to Continental usage, the letters _c_ and [g] (_g_)
+had originally only their hard or guttural powers, as in the
+neighbouring Celtic languages; so that words which, when the Continental
+Roman alphabet came to be used for Germanic languages, had to be written
+with _k_, were in Old English written with _c_, as _cêne_ = keen,
+_cynd_ = kind.[8] The key to the values of the letters, and thus to the
+pronunciation of Old English, is also to be found in the Celtic tongues
+whence the letters were taken.
+
+The Old English period is usually considered as terminating 1120, with
+the death of the generation who saw the Norman Conquest. The Conquest
+established in England a foreign court, a foreign aristocracy and a
+foreign hierarchy.[9] The French language, in its Norman dialect, became
+the only polite medium of intercourse. The native tongue, despised not
+only as unknown but as the language of a subject race, was left to the
+use of boors and serfs, and except in a few stray cases ceased to be
+written at all. The natural results followed.[10] When the educated
+generation that saw the arrival of the Norman died out, the language,
+ceasing to be read and written, lost all its literary words. The words
+of ordinary life whose preservation is independent of books lived on as
+vigorously as ever, but the literary terms, those that related to
+science, art and higher culture, the bold artistic compounds, the
+figurative terms of poetry, were speedily forgotten. The practical
+vocabulary shrank to a fraction of its former extent. And when,
+generations later, English began to be used for general literature, the
+only terms at hand to express ideas above those of every-day life were
+to be found in the French of the privileged classes, of whom alone art,
+science, law and theology had been for generations the inheritance.
+Hence each successive literary effort of the reviving English tongue
+showed a larger adoption of French words to supply the place of the
+forgotten native ones, till by the days of Chaucer they constituted a
+notable part of the vocabulary. Nor was it for the time being only that
+the French words affected the English vocabulary. The Norman French
+words introduced by the Conquest, as well as the Central or Parisian
+French words which followed under the early Plantagenets, were mainly
+Latin words which had lived on among the people of Gaul, and, modified
+in the mouths of succeeding generations, had reached forms more or less
+remote from their originals. In being now adopted as English, they
+supplied precedents in accordance with which other Latin words might be
+converted into English ones, whenever required; and long before the
+Renascence of classical learning, though in much greater numbers after
+that epoch, these precedents were freely followed.
+
+While the eventual though distant result of the Norman Conquest was thus
+a large reconstruction of the English vocabulary, the grammar of the
+language was not directly affected by it. There was no reason why it
+should--we might almost add, no way by which it could. While the English
+used their own _words_, they could not forget their own _way_ of using
+them, the inflections and constructions by which alone the words
+expressed ideas--in other words, their grammar; when one by one French
+words were introduced into the sentence they became English by the very
+act of admission, and were at once subjected to all the duties and
+liabilities of English words in the same position. This is of course
+precisely what happens at the present day: _telegraph_ and _telegram_
+make participle _telegraphing_ and plural _telegrams_, and _naïve_ the
+adverb _naïvely_, precisely as if they had been in the language for
+ages.
+
+But indirectly the grammar was affected very quickly. In languages in
+the inflected or synthetic stage the terminations must be pronounced
+with marked distinctness, as these contain the correlation of ideas; it
+is all-important to hear whether a word is _bonus_ or _bonis_ or _bonas_
+or _bonos_. This implies a measured and distinct pronunciation, against
+which the effort for ease and rapidity of utterance is continually
+struggling, while indolence and carelessness continually compromise it.
+In the Germanic languages, as a whole, the main stress-accent falls on
+the radical syllable, or on the prefix of a nominal compound, and thus
+at or near the beginning of the word; and the result of this in English
+has been a growing tendency to suffer the concluding syllables to fall
+into obscurity. We are familiar with the cockney _winder_, _sofer_,
+_holler_, _Sarer_, _Sunder_, _would yer_, for wind_ow_, sof_a_, holl_a_,
+Sar_ah_, Sund_ay_, would y_ou_, the various final vowels sinking into an
+obscure neutral one now conventionally spelt _er_, but formerly
+represented by final _e_. Already before the Conquest, forms originally
+_hatu_, _sello_, _tunga_, appeared as _hate_, _selle_, _tunge_, with the
+terminations levelled to obscure e; but during the illiterate period of
+the language after the Conquest this careless obscuring of terminal
+vowels became universal, all unaccented vowels in the final syllable
+(except _i_) sinking into e. During the 12th century, while this change
+was going on, we see a great confusion of grammatical forms, the full
+inflections of Old English standing side by side in the same sentence
+with the levelled ones of Middle English. It is to this state of the
+language that the names _Transition_ and _Period of Confusion_ (Dr
+Abbott's appellation) point; its appearance, as that of Anglo-Saxon
+broken down in its endings, had previously given to it the suggestive if
+not logical appellation of Semi-Saxon.
+
+Although the written remains of the transition stage are few, sufficient
+exist to enable us to trace the course of linguistic change in some of
+the dialects. Within three generations after the Conquest, faithful pens
+were at work transliterating the old homilies of Ælfric, and other
+lights of the Anglo-Saxon Church, into the current idiom of their
+posterity.[11] Twice during the period, in the reigns of Stephen and
+Henry II., Ælfric's gospels were similarly modernized so as to be
+"understanded of the people."[12] Homilies and other religious works of
+the end of the 12th century[13] show us the change still further
+advanced, and the language passing into Early Middle English in its
+southern form. While these southern remains carry on in unbroken
+sequence the history of the Old English of Alfred and Ælfric, the
+history of the northern English is an entire blank from the 11th to the
+13th century. The stubborn resistance of the north, and the terrible
+retaliation inflicted by William, apparently effaced northern English
+culture for centuries. If anything was written in the vernacular in the
+kingdom of Scotland during the same period, it probably perished during
+the calamities to which that country was subjected during the
+half-century of struggle for independence. In reality, however, the
+northern English had entered upon its transition stage two centuries
+earlier; the glosses of the 10th century show that the Danish inroads
+had there anticipated the results hastened by the Norman Conquest in the
+south.
+
+Meanwhile a dialect was making its appearance in another quarter of
+England, destined to overshadow the old literary dialects of north and
+south alike, and become the English of the future. The Mercian kingdom,
+which, as its name imports, lay along the _marches_ of the earlier
+states, and was really a congeries of the outlying members of many
+tribes, must have presented from the beginning a linguistic mixture and
+transition; and it is evident that more than one intermediate form of
+speech arose within its confines, between Lancashire and the Thames. The
+specimens of early Mercian now in existence consist mainly of glosses,
+in a mixed Mercian and southern dialect, dating from the 8th century;
+but, in a 9th-century gloss, the so-called Vespasian Psalter,
+representing what is generally held to be pure Mercian. Towards the
+close of the Old English period we find some portions of a gloss to the
+Rushworth Gospels, namely St Matthew and a few verses of St John xviii.,
+to be in Mercian. These glosses, with a few charters and one or two
+small fragments, represent a form of Anglian which in many respects
+stands midway between Northumbrian and Kentish, approaching the one or
+the other more nearly as we have to do with North Mercian or South
+Mercian. And soon after the Conquest we find an undoubted midland
+dialect in the transition stage from Old to Middle English, in the
+eastern part of ancient Mercia, in a district bounded on the south and
+south-east by the Saxon Middlesex and Essex, and on the east and north
+by the East Anglian Norfolk and Suffolk and the Danish settlements on
+the Trent and Humber. In this district, and in the monastery of
+Peterborough, one of the copies of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
+transcribed about 1120, was continued by two succeeding hands to the
+death of Stephen in 1154. The section from 1122 to 1131, probably
+written in the latter year, shows a notable confusion between Old
+English forms and those of a Middle English, impatient to rid itself of
+the inflectional trammels which were still, though in weakened forms, so
+faithfully retained south of the Thames. And in the concluding section,
+containing the annals from 1132 to 1154, and written somewhere about the
+latter year, we find Middle English fairly started on its career. A
+specimen of this new tongue will best show the change that had taken
+place:
+
+  1140 A.D.--_And_[14] te eorl of Angæu wærd ded, and his sune Henri toc
+  to þe rice. And te cuen of France to-dælde fra þe king, and scæ co_m_
+  to þe iunge eorl Henri. _and_ he toc hire to wiue, _and_ al Peitou mid
+  hire. þa ferde he mid micel færd into Engleland _and_ wan
+  castles--_and_ te king ferde agenes hi_m_ mid micel mare ferd.
+  þoþwæthere fuhtten hi noht. oc ferden þe ærceb_iscop and_ te wise men
+  betwux heo_m_, and makede _that_ sahte _that_ te king sculde ben
+  lauerd _and_ king wile he liuede. _and_ æft_er_ his dæi ware Henri
+  king. _and_ he helde hi_m_ for fader, _and_ he hi_m_ for sune, _and_
+  sib and sæhte sculde ben betwyx heo_m_, and on al Engleland.[15]
+
+With this may be contrasted a specimen of southern English, from 10 to
+20 years later (Hatton Gospels, Luke i. 46[16]):
+
+  Da cwæð Maria: Min saule mersed drihten, and min gast geblissode on
+  gode minen hælende. For þam þe he geseah his þinene eadmodnysse.
+  Soðlice henen-forð me eadige seggeð alle cneornesse; for þam þe me
+  mychele þing dyde se þe mihtyg ys; _and_ his name is halig. _And_ his
+  mildheortnysse of cneornisse on cneornesse hine ondraedende. He worhte
+  maegne on hys earme; he to-daelde þa ofermode, on moda heora heortan.
+  He warp þa rice of setlle, and þa eadmode he up-an-hof. Hyngriende he
+  mid gode ge-felde, _and_ þa ofermode ydele for-let. He afeng israel
+  his cniht, and gemynde his mildheortnysse; Swa he spræc to ure
+  fæderen, Abrahame _and_ his sæde on a weorlde.
+
+To a still later date, apparently close upon 1200, belongs the versified
+chronicle of Layamon or Laweman, a priest of Ernely on the Severn, who,
+using as his basis the French _Brut_ of Wace, expanded it by additions
+from other sources to more than twice the extent: his work of 32,250
+lines is a mine of illustration for the language of his time and
+locality. The latter was intermediate between midland and southern, and
+the language, though forty years later than the specimen from the
+Chronicle, is much more archaic in structure, and can scarcely be
+considered even as Early Middle English. The following is a specimen
+(lines 9064-9079):
+
+  On Kinbelines daeie ... þe king wes inne Bruttene, com a þissen middel
+  aerde ... anes maidenes sune, iboren wes in Beþleem ... of bezste alre
+  burden. He is ihaten Jesu Crist ... þurh þene halie gost, alre worulde
+  wunne ... walden englenne; faeder he is on heuenen ... froure
+  moncunnes; sune he is on eorðen ... of sele þon maeidene, & þene halie
+  gost ... haldeð mid him seoluen.
+
+The MIDDLE ENGLISH was pre-eminently the _Dialectal_ period of the
+language. It was not till after the middle of the 14th century that
+English obtained official recognition. For three centuries, therefore,
+there was no standard form of speech which claimed any pre-eminence over
+the others. The writers of each district wrote in the dialect familiar
+to them; and between extreme forms the difference was so great as to
+amount to unintelligibility; works written for southern Englishmen had
+to be translated for the benefit of the men of the north:--
+
+  "In sotherin Inglis was it drawin,
+   And turnid ic haue it till ur awin
+   Langage of þe northin lede
+   That can na nothir Inglis rede."
+
+  _Cursor Mundi_, 20,064.
+
+Three main dialects were distinguished by contemporary writers, as in
+the often-quoted passage from Trevisa's translation of Higden's
+_Polychronicon_ completed in 1387:--
+
+  "Also Englysche men ... hadde fram þe bygynnynge þre maner speche,
+  Souþeron, Norþeron _and_ Myddel speche (in þe myddel of þe lond) as hy
+  come of þre maner people of Germania.... Also of þe forseyde Saxon
+  tonge, þat ys deled a þre, and ys abyde scarslyche wiþ feaw
+  uplondysche men _and_ ys gret wondur, for men of þe est wiþ men of þe
+  west, as hyt were under þe same part of heyvene, acordeþ more in
+  sounynge of sþeche þan men of þe norþ wiþ men of þe souþ; þerfore hyt
+  ys þat Mercii, þat buþ men of myddel Engelond, as hyt were parteners
+  of þe endes, undurstondeþ betre þe syde longages Norþeron and
+  Souþeron, þan Norþern _and_ Souþern undurstondeþ oyþer oþer."
+
+The modern study of these Middle English dialects, initiated by the
+elder Richard Garnett, scientifically pursued by Dr Richard Morris, and
+elaborated by many later scholars, both English and German, has shown
+that they were readily distinguished by the conjugation of the present
+tense of the verb, which in typical specimens was as follows:---
+
+    _Southern._
+
+  Ich singe.       We singeþ.
+  Þou singest.     [Gh]e singeþ.
+  He singeþ.       Hy singeþ.
+
+    _Midland._
+
+  Ich, I, singe.   We singen.
+  Þou singest.     [Gh]e singen.
+  He singeþ.       Hy, thei, singen.
+
+    _Northern._
+
+  Ic. I, sing(e) (I þat singes).   We sing(e). We þat synges.
+  Þu singes.                       [Gh]e sing(e), [Gh]e foules synges.
+  He singes.                       Thay sing(e). Men synges.
+
+Of these the southern is simply the old West-Saxon, with the vowels
+levelled to _e_. The northern second person in _-es_ preserves an older
+form than the southern and West-Saxon _-est_; but the _-es_ of the third
+person and plural is derived from an older _-eth_, the change of _-th_
+into _-s_ being found in progress in the Durham glosses of the 10th
+century. In the plural, when accompanied by the pronoun subject, the
+verb had already dropped the inflections entirely as in Modern English.
+The origin of the _-en_ plural in the midland dialect, unknown to Old
+English, is probably an instance of _form-levelling_, the inflection of
+the present indicative being assimilated to that of the past, and the
+present and past subjunctive, in all of which _-en_ was the plural
+termination. In the declension of nouns, adjectives and pronouns, the
+northern dialect had attained before the end of the 13th century to the
+simplicity of Modern English, while the southern dialect still retained
+a large number of inflections, and the midland a considerable number.
+The dialects differed also in phonology, for while the northern
+generally retained the hard or guttural values of _k_, _g_, _sc_, these
+were in the two other dialects palatalized before front vowels into
+_ch_, _j_ and _sh_. _Kirk_, _chirche_ or _church_, _bryg_, _bridge_;
+_scryke_, _shriek_, are examples. Old English _hw_ was written in the
+north _qu_(h), but elsewhere _wh_, often sinking into _w_. The original
+long _á_ in _stán_, _már_, preserved in the northern _stane_, _mare_,
+became _o_ elsewhere, as in _stone_, _more_. So that the north presented
+a general aspect of conservation of old sounds with the most
+thorough-going dissolution of old inflections; the south, a tenacious
+retention of the inflections, with an extensive evolution in the sounds.
+In one important respect, however, phonetic decay was far ahead in the
+north: the final e to which all the old vowels had been levelled during
+the transition stage, and which is a distinguishing feature of Middle
+English in the midland and southern dialects, became mute, _i.e._,
+disappeared, in the northern dialect before that dialect emerged from
+its three centuries of obscuration, shortly before 1300. So thoroughly
+modern had its form consequently become that we might almost call it
+Modern English, and say that the Middle English stage of the northern
+dialect is lost. For comparison with the other dialects, however, the
+same nomenclature may be used, and we may class as Middle English the
+extensive literature which northern England produced during the 14th
+century. The earliest specimen is probably the Metrical Psalter in the
+Cotton Library,[17] copied during the reign of Edward II. from an
+original of the previous century. The gigantic versified paraphrase of
+Scripture history called the _Cursor Mundi_,[18] is held also to have
+been composed before 1300. The dates of the numerous alliterative
+romances in this dialect have not been determined with exactness, as all
+survive in later copies, but it is probable that some of them were
+written before 1300. In the 14th century appeared the theological and
+devotional works of Richard Rolle the anchorite of Hampole, Dan Jon
+Gaytrigg, William of Nassington, and other writers whose names are
+unknown; and towards the close of the century, specimens of the language
+also appear from Scotland both in official documents and in the poetical
+works of John Barbour, whose language, barring minute points of
+orthography, is identical with that of the contemporary northern English
+writers. From 1400 onward, the distinction between northern English and
+Lowland Scottish becomes clearly marked.
+
+In the southern dialect one version of the work called the _Ancren
+Riwle_ or "Rule of Nuns," adapted about 1225 for a small sisterhood at
+Tarrant-Kaines, in Dorsetshire, exhibits a dialectal characteristic
+which had probably long prevailed in the south, though concealed by the
+spelling, in the use of _v_ for _f_, as _valle_ fall, _vordonne_ fordo,
+_vorto_ for to, _veder_ father, _vrom_ from. Not till later do we find a
+recognition of the parallel use of _z_ for _s_. Among the writings which
+succeed, _The Owl and the Nightingale_ of Nicholas de Guildford, of
+Portesham in Dorsetshire, before 1250, the _Chronicle_ of Robert of
+Gloucester, 1298, and Trevisa's translation of Higden, 1387, are of
+special importance in illustrating the history of southern English. The
+earliest form of Langland's _Piers Ploughman_, 1362, as preserved in the
+Vernon MS., appears to be in an intermediate dialect between southern
+and midland.[19] The Kentish form of southern English seems to have
+retained specially archaic features; five short sermons in it of the
+middle of the 13th century were edited by Dr Morris (1866); but the
+great work illustrating it is the _Ayenbite of Inwyt_ (Remorse of
+Conscience), 1340,[20] a translation from the French by Dan Michel of
+Northgate, Kent, who tells us--
+
+  "Þet þis boc is y-write mid engliss of Kent;
+   Þis boc is y-mad uor lewede men,
+   Vor uader, and uor moder, and uor oþer ken,
+   Ham uor to ber[gh]e uram alle manyere zen,
+   Þet ine hare inwytte ne bleue no uoul wen."
+
+In its use of _v_ (_u_) and _z_ for [s] and _s_, and its grammatical
+inflections, it presents an extreme type of southern speech, with
+peculiarities specially Kentish; and in comparison with contemporary
+Midland English works, it looks like a fossil of two centuries earlier.
+
+Turning from the dialectal extremes of the Middle English to the midland
+speech, which we left at the closing leaves of the Peterborough
+_Chronicle_ of 1154, we find a rapid development of this dialect, which
+was before long to become the national literary language. In this, the
+first great work is the _Ormulum_, or metrical Scripture paraphrase of
+Orm or Ormin, written about 1200, somewhere near the northern frontier
+of the midland area. The dialect has a decided smack of the north, and
+shows for the first time in English literature a large percentage of
+Scandinavian words, derived from the Danish settlers, who, in adopting
+English, had preserved a vast number of their ancestral forms of speech,
+which were in time to pass into the common language, of which they now
+constitute some of the most familiar words. _Blunt_, _bull_, _die_,
+_dwell_, _ill_, _kid_, _raise_, _same_, _thrive_, _wand_, _wing_, are
+words from this source, which appear first in the work of Orm, of which
+the following lines may be quoted:--
+
+  "Þe Judewisshe folkess boc
+     hemm se[gh][gh]de, þatt hemm birrde
+   Twa bukkes samenn to þe preost
+     att kirrke-dure brinngenn;
+   _And_ te[gh][gh] þa didenn bliþeli[gh],
+     swa summ þe boc hemm tahhte,
+   And brohhtenn twe[gh][gh]enn bukkess þær
+     Drihhtin þærwiþþ to lakenn.
+   And att[21] te kirrke-dure toc
+     þe preost ta twe[gh][gh]enn bukkess,
+   _And_ o þatt an he le[gh][gh]de þær
+     all þe[gh][gh]re sake _and_ sinne,
+   _And_ lét itt eornenn for þwiþþ all
+     út inntill wilde wesste;
+   _And_ toc _and_ snaþ þatt oþerr bucc
+     Drihhtin þaerwiþþ to lakenn.
+   All þiss wass don forr here ned,
+     _and_ ec forr ure nede;
+   For hemm itt hallp biforenn Godd
+     to clennssenn hemm of sinne;
+   _And_ all swa ma[gh][gh] itt hellpenn þe
+     [gh]iff þatt tu willt [itt] foll[gh]henn.
+   [Gh]iff þatt tu willt full innwarrdli[gh]
+     wiþþ fulle trowwþe lefenn
+   All þatt tatt wass bitacnedd tær,
+     to lefenn _and_ to trowwenn."
+
+  _Ormulum_, ed. White, l. 1324.
+
+The author of the _Ormulum_ was a phonetist, and employed a special
+spelling of his own to represent not only the quality but the
+_quantities_ of vowels and consonants--a circumstance which gives his
+work a peculiar value to the investigator. He is generally assumed to
+have been a native of Lincolnshire or Notts, but the point is a disputed
+one, and there is somewhat to be said for the neighbourhood of Ormskirk
+in Lancashire.
+
+It is customary to differentiate between east and west midland, and to
+subdivide these again into north and south. As was natural in a tract of
+country which stretched from Lancaster to Essex, a very considerable
+variety is found in the documents which agree in presenting the leading
+midland features, those of Lancashire and Lincolnshire approaching the
+northern dialect both in vocabulary, phonetic character and greater
+neglect of inflections. But this diversity diminishes as we advance.
+
+Thirty years after the _Ormulum_, the east midland rhymed _Story of
+Genesis and Exodus_[22] shows us the dialect in a more southern form,
+with the vowels of modern English, and from about the same date, with
+rather more northern characteristics, we have an east midland
+_Bestiary_.
+
+Different tests and different dates have been proposed for subdividing
+the Middle English period, but the most important is that of Henry
+Nicol, based on the observation that in the early 13th century, as in
+Ormin, the Old English short vowels in an open syllable still retained
+their short quantity, as _nama_, _over_, _mete_; but by 1250 or 1260
+they had been lengthened to _na-me_, _o-ver_, _me-te_, a change which
+has also taken place at a particular period in all the Germanic, and
+even the Romanic languages, as in _buo-no_ for _bo-num_, _pa-dre_ for
+_pa-trem_, &c. The lengthening of the penult left the final syllable by
+contrast shortened or weakened, and paved the way for the disappearance
+of final e in the century following, through the stages _na-me_,
+_na-me_, _na-m'_, _nam_, the one long syllable in _nam(e)_ being the
+quantitative equivalent of the two short syllables in _na-me_; hence the
+notion that mute _e_ makes a preceding vowel long, the truth being that
+the lengthening of the vowel led to the e becoming mute.
+
+After 1250 we have the _Lay of Havelok_, and about 1300 the writings of
+Robert of Brunne in South Lincolnshire. In the 14th century we find a
+number of texts belonging to the western part of the district.
+South-west midland is hardly to be distinguished from southern in its
+south-western form, and hence texts like _Piers Plowman_ elude any
+satisfactory classification, but several metrical romances exhibit what
+are generally considered to be west midland characteristics, and a
+little group of poems, _Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knighte_, the _Pearl_,
+_Cleanness_ and _Patience_, thought to be the work of a north-west
+midland writer of the 14th century, bear a striking resemblance to the
+modern Lancashire dialect. The end of the century witnessed the prose of
+Wycliff and Mandeville, and the poetry of Chaucer, with whom Middle
+English may be said to have culminated, and in whose writings its main
+characteristics as distinct from Old and Modern English may be studied.
+Thus, we find final e in full use representing numerous original vowels
+and terminations as
+
+  Him thoughtè that his hertè woldè brekè,
+
+in Old English--
+
+  Him þuhte þæt his heorte wolde brecan,
+
+which may be compared with the modern German--
+
+  Ihm däuchte dass sein Herze wollte brechen.
+
+In nouns the -_es_ of the plural and genitive case is still syllabic--
+
+  Reede as the berstl-es of a sow-es eer-es.
+
+Several old genitives and plural forms continued to exist, and the
+dative or prepositional case has usually a final _e_. Adjectives retain
+so much of the old declension as to have -_e_ in the definite form and
+in the plural--
+
+  The tend-re cropp-es and the yong-e sonne.
+  And smal-e fowl-es maken melodie.
+
+Numerous old forms of comparison were in use, which have not come down
+to Modern English, as _herre_, _ferre_, _lenger_, _hext_ = higher,
+farther, longer, highest. In the pronouns, _ich_ lingered alongside of
+_I_; _ye_ was only nominative, and _you_ objective; the northern _thei_
+had dispossessed the southern _hy_, but _her_ and _hem_ (the modern
+'_em_) stood their ground against _their_ and _them_. The verb is _I
+lov-e_, _thou lov-est_, _he lov-eth_; but, in the plural, _lov-en_ is
+interchanged with _lov-e_, as rhyme or euphony requires. So in the
+plural of the past _we love-den_ or _love-de_. The infinitive also ends
+in _en_, often _e_, always syllabic. The present participle, in Old
+English -_ende_, passing through -_inde_, has been confounded with the
+verbal noun in -_ynge_, -_yng_, as in Modern English. The past
+participle largely retains the prefix _y_- or _i_-, representing the Old
+English _ge_-, as in _i-ronne_, _y-don_, Old English _zerunnen_,
+_zedón_, run, done. Many old verb forms still continued in existence.
+The adoption of French words, not only those of Norman introduction, but
+those subsequently introduced under the Angevin kings, to supply
+obsolete and obsolescent English ones, which had kept pace with the
+growth of literature since the beginning of the Middle English period,
+had now reached its climax; later times added many more, but they also
+dropped some that were in regular use with Chaucer and his
+contemporaries.
+
+Chaucer's great contemporary, William Langland, in his _Vision of
+William concerning Piers the Ploughman_, and his imitator the author of
+_Pierce the Ploughman's Crede_ (about 1400) used the Old English
+alliterative versification for the last time in the south. Rhyme had
+made its appearance in the language shortly after the Conquest--if not
+already known before; and in the south and midlands it became decidedly
+more popular than alliteration; the latter retained its hold much longer
+in the north, where it was written even after 1500: many of the northern
+romances are either simply alliterative, or have both alliteration and
+rhyme. To these characteristics of northern and southern verse
+respectively Chaucer alludes in the prologue of the "Persone," who, when
+called upon for his tale said:--
+
+  "But trusteth wel; I am a sotherne man,
+   I cannot geste _rom_, _ram_, _ruf_, by my letter.
+   And, God wote, rime hold I but litel better:
+   And therefore, if you list, I wol not glose,
+   I wol you tell a litel tale in prose."
+
+The changes from Old to Middle English may be summed up thus: Loss of a
+large part of the native vocabulary, and adoption of French words to
+fill their place; not infrequent adoption of French words as synonyms of
+existing native ones; modernization of the English words preserved, by
+vowel change in a definite direction from back to front, and from open
+to close, _[=a,]_ becoming _[=o,]_, original _e_, _o_ tending to _ee_,
+_oo_, monophthongization of the old diphthongs _eo_, _ea_, and
+development of new diphthongs in connexion with _g_, _h_, and _w_;
+adoption of French orthographic symbols, e.g. _ou_ for _u_, _qu_,
+_v_, _ch_, and gradual loss of the symbols [j], þ, ð, Þ; obscuration of
+vowels after the accent, and especially of final _a_, _o_, _u_ to _e_;
+consequent confusion and loss of old inflections, and their replacement
+by prepositions, auxiliary verbs and rules of position; abandonment of
+alliteration for rhyme; and great development of dialects, in
+consequence of there being no standard or recognized type of English.
+
+But the recognition came at length. Already in 1258 was issued the
+celebrated English proclamation of Henry III., or rather of Simon de
+Montfort in his name, which, as the only public recognition of the
+native tongue between William the Conqueror and Edward III., has
+sometimes been spoken of as the first specimen of English. It runs:--
+
+  "Henr_i_ þur[gh] godes fultume king on Engleneloande Lhoauerd on
+  Yrloand_e_. Duk on Norm_andie_ on Aquitaine and eorl on Aniow. Send
+  igretinge to alle hise holde ilærde and ileawede on
+  Huntendoneschir_e_. þæt witen [gh]e wel alle þæt _we_ willen and
+  vnne_n_ þæt þæt vre rædesmen alle oþer þe moare dæl of heom þæt beoþ
+  ichosen þur[gh] us and þur[gh] þæt loandes folk on vre kuneriche.
+  habbeþ idon and schullen don in þe worþnesse of gode and on vre
+  treowþe. for þe freme of þe loande. þur[gh] þe besi[gh]te of þan
+  to-foren-iseide redesmen. beo stedefæst and ilestinde in alle þinge a
+  buten ænde. And we hoaten alle vre treowe in þe treowþe þæt heo vs
+  o[gh]en. þæt heo stedefæstliche healden and swerien to healden and to
+  werien þo isetnesses þæt ben imakede and beon to makien þur[gh] þan
+  to-foren iseide rædesmen. oþer þur[gh] þe moare dæl of heom alswo alse
+  hit is biforen iseid. And þæt æhc oþer helpe þæt for to done bi þan
+  ilche oþe a[gh]enes alle men. Ri[gh]t for to done and to foangen. And
+  noan ne nime of loande ne of e[gh]te. wherþur[gh] þis besi[gh]te
+  mu[gh]e beon ilet oþer iwersed on onie wise.' And [gh]if oni oþer onie
+  cumen her on[gh]enes; we willen and hoaten þæt alle vre treowe heom
+  healden deadliche ifoan. And for þæt we willen þæt þis beo stedefæst
+  and lestinde; we senden [gh]ew þis writ open iseined wiþ vre seel. to
+  halden amanges [gh]ew ine hord. Witnesse vs seluen æt Lunden_e_. þane
+  E[gh]tetenþe day. on þe Monþe of Octobr_e_ In þe Two-and-fowerti[gh]þe
+  [gh]eare of vre cruninge. And þis wes idon ætforen vre isworene
+  redesmen....
+
+  "And al on þo ilche worden is isend in to æurihce oþre shcire ouer al
+  þære kuneriche on Engleneloande. and ek in tel Irelonde."
+
+The dialect of this document is more southern than anything else, with a
+slight midland admixture. It is much more archaic inflectionally than
+the _Genesis and Exodus_ or _Ormulum_; but it closely resembles the old
+Kentish sermons and _Proverbs of Alfred_ in the southern dialect of
+1250. It represents no doubt the London speech of the day. London being
+in a Saxon county, and contiguous to Kent and Surrey, had certainly at
+first a southern dialect; but its position as the capital, as well as
+its proximity to the midland district, made its dialect more and more
+midland. Contemporary London documents show that Chaucer's language,
+which is distinctly more southern than standard English eventually
+became, is behind the London dialect of the day in this respect, and is
+at once more archaic and consequently more southern.
+
+During the next hundred years English gained ground steadily, and by the
+reign of Edward III. French was so little known in England, even in the
+families of the great, that about 1350 "John Cornwal, a maystere of
+gramere, chaungede þe lore (= teaching) in gramere scole _and_
+construccion of [i.e. _from_] Freynsch into Englysch";[23] and in
+1362-1363 English by statute took the place of French in the pleadings
+in courts of law. Every reason conspired that this "English" should be
+the midland dialect. It was the intermediate dialect, intelligible, as
+Trevisa has told us, to both extremes, even when these failed to be
+intelligible to each other; in its south-eastern form, it was the
+language of London, where the supreme law courts were, the centre of
+political and commercial life; it was the language in which the
+Wycliffite versions had given the Holy Scriptures to the people; the
+language in which Chaucer had raised English poetry to a height of
+excellence admired and imitated by contemporaries and followers. And
+accordingly after the end of the 14th century, all Englishmen who
+thought they had anything to say to their countrymen generally said it
+in the midland speech. Trevisa's own work was almost the last literary
+effort of the southern dialect; henceforth it was but a rustic patois,
+which the dramatist might use to give local colouring to his creations,
+as Shakespeare uses it to complete Edgar's peasant disguise in _Lear_,
+or which 19th century research might disinter to illustrate obscure
+chapters in the history of language. And though the northern English
+proved a little more stubborn, it disappeared also from literature in
+England; but in Scotland, which had now become politically and socially
+estranged from England, it continued its course as the national language
+of the country, attaining in the 15th and 16th centuries a distinct
+development and high literary culture, for the details of which readers
+are referred to the article on SCOTTISH LANGUAGE.
+
+The 15th century of English history, with its bloody French war abroad
+and Wars of the Roses at home, was a barren period in literature, and a
+transition one in language, witnessing the decay and disappearance of
+the final _e_, and most of the syllabic inflections of Middle English.
+Already by 1420, in Chaucer's disciple Hoccleve, final _e_ was quite
+uncertain; in Lydgate it was practically gone. In 1450 the writings of
+Pecock against the Wycliffites show the verbal inflections in _-en_ in a
+state of obsolescence; he has still the southern pronouns _her_ and
+_hem_ for the northern _their_, _them_:--
+
+  "And here-a[gh]ens holi scripture wole þat men schulden lacke þe
+  coueryng which wommen schulden haue, & thei schulden so lacke bi þat
+  þe heeris of her heedis schulden be schorne, & schulde not growe in
+  lengþe doun as wommanys heer schulde growe....
+
+  "Also here-wiþal into þe open si[gh]t of ymagis in open chirchis, alle
+  peple, men & wommen & children mowe come whanne euere þei wolen in ech
+  tyme of þe day, but so mowe þei not come in-to þe vce of bokis to be
+  delyuered to hem neiþer to be red bifore hem; & þerfore, as for to
+  soone & ofte come into remembraunce of a long mater bi ech oon
+  persoon, and also as forto make þat þe mo persoones come into
+  remembraunce of a mater, ymagis & picturis serven in a specialer maner
+  þan bokis doon, þou[gh] in an oþer maner ful substanciali bokis seruen
+  better into remembrauncing of þo same materis þan ymagis & picturis
+  doon; & þerfore, þou[gh] writing is seruen weel into remembrauncing
+  upon þe bifore seid þingis, [gh]it not at þe ful: Forwhi þe bokis han
+  not þe avail of remembrauncing now seid whiche ymagis han."[24]
+
+The change of the language during the second period of Transition, as
+well as the extent of dialectal differences, is quaintly expressed a
+generation later by Caxton, who in the prologue to one of the last of
+his works, his translation of Virgil's _Eneydos_ (1490), speaks of the
+difficulty he had in pleasing all readers:--
+
+  "I doubted that it sholde not please some gentylmen, whiche late
+  blamed me, sayeng, y^t in my translacyons I had ouer curyous termes,
+  whiche coud not be vnderstande of comyn peple, and desired me to vse
+  olde and homely termes in my translacyons. And fayn wolde I satysfy
+  euery man; and so to doo, toke an olde boke and redde therein; and
+  certaynly the englysshe was so rude and brood that I coude not wele
+  vnderstande it. And also my lorde abbot of Westmynster ded do shewe to
+  me late certayn euydences wryton in olde englysshe for to reduce it in
+  to our englysshe now vsid. And certaynly it was wreton in suche wyse
+  that it was more lyke to dutche than englysshe; I coude not reduce ne
+  brynge it to be vnderstonden. And certaynly, our langage now vsed
+  varyeth ferre from that whiche was vsed and spoken whan I was borne.
+  For we englysshemen ben borne vnder the domynacyon of the mone, whiche
+  is neuer stedfaste, but euer wauerynge, wexynge one season, and waneth
+  and dycreaseth another season. And that comyn englysshe that is spoken
+  in one shyre varyeth from a nother. In so much that in my days
+  happened that certayn marchauntes were in a ship_e_ in tamyse, for to
+  haue sayled ouer the sea into zelande, and for lacke of wynde thei
+  taryed atte forlond, and wente to lande for to refreshe them. And one
+  of theym named sheffelde, a mercer, cam in to an hows and axed for
+  mete, and specyally he axyd after eggys, And the goode wyf answerde,
+  that she coude speke no frenshe. And the marchaunt was angry, for he
+  also coulde speke no frenshe, but wolde haue hadde egges; and she
+  vnderstode hym not. And thenne at laste a nother sayd that he wolde
+  haue eyren; then the good wyf sayd that she vnderstod hym wel. Loo!
+  what sholde a man in thyse dayes now wryte, egges or eyren? certaynly,
+  it is harde to playse euery man, by cause of dyuersite & chaunge of
+  langage. For in these dayes, euery man that is in ony reputacyon in
+  his countre wyll vtter his comynycacyon and maters in suche maners &
+  termes that fewe men shall vnderstonde theym. And som honest and grete
+  clerkes haue ben wyth me, and desired me to wryte the moste curyous
+  termes that I coude fynde. And thus bytwene playn, rude and curyous, I
+  stande abasshed; but in my Iudgemente, the comyn termes that be dayli
+  vsed ben lyghter to be vnderstonde than the olde and auncyent
+  englysshe."
+
+In the productions of Caxton's press we see the passage from Middle to
+Early Modern English completed. The earlier of these have still an
+occasional verbal plural in _-n_, especially in the word _they ben_; the
+southern _her_ and _hem_ of Middle English vary with the northern and
+Modern English _their_, _them_. In the late works, the older forms have
+been practically ousted, and the year 1485, which witnessed the
+establishment of the Tudor dynasty, may be conveniently put as that
+which closed the Middle English transition, and introduced Modern
+English. Both in the completion of this result, and in its comparative
+permanence, the printing press had an important share. By its exclusive
+patronage of the midland speech, it raised it still higher above the
+sister dialects, and secured its abiding victory. As books were
+multiplied and found their way into every corner of the land, and the
+art of reading became a more common acquirement, the man of
+Northumberland or of Somersetshire had forced upon his attention the
+book-English in which alone these were printed. This became in turn the
+model for his own writings, and by-and-by, if he made any pretensions to
+education, of his own speech. The written _form_ of the language also
+tended to uniformity. In previous periods the scribe made his own
+spelling with a primary aim at expressing his own speech, according to
+the particular values attached by himself or his contemporaries to the
+letters and combinations of the alphabet, though liable to disturbance
+in the most common words and combinations by his ocular recollections of
+the spelling of others. But after the introduction of printing, this
+ocular recognition of words became ever more and more an aim; the book
+addressed the mind directly through the eye, instead of circuitously
+through eye and ear; and thus there was a continuous tendency for
+written words and parts of words to be reduced to a single form, and
+that the most usual, or through some accident the best known, but not
+necessarily that which would have been chosen had the _ear_ been called
+in as umpire. Modern English spelling, with its rigid uniformity as to
+individual results and whimsical caprice as to principles, is the
+creation of the printing-office, the victory which, after a century and
+a half of struggle, mechanical convenience won over natural habits.
+Besides eventually creating a uniformity in writing, the introduction of
+printing made or at least ratified some important changes. The British
+and Old English form of the Roman alphabet has already been referred to.
+This at the Norman Conquest was superseded by an alphabet with the
+French forms and values of the letters. Thus _k_ took the place of the
+older _c_ before _e_ and _i_; _qu_ replaced _cw_; the Norman _w_ took
+the place of the _wén_ (Þ), &c.; and hence it has often been said that
+Middle English stands nearer to Old English in pronunciation, but to
+Modern English in spelling. But there were certain sounds in English for
+which Norman writing had no provision; and for these, in writing
+English, the native characters were retained. Thus the Old English g
+([g]), beside the sound in _go_, had a guttural sound as in German
+ta_g_, Irish ma_gh_, and in certain positions a palatalized form of this
+approaching _y_ as in _y_ou (if pronounced with aspiration _hy_ou or
+_gh_you). These sounds continued to be written with the native form of
+the letter as _bur[gh]_, _[gh]our_, while the French form was used for
+the sounds in _go_, _age_,--one original letter being thus represented
+by two. So for the sounds of _th_, especially the sound in _th_at, the
+Old English _thorn_ (þ) continued to be used. But as these characters
+were not used for French and Latin, their use even in English became
+disturbed towards the 15th century, and when printing was introduced,
+the founts, cast for continental languages, had no characters for them,
+so that they were dropped entirely, being replaced, [gh] by _gh_, _yh_,
+_y_, and _þ_ by _th_. This was a real loss to the English alphabet. In
+the north it is curious that the printers tried to express the _forms_
+rather than the powers of these letters, and consequently [gh] was
+represented by _z_, the black letter form of which was confounded with
+it, while the þ was expressed by _y_, which its MS. form had come to
+approach or in some cases simulate. So in early Scotch books we find
+_zellow_, _ze_, _yat_, _yem_ = _yellow_, _ye_, _that_, _them_; and in
+Modern Scottish, such names as _Menzies_, _Dalziel_, _Cockenzie_, and
+the word _gaberlunzie_, in which the _z_ stands for _y_.
+
+MODERN ENGLISH thus dates from Caxton. The language had at length
+reached the all but flectionless state which it now presents. A single
+older verbal form, the southern _-eth_ of the third person singular,
+continued to be the literary prose form throughout the 16th century, but
+the northern form in _-s_ was intermixed with it in poetry (where it
+saved a syllable), and must ere long, as we see from Shakespeare, have
+taken its place in familiar speech. The fuller _an_, _none_, _mine_,
+_thine_, in the early part of the 16th century at least, were used in
+positions where their shortened forms _a_, _no_, _my_, _thy_ are now
+found (_none other_, _mine own_ = _no other_, _my own_). But with such
+minute exceptions, the accidence of the 16th century was the accidence
+of the 19th. While, however, the older inflections had disappeared,
+there was as yet no general agreement as to the mode of their
+replacement. Hence the 16th century shows a syntactic licence and
+freedom which distinguishes it strikingly from that of later times. The
+language seems to be in a plastic, unformed state, and its writers, as
+it were, experiment with it, bending it to constructions which now seem
+indefensible. Old distinctions of case and mood have disappeared from
+noun and verb, without custom having yet decided what prepositions or
+auxiliary verbs shall most fittingly convey their meaning. The laxity of
+word-order which was permitted in older states of the language by the
+_formal_ expression of relations was often continued though the
+inflections which expressed the relations had disappeared. Partial
+analogy was followed in allowing forms to be identified in one case,
+because, in another, such identification was accidentally produced, as
+for instance the past participles of _write_ and _take_ were often made
+_wrote_ and _took_, because the contracted participles of _bind_ and
+_break_ were _bound_ and _broke_. Finally, because, in dropping
+inflections, the former distinctions even between parts of speech had
+disappeared, so that _iron_, e.g., was at once noun, adjective and verb,
+_clean_, adjective, verb and adverb, it appeared as if any word whatever
+might be used in any grammatical relation, where it conveyed the idea of
+the speaker. Thus, as has been pointed out by Dr Abbott, "you can
+_happy_ your friend, _malice_ or _foot_ your enemy, or _fall_ an axe on
+his neck. You can speak and act _easy_, _free_, _excellent_, you can
+talk of _fair_ instead of beauty (fairness), and a _pale_ instead of a
+_paleness_. A _he_ is used for a man, and a lady is described by a
+gentleman as 'the fairest _she_ he has yet beheld.' An adverb can be
+used as a verb, as 'they _askance_ their eyes'; as a noun, 'the
+_backward_ and abyss of time'; or as an adjective, a '_seldom_
+pleasure.'"[25] For, as he also says, "clearness was preferred to
+grammatical correctness, and brevity both to correctness and clearness.
+Hence it was common to place words in the order in which they came
+uppermost in the mind without much regard to syntax, and the result was
+a forcible and perfectly unambiguous but ungrammatical sentence, such as
+
+  The prince that feeds great natures they will slay him.
+
+    _Ben Jonson._
+
+or, as instances of brevity,
+
+  Be guilty of my death since of my crime.
+
+    _Shakespeare._
+
+  It cost more to get than to lose in a day.
+
+    _Ben Jonson._"
+
+These characteristics, together with the presence of words now obsolete
+or archaic, and the use of existing words in senses different from our
+own, as general for specific, literal for metaphorical, and vice versa,
+which are so apparent to every reader of the 16th-century literature,
+make it useful to separate _Early Modern_ or _Tudor_ English from the
+subsequent and still existing stage, since the consensus of usage has
+declared in favour of individual senses and constructions which are
+alone admissible in ordinary language.
+
+The beginning of the Tudor period was contemporaneous with the
+Renaissance in art and literature, and the dawn of modern discoveries in
+geography and science. The revival of the study of the classical writers
+of Greece and Rome, and the translation of their works into the
+vernacular, led to the introduction of an immense number of new words
+derived from these languages, either to express new ideas and objects or
+to indicate new distinctions in or grouping of old ideas. Often also it
+seemed as if scholars were so pervaded with the form as well as the
+spirit of the old, that it came more natural to them to express
+themselves in words borrowed from the old than in their native tongue,
+and thus words of Latin origin were introduced even when English already
+possessed perfectly good equivalents. As has already been stated, the
+French words of Norman and Angevin introduction, being principally Latin
+words in an altered form, when used as English supplied models whereby
+other Latin words could be converted into English ones, and it is after
+these models that the Latin words introduced during and since the 16th
+century have been fashioned. There is nothing in the _form_ of the words
+_procession_ and _progression_ to show that the one was used in England
+in the 11th, the other not till the 16th century. Moreover, as the
+formation of new words from Latin had gone on in French as well as in
+English since the Renaissance, we often cannot tell whether such words,
+e.g. as _persuade_ and _persuasion_, were borrowed from their French
+equivalents or formed from Latin in England independently. With some
+words indeed it is impossible to say whether they were formed in England
+directly from Latin, borrowed from contemporary late French, or had been
+in England since the Norman period, even _photograph_, _geology_ and
+_telephone_ have the form that they would have had if they had been
+living words in the mouths of Greeks, Latins, French and English from
+the beginning, instead of formations of the 19th century.[26] While
+every writer was thus introducing new words according to his notion of
+their being needed, it naturally happened that a large number were not
+accepted by contemporaries or posterity; a long list might be formed of
+these mintages of the 16th and 17th centuries, which either never became
+current coin, or circulated only as it were for a moment. The revived
+study of Latin and Greek also led to modifications in the spelling of
+some words which had entered Middle English in the French form. So
+Middle English _doute_, _dette_, were changed to _doubt_, _debt_, to
+show a more immediate connexion with Latin _dubitum_, _debitum_; the
+actual derivation from the French being ignored. Similarly, words
+containing a Latin and French _t_, which might be traced back to an
+original Greek [theta], were remodelled upon the Greek, e.g. _theme_,
+_throne_, for Middle English _teme_, _trone_, and, by false association
+with Greek, _anthem_, Old English _antefne_, Latin _antiphona_;
+_Anthony_, Latin _Antonius_; _Thames_, Latin _Tamesis_, apparently after
+_Thomas_.
+
+The voyages of English navigators in the latter part of the 16th century
+introduced a considerable number of Spanish words, and American words in
+Spanish forms, of which _negro_, _potato_, _tobacco_, _cargo_,
+_armadillo_, _alligator_, _galleon_ may serve as examples.
+
+The date of 1611, which nearly coincides with the end of Shakespeare's
+literary work, and marks the appearance of the Authorized Version of the
+Bible (a compilation from the various 16th-century versions), may be
+taken as marking the close of Tudor English. The language was
+thenceforth Modern in structure, style and expression, although the
+spelling did not settle down to present usage till about the revolution
+of 1688. The latter date also marks the disappearance from literature of
+a large number of words, chiefly of such as were derived from Latin
+during the 16th and 17th centuries. Of these nearly all that survived
+1688 are still in use; but a long list might be made out of those that
+appear for the last time before that date. This sifting of the literary
+vocabulary and gradual fixing of the literary spelling, which went on
+between 1611, when the language became modern in structure, and 1689,
+when it became modern also in form, suggests for this period the name of
+Seventeenth-Century Transition. The distinctive features of Modern
+English have already been anticipated by way of contrast with preceding
+stages of the language. It is only necessary to refer to the fact that
+the vocabulary is now much more composite than at any previous period.
+The immense development of the physical sciences has called for a
+corresponding extension of terminology which has been supplied from
+Latin and especially Greek; and although these terms are in the first
+instance _technical_, yet, with the spread of education and general
+diffusion of the rudiments and appliances of science, the boundary line
+between _technical_ and _general_, indefinite at the best, tends more
+and more to melt away--this in addition to the fact that words still
+technical become general in figurative or metonymic senses. _Ache_,
+_diamond_, _stomach_, _comet_, _organ_, _tone_, _ball_, _carte_, are
+none the less familiar because once technical words. Commercial, social,
+artistic or literary contact has also led to the adoption of numerous
+words from modern European languages, especially French, Italian,
+Portuguese, Dutch (these two at a less recent period): thus from French
+_soirée_, _séance_, _dépôt_, _débris_, _programme_, _prestige_; from
+Italian _bust_, _canto_, _folio_, _cartoon_, _concert_, _regatta_,
+_ruffian_; from Portuguese _caste_, _palaver_; from Dutch _yacht_,
+_skipper_, _schooner_, _sloop_. Commercial intercourse and colonization
+have extended far beyond Europe, and given us words more or fewer from
+Hindostani, Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Malay, Chinese, and from American,
+Australian, Polynesian and African languages.[27] More important even
+than these, perhaps, are the dialect words that from time to time obtain
+literary recognition, restoring to us obsolete Old English forms, and
+not seldom words of Celtic or Danish origin, which have been preserved
+in local dialects, and thus at length find their way into the standard
+language.
+
+As to the actual proportion of the various elements of the language, it
+is probable that original English words do not now form more than a
+fourth or perhaps a fifth of the total entries in a full English
+dictionary; and it may seem strange, therefore, that we still identify
+the language with that of the 9th century, and class it as a member of
+the _Low German_ division. But this explains itself, when we consider
+that of the total words in a dictionary only a small portion are used by
+any one individual in speaking or even in writing; that this portion
+includes the great majority of the Anglo-Saxon words, and but a minority
+of the others. The latter are in fact almost all _names_--the vast
+majority names of _things_ (nouns), a smaller number names of
+_attributes_ and _actions_ (adjectives and verbs), and, from their very
+nature, names of the things, attributes and actions which come less
+usually or, it may be, very rarely under our notice. Thus in an ordinary
+book, a novel or story, the foreign elements will amount to from 10 to
+15% of the whole; as the subject becomes more recondite or technical
+their number will increase; till in a work on chemistry or abstruse
+mathematics the proportion may be 40%. But after all, it is not the
+question whence words _may_ have been taken, but _how they are used_ in
+a language that settles its character. If new words when adopted conform
+themselves to the manner and usage of the adopting language, it makes
+absolutely no difference whether they are taken over from some other
+language, or invented off at the ground. In either case they are _new_
+words to begin with; in either case also, if they are needed, they will
+become as thoroughly native, i.e. familiar from childhood to those who
+use them, as those that possess the longest native pedigree. In this
+respect English is still the same language it was in the days of Alfred;
+and, comparing its history with that of other Low German tongues, there
+is no reason to believe that its grammar or structure would have been
+very different, however different its vocabulary might have been, if the
+Norman Conquest had never taken place.
+
+A general broad view of the sources of the English vocabulary and of the
+dates at which the various foreign elements flowed into the language, as
+well as of the great change produced in it by the Norman Conquest, and
+consequent influx of French and Latin elements, is given in the
+accompanying chart. The transverse lines represent centuries, and it
+will be seen how limited a period after all is occupied by modern
+English, how long the language had been in the country before the Norman
+Conquest, and how much of this is prehistoric and without any literary
+remains. Judging by what has happened during the historic period, great
+changes may and indeed _must_ have taken place between the first arrival
+of the Saxons and the days of King Alfred, when literature practically
+begins. The chart also illustrates the continuity of the main stock of
+the vocabulary, the body of primary "words of common life," which,
+notwithstanding numerous losses and more numerous additions, has
+preserved its corporate identity through all the periods. But the
+"poetic and rhetorical," as well as the "scientific" terms of Old
+English have died out, and a new vocabulary of "abstract and general
+terms" has arisen from French, Latin and Greek, while a still newer
+"technical, commercial and scientific" vocabulary is composed of words
+not only from these, but from every civilized and many uncivilized
+languages.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The preceding sketch has had reference mainly to the grammatical changes
+which the language has undergone; distinct from, though intimately
+connected with these (as where the confusion or loss of inflections was
+a consequence of the weakening of final sounds) are the great phonetic
+changes which have taken place between the 8th and 19th centuries, and
+which result in making modern English words very different from their
+Anglo-Saxon originals, even where no element has been lost, as in words
+like _stone_, _mine_, _doom_, _day_, _nail_, _child_, _bridge_,
+_shoot_, Anglo-Saxon _stán_, _mín_, _dóm_, _dæg_, _nægel_, _cild_,
+_brycg_, _scéot_. The history of English sounds (see PHONETICS) has been
+treated at length by Dr A.J. Ellis and Dr Henry Sweet; and it is only
+necessary here to indicate the broad facts, which are the following, (1)
+In an accented closed syllable, original short vowels have remained
+nearly unchanged; thus the words _at_, _men_, _bill_, _God_, _dust_ are
+pronounced now nearly as in Old English, though the last two were more
+like the Scotch _o_ and North English _u_ respectively, and in most
+words the short _a_ had a broader sound like the provincial _a_ in
+_man_. (2) Long accented vowels and diphthongs have undergone a regular
+sound shift towards closer and more advanced positions, so that the
+words _bán_, _hær_, _soece_ or _séce_, _stól_ (_bahn_ or _bawn_, _hêr_,
+_sök_ or _saik_, _stole_) are now _bone_, _hair_, _seek_, _stool_; while
+the two high vowels _ú_ (= _oo_) and _i_ (_ee_) have become diphthongs,
+as _hús_, _scír_, now _house_, _shire_, though the old sound of _u_
+remains in the north (_hoose_), and the original _i_ in the
+pronunciation _sheer_, approved by Walker, "as in mach_i_ne, and
+sh_i_re, and magaz_i_ne." (3) Short vowels in an open syllable have
+usually been lengthened, as in _na-ma_, _co-fa_, now _name_, _cove_; but
+to this there are exceptions, especially in the case of _i_ and _u_. (4)
+Vowels in terminal unaccented syllables have all sunk into short obscure
+_e_, and then, if final, disappeared; so _oxa_, _séo_, _wudu_ became
+_ox-e_, _se-e_, _wud-e_, and then _ox_, _see_, _wood_; _oxan_, _lufod_,
+now _oxen_, _loved_, _lov'd_; _settan_, _setton_, later _setten_,
+_sette_, _sett_, now _set_. (5) The back consonants, _c_, _g_, _sc_, in
+connexion with front vowels, have often become palatalized to _ch_, _j_,
+_sh_, as _circe_, _rycg_, _fisc_, now _church_, _ridge_, _fish_. A
+medial or final _g_ has passed through a guttural or palatal continuant
+to _w_ or _y_, forming a diphthong or new vowel, as in _boga_, _laga_,
+_dæg_, _heg_, _drig_, now _bow_, _law_, _day_, _hay_, _dry_. _W_ and _h_
+have disappeared before _r_ and _l_, as in _write_, _(w)lisp_,
+_(h)ring_; _h_ final (=_gh_) has become _f_, _k_, _w_ or nothing, but
+has developed the glides _u_ or _i_ before itself, these combining with
+the preceding vowel to form a diphthong, or merging with it into a
+simple vowel-sound, as _ruh_, _hoh_, _boh_, _deah_, _heah_, _hleah_, now
+_rough_, _hough_, _bough_, _dough_, _high_, _laugh=ruf_, _hok_, _bow_,
+_do_, _hi_, _lâf_. _R_ after a vowel has practically disappeared in
+standard English, or at most become vocalized, or combined with the
+vowel, as in _hear_, _bar_, _more_, _her_. These and other changes have
+taken place gradually, and in accordance with well-known phonetic laws;
+the details as to time and mode may be studied in special works. It may
+be mentioned that the total loss of grammatical _gender_ in English, and
+the almost complete disappearance of _cases_, are purely phonetic
+phenomena. _Gender_ (whatever its remote origin) was practically the use
+of adjectives and pronouns with certain distinctive terminations, in
+accordance with the _genus_, _genre_, _gender_ or _kind_ of nouns to
+which they were attached; when these distinctive terminations were
+uniformly levelled to final _e_, or other weak sounds, and thus ceased
+to distinguish nouns into kinds, the distinctions into genders or kinds
+having no other existence disappeared. Thus when _þæt godé hors_, _þone
+godan hund_, _þa godan bóc_, became, by phonetic weakening, _þe gode
+hors_, _þe gode hownd_, _þe gode boke_, and later still the _good
+horse_, the _good hound_, the _good book_, the words _horse_, _hound_,
+_book_ were no longer grammatically different kinds of nouns;
+grammatical gender had ceased to exist. The concord of adjectives has
+entirely disappeared; the concord of the pronouns is now regulated by
+_rationality_ and _sex_, instead of grammatical gender, which has no
+existence in English. The man _who_ lost _his_ life; the bird _which_
+built _its_ nest.
+
+Our remarks from the end of the 14th century have been confined to the
+standard or literary form of English, for of the other dialects from
+that date (with the exception of the northern English in Scotland,
+where it became in a social and literary sense a distinct language), we
+have little history. We know, however, that they continued to exist as
+local and popular forms of speech, as well from occasional specimens and
+from the fact that they exist still as from the statements of writers
+during the interval. Thus Puttenham in his _Arte of English Poesie_
+(1589) says:--
+
+  "Our maker [i.e. poet] therfore at these dayes shall not follow Piers
+  Plowman, nor Gower, nor Lydgate, not yet Chaucer, for their language
+  is now not of use with us: neither shall he take the termes of
+  Northern-men, such as they use in dayly talke, whether they be noble
+  men or gentle men or of their best clarkes, all is a [= one] matter;
+  nor in effect any speach used beyond the river of Trent, though no man
+  can deny but that theirs is the purer English Saxon at this day, yet
+  it is not so Courtly nor so currant as our _Southerne_ English is, no
+  more is the far Westerne mans speach: ye shall therefore take the
+  usual speach of the Court, and that of London and the shires lying
+  about London within lx myles, and not much above. I say not this but
+  that in every shyre of England there be gentlemen and others that
+  speake but specially write as good Southerne as we of Middlesex or
+  Surrey do, but not the common people of every shire, to whom the
+  gentlemen, and also their learned clarkes do for the most part
+  condescend, but herein we are already ruled by th' English
+  Dictionaries and other bookes written by learned men."--_Arber's
+  Reprint_, p. 157.
+
+In comparatively modern times there has been a revival of interest in
+these forms of English, several of which following in the wake of the
+revival of Lowland Scots in the 18th and 19th centuries, have produced a
+considerable literature in the form of local poems, tales and
+"folk-lore." In these respects Cumberland, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Devon,
+Somerset and Dorset, the "far north" and "far west" of Puttenham, where
+the dialect was felt to be so independent of literary English as not to
+be branded as a mere vulgar corruption of it, stand prominent. More
+recently the dialects have been investigated philologically, a
+department in which, as in other departments of English philology, the
+elder Richard Garnett must be named as a pioneer. The work was carried
+out zealously by Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte and Dr A.J. Ellis, and
+more recently by the English Dialect Society, founded by the Rev.
+Professor Skeat, for the investigation of this branch of philology. The
+efforts of this society resulted in the compilation and publication of
+glossaries or word-books, more or less complete and trustworthy, of most
+of the local dialects, and in the production of grammars dealing with
+the phonology and grammatical features of a few of these, among which
+that of the Windhill dialect in Yorkshire, by Professor Joseph Wright,
+and that of West Somerset, by the late F.T. Elworthy, deserve special
+mention. From the whole of the glossaries of the Dialect Society, and
+from all the earlier dialect works of the 18th and 19th centuries,
+amplified and illustrated by the contributions of local collaborators in
+nearly every part of the British Isles, Professor Joseph Wright has
+constructed his _English Dialect Dictionary_, recording the local words
+and senses, with indication of their geographical range, their
+pronunciation, and in most cases with illustrative quotations or
+phrases. To this he has added an _English Dialect Grammar_, dealing very
+fully with the phonology of the dialects, showing the various sounds
+which now represent each Old English sound, and endeavouring to define
+the area over which each modern form extends; the accidence is treated
+more summarily, without going minutely into that of each dialect-group,
+for which special dialect grammars must be consulted. The work has also
+a very full and valuable index of every word and form treated.
+
+The researches of Prince L.L. Bonaparte and Dr Ellis were directed
+specially to the classification and mapping of the existing
+dialects,[28] and the relation of these to the dialects of Old and
+Middle English. They recognized a _Northern_ dialect lying north of a
+line drawn from Morecambe Bay to the Humber, which, with the kindred
+Scottish dialects (already investigated and classed),[29] is the direct
+descendant of early northern English, and a _South-western_ dialect
+occupying Somerset, Wilts, Dorset, Gloucester and western Hampshire,
+which, with the _Devonian_ dialect beyond it, are the descendants of
+early southern English and the still older West-Saxon of Alfred. This
+dialect must in the 14th Century have been spoken everywhere south of
+Thames; but the influence of London caused its extinction in Surrey,
+Sussex and Kent, so that already in Puttenham it had become "far
+western." An _East Midland_ dialect, extending from south Lincolnshire
+to London, occupies the cradle-land of the standard English speech, and
+still shows least variation from it. Between and around these typical
+dialects are ten others, representing the old Midland proper, or
+dialects between it and the others already mentioned. Thus "north of
+Trent" the _North-western_ dialect of south Lancashire, Cheshire, Derby
+and Stafford, with that of Shropshire, represents the early West Midland
+English, of which several specimens remain; while the _North-eastern_ of
+Nottingham and north Lincolnshire represents the dialect of the _Lay of
+Havelok_. With the _North Midland_ dialect of south-west Yorkshire,
+these represent forms of speech which to the modern Londoner, as to
+Puttenham, are still decidedly northern, though actually intermediate
+between northern proper and midland, and preserving interesting traces
+of the midland pronouns and verbal inflections. There is an _Eastern_
+dialect in the East Anglian counties; a _Midland_ in Leicester and
+Warwick shires; a _Western_ in Hereford, Worcester and north
+Gloucestershire, intermediate between south-western and north-western,
+and representing the dialect of _Piers Plowman_. Finally, between the
+east midland and south-western, in the counties of Buckingham, Oxford,
+Berks, Hants, Surrey and Sussex, there is a dialect which must have once
+been south-western, but of which the most salient characters have been
+rubbed off by proximity to London and the East Midland speech. In east
+Sussex and Kent this _South-eastern_ dialect attains to a more
+distinctive character. The _Kentish_ form of early Southern English
+evidently maintained its existence more toughly than that of the
+counties immediately south of London. It was very distinct in the days
+of Sir Thomas More; and even, as we see from the dialect attributed to
+Edgar in _Lear_, was still strongly marked in the days of Shakespeare.
+In the south-eastern corner of Ireland, in the baronies of Forth and
+Bargy, in county Wexford, a very archaic form of English, of which
+specimens have been preserved,[30] was still spoken in the 18th century.
+In all probability it dated from the first English invasion. In many
+parts of Ulster forms of Lowland Scotch dating to the settlement under
+James I. are still spoken; but the English of Ireland generally seems to
+represent 16th and 17th century English, as in the pronunciation of
+_tea_, _wheat_ (_tay_, _whait_), largely affected, of course, by the
+native Celtic. The subsequent work of the English Dialect Society, and
+the facts set forth in the _English Dialect Dictionary_, confirm in a
+general way the classification of Bonaparte and Ellis; but they bring
+out strongly the fact that only in a few cases can the boundary between
+dialects now be determined by precise lines. For every dialect there is
+a central region, larger or smaller, in which its characteristics are at
+a maximum; but towards the edges of the area these become mixed and
+blended with the features of the contiguous dialects, so that it is
+often impossible to define the point at which the one dialect ends and
+the other begins. The fact is that the various features of a dialect,
+whether its distinctive words, characteristic pronunciations or special
+grammatical features, though they may have the same centre, have not all
+the same circumference. Some of them extend to a certain distance round
+the centre; others to a much greater distance. The only approximately
+accurate way to map the area of any dialect, whether in England, France,
+Germany or elsewhere, is to take a well-chosen set of its characteristic
+features--words, senses, sounds or grammatical peculiarities, and draw a
+line round the area over which each of these extends; between the
+innermost and outermost of these there will often be a large border
+district. If the same process be followed with the contiguous dialects,
+it will be found that some of the lines of each intersect some of the
+lines of the other, and that the passing of one dialect into another is
+not effected by the formation of intermediate or blended forms of any
+one characteristic, but by the overlapping or intersecting of more or
+fewer of the features of each. Thus a definite border village or
+district may use 10 of the 20 features of dialect A and 10 of those of
+B, while a village on the one side has 12 of those of A with 8 of those
+of B, and one on the other side has 7 of those of A with 13 of those of
+B. Hence a dialect boundary line can at best indicate the line within
+which the dialect has, on the whole, more of the features of A than of B
+or C; and usually no single line can be drawn as a dialect boundary, but
+that without it there are some features of the same dialect, and within
+it some features of the contiguous dialects.
+
+
+  CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE PERIODS AND DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
+
+  CHRONOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE.
+
+  Divisions.               Subdivisions.             Dates
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+   OLD ENGLISH
+  (Full Inflections.)      EARLY OLD ENGLISH.         500-850
+
+                           TYPICAL OLD ENGLISH,       850-1000
+                             or ANGLO-SAXON.
+
+                           LATE OLD ENGLISH          1000-1150
+                             and OLD ENGLISH
+                             TRANSITION.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+    MIDDLE ENGLISH.
+   (Levelled Inflections.)
+
+                           EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH.     1150-1250
+
+                           MIDDLE ENGLISH (typical). 1250-1400
+
+                           LATE MIDDLE ENGLISH
+                             and MIDDLE ENGLISH
+                             TRANSITION.             1400-1485
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+  MODERN ENGLISH.
+  (Lost Inflections.)
+                           EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
+                             (Tudor English).        1450-1611
+
+                           TRANSITIONAL MODERN or
+                             17TH CENTURY ENGLISH.   1611-1689
+
+                           CURRENT ENGLISH.          1689-
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+
+
+  LITERARY DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEADING DIALECTS.
+
+  Northern English.           Midland English.                       Southern English.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+    Anglian.                    Anglian.                    Saxon.                         Kentish.
+    -------                     -------                     -----                          -------
+  Cædmon, 660.                (Charter Glosses), 736-800. (Charter Glosses), 692-780.    (Charter Glosses), 679-770.
+  Beda, 734.                  Beowulf(?)                  (Laws of Ine, 700)             Charters_, 805-840.
+  Leiden Riddle_.               Mercian.                  Literary West-Saxon            Lorica Prayer.
+  Cynewulf, c. 750.             -------                     or Anglo-Saxon.              Psalm 50, c. 860.
+    Old Northumbrian.         (Charter Glosses), 805--.   Charter, 847.
+    ----------------          Vespasian Ps., c. 825.      Alfred, 885.
+  Durham Glosses, 950-975.    Charters, 836-840.          Judith, 900-910.
+  Lindisfarne Gospel Gloss.   Lorica Glosses.             Poems in O.E. Chron., 937-979.
+                              Rushworth Gloss, St.        Battle of Maldon, 993.
+                              Matthew, ? 975-1000.        Ælfric, 1000.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+                              Peterborough Chronicle      Wulfstan, 1016.
+                                1123-31.                  O.E. Chron., Parker MS.
+                                                            ends, 1070.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+    Early Northern English      Early Midland.              Early Southern and             Middle Kentish.
+      and Early Scotch.         -------------                 S.W. English                 --------------
+    ----------------------    Chronicle, 1154.            ------------------             Hatton Gospels, 1170.
+                              Ormulum, 1200.              Cotton Homilies, 1160.         Kentish Sermons, 1250.
+                              Genesis & Exodus, c. 1250.  Layamon, 1203.
+                                Middle English.           Ancren Riwle, 1220.
+                                --------------            --------------------------
+  Cursor Mundi (?).           Harrowing of Hell, 1280.                                   Shoreham, 1320.
+  Hampole, 1350.              Robt. of Brunne, 1303-30.   Procl. of Henry III., 1258.    Ayenbite, 1340.
+  Barbour, 1375.              Pearl, Sir Gawayne.         Robt. Gloucester, 1300.
+  Mandeville (Northern        Wycliffe.                   Trevisa, 1387.
+    version) Wyntoun, 1420.   Chaucer, Gower.
+  Townley Mysteries.          Lydgate.
+  Henryson, 1470.             Caxton, 1477-90.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+    Middle Sccotch.             Tudor English.              South-Western Dialect.         Kentish Dialect.
+    --------------              -------------               ---------------------          ---------------
+  Dunbar, 1500--.             Tyndal, 1525.               Cornishman in A. Boorde,       (in Sir. T. More.)
+  Lyndesay.                   Homilies, 1547-63.            1547.                        (Edgar in Lear, 1605.)
+  Archbp. Hamilton, 1552.     Shakspere, 1590-1613.       Gammer Gurton, 1575.           (in Ben Jonson.)
+  James VI., 1590.            King James's Bible, 1611.   Somersetsh. Man's Complaynt,   Kentish Wooing Song, 1611
+  Montgomery, c. 1600.        Milton, 1626-71.              c. 1645.
+  Sir W. Mure, 1617-57.       Dryden, 1663-1700.
+  Yorkshire Dialogue, 1673.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+    Modern Scotch and           Current English.          Exmoor Scolding, 1746.         Nairne, Kentish Tales,
+      North Eng. Dial.          ---------------           Barnes, 1844.                     1700.
+    -----------------         Addison, 1717.              Elworthy, 1875-88.             Dick and Sal, 1821.
+  Allan Ramsay, 1717.         Johnson, 1750.
+  Burns, 1790.                Coleridge, 1805.
+  Scott, 1815.                Macaulay, 1825.
+  Ian Maclaren, Barrie,       Tennyson, 1830.
+    Crockett, etc.
+
+  The vertical lines represent the four leading forms of
+  English--_Northern_, _Midland_, _Southern_, and _Kentish_--and the
+  names occurring down the course of each are those of writers and works
+  in that form of English at the given date. The thickness of the line
+  shows the comparative literary position of this form of speech at the
+  time: _thick_ indicating a _literary language_; _medium_, a _literary
+  dialect_; _thin_, a _popular dialect_ or _patois_; a _dotted_ line
+  shows that this period is _unrepresented_ by specimens. The horizontal
+  lines divide the periods; these (after the first two) refer mainly to
+  the Midland English; in inflectional decay the Northern English was at
+  least a century in advance of the Midland, and the Southern nearly as
+  much behind it.
+
+Beyond the limits of the British Isles, English is the language of
+extensive regions, now or formerly colonies. In all these countries the
+presence of numerous new objects and new conditions of life has led to
+the supplementing of the vocabulary by the adoption of words from native
+languages, and special adaptation and extension of the sense of English
+words. The use of a common literature, however, prevents the overgrowth
+of these local peculiarities, and also makes them more or less familiar
+to Englishmen at home. It is only in the older states of the American
+Union that anything like a local dialect has been produced; and even
+there many of the so-called Americanisms are quite as much archaic
+English forms which have been lost or have become dialectal in England
+as developments of the American soil.
+
+The steps by which English, from being the language of a few thousand
+invaders along the eastern and southern seaboard of Britain, has been
+diffused by conquest and colonization over its present area form a
+subject too large for the limits of this article. It need only be
+remarked that within the confines of Britain itself the process is not
+yet complete. Representatives of earlier languages survive in Wales and
+the Scottish Highlands, though in neither case can the substitution of
+English be very remote. In Ireland, where English was introduced by
+conquest much later, Irish is still spoken in patches all over the
+country; though English is understood, and probably spoken after a
+fashion, almost everywhere. At opposite extremities of Britain, the
+Cornish of Cornwall and the Norse dialects of Orkney and Shetland died
+out very gradually in the course of the 18th century. The Manx, or
+Celtic of Man, is even now in the last stage of dissolution; and in the
+Channel Isles the Norman _patois_ of Jersey and Guernsey have largely
+yielded to English.
+
+The table on p. 599 (a revision of that brought before the Philological
+Society in Jan. 1876) graphically presents the chronological and
+dialectal development of English. Various names have been proposed for
+the different stages; it seems only necessary to add to those in the
+table the descriptive names of Dr Abbott, who has proposed (_How to
+Parse_, p. 298) to call the Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, the
+"Synthetical or Inflexional Period"; the Old English Transition (Late
+Anglo-Saxon of Dr Skeat), the "Period of Confusion"; the Early Middle
+English, "Analytical Period" (1250-1350); the normal Middle English,
+"National Period" (1350-1500); the Tudor English, "Period of Licence";
+and the Modern English, "Period of Settlement."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--As the study of English has made immense advances
+  within the last generation, it is only in works recently published
+  that the student will find the subject satisfactorily handled. Among
+  the earlier works treating of the whole subject or parts of it may be
+  mentioned--_A History of English Rhythms_, by Edwin Guest (London,
+  1838); the _Philological Essays_ of Richard Garnett (1835-1848),
+  edited by his son (London, 1859); _The English Language_, by R.G.
+  Latham (5th ed., London, 1862); _Origin and History of the English
+  Language_, by G.P. Marsh (revised 1885); _Lectures on the English
+  Language_, by the same (New York and London, 1863); _Historische
+  Grammatik der englischen Sprache_, by C.F. Koch (Weimar, 1863, &c.);
+  _Englische Grammatik_, by Eduard Mätzner (Berlin, 1860-1865), (an
+  English translation by C.J. Grece, LL.B., London, 1874); _The
+  Philology of the English Tongue_, by John Earle, M.A. (Oxford, 1866,
+  5th ed. 1892); _Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language_, by
+  F.A. March (New York, 1870); _Historical Outlines of English
+  Accidence_, by the Rev. R. Morris, LL.D. (London, 1873), (new ed. by
+  Kellner); _Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar_, by the
+  same (London, 1874); _The Sources of Standard English_, by T.L.
+  Kington Oliphant, M.A. (London, 1873); _Modern English_, by F. Hall
+  (London, 1873); _A Shakespearian Grammar_, by E.A. Abbott, D.D.
+  (London, 1872); _How to Parse_, by the same (London, 1875); _Early
+  English Pronunciation_, &c., by A.J. Ellis (London, 1869); _The
+  History of English Sounds_, by Henry Sweet (London, 1874, 2nd ed.
+  1888); as well as many separate papers by various authors in the
+  _Transactions of the Philological Society_, and the publications of
+  the Early English Text Society.
+
+  Among more recent works are: M. Kaluza, _Historische Grammatik der
+  englischen Sprache_ (Berlin, 1890); Professor W.W. Skeat, _Principles
+  of English Etymology_ (Oxford, 1887-1891); Johan Storm, _Englische
+  Philologie_ (Leipzig, 1892-1896); L. Kellner, _Historical Outlines of
+  English Syntax_ (London, 1892); O.F. Emerson, _History of the English
+  Language_ (London and New York, 1894); Otto Jespersen, _Progress in
+  Language_, with special reference to English (London, 1894); Lorenz
+  Morsbach, _Mittelenglische Grammatik_, part i. (Halle, 1896); Paul,
+  "Geschichte der englischen Sprache," in _Grundriss der german.
+  Philologie_ (Strassburg, 1898); Eduard Sievers, _Angelsächsische
+  Grammatik_ (3rd ed., Halle, 1898); Eng. transl. of same (2nd ed.), by
+  A.S. Cook (Boston, 1887); K.D. Bülbring, _Altenglisches Elementarbuch_
+  (Heidelberg, 1902); Greenough and Kittredge, _Words and their Ways in
+  English Speech_ (London and New York, 1902); Henry Bradley, _The
+  Making of English_ (London, 1904). Numerous contributions to the
+  subject have also been made in _Englische Studien_ (ed. Kölbing, later
+  Hoops; Leipzig, 1877 onward); _Anglia_ (ed. Wülker, Flügel, &c.;
+  Halle, 1878 onward); publications of Mod. Lang. Assoc. of America
+  (J.W. Bright; Baltimore, 1884 onward), and A.M. Elliott, _Modern
+  Language Notes_ (Baltimore, 1886 onward).
+       (J. A. H. M.; H. M. R. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] A careful examination of several letters of Bosworth's
+    Anglo-Saxon dictionary gives in 2000 words (including derivatives and
+    compounds, but excluding orthographic variants) 535 which still exist
+    as modern English words.
+
+  [2] The practical convenience of having one name for what was the
+    same thing in various stages of development is not affected by the
+    probability that (E.A. Freeman notwithstanding) _Engle_ and _Englisc_
+    were, at an early period, _not_ applied to the whole of the
+    inhabitants of Teutonic Britain, but only to a part of them. The
+    dialects of _Engle_ and _Seaxan_ were alike old forms of what was
+    afterwards English speech, and so, viewed in relation to it, _Old
+    English_, whatever their contemporary names might be.
+
+  [3] The works of Gildas in the original Latin were edited by Mr
+    Stevenson for the English Historical Society. There is an English
+    translation in _Six Old English Chronicles_ in Bohn's Antiquarian
+    library.
+
+  [4] As to the continued existence of Latin in Britain, see further in
+    Rhys's _Lectures on Welsh Philology_, pp. 226-227; also Dogatschar,
+    _Lautlehre d. gr., lat. u. roman. Lehnworte im Altengl._ (Strassburg,
+    1888).
+
+  [5] Æthelstan in 934 calls himself in a charter "Ongol-Saxna cyning
+    and Brytaenwalda eallaes thyses iglandes"; Eadred in 955 is
+    "Angul-seaxna cyning and cásere totius Britanniae," and the name is
+    of frequent occurrence in documents written in Latin. These facts
+    ought to be remembered in the interest of the scholars of the 17th
+    century, who have been blamed for the use of the term Anglo-Saxon, as
+    if they had invented it. By "Anglo-Saxon" language they meant the
+    language of the people who _sometimes at least_ called themselves
+    "Anglo-Saxons." Even now the name is practically useful, when we are
+    dealing with the subject _per se_, as is _Old English_, on the other
+    hand, when we are treating it historically or in connexion with
+    English as a whole.
+
+  [6] _Transactions of the Philological Society_ (_1873-1874_), p. 620;
+    new and much enlarged edition, 1888.
+
+  [7] See on this Rhys, _Lectures on Welsh Philology_, v.
+
+  [8] During the Old English period both _c_ and [g] appear to have
+    acquired a palatal value in conjunction with front or palatal
+    vowel-sounds, except in the north where _c_, and in some cases [g],
+    tended to remain guttural in such positions. This value was never
+    distinguished in Old English writing, but may be deduced from certain
+    phonetic changes depending upon it, and from the use of _c_, _cc_, as
+    an alternative for _tj_ (as in _ort_[g]_eard_, _orceard_ = orchard,
+    _fetian_, _feccean_ = fetch), as well as from the normal occurrence
+    of _ch_ and _y_ in these positions in later stages of the language,
+    e.g. _cild_ = child, _taècean_ = teach, [g]_iellan_ = yell, _dae_[g]
+    = day, &c.
+
+  [9] For a discriminating view of the effects of the Norman Conquest
+    on the English Language, see Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, ch. xxv.
+
+  [10] There is no reason to suppose that any attempt was made to
+    proscribe or suppress the native tongue, which was indeed used in
+    some official documents addressed to Englishmen by the Conqueror
+    himself. Its social degradation seemed even on the point of coming to
+    an end, when it was confirmed and prolonged for two centuries more by
+    the accession of the Angevin dynasty, under whom everything French
+    received a fresh impetus.
+
+  [11] MS. Cotton Vesp. A. 22.
+
+  [12] Gospels in Anglo-Saxon, &c., ed. for Cambridge Press, by W.W.
+    Skeat (1871-1887), second text.
+
+  [13] _Old English Homilies of Twelfth Century_, first and second
+    series, ed. R. Morris (E.E.T.S.), (1868-1873).
+
+  [14] The article _þe_ becomes _te_ after a preceding _t_ or _d_ by
+    assimilation.
+
+  [15] Earle, _Two of the Saxon Chronicles parallel_ (1865), p. 265.
+
+  [16] Skeat, _Anglo-Saxon and Northumbrian Gospels_ (1874).
+
+  [17] Edited for the Surtees Society, by Rev. J. Stevenson.
+
+  [18] Edited for the Early English Text Society, by Rev. Dr Morris.
+
+  [19] _The Vision of William concerning Piers the Ploughman_ exists in
+    three different recensions, all of which have been edited for the
+    Early English Text Society by Rev. W.W. Skeat.
+
+  [20] Edited by Rev. Dr Morris for Early English Text Society, in
+    1866.
+
+  [21] Here, and in _tatt_, _tu_, _taer_, for _þatt_, _þu_, _þaet_,
+    after _t_, _d_, there is the same phonetic assimilation as in the
+    last section of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle above.
+
+  [22] Edited for the Early English Text Society by Dr Morris (1865).
+
+  [23] Trevisa, _Translation of Higden's Polychronicon_.
+
+  [24] Skeat, _Specimens of English Literature_, pp. 49, 54.
+
+  [25] _A Shakspearian Grammar_, by Dr E.A. Abbott. To this book we are
+    largely indebted for its admirable summary of the characters of Tudor
+    English.
+
+  [26] _Evangelist_, _astronomy_, _dialogue_, are words that have so
+    lived, of which their form is the result. _Photograph_, _geology_,
+    &c., take this form as _if_ they had the same history.
+
+  [27] See extended lists of the foreign words in English in Dr
+    Morris's _Historical Outlines of English Accidence_, p. 33.
+
+  [28] See description and map in _Trans. of Philol. Soc._, 1875-1876,
+    p. 570.
+
+  [29] _The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland, its
+    Pronunciation, Grammar and Historical Relations, with an Appendix on
+    the present limits of the Gaelic and Lowland Scotch, and the
+    Dialectal Divisions of the Lowland Tongue; and a Linguistical Map of
+    Scotland_, by James A.H. Murray (London, 1873).
+
+  [30] _A Glossary (with some pieces of Verse) of the Old Dialect of
+    the English Colony of Forth and Bargy_, collected by Jacob Poole,
+    edited by W. Barnes, B.D. (London, 1867).
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH LAW (_History_). In English jurisprudence "legal memory" is said
+to extend as far as, but no further than the coronation of Richard I.
+(Sept. 3, 1189). This is a technical doctrine concerning prescriptive
+rights, but is capable of expressing an important truth. For the last
+seven centuries, little more or less, the English law, which is now
+overshadowing a large share of the earth, has had not only an extremely
+continuous, but a matchlessly well-attested history, and, moreover, has
+been the subject matter of rational exposition. Already in 1194 the
+daily doings of a tribunal which was controlling and moulding the whole
+system were being punctually recorded in letters yet legible, and from
+that time onwards it is rather the enormous bulk than any dearth of
+available materials that prevents us from tracing the transformation of
+every old doctrine and the emergence and expansion of every new idea. If
+we are content to look no further than the text-books--the books written
+by lawyers for lawyers--we may read our way backwards to Blackstone (d.
+1780), Hale (d. 1676), Coke (d. 1634), Fitzherbert (d. 1538), Littleton
+(d. 1481), Bracton (d. 1268), Glanvill (d. 1190), until we are in the
+reign of Henry of Anjou, and yet shall perceive that we are always
+reading of one and the same body of law, though the little body has
+become great, and the ideas that were few and indefinite have become
+many and explicit.
+
+Beyond these seven lucid centuries lies a darker period. Nearly six
+centuries will still divide us from the dooms of Æthelberht (c. 600),
+and nearly seven from the _Lex Salica_ (c. 500). We may regard the
+Norman conquest of England as marking the confluence of two streams of
+law. The one we may call French or Frankish. If we follow it upwards we
+pass through the capitularies of Carlovingian emperors and Merovingian
+kings until we see Chlodwig and his triumphant Franks invading Gaul,
+submitting their Sicambrian necks to the yoke of the imperial religion,
+and putting their traditional usages into written Latin. The other
+rivulet we may call Anglo-Saxon. Pursuing it through the code of Canute
+(d. 1035) and the ordinances of Alfred (c. 900) and his successors, we
+see Ine publishing laws in the newly converted Wessex (c. 690), and,
+almost a century earlier, Æthelberht doing the same in the newly
+converted Kent (c. 600). This he did, says Beda, in accordance with
+Roman precedents. Perhaps from the Roman missionaries he had heard
+tidings of what the Roman emperor had lately been doing far off in New
+Rome. We may at any rate notice with interest that in order of time
+Justinian's law-books fall between the _Lex Salica_ and the earliest
+Kentish dooms; also that the great pope who sent Augustine to England is
+one of the very few men who between Justinian's day and the 11th century
+lived in the Occident and yet can be proved to have known the Digest.
+In the Occident the time for the Germanic "folk-laws" (_Leges
+Barbarorum_) had come, and a Canon law, ambitious of independence, was
+being constructed, when in the Orient the lord of church and state was
+"enucleating" all that was to live of the classical jurisprudence of
+pagan Rome. It was but a brief interval between Gothic and Lombardic
+domination that enabled him to give law to Italy: Gaul and Britain were
+beyond his reach.
+
+The Anglo-Saxon laws that have come down to us (and we have no reason to
+fear the loss of much beyond some dooms of the Mercian Offa) are best
+studied as members of a large Teutonic family. Those that proceed from
+the Kent and Wessex of the 7th century are closely related to the
+continental folk-laws. Their next of kin seem to be the _Lex Saxonum_
+and the laws of the Lombards. Then, though the 8th and 9th centuries are
+unproductive, we have from Alfred (c. 900) and his successors a series
+of edicts which strongly resemble the Frankish capitularies--so strongly
+that we should see a clear case of imitation, were it not that in
+Frankland the age of legislation had come to its disastrous end long
+before Alfred was king. This, it may be noted, gives to English legal
+history a singular continuity from Alfred's day to our own. The king of
+the English was expected to publish laws at a time when hardly any one
+else was attempting any such feat, and the English dooms of Canute the
+Dane are probably the most comprehensive statutes that were issued in
+the Europe of the 11th century. No genuine laws of the sainted Edward
+have descended to us, and during his reign England seems but too likely
+to follow the bad example of Frankland, and become a loose congeries of
+lordships. From this fate it was saved by the Norman duke, who, like
+Canute before him, subdued a land in which kings were still expected to
+publish laws.
+
+In the study of early Germanic law--a study which now for some
+considerable time has been scientifically prosecuted in Germany--the
+Anglo-Saxon dooms have received their due share of attention. A high
+degree of racial purity may be claimed on their behalf. Celtic elements
+have been sought for in them, but have never been detected. At certain
+points, notably in the regulation of the blood-feud and the construction
+of a tariff of atonements, the law of one rude folk will always be
+somewhat like the law of another; but the existing remains of old Welsh
+and old Irish law stand far remoter from the dooms of Æthelberht and Ine
+than stand the edicts of Rothari and Liutprand, kings of the Lombards.
+Indeed, it is very dubious whether distinctively Celtic customs play any
+considerable part in the evolution of that system of rules of Anglian,
+Scandinavian and Frankish origin which becomes the law of Scotland.
+Within England itself, though for a while there was fighting enough
+between the various Germanic folks, the tribal differences were not so
+deep as to prevent the formation of a common language and a common law.
+Even the strong Scandinavian strain seems to have rapidly blended with
+the Anglian. It amplified the language and the law, but did not
+permanently divide the country. If, for example, we can to-day
+distinguish between _law_ and _right_, we are debtors to the Danes; but
+very soon _law_ is not distinctive of eastern or _right_ of western
+England. In the first half of the 12th century a would-be expounder of
+the law of England had still to say that the country was divided between
+the Wessex law, the Mercian law, and the Danes' law, but he had also to
+point out that the law of the king's own court stood apart from and
+above all partial systems. The local customs were those of shires and
+hundreds, and shaded off into each other. We may speak of more Danish
+and less Danish counties; it was a matter of degree; for rivers were
+narrow and hills were low. England was meant by nature to be the land of
+one law.
+
+Then as to Roman law. In England and elsewhere Germanic law developed in
+an atmosphere that was charged with traditions of the old world, and many
+of these traditions had become implicit in the Christian religion. It
+might be argued that all that we call progress is due to the influence
+exercised by Roman civilization; that, were it not for this, Germanic law
+would never have been set in writing; and that theoretically unchangeable
+custom would never have been supplemented or superseded by express
+legislation. All this and much more of the same sort might be said; but
+the survival in Britain, or the reintroduction into England, of anything
+that we should dare to call Roman jurisprudence would be a different
+matter. Eyes, carefully trained, have minutely scrutinized the
+Anglo-Saxon legal texts without finding the least trace of a Roman rule
+outside the ecclesiastical sphere. Even within that sphere modern
+research is showing that the church-property-law of the middle ages, the
+law of the ecclesiastical "benefice," is permeated by Germanic ideas.
+This is true of Gaul and Italy, and yet truer of an England in which
+Christianity was for a while extinguished. Moreover, the laws that were
+written in England were, from the first, written in the English tongue;
+and this gives them a unique value in the eyes of students of Germanic
+folk-law, for even the very ancient and barbarous _Lex Salica_ is a Latin
+document, though many old Frankish words are enshrined in it. Also we
+notice--and this is of grave importance--that in England there are no
+vestiges of any "Romani" who are being suffered to live under their own
+law by their Teutonic rulers. On the Continent we may see Gundobad, the
+Burgundian, publishing one law-book for the Burgundians and another for
+the Romani who own his sway. A book of laws, excerpted chiefly from the
+Theodosian code, was issued by Alaric the Visigoth for his Roman subjects
+before the days of Justinian, and this book (the so-called _Breviarium
+Alarici or Lex Romana Visigothorum_) became for a long while the chief
+representative of Roman law in Gaul. The Frankish king in his expansive
+realm ruled over many men whose law was to be found not in the _Lex
+Salica_ or _Lex Ribuaria_, but in what was called the _Lex Romana_. "A
+system of personal law" prevailed: the _homo Romanus_ handed on his Roman
+law to his children, while Frankish or Lombardic, Swabian or Saxon law
+would run in the blood of the _homo barbarus_. Of all this we hear
+nothing in England. Then on the mainland of Europe Roman and barbarian
+law could not remain in juxtaposition without affecting each other. On
+the one hand we see distinctively Roman rules making their way into the
+law of the victorious tribes, and on the other hand we see a decay and
+debasement of jurisprudence which ends in the formation of what modern
+historians have called a Roman "vulgar-law" (_Vulgarrecht_). For a short
+age which centres round the year 800 it seemed possible that Frankish
+kings, who were becoming Roman emperors, would be able to rule by their
+capitularies nearly the whole of the Christian Occident. The dream
+vanished before fratricidal wars, heathen invaders, centrifugal
+feudalism, and a centripetal church which found its law in the newly
+concocted forgeries of the Pseudo-Isidore (c. 850). The "personal laws"
+began to transmute themselves into local customs, and the Roman
+vulgar-law began to look like the local custom of those districts where
+the Romani were the preponderating element in the population. Meanwhile,
+the Norse pirates subdued a large tract of what was to be northern
+France--a land where Romani were few. Their restless and boundless vigour
+these Normans retained; but they showed a wonderful power of
+appropriating whatever of alien civilization came in their way. In their
+language, religion and law, they had become French many years before they
+subdued England. It is a plausible opinion that among them there lived
+some sound traditions of the Frankish monarchy's best days, and that
+Norman dukes, rather than German emperors or kings, of the French, are
+the truest spiritual heirs of Charles the Great.
+
+
+  The Norman age.
+
+In our own day, German historians are wont to speak of English law as a
+"daughter" of French or Frankish law. This tendency derived its main
+impulse from H. Brunner's proof that the germ of trial by jury, which
+cannot be found in the Anglo-Saxon laws, can be found in the prerogative
+procedure of the Frankish kings. We must here remember that during a
+long age English lawyers wrote in French and even thought in French, and
+that to this day most of the technical terms of the law, more especially
+of the private law, are of French origin. Also it must be allowed that
+when English law has taken shape in the 13th century it is very like one
+of the _coutumes_ of northern France. Even when linguistic difficulties
+have been surmounted, the Saxon Mirror of Eike von Repgow will seem far
+less familiar to an Englishman than the so-called Establishments of St
+Louis. This was the outcome of a slow process which fills more than a
+century (1066-1189), and was in a great measure due to the reforming
+energy of Henry II., the French prince who, in addition to England,
+ruled a good half of France. William the Conqueror seems to have
+intended to govern Englishmen by English law. After the tyranny of
+Rufus, Henry I. promised a restoration of King Edward's law: that is,
+the law of the Confessor's time (_Lagam Eadwardi regis vobis reddo_).
+Various attempts were then made, mostly, so it would seem, by men of
+French birth, to state in a modern and practicable form the _laga
+Eadwardi_ which was thus restored. The result of their labours is an
+intricate group of legal tracts which has been explored of late years by
+Dr Liebermann. The best of these has long been known as the _Leges
+Henrici Primi_, and aspires to be a comprehensive law-book. Its author,
+though he had some foreign sources at his command, such as the _Lex
+Ribuaria_ and an epitome of the Breviary of Alaric, took the main part
+of his matter from the code of Canute and the older English dooms.
+Neither the Conqueror nor either of his sons had issued many ordinances:
+the invading Normans had little, if any, written law to bring with them,
+and had invaded a country where kings had been lawgivers. Moreover,
+there was much in the English system that the Conqueror was keenly
+interested in retaining--especially an elaborate method of taxing the
+land and its holders. The greatest product of Norman government, the
+grandest feat of government that the world had seen for a long time
+past, the compilation of _Domesday Book_, was a conservative effort, an
+attempt to fix upon every landholder, French or English, the amount of
+geld that was due from his predecessor in title. Himself the rebellious
+vassal of the French king, the duke of the Normans, who had become king
+of the English, knew much of disruptive feudalism, and had no mind to
+see England that other France which it had threatened to become in the
+days of his pious but incompetent cousin. The sheriffs, though called
+_vice-comites_, were to be the king's officers; the shire-moots might be
+called county courts, but were not to be the courts of counts. Much that
+was sound and royal in English public law was to be preserved if William
+could preserve it.
+
+
+  Royal justice.
+
+The gulf that divides the so-called _Leges Henrici_ (c. 1115) from the
+text-book ascribed to Ranulf Glanvill (c. 1188) seems at first sight
+very wide. The one represents a not easily imaginable chaos and clash of
+old rules and new; it represents also a stage in the development of
+feudalism which in other countries is represented chiefly by a
+significant silence. The other is an orderly, rational book, which
+through all the subsequent centuries will be readily understood by
+English lawyers. Making no attempt to tell us what goes on in the local
+courts, its author, who may be Henry II.'s chief justiciar, Ranulf
+Glanvill, or may be Glanvill's nephew, Hubert Walter, fixes our
+attention on a novel element which is beginning to subdue all else to
+its powerful operation. He speaks to us of the justice that is done by
+the king's own court. Henry II. had opened the doors of his
+French-speaking court to the mass of his subjects. Judges chosen for
+their ability were to sit there, term after term; judges were to travel
+in circuits through the land, and in many cases the procedure by way of
+"an inquest of the country," which the Norman kings had used for the
+ascertainment of their fiscal rights, was to be at the disposal of
+ordinary litigants. All this had been done in a piecemeal, experimental
+fashion by ordinances that were known as "assizes." There had not been,
+and was not to be, any enunciation of a general principle inviting all
+who were wronged to bring in their own words their complaints to the
+king's audience. The general prevalence of feudal justice, and of the
+world-old methods of supernatural probation (ordeals, battle, oaths
+sworn with oath-helpers), was to be theoretically respected; but in
+exceptional cases, which would soon begin to devour the rule, a royal
+remedy was to be open to any one who could frame his case within the
+compass of some carefully-worded and prescript formula. With allusion to
+a remote stage in the history of Roman law, a stage of which Henry's
+advisers can have known little or nothing, we may say that a "formulary
+system" is established which will preside over English law until modern
+times. Certain actions, each with a name of its own, are open to
+litigants. Each has its own formula set forth in its original (or, as we
+might say, originating) writ; each has its own procedure and its
+appropriate mode of trial. The litigant chooses his writ, his action,
+and must stand or fall by his choice. Thus a book about royal justice
+tends to become, and Glanvill's book already is, a commentary on
+original writs.
+
+The precipitation of English law in so coherent a form as that which it
+has assumed in Glanvill's book is not to be explained without reference
+to the revival of Roman jurisprudence in Italy. Out of a school of
+Lombard lawyers at Pavia had come Lanfranc the Conqueror's adviser, and
+the Lombardists had already been studying Justinian's Institutes. Then
+at length the Digest came by its rights. About the year 1100 Irnerius
+was teaching at Bologna, and from all parts of the West men were eagerly
+flocking to hear the new gospel of civilization. About the year 1149
+Vacarius was teaching Roman law in England. The rest of a long life he
+spent here, and faculties of Roman and Canon law took shape in the
+nascent university of Oxford. Whatever might be the fate of Roman law in
+England, there could be no doubt that the Canon law, which was
+crystallizing in the _Decretum Gratiani_ (c. 1139) and in the decretals
+of Alexander III., would be the law of the English ecclesiastical
+tribunals. The great quarrel between Henry II. and Thomas of Canterbury
+brought this system into collision with the temporal law of England, and
+the king's ministers must have seen that they had much to learn from the
+methodic enemy. Some of them were able men who became the justices of
+Henry's court, and bishops to boot. The luminous _Dialogue of the
+Exchequer_ (c. 1179), which expounds the English fiscal system, came
+from the treasurer, Richard Fitz Nigel, who became bishop of London; and
+the treatise on the laws of England came perhaps from Glanvill, perhaps
+from Hubert Walter, who was to be both primate and chief justiciar.
+There was healthy emulation of the work that was being done by Italian
+jurists, but no meek acceptance of foreign results.
+
+
+  Bracton.
+
+A great constructive era had opened, and its outcome was a large and
+noble book. The author was Henry of Bratton (his name has been corrupted
+into Bracton), who died in 1268 after having been for many years one of
+Henry III.'s justices. The model for its form was the treatise of Azo of
+Bologna ("master of all the masters of the laws," an Englishman called
+him), and thence were taken many of the generalities of jurisprudence:
+maxims that might be regarded as of universal and natural validity. But
+the true core of the work was the practice of an English court which had
+yearly been extending its operations in many directions. For half a
+century past diligent record had been kept on parchment of all that this
+court had done, and from its rolls Bracton cited numerous decisions. He
+cited them as precedents, paying special heed to the judgments of two
+judges who were already dead, Martin Pateshull and William Raleigh. For
+this purpose he compiled a large Note Book, which was discovered by
+Prof. Vinogradoff in the British Museum in 1884. Thus at a very early
+time English "common law" shows a tendency to become what it afterwards
+definitely became, namely, "case law." The term "common law" was being
+taken over from the canonists by English lawyers, who used it to
+distinguish the general law of the land from local customs, royal
+prerogatives, and in short from all that was exceptional or special.
+Since statutes and ordinances were still rarities, all expressly enacted
+laws were also excluded from the English lawyers' notion of "the common
+law." The Great Charter (1215) had taken the form of a grant of
+"liberties and privileges," comparable to the grants that the king made
+to individual men and favoured towns. None the less, it was in that age
+no small body of enacted law, and, owing to its importance and
+solemnity, it was in after ages regarded as the first article of a
+statute book. There it was followed by the "provisions" issued at Merton
+in 1236 and by those issued at Marlborough after the end of the Barons'
+War. But during Henry III.'s long reign the swift development of English
+law was due chiefly to new "original writs" and new "forms of action"
+devised by the chancery and sanctioned by the court. Bracton knew many
+writs that were unknown to Glanvill, and men were already perceiving
+that limits must be set to the inventive power of the chancery unless
+the king was to be an uncontrollable law-maker. Thus the common law was
+losing the power of rapid growth when Bracton summed the attained
+results in a book, the success of which is attested by a crowd of
+manuscript copies. Bracton had introduced just enough of Roman law and
+Bolognese method to save the law of England from the fate that awaited
+German law in Germany. His book was printed in 1569, and Coke owed much
+to Bracton.
+
+The comparison that is suggested when Edward I. is called the English
+Justinian cannot be pressed very far. Nevertheless, as is well known, it
+is in his reign (1272-1307) that English institutions finally take the
+forms that they are to keep through coming centuries. We already see the
+parliament of the three estates, the convocations of the clergy, the
+king's council, the chancery or secretarial department, the exchequer or
+financial department, the king's bench, the common bench, the
+commissioners of assize and gaol delivery, the small group of
+professionally learned judges, and a small group of professionally
+learned lawyers, whose skill is at the service of those who will employ
+them. Moreover, the statutes that were passed in the first eighteen
+years of the reign, though their bulk seems slight to us nowadays, bore
+so fundamental a character that in subsequent ages they appeared as the
+substructure of huge masses of superincumbent law. Coke commented upon
+them sentence by sentence, and even now the merest smatterer in English
+law must profess some knowledge of _Quia emptores_ and _De donis
+conditionalibus_. If some American states have, while others have not,
+accepted these statutes, that is a difference which is not unimportant
+to citizens of the United States in the 20th century. Then from the
+early years of Edward's reign come the first "law reports" that have
+descended to us: the oldest of them have not yet been printed; the
+oldest that has been printed belongs to 1292. These are the precursors
+of the long series of Year Books (Edw. II.-Hen. VIII.) which runs
+through the residue of the middle ages. Lawyers, we perceive, are
+already making and preserving notes of the discussions that take place
+in court; French notes that will be more useful to them than the formal
+Latin records inscribed upon the plea rolls. From these reports we learn
+that there are already, as we should say, a few "leading counsel," some
+of whom will be retained in almost every important cause. Papal
+decretals had been endeavouring to withdraw the clergy from secular
+employment. The clerical element had been strong among the judges of
+Henry III.'s reign: Bracton was an archdeacon, Pateshull a dean, Raleigh
+died a bishop. Their places begin to be filled by men who are not in
+orders, but who have pleaded the king's causes for him--his serjeants or
+servants at law--and beside them there are young men who are
+"apprentices at law," and are learning to plead. Also we begin to see
+men who, as "attorneys at law," are making it their business to appear
+on behalf of litigants. The history of the legal profession and its
+monopoly of legal aid is intricate, and at some points still obscure;
+but the influence of the canonical system is evident: the English
+attorney corresponds to the canonical proctor, and the English barrister
+to the canonical advocate. The main outlines were being drawn in Edward
+I.'s day; the legal profession became organic, and professional opinion
+became one of the main forces that moulded the law.
+
+The study of English law fell apart from all other studies, and the
+impulse that had flowed from Italian jurisprudence was ebbing. We have
+two comprehensive text-books from Edward's reign: the one known to us as
+_Fleta_, the other as _Britton_; both of them, however, quarry their
+materials from Bracton's treatise. Also we have two little books on
+procedure which are attributed to Chief-Justice Hengham, and a few other
+small tracts of an intensely practical kind. Under the cover of fables
+about King Alfred, the author of the _Mirror of Justices_ made a bitter
+attack upon King Edward's judges, some of whom had fallen into deep
+disgrace. English legal history has hardly yet been purged of the leaven
+of falsehood that was introduced by this fantastic and unscrupulous
+pamphleteer. His enigmatical book ends that literate age which begins
+with Glanvill's treatise and the treasurer's dialogue. Between Edward
+I.'s day and Edward IV.'s hardly anything that deserves the name of book
+was written by an English lawyer.
+
+
+  14th and 15th centuries.
+
+During that time the body of statute law was growing, but not very
+rapidly. Acts of parliament intervened at a sufficient number of
+important points to generate and maintain a persuasion that no limit, or
+no ascertainable limit, can be set to the legislative power of king and
+parliament. Very few are the signs that the judges ever permitted the
+validity of a statute to be drawn into debate. Thus the way was being
+prepared for the definite assertion of parliamentary "omnicompetence"
+which we obtain from the Elizabethan statesman Sir Thomas Smith, and for
+those theories of sovereignty which we couple with the names of Hobbes
+and Austin. Nevertheless, English law was being developed rather by
+debates in court than by open legislation. The most distinctively
+English of English institutions in the later middle ages are the
+Year-Books and the Inns of Court. Year by year, term by term, lawyers
+were reporting cases in order that they and their fellows might know how
+cases had been decided. The allegation of specific precedents was indeed
+much rarer than it afterwards became, and no calculus of authority so
+definite as that which now obtains had been established in Coke's day,
+far less in Littleton's. Still it was by a perusal of reported cases
+that a man would learn the law of England. A skeleton for the law was
+provided, not by the Roman rubrics (such as public and private, real and
+personal, possessory and proprietary, contract and delict), but by the
+cycle of original writs that were inscribed in the chancery's _Registrum
+Brevium_. A new form of action could not be introduced without the
+authority of Parliament, and the growth of the law took the shape of an
+explication of the true intent of ancient formulas. Times of inventive
+liberality alternated with times of cautious and captious conservatism.
+Coke could look back to Edward III.'s day as to a golden age of good
+pleading. The otherwise miserable time which saw the Wars of the Roses
+produced some famous lawyers, and some bold doctrines which broke new
+ground. It produced also Sir Thomas Littleton's (d. 1481) treatise on
+Tenures, which (though it be not, as Coke thought it, the most perfect
+work that ever was written in any human science) is an excellent
+statement of law in exquisitely simple language.
+
+
+  Legal education.
+
+Meanwhile English law was being scholastically taught. This, if we look
+at the fate of native and national law in Germany, or France, or
+Scotland, appears as a fact of primary importance. From beginnings, so
+small and formless that they still elude research, the Inns of Court had
+grown. The lawyers, like other men, had grouped themselves in gilds, or
+gild-like "fellowships." The fellowship acquired property; it was not
+technically incorporate, but made use of the thoroughly English
+machinery of a trust. Behind a hedge of trustees it lived an autonomous
+life, unhampered by charters or statutes. There was a hall in which its
+members dined in common; there was the nucleus of a library; there were
+also dormitories or chambers in which during term-time lawyers lived
+celibately, leaving their wives in the country. Something of the college
+thus enters the constitution of these fellowships; and then something
+academical. The craft gild regulated apprenticeship; it would protect
+the public against incompetent artificers, and its own members against
+unfair competition. So the fellowship of lawyers. In course of time a
+lengthy and laborious course of education of the medieval sort had been
+devised. He who had pursued it to its end received a call to the bar of
+his inn. This call was in effect a degree. Like the doctor or master of
+a university, the full-blown barrister was competent to teach others,
+and was expected to read lectures to students. But further, in a manner
+that is still very dark, these societies had succeeded in making their
+degrees the only steps that led to practice in the king's courts. At the
+end of the middle ages (c. 1470) Sir John Fortescue rehearsed the
+praises of the laws of England in a book which is one of the earliest
+efforts of comparative politics. Contrasting England with France, he
+rightly connects limited monarchy, public and oral debate in the law
+courts, trial by jury, and the teaching of national law in schools that
+are thronged by wealthy and well-born youths. But nearly a century
+earlier, the assertion that English law affords as subtle and civilizing
+a discipline as any that is to be had from Roman law was made by a man
+no less famous than John Wycliffe. The heresiarch naturally loathed the
+Canon law; but he also spoke with reprobation of the "paynims' law," the
+"heathen men's law," the study of which in the two universities was
+being fostered by some of the bishops. That study, after inspiring
+Bracton, had come to little in England, though the canonist was
+compelled to learn something of Justinian, and there was a small demand
+for learned civilians in the court of admiralty, and in what we might
+call the king's diplomatic service. No medieval Englishman did anything
+considerable for Roman law. Even the canonists were content to read the
+books of French and Italian masters, though John Acton (c. 1340) and
+William Lyndwood (1430) wrote meritorious glosses. The Angevin kings, by
+appropriating to the temporal forum the whole province of ecclesiastical
+patronage, had robbed the decretists of an inexhaustible source of
+learning and of lucre. The work that was done by the legal faculties at
+Oxford and Cambridge is slight when compared with the inestimable
+services rendered to the cause of national continuity by the schools of
+English law which grew within the Inns of Court.
+
+
+  Chancery.
+
+A danger threatened: the danger that a prematurely osseous system of
+common law would be overwhelmed by summary justice and royal equity.
+Even when courts for all ordinary causes had been established, a reserve
+of residuary justice remained with the king. Whatever lawyers and even
+parliaments might say, it was seen to be desirable that the king in
+council should with little regard for form punish offenders who could
+break through the meshes of a tardy procedure and should redress wrongs
+which corrupt and timid juries would leave unrighted. Papal edicts
+against heretics had made familiar to all men the notion that a judge
+should at times proceed _summarie et de plano et sine strepitu et figura
+justitiae_. And so extraordinary justice of a penal kind was done by the
+king's council upon misdemeanants, and extraordinary justice of a civil
+kind was ministered by the king's chancellor (who was the specially
+learned member of the council) to those who "for the love of God and in
+the way of charity," craved his powerful assistance. It is now well
+established that the chancellors started upon this course, not with any
+desire to introduce rules of "equity" which should supplement, or
+perhaps supplant, the rules of law, but for the purpose of driving the
+law through those accidental impediments which sometimes unfortunately
+beset its due course. The wrongs that the chancellor redressed were
+often wrongs of the simplest and most brutal kind: assaults, batteries
+and forcible dispossessions. However, he was warned off this field of
+activity by parliament; the danger to law, to lawyers, to trial by jury,
+was evident. But just when this was happening, a new field was being
+opened for him by the growing practice of conveying land to trustees.
+The English trust of land had ancient Germanic roots, and of late we
+have been learning how in far-off centuries our Lombard cousins were in
+effect giving themselves a power of testation by putting their lands in
+trust. In England, when the forms of action were crystallizing, this
+practice had not been common enough to obtain the protection of a writ;
+but many causes conspired to make it common in the 14th century; and so,
+with the general approval of lawyers and laity, the chancellors began to
+enforce by summary process against the trustee the duty that lay upon
+his conscience. In the next century it was clear that England had come
+by a new civil tribunal. Negatively, its competence was defined by the
+rule that when the common law offered a remedy, the chancellor was not
+to intervene. Positively, his power was conceived as that of doing what
+"good conscience" required, more especially in cases of "fraud, accident
+or breach of confidence." His procedure was the summary, the
+heresy-suppressing (not the ordinary and solemn) procedure of an
+ecclesiastical court; but there are few signs that he borrowed any
+substantive rules from legist or decretist, and many proofs that within
+the new field of trust he pursued the ideas of the common law. It was
+long, however, before lawyers made a habit of reporting his decisions.
+He was not supposed to be tightly bound by precedent. Adaptability was
+of the essence of the justice that he did.
+
+
+  The Tudor Age.
+
+A time of strain and trial came with the Tudor kings. It was
+questionable whether the strong "governance" for which the weary nation
+yearned could work within the limits of a parliamentary system, or would
+be compatible with the preservation of the common law. We see new courts
+appropriating large fields of justice and proceeding _summarie et de
+plano_; the star chamber, the chancery, the courts of requests, of
+wards, of augmentations, the councils of the North and Wales; a little
+later we see the high commission. We see also that judicial torture
+which Fortescue had called the road to hell. The stream of law reports
+became intermittent under Henry VIII.; few judges of his or his son's
+reign left names that are to be remembered. In an age of humanism,
+alphabetically arranged "abridgments" of medieval cases were the best
+work of English lawyers: one comes to us from Anthony Fitzherbert (d.
+1538), and another from Robert Broke (d. 1558). This was the time when
+Roman law swept like a flood over Germany. The modern historian of
+Germany will speak of "the Reception" (that is, the reception of Roman
+law), as no less important than the Renaissance and Reformation with
+which it is intimately connected. Very probably he will bestow hard
+words on a movement which disintegrated the nation and consolidated the
+tyranny of the princelings. Now a project that Roman law should be
+"received" in England occurred to Reginald Pole (d. 1558), a humanist,
+and at one time a reformer, who with good fortune might have been either
+king of England or pope of Rome. English law, said the future cardinal
+and archbishop, was barbarous; Roman law was the very voice of nature
+pleading for "civility" and good princely governance. Pole's words were
+brought to the ears of his majestic cousin, and, had the course of
+events been somewhat other than it was, King Henry might well have
+decreed a reception. The rôle of English Justinian would have perfectly
+suited him, and there are distinct traces of the civilian's Byzantinism
+in the doings of the Church of England's supreme head. The academic
+study of the Canon law was prohibited; regius professorships of the
+civil law were founded; civilians were to sit as judges in the
+ecclesiastical courts. A little later, the Protector Somerset was deeply
+interested in the establishment of a great school for civilians at
+Cambridge. Scottish law was the own sister of English law, and yet in
+Scotland we may see a reception of Roman jurisprudence which might have
+been more whole-hearted than it was, but for the drift of two British
+and Protestant kingdoms towards union. As it fell out, however, Henry
+could get what he wanted in church and state without any decisive
+supersession of English by foreign law. The omnicompetence of an act of
+parliament stands out the more clearly if it settles the succession to
+the throne, annuls royal marriages, forgives royal debts, defines
+religious creeds, attaints guilty or innocent nobles, or prospectively
+lends the force of statute to the king's proclamations. The courts of
+common law were suffered to work in obscurity, for jurors feared fines,
+and matter of state was reserved for council or star chamber. The Inns
+of Court were spared; their moots and readings did no perceptible harm,
+if little perceptible good.
+
+
+  Coke.
+
+Yet it is no reception of alien jurisprudence that must be chronicled,
+but a marvellous resuscitation of English medieval law. We may see it
+already in the Commentaries of Edward Plowden (d. 1585) who reported
+cases at length and lovingly. Bracton's great book was put in print, and
+was a key to much that had been forgotten or misunderstood. Under
+Parker's patronage, even the Anglo-Saxon dooms were brought to light;
+they seemed to tell of a Church of England that had not yet been
+enslaved by Rome. The new national pride that animated Elizabethan
+England issued in boasts touching the antiquity, humanity, enlightenment
+of English law. Resuming the strain of Fortescue, Sir Thomas Smith,
+himself a civilian, wrote concerning the Commonwealth of England a book
+that claimed the attention of foreigners for her law and her polity.
+There was dignified rebuke for the French jurist who had dared to speak
+lightly of Littleton. And then the common law took flesh in the person
+of Edward Coke (1552-1634). With an enthusiastic love of English
+tradition, for the sake of which many offences may be forgiven him, he
+ranged over nearly the whole field of law, commenting, reporting,
+arguing, deciding,--disorderly, pedantic, masterful, an incarnate
+national dogmatism tenacious of continuous life. Imbued with this new
+spirit, the lawyers fought the battle of the constitution against James
+and Charles, and historical research appeared as the guardian of
+national liberties. That the Stuarts united against themselves three
+such men as Edward Coke, John Selden and William Prynne, is the measure
+of their folly and their failure. Words that, rightly or wrongly, were
+ascribed to Bracton rang in Charles's ears when he was sent to the
+scaffold. For the modern student of medieval law many of the reported
+cases of the Stuart time are storehouses of valuable material, since the
+lawyers of the 17th century were mighty hunters after records. Prynne
+(d. 1669), the fanatical Puritan, published ancient documents with
+fervid zeal, and made possible a history of parliament. Selden (d. 1654)
+was in all Europe among the very first to write legal history as it
+should be written. His book about tithes is to this day a model and a
+masterpiece. When this accomplished scholar had declared that he had
+laboured to make himself worthy to be called a common lawyer, it could
+no longer be said that the common lawyers were _indoctissimum genus
+doctissimorum hominum_. Even pliant judges, whose tenure of office
+depended on the king's will, were compelled to cite and discuss old
+precedents before they could give judgment for their master; and even at
+their worst moments they would not openly break with medieval tradition,
+or declare in favour of that "modern police-state" which has too often
+become the ideal of foreign publicists trained in Byzantine law.
+
+
+  Hale.
+
+The current of legal doctrine was by this time so strong and voluminous
+that such events as the Civil War, the Restoration and the Revolution
+hardly deflected the course of the stream. In retrospect, Charles II.
+reigns so soon as life has left his father's body, and James II. ends a
+lawless career by a considerate and convenient abdication. The statute
+book of the restored king was enriched by leaves excerpted from the acts
+of a lord protector; and Matthew Hale (d. 1676), who was, perhaps, the
+last of the great record-searching judges, sketched a map of English law
+which Blackstone was to colour. Then a time of self-complacency came for
+the law, which knew itself to be the perfection of wisdom, and any
+proposal for drastic legislation would have worn the garb discredited by
+the tyranny of the Puritan Cæsar. The need for the yearly renewal of the
+Mutiny Act secured an annual session of parliament. The mass of the
+statute law made in the 18th century is enormous; but, even when we have
+excluded from view such acts as are technically called "private," the
+residuary matter bears a wonderfully empirical, partial and minutely
+particularizing character. In this "age of reason," as we are wont to
+think it, the British parliament seems rarely to rise to the dignity of
+a general proposition, and in our own day the legal practitioner is
+likely to know less about the statutes of the 18th century than he knows
+about the statutes of Edward I., Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. Parliament,
+it should be remembered, was endeavouring directly to govern the nation.
+There was little that resembled the permanent civil service of to-day.
+The choice lay between direct parliamentary government and royal
+"prerogative"; and lengthy statutes did much of that work of detail
+which would now be done by virtue of the powers that are delegated to
+ministers and governmental boards. Moreover, extreme and verbose
+particularity was required in statutes, for judges were loath to admit
+that the common law was capable of amendment. A vague doctrine,
+inherited from Coke, taught that statutes might be so unreasonable as to
+be null, and any political theory that seemed to derive from Hobbes
+would have been regarded with not unjust suspicion. But the doctrine in
+question never took tangible shape, and enough could be done to protect
+the common law by a niggardly exposition of every legislating word. It
+is to be remembered that some main features of English public law were
+attracting the admiration of enlightened Europe. When Voltaire and
+Montesquieu applauded, the English lawyer had cause for complacency.
+
+The common law was by no means stagnant. Many rules which come to the
+front in the 18th century are hardly to be traced farther. Especially is
+this the case in the province of mercantile law, where the earl of
+Mansfield's (d. 1793) long presidency over the king's bench marked an
+epoch. It is too often forgotten that, until Elizabeth's reign, England
+was a thoroughly rustic kingdom, and that trade with England was mainly
+in the hands of foreigners. Also in medieval fairs, the assembled
+merchants declared their own "law merchant," which was considered to
+have a supernational validity. In the reports of the common law courts
+it is late in the day before we read of some mercantile usages which can
+be traced far back in the statutes of Italian cities. Even on the basis
+of the excessively elaborated land law--a basis which Coke's Commentary
+on Littleton seemed to have settled for ever--a lofty and ingenious
+superstructure could be reared. One after another delicate devices were
+invented for the accommodation of new wants within the law; but only by
+the assurance that the old law could not be frankly abolished can we be
+induced to admire the subtlety that was thus displayed. As to procedure,
+it had become a maze of evasive fictions, to which only a few learned
+men held the historical clue. By fiction the courts had stolen business
+from each other, and by fiction a few comparatively speedy forms of
+action were set to tasks for which they were not originally framed. Two
+fictitious persons, John Doe and Richard Roe, reigned supreme. On the
+other hand, that healthy and vigorous institution, the Commission of the
+Peace, with a long history behind it, was giving an important share in
+the administration of justice to numerous country gentlemen who were
+thus compelled to learn some law. A like beneficial work was being done
+among jurors, who, having ceased to be regarded as witnesses, had become
+"judges of fact." No one doubted that trial by jury was the "palladium"
+of English liberties, and popularity awaited those who would exalt the
+office of the jurors and narrowly limit the powers of the judge.
+
+
+  Equity.
+
+But during this age the chief addition to English jurisprudence was made
+by the crystallization of the chancellor's equity. In the 17th century
+the chancery had a narrow escape of sharing the fate that befell its
+twin sister the star chamber. Its younger sister the court of requests
+perished under the persistent attacks of the common lawyers. Having
+outlived troubles, the chancery took to orderly habits, and administered
+under the name of "equity" a growing group of rules, which in fact were
+supplemental law. Stages in this process are marked by the
+chancellorships of Nottingham (1673-1675) and Hardwicke (1737-1756).
+Slowly a continuous series of Equity Reports began to flow, and still
+more slowly an "equity bar" began to form itself. The principal outlines
+of equity were drawn by men who were steeped in the common law. By way
+of ornament a Roman maxim might be borrowed from a French or Dutch
+expositor, or a phrase which smacked of that "nature-rightly" school
+which was dominating continental Europe; but the influence exercised by
+Roman law upon English equity has been the subject of gross
+exaggeration. Parliament and the old courts being what they were,
+perhaps it was only in a new court that the requisite new law could be
+evolved. The result was not altogether satisfactory. Freed from contact
+with the plain man in the jury-box, the chancellors were tempted to
+forget how plain and rough good law should be, and to screw up the legal
+standard of reasonable conduct to a height hardly attainable except by
+those whose purses could command the constant advice of a family
+solicitor. A court which started with the idea of doing summary justice
+for the poor became a court which did a highly refined, but tardy
+justice, suitable only to the rich.
+
+
+  Blackstone.
+
+About the middle of the century William Blackstone, then a disappointed
+barrister, began to give lectures on English law at Oxford (1758), and
+soon afterwards he began to publish (1765) his _Commentaries_. Accurate
+enough in its history and doctrine to be an invaluable guide to
+professional students and a useful aid to practitioners, his book set
+before the unprofessional public an artistic picture of the laws of
+England such as had never been drawn of any similar system. No nation
+but the English had so eminently readable a law-book, and it must be
+doubtful whether any other lawyer ever did more important work than was
+done by the first professor of English law. Over and over again the
+_Commentaries_ were edited, sometimes by distinguished men, and it is
+hardly too much to say that for nearly a century the English lawyer's
+main ideas of the organization and articulation of the body of English
+law were controlled by Blackstone. This was far from all. The Tory
+lawyer little thought that he was giving law to colonies that were on
+the eve of a great and successful rebellion. Yet so it was. Out in
+America, where books were few and lawyers had a mighty task to perform,
+Blackstone's facile presentment of the law of the mother country was of
+inestimable value. It has been said that among American lawyers the
+_Commentaries_ "stood for the law of England," and this at a time when
+the American daughter of English law was rapidly growing in stature, and
+was preparing herself for her destined march from the Atlantic to the
+Pacific Ocean. Excising only what seemed to savour of oligarchy, those
+who had defied King George retained with marvellous tenacity the law of
+their forefathers. Profound discussions of English medieval law have
+been heard in American courts; admirable researches into the recesses of
+the Year-Books have been made in American law schools; the names of the
+great American judges are familiar in an England which knows little
+indeed of foreign jurists; and the debt due for the loan of Blackstone's
+_Commentaries_ is being fast repaid. Lectures on the common law
+delivered by Mr Justice Holmes of the Supreme Court of the United States
+may even have begun to turn the scale against the old country. No
+chapter in Blackstone's book nowadays seems more antiquated than that
+which describes the modest territorial limits of that English law which
+was soon to spread throughout Australia and New Zealand and to follow
+the dominant race in India.
+
+
+  Bentham.
+
+Long wars, vast economic changes and the conservatism generated by the
+French Revolution piled up a monstrous arrear of work for the English
+legislature. Meanwhile, Jeremy Bentham (d. 1832) had laboured for the
+overthrow of much that Blackstone had lauded. Bentham's largest projects
+of destruction and reconstruction took but little effect. Profoundly
+convinced of the fungibility and pliability of mankind, he was but too
+ready to draw a code for England or Spain or Russia at the shortest
+notice; and, scornful as he was of the past and its historic deposit, a
+code drawn by Bentham would have been a sorry failure. On the other
+hand, as a critic and derider of the system which Blackstone had
+complacently expounded he did excellent service. Reform, and radical
+reform, was indeed sadly needed throughout a system which was encumbered
+by noxious rubbish, the useless leavings of the middle ages: trial by
+battle and compurgation, deodands and benefit of clergy, John Doe and
+Richard Roe. It is perhaps the main fault of "judge-made law" (to use
+Bentham's phrase) that its destructive work can never be cleanly done.
+Of all vitality, and therefore of all patent harmfulness, the old rule
+can be deprived, but the moribund husk must remain in the system doing
+latent mischief. English law was full of decaying husks when Bentham
+attacked it, and his persistent demand for reasons could not be
+answered. At length a general interest in "law reform" was excited;
+Romilly and Brougham were inspired by Bentham, and the great changes in
+constitutional law which cluster round the Reform Act of 1832 were
+accompanied by many measures which purged the private, procedural and
+criminal law of much, though hardly enough, of the medieval dross. Some
+credit for rousing an interest in law, in definitions of legal terms,
+and in schemes of codification, is due to John Austin (d. 1859) who was
+regarded as the jurist of the reforming and utilitarian group. But,
+though he was at times an acute dissector of confused thought, he was
+too ignorant of the English, the Roman and every other system of law to
+make any considerable addition to the sum of knowledge; and when
+Savigny, the herald of evolution, was already in the field, the day for
+a "Nature-Right"--and Austin's projected "general jurisprudence" would
+have been a Nature-Right--was past beyond recall. The obsolescence of
+the map of law which Blackstone had inherited from Hale, and in which
+many outlines were drawn by medieval formulas, left intelligent English
+lawyers without a guide, and they were willing to listen for a while to
+what in their insularity they thought to be the voice of cosmopolitan
+science. Little came of it all. The revived study of Germanic law in
+Germany, which was just beginning in Austin's day, seems to be showing
+that the scheme of Roman jurisprudence is not the scheme into which
+English law will run without distortion.
+
+
+  Recent changes.
+
+In the latter half of the 19th century some great and wise changes were
+made by the legislature. Notably in 1875 the old courts were merged in a
+new Supreme Court of Judicature, and a concurrent administration of law
+and equity was introduced. Successful endeavours have been made also to
+reduce the bulk of old statute law, and to improve the form of acts of
+parliament; but the emergence of new forces whose nature may be
+suggested by some such names as "socialism" and "imperialism" has
+distracted the attention of the British parliament from the commonplace
+law of the land, and the development of obstructive tactics has caused
+the issue of too many statutes whose brevity was purchased by
+disgraceful obscurity. By way of "partial codification" some branches of
+the common law (bills of exchange, sale of goods, partnership) have been
+skilfully stated in statutes, but a draft criminal code, upon which much
+expert labour was expended, lies pigeon-holed and almost forgotten.
+British India has been the scene of some large legislative exploits, and
+in America a few big experiments have been made in the way of
+code-making, but have given little satisfaction to the bulk of those who
+are competent to appreciate their results. In England there are large
+portions of the law which, in their present condition, no one would
+think of codifying: notably the law of real property, in which may still
+be found numerous hurtful relics of bygone centuries. So omnipresent are
+statutes throughout the whole field of jurisprudence that the
+opportunity of doing any great feat in the development of law can come
+but seldom to a modern court. More and more, therefore, the fate of
+English law depends on the will of parliament, or rather of the
+ministry. The quality of legal text-books has steadily improved; some of
+them are models of clear statement and good arrangement; but no one has
+with any success aspired to be the Blackstone of a new age.
+
+
+  Law reporting.
+
+The Council of Law Reporting was formed in the year 1863. The council
+now consists of three _ex-officio_ members--the attorney-general, the
+solicitor-general and the president of the Incorporated Law Society, and
+ten members appointed by the three Inns of Court, the Incorporated Law
+Society and the council itself on the nomination of the general council
+of the bar. The practitioner and the student now get for a subscription
+of four guineas a year the reports in all the superior courts and the
+House of Lords, and the judicial committee of the privy council issued
+in monthly parts a king's printer's copy of the statutes, and weekly
+notes, containing short notes of current decisions and announcements of
+all new rules made under the Judicature Acts and other acts of
+parliament, and other legal information. In addition the subscriber
+receives the chronological index of the statutes published from time to
+time by the Stationery Office, and last, but not least, the Digests of
+decided cases published by the council from time to time. In 1892 a
+Digest was published containing the cases and statutes for twenty-five
+years, from 1865 to 1890, and this was supplemented by one for the
+succeeding ten years, from 1891 to 1900. The digesting is now carried on
+continuously by means of "Current Indexes," which are published monthly
+and annually, and consolidated into a digest at stated intervals (say)
+of five years. The Indian appeals series, which is not required by the
+general practitioner, is supplied separately at one guinea a year.
+
+
+  Legal education.
+
+In the 16th and 17th centuries the corporate life of the Inns of Court in
+London became less and less active. The general decay of the organization
+of crafts and gilds showed itself among lawyers as among other craftsmen.
+Successful barristers, sharing in the general prosperity of the country,
+became less and less able and willing to devote their time to the welfare
+of their profession as a whole. The Inns of Chancery, though some of
+their buildings still remain--picturesque survivals in their
+"suburbs"--ceased to be used as places for the education of students. The
+benchers of the Inns of Court, until the revival towards the middle of
+the 19th century, had wholly ceased to concern themselves with the
+systematic teaching of law. The modern system of legal education may be
+said to date from the establishment, in 1852, of the council of legal
+education, a body of twenty judges and barristers appointed by the four
+Inns of Court to control the legal education of students preparing to be
+called to the bar. The most important feature is the examination which a
+student must pass before he can be called. The examination (which by
+degrees has been made "stiffer") serves the double purpose of fixing the
+compulsory standard which all must reach, and of guiding the reading of
+students who may desire, sooner or later, to carry their studies beyond
+this standard. The subjects in which the examination is held are divided
+into Roman law; Constitutional law and legal history; Evidence, Procedure
+and Criminal law; Real and Personal Property; Equity; and Common law. The
+council of legal education also appoint a body of readers and assistant
+readers, practising barristers, who deliver lectures and hold classes.
+
+Meanwhile the custom remains by which a student reads for a year or more
+as a pupil in the chambers of some practising barrister. In the 18th
+century it first became usual for students to read with a solicitor or
+attorney, and after a short time the modern practice grew up of reading
+in the chambers of a conveyancer, equity draftsman or special pleader,
+or, in more recent times, in the chambers of a junior barrister. Before
+the modern examination system, a student required to have a certificate
+from the barrister in whose chambers he had been a pupil before he could
+be "called," but the only relic of the old system now is the necessity
+of "eating dinners," six (three for university men) in each of the four
+terms for three years, at one of the Inns of Court.
+
+The education of solicitors suffered from the absence of any
+professional organization until the Incorporated Law Society was
+established in 1825 and the following years. So far as any professional
+education is provided for solicitors or required from them, this is due
+to the efforts of the Law Society. As early as 1729 it was required by
+statute that any person applying for admission as attorney or solicitor
+should submit to examination by one of the judges, who was to test his
+fitness and capacity in consideration of a fee of one shilling. At the
+same time regular preliminary service under articles was required, that
+is to say, under a contract by which the clerk was bound to serve for
+five years. The examination soon became, perhaps always was, an empty
+form. The Law Society, however, soon showed zeal for the education of
+future solicitors. In 1833 lectures were instituted. In 1836 the first
+regular examinations were established, and in 1860 the present system of
+examinations--preliminary, intermediate and final--came into effect. Of
+these only the last two are devoted to law, and both are of a strictly
+professional character. The final examination is a fairly severe test of
+practical acquaintance with all branches of modern English law. The Law
+Society makes some provision for the teaching of students, but this
+teaching is designed solely to assist in preparation for the
+examinations.
+
+At the universities of Oxford and Cambridge there has, since 1850, been
+an attempt to promote the study of law. The curriculum of legal subjects
+in which lectures are given and examinations held is calculated to give
+a student a sound fundamental knowledge of general principles, as well
+as an elementary acquaintance with the rules of modern English law.
+Jurisprudence, Roman law, Constitutional law and International law are
+taught, as well as the law of Real and Personal Property, the Law of
+Contract and Tort, Criminal law, Procedure and Evidence. But the law
+tripos and the law schools suffer from remoteness from the law courts,
+and from the exclusively academical character of the teaching. Law is
+also taught, though not on a very large scale, at Manchester and at
+Liverpool. London University has encouraged the study of law by its
+examinations for law degrees, at which a comparatively high standard of
+knowledge is required; and at University College, London, and King's
+College, London, teaching is given in law and jurisprudence.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--F. Liebermann, _Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen_ (1898);
+  K.E. Digby, _History of the Law of Real Property_; Sir W. Dugdale,
+  _Origines juridicales_ (1671); O.W. Holmes, _The Common Law_ (Boston,
+  1881); H. Hallam, _Constitutional History_; W.S. Holdsworth, _History
+  of English Law_, 3 vols. (1903-9); J. Reeves, _History of English
+  Law_, ed. W.F. Finlason (1869); T. Madox, _History and Antiquities of
+  the Exchequer_ (1769); C. de Franqueville, _Le Système judiciaire de
+  la Grande-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1893); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland,
+  _History of English Law_ (2 vols., 1898); H. Brunner, _The Sources of
+  the Law of England_, trans. by W. Hastie (1888); Sir R.K. Wilson,
+  _History of Modern English Law_ (1875); A.V. Dicey, _Law and Public
+  Opinion in England_ (1905); Sir J.F. Stephen, _History of the Criminal
+  Law of England_ (3 vols., 1883); W. Stubbs, _Select Charters,
+  Constitutional History_; the Publications of the Selden Society and
+  the Year Books in the Rolls Series.     (F. W. M.)
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH LITERATURE. The following discussion of the evolution of English
+literature, i.e. of the contribution to literature made in the course of
+ages by the writers of England, is planned so as to give a comprehensive
+view, the details as to particular authors and their work, and special
+consideration of the greater writers, being given in the separate
+articles devoted to them. It is divided into the following sections: (1)
+Earliest times to Chaucer; (2) Chaucer to the end of the middle ages;
+(3) Elizabethan times; (4) the Restoration period; (5) the Eighteenth
+century; (6) the Nineteenth century. The object of these sections is to
+form connecting links among the successive literary ages, leaving the
+separate articles on individual great writers to deal with their special
+interest; attention being paid in the main to the gradually developing
+characteristics of the product, quâ literary. The precise delimitation
+of what may narrowly be called "English" literature, i.e. in the English
+language, is perhaps impossible, and separate articles are devoted to
+American literature (q.v.), and to the vernacular literatures of
+Scotland (see SCOTLAND; and CELT: _Literature_), Ireland (see CELT:
+_Literature_), and Wales (see CELT: _Literature_); see also CANADA:
+_Literature_. Reference may also be made to such general articles on
+particular forms as NOVEL; ROMANCE; VERSE, &c.
+
+
+I. EARLIEST TIMES TO CHAUCER
+
+English literature, in the etymological sense of the word, had, so far
+as we know, no existence until Christian times. There is no evidence
+either that the heathen English had adopted the Roman alphabet, or that
+they had learned to employ their native monumental script (the runes) on
+materials suitable for the writing of continuous compositions of
+considerable length.
+
+It is, however, certain that in the pre-literary period at least one
+species of poetic art had attained a high degree of development, and
+that an extensive body of poetry was handed down--not, indeed, with
+absolute fixity of form or substance--from generation to generation.
+This unwritten poetry was the work of minstrels who found their
+audiences in the halls of kings and nobles. Its themes were the exploits
+of heroes belonging to the royal houses of Germanic Europe, with which
+its listeners claimed kinship. Its metre was the alliterative long line,
+the lax rhythm of which shows that it was intended, not to be sung to
+regular melodies, but to be recited--probably with some kind of
+instrumental accompaniment. Of its beauty and power we may judge from
+the best passages in _Beowulf_ (q.v.); for there can be little doubt
+that this poem gained nothing and lost much in the process of literary
+redaction.
+
+The conversion of the people to Christianity necessarily involved the
+decline of the minstrelsy that celebrated the glories of heathen times.
+Yet the descendants of Woden, even when they were devout Christians,
+would not easily lose all interest in the achievements of their kindred
+of former days. Chaucer's knowledge of "the song of Wade" is one proof
+among others that even so late as the 14th century the deeds of Germanic
+heroes had not ceased to be recited in minstrel verse. The paucity of
+the extant remains of Old English heroic poetry is no argument to the
+contrary. The wonder is that any of it has survived at all. We may well
+believe that the professional reciter would, as a rule, be jealous of
+any attempt to commit to writing the poems which he had received by
+tradition or had himself composed. The clergy, to whom we owe the
+writing and the preservation of the Old English MSS., would only in rare
+instances be keenly interested in secular poetry. We possess, in fact,
+portions of four narrative poems, treating of heroic legend--_Beowulf_,
+_Widsith_, _Finnesburh_ and _Waldere_. The second of these has no
+poetical merit, but great archaeological interest. It is an enumeration
+of the famous kings known to German tradition, put into the mouth of a
+minstrel (named Widsith, "far-travelled"), who claims to have been at
+many of their courts and to have been rewarded by them for his song. The
+list includes historical persons such as Ermanaric and Alboin, who
+really lived centuries apart, but (with the usual chronological
+vagueness of tradition) are treated as contemporaries. The extant
+fragment of _Finnesburh_ (50 lines) is a brilliant battle piece,
+belonging to a story of which another part is introduced episodically in
+_Beowulf_. _Waldere_, of which we have two fragments (together 68 lines)
+is concerned with Frankish and Burgundian traditions based on events of
+the 5th century; the hero is the "Waltharius" of Ekkehart's famous Latin
+epic. The English poem may possibly be rather a literary composition
+than a genuine example of minstrel poetry, but the portions that have
+survived are hardly inferior to the best passages of _Beowulf_.
+
+It may reasonably be assumed that the same minstrels who entertained the
+English kings and nobles with the recital of ancient heroic traditions
+would also celebrate in verse the martial deeds of their own patrons and
+their immediate ancestors. Probably there may have existed an abundance
+of poetry commemorative of events in the conquest of Britain and the
+struggle with the Danes. Two examples only have survived, both belonging
+to the 10th century: The _Battle of Brunanburh_, which has been greatly
+over-praised by critics who were unaware that its striking phrases and
+compounds are mere traditional echoes; and the _Battle of Maldon_, the
+work of a truly great poet, of which unhappily only a fragment has been
+preserved.
+
+One of the marvels of history is the rapidity and thoroughness with
+which Christian civilization was adopted by the English. Augustine
+landed in 597; forty years later was born an Englishman, Aldhelm, who in
+the judgment of his contemporaries throughout the Christian world was
+the most accomplished scholar and the finest Latin writer of his time.
+In the next generation England produced in Bede (Bæda) a man who in
+solidity and variety of knowledge, and in literary power, had for
+centuries no rival in Europe. Aldhelm and Bede are known to us only from
+their Latin writings, though the former is recorded to have written
+vernacular poetry of great merit. The extant Old English literature is
+almost entirely Christian, for the poems that belong to an earlier
+period have been expurgated and interpolated in a Christian sense. From
+the writings that have survived, it would seem as if men strove to
+forget that England had ever been heathen. The four deities whose names
+are attached to the days of the week are hardly mentioned at all. The
+names Thunor and Tiw are sometimes used to translate the Latin Jupiter
+and Mars; Woden has his place (but not as a god) in the genealogies of
+the kings, and his name occurs once in a magical poem, but that is all.
+Bede, as a historian, is obliged to tell the story of the conversion;
+but the only native divinities he mentions are the goddesses Hreth and
+Eostre, and all we learn about them is that they gave their names to
+Hrethemonath (March) and Easter. That superstitious practices of heathen
+origin long survived among the people is shown by the acts of church
+councils and by a few poems of a magical nature that have been
+preserved; but, so far as can be discovered, the definite worship of the
+ancient gods quickly died out. English heathenism perished without
+leaving a record.
+
+The Old English religious poetry was written, probably without
+exception, in the cloister, and by men who were familiar with the Bible
+and with Latin devotional literature. Setting aside the wonderful _Dream
+of the Rood_, it gives little evidence of high poetic genius, though
+much of it is marked by a degree of culture and refinement that we
+should hardly have expected. Its material and thought are mainly derived
+from Latin sources; its expression is imitated from the native heroic
+poetry. Considering that a great deal of Latin verse was written by
+Englishmen in the 7th and succeeding centuries, and that in one or two
+poems the line is actually composed of an English and a Latin hemistich
+rhyming together, it seems strange that the Latin influence on Old
+English versification should have been so small. The alliterative long
+line is throughout the only metre employed, and although the laws of
+alliteration and rhythm were less rigorously obeyed in the later than in
+the earlier poetry, there is no trace of approximation to the structure
+of Latin verse. It is true that, owing to imitation of the Latin hymns
+of the church, rhyme came gradually to be more and more frequently used
+as an ornament of Old English verse; but it remained an ornament only,
+and never became an essential feature. The only poem in which rhyme is
+employed throughout is one in which sense is so completely sacrificed to
+sound that a translation would hardly be possible. It was not only in
+metrical respects that the Old English religious poetry remained
+faithful to its native models. The imagery and the diction are mainly
+those of the old heroic poetry, and in some of the poems Christ and the
+saints are presented, often very incongruously, under the aspect of
+Germanic warriors. Nearly all the religious poetry that has any
+considerable religious value seems to have been written in Northumbria
+during the 8th century. The remarkably vigorous poem of _Judith_,
+however, is certainly much later; and the _Exodus_, though early, seems
+to be of southern origin. For a detailed account of the Old English
+sacred poetry, the reader is referred to the articles on CÆDMON and
+CYNEWULF, to one or other of whom nearly every one of the poems, except
+those of obviously late date, has at some time been attributed.
+
+The Riddles (q.v.) of the Exeter Book resemble the religious poetry in
+being the work of scholars, but they bear much more decidedly the
+impress of the native English character. Some of them rank among the
+most artistic and pleasing productions of Old English poetry. The Exeter
+Book contains also several pieces of a gnomic character, conveying
+proverbial instruction in morality and worldly wisdom. Their morality is
+Christian, but it is not unlikely that some of the wise sayings they
+contain may have come down by tradition from heathen times. The very
+curious _Dialogue of Solomon and Saturn_ may be regarded as belonging to
+the same class.
+
+The most original and interesting portion of the Old English literary
+poetry is the group of dramatic monologues--_The Banished Wife's
+Complaint_, _The Husband's Message_, _The Wanderer_, _The Seafarer_,
+_Deor_ and _Wulf and Eadwacer_. The date of these compositions is
+uncertain, though their occurrence in the Exeter Book shows that they
+cannot be later than the 10th century. That they are all of one period
+is at least unlikely, but they are all marked by the same peculiar tone
+of pathos. The monodramatic form renders it difficult to obtain a clear
+idea of the situation of the supposed speakers. It is not improbable
+that most of these poems may relate to incidents of heroic legend, with
+which the original readers were presumed to be acquainted. This,
+however, can be definitely affirmed only in the case of the two short
+pieces--_Deor_ and _Wulf and Eadwacer_--which have something of a lyric
+character, being the only examples in Old English of strophic structure
+and the use of the refrain. _Wulf and Eadwacer_, indeed, exhibits a
+still further development in the same direction, the monotony of the
+long line metre being varied by the admission of short lines formed by
+the suppression of the second hemistich. The highly developed art
+displayed in this remarkable poem gives reason for believing that the
+existing remains of Old English poetry very inadequately represent its
+extent and variety.
+
+While the origins of English poetry go back to heathen times, English
+prose may be said to have had its effective beginning in the reign of
+Alfred. It is of course true that vernacular prose of some kind was
+written much earlier. The English laws of Æthelberht of Kent, though it
+is perhaps unlikely that they were written down, as is commonly
+supposed, in the lifetime of Augustine (died A.D. 604), or even in that
+of the king (d. 616), were well known to Bede; and even in the
+12th-century transcript that has come down to us, their crude and
+elliptical style gives evidence of their high antiquity. Later kings of
+Kent and of Wessex followed the example of publishing their laws in the
+native tongue. Bede is known to have translated the beginning of the
+gospel of John (down to vi. 9). The early part of the Anglo-Saxon
+Chronicle (q.v.) is probably founded partly on prose annals of
+pre-Alfredian date. But although the amount of English prose written
+between the beginning of the 7th and the middle of the 9th century may
+have been considerable, Latin continued to be regarded as the
+appropriate vehicle for works of any literary pretension. If the English
+clergy had retained the scholarship which they possessed in the days of
+Aldhelm and Bede, the creation of a vernacular prose literature would
+probably have been longer delayed; for while Alfred certainly was not
+indifferent to the need of the laity for instruction, the evil that he
+was chiefly concerned to combat was the ignorance of their spiritual
+guides.
+
+Of the works translated by him and the scholars whom he employed, _St
+Gregory's Pastoral Care_ and his _Dialogues_ (the latter rendered by
+Bishop Werferth) are expressly addressed to the priesthood; if the other
+translations were intended for a wider circle of readers, they are all
+(not excepting the secular _History of Orosius_) essentially religious
+in purpose and spirit. In the interesting preface to the _Pastoral
+Care_, in the important accounts of Northern lands and peoples inserted
+in the _Orosius_, and in the free rendering and amplification of the
+_Consolation_ of Boethius and of the _Soliloquies_ of Augustine, Alfred
+appears as an original writer. Other fruits of his activity are his Laws
+(preceded by a collection of those of his 7th-century predecessor, Ine
+of Wessex), and the beginnings of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The Old
+English prose after Alfred is entirely of clerical authorship; even the
+Laws, so far as their literary form is concerned, are hardly to be
+regarded as an exception. Apart from the Chronicle (see ANGLO-SAXON
+CHRONICLE), the bulk of this literature consists of translations from
+Latin and of homilies and saints' lives, the substance of which is
+derived from sources mostly accessible to us in their original form; it
+has therefore for us little importance except from the philological
+point of view. This remark may be applied, in the main, even to the
+writings of Ælfric, notwithstanding the great interest which attaches to
+his brilliant achievement in the development of the capacities of the
+native language for literary expression. The translation of the gospels,
+though executed in Ælfric's time (about 1000), is by other hands. The
+sermons of his younger contemporary, Archbishop Wulfstan, are marked by
+earnestness and eloquence, and contain some passages of historical
+value.
+
+From the early years of the 11th century we possess an encyclopaedic
+manual of the science of the time--chronology, astronomy, arithmetic,
+metre, rhetoric and ethics--by the monk Byrhtferth, a pupil of Abbo of
+Fleury. It is a compilation, but executed with intelligence. The
+numerous works on medicine, the properties of herbs, and the like, are
+in the main composed of selections from Latin treatises; so far as they
+are original, they illustrate the history of superstition rather than
+that of science. It is interesting to observe that they contain one or
+two formulas of incantations in Irish.
+
+Two famous works of fiction, the romance of _Apollonius of Tyre_ and the
+_Letter of Alexander_, which in their Latin form had much influence on
+the later literature of Europe, were Englished in the 11th century with
+considerable skill. To the same period belongs the curious tract on _The
+Wonders of the East_. In these works, and some minor productions of the
+time, we see that the minds of Englishmen were beginning to find
+interest in other than religious subjects.
+
+The crowding of the English monasteries by foreigners, which was one of
+the results of the Norman Conquest, brought about a rapid arrest of the
+development of the vernacular literature. It was not long before the
+boys trained in the monastic schools ceased to learn to read and write
+their native tongue, and learned instead to read and write French. The
+effects of this change are visible in the rapid alteration of the
+literary language. The artificial tradition of grammatical correctness
+lost its hold; the archaic literary vocabulary fell into disuse; and
+those who wrote English at all wrote as they spoke, using more and more
+an extemporized phonetic spelling based largely on French analogies. The
+12th century is a brilliant period in the history of Anglo-Latin
+literature, and many works of merit were written in French (see
+ANGLO-NORMAN). But vernacular literature is scanty and of little
+originality. The _Peterborough Chronicle_, it is true, was continued
+till 1154, and its later portions, while markedly exemplifying the
+changes in the language, contain some really admirable writing. But it
+is substantially correct to say that from this point until the age of
+Chaucer vernacular prose served no other purpose than that of popular
+religious edification. For light on the intellectual life of the nation
+during this period we must look mainly to the works written in Latin.
+The homilies of the 12th century are partly modernized transcripts from
+Ælfric and other older writers, partly translations from French and
+Latin; the remainder is mostly commonplace in substance and clumsy in
+expression. At the beginning of the 13th century the _Ancren Riwle_
+(q.v.), a book of counsel for nuns, shows true literary genius, and is
+singularly interesting in its substance and spirit; but notwithstanding
+the author's remarkable mastery of English expression, his culture was
+evidently French rather than English. Some minor religious prose works
+of the same period are not without merit. But these examples had no
+literary following. In the early 14th century the writings of Richard
+Rolle and his school attained great popularity. The profound influence
+which they exercised on later religious thought, and on the development
+of prose style, has seldom been adequately recognized. The _Ayenbite of
+Inwyt_ (see MICHEL, DAN), a wretchedly unintelligent translation
+(finished in 1340) from Frère Lorens's _Somme des vices et des vertus_,
+is valuable to the student of language, but otherwise worthless.
+
+The break in the continuity of literary tradition, induced by the
+Conquest, was no less complete with regard to poetry than with regard to
+prose. The poetry of the 13th and the latter part of the 12th century
+was uninfluenced by the written works of Old English poets, whose
+archaic diction had to a great extent become unintelligible. But there
+is no ground to suppose that the succession of popular singers and
+reciters was ever interrupted. In the north-west, indeed, the old
+recitative metre seems to have survived in oral tradition, with little
+more alteration than was rendered necessary by the changes in the
+language, until the middle of the 14th century, when it was again
+adopted by literary versifiers. In the south this metre had greatly
+degenerated in strictness before the Conquest, but, with gradually
+increasing laxity in the laws of alliteration and rhythm, it continued
+long in use. It is commonly believed, with great intrinsic probability
+but with scanty actual evidence, that in the Old English period there
+existed, beside the alliterative long line, other forms of verse adapted
+not for recitation but for singing, used in popular lyrics and ballads
+that were deemed too trivial for written record. The influence of native
+popular poetic tradition, whether in the form of recited or of sung
+verse, is clearly discernible in the earliest Middle English poems that
+have been preserved. But the authors of these poems were familiar with
+Latin, and probably spoke French as easily as their mother tongue; and
+there was no longer any literary convention to restrain them from
+adopting foreign metrical forms. The artless verses of the hermit
+Godric, who died in 1170, exhibit in their metre the combined influence
+of native rhythm and of that of Latin hymnology. The _Proverbs of
+Alfred_, written about 1200, is (like the later _Proverbs of Hendyng_)
+in style and substance a gnomic poem of the ancient Germanic type,
+containing maxims some of which may be of immemorial antiquity; and its
+rhythm is mainly of native origin. On the other hand, the solemn and
+touching meditation known as the _Moral Ode_, which is somewhat earlier
+in date, is in a metre derived from contemporary Latin verse--a line of
+seven accents, broken by a caesura, and with feminine end-rhymes. In the
+_Ormulum_ (see ORM) this metre (known as the septenarius) appears
+without rhyme, and with a syllabic regularity previously without example
+in English verse, the line (or distich, as it may be called with almost
+equal propriety) having invariably fifteen syllables. In various
+modified forms, the septenarius was a favourite measure throughout the
+Middle English period. In the poetry of the 13th century the influence
+of French models is conspicuous. The many devotional lyrics, some of
+which, as the _Luve Ron_ of Thomas of Hales, have great beauty, show
+this influence not only in their varied metrical form, but also in their
+peculiar mystical tenderness and fervour. The _Story of Genesis and
+Exodus_, the substance of which is taken from the Bible and Latin
+commentators, derives its metre chiefly from French. Its poetical merit
+is very small. The secular poetry also received a new impulse from
+France. The brilliant and sprightly dialogue of the _Owl and
+Nightingale_, which can hardly be dated later than about 1230, is a
+"contention" of the type familiar in French and Provençal literature.
+The "Gallic" type of humour may be seen in various other writings of
+this period, notably in the _Land of Cockaigne_, a vivacious satire on
+monastic self-indulgence, and in the fabliau of _Dame Siviz_, a story of
+Eastern origin, told with almost Chaucerian skill. Predominantly, though
+not exclusively French in metrical structure, are the charming love
+poems collected in a MS. (Harl. 2253) written about 1320 in
+Herefordshire, some of which (edited in T. Wright's _Specimens of Lyric
+Poetry_) find a place in modern popular anthologies. It is noteworthy
+that they are accompanied by some French lyrics very similar in style.
+The same MS. contains, besides some religious poetry, a number of
+political songs of the time of Edward II. They are not quite the
+earliest examples of their kind; in the time of the Barons' War the
+popular cause had had its singers in English as well as in French.
+Later, the victories of Edward III. down to the taking of Guisnes in
+1352, were celebrated by the Yorkshireman Laurence Minot in alliterative
+verse with strophic arrangement and rhyme.
+
+At the very beginning of the 13th century a new species of composition,
+the metrical chronicle, was introduced into English literature. The huge
+work of Layamon, a history (mainly legendary) of Britain from the time
+of the mythical Brutus till after the mission of Augustine, is a free
+rendering of the Norman-French _Brut_ of Wace, with extensive additions
+from traditional sources. Its metre seems to be a degenerate survival of
+the Old English alliterative line, gradually modified in the course of
+the work by assimilation to the regular syllabic measure of the French
+original. Unquestionable evidence of the knowledge of the poem on the
+part of later writers is scarce, but distinct echoes of its diction
+appear in the chronicle ascribed to Robert of Gloucester, written in
+rhymed septenary measures about 1300. This work, founded in its earlier
+part on the Latin historians of the 12th century, is an independent
+historical source of some value for the events of the writer's own
+times. The succession of versified histories of England was continued by
+Thomas Bek of Castleford in Yorkshire (whose work still awaits an
+editor), and by Robert Mannyng of Brunne (Bourne, Lincolnshire).
+Mannyng's chronicle, finished in 1338, is a translation, in its earlier
+part from Wace's _Brut_, and in its later part from an Anglo-French
+chronicle (still extant) written by Peter Langtoft, canon of
+Bridlington.
+
+Not far from the year 1300 (for the most part probably earlier rather
+than later) a vast mass of hagiological and homiletic verse was produced
+in divers parts of England. To Gloucester belongs an extensive series
+of Lives of Saints, metrically and linguistically closely resembling
+Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle, and perhaps wholly or in part of the
+same authorship. A similar collection was written in the north of
+England, as well as a large body of homilies showing considerable poetic
+skill, and abounding in exempla or illustrative stories. Of _exempla_
+several prose collections had already been made in Anglo-French, and
+William of Wadington's poem _Manuel des péchés_, which contains a great
+number of them, was translated in 1303 by Robert Mannyng already
+mentioned, with some enlargement of the anecdotic element, and frequent
+omissions of didactic passages. The great rhyming chronicle of Scripture
+history entitled _Cursor Mundi_ (q.v.) was written in the north about
+this time. It was extensively read and transcribed, and exercised a
+powerful influence on later writers down to the end of the 14th century.
+The remaining homiletic verse of this period is too abundant to be
+referred to in detail; it will be enough to mention the sermons of
+William of Shoreham, written in strophic form, but showing little either
+of metrical skill or poetic feeling. To the next generation belongs the
+_Pricke of Conscience_ by Richard Rolle, the influence of which was not
+less powerful than that of the author's prose writings.
+
+Romantic poetry, which in French had been extensively cultivated, both
+on the continent and in England from the early years of the 12th
+century, did not assume a vernacular form till about 1250. In the next
+hundred years its development was marvellously rapid. Of the vast mass
+of metrical romances produced during this period no detailed account
+need here be attempted (see ROMANCE, and articles, &c. referred to;
+ARTHURIAN ROMANCE). Native English traditions form the basis of _King
+Horn_, _Guy of Warwick_, _Bevis of Hamtoun_ and _Havelok_, though the
+stories were first put into literary form by Anglo-Norman poets. The
+popularity of these home-grown tales (with which may be classed the
+wildly fictitious _Coer de Lion_) was soon rivalled by that of
+importations from France. The English rendering of _Floris and
+Blancheflur_ (a love-romance of Greek origin) is found in the same MS.
+that contains the earliest copy of _King Horn_. Before the end of the
+century, the French "matter of Britain" was represented in English by
+the Southern _Arthur and Merlin_ and the Northern _Tristram_ and _Yvaine
+and Gawin_, the "matter of France" by _Roland and Vernagu_ and _Otuel_;
+the _Alexander_ was also translated, but in this instance the immediate
+original was an Anglo-French and not a continental poem. The tale of
+Troy did not come into English till long afterwards. The Auchinleck MS.,
+written about 1330, contains no fewer than 14 poetical romances; there
+were many others in circulation, and the number continued to grow. About
+the middle of the 14th century, the Old English alliterative long line,
+which for centuries had been used only in unwritten minstrel poetry,
+emerges again in literature. One of the earliest poems in this revived
+measure, _Wynnere and Wastour_, written in 1352, is by a professional
+reciter-poet, who complains bitterly that original minstrel poetry no
+longer finds a welcome in the halls of great nobles, who prefer to
+listen to those who recite verses not of their own making. About the
+same date the metre began to be employed by men of letters for the
+translation of romance--_William of Palerne_ and _Joseph of Arimathea_
+from the French, _Alexander_ from Latin prose. The later development of
+alliterative poetry belongs mainly to the age of Chaucer.
+
+The extent and character of the literature produced during the first
+half of the 14th century indicate that the literary use of the native
+tongue was no longer, as in the preceding age, a mere condescension to
+the needs of the common people. The rapid disuse of French as the
+ordinary medium of intercourse among the middle and higher ranks of
+society, and the consequent substitution of English for French as the
+vehicle of school instruction, created a widespread demand for
+vernacular reading. The literature which arose in answer to this demand,
+though it consisted mainly of translations or adaptations of foreign
+works, yet served to develop the appreciation of poetic beauty, and to
+prepare an audience in the near future for a poetry in which the genuine
+thought and feeling of the nation were to find expression.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Only general works need be mentioned here. Those cited
+  contain lists of books for more detailed information. (1) For the
+  literature from the beginnings to Chaucer:--B. ten Brink, _Geschichte
+  der englischen Litteratur_, vol. i. 2nd ed., by A. Brandl (Strassburg,
+  1899) (English translation from the 1st ed. of 1877, by H.M. Kennedy,
+  London, 1883); _The Cambridge History of English Literature_, vol. i.
+  (1907). (2) For the Old English period:--R. Wülker, _Grundriss zur
+  Geschichte der angelsachsischen Litteratur_ (Leipzig, 1885); Stopford
+  A. Brooke, _English Literature from the Beginning to the Norman
+  Conquest_ (London, 1898); A. Brandl, "Altenglische Litteratur," in H.
+  Paul's _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, vol. ii. (2nd ed.,
+  Strassburg, 1908). (3) For the early Middle English Period:--H.
+  Morley, _English Writers_, vol. iii. (London, 1888; vols. i. and ii.,
+  dealing with the Old English period, cannot be recommended); A.
+  Brandl, "Mittelenglische Litteratur," in H. Paul's _Grundriss der
+  germanischen Philologie_, vol. ii. (1st ed., Strassburg, 1893); W.H.
+  Schofield, _English Literature from the Norman Conquest to Chaucer_
+  (London, 1906).     (H. Br.)
+
+
+II. CHAUCER TO THE RENAISSANCE
+
+The age of Chaucer is of peculiar interest to the student of literature,
+not only because of its brilliance and productiveness but also because
+of its apparent promise for the future. In this, as in other aspects,
+Chaucer (c. 1340-1400) is its most notable literary figure. Beginning as
+a student and imitator of the best French poetry of his day, he was for
+a time, like most of his French contemporaries, little more than a
+skilful maker of elegant verses, dealing with conventional material in a
+conventional way, arranging in new figures the same flowers and bowers,
+sunsets and song-birds, and companies of fair women and their lovers,
+that had been arranged and rearranged by every poet of the court circle
+for a hundred years, and celebrated in sweet phrases of almost unvarying
+sameness. Even at this time, to be sure, he was not without close and
+loving observation of the living creatures of the real world, and his
+verses often bring us flowers dewy and fragrant and fresh of colour as
+they grew in the fields and gardens about London, and birds that had
+learned their music in the woods; but his poetry was still not easily
+distinguishable from that of Machault, Froissart, Deschamps, Transoun
+and the other "courtly makers" of France. But while he was still
+striving to master perfectly the technique of this pretty art of
+trifling, he became acquainted with the new literature of Italy, both
+poetry and prose. Much of the new poetry moved, like that of France,
+among the conventionalities and artificialities of an unreal world of
+romance, but it was of wider range, of fuller tone, of far greater
+emotional intensity, and, at its best, was the fabric, not of elegant
+ingenuity, but of creative human passion,--in Dante, indeed, a wonderful
+visionary structure in which love and hate, and pity and terror, and the
+forms and countenances of men were more vivid and real than in the world
+of real men and real passions. The new prose--which Chaucer knew in
+several of the writings of Boccaccio--was vastly different from any that
+he had ever read in a modern tongue. Here were no mere brief anecdotes
+like those _exempla_ which in the middle ages illustrated vernacular as
+well as Latin sermons, no cumbrous, slow-moving treatises on the Seven
+Deadly Sins, no half-articulate, pious meditations, but rapid, vivid,
+well-constructed narratives ranging from the sentimental beauty of
+stories like Griselda and the Franklin's Tale to coarse mirth and
+malodorous vulgarity equal to those of the tales told later by Chaucer's
+Miller and Reeve and Summoner. All these things he studied and some he
+imitated. There is scarcely a feature of the verse that has not left
+some trace in his own; the prose he did not imitate as prose, but there
+can be little doubt that the subject matter of Boccaccio's tales and
+novels, as well as his poems, affected the direction of Chaucer's
+literary development, and quickened his habit of observing and utilizing
+human life, and that the narrative art of the prose was influential in
+the transformation of his methods of narration.
+
+This transformation was effected not so much through the mere
+superiority of the Italian models to the French as through the stimulus
+which the differences between the two gave to his reflections upon the
+processes and technique of composition, for Chaucer was not a careless,
+happy-go-lucky poet of divine endowment, but a conscious, reflective
+artist, seeking not merely for fine words and fine sentiments, but for
+the proper arrangement of events, the significant exponent of character,
+the right tone, and even the appropriate background and atmosphere,--as
+may be seen, for example, in the transformations he wrought in the
+_Pardoner's Tale_. It is therefore in the latest and most original of
+the _Canterbury Tales_ that his art is most admirable, most
+distinguished by technical excellences. In these we find so many
+admirable qualities that we almost forget that he had any defects. His
+diction is a model of picturesqueness, of simplicity, of dignity, and of
+perfect adaptation to his theme; his versification is not only correct
+but musical and varied, and shows a progressive tendency towards freer
+and more complex melodies; his best tales are not mere repetitions of
+the ancient stories they retell, but new creations, transformed by his
+own imaginative realization of them, full of figures having the
+dimensions and the vivacity of real life, acting on adequate motives,
+and moving in an atmosphere and against a background appropriate to
+their characters and their actions. In the tales of the Pardoner, the
+Franklin, the Summoner, the Squire, he is no less notable as a
+consummate artist than as a poet.
+
+Chaucer, however, was not the only writer of his day remarkable for
+mastery of technique. Gower, indeed, though a man of much learning and
+intelligence, was neither a poet of the first rank nor an artist.
+Despite the admirable qualities of clearness, order and occasional
+picturesqueness which distinguish his work, he lacked the ability which
+great poets have of making their words mean more than they say, and of
+stirring the emotions even beyond the bounds of this enhanced meaning;
+and there is not, perhaps, in all his voluminous work in English, French
+and Latin, any indication that he regarded composition as an art
+requiring consideration or any care beyond that of conforming to the
+chosen rhythm and finding suitable rhymes.
+
+There were others more richly endowed as poets and more finely developed
+as artists. There was the beginner of the _Piers Plowman_ cycle[1], the
+author of the Prologue and first eight passus of the A-text, a man of
+clear and profound observation, a poet whose imagination brought before
+him with distinctness and reality visual images of the motley
+individuals and masses of men of whom he wrote, an artist who knew how
+to organize and direct the figures of his dream-world, the movement of
+his ever-unfolding vision. There was the remarkable successor of this
+man, the author of the B-text, an almost prophetic figure, a great
+poetic idealist, and, helpless though he often was in the direction of
+his thought, an absolute master of images and words that seize upon the
+heart and haunt the memory. Besides these, an unknown writer far in the
+north-west had, in _Gawayne and the Grene Knight_, transformed the
+medieval romance into a thing of speed and colour, of vitality and
+mystery, no less remarkable for its fluent definiteness of form than for
+the delights of hall-feast and hunt, the graceful comedy of temptation,
+and the lonely ride of the doomed Gawayne through the silence of the
+forest and the deep snow. In the same region, by its author's power of
+visual imagination, the Biblical paraphrase, so often a mere humdrum
+narrative, had been transformed, in _Patience_, into a narrative so
+detailed and vivid that the reader is almost ready to believe that the
+author himself, rather than Jonah, went down into the sea in the belly
+of the great fish, and sat humbled and rebuked beside the withered
+gourd-vine. And there also, by some strange chance, blossomed, with
+perhaps only a local and temporary fragrance until its rediscovery in
+the 19th century, that delicate flower of loneliness and aspiration,
+_Pearl_, a wonder of elaborate art as well as of touching sentiment.
+
+All these writings are great, not only relatively, but absolutely. There
+is not one of them which would not, if written in our own time,
+immediately mark its author as a man of very unusual ability. But the
+point of special concern to us at the present moment is not so much that
+they show remarkable poetic power, as that they possess technical merits
+of a very high order. And we are accustomed to believe that, although
+genius is a purely personal and incommunicable element, technical gains
+are a common possession; that after Marlowe had developed the technique
+of blank verse, this technique was available for all; that after Pope
+had mastered the heroic couplet and Gray the ode, and Poe the short
+story, all men could write couplets and odes and short stories of
+technical correctness; that, as Tennyson puts it,
+
+  "All can grow the flower now,
+   For all have got the seed."
+
+But this was singularly untrue of the technical gains made by Chaucer
+and his great contemporaries. _Pearl_ and _Patience_ were apparently
+unknown to the 15th century, but _Gawayne_ and _Piers Plowman_ and
+Chaucer's works were known and were influential in one way or another
+throughout the century. _Gawayne_ called into existence a large number
+of romances dealing with the same hero or with somewhat similar
+situations, some of them written in verse suggested by the remarkable
+verse of their model, but the resemblance, even in versification, is
+only superficial. _Piers Plowman_ gave rise to satirical allegories
+written in the alliterative long line and furnished the figures and the
+machinery for many satires in other metres, but the technical excellence
+of the first _Piers Plowman_ poem was soon buried for centuries under
+the tremendous social significance of itself and its successors. And
+Chaucer, in spite of the fact that he was praised and imitated by many
+writers and definitely claimed as master by more than one, not only
+transmitted to them scarcely any of the technical conquests he had made,
+but seems also to have been almost without success in creating any
+change in the taste of the public that read his poems so eagerly, any
+demand for better literature than had been written by his predecessors.
+
+Wide and lasting Chaucer's influence undoubtedly was. Not only was all
+the court-poetry, all the poetry of writers who pretended to cultivation
+and refinement, throughout the century, in England and Scotland, either
+directly or indirectly imitative of his work, but even the humblest
+productions of unpretentious writers show at times traces of his
+influence. Scotland was fortunate in having writers of greater ability
+than England had (see SCOTLAND: _Literature_). In England the three
+chief followers of Chaucer known to us by name are Lydgate, Hoccleve
+(see OCCLEVE) and Hawes. Because of their praise of Chaucer and their
+supposed personal relations to him, Lydgate and Hoccleve are almost
+inseparable in modern discussions, but 15th century readers and writers
+appear not to have associated them very closely. Indeed, Hoccleve is
+rarely mentioned, while Lydgate is not only mentioned continually, but
+continually praised as Chaucer's equal or even superior. Hoccleve was
+not, to be sure, as prolific as Lydgate, but it is difficult to
+understand why his work, which compares favourably in quality with
+Lydgate's, attracted so much less attention. The title of his greatest
+poem, _De regimine principum_, may have repelled readers who were not
+princely born, though they would have found the work full of the moral
+and prudential maxims and illustrative anecdotes so dear to them; but
+his attack upon Sir John Oldcastle as a heretic ought to have been
+decidedly to the taste of the orthodox upper classes, while his
+lamentations over his misspent youth, his tales and some of his minor
+poems might have interested any one. Of a less vigorous spirit than
+Lydgate, he was, in his mild way, more humorous and more original. Also
+despite his sense of personal loss in Chaucer's death and his care to
+transmit to posterity the likeness of his beloved master, he seems to
+have been less slavish than Lydgate in imitating him. His memory is full
+of Chaucer's phrases, he writes in verse-forms hallowed by the master's
+use, and he tries to give to his lines the movement of Chaucer's
+decasyllables, but he is comparatively free from the influence of those
+early allegorical works of the Master which produced in the 15th century
+so dreary a flock of imitations.
+
+Lydgate's productivity was enormous,--how great no man can say, for, as
+was the case with Chaucer also, his fame caused many masterless poems to
+be ascribed to him, but, after making all necessary deductions, the
+amount of verse that has come down to us from him is astonishing. Here
+it may suffice to say that his translations are predominantly epic
+(140,000 lines), and his original compositions predominantly allegorical
+love poems or didactic poems. If there is anything duller than a dull
+epic it is a dull allegory, and Lydgate has achieved both. This is not
+to deny the existence of good passages in his epics and ingenuity in his
+allegories, but there is no pervading, persistent life in either. His
+epics, like almost all the narrative verse of the time, whether epic,
+legend, versified chronicle or metrical romance, seem designed merely to
+satisfy the desire of 15th century readers for information, the craving
+for facts--true or fictitious--the same craving that made possible the
+poems on alchemy, on hunting, on manners and morals, on the duties of
+parish priests, on the seven liberal arts. His allegories, like most
+allegories of the age, are ingenious rearrangements of old figures and
+old machinery, they are full of what had once been imagination but had
+become merely memory assisted by cleverness. The great fault of all his
+work, as of nearly all the literature of the age, is that it is merely a
+more or less skilful manipulation of what the author had somewhere read
+or heard, and not a faithful transcript of the author's own peculiar
+sense or conception of what he had seen or heard or read. The fault is
+not that the old is repeated, that a twice-told tale is retold, but that
+it is retold without being re-imagined by the teller of the tale,
+without taking on from his personality something that was not in it
+before. Style, to be sure, was a thing that Lydgate and his fellows
+tried to supply, and some of them supplied it abundantly according to
+their lights. But style meant to them external decoration, classical
+allusions, personifications, an inverted or even dislocated order of
+words, and that famous "ornate diction," those "aureate terms," with
+which they strove to surpass the melody, picturesqueness and dignity
+which, for all its simplicity, they somehow dimly discerned in the
+diction of Chaucer.
+
+Stephen Hawes, with his allegorical treatise on the seven liberal
+sciences, came later than these men, only to write worse. He was a
+disciple of Lydgate rather than of Chaucer, and is not only lacking in
+the vigour and sensitiveness which Lydgate sometimes displays, but
+exaggerates the defects of his master. If it be a merit to have
+conceived the pursuit of knowledge under the form of the efforts of a
+knight to win the hand of his lady, it is almost the sole merit to which
+Hawes can lay claim. Two or three good situations, an episode of low
+comedy, and the epitaph of the Knight with its famous final couplet,
+exhaust the list of his credits. The efforts that have been made to
+trace through Hawes the line of Spenser's spiritual ancestry seem not
+well advised. The resemblances that have been pointed out are such as
+arise inevitably from the allegories and from the traditional material
+with which both worked. There is no reason to believe that Spenser owed
+his general conception to Hawes, or that the _Faëry Queene_ would have
+differed in even the slightest detail from its present form if the
+_Pastime of Pleasure_ had never been written. The machinery of chivalric
+romance had already been applied to spiritual and moral themes in Spain
+without the aid of Hawes.
+
+It is obvious that the fundamental lack of all these men was imaginative
+power, poetic ability. This is a sufficient reason for failure to write
+good poetry. But why did not men of better ability devote themselves to
+literature in this age? Was it because of the perturbed conditions
+arising from the prevalence of foreign and civil wars? Perhaps not,
+though it is clear that if Sir Thomas Malory had perished in one of the
+many fights through which he lived, the chivalric and literary impulses
+which he perhaps received from the "Fadre of Curteisy," Richard
+Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, would have gone for nothing and we should
+lack the _Morte Darthur_. But it may very well be that the wars and the
+tremendous industrial growth of England fixed the attention of the
+strongest and most original spirits among the younger men and so
+withdrew them from the possible attractions of literature. But, after
+all, whatever general truth may lie in such speculations, the way of a
+young man with his own life is as incalculable as any of the four things
+which Agur son of Jakeh declared to be past finding out; local and
+special accidents rather than general communal influences are apt to
+shape the choice of boys of exceptional character, and we have many
+instances of great talents turning to literature or art when war or
+commerce or science was the dominant attraction of social life.
+
+But even recognizing that the followers of Chaucer were not men of
+genius, it seems strange that their imitation of Chaucer was what it
+was. They not only entirely failed to see what his merits as an artist
+were and how greatly superior his mature work is to his earlier in point
+of technique; they even preferred the earlier and imitated it almost
+exclusively. Furthermore, his mastery of verse seemed to them to consist
+solely in writing verses of approximately four or five stresses and
+arranging them in couplets or in stanzas of seven or eight lines. Their
+preference for the early allegorical work can be explained by their lack
+of taste and critical discernment and by the great vogue of allegorical
+writing in England and France. Men who are just beginning to think about
+the distinction between literature and ordinary writing usually feel
+that it consists in making literary expression differ as widely as
+possible from simple direct speech. For this reason some sort of
+artificial diction is developed and some artificial word order devised.
+Allegory is used as an elegant method of avoiding unpoetical plainness,
+and is an easy means of substituting logic for imagination. The failure
+to reproduce in some degree at least the melody and smoothness of
+Chaucer's decasyllabic verse, and the particular form which that failure
+took in Lydgate, are to be explained by the fact that Lydgate and his
+fellows never knew how Chaucer's verse sounded when properly read. It is
+a mistake to suppose that the disappearance of final unaccented _e_ from
+many words or its instability in many others made it difficult for
+Lydgate and his fellows to write melodious verse. Melodious verse has
+been written since the disappearance of all these sounds, and the
+possibility of a choice between a form with final _e_ and one without it
+is not a hindrance but an advantage to a poet, as Goethe, Schiller,
+Heine and innumerable German poets have shown by their practice. The
+real difficulty with these men was that they pronounced Chaucer's verse
+as if it were written in the English of their own day. As a matter of
+fact all the types of verse discovered by scholars in Lydgate's poems
+can be discovered in Chaucer's also if they be read with Lydgate's
+pronunciation. Chaucer did not write archaic English, as some have
+supposed,--that is, English of an earlier age than his own,--it would
+have been impossible for him to do so with the unfailing accuracy he
+shows; he did, however, write a conservative, perhaps an old-fashioned,
+English, such as was spoken by the conservative members of the class of
+society to which he was attached and for which he wrote. An English with
+fewer final _e_'s was already in existence among the less conservative
+classes, and this rapidly became standard English in consequence of the
+social changes which occurred during his own life. We know that a
+misunderstanding of Chaucer's verse existed from the 16th century to the
+time of Thomas Tyrwhitt; it seems clear that it began even earlier, in
+Chaucer's own lifetime.
+
+There are several poems of the 15th century which were long ascribed to
+Chaucer. Among them are:--the _Complaint of the Black Knight_, or
+_Complaint of a Lover's Life_, now known to be Lydgate's; the _Mother of
+God_, now ascribed to Hoccleve; the _Cuckoo and the Nightingale_, by
+Clanvowe; _La Belle Dame sans merci_, a translation from the French of
+Alain Chartier by Richard Ros; _Chaucer's Dream, or the Isle of Ladies_;
+the _Assembly of Ladies_; the _Flower and the Leaf_; and the _Court of
+Love_. The two poems of Lydgate and Hoccleve are as good as Chaucer's
+poorest work. The _Assembly of Ladies_ and the _Flower and the Leaf_ are
+perhaps better than the _Book of the Duchess_, but not so good as the
+_Parliament of Fowls_. The _Flower and the Leaf_, it will be remembered,
+was very dear to John Keats, who, like all his contemporaries, regarded
+it as Chaucer's. An additional interest attaches to both it and the
+_Assembly of Ladies_, from the fact that the author may have been a
+woman; Professor Skeat is, indeed, confident that he knows who the woman
+was and when she wrote. These poems, like the _Court of Love_, are
+thoroughly conventional in material, all the figures and poetical
+machinery may be found in dozens of other poems in England and France,
+as Professor Neilson has shown for the _Court of Love_ and Mr Marsh for
+the _Flower and the Leaf_; but there are a freshness of spirit and a
+love of beauty in them that are not common; the conventional birds and
+flowers are there, but they seem, like those of Chaucer's _Legend_, to
+have some touch of life, and the conventional companies of ladies and
+gentlemen ride and talk and walk with natural grace and ease. The _Court
+of Love_ is usually ascribed to a very late date, as late even as the
+middle of the 16th century. If this is correct, it is a notable instance
+of the persistence of a Chaucerian influence. An effort has been made,
+to be sure, to show that it was written by Scogan and that the writing
+of it constituted the offence mentioned by Chaucer in his _Envoy to
+Scogan_, but it has been clearly shown that this is impossible, both
+because the language is later than Scogan's time and because nothing in
+the poem resembles the offence clearly described by Chaucer.
+
+Whatever may be true of the authorship of the _Assembly of Ladies_ and
+the _Flower and the Leaf_, there were women writers in England in the
+middle ages. Juliana of Norwich wrote her _Revelations of Divine Love_
+before 1400. The much discussed Dame Juliana Berners, the supposed
+compiler of the treatise on hunting in the _Book of St Albans_, may be
+mythical, though there is no reason why a woman should not have written
+such a book; and a shadowy figure that disappears entirely in the
+sunlight is the supposed authoress of the _Nut Brown Maid_, for if
+language is capable of definite meaning, the last stanza declares
+unequivocally that the poem is the work of a man. But there is a poem
+warning young women against entering a nunnery which may be by a woman,
+and there is an interesting entry among the records of New Romney for
+1463-1464, "Paid to Agnes Forde for the play of the Interlude of our
+Lord's Passion, 6s. 8d.," which is apparently the earliest mention of a
+woman dramatist in England. Finally, Margaret, countess of Richmond, the
+mother of Henry VII., not only aided scholars and encouraged writers,
+but herself translated the (spurious) fourth book of St Thomas à
+Kempis's _Imitatio Christi_. Another Margaret, the duchess of Burgundy,
+it will be remembered, encouraged Caxton in his translation and
+printing. Women seem, indeed, to have been especially lovers of books
+and patrons of writers, and Skelton, if we may believe his _Garland of
+Laurel_, was surrounded by a bevy of ladies comparable to a modern
+literary club; Erasmus's Suffragette Convention may correspond to no
+reality, but the Learned Lady arguing against the Monk for the
+usefulness and pleasure derived from books was not an unknown type.
+Women were capable of many things in the middle ages. English records
+show them to have been physicians, churchwardens, justices of the peace
+and sheriffs, and, according to a satirist, they were also priests.
+
+The most original and powerful poetry of the 15th century was composed
+in popular forms for the ear of the common people and was apparently
+written without conscious artistic purpose. Three classes of productions
+deserve special attention,--songs and carols, popular ballads and
+certain dramatic compositions. The songs and carols belong to a species
+which may have existed in England before the Norman Conquest, but which
+certainly was greatly modified by the musical and lyric forms of France.
+The best of them are the direct and simple if not entirely artless
+expressions of personal emotion, and even when they contain, as they
+sometimes do, the description of a person, a situation, or an event,
+they deal with these things so subjectively, confine themselves so
+closely to the rendering of the emotional effect upon the singer, that
+they lose none of their directness or simplicity. Some of them deal with
+secular subjects, some with religious, and some are curious and
+delightful blendings of religious worship and aspiration with earthly
+tenderness for the embodiments of helpless infancy and protecting
+motherhood which gave Christianity so much of its power over the
+affections and imagination of the middle ages. Even those which begin as
+mere expressions of joy in the Yule-tide eating and drinking and
+merriment catch at moments hints of higher joys, of finer emotions, and
+lift singer and hearer above the noise and stir of earth. Hundreds of
+songs written and sung in the 15th century must have perished; many, no
+doubt, lived only a single season and were never even written down; but
+chance has preserved enough of them to make us wonder at the age which
+could produce such masterpieces of tantalizing simplicity.
+
+The lyrics which describe a situation form a logical, if not a real
+transition to those which narrate an episode or an event. The most
+famous of the latter, the _Nut Brown Maid_, has often been called a
+ballad, and "lyrical ballad" it is in the sense established by Coleridge
+and Wordsworth, but its affinities are rather with the song or carol
+than with the folk-ballad, and, like Henryson's charming _Robin and
+Malkin_, it is certainly the work of a man of culture and of conscious
+artistic purpose and methods. Unaccompanied, as it is, by any other work
+of the same author, this poem, with its remarkable technical merits, is
+an even more astonishing literary phenomenon than the famous single
+sonnet of Blanco White. It can hardly be doubted that the author learned
+his technique from the songs and carols.
+
+The folk-ballad, like the song or carol, belongs in some form to
+immemorial antiquity. It is doubtless a mistake to suppose that any
+ballad has been preserved to us that is a purely communal product, a
+confection of the common knowledge, traditions and emotions of the
+community wrought by subconscious processes into a song that finds
+chance but inevitable utterance through one or more individuals as the
+whole commune moves in its molecular dance. But it is equally a mistake
+to argue that ballads are essentially metrical romances in a state of
+decay. Both the matter and the manner of most of the best ballads forbid
+such a supposition, and it can hardly be doubted that in some of the
+folk-ballads of the 15th century are preserved not only traditions of
+dateless antiquity, but formal elements and technical processes that
+actually are derived from communal song and dance. By the 15th century,
+however, communal habits and processes of composition had ceased, and
+the traditional elements, formulae and technique had become merely
+conventional aids and guides for the individual singer. Ancient as they
+were, conventional as, in a sense, they also were, they exercised none
+of the deadening, benumbing influence of ordinary conventions. They
+furnished, one may say, a vibrant framework of emotional expression,
+each tone of which moved the hearers all the more powerfully because it
+had sung to them so many old, unhappy, far-off things, so many battles
+and treacheries and sudden griefs; a framework which the individual
+singer needed only to fill out with the simplest statement of the event
+which had stirred his own imagination and passions to produce, not a
+work of art, but a song of universal appeal. Not a work of art, because
+there are scarcely half a dozen ballads that are really works of art,
+and the greatest ballads are not among these. There is scarcely one that
+is free from excrescences, from dulness, from trivialities, from
+additions that would spoil their greatest situations and their greatest
+lines, were it not that we resolutely shut our ears and our eyes, as we
+should, to all but their greatest moments. But at their best moments the
+best ballads have an almost incomparable power, and to a people sick, as
+we are, of the ordinary, the usual, the very trivialities and
+impertinences of the ballads only help to define and emphasize these
+best moments. In histories of English literature the ballads have been
+so commonly discussed in connexion with their rediscovery in the 18th
+century, that we are apt to forget that some of the very best were
+demonstrably composed in the 15th and that many others of uncertain date
+probably belong to the same time.
+
+Along with the genuine ballads dealing with a recent event or a
+traditional theme there were ballads in which earlier romances are
+retold in ballad style. This was doubtless inevitable in view of the
+increasing epic tendency of the ballad and the interest still felt in
+metrical romances, but it should not mislead us into regarding the
+genuine folk-ballad as an out-growth of the metrical romance.
+
+Besides the ordinary epic or narrative ballad, the 15th century produced
+ballads in dramatic form, or, perhaps it were better to say, dramatized
+some of its epic ballads. How commonly this was done we do not know,
+but the scanty records of the period indicate that it was a widespread
+custom, though only three plays of this character (all concerning Robin
+Hood) have come down to us. These plays had, however, no further
+independent development, but merely furnished elements of incident and
+atmosphere to later plays of a more highly organized type. With these
+ballad plays may also be mentioned the Christmas plays (usually of St
+George) and the sword-dance plays, which also flourished in the 15th
+century, but survive for us only as obscure elements in the masques and
+plays of Ben Jonson and in such modern rustic performances as Thomas
+Hardy has so charmingly described in _The Return of the Native_.
+
+The additions which the 15th century made to the ancient cycles of
+Scripture plays, the so-called Mysteries, are another instance of a
+literary effort which spent itself in vain (see DRAMA). The most notable
+of these are, of course, the world renowned comic scenes in the
+_Towneley_ (or _Wakefield_) _Plays_, in the pageants of Cain, of Noah
+and of the Shepherds. In none of these is the 15th century writer
+responsible for the original comic intention; in the pageants of Cain
+and of the Shepherds fragments of the work of a 14th century writer
+still remain to prove the earlier existence of the comic conception, and
+that it was traditional in the Noah pageant we know from the testimony
+of Chaucer's Miller; but none the less the 15th century writer was a
+comic dramatist of original power and of a skill in the development of
+both character and situation previously unexampled in England. The
+inability of Lydgate to develop a comic conception is strikingly
+displayed if one compares his _Pageant for Presentation before the King
+at Hereford_ with the work of this unknown artist. But in our admiration
+for this man and his famous episode of Mak and the fictitious infant, we
+are apt to forget the equally fine, though very different qualities
+shown in some of the later pageants of the _York Plays_. Such, for
+example, is the final pageant, that of the _Last Judgment_, a drama of
+slow and majestic movement, to be sure, but with a large and fine
+conception of the great situation, and a noble and dignified elocution
+not inadequate to the theme.
+
+The _Abraham and Isaac_ play of the Brome MS., extant as a separate play
+and perhaps so performed, which has been so greatly admired for its
+cumulative pathos, also belongs demonstrably to this century. It is not,
+as has been supposed, an intermediate stage between French plays and the
+Chester _Abraham and Isaac_, but is derived directly from the latter by
+processes which comparison of the two easily reveals. Scripture plays of
+a type entirely different from the well-known cyclic mysteries,
+apparently confined to the Passion and Resurrection and the related
+events, become known to us for the first time in the records of this
+century. Such plays seem to have been confined to the towns of the
+south, and, as both their location and their structure suggest, may have
+been borrowed from France. In any event, the records show that they
+flourished greatly and that new versions were made from time to time.
+
+Another form of the medieval drama, the Morality Play, had its origin in
+the 15th century,--or else very late in the 14th. The earliest known
+examples of it in England date from about 1420. These are the _Castle of
+Perseverance_ and the _Pride of Life_. Others belonging to the century
+are _Mind, Will and Understanding_, _Mankind_ and Medwall's _Nature_.
+There are also parts of two pageants in the _Ludus Coventriae_ (c. 1460)
+that are commonly classed as Moralities, and these, together with the
+existence of a few personified abstractions in other plays, have led
+some critics to suppose that the Morality was derived from the Mystery
+by the gradual introduction of personified abstractions in the place of
+real persons. But the two kinds of plays are fundamentally different,
+different in subject and in technique; and no replacement of real
+persons by personifications can change a Mystery into a Morality.
+Moreover, the Morality features in Mysteries are later than the origin
+of the Morality itself and are due to the influence of the latter. The
+Morality Play is merely a dramatized allegory, and derives its
+characters and its peculiar technique from the application of the
+dramatic method to the allegory, the favourite literary form of the
+middle ages. None of the 15th century Moralities is literature of the
+first rank, though both the _Castle of Perseverance_ and _Pride of Life_
+contain passages ringing with a passionate sincerity that communicates
+itself to the hearer or reader. But it was not until the beginning of
+the 16th century that a Morality of permanent human interest appeared in
+_Everyman_, which, after all, is a translation from the Dutch, as is
+clearly proved by the fact that in the two prayers near the end of the
+play the Dutch has complicated but regular stanzas, whereas the English
+has only irregularly rhymed passages.
+
+Besides the Mysteries and Moralities, the 15th century had also Miracle
+Plays, properly so called, dealing with the lives, martyrdoms and
+miracles of saints. As we know these only from records of their
+performance or their mere existence--no texts have been preserved to us,
+except the very curious _Play of the Sacrament_--it is impossible to
+speak of their literary or dramatic qualities. The Miracle Play as a
+form was, of course, not confined to the 15th century. Notwithstanding
+the assertions of historians of literature that it died out in England
+soon after its introduction at the beginning of the 12th century, its
+existence can be demonstrated from c. 1110 to the time of Shakespeare.
+But records seem to indicate that it flourished especially during this
+period of supposed barrenness.
+
+What was the nature of the "Komedy of Troylous and Pandor" performed
+before Henry VIII. on the 6th of January 1516 we have no means of
+knowing. It is very early indeed to assume the influence of either
+classical or Italian drama, and although we have no records of similar
+plays from the 15th century, it must be remembered that our records are
+scanty, that the middle ages applied the dramatic method to all sorts of
+material, and that it is therefore not impossible that secular plays
+like this were performed at court at a much earlier date. The record at
+any rate does not indicate that it was a new type of play, and the
+Griselda story had been dramatized in France, Italy and the Netherlands
+before 1500.
+
+That not much good prose was written in the 15th century is less
+surprising than that so little good verse was written. The technique of
+verse composition had been studied and mastered in the preceding age, as
+we have seen, but the technique of prose had apparently received no
+serious consideration. Indeed, it is doubtful if any one thought of
+prose as a possible medium of artistic expression. Chaucer apparently
+did not, in spite of the comparative excellence of his Preface to the
+_Astrolabe_ and his occasional noteworthy successes with the
+difficulties of the philosophy of Boethius; Wycliffe is usually clumsy;
+and the translators of Mandeville, though they often give us passages of
+great charm, obviously were plain men who merely translated as best they
+could. There was, however, a comparatively large amount of prose written
+in the 15th century, mainly for religious or educational purposes,
+dealing with the same sorts of subjects that were dealt with in verse,
+and in some cases not distinguishable from the verse by any feature but
+the absence of rhyme. The vast body of this we must neglect; only five
+writers need be named: John Capgrave, Reginald Pecock, Sir John
+Fortescue, Caxton and Malory. Capgrave, the compiler of the first
+chronicle in English prose since the Conquest, wrote by preference in
+Latin; his English is a condescension to those who could not read Latin
+and has the qualities which belong to the talk of an earnest and sincere
+man of commonplace ability. Pecock and Fortescue are more important.
+Pecock (c. 1395-c. 1460) was a man of singularly acute and logical mind.
+He prided himself upon his dialectic skill and his faculty for
+discovering arguments that had been overlooked by others. His writings,
+therefore--or at least the _Repressor_--are excellent in general
+structure and arrangement, his ideas are presented clearly and simply,
+with few digressions or excrescences, and his sentences, though
+sometimes too long, are more like modern prose than any others before
+the age of Elizabeth. His style is lightened by frequent figures of
+speech, mostly illustrative, and really illustrative, of his ideas,
+while his intellectual ingenuity cannot fail to interest even those whom
+his prejudices and preconceptions repel. Fortescue, like Capgrave, wrote
+by preference in Latin, and, like Pecock, was philosophical and
+controversial. But his principal English work, the _Difference between
+an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy_, differs from Pecock's in being
+rather a pleading than a logical argument, and the geniality and glowing
+patriotism of its author give it a far greater human interest.
+
+No new era in literary composition was marked by the activity of William
+Caxton as translator and publisher, though the printing-press has, of
+course, changed fundamentally the problem of the dissemination and
+preservation of culture, and thereby ultimately affected literary
+production profoundly. But neither Caxton nor the writers whose works he
+printed produced anything new in form or spirit. His publications range
+over the whole field of 15th century literature, and no doubt he tried,
+as his quaint prefaces indicate, to direct the public taste to what was
+best among the works of the past, as when he printed and reprinted the
+_Canterbury Tales_, but among all his numerous publications not one is
+the herald of a new era. The only book of permanent interest as
+literature which he introduced to the world was the _Morte Darthur_ of
+Sir Thomas Malory, and this is a compilation from older romances (see
+ARTHURIAN LEGEND). It is, to be sure, the one book of permanent literary
+significance produced in England in the 15th century; it glows with the
+warmth and beauty of the old knight's conception of chivalry and his
+love for the great deeds and great men of the visionary past, and it
+continually allures the reader by its fresh and vivid diction and by a
+syntax which, though sometimes faulty, has almost always a certain naïve
+charm; "thystorye (i.e. the history) of the sayd Arthur," as Caxton long
+ago declared, "is so gloryous and shynyng, that he is stalled in the
+first place of the moost noble, beste and worthyest of the Crysten men";
+it is not, however, as the first of a new species, but as the final
+flower of an old that this glorious and shining book retains its place
+in English literature.
+
+Whatever may have been the effect of the wars and the growth of
+industrial life in England in withdrawing men of the best abilities from
+the pursuit of literature, neither these causes nor any other interfered
+with the activity of writers of lesser powers. The amount of writing is
+really astonishing, as is also its range. More than three hundred
+separate works (exclusive of the large number still ascribed to Lydgate
+and of the seventy printed by Caxton) have been made accessible by the
+Early English Text Society and other public or private presses, and it
+seems probable that an equal number remains as yet unpublished. No list
+of these writings can be given here, but it may not be unprofitable to
+indicate the range of interests by noting the classes of writing
+represented. The classification is necessarily rough, as some writings
+belong to more than one type. We may note, first, love poems,
+allegorical and unallegorical, narrative, didactic, lyrical and
+quasi-lyrical; poems autobiographical and exculpatory; poems of eulogy
+and appeal for aid; tales of entertainment or instruction, in prose and
+in verse; histories ancient and modern, and brief accounts of recent
+historical events, in prose and in verse; prose romances and metrical
+romances; legends and lives of saints, in prose and in verse; poems and
+prose works of religious meditation, devotion and controversy; treatises
+of religious instruction, in prose and in verse; ethical and
+philosophical treatises, and ethical and prudential treatises; treatises
+of government, of political economy, of foreign travel, of hygiene, of
+surgery, of alchemy, of heraldry, of hunting and hawking and fishing, of
+farming, of good manners, and of cooking and carving. Prosaic and
+intended merely to serve practical uses as many of these were, verse is
+the medium of expression as often as prose. Besides this large amount
+and variety of English compositions, it must be remembered that much was
+also written in Latin, and that Latin and French works of this and other
+centuries were read by the educated classes.
+
+Although the intellectual and spiritual movement which we call the
+Italian Renaissance was not unknown in England in the 14th and 15th
+centuries, it is not strange that it exercised no perceptible influence
+upon English literature, except in the case of Chaucer. Chaucer was the
+only English man of letters before the 16th century who knew Italian
+literature. The Italians who visited England and the Englishmen who
+visited Italy were interested, not in literature, but in scholarship.
+Such studies as were pursued by Free, Grey, Flemming, Tilly, Gunthorpe
+and others who went to Italy, made them better grammarians and
+rhetoricians, and no doubt gave them a freer, wider outlook, but upon
+their return to England they were immediately absorbed in administrative
+cares, which left them little leisure for literary composition, even if
+they had had any inclination to write. They prepared the way, however,
+for the leaders of the great intellectual awakening which began in
+England with Linacre, Colet, More and their fellows, and which finally
+culminated in the age of Spenser, Bacon, Shakespeare, Jonson, Gilbert,
+Harvey and Harriott.
+
+When the middle ages ceased in England it is impossible to say
+definitely. Long after the new learning and culture of the Renaissance
+had been introduced there, long after classical and Italian models were
+eagerly chosen and followed, the epic and lyric models of the middle
+ages were admired and imitated, and the ancient forms of the drama lived
+side by side with the new until the time of Shakespeare himself. John
+Skelton, although according to Erasmus "unum Britannicarum literarum
+lumen ac decus," and although possessing great originality and vigour
+both in diction and in versification when attacking his enemies or
+indulging in playful rhyming, was not only a great admirer of Lydgate,
+but equalled even the worst of his predecessors in aureate pedantries of
+diction, in complicated impossibilities of syntax, and in meaningless
+inversions of word-order whenever he wished to write elegant and
+dignified literature. And not a little of the absurd diction of the
+middle of the 16th century is merely a continuation of the bad ideals
+and practices of the refined writers of the 15th.
+
+In fine, the 15th century has, aside from its vigorous, though sometimes
+coarse, popular productions, little that can interest the lover of
+literature. It offers, however, in richest profusion problems for the
+literary antiquarian and the student of the relations between social
+conditions and literary productivity,--problems which have usually been
+attacked only with the light weapons of irresponsible speculation, but
+which may perhaps be solved by a careful comparative study of many
+literatures and many periods. Moreover, although in the quality of its
+literary output it is decidedly inferior to the 14th century, the amount
+and the wide range of its productions indicate the gradual extension of
+the habit of reading to classes of society that were previously
+unlettered; and this was of great importance for the future of English
+literature, just as the innumerable dramatic performances throughout
+England were important in developing audiences for Marlowe and
+Shakespeare and Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+  For bibliography see vol. ii. of the _Cambridge History of Literature_
+  (1909); and Brandl's _Geschichte der mittelenglischen Literatur_
+  (reprinted from Paul's _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_).
+  Interesting general discussions may be found in the larger histories
+  of English Literature, such as Ten Brink's, Jusserand's, and (a little
+  more antiquated) Courthope's and Morley's.     (J. M. Ma.)
+
+
+III. ELIZABETHAN TIMES
+
+_General Influences, and Prologue to 1579._--The history of letters in
+England from More's _Utopia_ (1516), the first Platonic vision, to
+Milton's _Samson Agonistes_ (1671), the latest classic tragedy, is one
+and continuous. That is the period of the English Renaissance, in the
+wider sense, and it covers all and more of the literature loosely called
+"Elizabethan." With all its complexity and subdivisions, it has as real
+a unity as the age of Pericles, or that of Petrarch and Boccaccio, or
+the period in Germany that includes both Lessing and Heine. It is
+peculiar in length of span, in variety of power, and in wealth of
+production, though its master-works on the greater scale are relatively
+few. It is distinct, while never quite cut off, from the middle age
+preceding, and also from the classical or "Augustan" age that followed.
+The coming of Dryden denoted a new phase; but it was still a phase of
+the Renaissance; and the break that declared itself about 1660 counts as
+nothing beside the break with the middle ages; for this implied the
+whole change in art, thought and temper, which re-created the European
+mind. It is true that many filaments unite Renaissance and middle ages,
+not only in the religious and purely intellectual region, but in that of
+art. The matter of Geoffrey of Monmouth, the tales of Arthur and of
+Troilus, the old fairy folklore of the South, the topic of the _Falls of
+Princes_, lived on; and so did the characteristic medieval form,
+allegory and many of the old metres of the 14th century. But then these
+things were transformed, often out of knowledge. Shakespeare's use of
+the histories of Macbeth, Lear and Troilus, and Spenser's of the
+allegoric romance, are examples. And when the gifts of the middle ages
+are not transformed, as in the _Mirror for Magistrates_, they strike us
+as survivals from a lost world.
+
+So vital a change took long in the working. The English Renaissance of
+letters only came into full flower during the last twenty years of the
+16th century, later than in any Southern land; but it was all the richer
+for delay, and would have missed many a life-giving element could it
+have been driven forward sooner. If the actual process of genius is
+beyond analysis, we can still notice the subjects which genius receives,
+or chooses, to work upon, and also the vesture which it chooses for
+them; and we can watch some of the forces that long retard but in the
+end fertilize these workings of genius.
+
+
+  General forces.
+
+What, then, in England, were these forces? Two of them lie outside
+letters, namely, the political settlement, culminating in the later
+reign of Elizabeth, and the religious settlement, whereby the Anglican
+Church grew out of the English Reformation. A third force lay within the
+sphere of the Renaissance itself, in the narrower meaning of the term.
+It was culture--the prefatory work of culture and education, which at
+once prepared and put off the flowering of pure genius. "Elizabethan"
+literature took its complexion from the circumstance that all these
+three forces were in operation at once. The Church began to be fully
+articulate, just when the national feeling was at its highest, and the
+tides of classical and immigrant culture were strongest. Spenser's
+_Faerie Queene_, Hooker's _Ecclesiastical Polity_ and Shakespeare's
+_Henry V._ came in the same decade (1590-1600). But these three forces,
+political, religious and educational, were of very different duration
+and value. The enthusiasm of 1590-1600 was already dying down in the
+years 1600-1610, when the great tragedies were written; and soon a
+wholly new set of political forces began to tell on art. The religious
+inspiration was mainly confined to certain important channels; and
+literature as a whole, from first to last, was far more secular than
+religious. But Renaissance culture, in its ramifications and
+consequences, tells all the time and over the whole field, from 1500 to
+1660. It is this culture which really binds together the long and varied
+chronicle. Before passing to narrative, a short review of each of these
+elements is required.
+
+
+  Politics.
+
+Down to 1579 the Tudor rule was hardly a direct inspiration to authors.
+The reign of Henry VII. was first duly told by Bacon, and that of Henry
+VIII. staged by Shakespeare and Fletcher, in the time of James I. Sir
+Thomas More found in Roper, and Wolsey in Cavendish, sound biographers,
+who are nearly the earliest in the language. The later years of Henry
+VIII. were full of episodes too tragically picturesque for safe handling
+in the lifetime of his children. The next two reigns were engrossed with
+the religious war; and the first twenty years of Elizabeth, if they laid
+the bases of an age of peace, well-being, and national self-confidence
+that was to prove a teeming soil for letters, were themselves poor in
+themes for patriotic art. The abortive treason of the northern earls was
+echoed only in a ringing ballad. But the voyagers, freebooters, and
+explorers reported their experiences, as a duty, not for fame; and
+these, though not till the golden age, were edited by Hakluyt, and
+fledged the poetic fancies that took wing from the "Indian Peru" to the
+"still-vext Bermoothes." Yet, in default of any true historian, the
+queen's wise delays and diplomacies that upheld the English power, and
+her refusal to launch on a Protestant or a national war until occasion
+compelled and the country was ready, were subjects as uninspiring to
+poets as the burning questions of the royal marriage or the royal title.
+But by 1580 the nation was filled with the sense of Elizabeth's success
+and greatness and of its own prosperity. No shorter struggle and no less
+achievement could have nursed the insolent, jubilant patriotism of the
+years that followed; a feeling that for good reasons was peculiar to
+England among the nations, and created the peculiar forms of the
+chronicle play and poem. These were borrowed neither from antiquity nor
+from abroad, and were never afterwards revived. The same exultation
+found its way into the current forms of ode and pastoral, of masque and
+allegory, and into many a dedication and interlude of prose. It was so
+strong as to outlive the age that gave it warrant. The passion for
+England, the passion of England for herself, animates the bulk of
+Drayton's _Poly-Olbion_, which was finished so late as 1622. But the
+public issues were then changing, the temper was darker; and the civil
+struggle was to speak less in poetry than in the prose of political
+theory and ecclesiastical argument, until its after-explosion came in
+the verse of Milton.
+
+
+  Religious change.
+
+The English Reformation, so long political rather than doctrinal or
+imaginative, cost much writing on all sides; but no book like Calvin's
+_Institution_ is its trophy, at once defining the religious change for
+millions of later men and marking a term of departure in the national
+prose. Still, the debating weapons, the axes and billhooks, of
+vernacular English were sharpened--somewhat jaggedly--in the pamphlet
+battles that dwarfed the original energies of Sir Thomas More and evoked
+those of Tyndale and his friends. The powers of the same style were
+proved for descriptive economy by Starkey's Dialogue between Pole and
+Lupset, and for religious appeal by the blunt sound rhetoric and
+forthright jests in the sermons of Latimer (died 1555). Foxe's reports
+of the martyrs are the type of early Protestant English (1563); but the
+reforming divines seldom became real men of letters even when their
+Puritanism, or discontent with the final Anglican settlement and its
+temper, began to announce itself. Their spirit, however, comes out in
+many a corner of poetry, in Gascoigne's _Steel Glass_ as in Spenser's
+_Shepherd's Calendar_; and the English Reformation lived partly on its
+pre-natal memories of Langland as well as of Wycliffe. The fruit of the
+struggle, though retarded, was ample. Carrying on the work of Fisher and
+Cranmer, the new church became the nursing mother of English prose, and
+trained it more than any single influence,--trained it so well, for the
+purposes of sacred learning, translation and oratory, and also as a
+medium of poetic feeling, that in these activities England came to rival
+France. How late any religious writer of true rank arose may be seen by
+the lapse of over half a century between Henry VIII.'s Act of Supremacy
+and Hooker's treatise. But after Hooker the chain of eloquent divines
+was unbroken for a hundred years.
+
+
+  Classical culture.
+
+Renaissance culture had many stages and was fed from many streams. At
+the outset of the century, in the wake of Erasmus, under the teaching of
+Colet and his friends, there spread a sounder knowledge of the Greek and
+Latin tongues, of the classic texts, and so of the ancient life and
+mind. This period of humanism in the stricter sense was far less
+brilliant than in Italy and France. No very great scholar or savant
+arose in Britain for a long time; but neo-Latin literature, the
+satellite of scholarship, shone brightly in George Buchanan. But
+scholarship was created and secured; and in at least one, rather
+solitary, work of power, the _Utopia_ (which remained in Latin till
+1551), the fundamental process was begun which appropriates the Greek
+mind, not only for purposes of schooling, but as a source of new and
+independent thinking. In and after the middle of the century the
+classics were again put forward by Cheke, by Wilson in his _Art of
+Rhetoric_ (1553), and by Ascham in his letters and in his _Schoolmaster_
+(1570), as the true staple of humane education, and the pattern for a
+simple yet lettered English. The literature of translations from the
+classics, in prose and verse, increased; and these works, at first
+plain, business-like, and uninspired, slowly rose in style and power,
+and at last, like the translations from modern tongues, were written by
+a series of masters of English, who thus introduced Plutarch and Tacitus
+to poets and historians. This labour of mediation was encouraged by the
+rapid expansion and reform of the two universities, of which almost
+every great master except Shakespeare was a member; and even Shakespeare
+had ample Latin for his purpose.
+
+
+  Italy and France.
+
+The direct impact of the classics on "Elizabethan" literature, whether
+through such translations or the originals, would take long to describe.
+But their indirect impact is far stronger, though in result the two are
+hard to discern. This is another point that distinguishes the English
+Renaissance from the Italian or the French, and makes it more complex.
+The knowledge of the thought, art and enthusiasms of Rome and Athens
+constantly came round through Italy or France, tinted and charged in the
+passage with something characteristic of those countries. The early
+playwrights read Seneca in Latin and English, but also the foreign
+Senecan tragedies. Spenser, when starting on his pastorals, studied the
+Sicilians, but also Sannazaro and Marot. Shakespeare saw heroic
+antiquity through Plutarch, but also, surely, through Montaigne's
+reading of antiquity. Few of the poets can have distinguished the
+original fountain of Plato from the canalized supply of the Italian
+Neoplatonists. The influence, however, of Cicero on the Anglican pulpit
+was immediate as well as constant; and so was that of the conciser Roman
+masters, Sallust and Tacitus, on Ben Jonson and on Bacon. Such scattered
+examples only intimate the existence of two great chapters of English
+literary history,--the effects of the classics and the effects of Italy.
+The bibliography of 16th-century translations from the Italian in the
+fields of political and moral speculation, poetry, fiction and the
+drama, is so large as itself to tell part of the story. The genius of
+Italy served the genius of England in three distinctive ways. It
+inspired the recovery, with new modulations, of a lost music and a lost
+prosody. It modelled many of the chief poetic forms, which soon were
+developed out of recognition; such were tragedy, allegory, song,
+pastoral and sonnet. Thirdly, it disclosed some of the master-thoughts
+upon government and conduct formed both by the old and the new
+Mediterranean world. Machiavelli, the student of ancient Rome and modern
+Italy, riveted the creed of Bacon. It might be said that never has any
+modern people so influenced another in an equal space of time--and
+letters, here as ever, are only the voice, the symbol, of a whole life
+and culture--if we forgot the sway of French in the later 17th and 18th
+centuries. And the power of French was alive also in the 16th. The track
+of Marot, of Ronsard and the Pleiad and Desportes, of Rabelais and
+Calvin and Montaigne, is found in England. Journeymen like Boisteau and
+Belleforest handed on immortal tales. The influence is noteworthy of
+Spanish mannerists, above all of Guevara upon sententious prose, and of
+the novelists and humorists, headed by Cervantes, upon the drama. German
+legend is found not only in Marlowe's _Faustus_, but in the by-ways of
+play and story. It will be long before the rich and coloured tangle of
+these threads has been completely unravelled with due tact and science.
+The presence of one strand may here be mentioned, which appears in
+unexpected spots.
+
+
+  Philosophy.
+
+As in Greece, and as in the day of Coleridge and Shelley, the fabric of
+poetry and prose is shot through with philosophical ideas; a further
+distinction from other literatures like the Spanish of the golden age or
+the French of 1830. But these were not so much the ideas of the new
+physical science and of Bacon as of the ethical and metaphysical
+ferment. The wave of free talk in the circles of Marlowe, Greville and
+Raleigh ripples through their writings. Though the direct influence of
+Giordano Bruno on English writers is probably limited to a reminiscence
+in the _Faerie Queene_ (Book vii.), he was well acquainted with Sidney
+and Greville, argued for the Copernican theory at Greville's house,
+lectured on the soul at Oxford, and published his epoch-marking Italian
+dialogues during his two years' stay (1583-1585) in London. The debates
+in the earlier schools of Italy on the nature and tenure of the soul are
+heard in the _Nosce Teipsum_ (1599) of Sir John Davies; a stoicism, "of
+the schools" as well as "of the blood," animates Cassius and also the
+French heroes of Chapman; and if the earlier drama is sown with Seneca's
+old maxims on sin and destiny, the later drama, at least in Shakespeare,
+is penetrated with the freer reading of life and conduct suggested by
+Montaigne. Platonism--with its _vox angelica_ sometimes a little
+hoarse--is present from the youthful _Hymns_ of Spenser to the last
+followers of Donne; sometimes drawn from Plato, it is oftener the
+Christianized doctrine codified by Ficino or Pico. It must be noted that
+this play of philosophic thought only becomes marked after 1580, when
+the preparatory tunings of English literature are over.
+
+We may now quickly review the period down to 1580, in the departments of
+prose, verse and drama. It was a time which left few memorials of form.
+
+
+  Prose to 1580.
+
+Early modern English prose, as a medium of art, was of slow growth. For
+long there was alternate strife and union (ending in marriage) between
+the Latin, or more rhetorical, and the ancestral elements of the
+language, and this was true both of diction and of construction. We need
+to begin with the talk of actual life, as we find it in the hands of the
+more naïf writers, in its idiom and gusto and unshapen power, to see how
+style gradually declared itself. In state letters and reports, in the
+recorded words of Elizabeth and Mary of Scotland and public men, in
+travels and memoirs, in Latimer, in the rude early versions of Cicero
+and Boëthius, in the more unstudied speech of Ascham or Leland, the
+material lies. At the other extreme there are the English liturgy (1549,
+1552, 1559, with the final fusion of Anglican and Puritan eloquence),
+and the sermons of Fisher and Cranmer,--nearly the first examples of a
+sinuous, musical and Ciceronian cadence. A noble pattern for
+saga-narrative and lyrical prose was achieved in the successive versions
+(1526-1540-1568) of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, where a native
+simple diction of short and melodious clauses are prescribed by the
+matter itself. Prose, in fact, down to Shakespeare's time, was largely
+the work of the churchmen and translators, aided by the chroniclers.
+About the mid-century the stories, as well as the books of conduct and
+maxim, drawn from Italy and France, begin to thicken. Perverted symmetry
+of style is found in euphuistic hacks like Pettie. Painter's _Palace of
+Pleasure_ (1566) provided the plots of Bandello and others for the
+dramatists. Hoby's version (1561) of Castiglione's _Courtier_, with its
+command of elate and subtle English, is the most notable imported book
+between Berners's _Froissart_ (1523-1525) and North's _Plutarch_ (1579).
+Ascham's _Schoolmaster_ is the most typical English book of Renaissance
+culture, in its narrower sense, since _Utopia_. Holinshed's _Chronicle_
+(1577-1587) and the work of Halle, if pre-critical, were all the fitter
+to minister to Shakespeare.
+
+
+  Verse to 1580.
+
+The lyric impulse was fledged anew at the court of Henry VIII. The short
+lines and harping burdens of Sir Thomas Wyatt's songs show the revival,
+not only of a love-poetry more plangent than anything in English since
+Chaucer, but also of the long-deadened sense of metre. In Wyatt's
+sonnets, octaves, terzines and other Italian measures, we can watch the
+painful triumphant struggles of this noble old master out of the slough
+of formlessness in which verse had been left by Skelton. Wyatt's primary
+deed was his gradual rediscovery of the iambic decasyllabic line duly
+accented--the line that had been first discovered by Chaucer for
+England; and next came its building into sonnet and stanza. Wyatt (d.
+1542) ended with perfect formal accuracy; he has the honours of victory;
+and Henry Howard, earl of Surrey (d. 1547), a younger-hearted and more
+gracious but a lighter poet, carried on his labour, and caught some of
+Chaucer's as well as the Italian tunes. The blank verse of his two
+translated _Aeneids_, like all that written previous to Peele, gave
+little inkling of the latencies of the measure which was to become the
+cardinal one of English poetry. It was already the vogue in Italy for
+translations from the classics; and we may think of Surrey importing it
+like an uncut jewel and barely conscious of its value. His original
+poems, like those of Wyatt, waited for print till the eve of
+Elizabeth's reign, when they appeared, with those of followers like
+Grimoald, in Tottel's _Miscellany_ (1557), the first of many such
+garlands, and the outward proof of the poetical revival dating twenty
+years earlier. But this was a false dawn. Only one poem of authentic
+power, Sackville's _Induction_ (1563) to that dreary patriotic venture,
+_A Mirror for Magistrates_, was published for twenty years. In spirit
+medieval, this picture of the gates of hell and of the kings in bale
+achieves a new melody and a new intensity, and makes the coming of
+Spenser far less incredible. But poetry was long starved by the very
+ideal that nursed it--that of the all-sided, all-accomplished "courtier"
+or cavalier, to whom verse-making was but one of all the accomplishments
+that he must perfect, like fencing, or courting, or equestrian skill.
+Wyatt and Surrey, Sackville and Sidney (and we may add Hamlet, a true
+Elizabethan) are of this type. One of the first competent professional
+writers was George Gascoigne, whose remarks on metric, and whose blank
+verse satire, _The Steel Glass_ (1576), save the years between Sackville
+and Spenser. Otherwise the gap is filled by painful rhymesters with rare
+flashes, such as Googe, Churchyard and Turberville.
+
+
+  Drama to 1580.
+
+The English Renaissance drama, both comic and tragic, illustrates on the
+largest scale the characteristic power of the antique at this period--at
+first to reproduce itself in imitation, and then to generate something
+utterly different from itself, something that throws the antique to the
+winds. Out of the Morality, a sermon upon the certainty of death or the
+temptations of the soul, acted by personified qualities and supernatural
+creatures, had grown up, in the reign of Henry VII., the Interlude, a
+dialogue spoken by representative types or trades, who faintly recalled
+those in Chaucer's _Prologue_. These forms, which may be termed
+medieval, continued long and blended; sometimes heated, as in
+_Respublica_, with doctrine, and usually lightened by the comic play of
+a "Vice" or incarnation of sinister roguery. John Heywood was the chief
+maker of the pure interludes, and Bishop Bale of the Protestant medleys;
+his _King Johan_, a reformer's partisan tract in verse, contains the
+germs of the chronicle play. In the drama down to 1580 the native talent
+is sparse enough, but the historical interest is high. Out of a seeming
+welter of forms, the structure, the metres and the species that Kyd and
+Marlowe found slowly emerged. Comedy was first delivered from the
+interlude, and fashioned in essence as we know it, by the schoolmasters.
+Drawing on Plautus, they constructed duly-knitted plots, divided into
+acts and scenes and full of homely native fun, for their pupils to
+present. In _Thersites_ (written 1537), the oldest of these pieces, and
+in Udall's _Ralph Roister Doister_ (1552 at latest), the best known of
+them, the characters are lively, and indeed are almost individuals. In
+others, like _Misogonus_ (written 1560), the abstract element and
+improving purpose remain, and the source is partly neo-Latin comedy,
+native or foreign. Romance crept in: serious comedy, with its brilliant
+future, the comedy of high sentiment and averted dangers mingled still
+with farce, was shadowed forth in _Damon and Pithias_ and in the curious
+play _Common Conditions_; while the domestic comedy of intrigue dawned
+in Gascoigne's _Supposes_, adapted from Ariosto. Thus were displaced the
+ranker rustic fun of _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ (written c. 1559) and
+other labours of "rhyming mother-wits." But there was no style, no talk,
+no satisfactory metre. The verse of comedy waited for Greene, and its
+prose for Lyly. Structure, without style, was also the main achievement
+of the early tragedies. The Latin plays of Buchanan, sometimes biblical
+in topic, rest, as to their form, upon Euripides. But early English
+tragedy was shapen after the Senecan plays of Italy and after Seneca
+himself, all of whose dramas were translated by 1581. _Gorboduc, or
+Ferrex and Porrex_, acted about 1561, and written by Sackville and
+Norton, and Hughes' _Misfortunes of Arthur_ (acted 1588), are not so
+much plays as wraiths of plays, with their chain of slaughters and
+revenges, their two-dimensional personages, and their lifeless maxims
+which fail to sweeten the bloodshot atmosphere. The Senecan form was not
+barren in itself, as its sequel in France was to show: it was only
+barren for England. After Marlowe it was driven to the study, and was
+still written (possibly under the impulse of Mary countess of
+Pembroke), by Daniel and Greville, with much reminiscence of the French
+Senecans. But it left its trail on the real drama. It set the pattern of
+a high tragical action, often motived by revenge, swayed by large ideas
+of fate and retribution, and told in blank metre; and it bequeathed,
+besides many moral sentences, such minor points of mechanism as the
+Ghost, the Chorus and the inserted play. There were many hybrid forms
+like _Gismond of Salern_, based on foreign story, alloyed with the mere
+personifications of the Morality, and yet contriving, as in the case of
+_Promos and Cassandra_ (the foundation of _Measure for Measure_), to
+interest Shakespeare. Thus the drama by 1580 had some of its carpentry,
+though not yet a true style or versification. These were only to be won
+by escape from the classic tutelage. The ruder chronicle play also
+began, and the reigns of John and Henry V. amongst others were put upon
+the stage.
+
+
+  Spenser.
+
+_Verse from Spenser to Donne_.--Sir Philip Sidney almost shares with
+Edmund Spenser the honours of announcing the new verse, for part of his
+_Astrophel and Stella_ was written, if not known in unpublished form,
+about 1580-1581, and contains ten times the passion and poetry of _The
+Shepherd's Calendar_ (1579). This work, of which only a few passages
+have the seal of Spenser's coming power, was justly acclaimed for its
+novelty of experiment in many styles, pastoral, satiric and triumphal,
+and in many measures: though it was criticized for its "rustic" and
+archaic diction--a "no language" that was to have more influence upon
+poetry than any of the real dialects of England. Spenser's desire to
+write high tragedy, avowed in his _October_, was not to be granted; his
+nine comedies are lost; and he became the chief non-dramatic poet of his
+time and country. Both the plaintive pessimism of Petrarch and du
+Bellay, with their favourite method of emblem, and the Platonic theory
+of the spiritual love and its heavenly begetting sank into him; and the
+_Hymns To Love_ and _To Beauty_ are possibly his earliest verses of
+sustained perfection and exaltation. These two strains of feeling
+Spenser never lost and never harmonized; the first of them recurs in his
+_Complaints_ of 1591, above all in _The Ruins of Time_, the second in
+his _Amoretti_ (1595) and _Colin Clout_ and _Epithalamion_, which are
+autobiographical. These and a hundred other threads are woven into _The
+Faerie Queene_, an unfinished allegorical epic in honour of moral
+goodness, of which three books came out in 1590 and three more in 1596,
+while the fragment _Of Constancy_ (so-called) is first found in the
+posthumous folio of 1609. This poem is the fullest reflex, outside the
+drama, of the soul and aspirations of the time. For its scenery and
+mechanism the _Orlando Furioso_ of Ariosto furnishes the framework. In
+both poems tales of knightly adventure intertwine unconfused; in both
+the slaying of monsters, the capture of strong places, and the release
+of the innocent, hindered by wizard and sorcerer, or aided by magic
+sword and horn and mirror, constitute the quest; and in both warriors,
+ladies, dwarfs, dragons and figures from old mythology jostle dreamily
+together. To all this pomp Spenser strove to give a moral and often also
+a political meaning. Ariosto was not a _vates sacer_; and so Spenser
+took Tasso's theme of the holy war waged for the Sepulchre, and expanded
+it into a war between good and evil, as he saw them in the world;
+between chastity and lust, loyalty and detraction, England and Spain,
+England and Rome, Elizabeth and usurpers, Irish governor and Irish
+rebel, right and wrong. The title-virtues of his six extant books he
+affects to take from Aristotle; but Holiness, Temperance, Chastity,
+Justice, Friendship and Courtesy form a medley of medieval, puritanical
+and Greek ideals.
+
+Spenser's moral sentiments, often ethereally noble, might well be
+contrasted, and that not always to their credit, with those more secular
+and naturalistic ones that rule in Shakespeare or in Bernardino Telesio
+and Giordano Bruno. But _The Faerie Queene_ lives by its poetry; and its
+poetry lives independently of its creed. The idealized figures of
+Elizabeth, who is the Faerie Queene, and of the "magnificent" Prince
+Arthur, fail to bind the adventures together, and after two books the
+poem breaks down in structure. And indeed all through it relies on
+episode and pageant, on its prevailing and insuppressible loveliness of
+scene and tint, of phrasing and of melody, beside which the inner
+meaning is often an interruption. Spenser is not to be tired; in and out
+of his tapestry, with its "glooming light much like a shade," pace his
+figures on horseback, or in durance, with their clear and pictorial
+allegoric trappings; and they go either singly, or in his favourite
+masques or pageants, suggested by emblematical painting or civic
+procession. He is often duly praised for his lingering and liquid
+melodies and his gracious images, or blamed for their langour; but his
+ground-tone is a sombre melancholy--unlike that of Jaques--and his
+deepest quality as a writer is perhaps his angry power. Few of his forty
+and more thousand lines are unpoetical; in certainty of style amongst
+English poets who have written profusely, he has no equals but Chaucer,
+Milton and Shelley. His "artificial" diction, drawn from middle English,
+from dialect or from false analogy, has always the intention and nearly
+always the effect of beauty; we soon feel that its absence would be
+unnatural, and it has taken its rank among the habitual and exquisite
+implements of English poetry. This equality of noble form is Spenser's
+strength, as dilution and diffusion of phrase, and a certain monotonous
+slowness of _tempo_, are beyond doubt his weaknesses. His chief
+technical invention, the nine-line stanza (_ababbcbcC_) was developed
+not from the Italian octave (_abababcc_), but by adding an alexandrine
+to the eight-line stave (_ababbcbc_) of Chaucer's _Monk's Tale_. It is
+naturally articulated twice--at the fifth line, where the turn of
+repeated rhyme inevitably charms, and at the ninth, which runs now to a
+crashing climax, now to a pensive and sighing close. In rhyming,
+Spenser, if not always accurate, is one of the most natural and
+resourceful of poets. His power over the heroic couplet or quatrain is
+shown in his fable, _Mother Hubbard's Tale_, and in his curious verse
+memoir, _Colin Clout_; both of which are medleys of satire and flattery.
+With formal tasks so various and so hard, it is wonderful how effortless
+the style of Spenser remains. His _Muiopotmos_ is the lightest-handed of
+mock-heroics. No writer of his day except Marlowe was so faithful to the
+law of beauty.
+
+
+  Spenserians.
+
+The mantle of Spenser fell, somewhat in shreds, upon poets of many
+schools until the Restoration. As though in thanks to his master Tasso,
+he lent to Edward Fairfax, the best translator of the _Jerusalem
+Delivered_ (_Godfrey of Bulloigne_, 1600), some of his own ease and
+intricate melody. Harington, the witty translator of Ariosto (1591) and
+spoilt child of the court, owed less to Spenser. The allegorical
+colouring was nobly caught, if sometimes barbarized, in the _Christ's
+Victory and Triumph_ of the younger Giles Fletcher (1610), and Spenser's
+emblematic style was strained, even cracked, by Phineas Fletcher in _The
+Purple Island_ (1633), an aspiring fable, gorgeous in places, of the
+human body and faculties. Both of these brethren clipped and marred the
+stanza, but they form a link between Spenser and their student Milton.
+The allegoric form, long-winded and broken-backed, survived late in
+Henry More's and Joseph Beaumont's verse disquisitions on the soul.
+Spenser's pastoral and allusive manner was allowed by Drayton in his
+_Shepherd's Garland_ (1593), and differently by William Browne in
+_Britannia's Pastorals_ (1613-1616), and by William Basse; while his
+more honeyed descriptions took on a mawkish taste in the anonymous
+_Britain's Ida_ and similar poems. His golden Platonic style was
+buoyantly echoed in _Orchestra_ (1596), Sir John Davies' poem on the
+dancing spheres. He is continually traceable in 17th-century verse,
+blending with the alien currents of Ben Jonson and of Donne. He was
+edited and imitated in the age of Thomson, in the age of William Morris,
+and constantly between.
+
+
+  Drayton and Daniel.
+
+The typical Elizabethan poet is Michael Drayton; who followed Spenser in
+pastoral, Daniel, Sidney, Spenser and Shakespeare in sonnet, Daniel
+again in chronicle and legend, and Marlowe in mythological story, and
+who yet remained himself. His _Endimion and Phoebe_ in passages stands
+near _Hero and Leander_; his _England's Heroical Epistles_ (1597) are in
+ringing rhetorical couplets; his _Odes_ (1606), like the _Ballad of
+Agincourt_ and the _Virginian Voyage_, forestall and equal Cowper's or
+Campbell's; his _Nymphidia_ (1627) was the most popular of burlesque
+fairy poems; and his pastorals are full of graces and felicities. The
+work of Drayton that is least read and most often mentioned is his
+_Poly-Olbion_ (1612-1622), a vast and pious effort, now and then nobly
+repaid, to versify the scenery, legend, customs and particularities of
+every English county. The more recluse and pensive habit of Samuel
+Daniel chills his long chronicle poems; but with Chapman he is the
+clearest voice of Stoicism in Elizabethan letters; and his harmonious
+nature is perfectly expressed in a style of happy, even excellence, free
+alike from "fine madness" and from strain. Sonnet and epistle are his
+favoured forms, and in his _Musophilus_ (1599) as well as in his
+admirable prose _Defence of Rhyme_ (1602), he truly prophesies the hopes
+and glories of that _illustre vulgare_, the literary speech of England.
+All this patriotic and historic verse, like the earlier and ruder
+_Albion's England_ (1586) of William Warner, or Fitzgeoffrey's poem upon
+Drake, or the outbursts of Spenser, was written during or inspired by
+the last twenty years of the queen's reign; and the same is true of
+Shakespeare's and most of the other history plays, which duly eclipsed
+the formal, rusty-gray chronicle poem of the type of the _Mirror for
+Magistrates_, though editions (1559-1610) of the latter were long
+repeated. Patriotic verse outside the theatre, however, full of zeal,
+started at a disadvantage compared with love-sonnet, song, or mythic
+narrative, because it had no models before it in other lands, and
+remained therefore the more shapeless.
+
+
+  Sonnets.
+
+The English love-sonnet, brought in by Wyatt and rifest between 1590 and
+1600, was revived as a purely studious imitation by Watson in his
+_Hekatompathia_ (1582), a string of translations in one of the
+exceptional measures that were freely entitled "sonnets." But from the
+first, in the hands of Sidney, whose _Astrophel and Stella_ (1591) was
+written, as remarked above, about 1581, the sonnet was ever ready to
+pulse into feeling, and to flash into unborrowed beauty, embodying
+sometimes dramatic fancy and often living experience. These three fibres
+of imitation, imagination and confession are intertwisted beyond
+severance in many of the cycles, and now one, now another is uppermost.
+Incaution might read a personal diary into Thomas Lodge's _Phillis_
+(1593), which is often a translation from Ronsard. Literal judges have
+announced that Shakespeare's _Sonnets_ are but his mode of taking
+exercise. But there is poetry in "God's plenty" almost everywhere; and
+few of the series fail of lovely lines or phrasing or even of perfect
+sonnets. This holds of Henry Constable's _Diana_ (1592), of the
+_Parthenophil and Parthenophe_ of Barnabe Barnes (1593), inebriate with
+poetry, and of the stray minor groups, _Alcilia, Licia, Caelia_; while
+the _Caelica_ of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, in irregular form, is full
+of metaphysical passion struggling to be delivered. _Astrophel and
+Stella_, Drayton's _Idea_ (1594-1619), Spenser's _Amoretti_ and
+Shakespeare's _Sonnets_ (printed 1609) are addressed to definite and
+probably to known persons, and are charged with true poetic rage,
+ecstatic or plaintive, desperate or solemn, if they are also
+intermingled with the mere word-play that mocks or beguiles the ebb of
+feeling, or with the purely plastic work that is done for solace. In
+most of these series, as in Daniel's paler but exquisitely-wrought
+_Delia_ (1591-1592), the form is that of the three separate quatrains
+with the closing couplet for emotional and melodic climax; a scheme
+slowly but defiantly evolved, through traceable gradations, from that
+stricter one of Italy, which Drummond and Milton revived, and where the
+crisis properly coincides with the change from octave to sestet.
+
+
+  Mythic poems.
+
+The amorous mythologic tale in verse derives immediately from
+contemporary Italy, but in the beginning from Ovid, whose
+_Metamorphoses_, familiar in Golding's old version (1555-1557),
+furnished descriptions, decorations and many tales, while his _Heroides_
+gave Chaucer and Boccaccio a model for the self-anatomy of tragic or
+plaintive sentiment. Within ten years, between 1588 and 1598, during the
+early sonnet-vogue, appeared Lodge's _Scillaes Metamorphosis_,
+Shakespeare's _Venus and Adonis_ and _Rape of Lucrece_, Marlowe's _Hero
+and Leander_ and Drayton's _Endimion and Phoebe_. Shakespeare owed
+something to Lodge, and Drayton to Marlowe. All these points describe a
+love-situation at length, and save in one instance they describe it from
+without. The exception is Marlowe, who achieves a more than Sicilian
+perfection; he says everything, and is equal to everything that he has
+to say. In _Venus and Adonis_ the poet is enamoured less of love than of
+the tones and poses of lovers and of the beauty and gallant motion of
+animals, while in The _Rape of Lucrece_ he is intent on the gradations
+of lust, shame and indignation, in which he has a spectator's interest.
+Virtuosity, or the delight of the executant in his own brilliant
+cunning, is the mark of most of these pieces.
+
+
+  Lyric.
+
+If we go to the lyrics, the versified mythic tales and the sonnets of
+Elizabethan times for the kind of feeling that Molière's Alceste loved
+and that Burns and Shelley poured into song, we shall often come away
+disappointed, and think the old poetry heartless. But it is not
+heartless, any more than it is always impassioned or personal; it is
+decorative. The feeling is often that of the craftsman; it is not of the
+singer who spends his vital essence in song and commands an answering
+thrill so long as his native language is alive or understood. The arts
+that deal with ivories or enamelling or silver suggest themselves while
+we watch the delighted tinting and chasing, the sense for gesture and
+grouping (in _Venus and Adonis_), or the delicate beating out of rhyme
+in a madrigal, or the designing of a single motive, or two contrasted
+motives, within the panel of the sonnet. And soon it is evident how
+passion and emotion readily become plastic matter too, whether they be
+drawn from books or observation or self-scrutiny. This is above all the
+case in the sonnet; but it is found in the lyric as well. The result is
+a wonderful fertility of lyrical pattern, a wonderfully diffused power
+of lyrical execution, never to recur at any later time of English
+literature. Wyatt had to recover the very form of such verse from
+oblivion, and this he did in the school of translation and adaptation.
+Not only the decasyllabic, but the lyric, in short lines had almost died
+out of memory, and Wyatt brought it back. From his day to Spenser's
+there is not much lyric that is noteworthy, though in Gascoigne and
+others the impulse is seen. The introduction of Italian music, with its
+favourite metrical schemes, such as the madrigal, powerfully schooled
+and coloured lyric: in especial, the caressing double ending, regular in
+Italian but heavier in English, became common. The Italian poems were
+often translated in their own measure, line by line, and the musical
+setting retained. Their tunes, or other tunes, were then coupled with
+new and original poems; and both appeared together in the song-books of
+Dowland the lutanist, of Jones and Byrd (1588), and in chief (1601-1619)
+of Thomas Campion. The words of Campion's songs are not only supremely
+musical in the wider sense, but are chosen for their singing quality.
+Misled awhile by the heresy that rhyme was wrong, he was yet a master of
+lovely rhyming, as well as of a lyrical style of great range, gaily or
+gravely happy. But, as with most of his fellows, singing is rather his
+calling than his consolation. The lyrics that are sprinkled in plays and
+romances are the finest of this period, and perhaps, in their kind, of
+any period. Shakespeare is the greatest in this province also; but the
+power of infallible and unforgettable song is often granted to slighter,
+gentler playwrights like Greene and Dekker, while it is denied to men of
+weightier build and sterner purpose like Chapman and Jonson. The songs
+of Jonson are indeed at their best of absolute and antique finish; but
+the irrevocable dew of night or dawn seldom lies upon them as it lies on
+the songs of Webster or of Fletcher. The best lyrics in the plays are
+dramatic; they must be read in their own setting. While the action
+stops, they seize and dally with the dominant emotion of the scene, and
+yet relieve it. The songs of Lodge and Breton, of Drayton and Daniel, of
+Oxford and Raleigh, and the fervid brief flights of the Jesuit
+Southwell, show the omnipresence of the vital gift, whether among
+professional writers of the journalistic type, or among poets whose gift
+was not primarily song, or among men of action and quality or men of
+religion, who only wrote when they were stirred. Lullaby and valentine
+and compliment, and love-plaint ranging from gallantry to desperation,
+are all there: and the Fortunate Hour, which visits commonly only a few
+men in a generation, and those but now and then in their lives, is never
+far off. But the master of melody, Spenser, left no songs, apart from
+his two insuperable wedding odes. And religious lyric is rarer before
+the reign of James. Much of the best lyric is saved for us by the
+various Miscellanies, _A Handful of Pleasant Delights_ (1584), the
+_Phoenix Nest_ (1593) and Davison's _Poetical Rhapsody_ (1602); while
+other such collections, like _England's Helicon_ (1600), were chiefly
+garlands of verse that was already in print.
+
+There is plenty of satiric anger and raillery in the spirit of the time,
+but the most genuine part of it is drawn off into drama. Except for
+stray passages in Spenser, Drayton and others, formal satire, though
+profuse, was a literary unreal thing, a pose in the manner of Persius or
+Juvenal, and tiresome in expression. In this kind only Donne triumphed.
+The attempts of Lodge and Hall and Marston and John Davies of Hereford
+and Guilpin and Wither are for the most part simply weariful in
+different ways, and satire waited for Dryden and his age. The attempt,
+however, persisted throughout. Wyatt was the first and last who
+succeeded in the genial, natural Horatian style.
+
+
+  Metaphysical or fantastic schools.
+
+_Verse from Donne to Milton_.--As the age of Elizabeth receded, some
+changes came slowly over non-dramatic verse. In Jonson, as in John Donne
+(1573-1631), one of the greater poets of the nation, and in many writers
+after Donne, may be traced a kind of Counter-Renaissance, or revulsion
+against the natural man and his claims to pleasure--a revulsion from
+which regret for pleasure lost is seldom far. Poetry becomes more
+ascetic and mystical, and this feeling takes shelter alike in the
+Anglican and in the Roman faith. George Herbert (_The Temple_, 1633),
+the most popular, quaint and pious of the school, but the least
+poetical; Crashaw, with his one ecstatic vision (_The Flaming Heart_)
+and occasional golden stanzas; Henry Vaughan, who wrote from 1646 to
+1678, with his mystical landscape and magical cadences; and Thomas
+Traherne, his fellow-dreamer, are the best known of the religious
+Fantastics. But, earlier than most of these are Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury, and Habington with his _Castara_ (1634), who show the same
+temper, if a fitful power and felicity. Such writers form the devouter
+section of the famous "metaphysical" or "fantastic" school, which
+includes, besides Donne its founder, pure amorists like Carew (whose
+touch on certain rhythms has no fellow), young academic followers like
+Cartwright and Cleveland (in whom survives the vein of satire that also
+marks the school), and Abraham Cowley, who wrote from 1633 to 1678, and
+was perhaps the most acceptable living poet about the middle of the
+century. In his _Life of Cowley_ Johnson tramples on the "metaphysical"
+poets and their vices, and he is generally right in detail. The shock of
+cold quaintness, which every one of them continually administers, is
+fatal. Johnson only erred in ignoring all their virtues and all their
+historical importance.
+
+In Donne poetry became deeply intellectualized, and in temper
+disquisitive and introspective. The poet's emotion is played with in a
+cat-and-mouse fashion, and he torments it subtly. Donne's passion is so
+real, if so unheard-of, and his brain so finely-dividing, that he can
+make almost any image, even the remotest, even the commonest, poetical.
+His satires, his _Valentine_, his _Litany_, and his lyric or odic pieces
+in general, have an insolent and sudden daring which is warranted by
+deep-seated power and is only equalled by a few of those tragedians who
+are his nearest of kin. The recurring contrast of "wit" or intelligence,
+and "will" or desire, their struggle, their mutual illumination, their
+fusion as into some third and undiscovered element of human nature, are
+but one idiosyncrasy of Donne's intricate soul, whose general progress,
+so far as his dateless poems permit of its discovery, seems to have been
+from a paganism that is unashamed but crossed with gusts of compunction,
+to a mystical and otherwordly temper alloyed with covetous regrets. The
+_Anatomy of the World_ and other ambitious pieces have the same quality
+amid their outrageous strangeness. In Donne and his successors the
+merely ingenious and ransacking intellect often came to overbalance
+truth and passion; and hence arose conceits and abstract verbiage, and
+the difficulty of finding a perfect poem, however brief, despite the
+omnipresence of the poetic gift. The "fantastic" school, if it contains
+some of the rarest sallies and passages in English, is one of the least
+satisfactory. Its faults only exaggerate those of Sidney, Greville and
+Shakespeare, who often misuse homely or technical metaphor; and English
+verse shared, by coincidence not by borrowing, and with variations of
+its own, in the general strain and torture of style that was besetting
+so many poets of the Latin countries. Yet these poets well earn the name
+of metaphysical, not for their philosophic phrasing, but for the
+shuttle-flight of their fancy to and fro between the things of earth and
+the realities of spirit that lie beyond the screen of the flesh.
+
+
+  Rhythm.
+
+Between Spenser and Milton many measures of lyrical and other poetry
+were modified. Donne's frequent use of roughly-accentual, almost
+tuneless lines is unexplained and was not often followed. Rhythm in
+general came to be studied more for its own sake, and the study was
+rewarded. The lovely cordial music of Carew's amorous iambics, or of
+Wither's trochees, or of Crashaw's odes, or of Marvell's octo-syllables,
+has never been regained. The formal ode set in, sometimes regularly
+"Pindaric" in strophe-grouping, sometimes irregularly "Pindaric" as in
+Cowley's experiments. Above all, the heroic couplet, of the isolated,
+balanced, rhetorical order, such as Spenser, Drayton, Fairfax and
+Sylvester, the translator (1590-1606) of Du Bartas, had often used,
+began to be a regular instrument of verse, and that for special purposes
+which soon became lastingly associated with it. The flatteries of Edmund
+Waller and the Ovidian translations of Sandys dispute the priority for
+smoothness and finish, though the fame was Waller's for two generations;
+but Denham's overestimated _Cooper's Hill_ (1642), Cowley's _Davideis_
+(1656), and even Ogilby's _Aeneid_ made the path plainer for Dryden, the
+first sovereign of the rhetorical couplet which throve as blank verse
+declined. Sonnet and madrigal were the favoured measures of William
+Drummond of Hawthornden, a real and exquisite poet of the studio, who
+shows the general drift of verse towards sequestered and religious
+feeling. Drummond's _Poems_ of 1616 and _Flowers of Zion_ (1623) are
+full of Petrarch and Plato as well as of Christian resignation, and he
+kept alive the artistry of phrasing and versification in a time of
+indiscipline and conflicting forms. William Browne has been named as a
+Spenserian, but his _Britannia's_ Pastorals (1613-1616), with their
+slowly-rippling and overflowing couplets which influenced Keats, were a
+medley of a novel kind. George Wither may equally rank among the lighter
+followers of Spenser, the easy masters of lyrical narrative, and the
+devotional poets. But his _Shepherd's Hunting_ and other pieces in his
+volume of 1622 contain lovely landscapes, partly English and partly
+artificial, and stand far above his pious works, and still further above
+the dreary satires which he lived to continue after the Restoration.
+
+
+  Herrick.
+
+  The long poem.
+
+Of poets yet unmentioned, Robert Herrick is the chief, with his two
+thousand lyrics and epigrams, gathered in _Hesperides_ and _Noble
+Numbers_ (1648). His power of song and sureness of cadence are not
+excelled within his range of topic, which includes flowers and
+maidens--whom he treats as creatures of the same race--and the swift
+decay of both their beauties, and secular regret over this decay and his
+own mortality and the transience of amorous pleasure, and the virtues of
+his friends, and country sports and lore, and religious compunction for
+his own paganism. The _Hesperides_ are pure Renaissance work, in natural
+sympathy with the Roman elegiac writings and with the Pseudo-Anacreon.
+Cowley is best where he is nearest Herrick, and his posy of short lyrics
+outlives his "epic and Pindaric art." There are many writers who last by
+virtue of one or two poems; Suckling by his adept playfulness, Lovelace
+and Montrose by a few gallant stanzas, and many a nameless poet by many
+a consummate cadence. It is the age of sudden flights and brief
+perfections. All the farther out of reach, yet never wholly despaired of
+or unattempted in England, was the "long poem," heroical and noble, the
+"phantom epic," that shadow of the ancient masterpieces, which had
+striven to life in Italy and France. Davenant's _Gondibert_ (1651),
+Cowley's _Davideis_ and Chamberlayne's _Pharonnida_ (1659) attest the
+effort which Milton in 1658 resumed with triumph. These works have
+between them all the vices possible to epic verse, dulness and flatness,
+faintness and quaintness and incoherence. But there is some poetry in
+each of them, and in _Pharonnida_ there is far more than enough poetry
+to save it.
+
+
+  Milton.
+
+Few writers have found a flawless style of their own so early in life as
+John Milton (1608-1674). His youthful pieces show some signs of Spenser
+and the Caroline fantastics; but soon his vast poetical reading ran
+clear and lay at the service of his talent. His vision and phrasing of
+natural things were already original in the _Nativity Ode_, written when
+he was twenty; and, there also, his versification was already that of a
+master, of a renovator. The pensive and figured beauty of _L'Allegro_
+and _Il Penseroso_, two contrasted emblematic panels, the high innocent
+Platonism and golden blank verse of the _Comus_ (1634); the birth of
+long-sleeping power in the _Lycidas_ (1637), with its unapproached
+contrivance both in evolution and detail, where the precious essences of
+earlier myth and pastoral seem to be distilled for an offering in honour
+of the tombless friend;--the newness, the promise, the sureness of it
+all amid the current schools! The historian finds in these poems, with
+their echoes of Plato and Sannazzaro, of Geoffrey of Monmouth and St
+John, the richest and most perfect instance of the studious, decorative
+Renaissance style, and is not surprised to find Milton's scholars a
+century later in the age of Gray. The critic, while feeling that the
+strictly lyrical, spontaneous element is absent, is all the more baffled
+by the skill and enduring charm. The sonnets were written before or
+during Milton's long immersion (1637-1658) in prose and warfare, and
+show the same gifts. They are not cast in the traditional form of
+love-cycle, but are occasional poems; in metre they revert, not always
+strictly but once or twice in full perfection, to the Italian scheme;
+and they recall not Petrarch but the spiritual elegies or patriot
+exaltations of Dante or Guidiccioni.
+
+Milton also had a medieval side to his brain, as the _History of
+Britain_ shows. The heroic theme, which he had resolved from his youth
+up to celebrate, at last, after many hesitations, proved to be the fall
+of man. This, for one of his creed and for the audience he desired, was
+the greatest theme of all. Its scene was the Ptolemaic universe with the
+Christian heaven and hell inserted. The time, indicated by retrospect
+and prophecy, was the whole of that portion of eternity, from the
+creation of Christ to the doomsday, of which the history was sacredly
+revealed. The subject and the general span of the action went back to
+the popular mystery play; and Milton at first planned out _Paradise
+Lost_ as such a play, with certain elements of classic tragedy embodied.
+But according to the current theory the epic, not the drama, was the
+noblest form of verse; and, feeling where his power lay, he adopted the
+epic. The subject, therefore, was partly medieval, partly
+Protestant,--for Milton was a true Protestant in having a variant of
+doctrine shared by no other mortal. But the ordering and presentment,
+with their overture, their interpolated episodes or narratives, their
+journeys between Olympus, Earth and hell, invocations, set similes,
+battles and divine thunderbolts, are those of the classical epic. Had
+Milton shared the free thought as well as the scholarship of the
+Renaissance, the poem could never have existed. With all his range of
+soul and skill, he had a narrower speculative brain than any poet of
+equal gift; and this was well for his great and peculiar task. But
+whatever Milton may fail to be, his heroic writing is the permanent and
+absolute expression of something that in the English stock is
+inveterate--the Promethean self-possession of the mind in defeat, its
+right to solitude there, its claim to judge and deny the victor. This is
+the spirit of his devils, beside whom his divinities, his unfallen
+angels (Abdiel excepted), and even his human couple with their radiance
+and beauty of line, all seem shadowy. The discord between Milton's
+doctrine and his sympathies in _Paradise Lost_ (1667) has never escaped
+notice. The discord between his doctrine and his culture comes out in
+_Paradise Regained_ (1671), when he has at once to reprobate and
+glorify Athens, the "mother of arts." In this afterthought to the
+earlier epic the action is slight, the Enemy has lost spirit, and the
+Christ is something of a pedagogue. But there is a new charm in its
+even, grey desert tint, sprinkled with illuminations of gold and luxury.
+In _Samson Agonistes_ (1671) the ethical treatment as well as the
+machinery is Sophoclean, and the theology not wholly Christian. But the
+fault of Samson is forgotten in his suffering, which is Milton's own;
+and thus a cross-current of sympathy is set up, which may not be much in
+keeping with the story, but revives the somewhat exhausted interest and
+heightens a few passages into a bare and inaccessible grandeur.
+
+The essential solitude of Milton's energies is best seen in his later
+style and versification. When he resumed poetry about 1658, he had
+nothing around him to help him as an artist in heroic language. The most
+recent memories of the drama were also the worst; the forms of Cowley
+and Davenant, the would-be epic poets, were impossible. Spenser's manner
+was too even and fluid as a rule for such a purpose, and his power was
+of an alien kind. Thus Milton went back, doubtless full of Greek and
+Latin memories, to Marlowe, Shakespeare and others among the greater
+dramatists (including John Ford); and their tragic diction and measure
+are the half-hidden bases of his own. The product, however, is unlike
+anything except the imitations of itself. The incongruous elements of
+the _Paradise Lost_ and its divided sympathies are cemented, at least
+superficially, by its style, perhaps the surest for dignity, character
+and beauty that any Germanic language has yet developed. If dull and
+pedantic over certain stretches, it is usually infallible. It is many
+styles in one, and Time has laid no hand on it. In these three later
+poems its variety can be seen. It is perfect in personal invocation and
+appeal; in the complex but unfigured rhetoric of the speeches; in
+narrative of all kinds; for the inlaying work of simile or scenery or
+pageant, where the quick, pure impressions of Milton's youth and
+prime--possibly kept fresher by his blindness--are felt through the
+sometimes conventional setting; and for soliloquy and choric speech of a
+might unapproachable since Dante. To these calls his blank verse
+responds at every point. It is the seal of Milton's artistry, as of his
+self-confidence, for it greatly extends, for the epical purpose, all the
+known powers and liberties of the metre; and yet, as has often been
+shown, it does so not spasmodically but within fixed technical laws or
+rather habits. Latterly, the underlying metrical _ictus_ is at times
+hard to detect. But Milton remains by far the surest and greatest
+instrumentalist, outside the drama, on the English unrhymed line. He
+would, however, have scorned to be judged on his form alone. His soul
+and temper are not merely unique in force. Their historic and
+representative character ensure attention, so long as the oppositions of
+soul and temper in the England of Milton's time remain, as they still
+are, the deepest in the national life. He is sometimes said to harmonize
+the Renaissance and the Puritan spirit; but he does not do this, for
+nothing can do it. The Puritan spirit is the deep thing in Milton; all
+his culture only gives immortal form to its expression. The critics have
+instinctively felt that this is true; and that is why their political
+and religious prepossessions have nearly always coloured, and perhaps
+must colour, every judgment passed upon him. Not otherwise can he be
+taken seriously, until historians are without public passions and
+convictions, or the strife between the hierarch and the Protestant is
+quenched in English civilization.
+
+
+  Drama.
+
+_Drama, 1580-1642_.--We must now go back to the drama, which lies behind
+Milton, and is the most individual product of all English Literature.
+The nascent drama of genius can be found in the "University wits," who
+flourished between 1580 and 1595, and the chief of whom are Lyly, Kyd,
+Peele, Greene and Marlowe. John Lyly is the first practitioner in
+prose--of shapely comic plot and pointed talk--the artificial but actual
+talk of courtly masquers who rally one another with a bright and barren
+finish that is second nature. _Campaspe_, _Sapho and Phao_, _Midas_, and
+Lyly's other comedies, mostly written from 1580 to 1591, are frail
+vessels, often filled with compliment, mythological allegory, or topical
+satire, and enamelled with pastoral interlude and flower-like song. The
+work of Thomas Kyd, especially _The Spanish Tragedy_ (written c. 1585),
+was the most violent effort to put new wine into the old Senecan
+bottles, and he probably wrote the lost pre-Shakespearian _Hamlet_. He
+transmitted to the later drama that subject of pious but ruinous
+revenge, which is used by Chapman, Marston, Webster and many others; and
+his chief play was translated and long acted in Germany. Kyd's want of
+modulation is complete, but he commands a substantial skill of dramatic
+mechanism, and he has more than the feeling for power, just as Peele and
+Greene have more than the feeling for luxury or grace. To the expression
+of luxury Peele's often stately blank verse is well fitted, and it is by
+far the most correct and musical before Marlowe's, as his _Arraignment
+of Paris_ (1584) and his _David and Bethsabe_ attest. Greene did
+something to create the blank verse of gentle comedy, and to introduce
+the tone of idyll and chivalry, in his _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_
+(1594). Otherwise these writers, with Nashe and Lodge, fall into the
+wake of Marlowe.
+
+
+  Marlowe.
+
+_Tamburlaine_, in two parts (part i. c. 1587), _The Life and Death of
+Doctor Faustus_, _The Jew of Malta_, _Edward II._ (the first chronicle
+play of genius), and the incomplete poem _Hero and Leander_ are
+Christopher Marlowe's title-deeds (1564-1593). He established tragedy,
+and inspired its master, and created for it an adequate diction and
+versification. His command of vibrant and heroic recitative should not
+obscure his power, in his greater passages, describing the descent of
+Helen, the passing of Mortimer, and the union of Hero and Leander, to
+attain a kind of Greek transparency and perfection. The thirst for ideal
+beauty, for endless empire, and for prohibited knowledge, no poet has
+better expressed, and in this respect Giordano Bruno is nearest him in
+his own time. This thirst is his own; his great cartoon-figures,
+gigantic rather than heroic, proclaim it for him: their type recurs
+through the drama, from Richard III. to Dryden's orotund heroes; but in
+_Faustus_ and in _Edward II._ they become real, almost human beings. His
+constructive gift is less developed in proportion, though Goethe praised
+the planning-out of _Faustus_. The glory and influence of Marlowe on the
+side of form rest largely on his meteoric blank lines, which are varied
+not a little, and nobly harmonized into periods, and resonant with names
+to the point of splendid extravagance; and their sound is heard in
+Milton, whom he taught how to express the grief and despair of demons
+dissatisfied with their kingdom. Shakespeare did not excel Marlowe in
+Marlowe's own excellences, though he humanized Marlowe's Jew, launched
+his own blank verse on the tide of Marlowe's oratory, and modulated, in
+_Richard II._, his master's type of chronicle tragedy.
+
+
+  Shakespeare.
+
+  1590-1595.
+
+As the middle ages receded, the known life of man upon this earth became
+of sovereign interest, and of this interest the drama is the freest
+artistic expression. If Marlowe is the voice of the impulse to explore,
+the plays of Shakespeare are the amplest freight brought home by any
+voyager. Shakespeare is not only the greatest but the earliest English
+dramatist who took humanity for his province. But this he did not do
+from the beginning. He was at first subdued to what he worked in; and
+though the dry pedantic tragedy was shattered and could not touch him,
+the gore and rant, the impure though genuine force of Kyd do not seem at
+first to have repelled him; if, as is likely, he had a hand in _Titus
+Andronicus_. He probably served with Marlowe and others of the school at
+various stages in the composition of the three chronicle dramas finally
+entitled _Henry VI_. But besides the high-superlative style that is
+common to them all, there runs through them the rhymed rhetoric with
+which Shakespeare dallied for some time, as well as the softer
+flute-notes and deeper undersong that foretell his later blank verse. In
+_Richard III._, though it is built on the scheme and charged with the
+style of Marlowe, Shakespeare first showed the intensity of his original
+power. But after a few years he swept out of Marlowe's orbit into his
+own vaster and unreturning curve. In _King John_ the lyrical, epical,
+satirical and pathetic chords are all present, if they are scarcely
+harmonized. Meantime, Lyly and Greene having displaced the uncouther
+comedy, Shakespeare learned all they had to teach, and shaped the comedy
+of poetic, chivalrous fancy and good-tempered high spirits, which showed
+him the way of escape from his own rhetoric, and enabled him to perfect
+his youthful, noble and gentle blank verse. This attained its utmost
+fineness in _Richard II._, and its full cordiality and beauty in the
+other plays that consummate this period--_A Midsummer Night's Dream_,
+_The Merchant of Venice_, and one romantic tragedy, _Romeo and Juliet_.
+Behind them lay the earlier and fainter romances, with their chivalry
+and gaiety, _The Comedy of Errors_, _Love's Labour's Lost_ and _The Two
+Gentlemen of Verona_. Throughout these years blank verse contended with
+rhyme, which Shakespeare after a while abandoned save for special
+purposes, as though he had exhausted its honey. The Italian Renaissance
+is felt in the scenery and setting of these plays. The _novella_
+furnishes the story, which passes in a city of the Southern type, with
+its absolute ruler, its fantastic by-laws on which the plot nominally
+turns, and its mixture of real life and marvel. The personages, at first
+fainter of feature and symmetrically paired, soon assume sharper
+outline: Richard II. and Shylock, Portia and Juliet, and Juliet's Nurse
+and Bottom are created. The _novella_ has left the earth and taken
+wings: the spirit is now that of youth and Fancy (or love brooding among
+the shallows) with interludes of "fierce vexation," or of tragedy, or of
+kindly farce. And there is a visionary element, felt in the musings of
+Theseus upon the nature of poetry of the dream-faculty itself; an
+element which is new, like the use made of fairy folklore, in the poetry
+of England.
+
+
+  1596-1600.
+
+Tragedy is absent in the succeeding histories (1597-1599), and the
+comedies of wit and romance (1599-1600), in which Shakespeare perfected
+his style for stately, pensive or boisterous themes. Falstaff, the most
+popular as he is the wittiest of all imaginable comic persons,
+dominates, as to their prose or lower world, the two parts of _Henry
+IV._, and its interlude or offshoot, _The Merry Wives of Windsor_. The
+play that celebrates Henry V. is less a drama than a pageant,
+diversified with mighty orations and cheerful humours, and filled with
+the love of Shakespeare for England. Here the most indigenous form of
+art invented by the English Renaissance reaches its climax. The
+Histories are peopled chiefly by men and warriors, of whom Hotspur,
+"dying in his excellence and flower," is perhaps more attractive than
+Henry of Agincourt. But in the "middle comedies," _As You Like It_,
+_Much Ado_, and _Twelfth Night_, the warriors are home at court, where
+women rule the scene and deserve to rule it; for their wit now gives the
+note; and Shakespeare's prose, the medium of their talk, has a finer
+grace and humour than ever before, euphuism lying well in subjection
+behind it.
+
+
+  1601-1608.
+
+Mankind and this world have never been so sharply sifted or so sternly
+consoled, since Lucretius, as in Shakespeare's tragedies. The energy
+which created them evades, like that of the sun, our estimate. But they
+were not out of relation to their time, the first few years of the reign
+of James, with its conspiracies, its Somerset and Overbury horrors, its
+enigmatic and sombre figures like Raleigh, and its revulsion from
+Elizabethan buoyancy. In the same decade were written the chief
+tragedies of Jonson, Chapman, Dekker, Marston, Tourneur; and _The White
+Devil_, and _A Yorkshire Tragedy_, and _The Maid's Tragedy_, and _A
+Woman Killed with Kindness_. But, in spite of Shakespeare's affinities
+with these authors at many points, _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_, _Lear_,
+_Othello_, with the three Roman plays (written at intervals and not
+together), and the two quasi-antique plays _Troilus and Cressida_, and
+_Timon of Athens_, form a body of drama apart from anything else in the
+world. They reveal a new tragic philosophy, a new poetic style, a new
+dramatic technique and a new world of characters. In one way above all
+Shakespeare stands apart; he not only appropriates the ancient pattern
+of heroism, of right living and right dying, revealed by North's
+Plutarch; others did this also; but the intellectual movement of the
+time, though by no means fully reflected, is reflected in his tragedies
+far more than elsewhere. The new and troublous thoughts on man and
+conduct that were penetrating the general mind, the freedom and play of
+vision that Montaigne above all had stimulated, here find their fullest
+scope; and Florio's translation (1603) of Montaigne's Essays, coming out
+between the first and the second versions of Shakespeare's _Hamlet_,
+counted probably for more than any other book. The _Sonnets_ (published
+1609) are also full of far-wandering thoughts on truth and beauty and on
+good and evil. The story they reveal may be ranked with the situations
+of the stranger dramas like _Troilus_ and _Measure for Measure_. But
+whether or no it is a true story, and the Sonnets in the main a
+confession, they would be at the very worst a perfect dramatic record of
+a great poet's suffering and friendship.
+
+
+  Last period.
+
+Shakespeare's last period, that of his tragi-comedies, begins about 1608
+with his contributions to _Pericles, Prince of Tyre_. For unknown
+reasons he was moved, about the time of his retirement home, to record,
+as though in justice to the world, the happy turns by which tragic
+disaster is at times averted. _Pericles_, _The Winter's Tale_,
+_Cymbeline_, and _The Tempest_ all move, after a series of crimes,
+calumnies, or estrangements, to some final scene of enthralling beauty,
+where the lost reappear and love is recovered; as though after all the
+faint and desperate last partings--of Lear and Cordelia, of Hamlet and
+Horatio--which Shakespeare had imagined, he must make retrieval with the
+picture of young and happy creatures whose life renews hope even in the
+experienced. To this end he chose the loose action and free atmosphere
+of the _roman d'aventure_, which had already been adapted by Beaumont
+and Fletcher, who may herein have furnished Shakespeare with novel and
+successful theatrical effects, and who certainly in turn studied his
+handiwork. In _The Tempest_ this tragi-comic scheme is fitted to the
+tales brought by explorers of far isles, wild men, strange gods and airy
+music. Even if it be true that in Prospero's words the poet bids
+farewell to his magic, he took part later nevertheless in the
+composition of _Henry VIII._; and not improbably also in _The Two Noble
+Kinsmen_. His share in two early pieces, _Arden of Feversham_ (1592) and
+_Edward III._, has been urged, never established, and of many other
+dramas he was once idly accused.
+
+Shakespeare's throne rests on the foundation of three equal and master
+faculties. One is that of expression and versification; the next is the
+invention and presentation of human character in action; the third is
+the theatrical faculty. The writing of Dante may seem to us more
+steadily great and perfect, when we remember Shakespeare's conceits, his
+experiments, his haste and impatience in his long wrestle with tragic
+language, his not infrequent sheer infelicities. But Dante is always
+himself, he had not to find words for hundreds of imaginary persons.
+Balzac, again, may have created and exhibited as many types of mankind,
+but except in soul he is not a poet. Shakespeare is a supreme if not
+infallible poet; his verse, often of an antique simplicity or of a rich,
+harmonious, romantic perfection, is at other times strained and
+shattered with what it tries to express, and attains beauty only through
+discord. He is also many persons in one; in his _Sonnets_ he is even, it
+may be thought, himself. But he had furthermore to study a personality
+not of his own fancying--with something in it of Caliban, of Dogberry
+and of Cleopatra--that of the audience in a playhouse. He belongs
+distinctly to the poets like Jonson and Massinger who are true to their
+art as practical dramatists, not to the poets like Chapman whose works
+chance to be in the form of plays. Shakespeare's mastery of this art is
+approved now by every nation. But apart from the skill that makes him
+eternally actable--the skill of raising, straining and relieving the
+suspense, and bringing it to such an ending as the theatre will
+tolerate--he played upon every chord in his own hearers. He frankly
+enlisted Jew-hatred, Pope-hatred and France-hatred; he flattered the
+queen, and celebrated the Union, and stormed the house with his
+_fanfare_ over the national soldier, Henry of Agincourt, and glorified
+England, as in _Cymbeline_, to the last. But in deeper ways he is the
+chief of playwrights. Unlike another master, Ibsen, he nearly always
+tells us, without emphasis, by the words and behaviour of his
+characters, which of them we are to love and hate, and when we are to
+love and when to hate those whom we can neither love nor hate wholly.
+Yet he is not to be bribed, and deals to his characters something of the
+same injustice or rough justice that is found in real life. His loyalty
+to life, as well as to the stage, puts the crown on his felicity and his
+fertility, and raises him to his solitude of dramatic greatness.
+
+
+  Jonson.
+
+Shakespeare's method could not be imparted, and despite reverberations
+in Beaumont, Fletcher, Webster and others he left no school. But his
+friend Ben Jonson, his nearest equal in vigour of brain, though not in
+poetical intuition, was the greatest of dramatic influences down to the
+shutting of the theatres in 1642, and his comedies found fresh disciples
+even after 1660. He had "the devouring eye and the portraying hand"; he
+could master and order the contents of a mighty if somewhat burdensome
+memory into an organic drama, whether the matter lay in Roman historians
+or before his eyes in the London streets. He had an armoury of doctrine,
+drawn from the _Poetics_ and Horace, which moulded his creative
+practice. This was also partly founded on a revulsion against the plays
+around him, with their loose build and moral improbabilities. But in
+spite of his photographic and constructive power, his vision is too
+seldom free and genial; it is that of the satirist who thinks that his
+office is to improve mankind by derisively representing it. And he does
+this by beginning with the "humour," or abstract idiosyncrasy or
+quality, and clothing it with accurately minute costume and gesture, so
+that it may pass for a man; and indeed the result is as real as many a
+man, and in his best-tempered and youthful comedy, _Every Man in his
+Humour_ (acted 1598), it is very like life. In Jonson's monumental
+pieces, _Volpone or the Fox_ (acted 1605) and _The Alchemist_ (acted
+1610), our laughter is arrested by the lowering and portentous
+atmosphere, or is loud and hard, startled by the enormous skill and
+energy displayed. Nor are the joy and relief of poetical comedy given
+for an instant by _The Silent Woman_, _Bartholomew Fair_ (acted 1614),
+or _The Staple of News_, still less by topical plays like _Cynthia's
+Revels_, though their unfailing farce and rampant fun are less charged
+with contempt. The erudite tragedies, _Sejanus_ (acted 1603) and
+_Catiline_, chiefly live by passages of high forensic power. Jonson's
+finer elegies, eulogies and lyrics, which are many, and his fragmentary
+_Sad Shepherd_, show that he also had a free and lovely talent, often
+smothered by doctrine and temper; and his verse, usually strong but full
+of knots and snags, becomes flowing and graciously finished. His prose
+is of the best, especially in his _Discoveries_, a series of ethical
+essays and critical maxims; its prevalently brief and emphatic rhythms
+suggesting those of Hobbes, and even, though less easy and civil and
+various, those of Dryden. The "sons" of Jonson, Randolph and Browne,
+Shadwell and Wilson, were heirs rather to his riot of "humours," his
+learned method and satiric aim, than to his larger style, his
+architectural power, or his relieving graces.
+
+
+  Romantic drama.
+
+As a whole, the romantic drama (so to entitle the remaining bulk of
+plays down to 1642) is a vast stifled jungle, full of wild life and
+song, with strange growths and heady perfumes, with glades of sunshine
+and recesses of poisoned darkness; it is not a cleared forest, where
+single and splendid trees grow to shapely perfection. It has "poetry
+enough for anything"; passionate situations, and their eloquence; and a
+number, doubtless small considering its mass, of living and memorable
+personages. Moral keeping and constructive mastery are rarer still; and
+too seldom through a whole drama do we see human life and hear its
+voices, arranged and orchestrated by the artist. But it can be truly
+said in defence that while structure without poetry is void (as it
+tended at times to be in Ben Jonson), poetry without structure is still
+poetry, and that the romantic drama is like nothing else in this world
+for variety of accent and unexpectedness of beauty. We must read it
+through, as Charles Lamb did, to do it justice. The diffusion of its
+characteristic excellences is surprising. Of its extant plays it is
+hardly safe to leave one unopened, if we are searchers for whatsoever is
+lovely or admirable. The reasons for the lack of steadfast power and
+artistic conscience lay partly in the conditions of the stage.
+Playwrights usually wrote rapidly for bread, and sold their rights. The
+performances of each play were few. There was no authors' copyright, and
+dramas were made to be seen and heard, not to be read. There was no
+articulate dramatic criticism, except such as we find casually in
+Shakespeare, and in the practice and theory of Jonson, who was deaf or
+hostile to some of the chief virtues of the romantic playwrights.
+
+
+  Chapman.
+
+The wealth of dramatic production is so great that only a broad
+classification is here offered. George Chapman stands apart, nearest to
+the greatest in high austerity of sentiment and in the gracious gravity
+of his romantic love-comedies. But the crude melodrama of his tragedies
+is void of true theatrical skill. His quasi-historical French tragedies
+on Bussy d'Ambois and Biron and Chabot best show his gift and also his
+insufferable interrupting quaintness. His versions of Homer (1598-1624),
+honoured alike by Jonson and by Keats, are the greatest verse
+translations of the time, and the real work of Chapman's life. Their
+virtues are only partially Homer's, but the general epic nobility and
+the majesty of single lines, which in length are the near equivalent of
+the hexameter, redeem the want of Homer's limpidity and continuity and
+the translator's imperfect knowledge of Greek. A vein of satiric
+ruggedness unites Jonson and Chapman with Marston and Hall, the
+professors of an artificial and disgusting invective; and the same
+strain spoils Marston's plays, and obscures his genuine command of the
+language of feverish and bitter sentiment. With these writers satire and
+contempt of the world lie at the root both of their comedy and tragedy.
+
+
+  Dekker and Heywood.
+
+  Middleton and Webster.
+
+  Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+  Massinger.
+
+  The Many.
+
+It is otherwise with most of the romantic dramatists, who may be
+provisionally grouped as follows. (_a_) Thomas Dekker and Thomas Heywood
+are writers-of-all-work, the former profuse of tracts and pamphlets, the
+latter of treatises and compilations. They are both unrhetorical and
+void of pose, and divide themselves between the artless comedy of
+bustling, lively, English humours and pathetic, unheroic tragedy. But
+Dekker has splendid and poetical dreams, in _Old Fortunatus_ (1600) and
+_The Honest Whore_, both of luxury and of tenderness; while Heywood, as
+in his _English Traveller_ and _Woman killed with Kindness_ (acted
+1603), excels in pictures of actual, chivalrous English gentlemen and
+their generosities. The fertility and volubility of these writers, and
+their modest carelessness of fame, account for many of their
+imperfections. With them may be named the large crowd of professional
+journeymen, who did not want for power, but wrote usually in partnership
+together, like Munday, Chettle and Drayton, or supplied, like William
+Rowley, underplots of rough, lively comedy or tragedy. (_b_) Amongst
+dramatists of primarily tragic and sombre temper, who in their best
+scenes recall the creator of Angelo, Iago and Timon, must be named
+Thomas Middleton (1570?-1627), John Webster, and Cyril Tourneur.
+Middleton has great but scattered force, and his verse has the grip and
+ring of the best period without a sign of the decadence. He is strong in
+high comedy, like _The Old Law_, that turns on some exquisite point of
+honour--"the moral sense of our ancestors"; in comedy that is merely
+graphic and vigorous; and in detached sketches of lowering wickedness
+and lust, like those in _The Changeling_ and _Women beware Women_. He
+and Webster each created one unforgettable desperado, de Flores in _The
+Changeling_ and Bosola in _The Duchess of Malfi_ (whose "pity," when it
+came, was "nothing akin to him"). In Webster's other principal play,
+_Vittoria Corombona, or the White Devil_ (produced about 1616), the
+title-character is not less magnificent in defiant crime than Goneril or
+Lady Macbeth. The style of Webster, for all his mechanical horrors,
+distils the essences of pity and terror, of wrath and scorn, and is
+profoundly poetical; and his point of view seems to be blank fatalism,
+without Shakespeare's ever-arching rainbow of moral sympathy. Cyril
+Tourneur, in _The Revenger's Tragedy_, is even more of a poet than
+Webster; he can find the phrase for half-insane wrath and nightmare
+brooding, but his chaos of impieties revolts the artistic judgment.
+These specialists, when all is said, are great men in their dark
+province, (_c_) The playwrights who may be broadly called romantic, of
+whom Beaumont, Fletcher and Massinger are the chief, while they share in
+the same sombre vein, have a wider range and move more in the daylight.
+The three just named left a very large body of drama, tragic, comic and
+tragi-comic, in which their several shares can partly be discerned by
+metrical or other tests. Beaumont (d. 1616) is nearest the prime, with
+his vein of Cervantesque mockery and his pure, beautifully-broken and
+cadenced verse, which is seen in his contributions to Philaster and _The
+Maid's Tragedy_. Fletcher (d. 1625) brings us closest to the actual
+gaieties and humours of Jacobean life; he has a profuse comic gift and
+the rare instinct for natural dialogue. His verse, with its flood of
+vehement and expansive rhetoric, heard at its best in plays like
+_Bonduca_, cannot cheat us into the illusion that it is truly dramatic;
+but it overflows with beauty, like his silvery but monotonous
+versification with its endecasyllabics arrested at the end. In Fletcher
+the decadence of form and feeling palpably begins. His personages often
+face about at critical instants and bely their natures by sudden
+revulsions. Wanton and cheap characters invite not only dramatic but
+personal sympathy, as though the author knew no better. There is too
+much fine writing about a chastity which is complacent rather than
+instinctive, and satisfied with its formal resistances and technical
+escapes; so that we are far from Shakespeare's heroines. These faults
+are present also in Philip Massinger (d. 1640), who offers in
+substantial recompense, not like Beaumont and Fletcher treasures of
+incessant vivacious episode and poetry and lyric interlude, but an often
+splendid and usually solid constructive skill, and a steady eloquence
+which is like a high table-land without summits. _A New Way to Pay Old
+Debts_ (1632) is the most enduring popular comedy of the time outside
+Shakespeare's, and one of the best. Massinger's interweaving of
+impersonal or political conceptions, as in _The Bondman_ and _The Roman
+Actor_, is often a triumph of arrangement; and though he wrote in the
+reign of Charles, he is saved by many noble qualities from being merely
+an artist of the decline, (_d_) A mass of plays, of which the authorship
+is unknown, uncertain or attached to a mere name, baffle classification.
+There are domestic tragedies, such as _Arden of Feversham_; scions of
+the vindictive drama, like _The Second Maiden's Tragedy_; historic or
+half-historic tragedies like _Nero_. There are chronicle histories, of
+which the last and one of the best is Ford's _Perkin Warbeck_, and
+melodramas of adventure such as Thomas Heywood poured forth. There are
+realistic citizen comedies akin to _The Merry Wives_, like Porter's
+refreshing _Two Angry Women of Abingdon_; there are Jonsonian comedies,
+vernacular farces, light intrigue-pieces like Field's and many more. Few
+of these, regarded as wholes, come near to perfection; few fail of some
+sally or scene that proves once more the unmatched diffusion of the
+dramatic or poetic instinct. (_e_) Outside the regular drama there are
+many varieties: academic plays, like _The Return from Parnassus_ and
+_Lingua_, which are still mirthful; many pastoral plays or
+entertainments in the Italian style, like _The Faithful Shepherdess_;
+versified character-sketches, of which Day's _Parliament of Bees_, with
+its Theocritean grace and point, is the happiest; many masques and
+shows, often lyrically and scenically lovely, of which kind Jonson is
+the master, and Milton, in his _Comus_, the transfigurer; Senecan dramas
+made only to be read, like Daniel's and Fulke Greville's; and Latin
+comedies, like _Ignoramus_. All these species are only now being fully
+grouped, sifted and edited by scholars, but a number of the six or seven
+hundred dramas of the time remain unreprinted.
+
+
+  Ford and Shirley.
+
+There remain two writers, John Ford and James Shirley, who kept the
+higher tradition alive till the Puritan ordinance crushed the theatre in
+1642. Ford is another specialist, of grave, sinister and concentrated
+power (reflected in his verse and diction), to whom no topic, the incest
+of Annabella in _'Tis Pity She's a Whore_, or the high crazed heroism of
+Calantha in _The Broken Heart_, is beyond the pale, if only he can
+dominate it; as indeed he does, without complicity, standing above his
+subject. Shirley, a fertile writer, has the general characteristic
+gifts, in a somewhat dilute but noble form, of the more romantic
+playwrights, and claims honour as the last of them.
+
+_Prose from 1579 to 1660._--With all the unevenness of poetry, the sense
+of style, of a standard, is everywhere; felicity is never far off. Prose
+also is full of genius, but it is more disfigured than verse by
+aberration and wasted power. A central, classic, durable, adaptive prose
+had been attained by Machiavelli, and by Amyot and Calvin, before 1550.
+In England it was only to become distinct after 1660. Vocabulary,
+sentence-structure, paragraph, idiom and rhythm were in a state of
+unchartered freedom, and the history of their crystallization is not yet
+written. But in more than compensation there is a company of prose
+masters, from Florio and Hooker to Milton and Clarendon, not one of whom
+clearly or fully anticipates the modern style, and who claim all the
+closer study that their special virtues have been for ever lost. They
+seem farther away from us than the poets around them. The verse of
+Shakespeare is near to us, for its tradition has persisted; his prose,
+the most natural and noble of his age, is far away, for its tradition
+has not persisted. One reason of this difference is that English prose
+tried to do more work than that of France and Italy; it tried the work
+of poetry; and it often did that better than it did the normal work of
+prose. This overflow of the imaginative spirit gave power and elasticity
+to prose, but made its task of finding equilibrium the harder. Moreover,
+prose in England was for long a natural growth, never much affected by
+critical or academic canons as in France; and when it did submit to
+canons, the result was often merely manner. The tendons and sinews of
+the language, still in its adolescent power and bewilderment, were long
+unset; that is, the parts of speech--noun and verb, epithet and
+adverb--were in freer interchange than at any period afterwards. The
+build, length and cadence of a complex sentence were habitually
+elaborate; and yet they were disorganized, so that only the ear of a
+master could regulate them. The law of taste and measure, perhaps
+through some national disability, was long unperceived. Prose, in fact,
+could never be sure of doing the day's work in the right fashion. The
+cross-currents of pedantry in the midst of simplicity, the distrust of
+clear plain brevity, which was apt to be affected when it came, the
+mimicries of foreign fashions, and the quaintness and cumbrousness of so
+much average writing, make it easier to classify Renaissance prose by
+its interests than by its styles.
+
+
+  The novel.
+
+  Lyly and euphuism.
+
+The Elizabethan novel was always unhappily mannered, and is therefore
+dead. It fed the drama, which devoured it. The tales of Boccaccio,
+Bandello, Cinthio, Margaret of Navarre, and others were purveyed, as
+remarked above, in the forgotten treasuries of Painter, Pettie, Fenton
+and Whetstone, and many of these works or their originals filled a shelf
+in the playwrights' libraries. The first of famous English novels,
+Lyly's _Euphues_ (1578), and its sequel _Euphues and his England_, are
+documents of form. They are commended by a certain dapper shrewdness of
+observation and an almost witty priggery, not by any real beauty or deep
+feeling. Euphuism, of which Lyly was only the patentee, not the
+inventor, strikes partly back to the Spaniard Guevara, and was a model
+for some years to many followers like Lodge and Greene. It did not
+merely provide Falstaff with a pattern for mock-moral diction and
+vegetable similes. It genuinely helped to organize the English sentence,
+complex or co-ordinate, and the talk of Portia and Rosalind shows what
+could be made of it. By the arch-euphuists, clauses and clusters of
+clauses were paired for parallel or contrast, with the beat of emphatic
+alliteration on the corresponding parts of speech in each constituent
+clause. This was a useful discipline for prose in its period of groping.
+Sidney's incomposite and unfinished _Arcadia_, written 1580-1581,
+despite its painful forced antitheses, is sprinkled with lovely rhythms,
+with pleasing formal landscapes, and even with impassioned sentiment and
+situation, through which the writer's eager and fretted spirit shines.
+Both these stories, like those of Greene and Lodge, show by their
+somewhat affected, edited delineation of life and their courtly tone
+that they were meant in chief for the eyes of ladies, who were excluded
+alike from the stage and from its audience. Nashe's drastic and
+photographic tale of masculine life, _Jack Wilton, or The Unfortunate
+Traveller_, stands almost alone, but some of the gap is filled by the
+contemporary pamphlets, sometimes vivid, often full of fierce or maudlin
+declamation, of Nashe himself--by far the most powerful of the
+group--and of Greene, Dekker and Nicholas Breton. Thus the English novel
+was a minor passing form; the leisurely and amorous romance went on in
+the next century, owing largely to French influence and example.
+
+
+  Criticism.
+
+In criticism, England may almost be counted with the minor Latin
+countries. Sidney, in his _Defence of Poesy_ (1595, written about 1580),
+and Jonson, in his _Discoveries_, offer a well-inspired and lofty
+restatement of the current answers to the current questions, but could
+give no account of the actual creative writing of the time. To defend
+the "truth" of poetry--which was identified with all inventive writing
+and not only with verse--poetry was saddled with the work of science and
+instruction. To defend its character it was treated as a delightful but
+deliberate bait to good behaviour, a theory at best only true of
+allegory and didactic verse. The real relation of tragedy to spiritual
+things, which is admittedly shown, however hard its definition, in
+Shakespeare's plays, no critic for centuries tried to fathom. One of the
+chief quarrels turned on metric. A few lines that Sidney and Campion
+wrote on what they thought the system of Latin quantity are really
+musical. This theory, already raised by Ascham, made a stir, at first in
+the group of Harvey, Sidney, Dyer and Spenser, called the "Areopagus,"
+an informal attempt to copy the Italian academies; and it was revived on
+the brink of the reign of James. But Daniel's firm and eloquent _Defence
+of Rhyming_ (1602) was not needed to persuade the poets to continue
+rhyming in syllabic verse. The stricter view of the nature and
+classification of poetry, and of the dramatic unity of action, is
+concisely given, partly by Jonson, partly by Bacon in his _Advancement
+of Learning_ and _De Augmentis_; and Jonson, besides passing his famed
+judgments on Shakespeare and Bacon, enriched our critical vocabulary
+from the Roman rhetoricians. Scholastic and sensible manuals, like
+Webbe's _Discourse of Poetry_ and the _Art of English Poesy_ (1589)
+ascribed to Puttenham, come in the rear.
+
+
+  Translators.
+
+The translators count for more than the critics; the line of their great
+achievements from Berners' _Froissart_ (1523-1525) to Urquhart's
+_Rabelais_ (1653) is never broken long; and though their lives are often
+obscure, their number witnesses to that far-spread diffusion of the
+talent for English prose, which the wealth of English poetry is apt to
+hide. The typical craftsman in this field, Philemon Holland, translated
+Livy, Pliny, Suetonius, Plutarch's _Morals_ and Camden's _Britannia_,
+and his fount of English is of the amplest and purest. North, in his
+translation, made from Amyot's classic French, of Plutarch's _Lives_
+(1579), disclosed one of the master-works of old example; Florio, in
+Montaigne's _Essays_ (1603), the charter of the new freedom of mental
+exploration; and Shelton, in _Don Quixote_ (1612), the chief tragi-comic
+creation of continental prose. These versions, if by no means accurate
+in the letter, were adequate in point of soul and style to their great
+originals; and the English dress of Tacitus (1591), Apuleius,
+Heliodorus, Commines, _Celestina_ and many others, is so good and often
+so sumptuous a fabric, that no single class of prose authors, from the
+time of More to that of Dryden, excels the prose translators, unless it
+be the Anglican preachers. Their matter is given to them, and with it a
+certain standard of form, so that their natural strength and richness of
+phrase are controlled without being deadened. But the want of such
+control is seen in the many pamphleteers, who are the journalists of the
+time, and are often also playwrights or tale-tellers, divines or
+politicians. The writings, for instance, of the hectic, satiric and
+graphic Thomas Nashe, run at one extreme into fiction, and at the other
+into the virulent rag-sheets of the Marprelate controversy, which is of
+historical and social but not of artistic note, being only a fragment
+of that vast mass of disputatious literature, which now seems grotesque,
+excitable or dull.
+
+
+  Hooker.
+
+Richard Hooker's _Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_ (1594-1597), an
+accepted defence of the Anglican position against Geneva and Rome, is
+the first theological work of note in the English tongue, and the first
+of note since Wycliffe written by an Englishman. It is a plea for reason
+as one of the safe and lawful guides to the faith; but it also speaks
+with admirable temper and large feeling to the ceremonial and aesthetic
+sense. The First Book, the scaffolding of the treatise, discusses the
+nature of law at large; but Hooker hardly has pure speculative power,
+and the language had not yet learnt to move easily in abstract trains of
+thought. In its elaboration of clause and period, in its delicate
+resonant eloquence, Hooker's style is Ciceronian; but his inversions and
+mazes of subordinate sentence somewhat rack the genius of English. Later
+divines like Jeremy Taylor had to disintegrate, since they could not
+wield, this admirable but over-complex eloquence. The sermons
+(1621-1631) of Donne have the mingled strangeness and intimacy of his
+verse, and their subtle flame, imaginative tenacity, and hold upon the
+springs of awe make them unique. Though without artificial symmetry,
+their sentences are intricately harmonized, in strong contrast to such
+pellet-like clauses as those of the learned Lancelot Andrewes, who was
+Donne's younger contemporary and the subject of Milton's Latin epitaph.
+
+
+  Bacon.
+
+With Francis Bacon (1561-1626) English philosophy began its unbroken
+course and took its long-delayed rank in Europe. His prose, of which he
+is the first high and various master in English, was shaped and coloured
+by his bent as orator and pleader, by his immixture in affairs, by his
+speculative brain, and by his use and estimate of Latin. In his
+conscious craftsmanship, his intellectual confidence and curiosity, his
+divining faith in the future of science, and his resolve to follow the
+leadings of nature and experience unswervingly; in his habit of storing
+and using up his experience, and in his wide wordly insight,
+crystallized in maxim, he suggests a kind of Goethe, without the poetic
+hand or the capacity for love and lofty suffering. He saw all nature in
+a map, and wished to understand and control her by outwitting the
+"idols," or inherent paralysing frailties of the human judgment. He
+planned but could not finish a great cycle of books in order to realize
+this conception. The _De Augmentis Scientiarum_ (1623) expanded from the
+English _Advancement of Knowledge_ (1605) draws the map; the _Novum
+Organum_ (1620) sets out the errors of scholasticism and the methods of
+inductive logic; the _New Atlantis_ sketches an ideally equipped and
+moralized scientific community. Bacon shared with the great minds of his
+century the notion that Latin would outlast any vernacular tongue, and
+committed his chief scientific writings to a Latin which is alive and
+splendid and his own, and which also disciplined and ennobled his
+English. The _Essays_ (1597, 1612, 1625) are his lifelong, gradually
+accumulated diary of his opinions on human life and business. These
+famous compositions are often sadly mechanical. They are chippings and
+basketings of maxims and quotations, and of anecdotes, often classical,
+put together inductively, or rather by "simple enumeration" of the pros
+and cons. Still they are the honest notes of a practical observer and
+statesman, disenchanted--why not?--with mankind, concerned with cause
+and effect rather than with right and wrong, wanting the finer faith and
+insight into men and women, but full of reality, touched with
+melancholy, and redeeming some arid, small and pretentious counsels by
+many that are large and wise. Though sometimes betraying the workshop,
+Bacon's style, at its best, is infallibly expressive; like Milton's
+angels, it is "dilated or condensed" according to its purposes. In youth
+and age alike, Bacon commanded the most opposite patterns and extremes
+of prose--the curt maxim, balanced in antithesis or triplet, or standing
+solitary; the sumptuous, satisfying and brocaded period; the movements
+of exposition, oratory, pleading and narrative. The _History of Henry
+VII._ (1622), written after his fall from office, is in form as well as
+insight and mastery of material the one historical classic in English
+before Clarendon. Bacon's musical sense for the value and placing of
+splendid words and proper names resembles Marlowe's. But the master of
+mid-Renaissance prose is Shakespeare; with him it becomes the voice of
+finer and more impassioned spirits than Bacon's--the voice of Rosalind
+and Hamlet. And the eulogist of both men, Ben Jonson, must be named in
+their company for his senatorial weight and dignity of ethical counsel
+and critical maxim.
+
+
+  Hobbes.
+
+  Funereal prose.
+
+As the Stuart rule declined and fell, prose became enriched from five
+chief sources: from philosophy, whether formal or unmethodical; from
+theology and preaching and political dispute; from the poetical
+contemplation of death; from the observation of men and manners; and
+from antiquarian scholarship and history. As in France, where the first
+three of these kinds of writings flourished, it was a time rather of
+individual great writers than of any admitted pattern or common ideal of
+prose form, although in France this pattern was always clearlier
+defined. The mental energy, meditative depth, and throbbing brilliant
+colour of the English drama passed with its decay over into prose. But
+Latin was still often the supplanter: the treatise of Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury, _De Veritate_, of note in the early history of Deism, and much
+of the writing of the ambidextrous Thomas Hobbes, are in Latin. In this
+way Latin disciplined English once more, though it often tempted men of
+genius away from English. _The Leviathan_ (1651) with its companion
+books on _Human Nature_ and _Liberty_, and Hobbes' explosive dialogue on
+the civil wars, _Behemoth_ (1679), have the bitter concision of Tacitus
+and the clearness of a half-relief in bronze. Hobbes' speculations on
+the human animal, the social contract, the absolute power of the
+sovereign, and the subservience owed to the sovereign by the Church or
+"Kingdom of Darkness," enraged all parties, and left their track on the
+thought and controversial literature of the century. With Ben Jonson and
+the jurist Selden (whose English can be judged from his _Table Talk_),
+Hobbes anticipates the brief and clear sentence-structure of the next
+age, though not its social ease and amenity of form. But his grandeur is
+not that of a poet, and the poetical prose is the most distinctive kind
+of this period. It is eloquent above all on death and the vanity of
+human affairs; its solemn tenor prolongs the reflections of Claudio, of
+Fletcher's Philaster, or of Spenser's Despair. It is exemplified in
+Bacon's Essay _Of Death_, in the anonymous descant on the same subject
+wrongly once ascribed to him, in Donne's plea for suicide, in Raleigh's
+_History of the World_, in Drummond's _Cypress Grove_ (1623), in Jeremy
+Taylor's sermons and _Holy Dying_ (1651), and in Sir Thomas Browne's
+_Urn-Burial_ (1658) and _Letter to a Friend_. Its usual vesture is a
+long purple period, freely Latinized, though Browne equally commands the
+form of solemn and monumental epigram. He is also free from the
+dejection that wraps round the other writers on the subject, and a holy
+quaintness and gusto relieve his ruminations. The _Religio Medici_
+(1642), quintessentially learned, wise and splendid, is the fullest
+memorial of his power. Amongst modern prose writers, De Quincey is his
+only true rival in musical sensibility to words.
+
+
+  Jeremy Taylor.
+
+  Burton.
+
+Jeremy Taylor, the last great English casuist and schoolman, and one of
+the first pleaders for religious tolerance (in his _Liberty of
+Prophesying_, 1647), is above all a preacher; tender, intricate,
+copious, inexhaustible in image and picturesque quotation. From the
+classics, from the East, from the animal world, from the life of men and
+children, his illustrations flow, without end or measure. He is a master
+of the lingering cadence, which soars upward and onward on its coupled
+clauses, as on balanced iridescent wings, and is found long after in his
+scholar Ruskin. Imaginative force of another kind pervades Robert
+Burton's _Anatomy of Melancholy_ (1621), where the humorous medium
+refracts and colours every ray of the recluse's far-travelled spirit.
+The mass of Latin citation, woven, not quilted, into Burton's style, is
+another proof of the vitality of the cosmopolitan language. Burton and
+Browne owe much to the pre-critical learning of their time, which yields
+up such precious savours to their fancy, that we may be thankful for the
+delay of more precise science and scholarship. Fancy, too, of a
+suddener and wittier sort, preserves some of the ample labours of Thomas
+Fuller, which are scattered over the years 1631-1662; and the _Lives_
+and _Compleat Angler_ (1653) of Izaak Walton are unspoilt, happy or
+pious pieces of idyllic prose. No adequate note on the secular or sacred
+learning of the time can here be given; on Camden, with his vast
+erudition, historical, antiquarian and comparatively critical
+(_Britannia_, in Latin, 1586); or on Ussher, with his patristic and
+chronological learning, one of the many _savants_ of the Anglican
+church. Other divines of the same camp pleaded, in a plainer style than
+Taylor, for freedom of personal judgment and against the multiplying of
+"vitals in religion"; the chief were Chillingworth, one of the closest
+of English apologists, in his _Religion of Protestants_ (1638), and John
+Hales of Eton. The Platonists, or rather Plotinists, of Cambridge, who
+form a curious digression in the history of modern philosophy, produced
+two writers, John Smith and Henry More, of an exalted and esoteric
+prose, more directly inspired by Greece than any other of the time; and
+their champion of erudition, Cudworth, in his _True Intellectual
+System_, gave some form to their doctrine.
+
+
+  Clarendon.
+
+  Milton's prose.
+
+Above the vast body of pamphlets and disputatious writing that form the
+historian's material stands Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon's _History of
+the Rebellion_, printed in 1702-1704, thirty years after his death.
+Historical writing hitherto, but for Bacon's _Henry VII._, had been
+tentative though profuse. Raleigh's vast disquisition upon all things,
+_The History of the World_ (1614), survives by passages and poetic
+splendours; gallantly written second-hand works like Knolles's _History of
+the Turks_, and the rhetorical _History of the Long Parliament_ by May,
+had failed to give England rank with France and Italy. Clarendon's book,
+one of the greatest of memoirs and most vivid of portrait-galleries,
+spiritually unappreciative of the other side, but full of a subtle
+discrimination of character and political motive, brings its author into
+line with Retz and Saint-Simon, the watchers and recorders and sometimes
+the makers of contemporary history. Clarendon's _Life_, above all the
+picture of Falkland and his friends, is a personal record of the
+delightful sort in which England was thus far infertile. He is the last
+old master of prose, using and sustaining the long, sinuous sentence,
+unworkable in weaker hands. He is the last, for Milton's polemic prose,
+hurled from the opposite camp, was written between 1643 and 1660. Whether
+reviling bishops or royal privilege or indissoluble monogamy, or recalling
+his own youth and aims; or claiming liberty for print in _Areopagitica_
+(1644); in his demonic defiances, or angelic calls to arms, or his animal
+eruptions of spite and hatred, Milton leaves us with a sense of the motive
+energies that were to be transformed into _Paradise Lost_ and _Samson_.
+His sentences are ungainly and often inharmonious, but often irresistible;
+he rigidly withstood the tendencies of form, in prose as in verse, that
+Dryden was to represent, and thus was true to his own literary dynasty.
+
+
+  The Authorized Version.
+
+A special outlying position belongs to the Authorized Version (1611) of
+the Bible, the late fruit of the long toil that had begun with
+Tyndale's, and, on the side of style, with the Wycliffite translations.
+More scholarly than all the preceding versions which it utilized, it won
+its incomparable form, not so much because of the "grand style that was
+in the air," which would have been the worst of models, as because the
+style had been already tested and ennobled by generations of
+translators. Its effect on poetry and letters was for some time far
+smaller than its effect on the national life at large, but it was the
+greatest translation--being of a whole literature, or rather of two
+literatures--in an age of great translations.
+
+Some other kinds of writing soften the transition to Restoration prose.
+The vast catalogue of Characters numbers hundreds of titles. Deriving
+from Theophrastus, who was edited by Casaubon in 1592, they are yet
+another Renaissance form that England shared with France. But in English
+hands, failing a La Bruyère--in Hall's, in Overbury's, even in those of
+the gay and skilful Earle (_Microcosmographie_, 1628)--the Character is
+a mere list of the attributes and oddities of a type or calling. It is
+to the Jonsonian drama of humours what the Pensée, or detached remark,
+practised by Bishop Hall and later by Butler and Halifax, is to the
+Essay. These works tended long to be commonplace or didactic, as the
+popular _Resolves_ of Owen Feltham shows. Cowley was the first essayist
+to come down from the desk and talk as to his equals in easy phrases of
+middle length. A time of dissension was not the best for this kind of
+peaceful, detached writing. The letters of James Howell, the
+autobiography of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and the memoirs of Kenelm
+Digby belong rather to the older and more mannered than to the more
+modern form, though Howell's English is in the plainer and quicker
+movement.
+
+
+IV. RESTORATION PERIOD
+
+  French influence.
+
+_Literature from 1660 to 1700._--The Renaissance of letters in England
+entered on a fresh and peculiar phase in the third quarter of the
+century. The balance of intellectual and artistic power in Europe had
+completely shifted since 1580. Inspiration had died down in Italy, and
+its older classics were no longer a stimulus. The Spanish drama had
+flourished, but its influence though real was scattered and indirect.
+The Germanic countries were slowly emerging into literature; England
+they scarcely touched. But the literary empire of France began to
+declare itself both in Northern and Southern lands, and within half a
+century was assured. Under this empire the English genius partly fell,
+though it soon asserted its own equality, and by 1720 had so reacted
+upon France as more than to repay the debt. Thus between 1660 and 1700
+is prepared a temporary dual control of European letters. But in the age
+of Dryden France gave England more than it received; it gave more than
+it had ever given since the age of Chaucer. During Charles II.'s days
+Racine, Molière, La Fontaine and Bossuet ran the best of their course.
+Cavalier exiles like Waller, Cowley and Hobbes had come back from the
+winter of their discontent in Paris, and Saint-Evremond, the typical
+_bel esprit_ and critic, settled long in England. A vast body of
+translations from the French is recounted, including latterly the works
+of the Protestant refugees printed in the free Low Countries or in
+England. Naturally this influence told most strongly on the social forms
+of verse and prose--upon comedy and satire, upon criticism and maxim and
+epigram, while it also affected theology and thought. And this meant the
+Renaissance once more, still unexhausted, only working less immediately
+and in fresh if narrower channels. Greek literature, Plato and Homer and
+the dramatists, became dimmer; the secondary forms of Latin poetry came
+to the fore, especially those of Juvenal and the satirists, and the
+_pedestris sermo_, epistolary and critical, of Horace. These had some
+direct influence, as Dryden's translation of them, accompanying his
+Virgil and Lucretius, may show. But they came commended by Boileau,
+their chief modernizer, and in their train was the fashion of gallant,
+epigrammatic and social verse. The tragedy of Corneille and Racine,
+developed originally from the Senecan drama, contended with the
+traditions of Shakespeare and Fletcher, and was reinforced by that of
+the correcter Jonson, in shaping the new theatre of England. The French
+codifiers, who were often also the distorters, of Aristotle's _Poetics_
+and Horace's _Ars poëtica_, furnished a canonical body of criticism on
+the epic and the drama, to which Dryden is half a disciple and half a
+rebel. All this implied at once a loss of the larger and fuller
+inspirations of poetry, a decadence in its great and primary forms,
+epic, lyric and tragic, and a disposition, in default of such creative
+power, to turn and take stock of past production. In England, therefore,
+it is the age of secondary verse and of nascent, often searching
+criticism.
+
+
+  Science and Letters.
+
+The same critical spirit was also whetted in the fields of science and
+speculation, which the war and the Puritan rule had not encouraged. The
+activities of the newly-founded Royal Society told directly upon
+literature, and counted powerfully in the organization of a clear,
+uniform prose--the "close, naked, natural way of speaking," which the
+historian of the Society, Sprat, cites as part of its programme. And
+the style of Sprat, as of scientific masters like Newton and Ray the
+botanist, itself attests the change. A time of profound and peaceful and
+fruitful scientific labour began; the whole of Newton's _Principia_
+appeared in 1687; the dream of Bacon came nearer, and England was less
+isolated from the international work of knowledge. The spirit of method
+and observation and induction spread over the whole field of thought and
+was typified in John Locke, whose _Essay concerning Human Understanding_
+came out in English in 1690, and who applied the same deeply sagacious
+and cautious calculus to education and religion and the "conduct of the
+understanding." But his works, though their often mellow and dignified
+style has been ignorantly underrated, also show the change in
+philosophic writing since Hobbes. The old grandeur and pugnacity are
+gone; the imaginative play of science, or quasi-science, on the
+literature of reflection is gone; the eccentrics, the fantasts, the
+dreamers are gone, or only survive in curious transitional writers like
+Joseph Glanvil (_Scepsis scientifica_, 1665) or Thomas Burnet (_Sacred
+Theory of the Earth_, 1684). This change was in part a conscious and an
+angry change, as is clear from the attacks made in Samuel Butler's
+_Hudibras_ (1663-1668) upon scholastic verbiage, astrology, fanatical
+sects and their disputes, poetic and "heroic" enthusiasm and
+intellectual whim.
+
+
+  Courtly and social influence.
+
+Before the Restoration men of letters, with signal exceptions like
+Milton and Marvell, had been Cavalier, courtly and Anglican in their
+sympathies. The Civil War had scattered them away from the capital,
+which, despite Milton's dream in _Areopagitica_ of its humming and
+surging energies, had ceased to be, what it now again became, the
+natural haunt and Rialto of authors. The taste of the new king and court
+served to rally them. Charles II. relished _Hudibras_, used and
+pensioned Dryden, sat under Barrow and South and heard them with
+appreciation, countenanced science, visited comedies, and held his own
+in talk by mother-wit. Letters became the pastime, and therefore one of
+the more serious pursuits, of men of quality, who soon excelled in song
+and light scarifying verse and comedy, and took their own tragedies and
+criticisms gravely. Poetry under such auspices became gallant and
+social, and also personal and partisan; and satire was soon its most
+vital form, with the accessories of compliment, rhymed popular
+argumentation and elegy. The social and conversational instinct was the
+master-influence in prose. It produced a subtle but fundamental change
+in the attitude of author to reader. Prose came nearer to living speech,
+it became more civil and natural and persuasive, and this not least in
+the pulpit. The sense of ennui, or boredom, which seemed as unknown in
+the earlier part of the century as it is to the modern German, became
+strongly developed, and prose was much improved by the fear of provoking
+it. In all these ways the Restoration accompanied and quickened a
+speedier and greater change in letters than any political event in
+English history since the reign of Alfred, when prose itself was
+created.
+
+
+  Prose and criticism.
+
+The formal change in prose can thus be assigned to no one writer, for
+the good reason that it presupposes a change of spoken style lying
+deeper than any personal influence. If we begin with the writing that is
+nearest living talk--the letters of Otway or Lady Rachel Russell, or the
+diary of Pepys (1659-1669)--that supreme disclosure of our
+mother-earth--or the evidence in a state trial, or the dialogue in the
+more natural comedies; if we then work upwards through some of the
+plainer kinds of authorship, like the less slangy of L'Estrange's
+pamphlets, or Burnet's _History of My Own Time_, a solid Whig memoir of
+historical value, until we reach really admirable or lasting prose like
+Dryden's _Preface_ to his _Fables_ (1700), or the maxims of Halifax;--if
+we do this, we are aware, amid all varieties, survivals and reversions,
+of a strong and rapid drift towards the style that we call modern. And
+one sign of this movement is the revulsion against any over-saturating
+of the working, daily language, and even of the language of appeal and
+eloquence, with the Latin element. In Barrow and Glanvil, descendants of
+Taylor and Browne, many Latinized words remain, which were soon
+expelled from style like foreign bodies from an organism. As in the
+mid-sixteenth and the mid-eighteenth century, the process is visible by
+which the Latin vocabulary and Latin complication of sentence first
+gathers strength, and then, though not without leaving its traces, is
+forced to ebb. The instinct of the best writers secured this result, and
+secured it for good and all. In Dryden's diction there is a nearly
+perfect balance and harmony of learned and native constituents, and a
+sensitive tact in Gallicizing; in his build of sentence there is the
+same balance between curtness or bareness and complexity or ungainly
+lengthiness. For ceremony and compliment he keeps a rolling period, for
+invective a short sharp stroke without the gloves. And he not only uses
+in general a sentence of moderate scale, inclining to brevity, but he
+finds out its harmonies; he is a seeming-careless but an absolute master
+of rhythm. In delusive ease he is unexcelled; and we only regret that he
+could not have written prose oftener instead of plays. We should thus,
+however, have lost their prefaces, in which the bulk and the best of
+Dryden's criticisms appear. From the _Essay of Dramatic Poesy_ (1668)
+down to the _Preface to Fables_ (1700) runs a series of essays: _On the
+Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy_, _On Heroic Plays_, _On Translated
+Verse_, _On Satire_ and many more; which form the first connected body
+of criticisms in the language, and are nobly written always. Dryden's
+prose is literature as it stands, and yet is talk, and yet again is
+mysteriously better than talk. The critical writings of John Dennis are
+but a sincere application of the rules and canons that were now becoming
+conventional; Rymer, though not so despicable as Macaulay said, is still
+more depressing than Dennis; and for any critic at once so free, so
+generous and so sure as Dryden we wait in vain for a century.
+
+
+  Contributors to the new prose.
+
+Three or four names are usually associated with Dryden's in the work of
+reforming or modifying prose: Sprat, Tillotson, Sir William Temple, and
+George Savile, marquis of Halifax; but the honours rest with Halifax.
+Sprat, though clear and easy, has little range; Tillotson, though lucid,
+orderly, and a very popular preacher, has little distinction; Temple,
+the elegant essayist, has a kind of barren gloss and fine literary
+manners, but very little to say. The political tracts, essays and maxims
+of Halifax (died 1695) are the most typically modern prose between
+Dryden and Swift, and are nearer than anything else to the best French
+writing of the same order, in their finality of epigram, their neatness
+and mannerliness and sharpness. The _Character of a Trimmer_ and _Advice
+to a Daughter_ are the best examples.
+
+
+  Preachers.
+
+Religious literature, Anglican and Puritan, is the chief remaining
+department to be named. The strong, eloquent and coloured preaching of
+Isaac Barrow the mathematician, who died in 1677, is a survival of the
+larger and older manner of the Church. In its balance of logic, learning
+and emotion, in its command alike of Latin splendour and native force,
+it deserves a recognition it has lost. Another athlete of the pulpit,
+Robert South, who is so often praised for his wit that his force is
+forgotten, continues the lineage, while Tillotson and the elder Sherlock
+show the tendency to the smoother and more level prose. But the
+revulsion against strangeness and fancy and magnificence went too far;
+it made for a temporary bareness and meanness and disharmony, which had
+to be checked by Addison, Bolingbroke and Berkeley. From what Addison
+saved our daily written English, may be seen in the vigorous slangy
+hackwork of Roger L'Estrange, the translator and pamphleteer, in the
+news-sheets of Dunton, and in the satires of Tom Brown. These writers
+were debasing the coinage with their street journalism.
+
+
+  Puritan prose.
+
+  Bunyan.
+
+Another and far nobler variety of vernacular prose is found in the
+Puritans. Baxter and Howe, Fox and Bunyan, had the English Bible behind
+them, which gave them the best of their inspiration, though the first
+two of them were also erudite men. Richard Baxter, an immensely fertile
+writer, is best remembered by those of his own fold for his _Saint's
+Everlasting Rest_ (1650) and his autobiography, John Howe for his
+evangelical apologia _The Living Temple of God_ (1675), Fox for his
+_Journal_ and its mixture of quaintness and rapturous mysticism. John
+Bunyan, the least instructed of them all, is their only born artist. His
+creed and point of view were those of half the nation--the half that was
+usually inarticulate in literature, or spoke without style or genius.
+His reading, consisting not only of the Bible, but of the popular
+allegories of giants, pilgrims and adventure, was also that of his
+class. _The Pilgrim's Progress_, of which the first part appeared in
+1678, the second in 1684, is the happy flowering sport amidst a growth
+of barren plants of the same tribe. The _Progress_ is a dream, more
+vivid to its author than most men's waking memories to themselves; the
+emblem and the thing signified are merged at every point, so that
+Christian's journey is not so much an allegory with a key as a spiritual
+vision of this earth and our neighbours. _Grace Abounding_, Bunyan's
+diary of his own voyage to salvation, _The Holy War_, an overloaded
+fable of the fall and recovery of mankind, and _The Life and Death of Mr
+Badman_, a novel telling of the triumphal earthly progress of a
+scoundrelly tradesman, are among Bunyan's other contributions to
+literature. His union of spiritual intensity, sharp humorous vision, and
+power of simple speech consummately chosen, mark his work off alike from
+his own inarticulate public and from all other literary performance of
+his time.
+
+
+  Transitional verse.
+
+  Hudibras.
+
+  Songsters.
+
+The transition from the older to the newer poetry was not abrupt. Old
+themes and tunes were slowly disused, others previously of lesser mark
+rose into favour, and a few quite fresh ones were introduced. The poems
+of John Oldham and Andrew Marvell belong to both periods. Both of them
+begin with fantasy and elegy, and end with satires, which indeed are
+rather documents than works of art. The monody of Oldham on his friend
+Morwent is poorly exchanged for the _Satires on the Jesuits_ (1681), and
+the lovely metaphysical verses of Marvell on gardens and orchards and
+the spiritual love sadly give place to his _Last Instructions to a
+Painter_ (1669). In his _Horatian Ode_ Marvell had nobly and impartially
+applied his earlier style to national affairs; but the time proved too
+strong for this delightful poet. Another and a stranger satire had soon
+greeted the Restoration, the _Hudibras_ (1663-1678) of Samuel Butler,
+with its companion pieces. The returned wanderers delighted in this
+horribly agile, boisterous and fierce attack on the popular party and
+its religions, and its wrangles and its manners. Profoundly eccentric
+and tiresomely allusive in his form, and working in the short rhyming
+couplets thenceforth called "Hudibrastics," Butler founded a small and
+peculiar but long-lived school of satire. The other verse of the time is
+largely satire of a different tone and metre; but the earlier kind of
+finished and gallant lyric persisted through the reign of Charles II.
+The songs of John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, are usually malicious,
+sometimes passionate; they have a music and a splendid self-abandonment
+such as we never meet again till Burns. Sedley and Dorset and Aphra Behn
+and Dryden are the rightful heirs of Carew and Lovelace, those
+infallible masters of short rhythms; and this secret also was lost for a
+century afterwards.
+
+
+  Dryden.
+
+In poetry, in prose, and to some extent in drama, John Dryden, the
+creature of his time, is the master of its expression. He began with
+panegyric verse, first on Cromwell and then on Charles, which is full of
+fine things and false writing. The _Annus Mirabilis_ (1667) is the chief
+example, celebrating the Plague, the Fire and the naval victory, in the
+quatrains for which Davenant's pompous _Gondibert_ had shown the way.
+The _Essay on Dramatic Poesy_ (1668), a dialogue on the rivalries of
+blank verse with rhyme, and of the Elizabethan drama with the French, is
+perfect modern prose; and to this perfection Dryden attained at a bound,
+while he attained his poetical style more gradually. He practised his
+couplet in panegyric, in heroic tragedy, and in dramatic prologue and
+epilogue for twenty years before it was consummate. Till 1680 he
+supported himself chiefly by his plays, which have not lived so long as
+their critical prefaces, already mentioned. His diction and
+versification came to their full power in his satires, rhymed arguments,
+dedications and translations. _Absalom and Achitophel_ (part i., 1681;
+part ii., with Nahum Tate, 1682), as well as _The Medal_ and _Mac
+Flecknoe_, marked a new birth of English satire, placing it at once on a
+level with that of any ancient or modern country. The mixture of deadly
+good temper, Olympian unfairness, and rhetorical and metrical skill in
+each of these poems has never been repeated. The presentment of
+Achitophel, earl of Shaftesbury, in his relations with Absalom Walters
+and Charles the minstrel-king of Judah, as well as the portraits of
+Shimei and Barzillai and Jotham, the eminent Whigs and Tories, and of
+the poets Og and Doeg, are things whose vividness age has never
+discoloured. Dryden's Protestant arguings in _Religio Laici_ (1682) and
+his equally sincere Papistical arguings in _The Hind and the Panther_
+(1687) are just as skilful. His translations of Virgil and parts of
+Lucretius, of Chaucer and Boccaccio (_Fables_, 1700), set the seal on
+his command of his favourite couplet for the higher kinds of appeal and
+oratory. His _Ode_ on Anne Killigrew, and his popular but coarser
+_Alexander's Feast_, have a more lyric harmony; and his songs, inserted
+in his plays, reflect the change of fashion by their metrical adeptness
+and often thorough-going wantonness. The epithet of "glorious," in its
+older sense of a certain conscious and warranted pride of place, not in
+that of boastful or pretentious, suits Dryden well. Not only did he
+leave a model and a point of departure for Pope, but his influence
+recurs in Churchill, in Gray, in Johnson and in Crabbe, where he is seen
+counteracting, with his large, wholesome and sincere bluntness, the
+acidity of Pope. Dryden was counted near Shakespeare and Milton until
+the romantic revival renewed the sense of proportion; but the same sense
+now demands his acknowledgment as the English poet who is nearest to
+their frontiers of all those who are exiled from their kingdom.
+
+
+  Tragedy.
+
+  Otway.
+
+Restoration and Revolution tragedy is nearly all abortive; it is now
+hard to read it for pleasure. But it has noble flights, and its historic
+interest is high. Two of its species, the rhymed heroic play and the
+rehandling of Shakespeare in blank verse, were also brought to their
+utmost by Dryden, though in both he had many companions. The heroic
+tragedies were a hybrid offspring of the heroic romance and French
+tragedy; and though _The Conquest of Granada_ (1669-1670) and _Tyrannic
+Love_ would be very open to satire in Dryden's own vein, they are at
+least generously absurd. Their intention is never ignoble, if often
+impossible. After a time Dryden went back to Shakespeare, after a
+fashion already set by Sir William Davenant, the connecting link with
+the older tragedy and the inaugurator of the new. They "revived"
+Shakespeare; they vamped him in a style that did not wholly perish till
+after the time of Garrick. _The Tempest_, _Troilus and Cressida_, and
+_Antony and Cleopatra_ were thus handled by Dryden; and the last of
+these, as converted by him into _All for Love_ (1678), is loftier and
+stronger than any of his original plays, its blank verse renewing the
+ties of Restoration poetry with the great age. The heroic plays, written
+in one or other metre, lived long, and expired in the burlesques of
+Fielding and Sheridan. _The Rehearsal_ (1671), a gracious piece of
+fooling partially aimed at Dryden by Buckingham and his friends, did not
+suffice to kill its victims. Thomas Otway and Nathaniel Lee, both of
+whom generally used blank verse, are the other tragic writers of note,
+children indeed of the extreme old age of the drama. Otway's long-acted
+_Venice Preserved_ (1682) has an almost Shakespearian skill in
+melodrama, a wonderful tide of passionate language, and a blunt and bold
+delineation of character; but Otway's inferior style and verse could
+only be admired in an age like his own. Lee is far more of a poet,
+though less of a dramatist, and he wasted a certain talent in noise and
+fury.
+
+
+  Comedy.
+
+  Wycherley.
+
+Restoration comedy at first followed Jonson, whom it was easy to try and
+imitate; Shadwell and Wilson, whose works are a museum for the social
+antiquary, photographed the humours of the town. Dryden's many comedies
+often show his more boisterous and blatant, rarely his finer qualities.
+Like all playwrights of the time he pillages from the French, and
+vulgarizes Molière without stint or shame. A truer light comedy began
+with Sir George Etherege, who mirrored in his fops the gaiety and
+insolence of the world he knew. The society depicted by William
+Wycherley, the one comic dramatist of power between Massinger and
+Congreve, at first seems hardly human; but his energy is skilful and
+faithful as well as brutal; he excels in the graphic reckless exhibition
+of outward humours and bustle; he scavenges in the most callous good
+spirits and with careful cynicism. _The Plain Dealer_ (1677), a skilful
+transplantation, as well as a depravation of Molière's _Le Misanthrope_,
+is his best piece: he writes in prose, and his prose is excellent,
+modern and lifelike.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--General Histories: Hallam, _Introduction to the Lit. of
+  Europe_ (1838-1839); G. Saintsbury, _Elizabethan Literature_ (1890),
+  and _History of Literary Criticism_, vol. ii. (1902); W.J. Courthorpe,
+  _History of English Poetry_, vols. i.-v. (1895-1905); J.J. Jusserand,
+  _Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, vol. ii. (1904); T. Seccombe
+  and J.W. Allen, _The Age of Shakespeare_ (2 vols., 1903); D. Hannay,
+  _The Later Renaissance_ (1898); H.J.C. Grierson, _First Half of 17th
+  Century_; O. Elton, _The Augustan Ages_ (1899); Masson, _Life of
+  Milton_ (6 vols., London, 1881-1894); R. Garnett, _The Age of Dryden_
+  (1901); W. Raleigh, _The English Novel_ (1894); J.J. Jusserand, _Le
+  Roman anglais au temps de Shakespeare_ (1887, Eng. tr., 1901); G.
+  Gregory Smith, _Elizabethan Critical Essays_ (2 vols., 1904, reprints
+  and introd.). Classical and Foreign Influences.--Mary A. Scott,
+  _Elizabethan Translations from the Italian_ (bibliography),
+  (Baltimore, 1895); E. Koeppel, _Studien zur Gesch. der ital. Novelle
+  i. d. eng. Litteratur des 16ten Jahrh._ (Strasb., 1892); L. Einstein
+  _The Italian Renaissance in England_ (New York, 1902); J. Erskine,
+  _The Elizabethan Lyric_ (New York, 1903); J.S. Harrison, _Platonism in
+  Eliz. Poetry of the 16th and 17th Centuries_ (New York, 1903); S. Lee,
+  _Elizabethan Sonnets_ (2 vols., 1904); C.H. Herford, _Literary
+  Relations of England and Germany in 16th Century_; J.G. Underhill,
+  _Spanish Lit. in the England of the Tudors_ (New York, 1899); J.E.
+  Spingarn, _Hist. of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance_ (New York,
+  1899). Many articles in _Englische Studien_, _Anglia_, &c., on
+  influences, texts and sources. See too arts. DRAMA; SONNET;
+  RENAISSANCE.     (O. E.*)
+
+
+V. THE 18TH CENTURY
+
+  Social changes.
+
+In the reign of Anne (1702-1714) the social changes which had commenced
+with the Restoration of 1660 began to make themselves definitely felt.
+Books began to penetrate among all classes of society. The period is
+consequently one of differentiation and expansion. As the practice of
+reading becomes more and more universal, English writers lose much of
+their old idiosyncrasy, intensity and obscurity. As in politics and
+religion, so in letters, there is a great development of nationality.
+Commercial considerations too for the first time become important. We
+hear relatively far less of religious controversy, of the bickering
+between episcopalians and nonconformists and of university squabbles.
+Specialization and cumbrous pedantry fall into profound disfavour.
+Provincial feeling exercises a diminishing sway, and literature becomes
+increasingly metropolitan or suburban. With the multiplication of
+moulds, the refinement of prose polish, and the development of breadth,
+variety and ease, it was natural enough, having regard to the place that
+the country played in the world's affairs, that English literature
+should make its début in western Europe. The strong national savour
+seemed to stimulate the foreign appetite, and as represented by Swift,
+Pope, Defoe, Young, Goldsmith, Richardson, Sterne and Ossian, if we
+exclude Byron and Scott, the 18th century may be deemed the cosmopolitan
+age, _par excellence_, of English Letters. The charms of 18th-century
+English literature, as it happens, are essentially of the rational,
+social and translatable kind: in intensity, exquisiteness and
+eccentricity of the choicer kinds it is proportionately deficient. It is
+pre-eminently an age of prose, and although verbal expression is seldom
+represented at its highest power, we shall find nearly every variety of
+English prose brilliantly illustrated during this period: the
+aristocratic style of Bolingbroke, Addison and Berkeley; the gentlemanly
+style of Fielding; the keen and logical controversy of Butler,
+Middleton, Smith and Bentham; the rhythmic and balanced if occasionally
+involved style of Johnson and his admirers; the limpid and flowing
+manner of Hume and Mackintosh; the light, easy and witty flow of
+Walpole; the divine chit-chat of Cowper; the colour of Gray and
+Berkeley; the organ roll of Burke; the detective journalism of Swift and
+Defoe; the sly familiarity of Sterne; the dance music and wax candles
+of Sheridan; the pomposity of Gibbon; the air and ripple of Goldsmith;
+the peeping preciosity of Boswell,--these and other characteristics can
+be illustrated in 18th-century prose as probably nowhere else.
+
+But more important to the historian of literature even than the
+development of qualities is the evolution of types. And in this respect
+the 18th century is a veritable index-museum of English prose.
+Essentially, no doubt, it is true that in form the prose and verse of
+the 18th century is mainly an extension of Dryden, just as in content it
+is a reflection of the increased variety of the city life which came
+into existence as English trade rapidly increased in all directions. But
+the taste of the day was rapidly changing. People began to read in
+vastly increasing numbers. The folio was making place on the shelves for
+the octavo. The bookseller began to transcend the mere tradesman. Along
+with newspapers the advertizing of books came into fashion, and the
+market was regulated no longer by what learned men wanted to write, but
+what an increasing multitude wanted to read. The arrival of the octavo
+is said to have marked the enrolment of man as a reader, that of the
+novel the attachment of woman. Hence, among other causes, the rapid
+decay of lyrical verse and printed drama, of theology and epic, in
+ponderous tomes. The fashionable types of which the new century was to
+witness the fixation are accordingly the essay and the satire as
+represented respectively by Addison and Steele, Swift and Goldsmith, and
+by Pope and Churchill. Pope, soon to be followed by Lady Mary Wortley
+Montagu, was the first Englishman who treated letter-writing as an art
+upon a considerable scale. Personalities and memoirs prepare the way for
+history, in which as a department of literature English letters hitherto
+had been almost scandalously deficient. Similarly the new growth of
+fancy essay (Addison) and plain biography (Defoe) prepared the way for
+the English novel, the most important by far of all new literary
+combinations. Finally, without going into unnecessary detail, we have a
+significant development of topography, journalism and criticism. In the
+course of time, too, we shall perceive how the pressure of town life and
+the logic of a capital city engender, first a fondness for landscape
+gardening and a somewhat artificial Arcadianism, and then, by degrees,
+an intensifying love of the country, of the open air, and of the rare,
+exotic and remote in literature.
+
+
+  Locke: Addison.
+
+At the outset of the new century the two chief architects of public
+opinion were undoubtedly John Locke and Joseph Addison. When he died at
+High Laver in October 1704 at the mature age of seventy-two, Locke had,
+perhaps, done more than any man of the previous century to prepare the way
+for the new era. Social duty and social responsibility were his two
+watchwords. The key to both he discerned in the _Human Understanding_--"no
+province of knowledge can be regarded as independent of reason." But the
+great modernist of the time was undoubtedly Joseph Addison (1672-1719). He
+first left the 17th century, with its stiff euphuisms, its formal
+obsequiousness, its ponderous scholasticism and its metaphorical
+antitheses, definitely behind. He did for English culture what Rambouillet
+did for that of France, and it is hardly an exaggeration to call the
+half-century before the great fame of the English novel, the half century
+of the _Spectator_.
+
+
+  Steele.
+
+Addison's mind was fertilized by intercourse with the greater and more
+original genius of Swift and with the more inventive and more genial
+mind of Steele. It was Richard Steele (1672-1729) in the _Tatler_ of
+1709-1710 who first realized that the specific which that urbane age
+both needed and desired was no longer copious preaching and rigorous
+declamation, but homoeopathic doses of good sense, good taste and
+good-humoured morality, disguised beneath an easy and fashionable style.
+Nothing could have suited Addison better than the opportunity afforded
+him of contributing an occasional essay or roundabout paper in praise of
+virtue or dispraise of stupidity and bad form to his friend's
+periodical. When the _Spectator_ succeeded the _Tatler_ in March 1711,
+Addison took a more active share in shaping the chief characters (with
+the immortal baronet, Sir Roger, at their head) who were to make up the
+"Spectator Club"; and, better even than before, he saw his way, perhaps,
+to reinforcing his copious friend with his own more frugal but more
+refined endowment. Such a privileged talent came into play at precisely
+the right moment to circulate through the coffee houses and to convey a
+large measure of French courtly ease and elegance into the more humdrum
+texture of English prose. Steele became rather disreputable in his later
+years, Swift was banished and went mad, but Addison became a personage
+of the utmost consideration, and the essay as he left it became an
+almost indispensable accomplishment to the complete gentlemen of that
+age. As an architect of opinion from 1717 to 1775 Addison may well rank
+with Locke.
+
+
+  Swift.
+
+  Arbuthnot.
+
+  Bolingbroke.
+
+The other side, both in life and politics, was taken by Jonathan Swift
+(1667-1745), who preferred to represent man on his unsocial side. He
+sneered at most things, but not at his own order, and he came to defend
+the church and the country squirearchy against the conventicle and Capel
+court. To undermine the complacent entrenchments of the Whig capitalists
+at war with France no sap proved so effectual as his pen. Literary
+influence was then exercised in politics mainly by pamphlets, and Swift
+was the greatest of pamphleteers. In the _Journal to Stella_ he has left
+us a most wonderful portrait of himself in turn currying favour,
+spoiled, petted and humiliated by the party leaders of the Tories from
+1710-1713. He had always been savage, and when the Hanoverians came in
+and he was treated as a suspect, his hate widened to embrace all mankind
+(_Gulliver's Travels_, 1726) and he bit like a mad dog. Would that he
+could have bitten more, for the infection of English stylists! In wit,
+logic, energy, pith, resourcefulness and Saxon simplicity, his prose has
+never been equalled. The choicest English then, it is the choicest
+English still. Dr John Arbuthnot (1667-1735) may be described as an
+understudy of Swift on the whimsical side only, whose malignity, in a
+nature otherwise most kindly, was circumscribed strictly by the limits
+of political persiflage. Bernard Mandeville (1670-1733), unorthodox as
+he was in every respect, discovered a little of Swift's choice pessimism
+in his assault (in _The Fable of the Bees_ of 1723) against the genteel
+optimism of the _Characteristics_ of Lord Shaftesbury. Neither the
+matter nor the manner of the brilliant Tory chieftain Henry St John,
+Viscount Bolingbroke (1678-1751), appears to us now as being of the
+highest significance; but, although Bolingbroke's ideas were
+second-hand, his work has an historical importance; his dignified,
+balanced and decorated style was the cynosure of 18th-century statesmen.
+His essays on "History" and on "a Patriot King" both disturb a soil well
+prepared, and set up a reaction against such evil tendencies as a
+narrowing conception of history and a primarily factious and partisan
+conception of politics. It may be noted here how the fall of Bolingbroke
+and the Tories in 1714 precipitated the decay of the Renaissance ideal
+of literary patronage. The dependence of the press upon the House of
+Lords was already an anomaly, and the practical toleration achieved in
+1695 removed another obstacle from the path of liberation. The
+government no longer sought to strangle the press. It could generally be
+tuned satisfactorily and at the worst could always be temporarily
+muzzled. The pensions hitherto devoted to men of genius were diverted
+under Walpole to spies and journalists. Yet one of the most unscrupulous
+of all the fabricators of intelligence, looked down upon as a huckster
+of the meanest and most inconsiderable literary wares, established his
+fame by a masterpiece of which literary genius had scarcely even
+cognizance.
+
+
+  Defoe.
+
+The new trade of writing was represented most perfectly by Daniel Defoe
+(1660-1731), who represents, too, what few writers possess, a competent
+knowledge of work and wages, buying and selling, the squalor and roguery
+of the very hungry and the very mean. From reporting sensations and
+chronicling _faits divers_, Defoe worked his way almost insensibly to
+the Spanish tale of the old Mendoza or picaresque pattern. _Robinson
+Crusoe_ was a true story expanded on these lines, and written down under
+stress of circumstance when its author was just upon sixty. Resembling
+that of Bunyan and, later, Smollett in the skilful use made of places,
+facts and figures, Defoe's style is the mirror of man in his shirt
+sleeves. What he excelled in was plain, straightforward story-telling,
+in understanding and appraising the curiosity of the man in the street,
+and in possessing just the knowledge and just the patience, and just the
+literary stroke that would enable him most effectually to satisfy it. He
+was the first and cleverest of all descriptive reporters, for he knew
+better than any successor how and where to throw in those irrelevant
+details, tricks of speech and circumlocution, which tend to give an air
+of verisimilitude to a bald and unconvincing narrative--the funny little
+splutterings and naïvetés as of a plain man who is not telling a tale
+for effect, but striving after his own manner to give the plain
+unvarnished truth. Defoe contributes story, Addison character, Fielding
+the life-atmosphere, Richardson and Sterne the sentiment, and we have
+the 18th-century novel complete--the greatest literary birth of modern
+time. Addison, Steele, Swift and Defoe, as master-builders of prose
+fiction, are consequently of more importance than the "Augustan poets,"
+as Pope and his school are sometimes called, for the most that they can
+be said to have done is to have perfected a more or less transient mode
+of poetry.
+
+
+  Pope.
+
+  Thomson.
+
+  Collins. Gray.
+
+To the passion, imagination or musical quality essential to the most
+inspired kinds of poetry Alexander Pope (1688-1744) can lay small claim.
+His best work is contained in the _Satires_ and _Epistles_, which are
+largely of the proverb-in-rhyme order. Yet in lucid, terse and pungent
+phrases he has rarely if ever been surpassed. His classical fancy, his
+elegant turn for periphrasis and his venomous sting alike made him the
+idol of that urbane age. Voltaire in 1726 had called him the best poet
+living, and at his death his style was paramount throughout the
+civilized world. It was the apotheosis of wit, point, lucidity and
+technical correctness. Pope was the first Englishman to make poetry pay
+(apart from patronage). He was flattered by imitation to an extent which
+threatened to throw the school of poetry which he represented into
+permanent discredit. Prior, Gay, Parnell, Akenside, Pomfret, Garth,
+Young, Johnson, Goldsmith, Falconer, Glover, Grainger, Darwin, Rogers,
+Hayley and indeed a host of others--the once famous mob of gentlemen who
+wrote with ease--worshipped Pope as their poetic founder. The
+second-rate wore his badge. But although the cult of Pope was the
+established religion of poetic taste from 1714 to 1798, there were
+always nonconformists. The poetic revolt, indeed, was far more versatile
+than the religious revival of the century. The _Winter_ (1726) of James
+Thomson may be regarded as inaugurating a new era in English poetry.
+Lady Winchilsea, John Philips, author of _Cyder_, and John Dyer, whose
+_Grongar Hill_ was published a few months before _Winter_, had pleaded
+by their work for a truthful and unaffected, and at the same time a
+romantic treatment of nature in poetry; but the ideal of artificiality
+and of a frigid poetic diction by which English poetry was dominated
+since the days of Waller and Cowley was first effectively challenged by
+Thomson. At the time when the Popean couplet was at the height of its
+vogue he deliberately put it aside in favour of the higher poetic power
+of blank verse. And he it was who transmitted the sentiment of natural
+beauty not merely to imitators such as Savage, Armstrong, Somerville,
+Langhorne, Mickle and Shenstone, but also to his elegist, William
+Collins, to Gray and to Cowper, and so indirectly to the lyrical bards
+of 1798. By the same hands and those of Shenstone experiments were being
+made in the stanza of _The Faerie Queene_; a little later, owing to the
+virtuosity of Bishop Percy, the cultivation of the old English and
+Scottish ballad literature was beginning to take a serious turn.
+Dissatisfaction with the limitations of "Augustan" poetry was similarly
+responsible for the revived interest in Shakespeare and Chaucer. Gray
+stood not only for a far more intimate worship of wild external nature,
+but also for an awakened curiosity in Scandinavian, Celtic and Icelandic
+poetry.
+
+To pretend then that the poetic heart of the 18th century was Popean to
+the core is nothing short of extravagance. There were a number of true
+poets in the second and third quarters of the century to whom all
+credit is due as pioneers and precentors of the romantic movement under
+the depressing conditions to which innovators in poetry are commonly
+subject. They may strike us as rather an anaemic band after the great
+Elizabethan poets. Four of them were mentally deranged (Collins, Smart,
+Cowper, Blake), while Gray was a hermit, and Shenstone and Thomson the
+most indolent of recluses. The most adventurous, one might say the most
+virile of the group, was a boy who died at the age of seventeen. Single
+men all (save for Blake), a more despondent group of artists as a whole
+it would not perhaps be easy to discover. Catacombs and cypresses were
+the forms of imagery that came to them most naturally. Elegies and
+funeral odes were the types of expression in which they were happiest.
+Yet they strove in the main to follow the gleam in poetry, to reinstate
+imagination upon its throne, and to substitute the singing voice for the
+rhetorical recitative of the heroic couplet. Within two years of the
+death of Pope, in 1746, William Collins was content to _sing_ (not say)
+what he had in him without a glimpse of wit or a flash of eloquence--and
+in him many have discerned the germ of that romantic _éclosion_ which
+blossomed in _Christabel_. A more important if less original factor in
+that movement was Collins's severe critic Thomas Gray, a man of the
+widest curiosities of his time, in whom every attribute of the poet to
+which scholarship, taste and refinement are contributory may be found to
+the full, but in whom the strong creative energy is fatally
+lacking--despite the fact that he wrote a string of "divine truisms" in
+his _Elegy_, which has given to multitudes more of the exquisite
+pleasure of poetry than any other single piece in the English language.
+Shenstone and Percy, Capell, the Wartons and eventually Chatterton,
+continued to mine in the shafts which Gray had been the first to sink.
+Their laborious work of discovery resembled that which was commencing in
+regard to the Gothic architecture which the age of Pope had come to
+regard as rude and barbaric. The Augustans had come seriously to regard
+all pre-Drydenic poetry as grossly barbarian. One of the greatest
+achievements of the mid-eighteenth century was concerned with the
+disintegration of this obstinate delusion. The process was manifold; and
+it led, among other things, to a realization of the importance of the
+study of comparative literature.
+
+
+  The novel.
+
+  Richardson.
+
+The literary grouping of the 18th century is, perhaps, the biggest thing
+on the whole that English art has to show; but among all its groups the
+most famous, and probably the most original, is that of its
+proto-novelists Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and Sterne. All nations
+have had their novels, which are as old at least as Greek vases. The
+various types have generally had collective appellations such as
+Milesian Tales, Alexandrian Romances, Romances of Chivalry, Acta
+Sanctorum, Gesta Romanorum, Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles, Romances of
+Roguery, Arabian Nights; but owing to the rivalry of other more popular
+or more respectable or at least more eclectic literary forms, they
+seldom managed to attain a permanent lodgment in the library. The taste
+in prose fiction changes, perhaps, more rapidly than that in any other
+kind of literature. In Britain alone several forms had passed their
+prime since the days of Caxton and his Arthurian prose romance of _Morte
+d'Arthur_. Such were the wearisome Arcadian romance or pastoral heroic;
+the new centos of tales of chivalry like the _Seven Champions of
+Christendom_; the utopian, political and philosophical romances
+(_Oceana_, _The Man in the Moone_); the grotesque and facetious stories
+of rogues retailed from the Spanish or French in dwarf volumes; the
+prolix romance of modernized classic heroism (_The Grand Cyrus_); the
+religious allegory (Bunyan's _Life and Death of Mr Badman_); the novels
+of outspoken French or Italian gallantry, represented by Aphra Behn; the
+imaginary voyages so notably adapted to satire by Dr Swift; and last,
+but not least, the minutely prosaic chronicle-novels of Daniel Defoe.
+The prospect of the novel was changing rapidly. The development of the
+individual and of a large well-to-do urban middle class, which was
+rapidly multiplying its area of leisure, involved a curious and
+self-conscious society, hungry for pleasure and new sensations, anxious
+to be told about themselves, willing in some cases even to learn
+civilization from their betters. The disrepute into which the drama had
+fallen since Jeremy Collier's attack on it directed this society by an
+almost inevitable course into the flowery paths of fiction. The novel,
+it is true, had a reputation which was for the time being almost as
+unsavoury as that of the drama, but the novel was not a confirmed
+ill-doer, and it only needed a touch of genius to create for it a vast
+congregation of enthusiastic votaries. In the _Tatler_ and _Spectator_
+were already found the methods and subjects of the modern novel. The De
+Coverley papers in the _Spectator_, in fact, want nothing but a
+love-thread to convert them into a serial novel of a high order. The
+supreme importance of the sentimental interest had already been
+discovered and exemplified to good purpose in France by Madame de la
+Fayette, the Marquise de Tencin, Marivaux and the Abbé Prevost. Samuel
+Richardson (1689-1762), therefore, when he produced the first two modern
+novels of European fame in _Pamela_ (1740) and _Clarissa_ (1748),
+inherited far more than he invented. There had been Richardsonians
+before Richardson. _Clarissa_ is nevertheless a pioneer work, and we
+have it on the high authority of M. Jusserand that the English have
+contributed more than any other people to the formation of the
+contemporary novel. Of the long-winded, typical and rather chaotic
+English novel of love analysis and moral sentiment (as opposed to the
+romance of adventure) Richardson is the first successful charioteer.
+
+
+  Fielding.
+
+  Smollett.
+
+The novel in England gained prodigiously by the shock of opposition
+between the ideals of Richardson and Henry Fielding (1707-1754), his
+rival and parodist. Fielding's brutal toleration is a fine corrective to
+the slightly rancid morality of Richardson, with its frank insistence
+upon the cash-value of chastity and virtue. Fielding is, to be brief,
+the succinct antithesis of Richardson, and represents the opposite pole
+of English character. He is the Cavalier, Richardson the Roundhead; he
+is the gentleman, Richardson the tradesman; he represents church and
+county, Richardson chapel and borough. Richardson had much of the
+patient insight and intensity of genius, but he lacked the humour and
+literary accomplishment which Fielding had in rich abundance. Fielding
+combined breadth and keenness, classical culture and a delicate Gallic
+irony to an extent rare among English writers. He lacked the delicate
+intuition of Richardson in the analysis of women, nor could he compass
+the broad farcical humour of Smollett or the sombre colouring by which
+Smollett produces at times such poignant effects of contrast. There was
+no poetry in Fielding; but there was practically every other ingredient
+of a great prose writer--taste, culture, order, vivacity, humour,
+penetrating irony and vivid, pervading common sense, and it is
+Fielding's chef-d'oeuvre _Tom Jones_ (1749) that we must regard if not
+as the fundament at least as the head of the corner in English prose
+fiction. Before _Tom Jones_ appeared, the success of the novel had drawn
+a new competitor into the field in Tobias Smollett, the descendant of a
+good western lowland family who had knocked about the world and seen
+more of its hurlyburly than Fielding himself. In _Roderick Random_
+(1748) Smollett represents a rougher and more uncivilized world even
+than that depicted in _Joseph Andrews_. The savagery and horse-play
+peculiar to these two novelists derives in part from the rogue romance
+of Spain (as then recently revived by Lesage), and has a counterpart to
+some extent in the graphic art of Hogarth and Rowlandson; yet one cannot
+altogether ignore an element of exaggeration which has greatly injured
+both these writers in the estimation (and still more in the affection)
+of posterity. The genius which struggles through novels such as
+_Roderick Random_ and _Ferdinand Count Fathom_ was nearly submerged
+under the hard conditions of a general writer during the third quarter
+of the 18th century, and it speaks volumes for Smollett's powers of
+recuperation that he survived to write two such masterpieces of sardonic
+and humorous observation as his _Travels_ and _Humphry Clinker_.
+
+
+  Sterne.
+
+The fourth proto-master of the English novel was the antiquarian
+humorist Lawrence Sterne. Though they owed a good deal to _Don Quixote_
+and the French novelists, Fielding and Smollett were essentially
+observers of life in the quick. Sterne brought a far-fetched style, a
+bookish apparatus and a deliberate eccentricity into fiction. _Tristram
+Shandy_, produced successively in nine small volumes between 1760 and
+1764, is the pretended history of a personage who is not born (before
+the fourth volume) and hardly ever appears, carried on in an eccentric
+rigmarole of old and new, original and borrowed humour, arranged in a
+style well known to students of the later Valois humorists as
+_fatrasie_. Far more than Molière, Sterne took his literary _bien_
+wherever he found it. But he invented a kind of tremolo style of his
+own, with the aid of which, in conjunction with the most unblushingly
+indecent innuendoes, and with a conspicuous genius for humorous
+portraiture, trembling upon the verge of the pathetic, he succeeded in
+winning a new domain for the art of fiction.
+
+These four great writers then, Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and
+Sterne--all of them great pessimists in comparison with the benignant
+philosophers of a later fiction--first thoroughly fertilized this
+important field. Richardson obtained a European fame during his
+lifetime. Sterne, as a pioneer impressionist, gave all subsequent
+stylists a new handle. Fielding and Smollett grasped the new instrument
+more vigorously, and fashioned with it models which, after serving as
+patterns to Scott, Marryat, Cooper, Ainsworth, Dickens, Lever,
+Stevenson, Merriman, Weyman and other romancists of the 19th century,
+have still retained a fair measure of their original popularity
+unimpaired.
+
+
+  Johnson.
+
+Apart from the novelists, the middle period of the 18th century is
+strong in prose writers: these include Dr Johnson, Oliver Goldsmith,
+Lord Chesterfield and Horace Walpole. The last three were all influenced
+by the sovereign lucidity of the best French style of the day.
+Chesterfield and Walpole were both writers of aristocratic experience
+and of European knowledge and sentiment. Johnson alone was a
+distinctively English thinker and stylist. His knowledge of the world,
+outside England, was derived from books, he was a good deal of a
+scholar, an earnest moralist, and something of a divine; his style, at
+any rate, reaches back to Taylor, Barrow and South, and has a good deal
+of the complex structure, the cadence, and the balance of English and
+Latinistic words proper to the 17th century, though the later influence
+of Addison and Bolingbroke is also apparent; Johnson himself was fond of
+the essay, the satire in verse, and the moral tale (_Rasselas_); but he
+lacked the creative imagination indispensable for such work and excelled
+chiefly as biographer and critic. For a critic even, it must be admitted
+that he was singly deficient in original ideas. He upholds authority. He
+judges by what he regards as the accepted rules, derived by Dryden,
+Rapin, Boileau, Le Bossu, Rymer, Dennis, Pope and such "estimable
+critics" from the ancients, whose decisions on such matters he regards
+as paramount. He tries to carry out a systematic, motived criticism; but
+he asserts rather than persuades or convinces. We go to his critical
+works (_Lives of the Poets_ and _Essay on Shakespeare_) not for their
+conclusions, but for their shrewd comments on life, and for an
+application to literary problems of a caustic common sense. Johnson's
+character and conversation, his knowledge and memory were far more
+remarkable than his ideas or his writings, admirable though the best of
+these were; the exceptional traits which met in his person and made that
+age regard him as a nonpareil have found in James Boswell a delineator
+unrivalled in patience, dexterity and dramatic insight. The result has
+been a portrait of a man of letters more alive at the present time than
+that which any other age or nation has bequeathed to us. In most of his
+ideas Johnson was a generation behind the typical academic critics of
+his date, Joseph and Thomas Warton, who championed against his authority
+what the doctor regarded as the finicking notions of Gray. Both of the
+Wartons were enthusiastic for Spenser and the older poetry; they were
+saturated with Milton whom they placed far above the correct Mr Pope,
+they wrote sonnets (thereby provoking Johnson's ire) and attempted to
+revive medieval and Celtic lore in every direction. Johnson's one
+attempt at a novel or tale was _Rasselas_, a long "Rambler" essay upon
+the vanity of human hope and ambition, something after the manner of the
+Oriental tales of which Voltaire had caught the idea from Swift and
+Montesquieu; but _Rasselas_ is quite unenlivened by humour, personality
+or any other charm.
+
+
+  Goldsmith.
+
+This one quality that Johnson so completely lacked was possessed in its
+fullest perfection by Oliver Goldsmith, whose style is the supreme
+expression of 18th-century clearness, simplicity and easy graceful
+fluency. Much of Goldsmith's material, whether as playwright, story
+writer or essayist, is trite and commonplace--his material worked up by
+any other hand would be worthless. But, whenever Goldsmith writes about
+human life, he seems to pay it a compliment, a relief of fun and good
+fellowship accompanies his slightest description, his playful and
+delicate touch could transform every thought that he handled into
+something radiant with sunlight and fragrant with the perfume of youth.
+Goldsmith's plots are Irish, his critical theories are French with a
+light top dressing of Johnson and Reynolds or Burke, while his prose
+style is an idealization of Addison. His versatility was great, and, in
+this and in other respects, he and Johnson are constantly reminding us
+that they were hardened professionals, writing against time for money.
+
+
+  Chesterfield and Walpole.
+
+Much of the best prose work of this period, from 1740 to 1780, was done
+under very different conditions. The increase of travel, of intercourse
+between the nobility of Europe, and of a sense of solidarity,
+self-consciousness, leisure and connoisseurship among that section of
+English society known as the governing class, or, since Disraeli, as
+"the Venetian oligarchy," could hardly fail to produce an increasing
+crop of those elaborate collections of letters and memoirs which had
+already attained their apogee in France with Mme de Sévigné and the duc
+de Saint-Simon. England was not to remain far behind, for in 1718
+commence the _Letters_ of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu; ten years more saw
+the commencement of Lord Hervey's _Memoirs of the Reign of George II._;
+and Lord Chesterfield and Lord Orford (better known as Horace Walpole)
+both began their inimitable series of _Letters_ about 1740. These
+writings, none of them written ostensibly for the press, serve to show
+the enormous strides that English prose was making as a medium of
+vivacious description. The letters are all the recreation of extensive
+knowledge and cosmopolitan acquirements; they are not strong on the
+poetic or imaginative side of things, but they have an intense
+appreciation of the actual and mundane side of fallible humanity. Lord
+Chesterfield's _Letters_ to his son and to his godson are far more, for
+they introduce a Ciceronian polish and a Gallic irony and wit into the
+hitherto uncultivated garden of the literary graces in English prose.
+Chesterfield, whose theme is manners and social amenity, deliberately
+seeks a form of expression appropriate to his text--the perfection of
+tact, neatness, good order and _savoir faire_. After his grandfather,
+the marquess of Halifax, Lord Chesterfield, the synonym in the vulgar
+world for a heartless exquisite, is in reality the first fine gentleman
+and epicurean in the best sense in English polite literature. Both
+Chesterfield and Walpole were conspicuous as raconteurs in an age of
+witty talkers, of whose talk R.B. Sheridan, in _The School for Scandal_
+(1777), served up a _suprême_. Some of it may be tinsel, but it looks
+wonderfully well under the lights. The star comedy of the century
+represents the sparkle of this brilliant crowd: it reveals no hearts,
+but it shows us every trick of phrase, every eccentricity of manner and
+every foible of thought. But the most mundane of the letter writers, the
+most frivolous, and also the most pungent, is Horace Walpole, whose
+writings are an epitome of the history and biography of the Georgian
+era. "Fiddles sing all through them, wax lights, fine dresses, fine
+jokes, fine plate, fine equipages glitter and sparkle; never was such a
+brilliant, smirking Vanity Fair as that through which he leads us." Yet,
+in some ways, he was a corrective to the self-complacency of his
+generation, a vast dilettante, lover of "Gothic," of curios and
+antiques, of costly printing, of old illuminations and stained glass. In
+his short miracle-novel, called _The Castle of Otranto_, he set a
+fashion for mystery and terror in fiction, for medieval legend,
+diablerie, mystery, horror, antique furniture and Gothic jargon, which
+led directly by the route of Anne Radcliffe, Maturin, _Vathek_, _St
+Leon_ and _Frankenstein_, to _Queenhoo Hall_, to _Waverley_ and even to
+Hugo and Poe.
+
+
+  Fanny Burney. Boswell.
+
+Meanwhile the area of the Memoir was widening rapidly in the hands of
+Fanny, the sly daughter of the wordly-wise and fashionable musician, Dr
+Burney, author of a novel (_Evelina_) most satirical and facete, written
+ere she was well out of her teens; not too kind a satirist of her former
+patroness, Mrs Thrale (afterwards Piozzi), the least tiresome of the new
+group of scribbling sibyls, blue stockings, lady dilettanti and Della
+Cruscans. Both, as portraitists and purveyors of _Johnsoniana_, were
+surpassed by the inimitable James Boswell, first and most fatuous of all
+interviewers, in brief a biographical genius, with a new recipe,
+distinct from Sterne's, for disclosing personality, and a deliberate,
+artificial method of revealing himself to us, as it were, unawares.
+
+From all these and many other experiments, a far more flexible prose was
+developing in England, adapted for those critical reviews, magazines and
+journals which were multiplying rapidly to exploit the new masculine
+interest, apart from the schools, in history, topography, natural
+philosophy and the picturesque, just as circulating libraries were
+springing up to exploit the new feminine passion for fiction, which
+together with memoirs and fashionable poetry contributed to give the
+booksellers bigger and bigger ideas.
+
+
+  The progress of authorship.
+
+It is surprising how many types of literary productions with which we
+are now familiar were first moulded into definite and classical form
+during the Johnsonian period. In addition to the novel one need only
+mention the economic treatise, as exemplified for the first time in the
+admirable symmetry of _The Wealth of Nations_, the diary of a faithful
+observer of nature such as Gilbert White, the _Fifteen Discourses_
+(1769-1791) in which Sir Joshua Reynolds endeavours for the first time
+to expound for England a philosophy of Art, the historico-philosophical
+tableau as exemplified by Robertson and Gibbon, the light political
+parody of which the poetry of _The Rolliad_ and _Anti-Jacobin_ afford so
+many excellent models; and, going to the other extreme, the ponderous
+archaeological or topographical monograph, as exemplified in Stuart and
+Revett's _Antiquities of Athens_, in Robert Wood's colossal _Ruins of
+Palmyra_ (1753), or the monumental _History of Leicestershire_ by John
+Nichols. Such works as this last might well seem the outcome of Horace
+Walpole's maxim: In this scribbling age "let those who can't write,
+glean." In short, the literary landscape in Johnson's day was slowly but
+surely assuming the general outlines to which we are all accustomed. The
+literary conditions of the period dated from the time of Pope in their
+main features, and it is quite possible that they were more considerably
+modified in Johnson's own lifetime than they have been since. The
+booksellers, or, as they would now be called, publishers, were steadily
+superseding the old ties of patronage, and basing their relations with
+authors upon a commercial footing. A stage in their progress is marked
+by the success of Johnson's friend and Hume's correspondent, William
+Strahan, who kept a coach, "a credit to literature." The evolution of a
+normal status for the author was aided by the definition of copyright
+and gradual extinction of piracy.
+
+
+  Historians.
+
+Histories of their own time by Clarendon and Burnet have been in much
+request from their own day to this, and the first, at least, is a fine
+monument of English prose; Bolingbroke again, in 1735, dwelt memorably
+upon the ethical, political and philosophical value of history. But it
+was not until the third quarter of the 18th century that English
+literature freed itself from the imputation of lagging hopelessly behind
+France, Italy and Germany in the serious work of historical
+reconstruction. Hume published the first volume of his _History of
+England_ in 1754. Robertson's _History of Scotland_ saw the light in
+1759 and his _Charles V._ in 1769; Gibbon's _Decline and Fall of the
+Roman Empire_ came in 1776. Hume was, perhaps, the first modernist in
+history; he attempted to give his work a modern interest and, Scot
+though he was, a modern style--it could not fail, as he knew, to derive
+piquancy from its derision of the Whiggish assumption which regarded
+1688 as a political millennium. Wm. Robertson was, perhaps, the first
+man to adapt the polished periphrases of the pulpit to historical
+generalization. The gifts of compromise which he had learned as
+Moderator of the General Assembly he brought to bear upon his historical
+studies, and a language so unfamiliar to his lips as academic English he
+wrote with so much the more care that the greatest connoisseurs of the
+day were enthusiastic about "Robertson's wonderful style." Even more
+portentous in its superhuman dignity was the style of Edward Gibbon, who
+combined with the unspiritual optimism of Hume and Robertson a far more
+concentrated devotion to his subject, an industry more monumental, a
+greater co-ordinative vigour, and a malice which, even in the 18th
+century, rendered him the least credulous man of his age. Of all
+histories, therefore, based upon the transmitted evidence of other ages
+rather than on the personal observation of the writer's own, Gibbon's
+_Decline and Fall_ has hitherto maintained its reputation best. Hume,
+even before he was superseded, fell a prey to continuations and
+abridgements, while Robertson was supplanted systematically by the
+ornate pages of W.H. Prescott.
+
+The increasing transparency of texture in the working English prose
+during this period is shown in the writings of theologians such as
+Butler and Paley, and of thinkers such as Berkeley and Hume, who, by
+prolonging and extending Berkeley's contention that matter was an
+abstraction, had shown that mind would have to be considered an
+abstraction too, thereby signalling a school of reaction to common sense
+or "external reality" represented by Thomas Reid, and with modifications
+by David Hartley, Abraham Tucker and others. Butler and Paley are merely
+two of the biggest and most characteristic apologists of that day, both
+great stylists, though it must be allowed that their very lucidity and
+good sense excites almost more doubt than it stills, and both very
+successful in repelling the enemy in controversy, though their very
+success accentuates the faults of that unspiritual age in which
+churchmen were so far more concerned about the title deeds than about
+the living portion of the church's estate. Free thought was already
+beginning to sap their defences in various directions, and in Tom Paine,
+Priestley, Price, Godwin and Mackintosh they found more formidable
+adversaries than in the earlier deists. The greatest champion, however,
+of continuity and conservation both in church and state, against the new
+schools of latitudinarians and radicals, the great eulogist of the
+unwritten constitution, and the most perfect master of emotional prose
+in this period, prose in which the harmony of sense and sound is
+attained to an extent hardly ever seen outside supreme poetry, was
+Edmund Burke, one of the most commanding intellects in the whole range
+of political letters--a striking contrast in this respect to Junius,
+whose mechanical and journalistic talent for invective has a quite
+ephemeral value.
+
+
+  Return to nature.
+
+  Change in poetic spirit.
+
+  Cowper. Blake. Burns.
+
+From 1660 to 1760 the English mind was still much occupied in shaking
+off the last traces of feudality. The crown, the parliament, the manor
+and the old penal code were left, it is true: but the old tenures and
+gild-brotherhoods, the old social habits, miracles, arts, faith,
+religion and letters were irrevocably gone. The attempt of the young
+Chevalier in 1745 was a complete anachronism, and no sooner was this
+generally felt to be so than men began to regret that it should so be.
+Men began to describe as "grand" and "picturesque" scenery hitherto
+summarized as "barren mountains covered in mist"; while Voltaire and
+Pope were at their height, the world began to realize that the Augustan
+age, in its zeal for rationality, civism and trim parterres, had
+neglected the wild freshness of an age when literature was a wild flower
+that grew on the common. Rousseau laid the axe to the root of this
+over-sophistication of life; Goldsmith, half understanding, echoed some
+of his ideas in "The Deserted Village." Back from books to men was now
+the prescription--from the crowded town to the spacious country. From
+plains and valleys to peaks and pinewoods. From cities, where men were
+rich and corrupt, to the earlier and more primitive moods of earth. The
+breath had scarcely left the body of the Grand Monarque before an
+intrigue was set on foot to dispute the provisions of his will. So with
+the critical testament of Pope. Within a few years of his death we find
+Gray, Warton, Hurd and other disciples of the new age denying to Pope
+the highest kind of poetic excellence, and exalting imagination and
+fancy into a sphere far above the Augustan qualities of correct taste
+and good judgment. Decentralization and revolt were the new watchwords
+in literature. We must eschew France and Italy and go rather to Iceland
+or the Hebrides for fresh poetic emotions: we must shun academies and
+classic coffee-houses and go into the street-corners or the hedge-lanes
+in search of Volkspoesie. An old muniment chest and a roll of yellow
+parchment were the finest incentives to the new spirit of the
+picturesque. How else are we to explain the enthusiasm that welcomed the
+sham Ossianic poems of James Macpherson in 1760; Percy's patched-up
+ballads of 1765 (_Reliques of Ancient Poetry_); the new enthusiasm for
+Chaucer; the "black letter" school of Ritson, Tyrrwhitt, George Ellis,
+Steevens, Ireland and Malone; above all, the spurious 15th-century poems
+poured forth in 1768-1769 with such a wild gusto of archaic imagination
+by a prodigy not quite seventeen years of age? Chatterton's precocious
+fantasy cast a wonderful spell upon the romantic imagination of other
+times. It does not prepare us for the change that was coming over the
+poetic spirit of the last two decades of the century, but it does at
+least help us to explain it. The great masters of verse in Britain
+during this period were the three very disparate figures of William
+Cowper, William Blake and Robert Burns. Cowper was not a poet of vivid
+and rapturous visions. There is always something of the rusticating
+city-scholar about his humour. The ungovernable impulse and imaginative
+passion of the great masters of poesy were not his to claim. His motives
+to express himself in verse came very largely from the outside. The
+greater part, nearly all his best poetry is of the occasional order. To
+touch and retouch, he says, in one of his letters--among the most
+delightful in English--is the secret of almost all good writing,
+especially verse. Whatever is short should be nervous, masculine and
+compact. In all the arts that raise the best occasional poetry to the
+level of greatness Cowper is supreme. In phrase-moulding, verbal
+gymnastic and prosodical marquetry he has scarcely a rival, and the
+fruits of his poetic industry are enshrined in the filigree of a most
+delicate fancy and a highly cultivated intelligence, purified and thrice
+refined in the fire of mental affliction. His work expresses the rapid
+civilization of his time, its humanitarian feeling and growing
+sensitiveness to natural beauty, home comfort, the claims of animals and
+the charms of light literature. In many of his short poems, such as "The
+Royal George," artistic simplicity is indistinguishable from the stern
+reticence of genius. William Blake had no immediate literary
+descendants, for he worked alone, and Lamb was practically alone in
+recognizing what he wrote as poetry. But he was by far the most original
+of the reactionaries who preceded the Romantic Revival, and he caught
+far more of the Elizabethan air in his lyric verse than any one else
+before Coleridge. The _Songs of Innocence_ and _Songs of Experience_, in
+1789 and 1794, sing themselves, and have a bird-like spontaneity that
+has been the despair of all song-writers from that day to this. After
+1800 he winged his flight farther and farther into strange and unknown
+regions. In the finest of these earlier lyrics, which owe so little to
+his contemporaries, the ripple of the stream of romance that began to
+gush forth in 1798 is distinctly heard. But the first poetic genius of
+the century was unmistakably Robert Burns. In song and satire alike
+Burns is racy, in the highest degree, of the poets of North Britain, who
+since Robert Sempill, Willy Hamilton of Gilbertfield, douce Allan
+Ramsay, the Edinburgh periwig-maker and miscellanist, and Robert
+Fergusson, "the writer-chiel, a deathless name," had kept alive the old
+native poetic tradition, had provided the strolling fiddlers with merry
+and wanton staves, and had perpetuated the daintiest shreds of national
+music, the broadest colloquialisms, and the warmest hues of patriotic
+or local sentiment. Burns immortalizes these old staves by means of his
+keener vision, his more fiery spirit, his stronger passion and his
+richer volume of sound. Burns's fate was a pathetic one. Brief, broken
+glimpses of a genius that could never show itself complete, his poems
+wanted all things for completeness: culture, leisure, sustained effort,
+length of life. Yet occasional, fragmentary, extemporary as most of them
+are, they bear the guinea stamp of true genius. His eye is unerring, his
+humour of the ripest, his wit both fine and abundant. His ear is less
+subtle, except when dialect is concerned. There he is infallible.
+Landscape he understands in subordination to life. For abstract ideas
+about Liberty and 1789 he cares little. But he is a patriot and an
+insurgent, a hater of social distinction and of the rich. Of the divine
+right or eternal merit of the system under which the poor man sweats to
+put money into the rich man's pocket and fights to keep it there, and is
+despised in proportion to the amount of his perspiration, he had a low
+opinion. His work has inspired the meek, has made the poor feel
+themselves less of ciphers in the world and given courage to the
+down-trodden. His love of women has inspired some of the most ardently
+beautiful lyrics in the world. Among modern folk-poets such as Jókai and
+Mistral, the position of Burns in the hearts of his own people is the
+best assured.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.--The dearth of literary history in England makes
+  it rather difficult to obtain a good general view of letters in
+  Britain during the 18th century. Much may be gleaned, however, from
+  chapters of Lecky's _History of England during the 18th Century_, from
+  Stephen's _Lectures on English Literature and Society in the 18th
+  Century_ (1904), from Taine's _History of English Literature_ (van
+  Laun's translation), from vols. v. and vi. of Prof. Courthope's
+  _History of English Poetry_, and from the second volume of Chambers's
+  _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_ (1902). The two vols. dealing
+  respectively with the _Age of Pope_ and the _Age of Johnson_ in Bell's
+  Handbooks of English Literature will be found useful, and suggestive
+  chapters will be found in Saintsbury's _Short History_ and in A.H.
+  Thompson's _Student's History of English Literature_ (1901). The same
+  may, perhaps, be said of books v. and vi. in the _Bookman Illustrated
+  History of English Literature_ (1906), by the present writer.
+  Sidelights of value are to be found in Walter Raleigh's little book on
+  the _English Novel_, in Beljame's _Le Publique et les hommes de
+  lettres en Angleterre au XVIII^e siècle_, in H.A. Beers' _History of
+  English Romanticism in the 18th Century_ (1899), and above all in Sir
+  Leslie Stephen's _History of English Thought during the 18th Century_;
+  Stephen's _Hours in a Library_, the monographs dealing with the period
+  in the English Men of Letters series, the Vignettes and Portraits of
+  Austin Dobson and George Paston, Elwin's _Eighteenth Century Men of
+  Letters_, and Thomas Wright's _Caricature History of the Georges_,
+  must also be kept in mind.     (T. Se.)
+
+
+VI. THE 19TH CENTURY
+
+We have seen how great was the reverence which the 18th century paid to
+poetry, and how many different kinds of poetic experiment were going on,
+mostly by the imitative efforts of revivalists (Spenserians, Miltonians,
+Shakespeareans, Ballad-mongers, Scandinavian, Celtic, Gothic scholars
+and the like), but also in the direction of nature study and landscape
+description, while the more formal type of Augustan poetry, satire and
+description, in the direct succession of Pope, was by no means
+neglected.
+
+
+  Wordsworth.
+
+The most original vein in the 19th century was supplied by the
+Wordsworth group, the first manifesto of which appeared in the _Lyrical
+Ballads_ of 1798. William Wordsworth himself represents, in the first
+place, a revolutionary movement against the poetic diction of
+study-poets since the first acceptance of the Miltonic model by Addison.
+His ideal, imperfectly carried out, was a reversion to popular language
+of the utmost simplicity and directness. He added to this the idea of
+the enlargement of man by Nature, after Rousseau, and went further than
+this in the utterance of an essentially pantheistic desire to become
+part of its loveliness, to partake in a mystical sense of the loneliness
+of the mountain, the sound of falling water, the upper horizon of the
+clouds and the wind. To the growing multitude of educated people who
+were being pent in huge cities these ideas were far sweeter than the
+formalities of the old pastoral. Wordsworth's great discovery, perhaps,
+was that popular poetry need not be imitative, artificial or
+condescending, but that a simple story truthfully told of the passion,
+affliction or devotion of simple folk, and appealing to the primal
+emotion, is worthy of the highest effort of the poetic artist, and may
+achieve a poetic value far in advance of conventional descriptions of
+strikingly grouped incidents picturesquely magnified or rhetorically
+exaggerated. But Wordsworth's theories might have ended very much where
+they began, had it not been for their impregnation by the complementary
+genius of Coleridge.
+
+
+  Coleridge.
+
+Coleridge at his best was inspired by the supreme poetic gifts of
+passion, imagination, simplicity and mystery, combining form and colour,
+sound and sense, novelty and antiquity, realism and romanticism,
+scholarly ode and popular ballad. His three fragmentary poems _The Rime
+of the Ancient Mariner_, _Christabel_ and _Kubla Khan_ are the three
+spells and touchstones, constituting what is often regarded by the best
+judges as the high-standard of modern English poetry. Their subtleties
+and beauties irradiated the homelier artistic conceptions of Wordsworth,
+and the effect on him was permanent. Coleridge's inspiration, on the
+other hand, was irrecoverable; a physical element was due, no doubt, to
+the first exaltation indirectly due to the opium habit, but the moral
+influence was contributed by the Wordsworths. The steady will of the
+Dalesman seems to have constrained Coleridge's imagination from aimless
+wandering; his lofty and unwavering self-confidence inspired his friend
+with a similar energy. Away from Wordsworth after 1798, Coleridge lost
+himself in visions of work that always remained to be "transcribed," by
+one who had every poetic gift--save the rudimentary will for sustained
+and concentrated effort.
+
+
+  Lamb.
+
+  Hazlitt.
+
+  Leigh Hunt. De Quincey.
+
+Coleridge's more delicate sensibility to the older notes of that more
+musical era in English poetry which preceded the age of Dryden and Pope
+was due in no small measure to the luminous yet subtle intuitions of his
+friend Charles Lamb. Lamb's appreciation of the imaginative beauty
+inhumed in old English literature amounted to positive genius, and the
+persistence with which he brought his perception of the supreme
+importance of imagination and music in poetry to bear upon some of the
+finest creative minds of 1800, in talk, letters, selections and essays,
+brought about a gradual revolution in the aesthetic morality of the day.
+He paid little heed to the old rhetoric and the _ars poetica_ of
+classical comparison. His aim was rather to discover the mystery, the
+folk-seed and the old-world element, latent in so much of the finer
+ancient poetry and implicit in so much of the new. The _Essays of Elia_
+(1820-1825) are the binnacle of Lamb's vessel of exploration. Lamb and
+his great rival, William Hazlitt, both maintained that criticism was not
+so much an affair of learning, or an exercise of comparative and
+expository judgment, as an act of imagination in itself. Hazlitt became
+one of the master essayists, a fine critical analyst and declaimer,
+denouncing all insipidity and affectation, stirring the soul with
+metaphor, soaring easily and acquiring a momentum in his prose which
+often approximates to the impassioned utterance of Burke. Like Lamb, he
+wanted to measure his contemporaries by the Elizabethans, or still older
+masters, and he was deeply impressed by _Lyrical Ballads_. The new
+critics gradually found responsible auxiliaries, notably Leigh Hunt, De
+Quincey and Wilson of _Blackwood's_. Leigh Hunt, not very important in
+himself, was a cause of great authorship in others. He increased both
+the depth and area of modern literary sensibility. The world of books
+was to him an enchanted forest, in which every leaf had its own secret.
+He was the most catholic of critics, but he knew what was poor--at least
+in other people. As an essayist he is a feminine diminutive of Lamb,
+excellent in fancy and literary illustration, but far inferior in
+decisive insight or penetrative masculine wit. The Miltonic quality of
+impassioned pyramidal prose is best seen in Thomas De Quincey, of all
+the essayists of this age, or any age, the most diffuse, unequal and
+irreducible to rule, and which yet at times trembles upon the brink of a
+rhythmical sonority which seems almost to rival that of the greatest
+poetry. Leigh Hunt supplies a valuable link between Lamb, the sole
+external moderator of the Lake school, Byron, Shelley, and the junior
+branch of imaginative Aesthetic, represented by Keats.
+
+
+  Keats.
+
+John Keats (1795-1821), three years younger than Shelley, was the
+greatest poetic artist of his time, and would probably have surpassed
+all, but for his collapse of health at twenty-five. His vocation was as
+unmistakable as that of Chatterton, with whose youthful ardour his own
+had points of likeness. The two contemporary conceptions of him as a
+fatuous Cockney Bunthorne or as "a tadpole of the lakes" were equally
+erroneous. But Keats was in a sense the first of the virtuoso or
+aesthetic school (caricatured later by the formula of "Art for Art's
+sake"); artistic beauty was to him a kind of religion, his expression
+was more technical, less personal than that of his contemporaries, he
+was a conscious "romantic," and he travelled in the realms of gold with
+less impedimenta than any of his fellows. Byron had always himself to
+talk about, Wordsworth saw the universe too much through the medium of
+his own self-importance, Coleridge was a metaphysician, Shelley hymned
+Intellectual Beauty; Keats treats of his subject, "A Greek Urn," "A
+Nightingale," the season of "Autumn," in such a way that our thought
+centres not upon the poet but upon the enchantment of that which he
+sings. In his three great medievalising poems, "The Pot of Basil," "The
+Eve of St Agnes" and "La Belle Dame Sans Merci," even more than in his
+Odes, Keats is the forerunner of Tennyson, the greatest of the
+word-painters. But apart from his perfection of loveliness, he has a
+natural magic and a glow of humanity surpassing that of any other known
+poet. His poetry, immature as it was, gave a new beauty to the language.
+His loss was the greatest English Literature has sustained.
+
+
+  Landor.
+
+Before Tennyson, Rossetti and Morris, Keats's best disciples in the
+aesthetic school were Thomas Lovell Beddoes, George Dailey and Thomas
+Hood, the failure of whose "Midsummer Fairies" and "Fair Inez" drove him
+into that almost mortific vein of verbal humour which threw up here and
+there a masterpiece such as "The Song of a Shirt." The master virtuoso
+of English poetry in another department (the classical) during this and
+the following age was Walter Savage Landor, who threw off a few
+fragments of verse worthy of the Greek Anthology, but in his Dialogues
+or "Imaginary Conversations" evolved a kind of violent monologizing upon
+the commonplace which descends into the most dismal caverns of egotism.
+Carlyle furiously questioned his competence. Mr Shaw allows his
+classical amateurship and respectable strenuosity of character, but
+denounces his work, with a substratum of truth, as that of a
+"blathering, unreadable pedant."
+
+
+  Shelley.
+
+Among those, however, who found early nutriment in Landor's Miltonic
+_Gebir_ (1798) must be reckoned the most poetical of our poets. P.B.
+Shelley was a spirit apart, who fits into no group, the associate of
+Byron, but spiritually as remote from him as possible, hated by the
+rationalists of his age, and regarded by the poets with more pity than
+jealousy. He wrote only for poets, and had no public during his lifetime
+among general readers, by whom, however, he is now regarded as _the
+poet_ par excellence. In his conduct it must be admitted that he was in
+a sense, like Coleridge, irresponsible, but on the other hand his poetic
+energy was irresistible and all his work is technically of the highest
+order of excellence. In ideal beauties it is supreme; its great lack is
+its want of humanity; in this he is the opposite of Wordsworth who reads
+human nature into everything. Shelley, on the other hand, dehumanises
+things and makes them unearthly. He hangs a poem, like a cobweb or a
+silver cloud, on a horn of the crescent moon, and leaves it to dangle
+there in a current of ether. His quest was continuous for figures of
+beauty, figures, however, more ethereal and less sensuous than those in
+Keats; having obtained such an idea he passed it again and again through
+the prism of his mind, in talk, letters, prefaces, poems. The deep sense
+of the mystery of words and their lightest variations in the skein of
+poetry, half forgotten since Milton's time, had been recovered in a
+great measure by Coleridge and Wordsworth since 1798; Lamb, too, and
+Hazlitt, and, perhaps, Hogg were in the secret, while Keats had its
+open sesame on his lips ere he died. The union of poetic emotion with
+verbal music of the greatest perfection was the aim of all, but none of
+these masters made words breathe and sing with quite the same
+spontaneous ease and fervour that Shelley attained in some of the lyrics
+written between twenty-four and thirty, such as "The Cloud," "The
+Skylark," the "Ode of the West Wind," "The Sensitive Plant," the "Indian
+Serenade."
+
+The path of the new romantic school had been thoroughly prepared during
+the age of Gray, Cowper and Burns, and it won its triumphs with little
+resistance and no serious convulsions. The opposition was noisy, but its
+representative character has been exaggerated. In the meantime, however,
+the old-fashioned school and the Popean couplet, the Johnsonian dignity
+of reflection and the Goldsmithian ideal of generalized description,
+were well maintained by George Crabbe (1754-1832), "though Nature's
+sternest painter yet the best," a worsted-stockinged Pope and austere
+delineator of village misdoing and penurious age, and Samuel Rogers
+(1763-1855), the banker poet, liberal in sentiment, extreme Tory in
+form, and dilettante delineator of Italy to the music of the heroic
+couplet. Robert Southey, Thomas Campbell and Thomas Moore were a dozen
+years younger and divided their allegiance between two schools. In the
+main, however, they were still poeticisers of the orthodox old pattern,
+though all wrote a few songs of exceptional merit, and Campbell
+especially by defying the old anathemas.
+
+
+  Byron.
+
+The great champion of the Augustan masters was himself the architect of
+revolution. First the idol and then the outcast of respectable society,
+Lord Byron sought relief in new cadences and new themes for his poetic
+talent. He was, however, essentially a history painter or a satirist in
+verse. He had none of the sensitive aesthetic taste of a Keats, none of
+the spiritual ardour of a Shelley, or of the elemental beauty or
+artistry of Wordsworth or Coleridge. He manages the pen (said Scott)
+with the careless and negligent ease of a man of quality. The "Lake
+Poets" sought to create an impression deep, calm and profound, Byron to
+start a theme which should enable him to pose, travel, astonish,
+bewilder and confound as lover of daring, freedom, passion and revolt.
+For the subtler symphonic music--that music of the spheres to which the
+ears of poets alone are attuned--Byron had an imperfect sympathy. The
+delicate ear is often revolted in his poetry by the vices of impromptu
+work. He steadily refused to polish, to file or to furbish--the damning,
+inevitable sign of a man born to wear a golden tassel. "I am like the
+tiger. If I miss the first spring I go growling back to the jungle."
+Subtlety is sacrificed to freshness and vigour. The exultation, the
+breadth, the sweeping magnificence of his effects are consequently most
+appreciated abroad, where the ineradicable flaws of his style have no
+power to annoy.
+
+The European fame of Byron was from the first something quite unique. At
+Missolonghi people ran through the streets crying "The great man is
+dead--he is gone." His corpse was refused entrance at Westminster; but
+the poet was taken to the inmost heart of Russia, Poland, Spain, Italy,
+France, Germany, Scandinavia, and among the Slavonic nations generally.
+In Italy his influence is plainly seen in Berchet, Leopardi, Giusti, and
+even Carducci. In Spain the Myrtle Society was founded in Byron's
+honour. Hugo in his _Orientales_ traversed Greece. Chateaubriand joined
+the Greek Committee. Delavigne dedicated his verse to Byron; Lamartine
+wrote another canto to _Childe Harold_; Mérimée is interpenetrated by
+Byronesque feeling which also animates the best work of Heine, Pushkin,
+Lermontov, and Mickievicz, and even De Musset.
+
+
+  Criticism.
+
+Like Scott, Byron was a man of two eras, and not too much ahead of his
+time to hold the Press-Dragon in fee. His supremacy and that of his
+satellites Moore and Campbell were championed by the old papers and by
+the two new blatant Quarterlies, whose sails were filled not with the
+light airs of the future but by the Augustan "gales" of the classical
+past. The distinction of this new phalanx of old-fashioned critics who
+wanted to confer literature by university degree was that they wrote as
+gentlemen for gentlemen: they first gave criticism in England a
+respectable shakedown. Francis Jeffrey, a man of extraordinary ability
+and editor of _The Edinburgh Review_ from 1803 to 1829 (with the
+mercurial Sydney Smith, the first of English conversationists, as his
+aide-de-camp), exercised a powerful influence as a standardizer of the
+second rate. He was one of the first of the critics to grasp firmly the
+main idea of literary evolution--the importance of time, environment,
+race and historical development upon the literary landscape; but he was
+vigorously aristocratic in his preferences, a hater of mystery,
+symbolism or allegory, an instinctive individualist of intolerant
+pattern. His chief weapons against the new ideas were social superiority
+and omniscience, and he used both unsparingly. The strident political
+partisanship of the _Edinburgh_ raised up within six years a serious
+rival in the _Quarterly_, which was edited in turn by the good-natured
+pedagogue William Gifford and by Scott's extremely able son-in-law John
+Gibson Lockhart, the "scorpion" of the infant _Blackwood_. With the aid
+of the remnant of the old anti-Jacobins, Canning, Ellis, Barrow,
+Southey, Croker, Hayward, Apperley and others, the theory of _Quarterly_
+infallibility was carried to its highest point of development about
+1845.
+
+The historical and critical work of the _Quarterly_ era, as might be
+expected, was appropriate to this gentlemanly censorship. The thinkers
+of the day were economic or juristic--Bentham, the great codifier;
+Malthus, whose theory of population gave Darwin his main impulse to
+theorise; and Mackintosh, whose liberal opposition to Burke deserved a
+better fate than it has ever perhaps received. The historians were
+mainly of the second class--the judicial Hallam, the ornate Roscoe, the
+plodding Lingard, the accomplished Milman, the curious Isaac D'Israeli,
+the academic Bishop Thirlwall. Mitford and Grote may be considered in
+the light of Tory and Radical historical pamphleteers, but Grote's work
+has the much larger measure of permanent value. As the historian of
+British India, James Mill's industry led him beyond his thesis of
+Benthamism in practice. Sir William Napier's heroic picture of the
+Peninsular War is strongly tinged by bias against the Tory
+administration of 1808-1813; but it conserves some imperishable scenes
+of war. Some of the most magnetic prose of the Regency Period was
+contained in the copious and insincere but profoundly emotionalising
+pamphlets of the self-taught Surrey labourer William Cobbett, in whom
+Diderot's paradox of a comedian is astonishingly illustrated. Lockhart's
+Lives of Burns and of Sir Walter Scott--the last perhaps the most
+memorable prose monument of its epoch--appeared in 1828 and 1838, and
+both formed the subjects of Thomas Carlyle in the _Edinburgh Review_,
+where, under the unwelcome discipline of Jeffrey, the new prophet worked
+nobly though in harness.
+
+
+  Scott.
+
+Great as the triumph of the Romantic masters and the new ideas was, it
+is in the ranks of the Old School after all that we have to look for the
+greatest single figure in the literature of this age. Except in the
+imitative vein of ballad or folk-song, the poetry of Sir Walter Scott is
+never quite first-rate. It is poetry for repetition rather than for
+close meditation or contemplation, and resembles a military band more
+than a full orchestra. Nor will his prose bear careful analysis. It is a
+good servant, no more. When we consider, however, not the intensity but
+the vast extent, range and versatility of Scott's powers, we are
+constrained to assign him the first place in his own age, if not that in
+the next seat to Shakespeare in the whole of the English literary
+Pantheon. Like Shakespeare, he made humour and a knowledge of human
+nature his first instruments in depicting the past. Unlike Shakespeare,
+he was a born antiquary, and he had a great (perhaps excessive) belief
+in _mise en scène_, costume, patois and scenic properties generally. His
+portraiture, however, is Shakespearean in its wisdom and maturity, and,
+although he wrote very rapidly, it must be remembered that his mind had
+been prepared by strenuous work for twenty years as a storehouse of
+material in which nothing was handled until it had been carefully
+mounted by the imagination, classified in the memory, and tested by
+experimental use. Once he has got the imagination of the reader well
+grounded to earth, there is nothing he loves better than telling a good
+story. Of detail he is often careless. But he trusted to a full wallet,
+and rightly, for mainly by his abundance he raised the literature of the
+novel to its highest point of influence, breathing into it a new spirit,
+giving it a fulness and universality of life, a romantic charm, a
+dignity and elevation, and thereby a coherence, a power and predominance
+which it never had before.
+
+In Scott the various lines of 18th-century conservatism and 19th-century
+romantic revival most wonderfully converge. His intense feeling for Long
+Ago made him a romantic almost from his cradle. The master faculties of
+history and humour made a strong conservative of him; but his Toryism
+was of a very different spring from that of Coleridge or Wordsworth. It
+was not a reaction from disappointment in the sequel of 1789, nor was it
+the result of reasoned conviction. It was indwelling, rooted deeply in
+the fibres of the soil, to which Scott's attachment was passionate, and
+nourished as from a source by ancestral sentiment and "heather"
+tradition. This sentiment made Scott a victorious pioneer of the
+Romantic movement all over Europe. At the same time we must remember
+that, with all his fondness for medievalism, he was fundamentally a
+thorough 18th-century Scotsman and successor of Bailie Nicol Jarvie: a
+worshipper of good sense, toleration, modern and expert governmental
+ideas, who valued the past chiefly by way of picturesque relief, and was
+thoroughly alive to the benefit of peaceful and orderly rule, and deeply
+convinced that we are much better off as we are than we could have been
+in the days of King Richard or good Queen Bess. Scott had the mind of an
+enlightened 18th-century administrator and statesmen who had made a
+fierce hobby of armour and old ballads. To expect him to treat of
+intense passion or romantic medievalism as Charlotte Brontë or Dante
+Gabriel Rossetti would have treated them is as absurd as to expect to
+find the sentiments of a Mrs Browning blossoming amidst the horse-play
+of _Tom Jones_ or _Harry Lorrequer_. Scott has few niceties or secrets:
+he was never subtle, morbid or fantastic. His handling is ever broad,
+vigorous, easy, careless, healthy and free. Yet nobly simple and
+straightforward as man and writer were, there is something very complex
+about his literary legacy, which has gone into all lands and created
+bigoted enemies (Carlyle, Borrow) as well as unexpected friends
+(Hazlitt, Newman, Jowett); and we can seldom be sure whether his
+influence is reactionary or the reverse. There has always been something
+semi-feudal about it. The "shirra" has a demesne in letters as broad as
+a countryside, a band of mesne vassals and a host of Eildon hillsmen,
+Tweedside cottiers, minor feudatories and forest retainers attached to
+the "Abbotsford Hunt." Scott's humour, humanity and insistence upon the
+continuity of history transformed English literature profoundly.
+
+
+  Transition fiction.
+
+Scott set himself to coin a quarter of a million sterling out of the new
+continent of which he felt himself the Columbus. He failed (quite
+narrowly), but he made the Novel the paymaster of literature for at
+least a hundred years. His immediate contemporaries and successors were
+not particularly great. John Galt (1779-1839), Susan Ferrier (1782-1854)
+and D.M. Moir (1798-1851) all attempted the delineation of Scottish
+scenes with a good deal of shrewdness of insight and humour. The main
+bridge from Scott to the great novelists of the 'forties and 'fifties
+was supplied by sporting, military, naval and political novels,
+represented in turn by Surtees, Smith, Hook, Maxwell, Lever, Marryat,
+Cooper, Morier, Ainsworth, Bulwer Lytton and Disraeli. Surtees gave
+all-important hints to _Pickwick_, Marryat developed grotesque
+character-drawing, Ainsworth and Bulwer attempted new effects in
+criminology and contemporary glitter. Disraeli in the 'thirties was one
+of the foremost romantic wits who had yet attempted the novel. Early in
+the 'forties he received the laying-on of hands from the Young England
+party, and attempted to propagandize the good tidings of his mission in
+_Coningsby_ and _Sybil_, novels full of _entraînement_ and promise, if
+not of actual genius. Unhappily the author was enmeshed in the fatal
+drolleries of the English party system, and _Lothair_ is virtually a
+confession of abandoned ideals. He completes the forward party in
+fiction; Jane Austen (1775-1815) stands to this as Crabbe and Rogers to
+Coleridge and Shelley. She represents the fine flower of the expiring
+18th century. Scott could do the trumpet notes on the organ. She fingers
+the fine ivory flutes. She combines self-knowledge and artistic
+reticence with a complete tact and an absolute lucidity of vision within
+the area prescribed. Within the limits of a park wall in a country
+parish, absolutely oblivious of Europe and the universe, her art is
+among the finest and most finished that our literature has to offer. In
+irony she had no rival at that period. But the trimness of her plots and
+the delicacy of her miniature work have affinities in Maria Edgeworth,
+Harriet Martineau and Mary Russell Mitford, three excellent writers of
+pure English prose. There is a finer aroma of style in the contemporary
+"novels" of Thomas Love Peacock (1785-1866). These, however, are rather
+tournaments of talk than novels proper, releasing a flood of satiric
+portraiture upon the idealism of the day--difficult to be apprehended in
+perfection save by professed students. Peacock's style had an
+appreciable influence upon his son-in-law George Meredith (1828-1909).
+His philosophy is for the most part Tory irritability exploding in
+ridicule; but Peacock was one of the most lettered men of his age, and
+his flouts and jeers smack of good reading, old wine and respectable
+prejudices. In these his greatest successor was George Borrow
+(1803-1881), who used three volumes of half-imaginary autobiography and
+road-faring in strange lands as a sounding-board for a kind of romantic
+revolt against the century of comfort, toleration, manufactures,
+mechanical inventions, cheap travel and commercial expansion,
+unaccompanied (as he maintains) by any commensurate growth of human
+wisdom, happiness, security or dignity.
+
+
+  The Victorian era.
+
+In the year of Queen Victoria's accession most of the great writers of
+the early part of the century, whom we may denominate as "late
+Georgian," were silent. Scott, Byron, Shelley, Keats, Coleridge, Lamb,
+Sheridan, Hazlitt, Mackintosh, Crabbe and Cobbett were gone. Wordsworth,
+Southey, Campbell, Moore, Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, De Quincey, Miss
+Edgeworth, Miss Mitford, Leigh Hunt, Brougham, Samuel Rogers were still
+living, but the vital portion of their work was already done. The
+principal authors who belong equally to the Georgian and Victorian eras
+are Landor, Bulwer, Marryat, Hallam, Milman and Disraeli; none of whom,
+with the exception of the last, approaches the first rank in either. The
+significant work of Tennyson, the Brownings, Carlyle, Dickens,
+Thackeray, the Brontës, George Eliot, Mrs Gaskell, Trollope, the
+Kingsleys, Spencer, Mill, Darwin, Ruskin, Grote, Macaulay, Freeman,
+Froude, Lecky, Buckle, Green, Maine, Borrow, FitzGerald, Arnold,
+Rossetti, Swinburne, Meredith, Hardy, Stevenson, Morris, Newman, Pater,
+Jefferies--the work of these writers may be termed conclusively
+Victorian; it gives the era a stamp of its own and distinguishes it as
+the most varied in intellectual riches in the whole course of our
+literature. Circumstances have seldom in the world been more favourable
+to a great outburst of literary energy. The nation was secure and
+prosperous to an unexampled degree, conscious of the will and the power
+to expand still further. The canons of taste were still aristocratic.
+Books were made and unmade according to a regular standard. Literature
+was the one form of art which the English understood, in which they had
+always excelled since 1579, and in which their originality was supreme.
+To the native genius for poetry was now added the advantage of materials
+for a prose which in lucidity and versatility should surpass even that
+of Goldsmith and Hazlitt. The diversity of form and content of this
+great literature was commensurate with the development of human
+knowledge and power which marked its age. In this and some other
+respects it resembles the extraordinary contemporary development in
+French literature which began under the reign of Louis Philippe. The one
+signally disconcerting thing about the great Victorian writers is their
+amazing prolixity. Not content with two or three long books, they write
+whole literatures. A score of volumes, each as long as the Bible or
+Shakespeare, barely represents the output of such authors as Carlyle,
+Ruskin, Froude, Dickens, Thackeray, Newman, Spencer or Trollope. They
+obtained vast quantities of new readers, for the middle class was
+beginning to read with avidity; but the quality of brevity, the
+knowledge when to stop, and with it the older classic conciseness and
+the nobler Hellenic idea of a perfect measure--these things were as
+though they had not been. Meanwhile, the old schools were broken up and
+the foolscap addressed to the old masters. Singers, entertainers,
+critics and historians abound. Every man may say what is in him in the
+phrases that he likes best, and the sole motto that compels is "every
+style is permissible except the style that is tiresome." The old models
+are strangely discredited, and the only conventions which hold are those
+concerning the subjects which English delicacy held to be tabooed. These
+conventions were inordinately strict, and were held to include all the
+unrestrained, illicit impulses of love and all the more violent
+aberrations from the Christian code of faith and ethics. Infidel
+speculation and the liaisons of lawless love (which had begun to form
+the staple of the new French fiction--hence regarded by respectable
+English critics of the time as profoundly vitiated and scandalous) had
+no recognized existence and were totally ignored in literature designed
+for general reading. The second or Goody-two-Shoes convention remained
+strictly in force until the penultimate decade of the 19th century, and
+was acquiesced in or at least submitted to by practically all the
+greatest writers of the Victorian age. The great poets and novelists of
+that day easily out-topped their fellows. Society had no difficulty in
+responding to the summons of its literary leaders. Nor was their fame
+partial, social or sectional. The great novelists of early Victorian
+days were aristocratic and democratic at once. Their popularity was
+universal within the limits of the language and beyond it. The greatest
+of men were men of imagination rather than men of ideas, but such
+sociological and moral ideas as they derived from their environment were
+poured helter-skelter into their novels, which took the form of huge
+pantechnicon magazines. Another distinctive feature of the Victorian
+novel is the position it enabled women to attain in literature, a
+position attained by them in creative work neither before nor since.
+
+
+  Dickens.
+
+The novelists to a certain extent created their own method like the
+great dramatists, but such rigid prejudices or conventions as they found
+already in possession they respected without demur. Both Dickens and
+Thackeray write as if they were almost entirely innocent of the
+existence of sexual vice. As artists and thinkers they were both
+formless. But the enormous self-complacency of the England of their
+time, assisted alike by the part played by the nation from 1793 to 1815,
+evangelicalism, free trade (which was originally a system of
+super-nationalism) and later, evolution, generated in them a great
+benignity and a strong determination towards a liberal and humanitarian
+philosophy. Despite, however, the diffuseness of the envelope and the
+limitations of horizon referred to, the unbookish and almost unlettered
+genius of Charles Dickens (1812-1870), the son of a poor lower
+middle-class clerk, almost entirely self-educated, has asserted for
+itself the foremost place in the literary history of the period. Dickens
+broke every rule, rioted in absurdity and bathed in extravagance. But
+everything he wrote was received with an almost frantic joy by those who
+recognized his creations as deifications of themselves, his scenery as
+drawn by one of the quickest and intensest observers that ever lived,
+and his drollery as an accumulated dividend from the treasury of human
+laughter. Dickens's mannerisms were severe, but his geniality as a
+writer broke down every obstruction, reduced Jeffrey to tears and Sydney
+Smith to helpless laughter.
+
+
+  Thackeray.
+
+The novel in France was soon to diverge and adopt the form of an
+anecdote illustrating the traits of a very small group of persons, but
+the English novel, owing mainly to the predilection of Dickens for those
+Gargantuan entertainers of his youth, Fielding and Smollett, was to
+remain anchored to the history. William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863)
+was even more historical than Dickens, and most of his leading
+characters are provided with a detailed genealogy. Dickens's great
+works, excepting _David Copperfield_ and _Great Expectations_, had all
+appeared when Thackeray made his mark in 1848 with _Vanity Fair_, and
+Thackeray follows most of his predecessor's conventions, including his
+conventional religion, ethics and politics, but he avoids his worse
+faults of theatricality. He never forces the note or lashes himself into
+fury or sentimentality; he limits himself in satire to the polite sphere
+which he understands, he is a great master of style and possesses every
+one of its fairy gifts except brevity. He creates characters and scenes
+worthy of Dickens, but within a smaller range and without the same
+abundance. He is a traveller and a cosmopolitan, while Dickens is
+irredeemably Cockney. He is often content to criticize or annotate or to
+preach upon some congenial theme, while Dickens would be in the flush of
+humorous creation. His range, it must be remembered, is wide, in most
+respects a good deal wider than his great contemporary's, for he is at
+once novelist, pamphleteer, essayist, historian, critic, and the writer
+of some of the most delicate and sentimental _vers d'occasion_ in the
+language.
+
+
+  Charlotte Brontë.
+
+  George Eliot.
+
+  Kingsley. Trollope. Reade. Meredith. Hardy.
+
+The absorption of England in itself is shown with exceptional force in
+the case of Thackeray, who was by nature a cosmopolitan, yet whose work
+is so absorbed with the structure of English society as to be almost
+unintelligible to foreigners. The exploration of the human heart and
+conscience in relation to the new problems of the time had been almost
+abandoned by the novel since Richardson's time. It was for woman to
+attempt to resolve these questions, and with the aid of powerful
+imagination to propound very different conclusions. The conviction of
+Charlotte Brontë (1816-1855) was that the mutual passionate love of one
+man and one woman is sacred and creates a centre of highest life, energy
+and joy in the world. George Eliot (1819-1880), on the other hand,
+detected a blind and cruel egoism in all such ecstasy of individual
+passion. It was in the autumn of 1847 that _Jane Eyre_ shocked the
+primness of the coteries by the unconcealed ardour of its love passages.
+Twelve years later _Adam Bede_ astonished the world by the intensity of
+its ethical light and shade. The introspective novel was now very
+gradually to establish a supremacy over the historical. The romance of
+the Brontës' forlorn life colours _Jane Eyre_, colours _Wuthering
+Heights_ and colours _Villette_; their work is inseparable from their
+story to an extent that we perhaps hardly realize. George Eliot did not
+receive this adventitious aid from romance, and her work was, perhaps,
+unduly burdened by ethical diatribe, scientific disquisition and moral
+and philosophical asides. It is more than redeemed, however, by her
+sovereign humour, by the actual truth in the portrayal of that
+absolutely self-centred Midland society of the 'thirties and 'forties,
+and by the moral significance which she extracts from the smaller
+actions and more ordinary characters of life by means of sympathy,
+imagination and a deep human compassion. Her novels are generally
+admitted to have obtained twin summits in _Adam Bede_ (1859) and
+_Middlemarch_ (1872). An even nicer delineator of the most delicate
+shades of the curiously remote provincial society of that day was Mrs
+Gaskell (1810-1865), whose _Cranford_ and _Wives and Daughters_ attain
+to the perfection of easy, natural and unaffected English narrative.
+Enthusiasm and a picturesque boyish ardour and partisanship are the
+chief features of _Westward Ho!_ and the other vivid and stirring novels
+of Charles Kingsley (1819-1875), to which a subtler gift in the
+discrimination of character must be added in the case of his brother
+Henry Kingsley (1830-1876). Charles, however, was probably more
+accomplished as a poet than in the to him too exciting operation of
+taking sides in a romance. The novels of Trollope, Reade and Wilkie
+Collins are, generally speaking, a secondary product of the literary
+forces which produced the great fiction of the 'fifties. The two last
+were great at structure and sensation: Trollope dogs the prose of
+every-day life with a certainty and a clearness that border upon
+inspiration. The great novels of George Meredith range between 1859 and
+1880, stories of characters deeply interesting who reveal themselves to
+us by flashes and trust to our inspiration to do the rest. The wit, the
+sparkle, the entrain and the horizon of these books, from _Richard
+Feverel_ to the master analysis of _The Egoist_, have converted the
+study of Meredith into an exact science. Thomas Hardy occupies a place
+scarcely inferior to Meredith's as a stylist, a discoverer of new
+elements of the plaintive and the wistful in the vanishing of past
+ideals, as a depicter of the old southern rustic life of England and its
+tragi-comedy, in a series of novels which take rank with the greatest.
+
+
+  Tennyson.
+
+If Victorian literature had something more than a paragon in Dickens, it
+had its paragon too in the poet Tennyson. The son of a Lincolnshire
+parson of squirearchal descent, Alfred Tennyson consecrated himself to
+the vocation of poesy with the same unalterable conviction that had
+characterized Milton, Pope, Thomson, Wordsworth and Keats, and that was
+yet to signalize Rossetti and Swinburne, and he became easily the
+greatest virtuoso of his time in his art. To lyrics and idylls of a
+luxurious and exotic picturesqueness he gave a perfection of technique
+which criticism has chastened only to perfect in such miracles of
+description as "The Lotus Eaters," "The Dream of Fair Women," and "Morte
+d'Arthur." He received as vapour the sense of uneasiness as to the
+problems of the future which pervaded his generation, and in the elegies
+and lyrics of _In Memoriam_, in _The Princess_ and in _Maud_ he gave
+them back to his contemporaries in a running stream, which still
+sparkles and radiates amid the gloom. After the lyrical monodrama of
+_Maud_ in 1855 he devoted his flawless technique of design, harmony and
+rhythm to works primarily of decoration and design (_The Idylls of the
+King_), and to experiments in metrical drama for which the time was not
+ripe; but his main occupation was varied almost to the last by lyrical
+blossoms such as "Frater Ave," "Roman Virgil," or "Crossing the Bar,"
+which, like "Tears, Idle Tears" and "O that 'twere possible," embody the
+aspirations of Flaubert towards a perfected art of language shaping as
+no other verse probably can.
+
+
+  Browning.
+
+Few, perhaps, would go now to _In Memoriam_ as to an oracle for
+illumination and guidance as many of Queen Victoria's contemporaries
+did, from the Queen herself downwards. And yet it will take very long
+ere its fascination fades. In language most musical it rearticulates the
+gospel of Sorrow and Love, and it remains still a pathetic expression of
+emotions, sentiments and truths which, as long as human nature remains
+the same, and as long as calamity, sorrow and death are busy in the
+world, must be always repeating themselves. Its power, perhaps, we may
+feel of this poem and indeed of most of Tennyson's poetry, is not quite
+equal to its charm. And if we feel this strongly, we shall regard Robert
+Browning as the typical poet of the Victorian era. His thought has been
+compared to a galvanic battery for the use of spiritual paralytics. The
+grave defect of Browning is that his ideas, however excellent, are so
+seldom completely won; they are left in a twilight, or even a darkness
+more Cimmerian than that to which the worst of the virtuosi dedicate
+their ideas. Similarly, even in his "Dramatic Romances and Lyrics"
+(1845) or his "Men and Women" (1855) he rarely depicts action, seldom
+goes further than interpreting the mind of man as he approaches action.
+If Dickens may be described as the eye of Victorian literature, Tennyson
+the ear attuned to the subtlest melodies, Swinburne the reed to which
+everything blew to music, Thackeray the velvet pulpit-cushion, Eliot the
+impending brow, and Meredith the cerebral dome, then Browning might well
+be described as the active brain itself eternally expounding some point
+of view remote in time and place from its own. Tennyson was ostensibly
+and always a poet in his life and his art, in his blue cloak and
+sombrero, his mind and study alike stored with intaglios of the thought
+of all ages, always sounding and remodelling his verses so that they
+shall attain the maximum of sweetness and symmetry. He was a recluse.
+Browning on the other hand dissembled his poethood, successfully
+disguised his muse under the semblance of a stock merchant, was civil to
+his fellowmen, and though nervous with bores, encountered every one he
+met as if he were going to receive more than he could impart. In
+Tennyson's poetry we are always discovering new beauties. In Browning's
+we are finding new blemishes. Why he chose rhythm and metre for
+seven-eighths of his purpose is somewhat of a mystery. His protest
+against the materialistic view of life is, perhaps, a more valid one
+than Tennyson's; he is at pains to show us the noble elements valuable
+in spite of failure to achieve tangible success. He realizes that the
+greater the man, the greater is the failure, yet protests unfailingly
+against the despondent or materialist view of life. His nimble
+appreciation of character and motive attracts the attentive curiosity of
+highly intellectual people; but the question recurs with some
+persistence as to whether poetry, after all, was the right medium for
+the expression of these views.
+
+
+  Ruskin. Morris. Symonds. Pater.
+
+Many of Browning's ideas and fertilizations will, perhaps, owing to the
+difficulty and uncertainty which attaches to their form, penetrate the
+future indirectly as the stimulant of other men's work. This is
+especially the case with those remarkable writers who have for the first
+time given the fine arts a considerable place in English literature,
+notably John Ruskin (_Modern Painters_, 1842, _Seven Lamps_, 1849,
+_Stones of Venice_, 1853), William Morris, John Addington Symonds and
+Walter Pater. Browning, it is true, shared the discipleship of the first
+two with Kingsley and Carlyle. But Ruskin outlived all discipleships and
+transcended almost all the prose writers of his period in a style the
+elements of emotional power in which still preserve their secret.
+
+
+  Arnold.
+
+More a poet of doubt than either Tennyson or the college friend, A.H.
+Clough, whose loss he lamented in one of the finest pastoral elegies of
+all ages, Matthew Arnold takes rank with Tennyson, Browning and
+Swinburne alone among the Dii Majores of Victorian poetry. He is perhaps
+a disciple of Wordsworth even more than of Goethe, and he finds in
+Nature, described in rarefied though at times intensely beautiful
+phrase, the balm for the unrest of man's unsatisfied yearnings, the
+divorce between soul and intellect, and the sense of contrast between
+the barren toil of man and the magic operancy of nature. His most
+delicate and intimate strains are tinged with melancholy. The infinite
+desire of what might have been, the _lacrimae rerum_, inspires
+"Resignation," one of the finest pieces in his volume of 1849 (_The
+Strayed Reveller_). In the deeply-sighed lines of "Dover Beach" in 1867
+it is associated with his sense of the decay of faith. The dreaming
+garden trees, the full moon and the white evening star of the beautiful
+English-coloured _Thyrsis_ evoke the same mood, and render Arnold one of
+the supreme among elegiac poets. But his poetry is the most individual
+in the circle and admits the popular heart never for an instant. As a
+popularizer of Renan and of the view of the Bible, not as a talisman but
+as a literature, and, again, as a chastener of his contemporaries by
+means of the iteration of a few telling phrases about philistines,
+barbarians, sweetness and light, sweet reasonableness, high seriousness,
+Hebraism and Hellenism, "young lions of the _Daily Telegraph_," and "the
+note of provinciality," Arnold far eclipsed his fame as a poet during
+his lifetime. His crusade of banter against the bad civilization of his
+own class was one of the most audaciously successful things of the kind
+ever accomplished. But all his prose theorizing was excessively
+superficial. In poetry he sounded a note which the prose Arnold seemed
+hopelessly unable ever to fathom.
+
+
+  Rossetti.
+
+It is easier to speak of the virtuoso group who derived their first
+incitement to poetry from Chatterton, Keats and the early exotic ballads
+of Tennyson, far though these yet were from attaining the perfection in
+which they now appear after half a century of assiduous correction. The
+chief of them were Dante Gabriel Rossetti, his sister Christina, William
+Morris and Algernon Charles Swinburne. The founders of this school,
+which took and acquired the name Pre-Raphaelite, were profoundly
+impressed by the Dante revival and by the study of the early Florentine
+masters. Rossetti himself was an accomplished translator from Dante and
+from Villon. He preferred Keats to Shelley because (like himself) he had
+no philosophy. The 18th century was to him as if it had never been, he
+dislikes Greek lucidity and the open air, and prefers lean medieval
+saints, spectral images and mystic loves. The passion of these students
+was retrospective; they wanted to revive the literature of a forgotten
+past, Italian, Scandinavian, French, above all, medieval. To do this is
+a question of enthusiastic experiment and adventure. Rossetti leads the
+way with his sonnets and ballads. Christina follows with _Goblin
+Market_, though she subsequently, with a perfected technique, writes
+poetry more and more confined to the religious emotions. William Morris
+publishes in 1858 his _Defence of Guenevere_, followed in ten years by
+_The Earthly Paradise_, a collection of metrical tales, which hang in
+the sunshine like tapestries woven of golden thread, where we should
+naturally expect the ordinary paperhanging of prose romance.
+
+
+  Swinburne.
+
+From the verdurous gloom of the studio with its mysterious and occult
+properties in which Rossetti compounded his colours, Morris went forth
+shortly to chant and then to narrate Socialist songs and parables.
+Algernon Charles Swinburne set forth to scandalize the critics of 1866
+with the roses and lilies of vice and white death in _Poems and
+Ballads_, which was greeted with howls and hisses, and reproach against
+a "fleshly school of modern poetry." Scandalous verses these were,
+rioting on the crests of some of these billows of song. More discerning
+persons perceived the harmless impersonal unreality and mischievous
+youthful extravagance of all these Cyprian outbursts, that the poems
+were the outpourings of a young singer up to the chin in the Pierian
+flood, and possessed by a poetic energy so urgent that it could not wait
+to apply the touchstones of reality or the chastening planes of
+experience. Swinburne far surpassed the promoters of this exotic school
+in technical excellence, and in _Atalanta in Calydon_ and its successors
+may be said to have widened the bounds of English song, to have created
+a new music and liberated a new harmonic scale in his verse. Of the two
+elements which, superadded to a consummate technique, compose the great
+poet, intensity of imagination and intensity of passion, the latter in
+Swinburne much predominated. The result was a great abundance of heat
+and glow and not perhaps quite enough defining light. Hence the tendency
+to be incomprehensible, so fatal in its fascination for the poets of the
+last century, which would almost justify the title of the triumvirs of
+twilight to three of the greatest. It is this incomprehensibility which
+alienates the poet from the popular understanding and confines his
+audience to poets, students and scholars. Poetry is often comparable to
+a mountain range with its points and aiguilles, its peaks and crags, its
+domes and its summits. But Swinburne's poetry, filled with the sound and
+movement of great waters, is as incommunicable as the sea. Trackless and
+almost boundless, it has no points, no definite summits. The poet never
+seems to know precisely when he is going to stop. His metrical flow is
+wave-like, beautiful and rather monotonous, inseparable from the general
+effect. His endings seem due to an exhaustion of rhythm rather than to
+an exhaustion of sense. A cessation of meaning is less perceptible than
+a cessation of magnificent sound.
+
+
+  Newman and the Church.
+
+Akin in some sense to the attempt made to get behind the veil and to
+recapture the old charms and spells of the middle ages, to discover the
+open sesame of the _Morte D'Arthur_ and the _Mabinogion_ and to reveal
+the old Celtic and monastic life which once filled and dominated our
+islands, was the attempt to overthrow the twin gods of the 'forties and
+'fifties, state-Protestantism and the sanctity of trade. The curiously
+assorted Saint Georges who fought these monsters were John Henry Newman
+and Thomas Carlyle. The first cause of the movement was, of course, the
+anomalous position of the Anglican Church, which had become a province
+of the oligarchy officered by younger sons. It stood apart from foreign
+Protestantism; its ignorance of Rome, and consequently of what it
+protested against, was colossal; it was conscious of itself only as an
+establishment--it had produced some very great men since the days of the
+non-jurors, when it had mislaid its historical conscience, but these had
+either been great scholars in their studies, such as Berkeley, Butler,
+Warburton, Thomas Scott, or revivalists, evangelicals and missionaries,
+such as Wilson, Wesley, Newton, Romaine, Cecil, Venn, Martyn, who were
+essentially Congregationalists rather than historical Churchmen. A new
+spiritual beacon was to be raised; an attempt was to be made to realize
+the historical and cosmic aspects of the English Church, to examine its
+connexions, its descent and its title-deeds. In this attempt Newman was
+to spend the best years of his life.
+
+The growth of liberal opinions and the denudation of the English Church
+of spiritual and historical ideas, leaving "only pulpit orators at
+Clapham and Islington and two-bottle orthodox" to defend it, seemed to
+involve the continued existence of Anglicanism in any form in
+considerable doubt. Swift had said at the commencement of the 18th
+century that if an act was passed for the extirpation of the gospel,
+bank stock might decline 1%; but a century later it is doubtful whether
+the passing of such a bill would have left any trace, however
+evanescent, upon the stability of the money market. The Anglican _via
+media_ had enemies not only in the philosophical radicals, but also in
+the new caste of men of science. Perhaps, as J.A. Froude suggests, these
+combined enemies, _The Edinburgh Review_, Brougham, Mackintosh, the
+Reform Ministry, Low Church philosophy and the London University were
+not so very terrible after all. The Church was a vested interest which
+had a greater stake in the country and was harder to eradicate than they
+imagined. But it had nothing to give to the historian and the idealist.
+They were right to fight for what their souls craved after and found in
+the Church of Andrewes, Herbert, Ken and Waterland. Belief in the divine
+mission of the Church lingered on in the minds of such men as Alexander
+Knox or his disciple Bishop Jebb; but few were prepared to answer the
+question--"What is the Church as spoken of in England? Is it the Church
+of Christ?"--and the answers were various. Hooker had said it was "the
+nation"; and in entirely altered circumstances, with some
+qualifications, Dr Arnold said the same. It was "the Establishment"
+according to the lawyers and politicians, both Whig and Tory. It was an
+invisible and mystical body, said the Evangelicals. It was the aggregate
+of separate congregations, said the Nonconformists. It was the
+parliamentary creation of the Reformation, said the Erastians. The true
+Church was the communion of the Pope; the pretended Church was a
+legalized schism, said the Roman Catholics. All these ideas were
+floating about, loose and vague, among people who talked much about the
+Church.
+
+One thing was persistently obvious, namely, that the nationalist church
+had become opportunist in every fibre, and that it had thrown off almost
+every semblance of ecclesiastical discipline. The view was circulated
+that the Church owed its continued existence to the good sense of the
+individuals who officered it, and to the esteem which possession and
+good sense combined invariably engendered in the reigning oligarchy. But
+since Christianity was true--and Newman was the one man of modern times
+who seems never to have doubted this, never to have overlooked the
+unmistakable threat of eternal punishment to the wicked and
+unbelieving--modern England, with its march of intellect and its chatter
+about progress, was advancing with a light heart to the verge of a
+bottomless abyss. By a diametrically opposite chain of reasoning Newman
+reached much the same conclusion as Carlyle. Newman sought a haven of
+security in a rapprochement with the Catholic Church. The medieval
+influences already at work in Oxford began to fan the flame which
+kindled to a blaze in the ninetieth of the celebrated _Tracts for the
+Times_. It proved the turning of the ways leading Keble and Pusey to
+Anglican ritual and Newman to Rome. This anti-liberal campaign was
+poison to the state-churchmen and Protestants, and became perhaps the
+chief intellectual storm centre of the century. Charles Kingsley in 1864
+sought to illustrate by recent events that veracity could not be
+considered a Roman virtue.
+
+
+  Scientific cross-currents.
+
+  Macaulay.
+
+After some preliminary ironic sparring Newman was stung into writing
+what he deliberately called _Apologia pro vita sua_. In this, apart from
+the masterly dialectic and exposition in which he had already shown
+himself an adept, a volume of autobiography is made a chapter of general
+history, unsurpassed in its kind since the _Confessions_ of St
+Augustine, combined with a perfection of form, a precision of phrasing
+and a charm of style peculiar to the genius of the author, rendering it
+one of the masterpieces of English prose. But while Newman was thus
+sounding a retreat, louder and more urgent voices were signalling the
+advance in a totally opposite direction. The _Apologia_ fell in point of
+time between _The Origin of Species_ and _Descent of Man_, in which
+Charles Darwin was laying the corner stones of the new science of which
+Thomas Huxley and Alfred Russel Wallace were to be among the first
+apostles, and almost coincided with the _First Principles_ of a
+synthetic philosophy, in which Herbert Spencer was formulating a set of
+probabilities wholly destructive to the acceptance of positive truth in
+any one religion. The typical historian of the 'fifties, Thomas
+Babington Macaulay, and the seminal thinker of the 'sixties, John Stuart
+Mill, had as determinedly averted their faces from the old conception of
+revealed religion. Nourished in the school of the great Whig pamphleteer
+historians, George Grote and Henry Hallam, Macaulay combined gifts of
+memory, enthusiastic conviction, portraiture and literary expression,
+which gave to his historical writing a resonance unequalled (even by
+Michelet) in modern literature. In spite of faults of taste and
+fairness, Macaulay's resplendent gifts enabled him to achieve for the
+period from Charles II. to the peace of Ryswick what Thucydides had done
+for the Peloponnesian War. The pictures that he drew with such exultant
+force are stamped ineffaceably upon the popular mind. His chief faults
+are not of detail, but rather a lack of subtlety as regards
+characterization and motive, a disposition to envisage history too
+exclusively as a politician, and the sequence of historical events as a
+kind of ordered progress towards the material ideals of universal trade
+and Whig optimism as revealed in the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+
+
+  Carlyle.
+
+Macaulay's tendency to disparage the past brought his whole vision of
+the Cosmos into sharp collision with that of his rival appellant to the
+historical conscience, Thomas Carlyle, a man whose despair of the
+present easily exceeded Newman's. But Carlyle's despondency was totally
+irrespective of the attitude preserved by England towards the Holy
+Father, whom he seldom referred to save as "the three-hatted Papa" and
+"servant of the devil." It may be in fact almost regarded as the reverse
+or complement to the excess of self-complacency in Macaulay. We may
+correct the excess of one by the opposite excess of the other. Macaulay
+was an optimist in ecstasy with the material advance of his time in
+knowledge and power; the growth of national wealth, machinery and means
+of lighting and locomotion caused him to glow with satisfaction.
+Carlyle, the pessimist, regards all such symptoms of mechanical
+development as contemptible. Far from panegyrizing his own time, he
+criticizes it without mercy. Macaulay had great faith in rules and
+regulations, reform bills and parliamentary machinery. Carlyle regards
+them as wiles of the devil. Frederick William of Prussia, according to
+Macaulay, was the most execrable of fiends, a cross between Moloch and
+Puck, his palace was hell, and Oliver Twist and Smike were petted
+children compared with his son the crown prince. In the same bluff and
+honest father Carlyle recognized the realized ideal of his fancy and
+hugged the just man made perfect to his heart of hearts. Such men as
+Bentham and Cobden, Mill and Macaulay, had in Carlyle's opinion spared
+themselves no mistaken exertion to exalt the prosperity and happiness of
+their own day. The time had come to react at all hazards against the
+prevalent surfeit of civilization. Henceforth his literary activity was
+to take two main directions. First, tracts for the times against modern
+tendencies, especially against the demoralizing modern talk about
+progress by means of money and machinery which emanated like a miasma
+from the writings of such men as Mill, Macaulay, Brougham, Buckle and
+from the Quarterlies. Secondly, a cyclopean exhibition of Caesarism,
+discipline, the regimentation of workers, and the convertibility of the
+Big Stick and the Bible, with a preference to the Big Stick as a
+panacea. The snowball was to grow rapidly among such writers as
+Kingsley, Ruskin, George Borrow, unencumbered by reasoning or deductive
+processes which they despised. Carlyle himself felt that the condition
+of England was one for anger rather than discussion. He detested the
+rationalism and symmetry of such methodists of thought as Mill, Buckle,
+Darwin, Spencer, Lecky, Ricardo and other demonstrations of the dismal
+science--mere chatter he called it. The palliative philanthropy of the
+day had become his aversion even more than the inroads of Rome under
+cover of the Oxford movement which Froude, Borrow and Kingsley set
+themselves to correct. As an historian of a formal order Carlyle's
+historical portraits cannot bear a strict comparison with the published
+work of Gibbon and Macaulay, or even of Maine and Froude in this period,
+but as a biographer and autobiographer Carlyle's caustic insight has
+enabled him to produce much which is of the very stuff of human nature.
+Surrounded by philomaths and savants who wrote smoothly about the
+perfectibility of man and his institutions, Carlyle almost alone refused
+to distil his angry eloquence and went on railing against the passive
+growth of civilization at the heart of which he declared that he had
+discovered a cancer. This uncouth Titan worship and prostration before
+brute force, this constant ranting about jarls and vikings trembles
+often on the verge of cant and comedy, and his fiddling on the one
+string of human pretension and bankruptcy became discordant almost to
+the point of chaos. Instinctively destructive, he resents the
+apostleship of teachers like Mill, or the pioneer discoveries of men
+like Herbert Spencer and Darwin. He remains, nevertheless, a great
+incalculable figure, the cross grandfather of a school of thought which
+is largely unconscious of its debt and which so far as it recognizes it
+takes Carlyle in a manner wholly different from that of his
+contemporaries.
+
+
+  New schools.
+
+  History.
+
+The deaths of Carlyle and George Eliot (and also of George Borrow) in
+1881 make a starting-point for the new schools of historians, novelists,
+critics and biographers, and those new nature students who claim to cure
+those evil effects of civilization which Carlyle and his disciples had
+discovered. History in the hands of Macaulay, Buckle and Carlyle had
+been occupied mainly with the bias and tendency of change, the results
+obtained by those who consulted the oracle being more often than not
+diametrically opposite. With Froude still on the one hand as the
+champion of Protestantism, and with E.A. Freeman and J.R. Green on the
+other as nationalist historians, the school of applied history was fully
+represented in the next generation, but as the records grew and
+multiplied in print in accordance with the wise provisions made in 1857
+by the commencement of the Rolls Series of medieval historians, and the
+Calendars of State Papers, to be followed shortly by the rapidly growing
+volumes of Calendars of Historical Manuscripts, historians began to
+concentrate their attention more upon the process of change as their
+right subject matter and to rely more and more upon documents,
+statistics and other impersonal and disinterested forms of material.
+Such historical writers as Lecky, Lord Acton, Creighton, Morley and
+Bryce contributed to the process of transition mainly as essayists, but
+the new doctrines were tested and to a certain extent put into action by
+such writers as Thorold Rogers, Stubbs, Gardiner and Maitland. The
+theory that History is a science, no less and no more, was propounded in
+so many words by Professor Bury in his inaugural lecture at Cambridge in
+1903, and this view and the corresponding divergence of history from the
+traditional pathway of Belles Lettres has become steadily more dominant
+in the world of historical research and historical writing since 1881.
+The bulk of quite modern historical writing can certainly be justified
+from no other point of view.
+
+
+  The novel.
+
+The novel since 1881 has pursued a course curiously analogous to that of
+historical writing. Supported as it was by masters of the old régime
+such as Meredith and Hardy, and by those who then ranked even higher in
+popular esteem such as Wilkie Collins, Anthony Trollope, Besant and
+Rice, Blackmore, William Black and a monstrous rising regiment of lady
+novelists--Mrs Lynn Linton, Rhoda Broughton, Mrs Henry Wood, Miss
+Braddon, Mrs Humphry Ward, the type seemed securely anchored to the old
+formulas and the old ways. In reality, however, many of these popular
+workers were already moribund and the novel was being honeycombed by
+French influence.
+
+This is perceptible in Hardy, but may be traced with greater
+distinctness in the best work of George Gissing, George Moore, Mark
+Rutherford, and later on of H.G. Wells, Arnold Bennett and John
+Galsworthy. The old novelists had left behind them a giant's robe.
+Intellectually giants, Dickens and Thackeray were equally gigantic
+spendthrifts. They worked in a state of fervent heat above a glowing
+furnace, into which they flung lavish masses of unshaped metal, caring
+little for immediate effect or minute dexterity of stroke, but knowing
+full well that the emotional energy of their temperaments was capable of
+fusing the most intractable material, and that in the end they would
+produce their great downright effect. Their spirits rose and fell, but
+the case was desperate; copy had to be despatched at once or the current
+serial would collapse. Good and bad had to make up the tale against
+time, and revelling in the very exuberance and excess of their humour,
+the novelists invariably triumphed. It was incumbent on the new school
+of novelists to economize their work with more skill, to relieve their
+composition of irrelevancies, to keep the writing in one key, and to
+direct it consistently to one end--in brief, to unify the novel as a
+work of art and to simplify its ordonnance.
+
+The novel, thus lightened and sharpened, was conquering new fields. The
+novel of the 'sixties remained not, perhaps, to win many new triumphs,
+but a very popular instrument in the hands of those who performed
+variations on the old masters, and much later in the hands of Mr William
+de Morgan, showing a new force and quiet power of its own. The novel,
+however, was ramifying in other directions in a way full of promise for
+the future. A young Edinburgh student, Robert Louis Stevenson, had
+inherited much of the spirit of the Pre-Raphaelitic virtuosos, and
+combined with their passion for the romance of the historic past a
+curiosity fully as strong about the secrets of romantic technique. A
+coterie which he formed with W.E. Henley and his cousin R.A.M. Stevenson
+studied words as a young art student studies paints, and made studies
+for portraits of buccaneers with the same minute drudgery that Rossetti
+had studied a wall or Morris a piece of figured tapestry. While thus
+forming a new romantic school whose work when wrought by his methods
+should be fit to be grafted upon the picturesque historic fiction of
+Scott and Dumas, Stevenson was also naturalizing the short story of the
+modern French type upon English ground. In this particular field he was
+eclipsed by Rudyard Kipling, who, though less original as a man of
+letters, had a technical vocabulary and descriptive power far in advance
+of Stevenson's, and was able in addition to give his writing an exotic
+quality derived from Oriental colouring. This regional type of writing
+has since been widely imitated, and the novel has simultaneously
+developed in many other ways, of which perhaps the most significant is
+the psychological study as manipulated severally by Shorthouse, Mallock
+and Henry James.
+
+
+  Criticism.
+
+The expansion of criticism in the same thirty years was not a whit less
+marked than the vast divagation of the novel. In the early 'eighties it
+was still tongue-bound by the hypnotic influence of one or two copy-book
+formulae--Arnold's "criticism of life" as a definition of poetry, and
+Walter Pater's implied doctrine of art for art's sake. That two dicta so
+manifestly absurd should have cast such an augur-like spell upon the
+free expression of opinion, though it may of course, like all such
+instances, be easily exaggerated, is nevertheless a curious example of
+the enslavement of ideas by a confident claptrap. A few representatives
+of the old schools of motived or scientific criticism, deduced from the
+literatures of past time, survived the new century in Leslie Stephen,
+Saintsbury, Stopford Brooke, Austin Dobson, Courthope, Sidney Colvin,
+Watts-Dunton; but their agreement is certainly not greater than among
+the large class of emancipated who endeavour to concentrate the
+attention of others without further ado upon those branches of
+literature which they find most nutritive. Among the finest appreciators
+of this period have been Pattison and Jebb, Myers, Hutton, Dowden, A.C.
+Bradley, William Archer, Richard Garnett, E. Gosse and Andrew Lang.
+Birrell, Walkley and Max Beerbohm have followed rather in the wake of
+the Stephens and Bagehot, who have criticized the sufficiency of the
+titles made out by the more enthusiastic and lyrical eulogists. In
+Arthur Symons, Walter Raleigh and G.K. Chesterton the new age possessed
+critics of great originality and power, the work of the last two of whom
+is concentrated upon the application of ideas about life at large to the
+conceptions of literature. In exposing palpable nonsense as such, no one
+perhaps did better service in criticism than the veteran Frederic
+Harrison.
+
+In the cognate work of memoir and essay, the way for which has been
+greatly smoothed by co-operative lexicographical efforts such as the
+_Dictionary of National Biography_, the _New English Dictionary_, the
+_Victoria County History_ and the like, some of the most dexterous and
+permeating work of the transition from the old century to the new was
+done by H.D. Traill, Gosse, Lang, Mackail, E.V. Lucas, Lowes Dickinson,
+Richard le Gallienne, A.C. Benson, Hilaire Belloc, while the open-air
+relief work for dwellers pent in great cities, pioneered by Gilbert
+White, has been expanded with all the zest and charm that a novel
+pursuit can endow by such writers as Richard Jefferies, an open-air and
+nature mystic of extraordinary power at his best, Selous, Seton
+Thompson, W.H. Hudson.
+
+
+  Poetry.
+
+The age has not been particularly well attuned to the efforts of the
+newer poets since Coventry Patmore in the _Angel in the House_ achieved
+embroidery, often extremely beautiful, upon the Tennysonian pattern, and
+since Edward FitzGerald, the first of all letter-writing commentators on
+life and letters since Lamb, gave a new cult to the decadent century in
+his version of the Persian centoist Omar Khayyam. The prizes which in
+Moore's day were all for verse have now been transferred to the prose
+novel and the play, and the poets themselves have played into the hands
+of the Philistines by disdaining popularity in a fond preference for
+virtuosity and obscurity. Most kinds of the older verse, however, have
+been well represented, descriptive and elegiac poetry in particular by
+Robert Bridges and William Watson; the music of the waters of the
+western sea and its isles by W.B. Yeats, Synge, Moira O'Neill, "Fiona
+Macleod" and an increasing group of Celtic bards; the highly wrought
+verse of the 17th-century lyrists by Francis Thompson, Lionel Johnson,
+Ernest Dowson; the simplicity of a more popular strain by W.H. Davies,
+of a brilliant rhetoric by John Davidson, and of a more intimate romance
+by Sturge Moore and Walter de la Mare. Light verse has never, perhaps,
+been represented more effectively since Praed and Calverley and Lewis
+Carroll than by Austin Dobson, Locker Lampson, W.S. Gilbert and Owen
+Seaman. The names of C.M. Doughty, Alfred Noyes, Herbert Trench and
+Laurence Binyon were also becoming prominent at the opening of the 20th
+century. For originality in form and substance the palm rests in all
+probability with A.E. Housman, whose _Shropshire Lad_ opens new avenues
+and issues, and with W.E. Henley, whose town and hospital poems had a
+poignant as well as an ennobling strain. The work of Henry Newbolt, Mrs.
+Meynell and Stephen Phillips showed a real poetic gift. Above all these,
+however, in the esteem of many reign the verses of George Meredith and
+of Thomas Hardy, whose _Dynasts_ was widely regarded by the best judges
+as the most remarkable literary production of the new century.
+
+
+  Drama.
+
+The new printed and acted drama dates almost entirely from the late
+'eighties. Tom Robertson in the 'seventies printed nothing, and his
+plays were at most a timid recognition of the claims of the drama to
+represent reality and truth. The enormous superiority of the French
+drama as represented by Augier, Dumas _fils_ and Sardou began to dawn
+slowly upon the English consciousness. Then in the 'eighties came Ibsen,
+whose daring in handling actuality was only equalled by his intrepid
+stage-craft. Oscar Wilde and A.W. Pinero were the first to discover how
+the spirit of these new discoveries might be adapted to the English
+stage. Gilbert Murray, with his fascinating and tantalizing versions
+from Euripides, gave a new flexibility to the expansion that was going
+on in English dramatic ideas. Bernard Shaw and his disciples,
+conspicuous among them Granville Barker, gave a new seasoning of wit to
+the absolute novelties of subject, treatment and application with which
+they transfixed the public which had so long abandoned thought upon
+entering the theatre. This new adventure enjoyed a _succès de stupeur_,
+the precise range of which can hardly be estimated, and the force of
+which is clearly by no means spent.
+
+
+  20th-century changes.
+
+English literature in the 20th century still preserves some of the old
+arrangements and some of the consecrated phrases of patronage and
+aristocracy; but the circumstances of its production were profoundly
+changed during the 19th century. By 1895 English literature had become a
+subject of regular instruction for a special degree at most of the
+universities, both in England and America. This has begun to lead to
+research embodied in investigations which show that what were regarded
+as facts in connexion with the earlier literature can be regarded so no
+longer. It has also brought comparative and historical treatment of a
+closer kind and on a larger scale to bear upon the evolution of literary
+types. On the other hand it has concentrated an excessive attention
+perhaps upon the grammar and prosody and etymology of literature, it has
+stereotyped the admiration of lifeless and obsolete forms, and has
+substituted antiquarian notes and ready-made commentary for that live
+enjoyment, which is essentially individual and which tends insensibly to
+evaporate from all literature as soon as the circumstance of it changes.
+It is prone, moreover, to force upon the immature mind a rapt admiration
+for the mirror before ever it has scanned the face of the original. A
+result due rather to the general educational agencies of the time is
+that, while in the middle of the 19th century one man could be found to
+write competently on a given subject, in 1910 there were fifty. Books
+and apparatus for reading have multiplied in proportion. The fact of a
+book having been done quite well in a certain way is no longer any bar
+whatever to its being done again without hesitation in the same way.
+This continual pouring of ink from one bottle into another is calculated
+gradually to raise the standard of all subaltern writing and compiling,
+and to leave fewer and fewer books securely rooted in a universal
+recognition of their intrinsic excellence, power and idiosyncrasy or
+personal charm. Even then, of what we consider first-rate in the 19th
+century, for instance, but a very small residuum can possibly survive.
+The one characteristic that seems likely to cling and to differentiate
+this voluble century is its curious reticence, of which the 20th century
+has already made uncommonly short work. The new playwrights have
+untaught England a shyness which came in about the time of Southey,
+Wordsworth and Sir Walter Scott. That the best literature has survived
+hitherto is at best a pious opinion. As the area of experience grows it
+is more and more difficult to circumscribe or even to describe the
+supreme best, and such attempts have always been responsible for base
+superstition. It is clear that some limitation of the literary
+stock-in-trade will become increasingly urgent as time goes on, and the
+question may well occur as to whether we are insuring the right baggage.
+The enormous apparatus of literature at the present time is suitable
+only to a peculiar phasis and manner of existence. Some hold to the
+innate and essential aristocracy of literature; others that it is bound
+to develop on the popular and communistic side, for that at present,
+like machinery and other deceptive benefits, it is a luxury almost
+exclusively advantageous to the rich. But to predict the direction of
+change in literature is even more futile than to predict the direction
+of change in human history, for of all factors of history, literature,
+if one of the most permanent, is also one of the least calculable.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.--_The Age of Wordsworth_ and _The Age of
+  Tennyson_ in Bell's "Handbooks of English Literature" are of special
+  value for this period. Prof. Dowden's and Prof. Saintsbury's
+  19th-century studies fill in interstices; and of the "Periods of
+  European Literature," the _Romantic Revolt_ and _Romantic Triumph_ are
+  pertinent, as are the literary chapters in vols. x. and xi. of the
+  _Cambridge Modern History_. Of more specific books George Brandes's
+  _Literary Currents of the Nineteenth Century_, Stedman's _Victorian
+  Poets_, Holman Hunt's _Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood_, R.H. Hutton's
+  _Contemporary Thought_ (and companion volumes), Sir Leslie Stephen's
+  _The Utilitarians_, Buxton Forman's _Our Living Poets_, Dawson's
+  _Victorian Novelists_, Thureau-Dangin's _Renaissance des idées
+  catholiques en Angleterre_, A. Chevrillon's _Sydney Smith et la
+  renaissance des idées libérales en Angleterre_, A.W. Benn's _History
+  of English Thought in the Nineteenth Century_, the publishing
+  histories of Murray, Blackwood, Macvey Napier, Lockhart, &c., J.M.
+  Robertson's _Modern Humanists_, and the critical miscellanies of Lord
+  Morley, Frederic Harrison, W. Bagehot, A. Birrell, Andrew Lang and E.
+  Gosse, will be found, in their several degrees, illuminating. The
+  chief literary lives are those of Scott by Lockhart, Carlyle by
+  Froude, Macaulay by Trevelyan, Dickens by Forster and Charlotte Brontë
+  by Mrs Gaskell.     (T. Se.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Piers Plowman_ has been so long attributed as a whole to
+    Langland (q.v.), that in spite of modern analytical criticism it is
+    most conveniently discussed under that name.
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISHRY (_Englescherie_), a legal name given, in the reign of William
+the Conqueror, to the presentment of the fact that a person slain was an
+Englishman. If an unknown man was found slain, he was presumed to be a
+Norman, and the hundred was fined accordingly, unless it could be proved
+that he was English. Englishry, if established, excused the hundred. Dr
+W. Stubbs (_Constitutional History_, i. 196) says that possibly similar
+measures were taken by King Canute. Englishry was abolished in 1340.
+
+  See _Select Cases from the Coroners' Rolls, 1265-1413_, ed. C. Gross,
+  Selden Society (London, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+ENGRAVING, the process or result of the action implied by the verb "to
+engrave" or mark by incision, the marks (whether for inscriptive,
+pictorial or decorative purposes) being produced, not by simply staining
+or discolouring the material (as with paint, pen or pencil), but by
+cutting into or otherwise removing a portion of the substance. In the
+case of pictures, the engraved surface is reproduced by printing; but
+this is only one restricted sense of "engraving," since the term
+includes seal-engraving (where a cast is taken), and also the chased
+ornamentation of plate or gems, &c.
+
+The word itself is derived from an O. Fr. _engraver_ (not to be confused
+with the same modern French word used for the running of a boat's keel
+into the beach, or for the sticking of a cart's wheels in the mud,--from
+_grève_, Provençal _grava_, sands of the sea or river shore; cf. Eng.
+"gravel"); it was at one time supposed that the Gr. _[Greek: graphein]_,
+to write, was etymologically connected, but this view is not now
+accepted, and (together with "grave," meaning either to engrave, or the
+place where the dead are buried) the derivation is referred to a common
+Teutonic form signifying "to dig" (O. Eng. _grafan_, Ger. _graben_). The
+modern French _graver_, to engrave, is a later adoption. The idea of a
+furrow, by digging or cutting, is thus historically associated with an
+engraving, which may properly include the rudest marks cut into any
+substance. In old English literature it included carving and sculpture,
+from which it has become convenient to differentiate the terminology;
+and the ancients who chiselled their writing on slabs of stone were
+really "engraving." The word is not applicable, therefore, either
+strictly to lithography (q.v.), nor to any of the photographic processes
+(see PROCESS), except those in which the surface of the plate is
+actually eaten into or lowered. In the latter case, too, it is
+convenient to mark a distinction and to ignore the strict analogy. In
+modern times the term is, therefore, practically restricted--outside the
+spheres of gem-engraving and seal-engraving (see GEM), or the inscribing
+or ornamenting of stone, plate, glass, &c.--to the art of making
+original pictures (i.e. by the draughtsman himself, whether copies of
+an original painting or not), either by incised lines on metal plates
+(see LINE-ENGRAVING), or by the corrosion of the lines with acid (see
+ETCHING), or by the roughening of a metal surface without actual lines
+(see MEZZOTINT), or by cutting a wood surface away so as to leave lines
+in relief (see WOOD-ENGRAVING); the result in each case may be called
+generically an engraving, and in common parlance the term is applied,
+though incorrectly, to the printed reproduction or "print."
+
+Of these four varieties of engraving--line-engraving, etching, mezzotint
+or wood-engraving--the woodcut is historically the earliest.
+Line-engraving is now practically obsolete, while etching and mezzotint
+have recently come more and more to the front. To the draughtsman the
+difference in technical handling in each case has in most cases some
+relation to his own artistic impulse, and to his own feeling for beauty.
+A line engraver, as P.G. Hamerton said, will not see or think like an
+etcher, nor an etcher like an engraver in mezzotint. Each kind, with its
+own sub-varieties, has its peculiar effect and attraction. A real
+knowledge of engraving can only be attained by a careful study and
+comparison of the prints themselves, or of accurate facsimiles, so that
+books are of little use except as guides to prints when the reader
+happens to be unaware of their existence, or else for their explanation
+of technical processes. The value of the prints varies not only
+according to the artist, but also according to the fineness of the
+impression, and the "state" (or stage) in the making of the plate, which
+may be altered from time to time. "Proofs" may also be taken from the
+plate, and even touched up by the artist, in various stages and various
+degrees of fineness of impression.
+
+The department of art-literature which classifies prints is called
+_Iconography_, and the classifications adopted by iconographers are of
+the most various kinds. For example, if a complete book were written on
+Shakespearian iconography it would contain full information about all
+prints illustrating the life and works of Shakespeare, and in the same
+way there may be the iconography of a locality or of a single event.
+
+  The history of engraving is a part of iconography, and various
+  histories of the art exist in different languages. In England W.Y.
+  Ottley wrote an _Early History of Engraving_, published in two volumes
+  4to (1816), and began what was intended to be a series of notices on
+  engravers and their works. The facilities for the reproduction of
+  engravings by the photographic processes have of late years given an
+  impetus to iconography. One of the best modern writers on the subject
+  was Georges Duplessis, the keeper of prints in the national library of
+  France. He wrote a _History of Engraving in France_ (1888), and
+  published many notices of engravers to accompany the reproductions by
+  M. Amand Durand. He is also the author of a useful little manual
+  entitled _Les Merveilles de la gravure_ (1871). Jansen's work on the
+  origin of wood and plate engraving, and on the knowledge of prints of
+  the 15th and 16th centuries, was published at Paris in two volumes 8vo
+  in 1808. Among general works see Adam Bartsch, _Le Peintre-graveur_
+  (1803-1843); J.D. Passavant, _Le Peintre-graveur_ (1860-1864); P.G.
+  Hamerton, _Graphic Arts_ (1882); William Gilpin, _Essay on Prints_
+  (1781); J. Maberly, _The Print Collector_ (1844); W.H. Wiltshire,
+  _Introduction to the Study and Collection of Ancient Prints_ (1874);
+  F. Wedmore, _Fine Prints_ (1897). See also the lists of works given
+  under the separate headings for LINE-ENGRAVING, ETCHING, MEZZOTINT and
+  WOOD-ENGRAVING.
+
+
+
+
+ENGROSSING, a term used in two legal senses: (1) the writing or copying
+of a legal or other document in a fair large hand (_en gros_), and (2)
+the buying up of goods wholesale in order to sell at a higher price so
+as to establish a monopoly. The word "engross" has come into English
+ultimately from the Late Lat. _grossus_, thick, stout, large, through
+the A. Fr. _engrosser_, Med. Lat. _ingrossare_, to write in a large
+hand, and the French phrase _en gros_, in gross, wholesale. Engrossing
+and the kindred practices of forestalling and regrating were early
+regarded as serious offences in restraint of trade, and were punishable
+both at common law and by statute. They were of more particular
+importance in relation to the distribution of corn supplies. The statute
+of 1552 defines engrossing as "buying corn growing, or any other corn,
+grain, butter, cheese, fish or other dead victual, with _intent to sell
+the same again_." The law forbade all dealing in corn as an article of
+ordinary merchandise, apart from questions of foreign import or export.
+The theory was that when corn was plentiful in any district it should be
+consumed at what it would bring, without much respect to whether the
+next harvest might be equally abundant, or to what the immediate wants
+of an adjoining province of the same country might be. The first statute
+on the subject appears to have been passed in the reign of Henry III.,
+though the general policy had prevailed before that time both in popular
+prejudice and in the feudal custom. The statute of Edward VI. (1552) was
+the most important, and in it the offences were elaborately defined; by
+this statute any one who bought corn to sell it again was made liable to
+two months' imprisonment with forfeit of the corn. A second offence was
+punished by six months' imprisonment and forfeit of double the value of
+the corn, and a third by the pillory and utter ruin. Severe as this
+statute was, liberty was given by it to transport corn from one part of
+the country under licence to men of approved probity, which implied that
+there was to be some buying of corn to sell it again and elsewhere.
+Practically "engrossing" came to be considered buying wholesale to sell
+again wholesale. "Forestalling" was different, and the statutes were
+directed against a class of dealers who went forward and bought or
+contracted for corn and other provisions, and spread false rumours in
+derogation of the public and open markets appointed by law, to which our
+ancestors appear to have attached much importance, and probably in these
+times not without reason. The statute of Edward VI. was modified by many
+subsequent enactments, particularly by the statute of 1663, by which it
+was declared that there could be no "engrossing" of corn when the price
+did not exceed 48s. per quarter, and which Adam Smith recognized, though
+it adhered to the variable and unsatisfactory element of price, as
+having contributed more to the progress of agriculture than any previous
+law in the statute book. In 1773 these injurious statutes were
+abolished, but the penal character of "engrossing" and "forestalling"
+had a root in the common law of England, as well as in the popular
+prejudice, which kept the evil alive to a later period. As the public
+enlightenment increased the judges were at no loss to give
+interpretations of the common law consistent with public policy.
+Subsequent to the act of 1773, for example, there was a case of
+conviction and punishment for engrossing hops, _R._ v. _Waddington_,
+1800, 1 East, 143, but though this was deemed a sound and proper
+judgment at the time, yet it was soon afterwards overthrown in other
+cases, on the ground that buying wholesale to sell wholesale was not in
+"restraint of trade" as the former judges had assumed.
+
+In 1800, one John Rusby was indicted for having bought ninety quarters
+of oats at 41s. per quarter and selling thirty of them at 43s. the same
+day. Lord Kenyon, the presiding judge, animadverted strongly against the
+repealing act of 1773, and addressed the jury strongly against the
+accused. Rusby was heavily fined, but, on appeal, the court was equally
+divided as to whether engrossing, forestalling and regrating were still
+offences at common law. In 1844, all the statutes, English, Irish and
+Scottish, defining the offences, were repealed and with them the
+supposed common law foundation. In the United States there have been
+strong endeavours by the government to suppress trusts and combinations
+for engrossing. (See also TRUSTS; MONOPOLY.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--D. Macpherson, _Annals of Commerce_ (1805); J.S.
+  Girdler, _Observations on Forestalling, Regrating and Ingrossing_
+  (1800); W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_; W.J.
+  Ashley, _Economic History_; Sir J. Stephen, _History of Criminal Law_;
+  Murray, _New English Dictionary_.
+
+
+
+
+ENGYON, an ancient town of the interior of Sicily, a Cretan colony,
+according to legend, and famous for an ancient temple of the Matres
+which aroused the greed of Verres. Its site is uncertain; some
+topographers have identified it with Gangi, a town 20 m. S.S.E. of
+Cefalu, but only on the ground of the similarity of the two names.
+
+  See C. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, v. 2568.
+
+
+
+
+ENID, a city and the county-seat of Garfield county, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
+about 55 m. N.W. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900) 3444; (1907) 10,087 (355 of
+negro descent); (1910) 13,799. Enid is served by the St Louis & San
+Francisco, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, and the Chicago, Rock Island
+& Pacific railways, and by several branch lines, and is an important
+railway centre. It is the seat of the Oklahoma Christian University
+(1907; co-educational). Enid is situated in a flourishing agricultural
+and stock-raising region, of which it is the commercial centre, and has
+various manufactures, including lumber, brick, tile and flour. Natural
+gas was discovered near the city in 1907. Enid was founded in 1893 and
+was chartered as a city in the same year.
+
+
+
+
+ENIGMA (Gr. [Greek: ainigma]), a riddle or puzzle, especially a form of
+verse or prose composition in which the answer is concealed by means of
+metaphors. Such were the famous riddle of the Sphinx and the riddling
+answers of the ancient oracles. The composition of enigmas was a
+favourite amusement in Greece and prizes were often given at banquets
+for the best solution of them (Athen. x. 457). In France during the 17th
+century enigma-making became fashionable. Boileau, Charles Rivière
+Dufresny and J.J. Rousseau did not consider it beneath their literary
+dignity. In 1646 the abbé Charles Cotier (1604-1682) published a
+_Recueil des énigmes de ce temps_. The word is applied figuratively to
+anything inexplicable or difficult of understanding.
+
+
+
+
+ENKHUIZEN, a seaport of Holland in the province of North Holland, on the
+Zuider Zee, and a railway terminus, 11½ m. N.E. by E. of Hoorn, with
+which it is also connected by steam tramway. In conjunction with the
+railway service there is a steamboat ferry to Stavoren in Friesland.
+Pop. (1900) 6865. Enkhuizen, like its neighbour Hoorn, exhibits many
+interesting examples of domestic architecture dating from the 16th and
+17th centuries, when it was an important and flourishing city. The
+façades of the houses are usually built in courses of brick and stone,
+and adorned with carvings, sculptures and inscriptions. Some ruined
+gateways belonging to the old city walls are still standing; among them
+being the tower-gateway called the Dromedary (1540), which overlooks the
+harbour. The tower contains several rooms, one of which was formerly
+used as a prison. Among the churches mention must be made of the
+Zuiderkerk, or South church, with a conspicuous tower (1450-1525); and
+the Westerkerk, or West church, which possesses a beautifully carved
+Renaissance screen and pulpit of the middle of the 16th century, and a
+quaint wooden bell-house (1519) built for use before the completion of
+the bell-tower. There are also a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue.
+The picturesque town hall (1688) contains some finely decorated rooms
+with paintings by Johan van Neck, a collection of local antiquities and
+the archives. Other interesting buildings are the orphanage (1616),
+containing some 17th and 18th century portraits and ancient leather
+hangings; the weigh-house (1559), the upper story of which was once used
+by the Surgeons' Gild, several of the window-panes (dating chiefly from
+about 1640), being decorated with the arms of various members; the
+former mint (1611); and the ancient assembly-house of the dike-reeves of
+Holland and West Friesland. Enkhuizen possesses a considerable fishing
+fleet and has some shipbuilding and rope-making, as well as market
+traffic.
+
+
+
+
+ENNEKING, JOHN JOSEPH (1841-   ), American landscape painter, was born,
+of German ancestry, in Minster, Ohio, on the 4th of October 1841. He was
+educated at Mount St Mary's College, Cincinnati, served in the American
+Civil War in 1861-1862, studied art in New York and Boston, and gave it
+up because his eyes were weak, only to return to it after failing in the
+manufacture of tinware. In 1873-1876 he studied in Munich under Schleich
+and Leier, and in Paris under Daubigny and Bonnat; and in 1878-1879 he
+studied in Paris again and sketched in Holland. Enneking is a
+"plein-airist," and his favourite subject is the "November twilight" of
+New England, and more generally the half lights of early spring, late
+autumn, and winter dawn and evening.
+
+
+
+
+ENNIS (Gaelic, _Innis_, an island; Irish, _Ennis_ and _Inish_), the
+county town of Co. Clare, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division,
+on the river Fergus, 25 m. W.N.W. from Limerick by the Great Southern &
+Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5093. It is the junction
+for the West Clare line. Ennis has breweries, distilleries and extensive
+flour-mills; and in the neighbourhood limestone is quarried. The
+principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church, which is the
+pro-cathedral of the diocese of Killaloe; the parish church formed out
+of the ruins of the Franciscan Abbey, founded in 1240 by Donough Carbrac
+O'Brien; a school on the foundation of Erasmus Smith, and various county
+buildings. The abbey, though greatly mutilated, is full of interesting
+details, and includes a lofty tower, a marble screen, a chapter-house, a
+notable east window, several fine tombs and an altar of St Francis. On
+the site of the old court-house a colossal statue in white limestone of
+Daniel O'Connell was erected in 1865. The interesting ruins of Clare
+Abbey, founded in 1194 by Donnell O'Brien, king of Munster, are half-way
+between Ennis and the village of Clare Castle. O'Brien also founded
+Killone Abbey, beautifully situated on the lough of the same name, 3 m.
+S. of the town, possessing the unusual feature of a crypt and a holy
+well. Five miles N.W. of Ennis is Dysert O'Dea, with interesting
+ecclesiastical remains, a cross, a round tower and a castle. Ennis was
+incorporated in 1612, and returned two members to the Irish parliament
+until the Union, and thereafter one to the Imperial parliament until
+1885.
+
+
+
+
+ENNISCORTHY, a market town of Co. Wexford, Ireland, in the north
+parliamentary division, on the side of a steep hill above the Slaney,
+which here becomes navigable for barges of large size. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 5458. It is 77½ m. S. by W. from Dublin by the Dublin &
+South-Eastern railway. There are breweries and flour-mills; tanning,
+distilling and woollen manufactures are also prosecuted to some extent,
+and the town is the centre of the agricultural trade for the district,
+which is aided by the water communication with Wexford. There are
+important fowl markets and horse-fairs. Enniscorthy was taken by
+Cromwell in 1649, and in 1798 was stormed and burned by the rebels,
+whose main forces encamped on an eminence called Vinegar Hill, which
+overlooks the town from the east. The old castle of Enniscorthy, a
+massive square pile with a round tower at each corner, is one of the
+earliest military structures of the Anglo-Norman invaders, founded by
+Raymond le Gros (1176). Ferns, the next station to Enniscorthy on the
+railway towards Dublin, was the seat of a former bishopric, and the
+modernized cathedral, and ruins of a church, an Augustinian monastery
+founded by Dermod Mac-Morrough about 1160, and a castle of the Norman
+period, are still to be seen. Enniscorthy was incorporated by James I.,
+and sent two members to the Irish parliament until the Union.
+
+
+
+
+ENNISKILLEN, WILLIAM WILLOUGHBY COLE, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1886), British
+palaeontologist, was born on the 25th of January 1807, and educated at
+Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford. As Lord Cole he early began to devote
+his leisure to the study and collection of fossil fishes, with his
+friend Sir Philip de M.G. Egerton, and he amassed a fine collection at
+Florence Court, Enniskillen--including many specimens that were
+described and figured by Agassiz and Egerton. This collection was
+subsequently acquired by the British Museum. He died on the 21st of
+November 1886, being succeeded by his son (b. 1845) as 4th earl.
+
+The first of the Coles (an old Devonshire and Cornwall family) to settle
+in Ireland was Sir William Cole (d. 1653), who was "undertaker" of the
+northern plantation and received a grant of a large property in
+Fermanagh in 1611, and became provost and later governor of Enniskillen.
+In 1760 his descendant John Cole (d. 1767) was created Baron
+Mountflorence, and the latter's son, William Willoughby Cole
+(1736-1803), was in 1776 created Viscount Enniskillen and in 1789 earl.
+The 1st earl's second son, Sir Galbraith Lowry Cole (1772-1842), was a
+prominent general in the Peninsular War, and colonel of the 27th
+Inniskillings, the Irish regiment with whose name the family was
+associated.
+
+
+
+
+ENNISKILLEN [INNISKILLING], a market town and the county town of county
+Fermanagh, Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, picturesquely
+situated on an island in the river connecting the upper and lower loughs
+Erne, 116 m. N.W. from Dublin by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 5412. The town occupies the whole island, and is
+connected with two suburbs on the mainland on each side by two bridges.
+It has a brewery, tanneries and a small manufactory of cutlery, and a
+considerable trade in corn, pork and flax. In 1689 Enniskillen defeated
+a superior force sent against it by James II. at the battle of Crom; and
+part of the defenders of the town were subsequently formed into a
+regiment of cavalry, which still retains the name of the Inniskilling
+Dragoons. The town was incorporated by James I., and returned two
+members to the Irish parliament until the Union; thereafter it returned
+one to the Imperial parliament until 1885. There are wide communications
+by water by the river and the upper and lower loughs Erne, and by the
+Ulster canal to Belfast. The loughs contain trout, large pike and other
+coarse fish. Two miles from Enniskillen in the lower lough is Devenish
+Island, with its celebrated monastic remains. The abbey of St Mary here
+was founded by St Molaise (Laserian) in the 6th century; here too are a
+fine round tower 85 ft. high, remains of domestic buildings, a holed
+stone and a tall well-preserved cross. The whole is carefully preserved
+by the commissioners of public works under the Irish Church Act of 1869.
+Steamers ply between Enniskillen and Belleek on the lower lake, and
+between Enniskillen and Knockninny on the upper lake.
+
+
+
+
+ENNIUS, QUINTUS (239-170 B.C.), ancient Latin poet, was born at Rudiae
+in Calabria. Familiar with Greek as the language in common use among the
+cultivated classes of his district, and with Oscan, the prevailing
+dialect of lower Italy, he further acquired a knowledge of Latin; to use
+his own expression (Gellius xvii. 17), he had three "hearts" (_corda_),
+the Latin word being used to signify the seat of intelligence. He is
+said (Servius on _Aen._ vii. 691) to have claimed descent from one of
+the legendary kings of his native district, Messapus the eponymous hero
+of Messapia, and this consciousness of ancient lineage is in accordance
+with the high self-confident tone of his mind, with his sympathy with
+the dominant genius of the Roman republic, and with his personal
+relations to the members of her great families. Of his early years
+nothing is directly known, and we first hear of him in middle life as
+serving during the Second Punic War, with the rank of centurion, in
+Sardinia, in the year 204, where he attracted the attention of Cato the
+elder, and was taken by him to Rome in the same year. Here he taught
+Greek and adapted Greek plays for a livelihood, and by his poetical
+compositions gained the friendship of the greatest men in Rome. Amongst
+these were the elder Scipio and Fulvius Nobilior, whom he accompanied on
+his Aetolian campaign (189). Through the influence of Nobilior's son,
+Ennius subsequently obtained the privilege of Roman citizenship (Cicero,
+_Brutus_, 20. 79). He lived plainly and simply on the Aventine with the
+poet Caecilius Statius. He died at the age of 70, immediately after
+producing his tragedy _Thyestes_. In the last book of his epic poem, in
+which he seems to have given various details of his personal history, he
+mentions that he was in his 67th year at the date of its composition. He
+compared himself, in contemplation of the close of the great work of his
+life, to a gallant horse which, after having often won the prize at the
+Olympic games, obtained his rest when weary with age. A similar feeling
+of pride at the completion of a great career is expressed in the
+memorial lines which he composed to be placed under his bust after
+death,--"Let no one weep for me, or celebrate my funeral with mourning;
+for I still live, as I pass to and fro through the mouths of men." From
+the impression stamped on his remains, and from the testimony of his
+countrymen, we think of him as a man of a robust, sagacious and cheerful
+nature (Hor. _Epp._ ii. 1. 50; Cic. _De sen._ 5); of great industry and
+versatility; combining imaginative enthusiasm and a vein of religious
+mysticism with a sceptical indifference to popular beliefs and a scorn
+of religious imposture; and tempering the grave seriousness of a Roman
+with a genial capacity for enjoyment (Hor. _Epp._ i. 19. 7).
+
+Till the appearance of Ennius, Roman literature, although it had
+produced the epic poem of Naevius and some adaptations of Greek tragedy,
+had been most successful in comedy. Naevius and Plautus were men of
+thoroughly popular fibre. Naevius suffered for his attacks on members of
+the aristocracy, and, although Plautus carefully avoids any direct
+notice of public matters, yet the bias of his sympathies is indicated in
+several passages of his extant plays. Ennius, on the other hand, was by
+temperament in thorough sympathy with the dominant aristocratic element
+in Roman life and institutions. Under his influence literature became
+less suited to the popular taste, more especially addressed to a limited
+and cultivated class, but at the same time more truly expressive of what
+was greatest and most worthy to endure in the national sentiment and
+traditions. He was a man of many-sided activity. He devoted attention to
+questions of Latin orthography, and is said to have been the first to
+introduce shorthand writing in Latin. He attempted comedy, but with so
+little success that in the canon of Volcacius Sedigitus he is mentioned,
+solely as a mark of respect "for his antiquity," tenth and last in the
+list of comic poets. He may be regarded also as the inventor of Roman
+satire, in its original sense of a "medley" or "miscellany," although it
+was by Lucilius that the character of aggressive and censorious
+criticism of men and manners was first imparted to that form of
+literature. The word _satura_ was originally applied to a rude scenic
+and musical performance, exhibited at Rome before the introduction of
+the regular drama. The _saturae_ of Ennius were collections of writings
+on various subjects, written in various metres and contained in four (or
+six) books. Among these were included metrical versions of the physical
+speculations of Epicharmus, of the gastronomic researches of
+Archestratus of Gela (_Hedyphagetica_), and, probably, of the
+rationalistic doctrines of Euhemerus. It may be noticed that all these
+writers whose works were thus introduced to the Romans were Sicilian
+Greeks. Original compositions were also contained in these _saturae_,
+and among them the panegyric on Scipio, unless this was a drama. The
+satire of Ennius seems to have resembled the more artistic satire of
+Horace in its record of personal experiences, in the occasional
+introduction of dialogue, in the use made of fables with a moral
+application, and in the didactic office which it assumed.
+
+But the chief distinction of Ennius was gained in tragic and narrative
+poetry. He was the first to impart to the Roman adaptations of Greek
+tragedy the masculine dignity, pathos and oratorical fervour which
+continued to animate them in the hands of Pacuvius and Accius, and, when
+set off by the acting of Aesopus, called forth vehement applause in the
+age of Cicero. The titles of about twenty-five of his tragedies are
+known to us, and a considerable number of fragments, varying in length
+from a few words to about fifteen lines, have been preserved. These
+tragedies were for the most part adaptations and, in some cases,
+translations from Euripides. One or two were original dramas, of the
+class called _praetextae_, i.e. dramas founded on Roman history or
+legend; thus, the _Ambracia_ treated of the capture of that city by his
+patron Nobilior, the _Sabinae_ of the rape of the Sabine women. The
+heroes and heroines of the Trojan cycle, such as Achilles, Ajax,
+Telamon, Cassandra, Andromache, were prominent figures in some of the
+dramas adapted from the Greek. Several of the more important fragments
+are found in Cicero, who expresses a great admiration for their manly
+fortitude and dignified pathos. In these remains of the tragedies of
+Ennius we can trace indications of strong sympathy with the nobler and
+bolder elements of character, of vivid realization of impassioned
+situations, and of sagacious observation of life. The frank bearing,
+fortitude and self-sacrificing heroism of the best type of the soldierly
+character find expression in the persons of Achilles, Telamon and
+Eurypylus; and a dignified and passionate tenderness of feeling makes
+itself heard in the lyrical utterances of Cassandra and Andromache. The
+language is generally nervous and vigorous, occasionally vivified with
+imaginative energy. But it flows less smoothly and easily than that of
+the dialogue of Latin comedy. It shows the same tendency to aim at
+effect by alliterations, assonances and plays on words. The rudeness of
+early art is most apparent in the inequality of the metres in which both
+the dialogue and the "recitative" are composed.
+
+But the work which gained him his reputation as the Homer of Rome, and
+which called forth the admiration of Cicero and Lucretius and frequent
+imitation from Virgil, was the _Annales_, a long narrative poem in
+eighteen books, containing the record of the national story from
+mythical times to his own. Although the whole conception of the work
+implies that confusion of the provinces of poetry and history which was
+perpetuated by later writers, and especially by Lucan and Silius
+Italicus, yet it was a true instinct of genius to discern in the idea of
+the national destiny the only possible motive of a Roman epic. The
+execution of the poem (to judge from the fragments, amounting to about
+six hundred lines), although rough, unequal and often prosaic, seems to
+have combined the realistic fidelity and freshness of feeling of a
+contemporary chronicle with the vivifying and idealizing power of
+genius. Ennius prided himself especially on being the first to form the
+strong speech of Latium into the mould of the Homeric hexameter in place
+of the old Saturnian metre. And although it took several generations of
+poets to beat their music out to the perfection of the Virgilian
+cadences, yet in the rude adaptation of Ennius the secret of what
+ultimately became one of the grandest organs of literary expression was
+first discovered and revealed. The inspiring idea of the poem was
+accepted, purified of all alien material, and realized in artistic shape
+by Virgil in his national epic. He deliberately imparted to that poem
+the charm of antique associations by incorporating with it much of the
+phraseology and sentiment of Ennius. The occasional references to Roman
+history in Lucretius are evidently reminiscences of the _Annales_. He as
+well as Cicero speaks of him with pride and affection as "Ennius
+noster." Of the great Roman writers Horace had least sympathy with him;
+yet he testifies to the high esteem in which he was held during the
+Augustan age. Ovid expresses the grounds of that esteem when he
+characterizes him as
+
+  "Ingenio maximus, arte rudis."
+
+A sentence of Quintilian expresses the feeling of reverence for his
+genius and character, mixed with distaste for his rude workmanship, with
+which the Romans of the early empire regarded him: "Let us revere Ennius
+as we revere the sacred groves, hallowed by antiquity, whose massive and
+venerable oak trees are not so remarkable for beauty as for the
+religious awe which they inspire" (_Inst. or._ x. 1. 88).
+
+  Editions of the fragments by L. Müller (1884), L. Valmaggi (1900, with
+  notes), J. Vahlen (1903); monographs by L. Müller (1884 and 1893), C.
+  Pascal, _Studi sugli scrittori Latini_ (1900); see also Mommsen,
+  _History of Rome_, bk. iii. ch. 14. On Virgil's indebtedness to Ennius
+  see V. Crivellari, _Quae praecipue hausit Vergilius ex Naevio et
+  Ennio_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX (A.D. 474-521), bishop of Pavia, Latin
+rhetorician and poet. He was born at Arelate (Arles) and belonged to a
+distinguished but impecunious family. Having lost his parents at an
+early age, he was brought up by an aunt at Ticinum (Pavia); according to
+some, at Mediolanum (Milan). After her death he was received into the
+family of a pious and wealthy young lady, to whom he was betrothed. It
+is not certain whether he actually married this lady; she seems to have
+lost her money and retired to a convent, whereupon Ennodius entered the
+Church, and was ordained deacon (about 493) by Epiphanius, bishop of
+Pavia. From Pavia he went to Milan, where he continued to reside until
+his elevation to the see of Pavia about 515. During his stay at Milan he
+visited Rome and other places, where he gained a reputation as a teacher
+of rhetoric. As bishop of Pavia he played a considerable part in
+ecclesiastical affairs. On two occasions (in 515 and 517) he was sent to
+Constantinople by Theodoric on an embassy to the emperor Anastasius, to
+endeavour to bring about a reconciliation between the Eastern and
+Western churches. He died on the 17th of July 521; his epitaph still
+exists in the basilica of St Michael at Pavia (_Corpus Inscriptionum
+Latinarum_, v. pt. ii. No. 6464).
+
+Ennodius is one of the best representatives of the twofold (pagan and
+Christian) tendency of 5th-century literature, and of the Gallo-Roman
+clergy who upheld the cause of civilization and classical literature
+against the inroads of barbarism. But his anxiety not to fall behind his
+classical models--the chief of whom was Virgil--his striving after
+elegance and grammatical correctness, and a desire to avoid the
+commonplace have produced a turgid and affected style, which, aggravated
+by rhetorical exaggerations and popular barbarisms, makes his works
+difficult to understand. It has been remarked that his poetry is less
+unintelligible than his prose.
+
+  The numerous writings of this versatile ecclesiastic may be divided
+  into (1) letters, (2) miscellanies, (3) discourses, (4) poems. The
+  letters on a variety of subjects, addressed to high church and state
+  officials, are valuable for the religious and political history of the
+  period. Of the miscellanies, the most important are: _The Panegyric of
+  Theodoric_, written to thank the Arian prince for his tolerance of
+  Catholicism and support of Pope Symmachus (probably delivered before
+  the king on the occasion of his entry into Ravenna or Milan); like all
+  similar works, it is full of flattery and exaggeration, but if used
+  with caution is a valuable authority; _The Life of St Epiphanius_,
+  bishop of Pavia, the best written and perhaps the most important of
+  all his writings, an interesting picture of the political activity and
+  influence of the church; _Eucharisticon de Vita Sua_, a sort of
+  "confessions," after the manner of St Augustine; the description of
+  the enfranchisement of a slave with religious formalities in the
+  presence of a bishop; _Paraenesis didascalica_, an educational guide,
+  in which the claims of grammar as a preparation for the study of
+  rhetoric, the mother of all the sciences, are strongly insisted on.
+  The discourses (_Dictiones_) are sacred, scholastic, controversial and
+  ethical. The discourse on the anniversary of Laurentius, bishop of
+  Milan, is the chief authority for the life of that prelate; the
+  scholastic discourses, rhetorical exercises for the schools, contain
+  eulogies of classical learning, distinguished professors and pupils;
+  the controversial deal with imaginary charges, the subjects being
+  chiefly borrowed from the _Controversiae_ of the elder Seneca; the
+  ethical harangues are put into the mouth of mythological personages
+  (e.g. the speech of Thetis over the body of Achilles). Amongst the
+  poems mention may be made of two _Itineraria_, descriptions of a
+  journey from Milan to Brigantium (Briançon) and of a trip on the Po;
+  an apology for the study of profane literature; an epithalamium, in
+  which Love is introduced as execrating Christianity; a dozen hymns,
+  after the manner of St Ambrose, probably intended for church use;
+  epigrams on various subjects, some being epigrams proper--inscriptions
+  for tombs, basilicas, baptisteries--others imitations of Martial,
+  satiric pieces and descriptions of scenery.
+
+  There are two excellent editions of Ennodius by G. Hartel (vol. vi. of
+  _Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum_, Vienna, 1882) and F.
+  Vogel (vol. vii. of _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, 1885, with
+  exhaustive prolegomena). On Ennodius generally consult M. Fertig,
+  _Ennodius und seine Zeit_ (1855-1860); A. Dubois, _La Latinité
+  d'Ennodius_ (1903); F. Magani, _Ennodio_ (Pavia, 1886); A. Ebert,
+  _Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters im Abendlande_, i.
+  (1889); M. Manitius, Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie
+  (1891); Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman Literature_, § 479 (Eng. tr., 1892).
+  French translation by the abbé S. Léglise (Paris, 1906 foll.).
+
+
+
+
+ENNS, a town of Austria, in upper Austria, 11 m. by rail S.E. of Linz.
+Pop. (1900) 4371. It is situated on the Enns near its confluence with
+the Danube and possesses a 15th-century castle, an old Gothic church,
+and a town hall erected in 1565. Three miles to the S.W. lies the
+Augustinian monastery of St Florian, one of the oldest and largest
+religious houses of Austria. Founded in the 7th century, it was occupied
+by the Benedictines till the middle of the 11th century. It was
+established on a firm basis in 1071, when it passed into the hands of
+the Augustinians. The actual buildings, which are among the most
+magnificent in Austria, were constructed between 1686 and 1745. Its
+library, with over 70,000 volumes, contains valuable manuscripts and
+also a fine collection of coins. Enns is one of the oldest towns in
+Austria, and stands near the site of the Roman _Laureacum_. The nucleus
+of the actual town was formed by a castle, called Anasiburg or Anesburg,
+erected in 900 by the Bavarians as a post against the incursions of the
+Hungarians. It soon attained commercial prosperity, and by a charter of
+1212 was made a free town. In 1275 it passed into the hands of Rudolph
+of Habsburg. An encounter between the French and the Austrian troops
+took place here on the 5th of November 1805.
+
+
+
+
+ENOCH ([Hebrew: hanockh, hanockh], Hanokh, Teaching or Dedication). (1)
+In Gen. iv. 17, 18 (J), the eldest son of Cain, born while Cain was
+building a city, which he named after Enoch; nothing is known of the
+city. (2) In Gen. v. 24, &c. (P), _seventh_ in descent from Adam in the
+line of Seth; he "walked with God," and after 365 years "was not for God
+took him." [(1) and (2) are often regarded as both corruptions of the
+_seventh_ primitive king Evedorachos (Enmeduranki in cuneiform
+inscriptions), the two genealogies, Gen. iv. 16-24, v. 12-17, being
+variant forms of the Babylonian list of primitive kings. Enmeduranki is
+the favourite of the sun-god, cf. Enoch's 365 years.[1]] Heb. xi. 5 says
+Enoch "was not found, because God _translated_ him." Later Jewish
+legends represented him as receiving revelations on astronomy, &c., and
+as the first author; apparently following the Babylonian account which
+makes Enmeduranki receive instruction in all wisdom from the sun-god.[1]
+Two apocryphal works written in the name of Enoch are extant, the _Book
+of Enoch_, compiled from documents written 200-50 B.C., quoted as the
+work of Enoch, Jude 14 and 15; and the _Book of the Secrets of Enoch_,
+A.D. 1-50. Cf. 1 Chron. i. 3; Luke iii. 37; Wisdom iv. 7-14; Ecclus.
+xliv. 16, xlix. 14. (3) Son, i.e. clan, of Midian, in Gen. xxv. 4; 1
+Chron. i. 33. (4) Son, i.e. clan, of Reuben, E.V. _Hanoch_, _Henoch_, in
+Gen. xlvi. 9; Exod. vi. 14; Num. xxvi. 5; 1 Chron. v. 3. There may have
+been some historical connexion between these two clans with identical
+names.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Eberhard Schrader, _Die Keilinschriften und das A.T._, 3rd ed.,
+    pp. 540 f.
+
+
+
+
+ENOCH, BOOK OF. The _Book of Enoch_, or, as it is sometimes called, the
+_Ethiopic Book of Enoch_, in contradistinction to the _Slavonic Book of
+Enoch_ (see later), is perhaps the most important of all the apocryphal
+or pseudapocryphal Biblical writings for the history of religious
+thought. It is not the work of a single author, but rather a
+conglomerate of literary fragments which once circulated under the names
+of Enoch, Noah and possibly Methuselah. In the _Book of the Secrets of
+Enoch_ we have additional portions of this literature. As the former
+work is derived from a variety of Pharisaic writers in Palestine, so the
+latter in its present form was written for the most part by Hellenistic
+Jews in Egypt.
+
+The _Book of Enoch_ was written in the second and first centuries B.C.
+It was well known to many of the writers of the New Testament, and in
+many instances influenced their thought and diction. Thus it is quoted
+by name as a genuine production of Enoch in the Epistle of Jude, 14 sq.,
+and it lies at the base of Matt. xix. 28 and John v. 22, 27, and many
+other passages. It had also a vast indirect influence on the Palestinian
+literature of the 1st century of our era. Like the Pentateuch, the
+Psalms, the Megilloth, the Pirke Aboth, this work was divided into five
+parts, with the critical discussion of which we shall deal below. With
+the earlier Fathers and Apologists it had all the weight of a canonical
+book, but towards the close of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th
+century it began to be discredited, and finally fell under the ban of
+the Church. Almost the latest reference to it in the early church is
+made by George Syncellus in his Chronography about A.D. 800. The book
+was then lost sight of till 1773, when Bruce discovered the Ethiopic
+version in Abyssinia.
+
+_Original Language._--That the _Book of Enoch_ was written in Semitic is
+now accepted on all hands, but scholars are divided as to whether the
+Semitic language in question was Hebrew or Aramaic. Only one valuable
+contribution on this question has been made, and that by Halévy in the
+_Journal Asiatique_, Avril-Mai 1867, pp. 352-395. This scholar is of
+opinion that the entire work was written in Hebrew. Since this
+publication, however, fresh evidence bearing on the question has been
+discovered in the Greek fragment (i.-xxxii.) found in Egypt. Since this
+fragment contains three Aramaic words transliterated in the Greek, some
+scholars, and among them Schürer, Lévi and N. Schmidt, have concluded
+that not only are chapters i.-xxxvi. derived from an Aramaic original,
+but also the remainder of the book. In support of the latter statement
+no evidence has yet been offered by these or any other scholars, nor yet
+has there been any attempt to meet the positive arguments of Halévy for
+a Hebrew original of xxxvii.-civ., whose Hebrew reconstructions of the
+text have been and must be adopted in many cases by every editor and
+translator of the book. A prolonged study of the text, which has brought
+to light a multitude of fresh passages the majority of which can be
+explained by retranslation into Hebrew, has convinced the present
+writer[1] that, whilst the evidence on the whole is in favour of an
+Aramaic original of vi.-xxxvi., it is just as conclusive on behalf of
+the Hebrew original of the greater part of the rest of the book.
+
+_Versions--Greek, Latin and Ethiopic._--The Semitic original was
+translated into Greek. It is not improbable that there were two distinct
+Greek versions. Of the one, several fragments have been preserved in
+Syncellus (A.D. 800), vi.-x. 14, viii. 4-ix. 4, xv. 8-xvi. 1; of the
+other, i.-xxxii. in the Giza Greek fragment discovered in Egypt and
+published by Bouriant (_Fragments grecs du livre d'Enoch_); in 1892, and
+subsequently by Lods, Dillmann, Charles (_Book of Enoch_, 318 sqq.),
+Swete, and finally by Radermacher and Charles (_Ethiopic Text_, 3-75).
+In addition to these fragments there is that of lxxxix. 42-49 (see
+Gildemeister in the _ZDMG_, 1855, pp. 621-624, and Charles, _Ethiopic
+Text_, pp. 175-177). Of the Latin version only i. 9 survives, being
+preserved in the Pseudo-Cyprian's _Ad Novatianum_, and cvi. 1-18
+discovered by James in an 8th-century MS. of the British Museum (see
+James, _Apoc. anecdota_, 146-150; Charles, _op. cit._ 219-222). This
+version is made from the Greek.
+
+The Ethiopic version, which alone preserves the entire text, is a very
+faithful translation of the Greek. Twenty-eight MSS. of this version are
+in the different libraries of Europe, of which fifteen are to be found
+in England. This version was made from an ancestor of the Greek fragment
+discovered at Giza. Some of the utterly unintelligible passages in this
+fragment are literally reproduced in the Ethiopic. The same wrong order
+of the text in vii.-viii. is common to both. In order to recover the
+original text, it is from time to time necessary to retranslate the
+Ethiopic into Greek, and the latter in turn into Aramaic or Hebrew. By
+this means we are able to detect dittographies in the Greek and variants
+in the original Semitic. The original was written to a large extent in
+verse. The discovery of this fact is most helpful in the criticism of
+the text. This version was first edited by Laurence in 1838 from one
+MS., in 1851 by Dillmann from five, in 1902 by Flemming from fifteen
+MSS., and in 1906 by the present writer from twenty-three.
+
+  _Translations and Commentaries._--Laurence, _The Book of Enoch_
+  (Oxford, 1821); Dillmann, _Das Buch Henoch_ (1853); Schodde, _The Book
+  of Enoch_ (1882); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893); Beer, "Das Buch
+  Henoch," in Kautzsch's _Apok. u. Pseud. des A.T._ (1900), ii. 217-310;
+  Flemming and Radermacher, _Das Buch Henoch_ (1901); Martin, _Le Livre
+  d'Henoch_ (1906). _Critical Inquiries._--The bibliography will be
+  found in Schürer, _Gesch. d. jüdischen Volkes_³, iii. 207-209, and a
+  short critical account of the most important of these in Charles, _op.
+  cit._ pp. 9-21.
+
+_The different Elements in the Book, with their respective
+Characteristics and Dates._--We have remarked above that the _Book of
+Enoch_ is divided into five parts--i.-xxxvi., xxxvii.-lxxi.,
+lxxii.-lxxxii., lxxxiii.-xc., xci-cviii. Some of these parts constituted
+originally separate treatises. In the course of their reduction and
+incorporation into a single work they suffered much mutilation and loss.
+From an early date the compositeness of this work was recognized.
+Scholars have varied greatly in their critical analyses of the work (see
+Charles, _op. cit._ 6-21, 309-311). The analysis which gained most
+acceptation was that of Dillmann (Herzog's _Realencyk._² xii. 350-352),
+according to whom the present books consist of--(1) the groundwork, i.e.
+i.-xxxvi., lxxii.-cv., written in the time of John Hyrcanus; (2)
+xxxvii.-lxxi., xvii.-xix., before 64 B.C.; (3) the Noachic fragments,
+vi. 3-8, viii. 1-3, ix. 7, x. 1, 11, xx., xxxix. 1, 2a, liv. 7-lv. 2,
+lx., lxv.-lxix. 25, cvi.-cvii.; and (4) cviii., from a later hand. With
+much of this analysis there is no reason to disagree. The similitudes
+are undoubtedly of different authorship from the rest of the book, and
+certain portions of the book are derived from the _Book of Noah_. On the
+other hand, the so-called groundwork has no existence unless in the
+minds of earlier critics and some of their belated followers in the
+present. It springs from at least four hands, and may be roughly divided
+into four parts, corresponding to the present actual divisions of the
+book.
+
+A new critical analysis of the book based on this view was given by
+Charles (_op. cit._ pp. 24-33), and further developed by Clemen and
+Beer. The analysis of the latter (see Herzog, _Realencyk._³ xiv. 240) is
+very complex. The book, according to this scholar, is composed of the
+following separate elements from the Enoch tradition:--(1) Ch. i.-v.;
+(2) xii-xvi.; (3) xvii.-xix.; (4) xx.-xxxvi.; (5) xxxvii.-lxix. (from
+diverse sources); (6) lxx.-lxxi.; (7) lxxii.-lxxxii.; (8)
+lxxxiii.-lxxxiv.; (9) lxxxv.-xc.; (10) xciii., cxi. 12-17; (11) xci.
+1-11, 18, 19, xcii., xciv.-cv.; (12) cviii., and from the Noah
+tradition; (13) vi.-xi.; (14) xxxix. 1-2a, liv. 7-lv. 2, lx., lxv.-lxix.
+25; (15) cvi.-cvii. Thus while Clemen finds eleven separate sources,
+Beer finds fifteen. A fresh study from the hand of Appel (_Die
+Composition des äthiopischen Henochbuchs_, 1906) seeks to reach a final
+analysis of our book. But though it evinces considerable insight, it
+cannot escape the charge of extravagance. The original book or
+ground-work of Enoch consisted of i.-xvi., xx.-xxxvi. This work called
+forth a host of imitators, and a number of their writings, together with
+the groundwork, were edited as a Book of Methuselah, i.e. lxxii.-cv.
+Then came the final redactor, who interpolated the groundwork and the
+Methuselah sections, adding two others from his own pen. The Similitudes
+he worked up from a series of later sources, and gave them the second
+place in the final work authenticating them with the name of Noah. The
+date of the publication of the entire work Appel assigns to the years
+immediately following the death of Herod.
+
+  We shall now give an analysis of the book, with the dates of the
+  various sections where possible. Of these we shall deal with the
+  easiest first. _Chap. lxxii.-lxxxii._ constitutes a work in itself,
+  the writer of which had very different objects before him from the
+  writers of the rest of the book. His sole aim is to give the law of
+  the heavenly bodies. His work has suffered disarrangements and
+  interpolations at the hands of the editor of the whole work. Thus
+  lxxvi.-lxxvii., which are concerned with the winds, the quarters of
+  the heaven, and certain geographical matters, and lxxxi., which is
+  concerned wholly with ethical matters, are foreign to a work which
+  professes in its title (lxxii. 1) to deal only with the luminaries of
+  the heaven and their laws. Finally, lxxxii. should stand before
+  lxxix.; for the opening words of the latter suppose it to be already
+  read. The date of this section can be partially established, for it
+  was known to the author of Jubilees, and was therefore written before
+  the last third of the 2nd century B.C.
+
+  _Chaps. lxxxiii.-xc._--This section was written before 161 B.C., for
+  "the great horn," who is Judas the Maccabee, was still warring when
+  the author was writing. (Dillmann, Schürer and others take the great
+  horn to be John Hyrcanus, but this interpretation does violence to the
+  text.) These chapters recount three visions: the first two deal with
+  the first-world judgment; the third with the entire history of the
+  world till the final judgment. An eternal Messianic kingdom at the
+  close of the judgment is to be established under the Messiah, with its
+  centre in the New Jerusalem set up by God Himself.
+
+  _Chaps. xci.-civ._--In the preceding section the Maccabees were the
+  religious champions of the nation and the friends of the Hasidim. Here
+  they are leagued with the Sadducees, and are the declared foes of the
+  Pharisaic party. This section was written therefore after 134 B.C.,
+  when the breach between John Hyrcanus and the Pharisees took place and
+  before the savage massacres of the latter by Jannaeus (95 B.C.); for
+  it is not likely that in a book dealing with the sufferings of the
+  Pharisees such a reference would be omitted. These chapters indicate a
+  revolution in the religious hopes of the nation. An eternal Messianic
+  kingdom is no longer anticipated, but only a temporary one, at the
+  close of which the final judgment will ensue. The righteous dead rise
+  not to this kingdom but to spiritual blessedness in heaven itself--to
+  an immortality of the soul. This section also has suffered at the
+  hands of the final editor. Thus xci. 12-17, which describe the last
+  three weeks of the Ten-Weeks Apocalypse, should be read immediately
+  after xciii. 1-10, which recount the first seven weeks of the same
+  apocalypse. But, furthermore, the section obviously begins with xcii.
+  "Written by Enoch the scribe," &c. Then comes xci. 1-10 as a natural
+  sequel. The Ten-Weeks Apocalypse, xciii. 1-10, xci. 12-17, if it came
+  from the same hand, followed, and then xciv. The attempt (by Clemen
+  and Beer) to place the Ten-Weeks Apocalypse before 167, because it
+  makes no reference to the Maccabees, is not successful; for where the
+  history of mankind from Adam to the final judgment is despatched in
+  sixteen verses, such an omission need cause little embarrassment, and
+  still less if the author is the determined foe of the Maccabees, whom
+  he would probably have stigmatized as apostates, if he had mentioned
+  them at all, just as he similarly brands all the Sadducean priesthood
+  that preceded them to the time of the captivity. This Ten-Weeks
+  Apocalypse, therefore, we take to be the work of the writer of the
+  rest of xci.-civ.
+
+  _Chaps. i.-xxxvi._--This is the most difficult section of the book. It
+  is very composite. Chaps. vi.-xi. is apparently an independent
+  fragment of the Enoch Saga. It is itself compounded of the Semjaza and
+  Azazel myths, and in its present composite form is already presupposed
+  by lxxxviii.-lxxxix. 1; hence its present form is earlier than 166
+  B.C. It represents a primitive and very sensuous view of the eternal
+  Messianic kingdom on earth, seeing that the righteous beget 1000
+  children before they die. These chapters appear to be from the Book of
+  Noah; for they never refer to Enoch but to Noah only (x. 1). Moreover,
+  when the author of Jubilees is clearly drawing on the Book of Noah,
+  his subject-matter (vii. 21-25) agrees most closely with that of these
+  chapters in Enoch (see Charles' edition of Jubilees, pp. lxxi. sq.
+  264). xii.-xvi., on the other hand, belong to the Book of Enoch. These
+  represent for the most part what Enoch saw in a vision. Now whereas
+  vi.-xvi. deal with the fall of the angels, their destruction of
+  mankind, and the condemnation of the fallen angels, the subject-matter
+  now suddenly changes and xvii.-xxxvi. treat of Enoch's journeyings
+  through earth and heaven escorted by angels. Here undoubtedly we have
+  a series of doublets; for xvii.-xix. stand in this relation to
+  xx.-xxxvi., since both sections deal with the same subjects. Thus
+  xvii. 4 = xxiii.; xvii. 6 = xxii.; xviii. 1 = xxxiv.-xxxvi.; xviii.
+  6-9 = xxiv.-xxv., xxxii. 1-2; xviii. 11, xix. = xxi. 7-10; xviii.
+  12-16 = xxi. 1-6. They belong to the same cycle of tradition and
+  cannot be independent of each other. Chap. xx. appears to show that
+  xx.-xxxvi. is fragmentary, since only four of the seven angels
+  mentioned in xx. have anything to do in xxi.-xxxvi. Finally, i.-v.
+  seems to be of a different date and authorship from the rest.
+
+  _Chaps. xxxvii.-lxxi._--These constitute the well-known Similitudes.
+  They were written before 64 B.C., for Rome was not yet known to the
+  writer, and after 95 B.C., for the slaying of the righteous, of which
+  the writer complains, was not perpetrated by the Maccabean princes
+  before that date. This section consists of three
+  similitudes--xxxviii.-xliv., xlv.-lvii., lviii.-lxix. These are
+  introduced and concluded by xxxvii. and lxx. There are many
+  interpolations--lx., lxv.-lxix. 25 confessedly from the Book of Noah;
+  most probably also liv. 7-lv. 2. Whence others, such as xxxix. 1,
+  2a, xli. 3-8, xliii. sq., spring is doubtful. Chaps. 1, lvi. 5-lvii.
+  3a are likewise insertions.
+
+  In R.H. Charles's edition of Enoch, lxxi. was bracketed as an
+  interpolation. The writer now sees that it belongs to the text of the
+  Similitudes though it is dislocated from its original context. It
+  presents two visits of Enoch to heaven in lxxi. 1-4 and lxxi. 5-17.
+  The extraordinary statement in lxxi. 14, according to which Enoch is
+  addressed as "the Son of Man," is seen, as Appel points out, on
+  examination of the context to have arisen from the loss of a portion
+  of the text after verse 13, in which Enoch saw a heavenly being with
+  the Head of Days and asked the angel who accompanied him who this
+  being was. Then comes ver. 14, which, owing to the loss of this
+  passage, has assumed the form of an address to Enoch: "Thou art the
+  Son of Man," but which stood originally as the angel's reply to Enoch:
+  "This is the Son of Man," &c. Ver. 15, then, gives the message sent to
+  Enoch by the Son of Man. In the next verse the second person should be
+  changed into the third. Thus we recover the original text of this
+  difficult chapter. The Messianic doctrine and eschatology of this
+  section is unique. The Messiah is here for the first time described as
+  the pre-existent Son of Man (xlviii. 2), who sits on the throne of God
+  (xlv. 3; xlvii. 3), possesses universal dominion (lxii. 6), and is the
+  Judge of all mankind (lxix. 27). After the judgment there will be a
+  new heaven and a new earth, which will be the abode of the blessed.
+
+THE BOOK OF THE SECRETS OR ENOCH, or _Slavonic Enoch_. This new fragment
+of the Enochic literature has only recently come to light through five
+MSS. discovered in Russia and Servia. Since about A.D. 500 it has been
+lost sight of. It is cited without acknowledgment in the _Book of Adam
+and Eve_, the _Apocalypses of Moses and Paul_, the _Sibylline Oracles_,
+the _Ascension of Isaiah_, the _Epistle of Barnabas_, and referred to by
+Origen and Irenaeus (see Charles, _The Book of the Secrets of Enoch_,
+1895, pp. xvii-xxiv). For Charles's _editio princeps_ of this work, in
+1895, Professor Morfill translated two of the best MSS., as well as
+Sokolov's text, which is founded on these and other MSS. In 1896
+Bonwetsch issued his _Das slavische Henochbuch_, in which a German
+translation of the above two MSS. is given side by side, preceded by a
+short introduction.
+
+  _Analysis._--Chaps. i.-ii. Introduction: life of Enoch: his dream, in
+  which he is told that he will be taken up to heaven: his admonitions
+  to his sons. iii.-xxxvi. What Enoch saw in heaven. iii.-vi. The first
+  heaven: the rulers of the stars: the great sea and the treasures of
+  snow, &c. vii. The second heaven: the fallen angels. viii.-x. The
+  third heaven: Paradise and place of punishment. xi.-xvii. The fourth
+  heaven: courses of the sun and moon: phoenixes. xviii. The fifth
+  heaven: the watchers mourning for their fallen brethren. xix. The
+  sixth heaven: seven bands of angels arrange and study the courses of
+  the stars, &c.: others set over the years, the fruits of the earth,
+  the souls of men. xx.-xxxvi. The seventh heaven. The Lord sitting on
+  His throne with the ten chief orders of angels. Enoch is clothed by
+  Michael in the raiment of God's glory and instructed in the secrets of
+  nature and of man, which he wrote down in 366 books. God reveals to
+  Enoch the history of the creation of the earth and the seven planets
+  and circles of the heaven and of man, the story of the fallen angels,
+  the duration of the world through 7000 years, and its millennium of
+  rest. xxxviii.-lxvi. Enoch returns to earth, admonishes his sons:
+  instructs them on what he had seen in the heavens, gives them his
+  books. Bids them not to swear at all nor to expect any intercession of
+  the departed saints for sinners. lvi.-lxiii. Methuselah asks Enoch's
+  blessing before he departs, and to all his sons and their families
+  Enoch gives fresh instruction. lxiv.-lxvi. Enoch addressed the
+  assembled people at Achuszan. lxvii.-lxviii. Enoch's translation.
+  Rejoicings of the people on behalf of the revelation given them
+  through Enoch.
+
+_Language and Place of Writing._--A large part of this book was written
+for the first time in Greek. This may be inferred from such statements
+as (1) xxx. 13, "And I gave him a name (i.e. Adam) from the four
+substances: the East, the West, the North and the South." Thus Adam's
+name is here derived from the initial letters of the four quarters:
+[Greek: anatolê, dusis, arktos, mesêmbria]. This derivation is
+impossible in Semitic. This context is found elsewhere in the Sibyllines
+iii. 24 sqq. and other Greek writings. (2) Again our author uses the
+chronology of the Septuagint and in 1, 4 follows the Septuagint text of
+Deuteronomy xxxii. 35 against the Hebrew. On the other hand, some
+sections may wholly or in part go back to Hebrew originals. There is a
+Hebrew Book of Enoch attributed to R. Ishmael ben Elisha who lived at
+the close of the 1st century and the beginning of the 2nd century B.C.
+This book is very closely related to the Book of the Secrets of Enoch,
+or rather, to a large extent dependent upon it. Did Ishmael ben Elisha
+use the Book of the Secrets of Enoch in its Greek form, or did he find
+portions of it in Hebrew? At all events, extensive quotations from a
+Book of Enoch are found in the rabbinical literature of the middle ages,
+and the provenance of these has not yet been determined. See _Jewish
+Encyc._ i. 676 seq.
+
+But there is a stronger argument for a Hebrew original of certain
+sections to be found in the fact that the Testaments of the XII.
+Patriarchs appears to quote xxxiv. 2, 3 of our author in T. Napth. iv.
+1, T. Benj. ix.
+
+The book in its present form was written in Egypt. This may be inferred
+(1) from the variety of speculations which it holds in common with Philo
+and writings of a Hellenistic character that circulated mainly in Egypt.
+(2) The Phoenixes are Chalkydries (ch. xii.)--monstrous serpents with
+the heads of crocodiles--are natural products of the Egyptian
+imagination. (3) The syncretistic character of the creation account
+(xxv.-xxvi.) betrays Egyptian elements.
+
+_Relation to Jewish and Christian Literature._--The existence of a
+kindred literature in Neo-Hebrew has been already pointed out. We might
+note besides that it is quoted in the Book of Adam and Eve, the
+Apocalypse of Moses, the Apocalypse of Paul, the anonymous work _De
+montibus Sina et Sion_, the Sibylline Oracles ii. 75, Origen, _De
+princip._ i. 3, 2. The authors of the Ascension of Isaiah, the Apoc. of
+Baruch and the Epistle of Barnabas were probably acquainted with it. In
+the New Testament the similarity of matter and diction is sufficiently
+strong to establish a close connexion, if not a literary dependence.
+Thus with Matt. v. 9, "Blessed are the peacemakers," cf. lii. 11,
+"Blessed is he who establishes peace": with Matt. v. 34, 35, 37, "Swear
+not at all," cf. xlix. 1, "I will not swear by a single oath, neither by
+heaven, nor by earth, nor by any other creature which God made--if there
+is no truth in man, let them swear by a word yea, yea, or nay, nay."
+
+_Date and Authorship._--The book was probably written between 30 B.C.
+and A.D. 70. It was written after 30 B.C., for it makes use of Sirach,
+the (Ethiopic) Book of Enoch and the Book of Wisdom. It was written
+before A.D. 70; for the temple is still standing: see lix. 2.
+
+The author was an orthodox Hellenistic Jew who lived in Egypt. He
+believed in the value of sacrifices (xlii. 6; lix. 1, 2, &c), but is
+careful to enforce enlightened views regarding them (xlv. 3, 4; lxi. 4,
+5.) in the law, lii. 8, 9; in a blessed immortality, I. 2; lxv. 6, 8-10,
+in which the righteous should be clothed in "the raiment of God's
+glory," xxii. 8. In questions relating to cosmology, sin, death, &c, he
+is an eclectic, and allows himself the most unrestricted freedom, and
+readily incorporates Platonic (xxx. 16), Egyptian (xxv. 2) and Zend
+(lviii. 4-6) elements into his system of thought.
+
+_Anthropological Views._--All the souls of men were created before the
+foundation of the world (xxiii. 5) and likewise their future abodes in
+heaven or hell (xlix. 2, lviii. 5). Man's name was derived, as we have
+already seen, from the four quarters of the world, and his body was
+compounded from seven substances (xxx. 8). He was created originally
+good: freewill was bestowed upon him with instruction in the two ways of
+light and darkness, and then he was left to mould his own destiny (xxx.
+15). But his preferences through the bias of the flesh took an evil
+direction, and death followed as the wages of sin (xxx. 16).
+
+  LITERATURE.--Morfill and Charles, _The Book of the Secrets of Enoch_
+  (Oxford, 1896); Bonwetsch, "Das slavische Henochbuch," in the
+  _Abhandlungen der königlichen gelehrten Gesellschaft zu Göttingen_
+  (1896). See also Schürer _in loc._ and the Bible Dictionaries.
+       (R. H. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The evidence is given at length in R.H. Charles' _Ethiopic Text
+    of Enoch_, pp. xxvii-xxxiii.
+
+
+
+
+ENOMOTO, BUYO, VISCOUNT (1839-1909), Japanese vice-admiral, was born in
+Tokyo. He was the first officer sent by the Tokugawa government to study
+naval science in Europe, and after going through a course of instruction
+in Holland he returned in command of the frigate "Kaiyo Maru," built at
+Amsterdam to order of the Yedo administration. The salient episode of
+his career was an attempt to establish a republic at Hakodate. Finding
+himself in command of a squadron which represented practically the whole
+of Japan's naval forces, he refused to acquiesce in the deposition of
+the Shogun, his liege lord, and, steaming off to Yezo (1867), proclaimed
+a republic and fortified Hakodate. But he was soon compelled to
+surrender. The newly organized government of the empire, however,
+instead of inflicting the death penalty on him and his principal
+followers, as would have been the inevitable sequel of such a drama in
+previous times, punished them with imprisonment only, and four years
+after the Hakodate episode, Enomoto received an important post in
+Hokkaido, the very scene of his wild attempt. Subsequently (1874), as
+his country's representative in St Petersburg, he concluded the treaty
+by which Japan exchanged the southern half of Saghalien for the Kuriles.
+He received the title of viscount in 1885, and afterwards held the
+portfolios of communications, education and foreign affairs. He died at
+Tokyo in 1909.
+
+
+
+
+ENOS (anc. _Aenos_), a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of
+Adrianople; on the southern shore of the river Maritza, where its
+estuary broadens to meet the Aegean Sea in the Gulf of Enos. Pop. (1905)
+about 8000. Enos occupies a ridge of rock surrounded by broad marshes.
+It is the seat of a Greek bishop, and the population is mainly Greek. It
+long possessed a valuable export trade, owing to its position at the
+mouth of the Maritza, the great natural waterway from Adrianople to the
+sea. But its commerce has declined, owing to the unhealthiness of its
+climate, to the accumulation of sandbanks in its harbour, which now only
+admits small coasters and fishing-vessels, and to the rivalry of
+Dédéagatch, a neighbouring seaport connected with Adrianople by rail.
+
+
+
+
+ENRIQUEZ GOMEZ, ANTONIO (c. 1601-c. 1661), Spanish dramatist, poet and
+novelist of Portuguese-Jewish origin, was known in the early part of his
+career as Enrique Enriquez de Paz. Born at Segovia, he entered the army,
+obtained a captaincy, was suspected of heresy, fled to France about
+1636, assumed the name of Antonio Enriquez Gomez, and became majordomo
+to Louis XIII., to whom he dedicated _Luis dado de Dios á Anna_ (Paris,
+1645). Some twelve years later he removed to Amsterdam, avowed his
+conversion to Judaism, and was burned in effigy at Seville on the 14th
+of April 1660. He is supposed to have returned to France, and to have
+died there in the following year. Three of his plays, _El Gran Cardenal
+de España_, _don Gil de Albornoz_, and the two parts of _Fernan Mendez
+Pinto_ were received with great applause at Madrid about 1629; in 1635
+he contributed a sonnet to Montalban's collection of posthumous
+panegyrics on Lope de Vega, to whose dramatic school Enriquez Gomez
+belonged. The _Academias morales de las Musas_, consisting of four plays
+(including _A lo que obliga el honor_, which recalls Calderon's _Médico
+de su honra_), was published at Bordeaux in 1642; _La Torre de
+Babilonia_, containing the two parts of _Fernan Mendez Pinto_, appeared
+at Rouen in 1647; and in the preface to his poem, _El Samson Nazareno_
+(Rouen, 1656), Enriquez Gomez gives the titles of sixteen other plays
+issued, as he alleges, at Seville. There is no foundation for the theory
+that he wrote the plays ascribed to Fernando de Zárate. His dramatic
+works, though effective on the stage, are disfigured by extravagant
+incidents and preciosity of diction. The latter defect is likewise
+observable in the mingled prose and verse of _La Culpa del primer
+peregrino_ (Rouen, 1644) and the dialogues entitled _Politica Angélica_
+(Rouen, 1647). Enriquez Gomez is best represented by _El Siglo
+Pitagórico y Vida de don Gregorio Guadaña_ (Rouen, 1644), a striking
+picaresque novel in prose and verse which is still reprinted.
+
+
+
+
+ENSCHEDE, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, near the
+Prussian frontier, and a junction station 5 m. by rail S.E. of Hengelo.
+Pop. (1900) 23,141. It is important as the centre of the flourishing
+cotton-spinning and weaving industries of the Twente district; while by
+the railway via Gronau and Koesfeld to Dortmund it is in direct
+communication with the Westphalian coalfields. Enschede possesses
+several churches, an industrial trade school, and a large park intended
+for the benefit of the working classes. About two-thirds of the town was
+burnt down in 1862.
+
+
+
+
+ENSENADA, CENON DE SOMODEVILLA, MARQUES DE LA (1702-1781), Spanish
+statesman, was born at Alesanco near Logroño on the 2nd of June 1702.
+When he had risen to high office it was said that his pedigree was
+distinguished, but nothing is known of his parents--Francisco de
+Somodevilla and his wife Francisca de Bengoechea,--nor is anything known
+of his own life before he entered the civil administration of the
+Spanish navy as a clerk in 1720. He served in administrative capacities
+at the relief of Ceuta in that year and in the reoccupation of Oran in
+1731. His ability was recognized by Don Jose Patiños, the chief minister
+of King Philip V. Somodevilla was much employed during the various
+expeditions undertaken by the Spanish government to put the king's sons
+by his second marriage with Elizabeth Farnese, Charles and Philip, on
+the thrones of Naples and Parma. In 1736 Charles, afterwards King
+Charles III. of Spain, conferred on him the Neapolitan title of Marques
+de la Ensenada. The name can be resolved into the three Spanish words
+"en se nada," meaning "in himself nothing." The courtly flattery of the
+time, and the envy of the nobles who disliked the rise of men of
+Ensenada's class, seized upon this poor play on words; an _Ensenada_ is,
+however, a roadstead or small bay. In 1742 he became secretary of state
+and war to Philip, duke of Parma. In the following year (11th of April
+1743), on the death of Patiños's successor Campillo, he was chosen by
+Philip V. as minister of finance, war, the navy and the Indies (i.e. the
+Colonies). Ensenada met the nomination with a becoming _nolo
+episcopari_, professing that he was incapable of filling the four posts
+at once. His reluctance was overborne by the king, and he became in fact
+prime minister at the age of forty-one. During the remainder of the
+king's reign, which lasted till the 11th of July 1746, and under his
+successor Ferdinand VI. until 1754, Ensenada was the effective prime
+minister. His administration is notable in Spanish history for the
+vigour of his policy of internal reform. The reports on the finances and
+general condition of the country, which he drew up for the new king on
+his accession, and again after peace was made with England at
+Aix-la-Chapelle on the 18th of October 1748, are very able and
+clear-sighted. Under his direction the despotism of the Bourbon kings
+became paternal. Public works were undertaken, shipping was encouraged,
+trade was fostered, numbers of young Spaniards were sent abroad for
+education. Many of them abused their opportunity, but on the whole the
+prosperity of the country revived, and the way was cleared for the more
+sweeping innovations of the following reign. Ensenada was a strong
+partizan of a French alliance and of a policy hostile to England. Sir B.
+Keene, the English minister, supported the Spanish court party opposed
+to him, and succeeded in preventing him from adding the foreign office
+to others which he held. Ensenada would probably have fallen sooner but
+for the support he received from the Portuguese queen, Barbara. In 1754
+he offended her by opposing an exchange of Spanish and Portuguese
+colonial possessions in America which she favoured. On the 20th of July
+of that year he was arrested by the king's order, and sent into mild
+confinement at Granada, which he was afterwards allowed to exchange for
+Puerto de Santa Maria. On the accession of Charles III. in 1759, he was
+released from arrest and allowed to return to Madrid. The new king named
+him as member of a commission appointed to reform the system of
+taxation. Ensenada could not renounce the hope of again becoming
+minister, and entered into intrigues which offended the king. On the
+18th of April 1766 he was again exiled from court, and ordered to go to
+Medina del Campo. He had no further share in public life, and died on
+the 2nd of December 1781. Ensenada acquired wealth in office, but he was
+never accused of corruption. Though, like most of his countrymen, he
+suffered from the mania for grandeur, and was too fond of imposing
+schemes out of all proportion with the resources of the state, he was
+undoubtedly an able and patriotic man, whose administration was
+beneficial to Spain.
+
+  For his administration see W. Coxe, _Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of
+  the House of Bourbon_ (London, 1815), but the only complete account of
+  Ensenada is by Don Antonio Rodriguez Villa, _Don Cenon de Somodevilla,
+  Marques de la Ensenada_ (Madrid, 1878).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ENSIGN (through the Fr. _enseigne_ from the Latin plural _insignia_), a
+distinguishing token, emblem or badge such as symbols of office, or in
+heraldry, the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet or mitre
+borne above the charge or arms. The word is more particularly used of a
+military or naval standard or banner. In the British navy, ensign has a
+specific meaning, and is the name of a flag having a red, white or blue
+ground, with the Union Jack in the upper corner next the staff. The
+white ensign (which is sometimes further distinguished by having the St
+George's Cross quartered upon it) is only used in the royal navy and the
+royal yacht squadron, while the blue and red ensigns are the badges of
+the naval reserve, some privileged companies, and the merchant service
+respectively (see FLAG). Until 1871 the lowest grade of commissioned
+officers in infantry regiments of the British army had the title of
+ensign (now replaced by that of second lieutenant). It is the duty of
+the officers of this rank to carry the colours of the regiment (see
+COLOURS, MILITARY). In the 16th century ensign was corrupted into
+"ancient," and was used in the two senses of a banner and the bearer of
+the banner. In the United States navy, the title ensign superseded in
+1862 that of _passed midshipman_. It designates an officer ranking with
+second lieutenant in the army.
+
+
+
+
+ENSILAGE, the process of preserving green food for cattle in an undried
+condition in a silo (from Gr. [Greek: siros], Lat. _sirus_, a pit for
+holding grain), i.e. a pit, an erection above ground, or stack, from
+which air has been as far as possible excluded. The fodder which is the
+result of the process is called silage. In various parts of Germany a
+method of preserving green fodder precisely similar to that used in the
+case of _Sauerkraut_ has prevailed for upwards of a century. Special
+attention was first directed to the practice of ensilage by a French
+agriculturist, Auguste Goffart of the district of Sologne, near Orleans,
+who in 1877 published a work (_Manuel de la culture et de l'ensilage des
+maïs et autres fourrages verts_) detailing the experiences of many years
+in preserving green crops in silos. An English translation of Goffart's
+book by J.B. Brown was published in New York in 1879, and, as various
+experiments had been previously made in the United States in the way of
+preserving green crops in pits, Goffart's experience attracted
+considerable attention. The conditions of American dairy farming proved
+eminently suitable for the ensiling of green maize fodder; and the
+success of the method was soon indisputably demonstrated among the New
+England farmers. The favourable results obtained in America led to much
+discussion and to the introduction of the system in the United Kingdom,
+where, with different conditions, success has been more qualified.
+
+It has been abundantly proved that ensilage forms a wholesome and
+nutritious food for cattle. It can be substituted for root crops with
+advantage, because it is succulent and digestible; milk resulting from
+it is good in quality and taste; it can be secured largely irrespective
+of weather; it carries over grass from the period of great abundance and
+waste to times when none would otherwise be available; and a larger
+number of cattle can be supported on a given area by the use of ensilage
+than is possible by the use of green crops.
+
+Early silos were made of stone or concrete either above or below
+ground, but it is recognized that air may be sufficiently excluded in a
+tightly pressed stack, though in this case a few inches of the fodder
+round the sides is generally useless owing to mildew. In America round
+erections made of wood and 35 or 40 ft. in depth are most commonly used.
+The crops suitable for ensilage are the ordinary grasses, clovers,
+lucerne, vetches, oats, rye and maize, the latter being the most
+important silage crop in America; various weeds may also be stored in
+silos with good results, notably spurrey (_Spergula arvensis_), a most
+troublesome plant in poor light soils. As a rule the crop should be mown
+when in full flower, and deposited in the silo on the day of its
+cutting. Maize is cut a few days before it is ripe and is shredded
+before being elevated into the silo. Fair, dry weather is not essential;
+but it is found that when moisture, natural and extraneous, exceeds 75%
+of the whole, good results are not obtained. The material is spread in
+uniform layers over the floor of the silo, and closely packed and
+trodden down. If possible, not more than a foot or two should be added
+daily, so as to allow the mass to settle down closely, and to heat
+uniformly throughout. When the silo is filled or the stack built, a
+layer of straw or some other dry porous substance may be spread over the
+surface. In the silo the pressure of the material, when chaffed,
+excludes air from all but the top layer; in the case of the stack extra
+pressure is applied by means of planks or other weighty objects in order
+to prevent excessive heating.
+
+The closeness with which the fodder is packed determines the nature of
+the resulting silage by regulating the chemical changes which occur in
+the stack. When closely packed, the supply of oxygen is limited; and the
+attendant acid fermentation brings about the decomposition of the
+carbohydrates present into acetic, butyric and lactic acids. This
+product is named "sour silage." If, on the other hand, the fodder be
+unchaffed and loosely packed, or the silo be built gradually, oxidation
+proceeds more rapidly and the temperature rises; if the mass be
+compressed when the temperature is 140°-160° F., the action ceases and
+"sweet silage" results. The nitrogenous ingredients of the fodder also
+suffer change: in making sour silage as much as one-third of the
+albuminoids may be converted into amino and ammonium compounds; while in
+making "sweet silage" a less proportion is changed, but they become less
+digestible. In extreme cases, sour silage acquires a most disagreeable
+odour. On the other hand it keeps better than sweet silage when removed
+from the silo.
+
+
+
+
+ENSTATITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the group of orthorhombic
+pyroxenes. It is a magnesium metasilicate, MgSiO3, often with a little
+iron replacing the magnesium: as the iron increases in amount there is a
+transition to bronzite (q.v.), and with still more iron to hypersthene
+(q.v.). Bronzite and hypersthene were known long before enstatite, which
+was first described by G.A. Kenngott in 1855, and named from [Greek:
+enstatês], "an opponent," because the mineral is almost infusible before
+the blowpipe: the material he described consisted of imperfect prismatic
+crystals, previously thought to be scapolite, from the serpentine of
+Mount Zdjar near Schönberg in Moravia. Crystals suitable for goniometric
+measurement were later found in the meteorite which fell at Breitenbach
+in the Erzgebirge, Bohemia. Large crystals, a foot in length and mostly
+altered to steatite, were found in 1874 in the apatite veins traversing
+mica-schist and hornblende-schist at the apatite mine of Kjörrestad,
+near Brevig in southern Norway. Isolated crystals are of rare
+occurrence, the mineral being usually found as an essential constituent
+of igneous rocks; either as irregular masses in plutonic rocks (norite,
+peridotite, pyroxenite, &c.) and the serpentines which have resulted by
+their alteration, or as small idiormorphic crystals in volcanic rocks
+(trachyte, andesite). It is also a common constituent of meteoric
+stones, forming with olivine the bulk of the material: here it often
+forms small spherical masses, or chondrules, with an internal radiated
+structure.
+
+Enstatite and the other orthorhombic pyroxenes are distinguished from
+those of the monoclinic series by their optical characters, viz.
+straight extinction, much weaker double refraction and stronger
+pleochroism: they have prismatic cleavages (with an angle of 88° 16') as
+well as planes of parting parallel to the planes of symmetry in the
+prism-zone. Enstatite is white, greenish or brown in colour; its
+hardness is 5½, and sp. gr. 3.2-3.3.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ENTABLATURE (Lat. _in_, and _tabula_, a tablet), the architectural term
+for the superstructure carried by the columns in the classic orders
+(q.v.). It usually consists of three members, the architrave (the
+supporting member carried from column to column, pier or wall); the
+frieze (the decorative member); and the cornice (the projecting and
+protective member). Sometimes the frieze is omitted, as in the
+entablature of the portico of the caryatides of the Erechtheum. There is
+every reason to believe that the frieze did not exist in the archaic
+temple of Diana at Ephesus; and it is not found in the Lycian tombs,
+which are reproductions in the rock of timber structures based on early
+Ionian work.
+
+
+
+
+ENTADA, in botany, a woody climber belonging to the family _Leguminosae_
+and common throughout the tropics. The best-known species is _Entada
+scandens_, the sword-bean, so called from its large woody pod, 2 to 4
+ft. in length and 3 to 4 in. broad, which contains large flat hard
+polished chestnut-coloured seeds or "beans." The seeds are often made
+into snuff-boxes or match-boxes, and a preparation from the kernel is
+used as a drug by the natives in India. The seeds will float for a long
+time in water, and are often thrown up on the north-western coasts of
+Europe, having been carried by the Gulf-stream from the West Indies;
+they retain their vitality, and under favourable conditions will
+germinate. Linnaeus records the germination of a seed on the coast of
+Norway.
+
+
+
+
+ENTAIL (from Fr. _tailler_, to cut; the old derivation from _tales
+haeredes_ is now abandoned), in law, a limited form of succession
+(q.v.). In architecture, the term "entail" denotes an ornamental device
+sunk in the ground of stone or brass, and subsequently filled in with
+marble, mosaic or enamel.
+
+
+
+
+ENTASIS (from Gr. [Greek: enteinein], to stretch a line or bend a bow),
+in architecture, the increment given to the column (q.v.), to correct
+the optical illusion which produces an apparent hollowness in an
+extended straight line. It was referred to by Vitruvius (iii. 3), and
+was first noticed in the columns of the Doric orders in Greek temples by
+Allason in 1814, and afterwards measured and verified by Penrose. It
+varies in different temples, and is not found in some: it is most
+pronounced in the temple of Jupiter Olympius, most delicate in the
+Erechtheum. The entasis is almost invariably introduced in the spires of
+English churches.
+
+
+
+
+ENTERITIS (Gr. [Greek: enteron], intestine), a general medical term for
+inflammation of the bowels. According to the anatomical part specially
+attacked, it is subdivided into duodenitis, jejunitis, ileitis,
+typhlitis, appendicitis, colitis, proctitis. The chief symptom is
+diarrhoea. The term "enteric fever" has recently come into use instead
+of "typhoid" for the latter disease; but see TYPHOID FEVER.
+
+
+
+
+ENTHUSIASM, a word originally meaning inspiration by a divine afflatus
+or by the presence of a god. The Gr. [Greek: enthousiasmos], from which
+the word is adapted, is formed from the verb [Greek: enthousiazein], to
+be [Greek: entheos], possessed by a god [Greek: théos]. Applied by the
+Greeks to manifestations of divine "possession," by Apollo, as in the
+case of the Pythia, or by Dionysus, as in the case of the Bacchantes and
+Maenads, it was also used in a transferred or figurative sense; thus
+Socrates speaks of the inspiration of poets as a form of enthusiasm
+(Plato, _Apol. Soc._ 22 C). Its uses, in a religious sense, are confined
+to an exaggerated or wrongful belief in religious inspiration, or to
+intense religious fervour or emotion. Thus a Syrian sect of the 4th
+century was known as "the Enthusiasts"; they believed that by perpetual
+prayer, ascetic practices and contemplation, man could become inspired
+by the Holy Spirit, in spite of the ruling evil spirit, which the fall
+had given to him. From their belief in the efficacy of prayer [Greek:
+euchê], they were also known as Euchites. In ordinary usage,
+"enthusiasm" has lost its peculiar religious significance, and means a
+whole-hearted devotion to an ideal, cause, study or pursuit; sometimes,
+in a depreciatory sense, it implies a devotion which is partisan and is
+blind to difficulties and objections. (See further INSPIRATION, for a
+comparison of the religious meanings of "enthusiasm," "ecstasy" and
+"fanaticism.")
+
+
+
+
+ENTHYMEME (Gr. [Greek: en, thymos]), in formal logic, the technical
+name of a syllogistic argument which is incompletely stated. Any one of
+the premises may be omitted, but in general it is that one which is most
+obvious or most naturally present to the mind. In point of fact the full
+formal statement of a syllogism is rare, especially in rhetorical
+language, when the deliberate omission of one of the premises has a
+dramatic effect. Thus the suppression of the conclusion may have the
+effect of emphasizing the idea which necessarily follows from the
+premises. Far commoner is the omission of one of the premises which is
+either too clear to need statement or of a character which makes its
+omission desirable. A famous instance quoted in the _Port Royal Logic_,
+pt. iii. ch. xiv., is Medea's remark to Jason in Ovid's _Medea_,
+"Servare potui, perdere an possim rogas?" where the major premise "Qui
+servare, perdere possunt" is understood. This use of the word enthymeme
+differs from Aristotle's original application of it to a syllogism based
+on probabilities or signs ([Greek: ex eikotôn ê sêmeiôn]), i.e. on
+propositions which are generally valid ([Greek: eikota]) or on
+particular facts which may be held to justify a general principle or
+another particular fact (_Anal. prior._ [beta] xxvii. 70 a 10).
+
+  See beside text-books on logic, Sir W. Hamilton's _Discussions_
+  (1547); Mansel's ed. of Aldrich, Appendix F; H.W.B. Joseph, _Introd.
+  to Logic_, chap. xvi.
+
+
+
+
+ENTOMOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: entoma,] insects, and [Greek: logos], a
+discourse), the science that treats of insects, i.e. of the animals
+included in the class Hexapoda of the great phylum (or sub-phylum)
+Arthropoda. The term, however, is somewhat elastic in its current use,
+and students of centipedes and spiders are often reckoned among the
+entomologists. As the number of species of insects is believed to exceed
+that of all other animals taken together, it is no wonder that their
+study should form a special division of zoology with a distinctive name.
+
+Beetles (Scarabaei) are the subjects of some of the oldest sculptured
+works of the Egyptians, and references to locusts, bees and ants are
+familiar to all readers of the Hebrew scriptures. The interest of
+insects to the eastern races was, however, economic, religious or moral.
+The science of insects began with Aristotle, who included in a class
+"Entoma" the true insects, the arachnids and the myriapods, the
+Crustacea forming another class ("Malacostraca") of the "Anaema" or
+"bloodless animals." For nearly 2000 years the few writers who dealt
+with zoological subjects followed Aristotle's leading.
+
+In the history of the science, various lines of progress have to be
+traced. While some observers have studied in detail the structure and
+life-history of a few selected types (insect anatomy and development),
+others have made a more superficial examination of large series of
+insects to classify them and determine their relationships (systematic
+entomology), while others again have investigated the habits and
+life-relations of insects (insect bionomics). During recent years the
+study of fossil insects (palaeoëntomology) has attracted much attention.
+
+The foundations of modern entomology were laid by a series of wonderful
+memoirs on anatomy and development published in the 17th and 18th
+centuries. Of these the most famous are M. Malpighi's treatise on the
+silkworm (1669) and J. Swammerdam's _Biblia naturae_, issued in 1737,
+fifty years after its author's death, and containing observations on the
+structure and life-history of a series of insect types. Aristotle and
+Harvey (_De generatione animalium_, 1651) had considered the insect larva
+as a prematurely hatched embryo and the pupa as a second egg. Swammerdam,
+however, showed the presence under the larval cuticle of the pupal
+structures. His only unfortunate contribution to entomology--indeed to
+zoology generally--was his theory of pre-formation, which taught the
+presence within the egg of a perfectly formed but miniature adult. A year
+before Malpighi's great work appeared, another Italian naturalist, F.
+Redi, had disproved by experiment the spontaneous generation of maggots
+from putrid flesh, and had shown that they can only develop from the eggs
+of flies.
+
+Meanwhile the English naturalist, John Ray, was studying the
+classification of animals; he published, in 1705, his _Methodus
+insectorum_, in which the nature of the metamorphosis received due
+weight. Ray's "Insects" comprised the Arachnids, Crustacea, Myriapoda
+and Annelida, in addition to the Hexapods. Ray was the first to
+formulate that definite conception of the species which was adopted by
+Linnaeus and emphasized by his binominal nomenclature. In 1735 appeared
+the first edition of the _Systema naturae_ of Linnaeus, in which the
+"Insecta" form a group equivalent to the Arthropoda of modern
+zoologists, and are divided into seven orders, whose names--Coleoptera,
+Diptera, Lepidoptera, &c., founded on the nature of the wings--have
+become firmly established. The fascinating subjects of insect bionomics
+and life-history were dealt with in the classical memoirs (1734-1742) of
+the Frenchman R.A.F. de Réaumur, and (1752-1778) of the Swede C. de
+Geer. The freshness, the air of leisure, the enthusiasm of discovery
+that mark the work of these old writers have lessons for the modern
+professional zoologist, who at times feels burdened with the accumulated
+knowledge of a century and a half. From the end of the 18th century
+until the present day, it is only possible to enumerate the outstanding
+features in the progress of entomology. In the realm of classification,
+the work of Linnaeus was continued in Denmark by J.C. Fabricius
+(_Systema entomologica_, 1775), and extended in France by G.P.B. Lamarck
+(_Animaux sans vertèbres_, 1801) and G. Cuvier (_Leçons d'anatomie
+comparée_, 1800-1805), and in England by W.E. Leach (_Trans. Linn. Soc._
+xi., 1815). These three authors definitely separated the Arachnida,
+Crustacea and Myriapoda as classes distinct from the Insecta (see
+HEXAPODA). The work of J.O. Westwood (_Modern Classification of
+Insects_, 1839-1840) connects these older writers with their successors
+of to-day.
+
+In the anatomical field the work of Malpighi and Swammerdam was at first
+continued most energetically by French students. P. Lyonnet had
+published in 1760 his elaborate monograph on the goat-moth caterpillar,
+and H.E. Strauss-Dürckheim in 1828 issued his great treatise on the
+cockchafer. But the name of J.C.L. de Savigny, who (_Mém. sur les
+animaux sans vertèbres_, 1816) established the homology of the jaws of
+all insects whether biting or sucking, deserves especial honour. Many
+anatomical and developmental details were carefully worked out by L.
+Dufour (in a long series of memoirs from 1811 to 1860) in France, by G.
+Newport ("Insecta" in _Encyc. Anat. and Physiol._, 1839) in England, and
+by H. Burmeister (_Handbuch der Entomologie_, 1832) in Germany. Through
+the 19th century, as knowledge increased, the work of investigation
+became necessarily more and more specialized. Anatomists like F. Leydig,
+F. Müller, B.T. Lowne and V. Graber turned their attention to the
+detailed investigation of some one species or to special points in the
+structure of some particular organs, using for the elucidation of their
+subject the ever-improving microscopical methods of research.
+
+Societies for the discussion and publication of papers on entomology
+were naturally established as the number of students increased. The
+Société Entomologique de France was founded in 1832, the Entomological
+Society of London in 1834. Few branches of zoology have been more
+valuable as a meeting-ground for professional and amateur naturalists
+than entomology, and not seldom has the amateur--as in the case of
+Westwood--developed into a professor. During the pre-Linnaean period,
+the beauty of insects--especially the Lepidoptera--had attracted a
+number of collectors; and these "Aurelians"--regarded as harmless
+lunatics by most of their friends--were the forerunners of the
+systematic students of later times. While the insect fauna of European
+countries was investigated by local naturalists, the spread of
+geographical exploration brought ever-increasing stores of exotic
+material to the great museums, and specialization--either in the fauna
+of a small district or in the world-wide study of an order or a group of
+families--became constantly more marked in systematic work. As examples
+may be instanced the studies of A.H. Haliday and H. Loew on the European
+Diptera, of John Curtis on British insects, of H.T. Stainton and O.
+Staudinger on the European Lepidoptera, of R. M'Lachlan on the European
+and of H.A. Hagen on the North American Neuroptera, of D. Sharp on the
+_Dyticidae_ and other families of Coleoptera of the whole world.
+
+The embryology of insects is entirely a study of the last century. C.
+Bonnet indeed observed in 1745 the virgin-reproduction of Aphids, but it
+was not until 1842 that R.A. von Kölliker described the formation of the
+blastoderm in the egg of the midge _Chironomus_. Later A. Weismann
+(1863-1864) traced details of the growth of embryo and of pupa among the
+Diptera, and A. Kovalevsky in 1871 first described the formation of the
+germinal layers in insects. Most of the recent work on the embryology of
+insects has been done in Germany or the United States, and among
+numerous students V. Graber, K. Heider, W.M. Wheeler and R. Heymons may
+be especially mentioned.
+
+The work of de Réaumur and de Geer on the bionomics and life-history of
+insects has been continued by numerous observers, among whom may be
+especially mentioned in France J.H. Fabre and C. Janet, in England W.
+Kirby and W. Spence, J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) and L.C. Miall, and in
+the United States C.V. Riley. The last-named may be considered the
+founder of the strong company of entomological workers now labouring in
+America. Though Riley was especially interested in the bearings of
+insect life on agriculture and industry--economic entomology (q.v.)--he
+and his followers have laid the science generally under a deep
+obligation by their researches.
+
+After the publication of C. Darwin's _Origin of Species_ (1859) a fresh
+impetus was given to entomology as to all branches of zoology, and it
+became generally recognized that insects form a group convenient and
+hopeful for the elucidation of certain problems of animal evolution. The
+writings of Darwin himself and of A.R. Wallace (both at one time active
+entomological collectors) contain much evidence drawn from insects in
+favour of descent with modification. The phylogeny of insects has since
+been discussed by F. Brauer, A.S. Packard and many others; mimicry and
+allied problems by H.W. Bates, F. Müller, E.B. Poulton and M.C. Piepers;
+the bearing of insect habits on theories of selection and
+use-inheritance by A. Weismann, G.W. and E. Peckham, G.H.T. Eimer and
+Herbert Spencer; variation by W. Bateson and M. Standfuss.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--References to the works of the above authors, and to
+  many others, will be found under HEXAPODA and the special articles on
+  various insect orders. Valuable summaries of the labours of Malpighi,
+  Swammerdam and other early entomologists are given in L.C. Miall and
+  A. Denny's _Cockroach_ (London, 1886), and L. Henneguy's _Les
+  Insectes_ (Paris, 1904).     (G. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+ENTOMOSTRACA. This zoological term, as now restricted, includes the
+Branchiopoda, Ostracoda and Copepoda. The Ostracoda have the body
+enclosed in a bivalve shell-covering, and normally unsegmented. The
+Branchiopoda have a very variable number of body-segments, with or
+without a shield, simple or bivalved, and some of the postoral
+appendages normally branchial. The Copepoda have normally a segmented
+body, not enclosed in a bivalved shell-covering, the segments not
+exceeding eleven, the limbs not branchial.
+
+Under the heading CRUSTACEA the Entomostraca have already been
+distinguished not only from the Thyrostraca or Cirripedes, but also from
+the Malacostraca, and an intermediate group of which the true position
+is still disputed. The choice is open to maintain the last as an
+independent subclass, and to follow Claus in calling it the Leptostraca,
+or to introduce it among the Malacostraca as the Nebaliacea, or with
+Packard and Sars to make it an entomostracan subdivision under the title
+Phyllocarida. At present it comprises the single family _Nebaliidae_.
+The bivalved carapace has a jointed rostrum, and covers only the front
+part of the body, to which it is only attached quite in front, the
+valve-like sides being under control of an adductor muscle. The eyes are
+stalked and movable. The first antennae have a lamellar appendage at the
+end of the peduncle, a decidedly non-entomostracan feature. The second
+antennae, mandibles and two pairs of maxillae may also be claimed as of
+malacostracan type. To these succeed eight pairs of foliaceous branchial
+appendages on the front division of the body, followed on the hind
+division by four pairs of powerful bifurcate swimming feet and two
+rudimentary pairs, the number, though not the nature, of these
+appendages being malacostracan. On the other hand, the two limbless
+segments that precede the caudal furca are decidedly non-malacostracan.
+The family was long limited to the single genus _Nebalia_ (Leach), and
+the single species _N. bipes_ (O. Fabricius). Recently Sars has added a
+Norwegian species, _N. typhlops_, not blind but weak-eyed. There are
+also now two more genera, _Paranebalia_ (Claus, 1880), in which the
+branchial feet are much longer than in _Nebalia_, and _Nebaliopsis_
+(Sars, 1887), in which they are much shorter. All the species are
+marine.
+
+BRANCHIOPODA.--In this order, exclusion of the Phyllocarida will leave
+three suborders of very unequal extent, the Phyllopoda, Cladocera,
+Branchiura. The constituents of the last have often been classed as
+Copepoda, and among the Branchiopods must be regarded as aberrant, since
+the "branchial tail" implied in the name has no feet, and the actual
+feet are by no means obviously branchial.
+
+_Phyllopoda._--This "leaf-footed" suborder has the appendages which
+follow the second maxillae variable in number, but all foliaceous and
+branchial. The development begins with a free nauplius stage. In the
+outward appearance of the adults there is great want of uniformity, one
+set having their limbs sheltered by no carapace, another having a broad
+shield over most of them, and a third having a bivalved shell-cover
+within which the whole body can be enclosed. In accord with these
+differences the sections may be named Gymnophylla, Notophylla,
+Conchophylla. The equivalent terms applied by Sars are Anostraca,
+Notostraca, Conchostraca, involving a termination already appropriated
+to higher divisions of the Crustacean class, for which it ought to be
+reserved.
+
+  1. Gymnophylla.--These singular crustaceans have long soft flexible
+  bodies, the eyes stalked and movable, the first antennae small and
+  filiform, the second lamellar in the female, in the male prehensile;
+  this last character gives rise to some very fanciful developments.
+  There are three families, two of which form companies rather severely
+  limited. Thus the _Polyartemiidae_, which compensate themselves for
+  their stumpy little tails by having nineteen instead of the normal
+  eleven pairs of branchial feet, consist exclusively of _Polyartemia
+  forcipata_ (Fischer, 1851). This species from the high north of Europe
+  and Asia carries green eggs, and above them a bright pattern in
+  ultramarine (Sars, 1896, 1897). The _Thamnocephalidae_ have likewise
+  but a single species, _Thamnocephalus platyurus_ (Packard, 1877),
+  which justifies its title "bushy-head of the broad tail" by a
+  singularity at each end. Forward from the head extends a long ramified
+  appendage described as the "frontal shrub," backward from the fourth
+  abdominal segment of the male spreads a fin-like expansion which is
+  unique. In the ravines of Kansas, pools supplied by torrential rains
+  give birth to these and many other phyllopods, and in turn "millions
+  of them perish by the drying up of the pools in July" (Packard). The
+  remaining family, the _Branchipodidae_, includes eight genera. In the
+  long familiar _Branchipus_, _Chirocephalus_ and _Streptocephalus_ the
+  males have frontal appendages, but these are wanting in the
+  "brine-shrimp" _Artemia_, and the same want helps to distinguish
+  _Branchinecta_ (Verrill, 1869) from the old genus _Branchipus_. Of
+  _Branchiopsyllus_ (Sars, 1897) the male is not yet known, but in his
+  genera of the same date, the Siberian _Artemiopsis_ and the South
+  African _Branchipodopsis_ (1898), there is no such appendage. Of the
+  last genus the type species _B. hodgsoni_ belongs to Cape Colony, but
+  the specimens described were born and bred and observed in Norway. For
+  the study of fresh-water Entomostraca large possibilities are now
+  opened to the naturalist. A parcel of dried mud, coming for example
+  from Palestine or Queensland, and after an indefinite interval of time
+  put into water in England or elsewhere, may yield him living forms,
+  both new and old, in the most agreeable variety. Some caution should
+  be used against confounding accidentally introduced indigenous species
+  with those reared from the imported eggs. Those, too, who send or
+  bring the foreign soil should exercise a little thought in the choice
+  of it, since dry earth that has never had any Entomostraca near it at
+  home will not become fertile in them by the mere fact of exportation.
+
+  2. Notophylla.--In this division the body is partly covered by a broad
+  shield, united in front with the head; the eyes are sessile, the first
+  antennae are small, the second rudimentary or wanting; of the numerous
+  feet, sometimes sixty-three pairs, exceeding the number of segments to
+  which they are attached, the first pair are more or less unlike the
+  rest, and in the female the eleventh have the epipod and exopod
+  (flabellum and sub-apical lobe of Lankester) modified to form an
+  ovisac. Development begins with a nauplius stage. Males are very rare.
+  The single family _Apodidae_ contains only two genera, _Apus_ and its
+  very near neighbour _Lepidurus_. _Apus australiensis_ (Spencer and
+  Hall, 1896) may rank as the largest of the Entomostraca, reaching in
+  the male, from front of shield to end of telson, a length of 70 mm.,
+  in the female of 64 mm. In a few days, or at most a fortnight, after a
+  rainfall numberless specimens of these sizes were found swimming
+  about, "and as not a single one was to be found in the water-pools
+  prior to the rain, these must have been developed from the egg."
+  Similarly, in Northern India _Apus himalayanus_ was "collected from a
+  stagnant pool in a jungle four days after a shower of rain had
+  fallen," following a drought of four months (Packard).
+
+  3. Conchophylla.--Though concealed within the bivalved shell-cover,
+  the mouth-parts are nearly as in the Gymnophylla, but the flexing of
+  the caudal part is in contrast, and the biramous second antennae
+  correspond with what is only a larval character in the other
+  phyllopods. In the male the first one or two pairs of feet are
+  modified into grasping organs. The small ova are crowded beneath the
+  dorsal part of the valves. The development usually begins with a
+  nauplius stage (Sars, 1896, 1900). There are four families: (a) The
+  _Limnadiidae_, with feet from 18 to 32 pairs, comprise four (or five)
+  genera. Of these _Limnadella_ (Girard, 1855) has a single eye. It
+  remains rather obscure, though the type species originally "was
+  discovered in great abundance in a roadside puddle subject to
+  desiccation." _Limnadia_ (Brongniart, 1820) is supposed to consist of
+  species exclusively parthenogenetic. But when asked to believe that
+  males never occur among these amazons, one cannot but remember how
+  hard it is to prove a negative. (b) The _Lynceidae_, with not more
+  than twelve pairs of feet. This family is limited to the species,
+  widely distributed, of the single genus _Lynceus_, established by O.F.
+  Müller in 1776 and 1781, and first restricted by Leach in 1816 in the
+  _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (art. "Annulosa," of that edition). Leach
+  there assigns to it the single species _L. brachyurus_ (Müller), and
+  as this is included in the genus _Limnetis_ (Lovén, 1846), that genus
+  must be a synonym of _Lynceus_ as restricted. (c) _Leptestheriidae_.
+  _Estheria_ (Rüppell, 1837) was instituted for the species
+  _dahalacensis_, which Sars includes in his genus _Leptestheria_
+  (1898); but _Estheria_ was already appropriated, and of its synonyms
+  _Cyzicus_ (Audouin, 1837) is lost for vagueness, while _Isaura_ (Joly,
+  1842) is also appropriated, so that _Leptestheria_ becomes the name of
+  the typical genus, and determines the name of the family. (d)
+  _Cyclestheriidae_. This family consists of the single species
+  _Cyclestheria hislopi_ (Baird), reported from India, Ceylon, Celebes,
+  Australia, East Africa and Brazil. Sars (1887) having had the
+  opportunity of raising it from dried Australian mud, found that,
+  unlike other phyllopods, but like the Cladocera, the parent keeps its
+  brood within the shell until their full development.
+
+_Cladocera._--In this suborder the head is more or less distinct, the
+rest of the body being in general laterally compressed and covered by a
+bivalved test. The title "branching horns" alludes to the second
+antennae, which are two-branched except in the females of _Holopedium_,
+with each branch setiferous, composed of only two to four joints. The
+mandibles are without palp. The pairs of feet are four to six. The eye
+is single, and in addition to the eye there is often an "eye-spot,"
+_Monospilus_ being unique in having the eye-spot alone and no eye, while
+_Leydigiopsis_ (Sars, 1901) has an eye with an eye-spot equal to it or
+larger. The heart has a pair of venous ostia, often blending into one,
+and an anterior arterial aorta. Respiration is conducted by the general
+surface, by the branchial lamina (external branch) of the feet, and the
+vesicular appendage (when present) at the base of this branch. The
+"abdomen," behind the limbs, is usually very short, occasionally very
+long. The "postabdomen," marked off by the two postabdominal setae,
+usually has teeth or spines, and ends in two denticulate or ciliate
+claws, or it may be rudimentary, as in _Polyphemus_. Many species have a
+special glandular organ at the back of the head, which _Sida
+crystallina_ uses for attaching itself to various objects. The Leydigian
+or nuchal organ is supposed to be auditory and to contain an otolith.
+The female lays two kinds of eggs--"summer-eggs," which develop without
+fertilization, and "winter-eggs" or resting eggs, which require to be
+fertilized. The latter in the _Daphniidae_ are enclosed in a modified
+part of the mother's shell, called the ephippium from its resemblance to
+a saddle in shape and position. In other families a less elaborate case
+has been observed, for which Scourfield has proposed the term
+protoephippium. In _Leydigia_ he has recently found a structure almost
+as complex as that of the _Daphniidae_. In some families the resting
+eggs escape into the water without special covering. Only the embryos of
+_Leptodora_ are known to hatch out in the nauplius stage. _Penilia_
+(Dana, 1849) is perhaps the only exclusively marine genus. The great
+majority of the Cladocera belong to fresh water, but their adaptability
+is large, since _Moina rectirostris_ (O.F. Müller) can equally enjoy a
+pond at Blackheath, and near Odessa live in water twice as salt as that
+of the ocean. In point of size a Cladoceran of 5 mm. is spoken of as
+colossal.
+
+  Dr Jules Richard in his revision (1895) retains the sections proposed
+  by Sars in 1865, Calyptomera and Gymnomera. The former, with the feet
+  for the most part concealed by the carapace, is subdivided into two
+  tribes, the Ctenopoda, or "comb-feet," in which the six pairs of
+  similar feet, all branchial and nonprehensile, are furnished with
+  setae arranged like the teeth of a comb, and the Anomopoda, or
+  "variety-feet," in which the front feet differ from the rest by being
+  more or less prehensile, without branchial laminae.
+
+  The Ctenopoda comprise two families: (a) the _Holopediidae_, with a
+  solitary species, _Holopedium gibberum_ (Zaddach), queerly clothed in
+  a large gelatinous involucre, and found in mountain tarns all over
+  Europe, in large lakes of N. America, and also in shallow ponds and
+  waters at sea-level; (b) the _Sididae_, with no such involucre, but
+  with seven genera, and rather more than twice as many species. Of
+  _Diaphanosoma modiglianii_ Richard says that at different points of
+  Lake Toba in Sumatra millions of specimens were obtained, among which
+  he had not met with a single male.
+
+  The Anomopoda are arranged in four families, all but one very
+  extensive. (a) _Daphniidae_. Of the seven genera, the cosmopolitan
+  _Daphnia_ contains about 100 species and varieties, of which Thomas
+  Scott (1899) observes that "scarcely any of the several characters
+  that have at one time or another been selected as affording a means
+  for discriminating between the different forms can be relied on as
+  satisfactory." Though this may dishearten the systematist, Scourfield
+  (1900) reminds us that "It was in a water-flea that Metschnikoff first
+  saw the leucocytes (or phagocytes) trying to get rid of disease germs
+  by swallowing them, and was so led to his epoch-making discovery of
+  the part played by these minute amoeboid corpuscles in the animal
+  body." For _Scapholeberis mucronata_ (O.F. Müller), Scourfield has
+  shown how it is adapted for movement back downwards in the water along
+  the underside of the surface film, which to many small crustaceans is
+  a dangerously disabling trap. (b) _Bosminidae_. To _Bosmina_ (Baird,
+  1845) Richard added _Bosminopsis_ in 1895. (c) _Macrotrichidae._ In
+  this family _Macrothrix_ (Baird, 1843) is the earliest genus, among
+  the latest being _Grimaldina_ (Richard, 1892) and _Jheringula_ (Sars,
+  1900). Dried mud and vegetable débris from S. Paulo in Brazil supplied
+  Sars with representatives of all the three in his Norwegian aquaria,
+  in some of which the little _Macrothrix elegans_ "multiplied to such
+  an extraordinary extent as at last to fill up the water with immense
+  shoals of individuals." "The appearance of male specimens was always
+  contemporary with the first ephippial formation in the females." For
+  _Streblocerus pygmaeus_, grown under the same conditions, Sars
+  observes: "This is perhaps the smallest of the Cladocera known, and is
+  hardly more than visible to the naked eye," the adult female scarcely
+  exceeding 0.25 mm. Yet in the next family _Alonella nana_ (Baird)
+  disputes the palm and claims to be the smallest of all known
+  Arthropoda. (d) _Chydoridae._ This family, so commonly called
+  _Lynceidae_, contains a large number of genera, among which one may
+  usually search in vain, and rightly so, for the genus _Lynceus_. The
+  key to the riddle is to be found in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ for
+  1816. There, as above explained, Leach began the subdivision of
+  Müller's too comprehensive genus, the result being that _Lynceus_
+  belongs to the Phyllopoda, and _Chydorus_ (Leach, 1816) properly gives
+  its name to the present family, in which the doubly convoluted
+  intestine is so remarkable. Of its many genera, _Leydigia_,
+  _Leydigiopsis_, _Monospilus_ have been already mentioned. _Dadaya
+  macrops_ (Sars, 1901), from South America and Ceylon, has a very large
+  eye and an eye-spot fully as large, but it is a very small creature,
+  odd in its behaviour, moving by jumps at the very surface of the
+  water. "To the naked eye it looked like a little black atom darting
+  about in a most wonderful manner."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Dolops ranarum_ (Stuhlmann).]
+
+  The Gymnomera, with a carapace too small to cover the feet, which are
+  all prehensile, are divided also into two tribes, the Onychopoda, in
+  which the four pairs of feet have a toothed maxillary process at the
+  base, and the Haplopoda, in which there are six pairs of feet, without
+  such a process. To the _Polyphemidae_, the well-known family of the
+  former tribe, Sars in 1897 added two remarkable genera, _Cercopagis_,
+  meaning "tail with a sling," and _Apagis_, "without a sling," for
+  seven species from the Sea of Azov. The Haplopoda likewise have but a
+  single family, the _Leptodoridae_, and this has but the single genus
+  _Leptodora_ (Lilljeborg, 1861). Dr Richard (1895, 1896) gives a
+  Cladoceran bibliography of 601 references.
+
+_Branchiura._--This term was introduced by Thorell in 1864 for the
+_Argulidae_, a family which had been transferred to the Branchiopoda by
+Zenker in 1854, though sometimes before and since united with the
+parasitic Copepoda. Though the animals have an oral siphon, they do not
+carry ovisacs like the siphonostomous copepods, but glue their eggs in
+rows to extraneous objects. Their lateral, compound, feebly movable eyes
+agree with those of the Phyllopoda. The family are described by Claus as
+"intermittent parasites," because when gorged they leave their hosts,
+fishes or frogs, and swim about in freedom for a considerable period.
+The long-known _Argulus_ (O.F. Müller) has the second maxillae
+transformed into suckers, but in _Dolops_ (Audouin, 1837) (fig. 1), the
+name of which supersedes the more familiar _Gyropeltis_ (Heller, 1857),
+these effect attachment by ending in strong hooks (Bouvier, 1897). A
+third genus, _Chonopeltis_ (Thiele, 1900), has suckers, but has lost its
+first antennae, at least in the female.
+
+OSTRACODA.--The body, seldom in any way segmented, is wholly encased in
+a bivalved shell, the caudal part strongly inflexed, and almost always
+ending in a furca. The limbs, including antennae and mouth organs, never
+exceed seven definite pairs. The first antennae never have more than
+eight joints. The young usually pass through several stages of
+development after leaving the egg, and this commonly after, even long
+after, the egg has left the maternal shell. Parthenogenesis is frequent.
+
+The four tribes instituted by Sars in 1865 were reduced to two by G.W.
+Müller in 1894, the Myodocopa, which almost always have a heart, and the
+Podocopa, which have none.
+
+  _Myodocopa._--These have the furcal branches broad, lamellar, with at
+  least three pairs of strong spines or ungues. Almost always the shell
+  has a rostral sinus. Müller divides the tribe into three families,
+  _Cypridinidae, Halocypridae_, and the heartless _Polycopidae_, which
+  constituted the tribe Cladocopa of Sars. From the first of these Brady
+  and Norman distinguish the Asteropidae (fig. 3), remarkable for seven
+  pairs of long branchial leaves which fold over the hinder extremity of
+  the animal, and the _Sarsiellidae_, still somewhat obscure, besides
+  adding the _Rutidermatidae_, knowledge of which is based on skilful
+  maceration of minute and long-dried specimens. The _Halocypridae_ are
+  destitute of compound lateral eyes, and have the sexual orifice
+  unsymmetrically placed.
+
+  _Podocopa._--In these the furcal branches are linear or rudimentary,
+  the shell is without rostral sinus, and, besides distinguishing
+  characters of the second antennae, they have always a branchial plate
+  well developed on the first maxillae, which is inconstant in the other
+  tribe. There are five families: (a) _Cyprididae_ (? including
+  _Cypridopsidae_ of Brady and Norman). In some of the genera
+  parthenogenetic propagation is carried to such an extent that of the
+  familiar _Cypris_ it is said, "until quite lately males in this genus
+  were unknown; and up to the present time no male has been found in the
+  British Islands" (Brady and Norman, 1896). On the other hand, the
+  ejaculatory duct with its verticillate sac in the male of _Cypris_ and
+  other genera is a feature scarcely less remarkable. (b) _Bairdiidae_,
+  which have the valves smooth, with the hinge untoothed. (c)
+  _Cytheridae_ (? including _Paradoxostomatidae_ of Brady and Norman),
+  in which the valves are usually sculptured, with toothed hinge. Of
+  this family the members are almost exclusively marine, but
+  _Limnicythere_ is found in fresh water, and _Xestoleberis bromeliarum_
+  (Fritz Müller) lives in the water that collects among the leaves of
+  Bromelias, plants allied to the pine-apples. (d) _Darwinulidae_,
+  including the single species _Darwinula stevensoni_, Brady and
+  Robertson, described as "perhaps the most characteristic Entomostracan
+  of the East Anglian Fen District." (e) _Cytherellidae_, which, unlike
+  the Ostracoda in general, have the hinder part of the body segmented,
+  at least ten segments being distinguishable in the female. They have
+  the valves broad at both ends, and were placed by Sars in a separate
+  tribe, called Platycopa.
+
+The range in time of the Ostracoda is so extended that, in G.W.
+Müller's opinion, their separation into the families now living may have
+already taken place in the Cambrian period. Their range in space,
+including carriage by birds, may be coextensive with the distribution of
+water, but it is not known what height of temperature or how much
+chemical adulteration of the water they can sustain, how far they can
+penetrate underground, nor what are the limits of their activity between
+the floor and the surface of aquatic expanses, fresh or saline. In
+individual size they have never been important, and of living forms the
+largest is one of recent discovery, _Crossophorus africanus_, a
+Cypridinid about three-fifths of an inch (15.5 mm.) long; but a length
+of one or two millimetres is more common, and it may descend to the
+seventy-fifth of an inch. By multitude they have been, and still are,
+extremely important.
+
+  Though the exterior is more uniform than in most groups of Crustacea,
+  the bivalved shell or carapace may be strongly calcified and diversely
+  sculptured (fig. 2), or membranaceous and polished, hairy or smooth,
+  oval or round or bean-shaped, or of some less simple pattern; the
+  valves may fit neatly, or one overlap the other, their hinge may have
+  teeth or be edentulous, and their front part may be excavated for the
+  protrusion of the antennae or have no such "rostral sinus." By various
+  modifications of their valves and appendages the creatures have become
+  adapted for swimming, creeping, burrowing, or climbing, some of them
+  combining two or more of these activities, for which their structure
+  seems at the first glance little adapted. Considering the imprisonment
+  of the ostracod body within the valves, it is more surprising that the
+  _Asteropidae_ and _Cypridinidae_ should have a pair of compound and
+  sometimes large eyes, in addition to the median organ at the base of
+  the "frontal tentacle," than that other members of the group should be
+  limited to that median organ of sight, or have no eyes at all. The
+  median eye when present may have or not have a lens, and its three
+  pigment-cups may be close together or wide apart and the middle one
+  rudimentary. As might be expected, in thickened and highly embossed
+  valves thin spaces occur over the visual organ. The frontal organ
+  varies in form and apparently in function, and is sometimes absent.
+  The first antennae, according to the family, may assist in walking,
+  swimming, burrowing, climbing, grasping, and besides they carry
+  sensory setae, and sometimes they have suckers on their setae (see
+  Brady and Norman on _Cypridina norvegica_). The second antennae are
+  usually the chief motor-organs for swimming, walking and climbing. The
+  mandibles are normally five-jointed, with remnants of an outer branch
+  on the second joint, the biting edge varying from strong development
+  to evanescence, the terminal joints or "palp" giving the organ a
+  leg-like appearance and function, which disappears in suctorial genera
+  such as _Paracytherois_. The variable first maxillae are seldom
+  pediform, their function being concerned chiefly with nutrition,
+  sensation and respiration. The variability in form and function of the
+  second maxillae is sufficiently shown by the fact that G.W. Müller,
+  our leading authority, adopts the confusing plan of calling them
+  second maxillae in the _Cypridinidae_ (including _Asteropidae_),
+  maxillipeds in the _Halocypridae_ and _Cyprididae_, and first legs in
+  the _Bairdiidae_, _Cytheridae_, _Polycopidae_ and _Cytherellidae_, so
+  that in his fine monograph he uses the term first leg in two quite
+  different senses. The first legs, meaning thereby the sixth pair of
+  appendages, are generally pediform and locomotive, but sometimes
+  unjointed, acting as a kind of brushes to cleanse the furca, while in
+  the _Polycopidae_ they are entirely wanting. The second legs are
+  sometimes wanting, sometimes pediform and locomotive, sometimes
+  strangely metamorphosed into the "vermiform organ," generally long,
+  many-jointed, and distally armed with retroverted spines, its function
+  being that of an extremely mobile cleansing foot, which can insert
+  itself among the eggs in the brood-space, between the branchial leaves
+  of _Asterope_ (fig. 3), and even range over the external surface of
+  the valves. The "brush-formed" organs of the Podocopa are medially
+  placed, and, in spite of their sometimes forward situation, Müller
+  believes among other possibilities that they and the penis in the
+  _Cypridinidae_ may be alike remnants of a third pair of legs, not
+  homologous with the penis of other Ostracoda (Podocopa included). The
+  furca is, as a rule, a powerful motor-organ, and has its laminae edged
+  with strong teeth (ungues) or setae or both. The young, though born
+  with valves, have at first a nauplian body, and pass through various
+  stages to maturity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cythereis ornata_ (G.W. Müller). One
+  eye-space is shown above on the left.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Asterope arthuri_. Left valve removed.
+
+    M,     End of adductor muscle.
+    OC,    Eye.
+    AI,    Second antenna.
+    MX. 1, First maxilla.
+    MX. 2, Second maxilla.
+    P. 1,  First foot.
+    V. O,  Vermiform organ.
+    BR,    Seven branchial leaves.
+    F,     Projecting ungues of the furca.]
+
+  Brady and Norman, in their _Monograph of the Ostracoda of the North
+  Atlantic and North-Western Europe_ (1889), give a bibliography of 125
+  titles, and in the second part (1896) they give 55 more. The lists are
+  not meant to be exhaustive, any more than G.W. Müller's literature
+  list of 125 titles in 1894. They do not refer to Latreille, 1802, with
+  whom the term Ostracoda originates.
+
+COPEPODA.--The body is not encased in a bivalved shell; its articulated
+segments are at most eleven, those behind the genital segment being
+without trace of limbs, but the last almost always carrying a furca.
+Sexes separate, fertilization by spermatophores. Ova in single or double
+or rarely several packets, attached as ovisacs or egg-strings to the
+genital openings, or enclosed in a dorsal marsupium, or deposited singly
+or occasionally in bundles. The youngest larvae are typical nauplii. The
+next, the copepodid or cyclopid, stage is characterized by a cylindrical
+segmented body, with fore- and hind-body distinct, and by having at most
+six cephalic limbs and two pairs of swimming feet.
+
+The order thus defined (see Giesbrecht and Schmeil, _Das Tierreich_,
+1898), with far over a thousand species (Hansen, 1900), embraces forms
+of extreme diversity, although, when species are known in all their
+phases and both sexes, they constantly tend to prove that there are no
+sharply dividing lines between the free-living, the semi-parasitic, and
+those which in adult life are wholly parasitic and then sometimes
+grotesquely unlike the normal standard. Giesbrecht and Hansen have shown
+that the mouth-organs consist of mandibles, first and second maxillae
+and maxillipeds; and Claus himself relinquished his long-maintained
+hypothesis that the last two pairs were the separated exopods and
+endopods of a single pair of appendages. Thorell's classification (1859)
+of Gnathostoma, Poecilostoma, Siphonostoma, based on the mouth-organs,
+was long followed, though almost at the outset shown by Claus to depend
+on the erroneous supposition that the Poecilostoma were devoid of
+mandibles. Brady added a new section, Choniostomata, in 1894, and
+another, Leptostomata, in 1900, each for a single species. Canu in 1892
+proposed two groups, Monoporodelphya and Diporodelphya, the copulatory
+openings of the female being paired in the latter, unpaired in the
+former. It may be questioned whether this distinction, however important
+in itself, would lead to a satisfactory grouping of families. In the
+same year Giesbrecht proposed his division of the order into Gymnoplea
+and Podoplea.
+
+In appearance an ordinary Copepod is divided into fore- and hind-body,
+of its eleven segments the composite first being the head, the next five
+constituting the thorax, and the last five the abdomen. The coalescence
+of segments, though frequent, does not after a little experience
+materially confuse the counting. But there is this peculiarity, that the
+middle segment is sometimes continuous with the broader fore-body,
+sometimes with the narrower hind-body. In the former case the hind-body,
+consisting only of the abdomen, forms a pleon or tail-part devoid of
+feet, and the species so constructed are Gymnoplea, those of the naked
+or footless pleon. In the latter case the middle segment almost always
+carries with it to the hind-body a pair of rudimentary limbs, whence the
+term Podoplea, meaning species that have a pleon with feet. It may be
+objected that hereby the term pleon is used in two different senses,
+first applying to the abdomen alone and then to the abdomen plus the
+last thoracic segment. Even this verbal flaw would be obviated if
+Giesbrecht could prove his tentative hypothesis, that the Gymnoplea may
+have lost a pre-genital segment of the abdomen, and the Podoplea may
+have lost the last segment of the thorax. The classification is worked
+out as follows:--
+
+  1. _Gymnoplea._--First segment of hind-body footless, bearing the
+  orifices of the genital organs (in the male unsymmetrically placed);
+  last foot of the fore-body in the male a copulatory organ; neither, or
+  only one, of the first pair of antennae in the male geniculating;
+  cephalic limbs abundantly articulated and provided with many plumose
+  setae; heart generally present. Animals usually free-living, pelagic
+  (Giesbrecht and Schmeil).
+
+  This group, with 65 genera and four or five hundred species, is
+  divided by Giesbrecht into tribes: (a) Amphaskandria. In this tribe
+  the males have both antennae of the first pair as sensory organs.
+  There is but one family, the _Calanidae_, but this is a very large
+  one, with 26 genera and more than 100 species. Among them is the
+  cosmopolitan _Calanus finmarchicus_, the earliest described (by Bishop
+  Gunner in 1770) of all the marine free-swimming Copepoda. Among them
+  also is the peacock Calanid, _Calocalanus pavo_ (Dana), with its
+  highly ornamented antennae and gorgeous tail, the most beautiful
+  species of the whole order (fig. 4). (b) Heterarthrandria. Here the
+  males have one or the other of the first pair of antennae modified
+  into a grasping organ for holding the female. There are four families,
+  the _Diaptomidae_ with 27 genera, the _Pontellidae_ with 10, the
+  _Pseudocyclopidae_ and _Candaciidae_ each with one genus. The first of
+  these families is often called _Centropagidae_, but, as Sars has
+  pointed out, _Diaptomus_ (Westwood, 1836) is the oldest genus in it.
+  Of 177 species valid in the family Giesbrecht and Schmeil assign 67 to
+  _Diaptomus_. In regard to one of its species Dr Brady says: "In one
+  instance, at least (Talkin Tarn, Cumberland) I have seen the net come
+  up from a depth of 6 or 8 ft. below the surface with a dense mass
+  consisting almost entirely of _D. gracilis_." The length of this
+  net-filling species is about a twentieth of an inch.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Calocalanus pavo_ (Dana).]
+
+  2. _Podoplea._--The first segment of the hind-body almost always with
+  rudimentary pair of feet; orifices of the genital organs
+  (symmetrically placed in both sexes) in the following segment; neither
+  the last foot of the fore-body nor the rudimentary feet just mentioned
+  acting as a copulatory organ in the male; both or neither of the first
+  pair of antennae in the male geniculating; cephalic limbs less
+  abundantly articulated and with fewer plumose setae or none, but with
+  hooks and clasping setae. Heart almost always wanting. Free-living
+  (rarely pelagic) or parasitic (Giesbrecht and Schmeil).
+
+  This group is also divided by Giesbrecht into two tribes,
+  Ampharthrandria and Isokerandria. In 1892 he distinguished the former
+  as those in which the first antennae of the male have both members
+  modified for holding the female, and the genital openings of the
+  female have a ventral position, sometimes in close proximity,
+  sometimes strongly lateral; the latter as those in which the first
+  antennae of the male are similar to those of the female, the function
+  of holding her being transferred to the male maxillipeds, while the
+  genital openings of the female are dorsal, though at times strongly
+  lateral. In 1899, with a view to the many modifications exhibited by
+  parasitic and semi-parasitic species, the definitions, stripped of a
+  too hampering precision, took a different form: (a) Ampharthrandria.
+  "Swimming Podoplea with geniculating first antennae in the male sex,
+  and descendants of such; first antennae in female and male almost
+  always differently articulated." The families occupy fresh water as
+  well as the sea. Naturally "descendants" which have lost the
+  characteristic feature of the definition cannot be recognized without
+  some further assistance than the definition supplies. Of the families
+  comprised, the _Mormonillidae_ consist only of _Mormonilla_
+  (Giesbrecht), and are not mentioned by Giesbrecht in 1899 in the
+  grouping of this section. The _Thaumatoessidae_ include _Thaumatoessa_
+  (Kröyer), established earlier than its synonym _Thaumaleus_ (Kröyer),
+  or than _Monstrilla_ (Dana, 1849). The species are imperfectly known.
+  The defect of mouth-organs probably does not apply to the period of
+  youth, which some of them spend parasitically in the body-cavity of
+  worms (Giard, 1896). To the _Cyclopidae_ six genera are allotted by
+  Giesbrecht in 1900. _Cyclops_ (O.F. Müller, 1776), though greatly
+  restricted since Müller's time, still has several scores of species
+  abundantly peopling inland waters of every kind and situation, without
+  one that can be relied on as exclusively marine like the species of
+  _Oithona_ (Baird). The _Misophriidae_ are now limited to _Misophria_
+  (Boeck). The presence of a heart in this genus helps to make it a link
+  between the Podoplea and Gymnoplea, though in various other respects
+  it approaches the next family. The _Harpacticidae_ owe their name to
+  the genus _Arpacticus_ (Milne-Edwards, 1840). Brady in 1880 assigns to
+  this family 33 genera and 81 species. Canu (1892) distinguishes eight
+  sub-families, _Longipediinae_, _Peltidiinae_, _Tachidiinae_,
+  _Amymoninae_, _Harpacticinae_, _Idyinae_, _Canthocamptinae_ (for which
+  _Canthocampinae_ should be read), and _Nannopinae_, adding
+  _Stenheliinae_ (Brady) without distinctive characters for it. The
+  _Ascidicolidae_ have variable characters, showing a gradual adaptation
+  to parasitic life in Tunicates. Giesbrecht (1900) considers Canu quite
+  right in grouping together in this single family those parasites of
+  ascidians, simple and compound, which had been previously distributed
+  among families with the more or less significant names
+  _Notodelphyidae_, _Doropygidae_, _Buproridae_, _Schizoproctidae_,
+  _Kossmechtridae_, _Enterocolidae_, _Enteropsidae_. Further, he
+  includes in it his own _Enterognathus comatulae_, not from an
+  ascidian, but from the intestine of the beautiful starfish _Antedon
+  rosaceus_. The _Asterocheridae_, which have a good swimming capacity,
+  except in the case of _Cancerilla tubulata_ (Dalyell), lead a
+  semi-parasitic life on echinoderms, sponges, &c., imbibing their food.
+  Giesbrecht, displacing the older name _Ascomyzontidae_, assigns to
+  this family 21 genera in five subfamilies, and suggests that the
+  long-known but still puzzling _Nicothoë_ from the gills of the lobster
+  might be placed in an additional subfamily, or be made the
+  representative of a closely related family. The _Dichelestiidae_, on
+  account of their sometimes many-jointed first antennae, are referred
+  also to this tribe by Giesbrecht. (b) Isokerandria. "Swimming Podoplea
+  without genicullating first antennae in the male sex, and descendants
+  of such. First antennae of male and female almost always articulated
+  alike." To this tribe Giesbrecht assigns the families _Clausidiidae_,
+  _Corycaeidae_, _Oncaeidae_, _Lichomolgidae_, _Ergasilidae_,
+  _Bomolochidae_, _Clausiidae_, _Nereicolidae_. Here also must for the
+  time be placed the _Caligidae_, _Philichthyidae_ (_Philichthydae_ of
+  Vogt, Carus, Claus), _Lernaeidae_, _Chondracanthidae_,
+  _Sphaeronellidae_ (better known as _Choniostomatidae_, from H.J.
+  Hansen's remarkable study of the group), _Lernaeopodidae_,
+  _Herpyllobiidae_, _Entomolepidae_. For the distinguishing marks of all
+  these, the number of their genera and species, their habits and
+  transformations and dwellings, the reader must be referred to the
+  writings of specialists. Sars (1901) proposed seven
+  suborders--Calanoida, Harpacticoida, Cyclopoida, Notodelphoida,
+  Monstrilloida, Caligoida, Lernaeoida.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(The earlier memoirs of importance are cited in
+  Giesbrecht's _Monograph of Naples_, 1892); Canu, "Hersiliidae," _Bull.
+  Sci. France belgique_, ser. 3, vol. i. p. 402 (1888); and _Les
+  Copépodes du Boulonnais_ (1892); Cuenot, _Rev. biol. Nord France_,
+  vol. v. (1892); Giesbrecht, "Pelag. Copepoden." _F. u. fl. des Golfes
+  von Neapel_ (Mon. 19, 1892); Hansen, _Entomol. Med._ vol. iii. pt. 5
+  (1892); I.C. Thompson, "Copepoda of Liverpool Bay," _Trans. Liv. Biol.
+  Soc._ vol. vii. (1893); Schmeil, "Deutschlands Copepoden,"
+  _Bibliotheca zoologica_ (1892-1897); Brady, _Journ. R. Micr. Soc._ p.
+  168 (1894); T. Scott, "Entomostraca from the Gulf of Guinea," _Trans.
+  Linn. Soc. London_, vol. vi. pt. 1 (1894); Giesbrecht, _Mitteil. Zool.
+  Stat. Neapel_, vol. xi. p. 631; vol. xii. p. 217 (1895); T. and A.
+  Scott, _Trans. Linn. Soc. London_, ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 419 (1896);
+  Hansen "Choniostomatidae" (1897); Sars, _Proc. Mus. Zool. St
+  Petersburg_, "Caspian Entomostraca" (1897); Giesbrecht and Schmeil,
+  "Copepoda gymnoplea," _Das Tierreich_ (1898); Giesbrecht,
+  "Asterocheriden," _F. u. fl. Neapel_ (Mon. 25, 1899); Bassett-Smith,
+  "Copepoda on Fishes," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, p. 438 (1899); Brady,
+  _Trans. Zool. Soc. London_, vol. xv. pt. 2, p. 31 (1899); Sars, _Arch.
+  Naturv._ vol. xxi. No. 2 (1899); Giesbrecht, _Mitteil. Zool. Stat.
+  Neapel_, vol. xiv. p. 39 (1900); Scott, "Fish Parasites," _Scottish
+  Fishery Board_, 18th Ann. Rep. p. 144 (1900); Stebbing, _Willey's
+  Zool. Results_, pt. 5, p. 664 (1900); Embleton, _Journ. Linn. Soc.
+  London_, vol. xxviii. p. 211 (1901); Sars, _Crustacea of Norway_, vol.
+  iv. (1901).     (T. R. R. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ENTRAGUES, CATHERINE HENRIETTE DE BALZAC D' (1579-1633), marquise de
+Verneuil, mistress of Henry IV., king of France, was the daughter of
+Charles Balzac d'Entragues and of Marie Touchet, mistress of Charles IX.
+Ambitious and intriguing, she succeeded in inducing Henry IV. to promise
+to marry her after the death of Gabrielle d'Estrées, a promise which led
+to bitter scenes at court when shortly afterwards Henry married Marie
+de' Medici. She carried her spite so far as to be deeply compromised in
+the conspiracy of Marshal Biron against the king in 1606, but escaped
+with a slight punishment, and in 1608 Henry actually took her back into
+favour again. She seems then to have been involved in the Spanish
+intrigues which preceded the death of the king in 1610.
+
+  See H. de la Ferrière, _Henri IV. le roi, l'amoureux_ (Paris, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+ENTRECASTEAUX, JOSEPH-ANTOINE BRUNI D' (1739-1793), French navigator,
+was born at Aix in 1739. At the age of fifteen he entered the navy. In
+the war of 1778 he commanded a frigate of thirty-two guns, and by his
+clever seamanship was successful in convoying a fleet of merchant
+vessels from Marseilles to the Levant, although they were attacked by
+two pirate vessels, each of which was larger than his own ship. In 1785
+he was appointed to the command of the French fleet in the East Indies,
+and two years later he was named governor of the Mauritius and the Isle
+of Bourbon. While in command of the East India fleet he made a voyage to
+China, an achievement which, in 1791, led the French government to
+select him to command an expedition which it was sending out to seek
+some tidings of the unfortunate La Pérouse, of whom nothing had been
+heard since February 1788. Rear-admiral d'Entrecasteaux's expedition
+comprised the "Recherche" and "L'Esperance," with Captain Huon de
+Kermadec as second in command. No tidings were obtained of the missing
+navigator, but in the course of his search Entrecasteaux made important
+geographical discoveries. He traced the outlines of the eastern coast of
+New Caledonia, made extensive surveys round the Tasmanian coast, and
+touched at several places on the south coast of New Holland. The two
+ships entered Storm Bay, Tasmania, on the 21st of April 1792, and
+remained there until the 16th of May, surveying and naming the
+d'Entrecasteaux Channel, the entrances to the Huon and Derwent rivers,
+Bruni Island, Recherche Bay, Port Esperance and various other
+localities. Excepting the name of the river Derwent (originally called
+Riviere du Nord by its French discoverers), these foregoing appellations
+have been retained. Leaving Tasmania the expedition sailed northward for
+the East Indies, and while coasting near the island of Java,
+Entrecasteaux was attacked by scurvy and died on the 20th of July 1793.
+
+
+
+
+ENTRE MINHO E DOURO (popularly called _Minho_), a former province of
+Northern Portugal; bounded on the N. by Galicia in Spain, E. by
+Traz-os-Montes, S. by Beira and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900)
+1,170,361; area 2790 sq. m. Though no longer officially recognized, the
+old provincial name remains in common use. The coast-line of Entre Minho
+e Douro is level and unbroken except by the estuaries of the main
+rivers; inland, the elevation gradually increases towards the north and
+east, where several mountain ranges mark the frontier. Of these, the
+most important are the Serra da Peneda (4728 ft.), between the rivers
+Minho and Limia; the Serra do Gerez (4357 ft.), on the Galician border;
+the Serra da Cabreira (4021 ft.), immediately to the south; and the
+Serra de Marão (4642 ft.), in the extreme south-east. As its name
+implies, the province is bounded by two great rivers, the Douro (q.v.)
+on the south, and the Minho (Spanish _Miño_) on the north; but a small
+tract of land south of the Douro estuary is included also within the
+provincial boundary. There are three other large rivers which, like the
+Minho, flow west-south-west into the Atlantic. The Limia or Antela
+(Spanish _Linia_) rises in Galicia, and reaches the sea at Vianna do
+Castello; the Cavado springs from the southern foot hills of La Raya
+Seca, on the northern frontier of Traz-os-Montes, and forms, at its
+mouth, the small harbour of Espozende; and the Ave descends from its
+sources in the Serra da Cabreira to Villa do Conde, where it enters the
+Atlantic. A large right-hand tributary of the Douro, the Tamega, rises
+in Galicia, and skirts the western slopes of the Serra de Marão.
+
+The climate is mild, except among the mountains, and such plants as
+heliotrope, fuchsias, palms, and aloes thrive in the open throughout the
+year. Wheat and maize are grown on the plains, and other important
+products are wine, fruit, olives and chestnuts. Fish abound along the
+coast and in the main rivers; timber is obtained from the mountain
+forests, and dairy-farming and the breeding of pigs and cattle are
+carried on in all parts. As the province is occupied by a hardy and
+industrious peasantry, and the density of population (419.5 per sq. m.)
+is more than twice that of any other province on the Portuguese
+mainland, the soil is very closely cultivated. The methods and
+implements of the farmers are, however, most primitive, and at the
+beginning of the 20th century it was not unusual to see a mule, or even
+a woman, harnessed with the team of oxen to an old-fashioned wooden
+plough. Small quantities of coal, iron, antimony, lead and gold are
+mined; granite and slate are quarried; and there are mineral springs at
+Monção (pop. 2283) on the Minho. The Oporto-Corunna railway traverses
+the western districts and crosses the Spanish frontier at Tuy; its
+branch lines give access to Braga, Guimarães and Povoa de Varzim; and
+the Oporto-Salamanca railway passes up the Douro valley. The greater
+part of the north and west can only be reached by road, and even the
+chief highways are ill-kept. In these regions the principal means of
+transport is the springless wooden cart, drawn by one or more of the
+tawny and under-sized but powerful oxen, with immense horns and
+elaborately carved yoke, which are characteristic of northern Portugal.
+For administrative purposes the province is divided into three
+districts: Vianna do Castello in the north, Braga in the centre, Oporto
+in the south. The chief towns are separately described; they include
+Oporto (167,955), one of the greatest wine-producing cities in the
+world; Braga (24,202), the seat of an archbishop who is primate of
+Portugal; the seaports of Povoa de Varzim (12,623) and Vianna do
+Castello (9990); and Guimarães (9104), a place of considerable
+historical interest.
+
+
+
+
+ENTREPÔT (a French word, from the Lat. _interpositum_, that which is
+placed between), a storehouse or magazine for the temporary storage of
+goods, provisions, &c.; also a place where goods, which are not allowed
+to pass into a country duty free, are stored under the superintendence
+of the custom house authorities till they are re-exported. In a looser
+sense, any town which has a considerable distributive trade is called an
+_entrepôt_. The word is also used attributively to indicate the kind of
+trade carried on in such towns.
+
+
+
+
+ENTRE RIOS (Span. "between rivers"), a province of the eastern Argentine
+Republic, forming the southern part of a region sometimes described as
+the Argentine Mesopotamia, bounded N. by Corrientes, E. by Uruguay with
+the Uruguay river as the boundary line, S. by Buenos Aires and W. by
+Santa Fé, the Paraná river forming the boundary line with these two
+provinces. Pop. (1895) 292,019; (1905, est.) 376,600. The province has
+an area of 28,784 sq. m., consisting for the most part of an undulating,
+well-watered and partly-wooded plain, terminating in a low, swampy
+district of limited extent in the angle between the two great rivers.
+The great forest of Monteil occupies an extensive region in the N.,
+estimated at nearly one-fifth the area of the province. Its soil is
+exceptionally fertile and its climate is mild and healthy. The province
+is sometimes called the "garden of Argentina," which would probably be
+sufficiently correct had its population devoted as much energy to
+agriculture as they have to political conflict and civil war. Its
+principal industry is that of stock-raising, exporting live cattle,
+horses, hides, jerked beef, tinned and salted meats, beef extract,
+mutton and wool. Its agricultural products are also important, including
+wheat, Indian corn, barley and fruits. Lime, gypsum and firewood are
+also profitable items in its export trade. The Paraná and Uruguay rivers
+provide exceptional facilities for the shipment of produce and the Entre
+Rios railways, consisting of a trunk line running E. and W. across the
+province from Paraná to Concepción del Uruguay and several tributary
+branches, afford ample transportation facilities to the ports. Another
+railway line follows the Uruguay from Concordia northward into
+Corrientes. Entre Rios has been one of the most turbulent of the
+Argentine provinces, and has suffered severely from political disorder
+and civil war. Comparative quiet reigned from 1842 to 1870 under the
+autocratic rule of Gen. J.J. Urquiza. After his assassination in 1870
+these partizan conflicts were renewed for two or three years, and then
+the province settled down to a life of comparative peace, followed by an
+extraordinary development in her pastoral and agricultural industries.
+Among these is the slaughtering and packing of beef, the exportation of
+which has reached large proportions. The capital is Paraná, though the
+seat of government was originally located at Concepción del Uruguay, and
+was again transferred to that town during Urquiza's domination.
+Concepción del Uruguay, or Concepción (founded 1778), is a flourishing
+town and port on the Uruguay, connected by railway with an extensive
+producing region which gives it an important export trade, and is the
+seat of a national college and normal school. Its population was
+estimated at 9000 in 1905. Other large towns are Gualeguay and
+Gualeguaychú.
+
+
+
+
+ENVOY (Fr. _envoyé_, "sent"), a diplomatic agent of the second rank. The
+word _envoyé_ comes first into general use in this connexion in the 17th
+century, as a translation of the Lat. _ablegatus_ or _missus_ (see
+DIPLOMACY). Hence the word envoy is commonly used of any one sent on a
+mission of any sort.
+
+
+
+
+ENZIO (c. 1220-1272), king of Sardinia, was a natural son of the
+emperor Frederick II. His mother was probably a German, and his name,
+Enzio, is a diminutive form of the German _Heinrich_. His father had a
+great affection for him, and he was probably present at the battle of
+Cortenuova in 1237. In 1238 he was married, in defiance of the wishes of
+Pope Gregory IX., to Adelasia, widow of Ubaldo Visconti and heiress of
+Torres and Gallura in Sardinia. Enzio took at once the title of king of
+Torres and Gallura, and in 1243 that of king of Sardinia, but he only
+spent a few months in the island, and his sovereignty existed in name
+alone. In July 1239 he was appointed imperial vicegerent in Italy, and
+sharing in his father's excommunication in the same year, took a
+prominent part in the war which broke out between the emperor and the
+pope. He commenced his campaign by subduing the march of Ancona, and in
+May 1241 was in command of the forces which defeated the Genoese fleet
+at Meloria, where he seized a large amount of booty and captured a
+number of ecclesiastics who were proceeding to a council summoned by
+Gregory to Rome. Later he fought in Lombardy. In 1248 he assisted
+Frederick in his vain attempt to take Parma, but was wounded and taken
+prisoner by the Bolognese at Fossalta on the 26th of May 1249. His
+captivity was a severe blow to the Hohenstaufen cause in Italy, and was
+soon followed by the death of the emperor. He seems to have been well
+treated by the people of Bologna, where he remained a captive until his
+death on the 14th of March 1272. He was apparently granted a magnificent
+funeral, and was buried in the church of St Dominic at Bologna. During
+his imprisonment Enzio is said to have been loved by Lucia da Viadagola,
+a well-born lady of Bologna, who shared his captivity and attempted to
+procure his release. Some doubt has, however, been cast upon this story,
+and the same remark applies to another which tells how two friends had
+almost succeeded in freeing him from prison concealed in a wine-cask,
+when he was recognized by a lock of his golden hair. His marriage with
+Adelasia had been declared void by the pope in 1243, and he left one
+legitimate, and probably two illegitimate daughters. Enzio forms the
+subject of a drama by E.B.S. Raupach and of an opera by A.F.B. Dulk.
+
+  See F.W. Grossman, _König Enzio_ (Göttingen, 1883); and H. Blasius,
+  _König Enzio_ (Breslau, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+ENZYME (Gr. [Greek: enzymos], leavened, from [Greek: en], in, and
+[Greek: zymê], leaven), a term, first suggested by Kühne, for an
+unorganized ferment (see FERMENTATION), a group of substances, in the
+constitution of plants and animals, which decompose certain carbon
+compounds occurring in association with them. See also PLANTS:
+_Physiology_; NUTRITION, &c.
+
+
+
+
+EOCENE (Gr. [Greek: êôs], dawn, [Greek: kainos], recent), in geology,
+the name suggested by Sir C. Lyell in 1833 for the lower subdivision of
+the rocks of the Tertiary Era. The term was intended to convey the idea
+that this was the period which saw the dawn of the recent or existing
+forms of life, because it was estimated that among the fossils of this
+period only 3½% of the species are still living. Since Lyell's time much
+has been learned about the fauna and flora of the period, and many
+palaeontologists doubt if any of the Eocene _species_ are still extant,
+unless it be some of the lowest forms of life. Nevertheless the name is
+a convenient one and is in general use. The Eocene as originally defined
+was not long left intact, for E. Beyrich in 1854 proposed the term
+"Oligocene" for the upper portion, and later, in 1874, K. Schimper
+suggested "Paleocene" as a separate appellation for the lower portion.
+The Oligocene division has been generally accepted as a distinct period,
+but "Paleocene" is not so widely used.
+
+In north-western Europe the close of the Cretaceous period was marked
+by an extensive emergence of the land, accompanied, in many places, by
+considerable erosion of the Mesozoic rocks; a prolonged interval elapsed
+before a relative depression of the land set in and the first Eocene
+deposits were formed. The early Eocene formations of the
+London-Paris-Belgian basin were of fresh-water and brackish origin;
+towards the middle of the period they had become marine, while later
+they reverted to the original type. In southern and eastern Europe
+changes of sea-level were less pronounced in character; here the late
+Cretaceous seas were followed without much modification by those of the
+Eocene period, so rich in foraminiferal life. In many other regions, the
+great gap which separates the Tertiary from the Mesozoic rocks in the
+neighbourhood of London and Paris does not exist, and the boundary line
+is difficult to draw. Eocene strata succeed Cretaceous rocks without
+serious unconformity in the Libyan area, parts of Denmark, S.E. Alps,
+India, New Zealand and central N. America. The unconformity is marked in
+England, parts of Egypt, on the Atlantic coastal plain and in the
+eastern gulf region of N. America, as well as in the marine Eocene of
+western Oregon. The clastic Flysch formation of the Carpathians and
+northern Alps appears to be of Eocene age in the upper and Cretaceous in
+the lower part. The Eocene sea covered at various times a strip of the
+Atlantic coast from New Jersey southward and sent a great tongue or bay
+up the Mississippi valley; similar epicontinental seas spread over parts
+of the Pacific border, but the plains of the interior with the mountains
+on the west were meanwhile being filled with terrestrial and lacustrine
+deposits which attained an enormous development. This great extension of
+non-marine formations in the Eocene of different countries has
+introduced difficulties in the way of exact correlation; it is safer,
+therefore, in the present state of knowledge, to make no attempt to find
+in the Eocene strata of America and India, &c., the precise equivalent
+of subdivisions that have been determined with more or less exactitude
+in the London-Paris-Belgian area.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Eocene Rocks.]
+
+It is possible that in Eocene times there existed a greater continuity
+of the northern land masses than obtains to-day. Europe at that time was
+probably united with N. America through Iceland and Greenland; while on
+the other side, America may have joined Asia by the way of Alaska. On
+the other hand, the great central, mediterranean sea which stretched
+across the Eurasian continents sent an arm northward somewhere just east
+of the Ural mountains, and thus divided the northern land mass in that
+region. S. America, Australia and perhaps Africa _may_ have been
+connected more or less directly with the Antarctic continent.
+
+Associated, no doubt, with the crustal movements which closed the
+Cretaceous and inaugurated the Eocene period, there were local and
+intermittent manifestations of volcanic activity throughout the period.
+Diabases, gabbros, serpentines, soda-potash granites, &c., are found in
+the Eocene of the central and northern Apennines. Tuffs occur in the
+Veronese and Vicentin Alps--Ronca and Spelecco schists. Tuffs, basalts
+and other igneous rocks appear also in Montana, Wyoming, California,
+Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Colorado; also in Central America, the
+Antillean region and S. America.
+
+It has been very generally assumed by geologists, mainly upon the
+evidence of plant remains, that the Eocene period opened with a
+temperate climate in northern latitudes; later, as indicated by the
+London Clay, Alum Bay and Bournemouth beds, &c., the temperature appears
+to have been at least subtropical. But it should be observed that the
+frequent admixture of temperate forms with what are now tropical species
+makes it difficult to speak with certainty as to the degree of warmth
+experienced. The occurrence of lignites in the Eocene of the Paris
+basin, Tirol and N. America is worthy of consideration in this
+connexion. On the other hand, the coarse boulder beds in the lower
+Flysch have been regarded as evidence of local glaciation; this would
+not be inconsistent with a period of widespread geniality of climate, as
+is indicated by the large size of the nummulites and the dispersion of
+the marine Mollusca, but the evidence for glaciation is not yet
+conclusive.
+
+  _Eocene Stratigraphy._--In Britain, with the exception of the Bovey
+  beds (q.v.) and the leaf-bearing beds of Antrim and Mull, Eocene rocks
+  are confined to the south-eastern portion of England. They lie in the
+  two well-marked synclinal basins of London and Hampshire which are
+  conterminous in the western area (Hampshire, Berkshire), but are
+  separated towards the east by the denuded anticline of the Weald. The
+  strata in these two basins have been grouped in the following  manner:--
+
+                   _London Basin._               _Hampshire Basin._
+
+    Upper    Upper Bagshot Sands.          Headon Hill and Barton Sands.
+
+            / Middle Bagshot Beds and      Bracklesham Beds and leaf
+    Middle <    part of Lower Bagshot        beds of Bournemouth and
+            \   Beds.                        Alum Bay.
+
+            / Part of Lower Bagshot
+            |   Beds,  London  Clay,
+            |   Blackheath and Oldhaven    London Clay and the equivalent
+    Lower  <    Beds, Woolwich and           Bognor Beds, Woolwich
+            |   Reading Beds, Thanet         and Reading Beds.
+            \   Sands.
+
+  The Thanet sands have not been recognized in the Hampshire basin; they
+  are usually pale yellow and greenish sands with streaks of clay and at
+  the base; resting on an evenly denuded surface of chalk is a very
+  constant layer of green-coated, well-rounded chalk flint pebbles. It
+  is a marine formation, but fossils are scarce except in E. Kent, where
+  it attains its most complete development. The Woolwich and Reading
+  beds (see READING BEDS) contain both marine and estuarine fossils. In
+  western Kent, between the Woolwich beds and the London Clay are the
+  Oldhaven beds or Blackheath pebbles, 20 to 40 ft., made up almost
+  entirely of well-rounded flint pebbles set in sand; the fossils are
+  marine and estuarine. The London Clay, 500 ft. thick, is a marine
+  deposit consisting of blue or brown clay with sandy layers and
+  septarian nodules; its equivalent in the Hampshire area is sometimes
+  called the Bognor Clay, well exposed on the coast of Sussex. The
+  Bagshot, Bracklesham and Barton beds will be found briefly described
+  under those heads.
+
+  Crossing the English Channel, we find in northern France and Belgium a
+  series of deposits identified in their general characters with those
+  of England. The anticlinal ridge of the English Weald is prolonged
+  south-eastwards on to the continent, and separates the Belgian from
+  the French Eocene areas much as it separates the areas of London and
+  Hampshire; and it is clear that at the time of deposition all four
+  regions were intimately related and subject to similar variations of
+  marine and estuarine conditions. With a series of strata so variable
+  from point to point it is natural that many purely local phases should
+  have received distinctive names; in the Upper Eocene of the Paris
+  basin the more important formations are the highly fossiliferous
+  marine sands known as the "Sands of Beauchamp" and the local
+  fresh-water limestone, the "Calcaire de St Ouen." The Middle Eocene is
+  represented by the well-known "Calcaire grossier," about 90 ft. thick.
+  The beds in this series vary a good deal lithologically, some being
+  sandy, others marly or glauconitic; fossils are abundant. The Upper
+  Calcaire grossier or "Caillasses" is a fresh-water formation; the
+  middle division is marine; while the lower one is partly marine,
+  partly of fresh-water origin. The numerous quarries and mines for
+  building stone in the neighbourhood of Paris have made it possible to
+  acquire a very precise knowledge of this division, and many of the
+  beds have received trade names, such as "Rochette," "Roche," "Banc
+  franc," "Banc vert," "Cliquart," "Saint Nom;" the two last named are
+  dolomitic. Below these limestones are the nummulitic sands of Cuise
+  and Soissons. The Lower Eocene contains the lignitic plastic clay
+  (_argile plastique_) of Soissons and elsewhere; the limestones of
+  Rilly and Sézanne and the greenish glauconitic sands of Bracheux. The
+  relative position of the above formations with respect to those of
+  Belgium and England will be seen from the table of Eocene strata. The
+  Eocene deposits of southern Europe differ in a marked manner from
+  those of the Anglo-Parisian basin. The most important feature is the
+  great development of nummulitic limestone with thin marls and
+  nummulitic sandstones. The sea in which the nummulitic limestones were
+  formed occupied the site of an enlarged Mediterranean communicating
+  with similar waters right round the world, for these rocks are found
+  not only in southern Europe, including all the Alpine tracts, Greece
+  and Turkey and southern Russia, but they are well developed in
+  northern Africa, Asia Minor, Palestine, and they may be followed
+  through Persia, Baluchistan, India, into China, Tibet, Japan, Sumatra,
+  Borneo and the Philippines. The nummulitic limestones are frequently
+  hard and crystalline, especially where they have been subjected to
+  elevation and compression as in the Alpine region, 10,000 ft. above
+  the sea, or from 16,000, to 20,000 ft., in the central Asian plateau.
+  Besides being a widespread formation the nummulitic limestone is
+  locally several thousand feet thick.
+
+  While the foraminiferal limestones were being formed over most of
+  southern Europe, a series of clastic beds were in course of formation
+  in the Carpathians and the northern Alpine region, viz. the Flysch and
+  the Vienna sandstone. Some portions of this Alpine Eocene are coarsely
+  conglomeratic, and in places there are boulders of non-local rocks of
+  enormous dimensions included in the argillaceous or sandy matrix. The
+  occurrence of these large boulders together with the scarceness of
+  fossils has suggested a glacial origin for the formation; but the
+  evidence hitherto collected is not conclusive. C.W. von Gümbel has
+  classified the Eocene of the northern Alps (Bavaria, &c.) as  follows:--
+
+    Upper Eocene, Flysch and Vienna sandstone, with younger nummulitic
+                    beds and Häring group.
+
+    Middle  "     Kressenberg Beds, with older nummulitic beds.
+
+    Lower   "     Burberg Beds, Greensands with small nummulites.
+
+  The Häring group of northern Tirol contains lignite beds of some
+  importance. In the southern and S.E. Alps the following divisions are
+  recognized.
+
+    Upper Eocene, Macigno or Tassello--Vienna Sandstone, conglomerates,
+                    marls and shales.
+
+    Middle  "     Nummulitic limestones, three subdivisions.
+
+    Lower   "     Liburnian stage (or Proteocene), foraminiferal
+                    limestones with fresh-water intercalations at the top
+                    and bottom, the _Cosina_ beds, fresh-water in the
+                    middle of the series.
+
+  In the central and northern Apennines the Eocene strata have been
+  subdivided by Prof. F. Sacco into an upper Bartonian, a middle
+  Parisian and a lower Suessonian series. In the middle member are the
+  representatives of the Flysch and the Macigno. These Eocene strata are
+  upwards of 5500 ft. thick. In northern Africa the nummulitic
+  limestones and sandstones are widely spread; the lower portions
+  comprise the Libyan group and the shales of Esneh on the Nile
+  (Flandrien), the _Alveolina_ beds of Sokotra and others; the Mokattam
+  stage of Egypt is a representative of the later Eocene. Much of the N.
+  African Eocene contains phosphatic beds. In India strata of Eocene age
+  are extensively developed; in Sind the marine Ranikot beds, 1500 to
+  2000 ft., consisting of clays with gypsum and lignite, shales and
+  sandstones; these beds have, side by side with Eocene nummulites, a
+  few fossils of Cretaceous affinities. Above the Ranikot beds are the
+  massive nummulitic limestones and sandstones of the Kirthar group;
+  these are succeeded by the nummulitic limestones and shales at the
+  base of the Nari group. In the southern Himalayan region the
+  nummulitic phase of Eocene deposit is well developed, but there are
+  difficulties in fixing the line of demarcation between this and the
+  younger formations. The lower part of the Sirmur series of the Simla
+  district may belong to this period; it is subdivided into the Kasauli
+  group and the Dagshai group with the Subáthu group at the base.
+  Beneath the thick nummulitic Eocene limestone of the Salt Range are
+  shales and marls with a few coal seams. The marine Eocene rocks of N.
+  America are most extensively developed round the coast of the Gulf of
+  Mexico, whence they spread into the valley of the Mississippi and, as
+  a comparatively narrow strip, along the Atlantic coastal plain to New
+  Jersey.
+
+  The series in Alabama, which may be taken as typical of the Gulf coast
+  Eocene, is as  follows:--
+
+    Upper Jacksonian, White limestone of Alabama (and Vicksburg?).
+
+    Middle Claibornian, Claiborne series.
+                        Buhrstone series.
+
+    Lower, Chickasawan Sands and lignites.
+           Midwayan or Clayton formation, limestones.
+
+  The above succession is not fully represented in the Atlantic coast
+  states.
+
+  On the Pacific coast marine formations are found in California and
+  Oregon; such are the Tejon series with lignite and oil; the Escondido
+  series of S. California (7000 ft.), part of the Pascadero series of
+  the Santa Cruz Mountains; the Pulaski, Tyee, Arago and Coaledo
+  beds--with coals--in Oregon. In the Puget formation of Washington we
+  have a great series of sediments, largely of brackish water origin,
+  and in parts coal-bearing. The total thickness of this formation has
+  been estimated at 20,000 ft. (it may prove to be less than this), but
+  it is probable that only the lower portion is of Eocene age. The most
+  interesting of the N. American Eocene deposits are those of the Rocky
+  Mountains and the adjacent western plains, in Wyoming, Nevada,
+  Nebraska, Colorado, &c.; they are of terrestrial, lacustrine or
+  aeolian origin, and on this account and because they were not strictly
+  synchronous, there is considerable difficulty in placing them in their
+  true position in the time-scale. The main divisions or groups are
+  generally recognized as  follows:--
+
+                                                        Mammalian
+                                                        Zonal Forms.
+
+    Upper [1] Uinta Group, 800 ft. (? = Jacksonian)     _Diplacodon._
+                                                        _Telmatotherium._
+
+    Middle[2] Bridger Group, 2000 ft. (? = Claibornian) _Uintatherium._
+
+    Lower [3] Wind River Group, 800 ft.                 _Bathyopsis._
+          [4] Wasatch Group, 2000 ft. (? = Chickasawan) _Coryphodon._
+
+    Basal [5] Torrejon Group, 300 ft.                   _Pantolambda._
+          [6] Puerco Group, 500 to 1000 ft.             _Polymastodon._
+
+                [1] South of the Uinta Mts. in Utah.
+                [2] Fort Bridger Basin.
+                [3] Wind river in Wyoming.
+                [4] Wasatch Mts. in Utah.
+                [5] Torrejon in New Mexico.
+                [6] Puerco river, New Mexico.
+
+  The Fort Union beds of Canada and parts of Montana and N. Dakota are
+  probably the oldest Eocene strata of the Western Interior; they are
+  some 2000 ft. thick and possibly are equivalent to the Midwayan group.
+  But in these beds, as in those known as Arapahoe, Livingston, Denver,
+  Ohio and Ruby, which are now often classed as belonging to the upper
+  Laramie formation, it is safer to regard them as a transitional series
+  between the Mesozoic and Tertiary systems. There is, however, a marked
+  unconformity between the Eocene Telluride or San Miguel and Poison
+  Canyon formations of Colorado and the underlying Laramie rocks.
+
+  Many local aspects of Eocene rocks have received special names, but
+  too little is known about them to enable them to be correctly placed
+  in the Eocene series. Such are the Clarno formation (late Eocene) of
+  the John Day basin, Oregon, the Pinyon conglomerate of Yellowstone
+  Park, the Sphinx conglomerate of Montana, the Whitetail conglomerate
+  of Arizona, the Manti shales of Utah, the Mojave formation of S.
+  California and the Amyzon formation of Nevada.
+
+  Of the Eocene of other countries little is known in detail. Strata of
+  this age occur in Central and S. America (Patagonia-Megellanian
+  series--Brazil, Chile, Argentina), in S. Australia (and in the Great
+  Australian Bight), New Zealand, in Seymour Island near Graham Land in
+  the Antarctic Regions, Japan, Java, Borneo, New Guinea, Moluccas,
+  Philippines, New Caledonia, also in Greenland, Bear Island,
+  Spitzbergen and Siberia.
+
+_Organic Life of the Eocene Period._--As it has been observed above, the
+name Eocene was given to this period on the ground that in its fauna
+only a small percentage of _living_ species were present; this estimation
+was founded upon the assemblage of invertebrate remains in which, from
+the commencement of this period until the present day, there has been
+comparatively little change. The real biological interest of the period
+centres around the higher vertebrate types. In the marine mollusca the
+most noteworthy change is the entire absence of ammonoids, the group
+which throughout the Mesozoic era had taken so prominent a place, but
+disappeared completely with the close of the Cretaceous. Nautiloids were
+more abundant than they are at present, but as a whole the Cephalopods
+took a more subordinate part than they had done in previous periods. On
+the other hand, Gasteropods and Pelecypods found in the numerous shallow
+seas a very suitable environment and flourished exceedingly, and their
+shells are often preserved in a state of great perfection and in
+enormous numbers. Of the Gasteropod genera _Cerithium_ with its
+estuarine and lagoonal forms _Potamides_, _Potamidopsis_, &c., is very
+characteristic; _Rostellaria_, _Voluta_, _Fusus_, _Pleurotoma_, _Conus_,
+_Typhis_, may also be cited. _Cardium_, _Venericardia_, _Crassatella_,
+_Corbulomya_, _Cytherea_, _Lucina_, _Anomia_, _Ostrea_ are a few of the
+many Pelecypod genera. Echinoderms were represented by abundant
+sea-urchins, _Echinolampas_, _Linthia_, _Conoclypeus_, &c. Corals
+flourished on the numerous reefs and approximated to modern forms
+(_Trochosmilia_, _Dendrophyllia_). But by far the most abundant marine
+organisms were the foraminifera which flourished in the warm seas in
+countless myriads. Foremost among these are the _Nummulites_, which by
+their extraordinary numerical development and great size, as well as by
+their wide distribution, demand special recognition. Many other genera
+of almost equal importance as rock builders, lived at the same time:
+_Orthophragma_, _Operculina_, _Assilina_, _Orbitolites_, _Miliola_,
+_Alveolina_. Crustacea were fairly abundant (_Xanthopsis_, _Portunus_),
+and most of the orders and many families of modern insects were
+represented.
+
+When we turn to the higher forms of life, the reptiles and mammals,
+we find a remarkable contrast between the fauna of the Eocene and those
+periods which preceded and succeeded it. The great group of Saurian
+reptiles, whose members had held dominion on land and sea during most of
+the Mesozoic time, had completely disappeared by the beginning of the
+Eocene; in their place placental mammals made their appearance and
+rapidly became the dominant group. Among the early Eocene mammals no
+trace can be found of the numerous and clearly-marked orders with which
+we are familiar to-day; instead we find obscurely differentiated forms,
+which cannot be fitted without violence into any of the modern orders.
+The early placental mammals were generalized types (with certain
+non-placental characters) with potentialities for rapid divergence and
+development in the direction of the more specialized modern orders.
+Thus, the Creodonta foreshadowed the Carnivora, the Condylarthra
+presaged the herbivorous groups; but before the close of this period, so
+favourable were the conditions of life to a rapid evolution of types,
+that most of the great _orders_ had been clearly defined, though none of
+the Eocene _genera_ are still extant. Among the early carnivores were
+_Arctocyon_, _Palaeonictis_, _Amblyctonus_, _Hyaenodon_, _Cynodon_,
+_Provivera_, _Patriofelis_. The primitive dog-like forms did not appear
+until late in the period, in Europe; and true cats did not arrive until
+later, though they were represented by _Eusmilus_ in the Upper Eocene of
+France. The primitive ungulates (Condylarths) were generalized forms
+with five effective toes, exemplified in _Phenacodus_. The gross
+Amblypoda, with five-toed stumpy feet (_Coryphodon_), were prominent in
+the early Eocene; particularly striking forms were the _Dinoceratidae_,
+_Dinoceras_, with three pairs of horns or protuberances on its massive
+skull and a pair of huge canine teeth projecting downwards; _Tinoceras_,
+_Uintatherium_, _Loxophodon_, &c.; these elephantine creatures, whose
+remains are so abundant in the Eocene deposits of western America, died
+out before the close of the period. The divergence of the hoofed mammals
+into the two prominent divisions, the odd-toed and even-toed, began in
+this period, but the former did not get beyond the three-toed stage. The
+least differentiated of the odd-toed group were the Lophiodonts: tapirs
+were foreshadowed by _Systemodon_ and similar forms (_Palaeotherium_,
+_Paloplotherium_); the peccary-like _Hyracotherium_ was a forerunner of
+the horse, _Hyrochinus_ was a primitive rhinoceros. The evolution of the
+horse through such forms as _Hyracotherium_, _Pachynolophus_,
+_Eohippus_, &c., appears to have proceeded along parallel lines in
+Eurasia and America, but the true horse did not arrive until later.
+Ancestral deer were represented by _Dichobune_, _Amphitragulus_ and
+others, while many small hog-like forms existed (_Diplopus_, _Eohyus_,
+_Hyopotamus_, _Homacodon_). The primitive stock of the camel group
+developed in N. America in late Eocene time and sent branches into S.
+America and Eurasia. The edentates were very generalized forms at this
+period (Ganodonta); the rodents (Tillodontia) attained a large size for
+members of this group, e.g. _Tillotherium_. The Insectivores had Eocene
+forerunners, and the Lemuroids--probable ancestors of the apes--were
+forms of great interest, _Anaptomorphus_, _Microsyops_, _Heterohyus_,
+_Microchaerus_, _Coenopithecus_; even the Cetaceans were well
+represented by _Zeuglodon_ and others.
+
+  +--------------+-------------------------+----------------------+-------------------+---------------+------------------+------------------+
+  |              |                         |                      |                   | Mediterranean |                  |                  |
+  |              |                         |                      |                   |  regions and  |      Flysch      |                  |
+  |   Stages.    |      Paris Basin.       |       England.       |   Belgian Basin.  | Great Central |      Phase.      |  North America.  |
+  |              |                         |                      |                   |     sea.      |                  |                  |
+  +--------------+-------------------------+----------------------+-------------------+---------------+------------------+------------------+
+  | Bartonien.[1]| Limestone of Saint-Ouen.| Barton beds.         |                   |               |                  | Unita Group and  |
+  |              | Sands of Mortefontaine. |                      | Sands of Lede.    |               |                  |   Jacksonian.    |
+  |              | Sands of Beauchamp.     | Upper Bagshot sands. |                   |               |                  |                  |
+  |              | Sands of Auvers.        |                      |                   |               |                  |                  |
+  +--------------+-------------------------+----------------------+-------------------+               |                  |                  |
+  |              |                         | Bracklesham and      | Laekenien.        |               |                  | Bridger Group    |
+  | Lutétien.    | Calcaire grossier.      |   Bournemouth beds.  | Bruxellien.       |               |                  |   and            |
+  |              |                         | Lower Bagshot sands. | Panisélien.       |               | Upper part of the|   Claibornian.   |
+  +--------------+-------------------------+----------------------+-------------------+               |  Alpine Flysch   |                  |
+  | Yprésien.    | Nummulitic sands of     | Alum Bay leaf beds.  | Sands of Mons en  |               |  and Vienna and  | Wind River Group.|
+  |              |   Soissons and Sands of |                      |   Pévèle.         | Nummulitic    |  Carpathian      | Wasatch Group    |
+  |              |   Cuise and Aizy.       |                      | Flanders Clay.    |   limestones, |  sandstones.     |   and            |
+  |              |                         |                      |                   |   sandstones  |                  |                  |
+  +---+----------+                         |                      +-------------------+   and shales. |                  |                  |
+  |   |          |                         | London Clay.         |                   |               | Macigno of the   |                  |
+  | L |          |                         | Oldhaven beds.       | Upper Landénien   |               |   Apennines and  |                  |
+  | a | Sparna-  |                         |                      |   sands.          |               |   Maritime Alps. | Chickasawan.     |
+  | n |   cien.  | Plastic Clay and lignite| Woolwich and Reading |                   |               |                  |                  |
+  | d |          |   beds.                 |   beds.              | Sands of          |               |                  |                  |
+  | é |----------+-------------------------+----------------------+   Ostricourt.     |               |                  | Torrejon Group   |
+  | n |          | Limestones of Rilly and |                      |                   |               |                  |   and            |
+  | i |          |   Sézanne.              | Thanet sands.        | Landénien tuffeau.|               |                  |   Midwayan.      |
+  | e |Thanetien.| Sands of Rilly and      |                      |                   |               |                  |                  |
+  | n |          |   Bracheux.             |                      | Marls of Gelinden.|               |                  | Puerco Group.    |
+  |   |          |                         |                      |                   |               |                  |                  |
+  +---+----------+-------------------------+----------------------+-------------------+---------------+------------------+------------------+
+
+The non-placental mammals although abundant were taking a secondary
+place; _Didelphys_, the primitive opossum, is noteworthy on account of
+its wide geographical range.
+
+Among the birds, the large flightless forms, _Eupterornis_, _Gastornis_,
+were prominent, and many others were present, such as the ancestral
+forms of our modern gulls, albatrosses, herons, buzzards, eagles, owls,
+quails, plovers. Reptiles were poorly represented, with the exception of
+crocodilians, tortoises, turtles and some large snakes.
+
+The flora of the Eocene period, although full of interest, does not
+convey the impression of newness that is afforded by the fauna of the
+period. The reason for this difference is this: the newer flora had been
+introduced and had developed to a considerable extent in the Cretaceous
+period, and there is no sharp break between the flora of the earlier and
+that of the later period; in both we find a mixed assemblage--what we
+should now regard as tropical palms, growing side by side with
+mild-temperate trees. Early Eocene plants in N. Europe, oaks, willows,
+chestnuts (Castanea), laurels, indicate a more temperate climate than
+existed in Middle Eocene when in the Isle of Wight, Hampshire and the
+adjacent portions of the continent, palms, figs, cinnamon flourished
+along with the cactus, magnolia, sequoia, cypress and ferns. The late
+Eocene flora of Europe was very similar to its descendant in modern
+Australasia.
+
+  See A. de Lapparent, _Traité de géologie_, vol. iii. (5th ed., 1906),
+  which contains a good general account of the period, with numerous
+  references to original papers. Also R.B. Newton, _Systematic List of
+  the Frederick E. Edwards Collection of British Oligocene and Eocene
+  Mollusca in the British Museum_ (_Natural History_) (1891), pp.
+  299-325; G.D. Harris, "A Revision of our Lower Eocenes," _Proc.
+  Geologists' Assoc._ x., 1887-1888; W.B. Clark, "Correlation Papers:
+  Eocene" (1891), _U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. No. 83._ For more recent
+  literature consult _Geological Literature added to the Geological
+  Society's Library_, published annually by the society.     (J. A. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1]
+    Bartonien  from Barton, England.
+    Lutétien    "   Lutetia = Paris.
+    Yprésien    "   Ypres, Flanders.
+    Landénien   "   Landen, Belgium.
+    Thanetien   "   The Isle of Thanet.
+    Sparnacien  "   Sparnacum = Épernay.
+    Laekenien   "   Laeken, Belgium.
+    Bruxellien  "   Brussels.
+    Panisélien  "   Mont Panisel, near Mons.
+
+    Other names that have been applied to subdivisions of the Eocene not
+    included in the table are Parisien and Suessonien (Soissons); Ludien
+    (Ludes in the Paris basin) and Priabonien (Priabona in the Vicentine
+    Alps); Heersien (Heer near Maastricht) and Wemmelien (Wemmel,
+    Belgium); very many more might be mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+EON DE BEAUMONT, CHARLES GENEVIÈVE LOUISE AUGUSTE ANDRÉ TIMOTHÉE D'
+(1728-1810), commonly known as the CHEVALIER D'EON, French political
+adventurer, famous for the supposed mystery of his sex, was born near
+Tonnerre in Burgundy, on the 7th of October 1728. He was the son of an
+advocate of good position, and after a distinguished course of study at
+the Collège Mazarin he became a doctor of law by special dispensation
+before the usual age, and adopted his father's profession. He began
+literary work as a contributor to Fréron's _Année littéraire_, and
+attracted notice as a political writer by two works on financial and
+administrative questions, which he published in his twenty-fifth year.
+His reputation increased so rapidly that in 1755 he was, on the
+recommendation of Louis François, prince of Conti, entrusted by Louis
+XV. (who had originally started his "secret" foreign policy--i.e. by
+undisclosed agents behind the backs of his ministers--in favour of the
+prince of Conti's ambition to be king of Poland) with a secret mission
+to the court of Russia. It was on this occasion that he is said for the
+first time to have assumed the dress of a woman, with the connivance, it
+is supposed, of the French court.[1] In this disguise he obtained the
+appointment of reader to the empress Elizabeth, and won her over
+entirely to the views of his royal master, with whom he maintained a
+secret correspondence during the whole of his diplomatic career. After a
+year's absence he returned to Paris to be immediately charged with a
+second mission to St Petersburg, in which he figured in his true sex,
+and as brother of the reader who had been at the Russian court the year
+before. He played an important part in the negotiations between the
+courts of Russia, Austria and France during the Seven Years' War. For
+these diplomatic services he was rewarded with the decoration of the
+grand cross of St Louis. In 1759 he served with the French army on the
+Rhine as aide-de-camp to the marshal de Broglie, and was wounded during
+the campaign. He had held for some years previously a commission in a
+regiment of dragoons, and was distinguished for his skill in military
+exercises, particularly in fencing. In 1762, on the return of the duc de
+Nivernais, d'Eon, who had been secretary to his embassy, was appointed
+his successor, first as resident agent and then as minister
+plenipotentiary at the court of Great Britain. He had not been long in
+this position when he lost the favour of his sovereign, chiefly,
+according to his own account, through the adverse influence of Madame de
+Pompadour, who was jealous of him as a secret correspondent of the king.
+Superseded by count de Guerchy, d'Eon showed his irritation by denying
+the genuineness of the letter of appointment, and by raising an action
+against Guerchy for an attempt to poison him. Guerchy, on the other
+hand, had previously commenced an action against d'Eon for libel,
+founded on the publication by the latter of certain state documents of
+which he had possession in his official capacity. Both parties succeeded
+in so far as a true bill was found against Guerchy for the attempt to
+murder, though by pleading his privilege as ambassador he escaped a
+trial, and d'Eon was found guilty of the libel. Failing to come up for
+judgment when called on, he was outlawed. For some years afterwards he
+lived in obscurity, appearing in public chiefly at fencing matches.
+During this period rumours as to the sex of d'Eon, originating probably
+in the story of his first residence at St Petersburg as a female, began
+to excite public interest. In 1774 he published at Amsterdam a book
+called _Les Loisirs du Chevalier d'Eon_, which stimulated gossip. Bets
+were frequently laid on the subject, and an action raised before Lord
+Mansfield in 1777 for the recovery of one of these bets brought the
+question to a judicial decision, by which d'Eon was declared a female. A
+month after the trial he returned to France, having received permission
+to do so as the result of negotiations in which Beaumarchais was
+employed as agent. The conditions were that he was to deliver up certain
+state documents in his possession, and to wear the dress of a female.
+The reason for the latter of these stipulations has never been clearly
+explained, but he complied with it to the close of his life. In 1784 he
+received permission to visit London for the purpose of bringing back his
+library and other property. He did not, however, return to France,
+though after the Revolution he sent a letter, using the name of Madame
+d'Eon, in which he offered to serve in the republican army. He continued
+to dress as a lady, and took part in fencing matches with success,
+though at last in 1796 he was badly hurt in one. He died in London on
+the 22nd of May 1810. During the closing years of his life he is said to
+have enjoyed a small pension from George III. A post-mortem examination
+of the body conclusively established the fact that d'Eon was a man.
+
+  The best modern accounts are in the duc de Broglie's _Le Secret du
+  roi_ (1888); Captain J. Buchan Telfer's _Strange Career of the
+  Chevalier d'Eon_ (1888); Octave Homberg and Fernand Jousselin, _Le
+  Chevalier d'Eon_ (1904); and A. Lang's _Historical Mysteries_ (1904).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] But see Lang's _Historical Mysteries_, pp. 241-242, where this
+    traditional account is discussed and rejected.
+
+
+
+
+EÖTVÖS, JÓZSEF, BARON (1813-1871), Hungarian writer and statesman, the
+son of Baron Ignacz Eötvös and the baroness Lilian, was born at Buda on
+the 13th of September 1813. After an excellent education he entered the
+civil service as a vice-notary, and was early introduced to political
+life by his father. He also spent many years in western Europe,
+assimilating the new ideas both literary and political, and making the
+acquaintance of the leaders of the Romantic school. On his return to
+Hungary he wrote his first political work, _Prison Reform_; and at the
+diet of 1839-1840 he made a great impression by his eloquence and
+learning. One of his first speeches (published, with additional matter,
+in 1841) warmly advocated Jewish emancipation. Subsequently, in the
+columns of the _Pesti Hirlap_, Eötvös disseminated his progressive ideas
+farther afield, his standpoint being that the necessary reforms could
+only be carried out administratively by a responsible and purely
+national government. The same sentiments pervade his novel _The Village
+Notary_ (1844-1846), one of the classics of the Magyar literature, as
+well as in the less notable romance _Hungary in 1514_, and the comedy
+_Long live Equality!_ In 1842 he married Anna Rosty, but his happy
+domestic life did not interfere with his public career. He was now
+generally regarded as one of the leading writers and politicians of
+Hungary, while the charm of his oratory was such that, whenever the
+archduke palatine Joseph desired to have a full attendance in the House
+of Magnates, he called upon Eötvös to address it. The February
+revolution of 1848 was the complete triumph of Eötvös' ideas, and he
+held the portfolio of public worship and instruction in the first
+responsible Hungarian ministry. But his influence extended far beyond
+his own department. Eötvös, Deák and Szechényi represented the pacific,
+moderating influence in the council of ministers, but when the premier,
+Batthyány, resigned, Eötvös, in despair, retired for a time to Munich.
+Yet, though withdrawn from the tempests of the War of Independence, he
+continued to serve his country with his pen. His _Influence of the
+Ruling Ideas of the 19th Century on the State_ (Pest, 1851-1854, German
+editions at Vienna and Leipzig the same year) profoundly influenced
+literature and public opinion in Hungary. On his return home, in 1851,
+he kept resolutely aloof from all political movements. In 1859 he
+published _The Guarantees of the Power and Unity of Austria_ (Ger. ed.
+Leipzig, same year), in which he tried to arrive at a compromise between
+personal union and ministerial responsibility on the one hand and
+centralization on the other. After the Italian war, however, such a
+halting-place was regarded as inadequate by the majority of the nation.
+In the diet of 1861 Eötvös was one of the most loyal followers of Deák,
+and his speech in favour of the "Address" (see DEÁK, FRANCIS) made a
+great impression at Vienna. The enforced calm which prevailed during the
+next few years enabled him to devote himself once more to literature,
+and, in 1866, he was elected president of the Hungarian academy. In the
+diets of 1865 and 1867 he fought zealously by the side of Deák, with
+whose policy he now completely associated himself. On the formation of
+the Andrássy cabinet (Feb. 1867) he once more accepted the portfolio of
+public worship and education, being the only one of the ministers of
+1848 who thus returned to office. He had now, at last, the opportunity
+of realizing the ideals of a lifetime. That very year the diet passed
+his bill for the emancipation of the Jews; though his further efforts in
+the direction of religious liberty were less successful, owing to the
+opposition of the Catholics. But his greatest achievement was the
+National Schools Act, the most complete system of education provided for
+Hungary since the days of Maria Theresa. Good Catholic though he was (in
+matters of religion he had been the friend and was the disciple of
+Montalembert), Eötvös looked with disfavour on the dogma of papal
+infallibility, promulgated in 1870, and when the bishop of Fehérvár
+proclaimed it, Eötvös cited him to appear at the capital _ad audiendum
+verbum regium_. He was a constant defender of the composition with
+Austria (_Ausgleich_), and during the absence of Andrássy used to
+preside over the council of ministers; but the labours of the last few
+years were too much for his failing health, and he died at Pest on the
+2nd of February 1871. On the 3rd of May 1879 a statue was erected to him
+at Pest in the square which bears his name.
+
+Eötvös occupied as prominent a place in Hungarian literature as in
+Hungarian politics. His peculiarity, both as a politician and as a
+statesman, lies in the fact that he was a true philosopher, a
+philosopher at heart as well as in theory; and in his poems and novels
+he clothed in artistic forms all the great ideas for which he contended
+in social and political life. The best of his verses are to be found in
+his ballads, but his poems are insignificant compared with his romances.
+It was _The Carthusians_, written on the occasion of the floods at Pest
+in 1838, that first took the public by storm. The Magyar novel was then
+in its infancy, being chiefly represented by the historico-epics of
+Jósiká. Eötvös first modernized it, giving prominence in his pages to
+current social problems and political aspirations. The famous _Village
+Notary_ came still nearer to actual life, while _Hungary in 1514_, in
+which the terrible Dozsa _Jacquerie_ (see DOZSA) is so vividly
+described, is especially interesting because it rightly attributes the
+great national catastrophe of Mohács to the blind selfishness of the
+Magyar nobility and the intense sufferings of the people. Yet, as
+already stated, all these books are written with a moral purpose, and
+their somewhat involved and difficult style is, nowadays at any rate, a
+trial to those who are acquainted with the easy, brilliant and lively
+novels of Jókai.
+
+  The best edition of Eötvös' collected works is that of 1891, in 17
+  vols. Comparatively few of his writings have been translated, but
+  there are a good English version (London, 1850) and numerous German
+  versions of _The Village Notary_, while _The Emancipation of the Jews_
+  has been translated into Italian and German (Pest, 1841-1842), and a
+  German translation of _Hungary in 1514_, under the title of _Der
+  Bauernkrieg in Ungarn_ was published at Pest in 1850.
+
+  See A. Bán, _Life and Art of Baron Joseph Eötvös_ (Hung.) (Budapest,
+  1902); Zoltan Ferenczi _Baron Joseph Eötvös_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1903)
+  [this is the best biography]; and M. Berkovics, _Baron Joseph Eotvos
+  and the French Literature_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1904).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+EPAMINONDAS (c. 418-362), Theban general and statesman, born about 418
+B.C. of a noble but impoverished family. For his education he was
+chiefly indebted to Lysis of Tarentum, a Pythagorean exile who had found
+refuge with his father Polymnis. He first comes into notice in the
+attack upon Mantineia in 385, when he fought on the Spartan side and
+saved the life of his future colleague Pelopidas. In his youth
+Epaminondas took little part in public affairs; he held aloof from the
+political assassinations which preceded the Theban insurrection of 379.
+But in the following campaigns against Sparta he rendered good service
+in organizing the Theban defence. In 371 he represented Thebes at the
+congress in Sparta, and by his refusal to surrender the Boeotian cities
+under Theban control prevented the conclusion of a general peace. In the
+ensuing campaign he commanded the Boeotian army which met the
+Peloponnesian levy at Leuctra, and by a brilliant victory on this site,
+due mainly to his daring innovations in the tactics of the heavy
+infantry, established at once the predominance of Thebes among the
+land-powers of Greece and his own fame as the greatest and most original
+of Greek generals. At the instigation of the Peloponnesian states which
+armed against Sparta in consequence of this battle, Epaminondas in 370
+led a large host into Laconia; though unable to capture Sparta he
+ravaged its territory and dealt a lasting blow at Sparta's predominance
+in Peloponnesus by liberating the Messenians and rebuilding their
+capital at Messene. Accused on his return to Thebes of having exceeded
+the term of his command, he made good his defence and was re-elected
+boeotarch. In 369 he forced the Isthmus lines and secured Sicyon for
+Thebes, but gained no considerable successes. In the following year he
+served as a common soldier in Thessaly, and upon being reinstated in
+command contrived the safe retreat of the Theban army from a difficult
+position. Returning to Thessaly next year at the head of an army he
+procured the liberation of Pelopidas from the tyrant Alexander of Pherae
+without striking a blow. In his third expedition (366) to Peloponnesus,
+Epaminondas again eluded the Isthmus garrison and won over the Achaeans
+to the Theban alliance. Turning his attention to the growing maritime
+power of Athens, Epaminondas next equipped a fleet of 100 triremes, and
+during a cruise to the Propontis detached several states from the
+Athenian confederacy. When subsequent complications threatened the
+position of Thebes in Peloponnesus he again mustered a large army in
+order to crush the newly formed Spartan league (362). After some
+masterly operations between Sparta and Mantineia, by which he nearly
+captured both these towns, he engaged in a decisive battle on the latter
+site, and by his vigorous shock tactics gained a complete victory over
+his opponents (see MANTINEIA). Epaminondas himself received a severe
+wound during the combat, and died soon after the issue was decided.
+
+His title to fame rests mainly on his brilliant qualities both as a
+strategist and as a tactician; his influence on military art in Greece
+was of the greatest. For the purity and uprightness of his character he
+likewise stood in high repute; his culture and eloquence equalled the
+highest Attic standard. In politics his chief achievement was the final
+overthrow of Sparta's predominance in the Peloponnese; as a constructive
+statesman he displayed no special talent, and the lofty pan-Hellenic
+ambitions which are imputed to him at any rate never found a practical
+expression.
+
+  Cornelius Nepos, _Vita Epaminondae_; Diodorus xv. 52-88; Xenophon,
+  _Hellenica_, vii.; L. Pomtow, _Das Leben des Epaminondas_ (Berlin,
+  1870); von Stein, _Geschichte der spartanischen und thebanischen
+  Hegemonie_ (Dorpat, 1884), pp. 123 sqq.; H. Swoboda in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopädie_, v. pt. 2 (Stuttgart, 1905), pp. 2674-2707; also
+  ARMY: _History_, § 6.     (M. O. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+EPARCH, an official, a governor of a province of Roman Greece, [Greek:
+eparchos], whose title was equivalent to, or represented that of the
+Roman _praefectus_. The area of his administration was called an eparchy
+([Greek: eparchia]). The term survives as one of the administrative
+units of modern Greece, the country being divided into nomarchies,
+subdivided into eparchies, again subdivided into demarchies (see GREECE:
+_Local Administration_). "Eparch" and "eparchy" are also used in the
+Russian Orthodox Church for a bishop and his diocese respectively.
+
+
+
+
+EPAULETTE (a French word, from _épaule_, a shoulder), properly a
+shoulder-piece, and so applied to the shoulder-knot of ribbon to which a
+scapulary was attached, worn by members of a religious order. The
+military usage was probably derived from the metal plate (_épaulière_)
+which protected the shoulder in the defensive armour of the 16th
+century. It was first used merely as a shoulder knot to fasten the
+baldric, and the application of it to mark distinctive grades of rank
+was begun in France at the suggestion, it is said, of Charles Louis
+Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle, in 1759. In modern times it always
+appears as a shoulder ornament for military and naval uniforms. At first
+it consisted merely of a fringe hanging from the end of the
+shoulder-strap or cord over the sleeve, but towards the end of the 18th
+century it became a solid ornament, consisting of a flat shoulder-piece,
+extended beyond the point of the shoulder into an oval plate, from the
+edge of which hangs a thick fringe, in the case of officers of gold or
+silver. The epaulette is worn in the British navy by officers above the
+rank of sub-lieutenant; in the army it ceased to be worn about 1855. It
+is worn by officers in the United States navy above the rank of ensign;
+since 1872 it is only worn by general officers in the army. In most
+other countries epaulettes are worn by officers, and in the French army
+by the men also, with a fringe of worsted, various distinctions of shape
+and colour being observed between ranks, corps and arms of the service.
+The "scale" is similar to the epaulette, but has no fringe.
+
+
+
+
+ÉPÉE, CHARLES-MICHEL, ABBÉ DE L' (1712-1789), celebrated for his
+labours in behalf of the deaf and dumb, was born at Paris on the 25th of
+November 1712, being the son of the king's architect. He studied for the
+church, but having declined to sign a religious formula opposed to the
+doctrines of the Jansenists, he was denied ordination by the bishop of
+his diocese. He then devoted himself to the study of law; but about the
+time of his admission to the bar of Paris, the bishop of Troyes granted
+him ordination, and offered him a canonry in his cathedral. This bishop
+died soon after, and the abbé, coming to Paris, was, on account of his
+relations with Soanen, the famous Jansenist, deprived of his
+ecclesiastical functions by the archbishop of Beaumont. About the same
+time it happened that he heard of two deaf mutes whom a priest lately
+dead had been endeavouring to instruct, and he offered to take his
+place. The Spaniard Pereira was then in Paris, exhibiting the results he
+had obtained in the education of deaf mutes; and it has been affirmed
+that it was from him that Épée obtained his manual alphabet. The abbé,
+however, affirmed that he knew nothing of Pereira's method; and whether
+he did or not, there can be no doubt that he attained far greater
+success than Pereira or any of his predecessors, and that the whole
+system now followed in the instruction of deaf mutes virtually owes its
+origin to his intelligence and devotion. In 1755 he founded, for this
+beneficent purpose, a school which he supported at his own expense until
+his death, and which afterwards was succeeded by the "Institution
+Nationale des Sourds Muets à Paris," founded by the National Assembly in
+1791. He died on the 23rd of December 1789. In 1838 a bronze monument
+was erected over his grave in the church of Saint Roch. He published
+various books on his method of instruction, but that published in 1784
+virtually supersedes all others. It is entitled _La Véritable Manière
+d'instruire les sourds et muets, confirmée par une longue expérience_.
+He also began a _Dictionnaire général des signes_, which was completed
+by his successor, the abbé Sicard.
+
+
+
+
+ÉPÉE-DE-COMBAT, a weapon still used in France for duelling, and there
+and elsewhere (blunted, of course) for exercise and amusement in fencing
+(q.v.). It has a sharp-pointed blade, about 35 in. long, without any
+cutting edge, and the guard, or shell, is bowl-shaped, having its
+convexity towards the point. The _épée_ is the modern representative of
+the small-sword, and both are distinguished from the older rapier,
+mainly by being several inches shorter and much lighter in weight. The
+small-sword (called thus in opposition to the heavy cavalry broadsword),
+was worn by gentlemen in full dress throughout the 18th century, and it
+still survives in the modern English court costume.
+
+Fencing practice was originally carried on without the protection of any
+mask for the face. Wire masks were not invented till near 1780 by a
+famous fencing-master, La Boëssière the elder, and did not come into
+general use until much later. Consequently, in order to avoid dangerous
+accidents to the face, and especially the eyes, it was long the rigorous
+etiquette of the fencing-room that the point should always be kept low.
+
+In the 17th century a Scottish nobleman, who had procured the
+assassination of a fencing-master in revenge for having had one of his
+eyes destroyed by the latter at sword-play, pleaded on his trial for
+murder that it was the custom to "spare the face."
+
+Rowlandson's well-known drawing of a fencing bout, dated 1787, shows two
+accomplished amateurs making a foil assault without masks, while in the
+background a less practised one is having a wire mask tied on.
+
+For greater safety the convention was very early arrived at that no hits
+should count in a fencing-bout except those landing on the breast. Thus
+sword-play soon became so unpractical as to lose much of its value as a
+training for war or the duel. For, hits with "sharps" take effect
+wherever they are made, and many an expert fencer of the old school has
+been seriously wounded, or lost his life in a duel, through forgetting
+that very simple fact.
+
+Strangely enough, when masks began to be generally worn, and the
+_fleuret_ (_anglice_, "foil," a cheap and light substitute for the real
+épée) was invented, fencing practice became gradually even more
+conventional than before. No one seems to have understood that with
+masks all the conventions could be safely done away with, root and
+branch, and sword-practice might assume all the semblance of reality.
+Nevertheless it should be clearly recognized that the basis of modern
+foil-fencing was laid with the épée or small-sword alone, in and before
+the days of Angelo, of Danet, and the famous chevalier de St George, who
+were among the first to adopt the fleuret also. All the illustrious
+French professors who came after them, such as La Boëssière the younger,
+Lafaugère, Jean Louis, Cordelois, Grisier, Bertrand and Robert, with
+amateurs like the baron d'Ezpeléta, were foil-players pure and simple,
+whose reputations were gained before the modern épée play had any
+recognized status. It was reserved for Jacob, a Parisian fencing-master,
+to establish in the last quarter of the 19th century a definite method
+of the épée, which differed essentially from all its forerunners. He was
+soon followed by Baudry, Spinnewyn, Laurent and Ayat. The methods of the
+four first-named, not differing much _inter se_, are based on the
+perception that in the real sword fight, where hits are effective on all
+parts of the person, the "classical" bent-arm guard, with the foil
+inclining upwards, is hopelessly bad. It offers a tempting mark in the
+exposed sword-arm itself, while the point requires a movement to bring
+it in line for the attack, which involves a fatal loss of time. The épée
+is really in the nature of a short lance held in one hand, and for both
+rapidity and precision of attack, as well as for the defence of the
+sword-arm and the body behind it, a position of guard _with the arm
+almost fully extended, and épée in line with the forearm_, is far the
+safest. Against this guard the direct lunge at the body is impossible,
+except at the risk of a mutual or double hit (_le coup des deux
+veuves_). No safe attack at the face or body can be made without first
+binding or beating, opposing or evading the adverse blade, and such an
+attack usually involves an initial forward movement. Beats and binds of
+the blade, with retreats of the body, or counter attacks with
+opposition, replace the old foil-parries in most instances, except at
+close quarters. And much of the offensive is reduced to thrusts at the
+wrist or forearm, intended to disable without seriously wounding the
+adversary. The direct lunge (_coup-droit_) at the body often succeeds in
+tournaments, but usually at the cost of a counter hit, which, though
+later in time, would be fatal with sharp weapons.
+
+Ayat's method, as might be expected from a first-class foil-player, is
+less simple. Indeed for years, too great simplicity marked the most
+successful épée-play, because it usually gained its most conspicuous
+victories over those who attempted a foil defence, and whose practice
+gave them no safe strokes for an attack upon the extended blade. But by
+degrees the épéists themselves discovered new ways of attacking with
+comparative safety, and at the present day a complete épée-player is
+master of a large variety of attractive as well as scientific movements,
+both of attack and defence.
+
+It was mainly by amateurs that this development was achieved. Perhaps
+the most conspicuous representative of the new school is J.
+Joseph-Renaud, a consummate swordsman, who has also been a champion
+foil-player. Lucien Gaudin, Alibert and Edmond Wallace may be also
+mentioned as among the most skilful amateurs, Albert Ayat and L. Bouché
+as professors--all of Paris. Belgium, Italy and England have also
+produced épéists quite of the first rank.
+
+The épée lends itself to competition far better than the foil, and the
+revival of the small-sword soon gave rise in France to "pools" and
+"tournaments" in which there was the keenest rivalry between all comers.
+
+In considering the épée from a British point of view, it may be
+mentioned that it was first introduced publicly in London by C.
+Newton-Robinson at an important assault-at-arms held in the Steinway
+Hall on the 4th May 1900. Professor Spinnewyn was the principal
+demonstrator, with his pupil, the late Willy Sulzbacher. The next day
+was held at the Inns of Court R. V. School of Arms, Lincoln's Inn, the
+first English open épée tournament for amateurs. It was won by W.
+Sulzbacher, C. Newton-Robinson being second, and Paul Ettlinger, a
+French resident in London, third. This was immediately followed by the
+institution of the Épée Club of London, which, under the successive
+residencies of a veteran swordsman, Sir Edward Jenkinson, and of Lord
+Desborough, subsequently held annual open international tournaments. The
+winners were: in 1901, Willy Sulzbacher; 1902, Robert Montgomerie; 1903,
+the marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat; 1904, J.J. Renaud; 1905, R.
+Montgomerie. In 1906 the Amateur Fencing Association for the first time
+recognized the best-placed Englishman, Edgar Seligman (who was the
+actual winner), as the English épée champion. In 1907 R. Montgomerie was
+again the winner, in 1908 C.L. Daniell, in 1909 R. Montgomerie.
+
+Among the most active of the English amateurs who were the earliest to
+perceive the wonderful possibilities of épée-play, it is right to
+mention Captain Hutton, Lord Desborough, Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon, Bart.,
+Sir Charles Dilke, Bart., Lord Howard de Walden, Egerton Castle, A.S.
+Cope, R.A., W.H.C. Staveley, C.F. Clay, Lord Morpeth, Evan James, Paul
+King, J.B. Cunliffe, John Norbury, Jr., Theodore A. Cook, John
+Jenkinson, R. Montgomerie, S. Martineau, E.B. Milnes, H.J. Law, R.
+Merivale, the Marquis of Dufferin, Hugh Pollock, R.W. Doyne, A.G. Ross,
+the Hon. Ivor Guest and Henry Balfour.
+
+Among foreign amateurs who did most to promote the use of the épée in
+England were Messrs P. Ettlinger, Anatole Paroissien, J. Joseph-Renaud,
+W. Sulzbacher, René Lacroix, H.G. Berger and the Marquis de
+Chasseloup-Laubat.
+
+Épée practice became popular among Belgian and Dutch fencers about the
+same time as in England, and this made it possible to set on foot
+international team-contests for amateurs, which have done much to
+promote good feeling and acquaintanceship among swordsmen of several
+countries. In 1903 a series of international matches between teams of
+six was inaugurated in Paris. Up to 1909 the French team uniformly won
+the first place, with Belgium or England second.
+
+English fencers who were members of these international teams were Lord
+Desborough, Theodore A. Cook, Bowden, Cecil Haig, J. Norbury, Jr., R.
+Montgomerie, John Jenkinson, F. Townsend, W.H.C. Staveley, S. Martineau,
+C.L. Daniell, W. Godden, Captain Haig, M.D.V. Holt, Edgar Seligman, C.
+Newton-Robinson, A.V. Buckland, P.M. Davson, E.M. Amphlett and L.V.
+Fildes. In 1906 a British épée team of four, consisting of Lord
+Desborough, Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon, Bart., Edgar Seligman and C.
+Newton-Robinson, with Lord Howard de Walden and Theodore Cook as
+reserves (the latter acting as captain of the team), went to Athens to
+compete in the international match at the Olympic games. After defeating
+the Germans rather easily, the team opposed and worsted the Belgians. It
+thus found itself matched against the French in the final, the Greek
+team having been beaten by the French and the Dutch eliminated by the
+Belgians. After a very close fight the result was officially declared a
+tie. This was the first occasion upon which an English fencing team had
+encountered a French one of the first rank upon even terms. In fighting
+off the tie, however, the French were awarded the first prize and the
+Englishmen the second.
+
+In the Olympic games of London, 1908, the Épée International Individual
+Tournament was won by Alibert (France), but Montgomerie, Haig and Holt
+(England) took the 4th, 5th, and 8th places in the final pool. The
+result of the International Team competition was also very creditable to
+the English representatives, Daniell, Haig, Holt, Montgomerie and
+Amphlett, who by defeating the Dutch, Germans, Danes and Belgians took
+second place to the French. Egerton Castle was captain of the English
+team.
+
+In open International Tournaments on the Continent, English épéists have
+also been coming to the front. None had won such a competition up to
+1909 outright, but the following had reached the final pool: C.
+Newton-Robinson, Brussels, 1901 (10th), Étretat, 1904 (6th); E.
+Seligman, Copenhagen, 1907 (2nd), and Paris, 1909 (12th); R.
+Montgomerie, Paris, 1909 (5th); and E.M. Amphlett, Paris, 1909 (10th).
+
+The method of ascertaining the victor in épée "tournaments" is by
+dividing the competitors into "pools," usually of six or eight fencers.
+Each of these fights an assault for first hit only, with every other
+member of the same pool, and he who is least often hit, or not at all,
+is returned the winner. If the competitors are numerous, fresh pools are
+formed out of the first two, three or four in each pool of the
+preliminary round, and so on, until a small number are left in for a
+final pool, the winner of which is the victor of the tournament.
+
+Épée fencing can be, and often is, conducted indoors, but one of its
+attractions consists in its fitness for open-air practice in pleasant
+gardens.
+
+In the use of the épée the most essential points are (1) the position of
+the sword-arm, which, whether fully extended or not, should always be so
+placed as to ensure the protection of the wrist, forearm and elbow from
+direct thrusts, by the intervention of the guard or shell; (2) readiness
+of the legs for _instant_ advance or retreat; and (3) the way in which
+the weapon is held, the best position (though hard to acquire and
+maintain) being that adopted by J.J. Renaud with the fingers _over_ the
+grip, so that a downward beat does not easily disarm.
+
+The play of individuals is determined by their respective temperaments
+and physical powers. But every fencer should be always ready to deliver
+a well-aimed, swift, direct thrust at any exposed part of the
+antagonist's arm, his mask or thigh. Very tall men, who are usually not
+particularly quick on their legs, should not as a rule attack, otherwise
+than by direct thrusts, when matched against shorter men. For if they
+merely extend their sword-arm in response to a simple attack, their
+longer reach will ward it off with a stop or counter-thrust. Short men
+can only attack them safely by beating, binding, grazing, pressing or
+evading the blade, and the taller fencers must be prepared with all the
+well-known parries and counters to such offensive movements, as well as
+with the stop-thrust to be made either with advancing opposition or with
+a retreat. Fencers of small stature must be exceedingly quick on their
+feet, unless they possess the art of parrying to perfection, and even
+then, if slow to shift ground, they will continually be in danger. With
+plenty of room, the quick mover can always choose the moment when he
+will be within distance, for an attack which his slower opponent will be
+always fearing and unable to prevent or anticipate.
+
+It is desirable to put on record the modern form of the weapon. An
+average épée weighs, complete, about a pound and a half, while a foil
+weighs approximately one-third less. The épée blade is exactly like that
+of the old small-sword after the abandonment of the "_colichemarde_"
+form, in which the "_forte_" of the blade was greatly thickened. In
+length from guard or shell to point it measures about 35 in., and in
+width at the shell about 13/16ths of an inch. From this it gradually and
+regularly tapers to the point. There is no cutting edge. The side of the
+épée which is usually held uppermost is slightly concave, the other is
+strengthened with a midrib, nearly equal in thickness and similar in
+shape to either half of the true blade. The material is tempered steel.
+There is a haft or tang about 8 in. long, which is pushed through a
+circular guard or shell ("_coquille_") of convex form, the diameter of
+which is normally 5 in. and the convexity 1¾ in. The shell is of steel
+or aluminium, and if of the latter metal, sometimes fortified at the
+centre with a disk of steel the size of a crown piece. The insertion of
+the haft or tang through the shell may be either central or excentric to
+the extent of about 1 in., for the better protection of the outside of
+the forearm.
+
+After passing through the shell, the haft of the blade is inserted in a
+grip or handle ("_poignet_"), averaging 7 in. in length and of
+quadrangular section, which is made of tough wood covered with leather,
+india-rubber, wound cord or other strong material with a rough surface.
+The grip is somewhat wider than its vertical thickness when held in the
+usual way, and it diminishes gradually from shell to pommel for
+convenience of holding. It should have a slight lateral curvature, so
+that in executing circular movements the pommel is kept clear of the
+wrist. The pommel, usually of steel, is roughly spherical or
+eight-sided, and serves as a counterbalance. The end of the haft is
+riveted through it, except in the case of "_épées démontables_," which
+are the most convenient, as a blade may be changed by simply unscrewing
+or unlocking the pommel.
+
+An épée is well balanced and light in hand when, on poising the blade
+across the forefinger, about 1 in. in advance of the shell, it is in
+equilibrium.
+
+For practice, the point is blunted to resemble the flat head of a nail,
+and is made still more incapable of penetration by winding around it a
+small ball of waxed thread, such as cobblers use. This is called the
+"button." In competitions various forms of "_boutons marqueurs_," all of
+which are unsatisfactory, are occasionally used. The "_pointe d'arrêt_,"
+like a small tin-tack placed head downwards on the flattened point of
+the épée, and fastened on by means of the waxed thread, is, on the
+contrary, most useful, by fixing in the clothes, to show where and when
+a good hit has been made. The point need only protrude about 1/16th of
+an inch from the button. There are several kinds of pointes d'arrêt. The
+best is called, after its inventor, the "Léon Sazie," and has three
+blunt points of hardened steel each slightly excentric. The single point
+is sometimes prevented by the thickness of the button from scoring a
+good hit.
+
+A mask of wire netting is used to protect the face, and a stout glove on
+the sword hand. It is necessary to wear strong clothes and to pad the
+jacket and trousers at the most exposed parts, in case the blade should
+break unnoticed. A vulnerable spot, which ought to be specially padded,
+is just under the sword-arm.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the older works on the history and practice of
+  the small-sword, or épée, are the following:--_The Scots
+  Fencing-Master, or Compleat Small-swordsman_, by W.H. Gent (Sir
+  William Hope, afterwards baronet) (Edinburgh, 1687), and several other
+  works by the same author, of later date, for which see _Schools and
+  Masters of Fence_, by Egerton Castle; _Nouveau traité de la perfection
+  sur le fait des armes_, by P.G.F. Girard (Paris, 1736); _L'École des
+  armes_, by M. Angelo (London, 1763); _L'Art des armes_, by M. Danet (2
+  vols., Paris, 1766-1767); _Nouveau traité de l'art des armes_, by
+  Nicolas Demeuse (Liège, 1778).
+
+  More modern are: _Traité de l'art des armes_, by la Böessière, Jr.
+  (Paris, 1818); _Les Armes et le duel_, by A. Grisier (2nd ed., Paris,
+  1847); _Les Secrets de l'épée_, by the baron de Bazancourt (Paris,
+  1862); _Schools and Masters of Fence_, by Egerton Castle (London,
+  1885); _Le Jeu de l'épée_, by J. Jacob and Émil André (Paris, 1887);
+  _L'Escrime pratique au XIX^e siècle_, by Ambroise Baudry (Paris);
+  L'Escrime a l'épée, by A. Spinnewyn and Paul Manonry (Paris, 1898);
+  _The Sword and the Centuries_, by Captain Hutton (London,1901); "The
+  Revival of the Small-sword," by C. Newton-Robinson, in the _Nineteenth
+  Century and After_ (London, January 1905); _Nouveau Traité de l'épée_,
+  by Dr Edom, privately published (Paris, 1908); and, most important of
+  all, _Méthode d'escrime à l'épée_, by J. Joseph-Renaud, privately
+  published (Paris, 1909).     (C. E. N. R.)
+
+
+
+
+EPERJES, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Sáros, 190 m. N.E.
+of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,098. It is situated on the left bank
+of the river Tarcza, an affluent of the Theiss, and has been almost
+completely rebuilt since a great fire in 1887. Eperjes is one of the
+oldest towns of Hungary, and is still partly surrounded by its old
+walls. It is the seat of a Greek-Catholic bishop, and possesses a
+beautiful cathedral built in the 18th century in late Gothic style. It
+possesses manufactures of cloth, table-linen and earthenware, and has an
+active trade in wine, linen, cattle and grain. About 2 m. to the south
+is Sóvár with important salt-works.
+
+In the same county, 28 m. by rail N. of Eperjes, is situated the old
+town of _Bártfa_ (pop. 6098), which possesses a Gothic church from the
+14th century, and an interesting town-hall, dating from the 15th
+century, and containing very valuable archives. In its neighbourhood,
+surrounded by pine forests, are the baths of Bártfa, with twelve mineral
+springs--iodate, ferruginous and alkaline--used for bathing and
+drinking.
+
+About 6 m. N.W. of Eperjes is situated the village of Vörösvágás, which
+contains the only opal mine in Europe. The opal was mined here 800 years
+ago, and the largest piece hitherto found, weighing 2940 carats and
+estimated to have a value of £175,000, is preserved in the Court Museum
+at Vienna.
+
+Eperjes was founded about the middle of the 12th century by a German
+colony, and was elevated to the rank of a royal free town in 1347 by
+Louis I. (the Great). It was afterwards fortified and received special
+privileges. The Reformation found many early adherents here, and the
+town played an important part during the religious wars of the 17th
+century. It became famous by the so-called "butchery of Eperjes," a
+tribunal instituted by the Austrian general Caraffa in 1687, which
+condemned to death and confiscated the property of a great number of
+citizens accused of Protestantism. During the 16th and the 17th
+centuries its German educational establishments enjoyed a wide
+reputation.
+
+
+
+
+ÉPERNAY, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Marne, 88 m. E.N.E. of Paris on the main line of the
+Eastern railway to Châlons-sur-Marne. Pop. (1906) 20,291. The town is
+situated on the left bank of the Marne at the extremity of the pretty
+valley of the Cubry, by which it is traversed. In the central and oldest
+quarter the streets are narrow and irregular; the surrounding suburbs
+are modern and more spacious, and that of La Folie, on the east,
+contains many handsome villas belonging to rich wine merchants. The town
+has also extended to the right bank of the Marne. One of its churches
+preserves a portal and stained-glass windows of the 16th century, but
+the other public buildings are modern. Épernay is best known as the
+principal _entrepôt_ of the Champagne wines, which are bottled and kept
+in extensive vaults in the chalk rock on which the town is built. The
+manufacture of the apparatus and material used in the champagne industry
+occupies many hands, and the Eastern Railway Company has important
+workshops here. Brewing, and the manufacture of sugar and of hats and
+caps, are also carried on. Épernay is the seat of a sub-prefect and has
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and communal colleges for
+girls and boys.
+
+Épernay (_Sparnacum_) belonged to the archbishops of Reims from the 5th
+to the 10th century, at which period it came into the possession of the
+counts of Champagne. It suffered severely during the Hundred Years' War,
+and was burned by Francis I. in 1544. It resisted Henry of Navarre in
+1592, and Marshal Biron fell in the attack which preceded its capture.
+In 1642 it was, along with Château-Thierry, erected into a duchy and
+assigned to the duke of Bouillon.
+
+
+
+
+ÉPERNON, a town of northern France in the department of Eure-et-Loir, at
+the confluence of the Drouette and the Guesle, 17 m. N.E. of Chartres by
+rail. Pop. (1906) 2370. It belonged originally to the counts of
+Montfort, who, in the 11th century, built a castle here of which the
+ruins are still left, and granted a charter to the town. In the 13th
+century it became an independent lordship, which remained attached to
+the crown of Navarre till, in the 16th century, it was sold by King
+Henry (afterwards King Henry IV. of France) to Jean Louis de Nogaret,
+for whom it was raised to the rank of a duchy in 1581. The new duke of
+Épernon was one of the favourites of Henry III., who were called _les
+Mignons_; the king showered favours upon him, giving him the posts of
+colonel-general in the infantry and of admiral of France. Under the
+reign of Henry IV. he made himself practically independent in his
+government of Provence. He was instrumental in giving the regency to
+Marie de' Medici in 1610, and as a result exercised a considerable
+influence upon the government. During his governorship of Guienne in
+1622 he had some scandalous scenes with the parlement and the archbishop
+of Bordeaux. He died in 1642. His eldest son, Henri de Nogaret de la
+Valette, duke of Candale, served under Richelieu, in the armies of
+Guienne, of Picardy and of Italy. The second son of Jean Louis de
+Nogaret, Bernard, who was born in 1592, and died in 1661, was, like his
+father, duke of Épernon, colonel-general in the infantry and governor of
+Guienne. After his death, the title of duke of Épernon was borne by the
+families of Goth and of Pardaillan.
+
+
+
+
+EPHEBEUM (from Gr. [Greek: ephêbos], a young man), in architecture, a
+large hall in the ancient Palaestra furnished with seats (Vitruvius v.
+11), the length of which should be a third larger than the width. It
+served for the exercises of youths of from sixteen to eighteen years of
+age.
+
+
+
+
+EPHEBI (Gr. [Greek: epi], and [Greek: hêbê], i.e. "those who have
+reached puberty"), a name specially given, in Athens and other Greek
+towns, to a class of young men from eighteen to twenty years of age, who
+formed a sort of college under state control. On the completion of his
+seventeenth year the Athenian youth attained his civil majority, and,
+provided he belonged to the first three property classes and passed the
+scrutiny ([Greek: dokimasia]) as to age, civic descent and physical
+capability, was enrolled on the register of his deme ([Greek:
+lêxiarchikon grammateion]). He thereby at once became liable to the
+military training and duties, which, at least in the earliest times,
+were the main object of the Ephebia. In the time of Aristotle the names
+of the enrolled ephebi were engraved on a bronze pillar (formerly on
+wooden tablets) in front of the council-chamber. After admission to the
+college, the ephebus took the oath of allegiance, recorded in Pollux and
+Stobaeus (but not in Aristotle), in the temple of Aglaurus, and was sent
+to Munychia or Acte to form one of the garrison. At the end of the first
+year of training, the ephebi were reviewed, and, if their performance
+was satisfactory, were provided by the state with a spear and a shield,
+which, together with the _chlamys_ (cloak) and _petasus_ (broad-brimmed
+hat), made up their equipment. In their second year they were
+transferred to other garrisons in Attica, patrolled the frontiers, and
+on occasion took an active part in war. During these two years they were
+free from taxation, and were not allowed (except in certain cases) to
+appear in the law courts as plaintiffs or defendants. The ephebi took
+part in some of the most important Athenian festivals. Thus during the
+Eleusinia they were told off to fetch the sacred objects from Eleusis
+and to escort the image of Iacchus on the sacred way. They also
+performed police duty at the meetings of the ecclesia.
+
+After the end of the 4th century B.C. the institution underwent a
+radical change. Enrolment ceased to be obligatory, lasted only for a
+year, and the limit of age was dispensed with. Inscriptions attest a
+continually decreasing number of ephebi, and with the admission of
+foreigners the college lost its representative national character. This
+was mainly due to the weakening of the military spirit and the progress
+of intellectual culture. The military element was no longer
+all-important, and the ephebia became a sort of university for
+well-to-do young men of good family, whose social position has been
+compared with that of the Athenian "knights" of earlier times. The
+institution lasted till the end of the 3rd century A.D.
+
+It is probable that the ephebia was in existence in the 5th century
+B.C., and controlled by the Areopagus and strategus as its moral and
+military supervisors. In the 4th century their place was taken by ten
+_sophronistae_ (one for each tribe), who, as the name implies, took
+special interest in the morals of those under them, their military
+training being in the hands of experts, of whom the chief were the
+_hoplomachus_, the _acontistes_, the _toxotes_ and the _aphetes_
+(instructors respectively in the use of arms, javelin-throwing, archery
+and the use of artillery engines). Later, the _sophronistae_ were
+superseded by a single official called _cosmetes_, elected for a year by
+the people, who appointed the instructors. When the ephebia instead of a
+military college became a university, the military instructors were
+replaced by philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians and artists. In
+Roman imperial times several new officials were introduced, one of
+special importance being the director of the Diogeneion, where youths
+under age were trained for the ephebia. At this period the college of
+ephebi was a miniature city; its members called themselves "citizens,"
+and it possessed an archon, strategus, herald and other officials, after
+the model of ancient Athens.
+
+  There is an extensive class of inscriptions, ranging from the 3rd
+  century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D., containing decrees relating to
+  the ephebi, their officers and instructors, and lists of the same, and
+  a whole chapter (42) of the Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_ is
+  devoted to the subject. The most important treatises on the subject
+  are: W. Dittenberger, _De ephebis Atticis_ (Göttingen, 1863); A.
+  Dumont, _Essai sur l'éphébie attique_ (1875-1876); L. Grasberger,
+  _Erziehung und Unterricht im klassichen Altertum_, iii. (Würzburg,
+  1881); J.P. Mahaffy, _Old Greek Education_ (1881); P. Girard,
+  _L'Éducation athénienne au V_^e _et IV_^e _siècle avant J.-C._ (2nd
+  ed., 1891), and article in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquités_ which contains further bibliographical references; G.
+  Gilbert, _The Constitutional Antiquities of Athens_ (Eng. tr., 1895);
+  G. Busolt, _Die griechischen Staats- und Rechtsaltertümer_ (1892); T.
+  Thalheim and J. Öhler in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie der
+  classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. pt. 2 (1905); W.W. Capes,
+  _University Life in Ancient Athens_ (1877).
+
+
+
+
+EPHEMERIS (Greek for a "diary"), a table giving for stated times the
+apparent position and other numerical particulars relating to a heavenly
+body. The _Astronomical Ephemeris_, familiarly known as the "Nautical
+Almanac," is a national annual publication containing ephemerides of the
+principal or more conspicuous heavenly bodies, elements and other data
+of eclipses, and other matter useful to the astronomer and navigator.
+The governments of the United Kingdom, United States, France, Germany
+and Spain publish such annals.
+
+
+
+
+EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. This book of the New Testament, the most
+general and least occasional and polemic of all the Pauline epistles, a
+large section of which seems almost like the literary elaboration of a
+theological topic, may best be described as a solemn oration, addressed
+to absent hearers, and intended not primarily to clarify their minds but
+to stir their emotions. It is thus a true letter, but in the grand
+style, verging on the nature not of an essay but a poem. _Ephesians_ has
+been called "the crown of St Paul's writings," and whether it be
+measured by its theological or its literary interest and importance, it
+can fairly dispute with _Romans_ the claim to be his greatest epistle.
+In the public and private use of Christians some parts of _Ephesians_
+have been among the most favourite of all New Testament passages. Like
+its sister Epistle to the Colossians, it represents, whoever wrote it,
+deep experience and bold use of reflection on the meaning of that
+experience; if it be from the pen of the Apostle Paul, it reveals to us
+a distinct and important phase of his thought.
+
+To the nature of the epistle correspond well the facts of its title and
+address. The title "To the Ephesians" is found in the Muratorian canon,
+in Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria, as well as in all the
+earliest MSS. and versions. Marcion, however (c. A.D. 150), used and
+recommended copies with the title "To the Laodiceans." This would be
+inexplicable if Eph. i. 1 had read in Marcion's copies, as it does in
+most ancient authorities, "To the saints which are at Ephesus"; but in
+fact the words [Greek: en Ephesô] of verse 1 were probably absent. They
+were not contained in the text used by Origen (d. 253); Basil (d. 379)
+says that "ancient copies" omitted the words; and they are actually
+omitted by Codices B (Vaticanus, 4th century) and [Hebrew: alef]
+(Sinaiticus, 4th century), together with Codex 67 (11th century). The
+words "in Ephesus" were thus probably originally lacking in the address,
+and were inserted from the suggestion of the title. Either the address
+was general ("to the saints who are also faithful") or else a blank was
+left. In the latter case the name may have been intended to be supplied
+orally, in communicating the letter, or a different name may have been
+written in each of the individual copies. Under any of these hypotheses
+the address would indicate that we have a circular letter, written to a
+group of churches, doubtless in Asia Minor. This would account for the
+general character of the epistle, as well as for the entire and striking
+absence of personal greetings and of concrete allusions to existing
+circumstances among the readers. It appears to have drawn its title, "To
+the Ephesians," from one of the churches for which it was intended,
+perhaps the one from which a copy was secured when Paul's epistles were
+collected, shortly before or after the year 100. That our epistle is the
+one referred to in Col. iv. 16, which was to be had by the Colossians
+from Laodicea, is not unlikely. Such an identification doubtless led
+Marcion to alter the title in his copies.
+
+The structure of _Ephesians_ is epistolary; it opens with the usual
+salutation (i. 1-2) and closes with a brief personal note and formal
+farewell (vi. 21-24). In the intervening body of the epistle the writer
+also follows the regular form of a letter. In an ordinary Greek letter
+(as the papyri show) we should find the salutation followed by an
+expression of gratification over the correspondent's good health and of
+prayer for its continuance. Paul habitually expanded and deepened this,
+and, in this case, that paragraph is enormously enlarged, so that it may
+be regarded as including chapters i.-iii., and as carrying the main
+thought of the epistle. Chapters iv.-vi. merely make application of the
+main ideas worked out in chapters i.-iii. Throughout the epistle we have
+a singular combination of the seemingly desultory method of a letter,
+turning aside at a word and straying wherever the mood of the moment
+leads, with the firm, forward march of earnest and mature thought. In
+this combination resides the doubtless unconscious but nevertheless real
+literary art of the composition.
+
+The fundamental theme of the epistle is _The Unity of Mankind in
+Christ_, and hence the Unity and Divinity of the Church of Christ. God's
+purpose from eternity was to unite mankind in Christ, and so to bring
+human history to its goal, the New Man, the measure of the stature of
+the fulness of Christ. Those who have believed in Christ are the present
+representatives and result of this purpose; and a clear knowledge of the
+purpose itself, the secret of the ages, has now been revealed to men.
+This theme is not formally discussed, as in a theological treatise, but
+is rather, as it were, celebrated in lofty eulogy and application.
+First, in chapters i.-iii., under the mask of a conventional
+congratulatory paragraph, the writer declares at length the privileges
+which this great fact confers upon those who by faith receive the gift
+of God, and he is thus able to touch on the various aspects of his
+subject. Then, in chapters iv.-vi., he turns, with a characteristic and
+impressive "therefore," to set forth the obligations which correspond to
+the privileges he has just expounded. This author is indeed interested
+to prosecute vigorous and substantial thinking, but the mainspring of
+his interest is the conviction that such thought is significant for
+inner and outer life.
+
+The relationship, both literary and theological, between the epistle to
+the _Ephesians_ and that to _the Colossians_ (q.v.) is very close. It is
+to be seen in many of the prominent ideas of the two writings,
+especially in the developed view of the central position of Christ in
+the whole universe; in the conception of the Church as Christ's body, of
+which He is the head; in the thought of the great Mystery, once secret,
+now revealed. There is further resemblance in the formal moral code,
+arranged by classes of persons, and having much the same contents in the
+two epistles (Eph. v. 22-vi. 9; Col. iii. 18-iv. 1). In both, also,
+Tychicus carries the letter, and in almost identical language the
+readers are told that he will by word of mouth give fuller information
+about the apostle's affairs (Eph. vi. 21-22; Col. iv. 7-8). Moreover, in
+a great number of characteristic phrases and even whole verses the two
+are alike. Compare, for instance, Eph. i. 7, Col. i. 14; Eph. i. 10,
+Col. i. 20; Eph. i. 21, Col. i. 16; Eph. i. 22, 23, Col. i. 18, 19; Eph.
+ii. 5, Col. ii. 13; Eph. ii. 11, Col. ii. 11; Eph: ii. 16, Col. i. 20;
+Eph. iii. 2, 3, Col. i. 25, 26, and many other parallels. Only a
+comparison in detail will give a true impression of the extraordinary
+degree of resemblance. Yet the two epistles do not follow the same
+course of thought, and their contents cannot be successfully exhibited
+in a common synoptical abstract. Each has its independent occasion,
+purpose, character and method; but they draw largely on a common store
+of thought and use common means of expression.
+
+The question of the authorship of _Ephesians_ is less important to the
+student of the history of Christian thought than in the case of most of
+the Pauline epistles, because of the generalness of tone and the lack of
+specific allusion in the work. It purports to be by Paul, and was held
+to be his by Marcion and in the Muratorian canon, and by Irenaeus,
+Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria, all writing at the end of the 2nd
+century. No doubt of the Pauline authorship was expressed in ancient
+times; nor is there any lack of early use by writers who make no direct
+quotation, to raise doubts as to the genuineness of the epistle. The
+influence of its language is probably to be seen in Ignatius, Polycarp
+and Hermas, less certainly in the epistle of Barnabas. Some resemblances
+of expression in Clement of Rome and in Second Clement may have
+significance. There is here abundant proof that the epistle was in
+existence, and was highly valued and influential with leaders of
+Christian thought, about the year 100, when persons who had known Paul
+well were still living.
+
+To the evidence given above may be added the use of _Ephesians_ in the
+First Epistle of Peter. If the latter epistle could be finally
+established as genuine, or its date fixed, it would give important
+evidence with regard to _Ephesians_; but in the present state of
+discussion we must confine ourselves to pointing out the fact. Some of
+the more striking points of contact are the following: Eph. i. 3, 1
+Peter i. 3; Eph. i. 20, 21, 1 Peter iii. 22; Eph. ii. 2, 3, iv. 17, 1
+Peter iv. 3; Eph. ii. 21, 22, 1 Peter ii. 5; Eph. v. 22, 1 Peter iii. 1,
+2; Eph. v. 25, 1 Peter iii. 7, 8; Eph. vi. 5, 1 Peter ii. 18, 19. A
+similar relation exists between _Romans_ and _1 Peter_. In both cases
+the dependence is clearly on the part of _1 Peter_; for ideas and
+phrases that in _Ephesians_ and _Romans_ have their firm place in
+closely wrought sequences, are found in _1 Peter_ with less profound
+significance and transformed into smooth and pointed maxims and
+apophthegmatic sentences.
+
+Objections to the genuineness of _Ephesians_ have been urged since the
+early part of the 19th century. The influence of Schleiermacher, whose
+pupil Leonhard Usteri in his _Entwickelung der paulinischen
+Lehrbegriffs_ (1824) expressed strong doubts as to _Ephesians_, carried
+weight. He held that Tychicus was the author. De Wette first (1826)
+doubted, then (1843) denied that the epistle was by Paul. The chief
+attack came, however, from Baur (1845) and his colleagues of the
+Tübingen school. Against the genuineness have appeared Ewald, Renan,
+Hausrath, Hilgenfeld, Ritschl, Pfleiderer, Weizsäcker, Holtzmann, von
+Soden, Schmiedel, von Dobschütz and many others. On the other hand, the
+epistle has been defended by Bleek, Neander, Reuss, B. Weiss, Meyer,
+Sabatier, Lightfoot, Hort, Sanday, Bacon, Jülicher, Harnack, Zahn and
+many others. In recent years a tendency has been apparent among critics
+to accept _Ephesians_ as a genuine work of Paul. This has followed the
+somewhat stronger reaction in favour of _Colossians_.
+
+Before speaking of the more fundamental grounds urged for the rejection
+of _Ephesians_, we may look at various points of detail which are of
+less significance.
+
+(1) The style has unquestionably a slow and lumbering movement, in
+marked contrast with the quick effectiveness of _Romans_ and
+_Galatians_. The sentences are much longer and less vivacious, as any
+one can see by a superficial examination. But nevertheless there are
+parts of the earlier epistles where the same tendency appears (e.g. Rom.
+iii. 23-26), and on the whole the style shows Paul's familiar traits.
+(2) The vocabulary is said to be peculiar. But it can be shown to be no
+more so than that of _Galatians_ (Zahn, _Einleitung_, i. pp. 365 ff.).
+On the other hand, some words characteristic of Paul's use appear
+(notably [Greek: dio], five times), and the most recent and careful
+investigation of Paul's vocabulary (Nägeli, _Wortschatz der paulinischen
+Briefe_, 1905) concludes that the evidence speaks for Pauline
+authorship. (3) Certain phrases have aroused suspicion, for instance,
+"the devil" (vi. 11, instead of Paul's usual term "Satan"); "his holy
+apostles and prophets" (iii. 5, as smacking of later fulsomeness); "I
+Paul" (iii. 1); "unto me, who am less than the least of all the saints"
+(iii. 8, as exaggerated). But these cases, when properly understood and
+calmly viewed, do not carry conviction against the epistle. (4) The
+relation of _Ephesians_ to _Colossians_ would be a serious difficulty
+only if _Colossians_ were held to be not by Paul. Those who hold to the
+genuineness of _Colossians_ find it easier to explain the resemblances
+as the product of the free working of the same mind, than as due to a
+deliberate imitator. Holtzmann's elaborate and very ingenious theory
+(1872) that _Colossians_ has been expanded, on the basis of a shorter
+letter of Paul, by the same later hand which had previously written the
+whole of _Ephesians_, has not met with favour from recent scholars.
+
+But the more serious difficulties which to many minds still stand in the
+way of the acceptance of the epistle have come from the developed phase
+of Pauline theology which it shows, and from the general background and
+atmosphere of the underlying system of thought, in which the absence of
+the well-known earlier controversies is remarkable, while some things
+suggest the thought of John and a later age. Among the most important
+points in which the ideas and implications of _Ephesians_ suggest an
+authorship and a period other than that of Paul are the following:
+
+(a) The union of Gentiles and Jews in one body is already accomplished.
+(b) The Christology is more advanced, uses Alexandrian terms, and
+suggests the ideas of the Gospel of John. (c) The conception of the
+Church as the body of Christ is new. (d) There is said to be a general
+softening of Pauline thought in the direction of the Christianity of the
+2nd century, while very many characteristic ideas of the earlier
+epistles are absent.
+
+With regard to the changed state of affairs in the Church, it must be
+said that this can be a conclusive argument only to one who holds the
+view of the Tübingen scholars, that the Apostolic Age was all of a piece
+and was dominated solely by one controversy. The change in the situation
+is surely not greater than can be imagined within the lifetime of Paul.
+That the epistle implies as already existent a developed system of
+Gnostic thought such as only came into being in the 2nd century is not
+true, and such a date is excluded by the external evidence. As to the
+other points, the question is, whether the admittedly new phase of
+Paul's theological thought is so different from his earlier system as to
+be incompatible with it. In answering this question different minds will
+differ. But it must remain possible that contact with new scenes and
+persons, and especially such controversial necessities as are
+exemplified in _Colossians_, stimulated Paul to work out more fully,
+under the influence of Alexandrian categories, lines of thought of which
+the germs and origins must be admitted to have been present in earlier
+epistles. It cannot be maintained that the ideas of _Ephesians_ directly
+contradict either in formulation or in tendency the thought of the
+earlier epistles. Moreover, if _Colossians_ be accepted as Pauline (and
+among other strong reasons the unquestionable genuineness of the epistle
+to Philemon renders it extremely difficult not to accept it), the chief
+matters of this more advanced Christian thought are fully legitimated
+for Paul.
+
+On the other hand, the characteristics of the thought in _Ephesians_
+give some strong evidence confirmatory of the epistle's own claim to be
+by Paul. (a) The writer of Eph. ii. 11-22 was a Jew, not less proud of
+his race than was the writer of Rom. ix.-xi. or of Phil. iii. 4 ff. (b)
+The centre in all the theology of the epistle is the idea of redemption.
+The use of Alexandrian categories is wholly governed by this interest.
+(c) The epistle shows the same panoramic, pictorial, dramatic conception
+of Christian truth which is everywhere characteristic of Paul. (d) The
+most fundamental elements in the system of thought do not differ from
+those of the earlier epistles.
+
+The view which denies the Pauline authorship of _Ephesians_ has to
+suppose the existence of a great literary artist and profound
+theologian, able to write an epistle worthy of Paul at his best, who,
+without betraying any recognizable motive, presented to the world in the
+name of Paul an imitation of _Colossians_, incredibly laborious and yet
+superior to the original in literary workmanship and power of thought,
+and bearing every appearance of earnest sincerity. It must further be
+supposed that the name and the very existence of this genius were
+totally forgotten in Christian circles fifty years after he wrote. The
+balance of evidence seems to lie on the side of the genuineness of the
+Epistle.
+
+If _Ephesians_ was written by Paul, it was during the period of his
+imprisonment, either at Caesarea or at Rome (iii. 1, iv. 1, vi. 20). At
+very nearly the same time he must have written _Colossians_ and
+_Philemon_; all three were sent by Tychicus. There is no strong reason
+for holding that the three were written from Caesarea. For Rome speaks
+the greater probability of the metropolis as the place in which a
+fugitive slave would try to hide himself, the impression given in
+_Colossians_ of possible opportunity for active mission work (Col. iv.
+3, 4; cf. Acts xxviii. 30, 31), the fact that _Philippians_, which in a
+measure belongs to the same group, was pretty certainly written from
+Rome. As to the Christians addressed, they are evidently converts from
+heathenism (ii. 1, 11-13, 17 f., iii. 1, iv. 17); but they are not
+merely Gentile Christians at large, for Tychicus carries the letter to
+them, Paul has some knowledge of their special circumstances (i. 15),
+and they are explicitly distinguished from "all the saints" (iii. 18,
+vi. 18). We may most naturally think of them as the members of the
+churches of Asia. The letter is very likely referred to in Col. iv. 16,
+although this theory is not wholly free from difficulties.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best commentaries on _Ephesians_ are by C.J.
+  Ellicott (1855, 4th ed. 1868), H.A.W. Meyer (4th ed., 1867), (Eng.
+  trans. 1880), T.K. Abbott (1897), J.A. Robinson (1903, 2nd ed. 1904);
+  in German by H. von Soden (in _Hand-Commentar_) (1891, 2nd ed. 1893),
+  E. Haupt (in Meyer's _Kommentar_) (8th ed., 1902). J.B. Lightfoot's
+  commentary on _Colossians_ (1875, 3rd ed. 1879) is important for
+  _Ephesians_ also. On the English text see H.C.G. Moule (in Cambridge
+  Bible for Schools) (1887). R.W. Dale, _Epistle to the Ephesians; its
+  Doctrine and Ethics_ (1882), is a valuable series of expository
+  discourses.
+
+  Questions of genuineness, purpose, &c., are discussed in the New
+  Testament _Introductions_ of H. Holtzmann (1885, 3rd ed. 1892); B.
+  Weiss (1886, 3rd ed. 1897, Eng. trans. 1887); G. Salmon (1887, 8th ed.
+  1897); A. Jülicher (1894, 5th and 6th ed. 1906, Eng. trans. 1904); T.
+  Zahn (1897-1899, 2nd ed. 1900); and in the thorough investigations of
+  H. Holtzmann, _Kritik der Epheser- und Kolosserbriefe_ (1872), and
+  F.J.A. Hort, _Prolegomena to St Paul's Epistles to the Romans and the
+  Ephesians_ (1895). See also the works on the _Apostolic Age_ of C.
+  Weizsäcker (1886, 2nd ed. 1892, Eng. trans. 1894-1895); O. Pfleiderer
+  (_Das Urchristenthum_) (1887, 2nd ed. 1902, Eng. trans. 1906); and
+  A.C. McGiffert (1897).
+
+  On early attestation see A.H. Charteris, _Canonicity_ (1880) and the
+  _New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers_ (Oxford, 1905).
+
+  The theological ideas of Ephesians are also discussed in some of the
+  works on Paul's theology; see especially F.C. Baur, _Paulus_ (1845,
+  2nd ed. 1866-1867, Eng. trans. 1873-1874); O. Pfleiderer, _Der
+  Paulinismus_ (1873, 2nd ed. 1890, Eng. trans. 1877); and in the works
+  on New Testament theology by B. Weiss (1868, 7th ed. 1903, Eng. trans.
+  1882-1883); H. Holtzmann (1897), and G.B. Stevens (1899). See also
+  Somerville, _St Paul's Conception of Christ_ (1897).
+
+  For a guide to other literature see W. Lock, art. "Ephesians, Epistle
+  to," in Hastings's _Dictionary of the Bible_, the various works of
+  Holtzmann above referred to, and T.K. Abbott's _Commentary_, pp.
+  35-40.     (J. H. Rs.)
+
+
+
+
+EPHESUS, an ancient Ionian city on the west coast of Asia Minor. In
+historic times it was situate on the lower slopes of the hills, Coressus
+and Prion, which rise out of a fertile plain near the mouth of the river
+Caÿster, while the temple and precinct of Artemis or Diana, to the fame
+of which the town owed much of its celebrity, were in the plain itself,
+E.N.E. at a distance of about a mile. But there is reason to think both
+town and shrine had different sites in pre-Ionian times, and that both
+lay farther south among the foot-hills of Mt. Solmissus. The situation
+of the city was such as at all times to command a great commerce. Of the
+three great river basins of Ionia and Lydia, those of the Hermus,
+Caÿster and Maeander, it commanded the second, and had already access by
+easy passes to the other two.
+
+The earliest inhabitants assigned to Ephesus by Greek writers are the
+"Amazons," with whom we hear of Leleges, Carians and Pelasgi. In the
+11th century B.C., according to tradition (the date is probably too
+early), Androclus, son of the Athenian king Codrus, landed on the spot
+with his Ionians and a mixed body of colonists; and from his conquest
+dates the history of the Greek Ephesus. The deity of the city was
+Artemis; but we must guard against misconception when we use that name,
+remembering that she bore close relation to the primitive Asiatic
+goddess of nature, whose cult existed before the Ionian migration at the
+neighbouring Ortygia, and that she always remained the virgin-mother of
+all life and especially wild life, and an embodiment of the fertility
+and productive power of the earth. The well-known monstrous
+representation of her, as a figure with many breasts, swathed below the
+waist in grave-clothes, was probably of late and alien origin. In early
+Ionian times she seems to have been represented as a natural matronly
+figure, sometimes accompanied by a child, and to have been a more
+typically Hellenic goddess than she became in the Hellenistic and Roman
+periods.
+
+Twice in the period 700-500 B.C. the city owed its preservation to the
+interference of the goddess; once when the swarms of the Cimmerians
+overran Asia Minor in the 7th century and burnt the Artemision itself;
+and once when Croesus besieged the town in the century succeeding, and
+only retired after it had solemnly dedicated itself to Artemis, the sign
+of such dedication being the stretching of a rope from city to
+sanctuary. Croesus was eager in every way to propitiate the goddess, and
+since about this time her temple was being restored on an enlarged
+scale, he presented most of the columns required for the building as
+well as some cows of gold. That is to say, these gifts were probably
+paid for out of the proceeds of the sequestration of the property of a
+rich Lydian merchant, Sadyattes, which Croesus presented to Ephesus
+(Nic. Damasc. fr. 65). To counteract, perhaps, the growing Lydian
+influence, Athens, the mother-city of Ephesus, despatched one of her
+noblest citizens, Aristarchus, to restore law on the basis of the
+Solonian constitution. The labours of Aristarchus seem to have borne
+fruit. It was an Ephesian follower of his, Hermodorus, who aided the
+Decemviri at Rome in their compilation of a system of law. And in the
+same generation Heraclitus, probably a descendant of Codrus, quitted his
+hereditary magistracy in order to devote himself to philosophy, in which
+his name became almost as great as that of any Greek. Poetry had long
+flourished at Ephesus. From very early times the Homeric poems found a
+home and admirers there; and to Ephesus belong the earliest elegiac
+poems of Greece, the war songs of Callinus, who flourished in the 7th
+century B.C. and was the model of Tyrtaeus. The city seems to have been
+more than once under tyrannical rule in the early Ionian period; and it
+fell thereafter first to Croesus of Lydia, and then to Cyrus, the
+Persian, and when the Ionian revolt against Persia broke out in the year
+500 B.C. under the lead of Miletus, the city remained submissive to
+Persian rule. When Xerxes returned from the march against Greece, he
+honoured the temple of Artemis, although he sacked other Ionian shrines,
+and even left his children behind at Ephesus for safety's sake. We hear
+again of Persian respect for the temple in the time of Tissaphernes (411
+B.C.). After the final Persian defeat at the Eurymedon (466 B.C.),
+Ephesus for a time paid tribute to Athens, with the other cities of the
+coast, and Lysander first and Agesilaus afterwards made it their
+headquarters. To the latter fact we owe a contemporary description of it
+by Xenophon. In the early part of the 4th century it fell again under
+Persian influence, and was administered by an oligarchy.
+
+Alexander was received by the Ephesians in 334, and established
+democratic government. Soon after his death the city fell into the hands
+of Lysimachus, who introduced fresh Greek colonists from Lebedus and
+Colophon and, it is said, by means of an artificial inundation compelled
+those who still dwelt in the plain by the temple to migrate to the city
+on the hills, which he surrounded by a solid wall. He renamed the city
+after his wife Arsinoë, but the old name was soon resumed. Ephesus was
+very prosperous during the Hellenistic period, and is conspicuous both
+then and later for the abundance of its coinage, which gives us a more
+complete list of magistrates' names than we have for any other Ionian
+city. The Roman coinage is remarkable for the great variety and
+importance of its types. After the defeat of Antiochus the Great, king
+of Syria, by the Romans, Ephesus was handed over by the conquerors to
+Eumenes, king of Pergamum, whose successor, Attalus Philadelphus,
+unintentionally worked the city irremediable harm. Thinking that the
+shallowness of the harbour was due to the width of its mouth, he built a
+mole part-way across the latter; the result, however, was that the
+silting up of the harbour proceeded more rapidly than before. The third
+Attalus of Pergamum bequeathed Ephesus with the rest of his possessions
+to the Roman people, and it became for a while the chief city, and for
+longer the first port, of the province of Asia, the richest in the
+empire. Henceforth Ephesus remained subject to the Romans, save for a
+short period, when, at the instigation of Mithradates Eupator of Pontus,
+the cities of Asia Minor revolted and massacred their Roman residents.
+The Ephesians even dragged out and slew those Romans who had fled to the
+precinct of Artemis for protection, notwithstanding which sacrilege they
+soon returned from their new to their former masters, and even had the
+effrontery to state, in an inscription preserved to this day, that their
+defection to Mithradates was a mere yielding to superior force. Sulla,
+after his victory over Mithradates, brushed away their pretexts, and
+inflicting a very heavy fine told them that the punishment fell far
+short of their deserts. In the civil wars of the 1st century B.C. the
+Ephesians twice supported the unsuccessful party, giving shelter to, or
+being made use of by, first, Brutus and Cassius, and afterwards Antony,
+for which partisanship or weakness they paid very heavily in fines.
+
+All this time the city was gradually growing in wealth and in devotion
+to the service of Artemis. The story of St Paul's doings there
+illustrates this fact, and the sequel is very suggestive,--the burning,
+namely, of books of sorcery of great value. Addiction to the practice of
+occult arts had evidently become general in the now semi-orientalized
+city. The Christian Church which Paul planted there was governed by
+Timothy and John, and is famous in Christian tradition as a nurse of
+saints and martyrs. According to local belief, Ephesus was also the last
+home of the Virgin, who was lodged near the city by St John and there
+died. But to judge from the Apocalyptic Letter to this Church (as shown
+by Sir W.M. Ramsay), the latter showed a dangerous tendency to lightness
+and reaction, and later events show that the pagan tradition of Artemis
+continued very strong and perhaps never became quite extinct in the
+Ephesian district. It was, indeed, long before the spread of
+Christianity threatened the old local cult. The city was proud to be
+termed _neocorus_ or servant of the goddess. Roman emperors vied with
+wealthy natives in lavish gifts, one Vibius Salutaris among the latter
+presenting a quantity of gold and silver images to be carried annually
+in procession. Ephesus contested stoutly with Smyrna and Pergamum the
+honour of being called the first city of Asia; each city appealed to
+Rome, and we still possess rescripts in which the emperors endeavoured
+to mitigate the bitterness of the rivalry. One privilege Ephesus
+secured; the Roman governor of Asia always landed and first assumed
+office there: and it was long the provincial centre of the official cult
+of the emperor, and seat of the Asiarch. The Goths destroyed both city
+and temple in the year A.D. 262, and although the city revived and the
+cult of Artemis continued, neither ever recovered its former splendour.
+A general council of the Christian Church was held there in 431 in the
+great double church of St Mary, which is still to be seen. On this
+occasion Nestorius was condemned, and the honour of the Virgin
+established as _Theotokus_, amid great popular rejoicing, due,
+doubtless, in some measure to the hold which the cult of the virgin
+Artemis still had on the city. (On this council see below.) Thereafter
+Ephesus seems to have been gradually deserted owing to its malaria; and
+life transferred itself to another and higher site near the Artemision,
+the name of which, Ayassoluk (written by early Arab geographers
+_Ayathulukh_), is now known to be a corruption of the title of St John
+_Theológos_, given to a great cathedral built on a rocky hill near the
+present railway station, in the time of Justinian I. This church was
+visited by Ibn Batuta in A.D. 1333; but few traces are now visible. The
+ruins of the Artemision, after serving as a quarry to local builders,
+were finally covered deep with mud by the river Caÿster, or one of its
+left bank tributaries, the Selinus, and the true site remained
+unsuspected until 1869.
+
+_Excavations._--The first light thrown on the topography of Ephesus was
+due to the excavations conducted by the architect, J.T. Wood, on behalf
+of the trustees of the British Museum, during the years 1863-1874. He
+first explored the Odeum and the Great Theatre situate in the city
+itself, and in the latter place had the good fortune to find an
+inscription which indicated to him in what direction to search for the
+Artemision; for it stated that processions came to the city from the
+temple by the Magnesian gate and returned by the Coressian. These two
+gates were next identified, and following up that road which issued from
+the Magnesian gate, Wood lighted first on a ruin which he believed to be
+the tomb of Androclus, and afterwards on an angle of the peribolus wall
+of the time of Augustus. After further tentative explorations, he struck
+the actual pavement of the Artemision on the last day of 1869.
+
+_The Artemision._--Wood removed the whole stratum of superficial
+deposit, nearly 20 ft. deep, which overlay the huge area of the temple,
+and exposed to view not only the scanty remains of the latest edifice,
+built after 350 B.C., but the platform of an earlier temple, now known
+to be that of the 6th century to which Croesus contributed. Below this
+he did not find any remains. He discovered and sent to England parts of
+several sculptured drums (_columnae caelatae_) of the latest temple, and
+archaic sculptures from the drums and parapet of the earlier building.
+He also made accurate measurements and a plan of the Hellenistic temple,
+found many inscriptions and a few miscellaneous antiquities, and had
+begun to explore the Precinct, when the great expense and other
+considerations induced the trustees of the British Museum to suspend his
+operations in 1874. Wood made two subsequent attempts to resume work,
+but failed; and the site lay desolate till 1904, when the trustees,
+wishing to have further information about the earlier strata and the
+Precinct, sent D.G. Hogarth to re-examine the remains. As a result of
+six months' work, Wood's "earliest temple" was re-cleared and planned,
+remains of three earlier shrines were found beneath it, a rich deposit
+of offerings, &c., belonging to the earliest shrine was discovered, and
+tentative explorations were made in the Precinct. This deep digging,
+however, which reached the sand of the original marsh, released much
+ground water and resulted in the permanent flooding of the site.
+
+[Illustration: Ground plan of the 6th Century ("Croesus") Temple at
+Ephesus, conjecturally restored by A.E. Henderson.]
+
+The history of the Artemision, as far as it can be inferred from the
+remains, is as follows. (1) There was no temple on the plain previous to
+the Ionian occupation, the primeval seat of the nature-goddess having
+been in the southern hills, at Ortygia (near mod. _Arvalia_). Towards
+the end of the 8th century B.C. a small shrine came into existence on
+the plain. This was little more than a small platform of green schist
+with a sacred tree and an altar, and perhaps later a wooden icon
+(image), the whole enclosed in a _temenos_: but, as is proved by a great
+treasure of objects in precious and other metals, ivory, bone, crystal,
+paste, glass, terra-cotta and other materials, found in 1904-1905,
+partly within the platform on which the cult-statue stood and partly
+outside, in the lowest stratum of deposit, this early shrine was
+presently enriched by Greeks with many and splendid offerings of
+Hellenic workmanship. A large number of electron coins, found among
+these offerings, and in style the earliest of their class known, combine
+with other evidence to date the whole treasure to a period considerably
+anterior to the reign of Croesus. This treasure is now divided between
+the museums of Constantinople and London. (2) Within a short time,
+perhaps after the Cimmerian sack (? 650 B.C.), this shrine was restored,
+slightly enlarged, and raised in level, but not altered in character.
+(3) About the close of the century, for some reason not known, but
+possibly owing to collapse brought about by the marshy nature of the
+site, this was replaced by a temple of regular Hellenic form. The latter
+was built in relation to the earlier central statue-base but at a higher
+level than either of its predecessors, doubtless for dryness' sake. Very
+little but its foundations was spared by later builders, and there is
+now no certain evidence of its architectural character; but it is very
+probable that it was the early temple in which the Ionic order is said
+to have been first used, after the colonists had made use of Doric in
+their earlier constructions (e.g. in the _Panionion_); and that it was
+the work of the Cnossian Chersiphron and his son, Metagenes, always
+regarded afterwards as the first builders of a regular Artemision. Their
+temple is said by Strabo to have been made bigger by another architect.
+(4) The latter's work must have been the much larger temple, exposed by
+Wood, and usually known as the Archaic or Croesus temple. This overlies
+the remains of No. 3, at a level higher by about a metre, and the area
+of its _cella_ alone contains the whole of the earlier shrines. Its
+central point, however, was still the primitive statue-base, now
+enlarged and heightened. About half its pavement, parts of the _cella_
+walls and of three columns of the peristyle, and the foundations of
+nearly all the platform, are still in position. The visible work was all
+of very fine white marble, quarried about 7 m. N.E., near the modern Kos
+Bunar. Fragments of relief-sculptures belonging to the parapet and
+columns, and of fluted drums and capitals, cornices and other
+architectural members have been recovered, showing that the workmanship
+and Ionic style were of the highest excellence, and that the building
+presented a variety of ornament, rare among Hellenic temples. The whole
+ground-plan covered about 80,000 sq. ft. The height of the temple is
+doubtful, the measurements of columns given us by later authority having
+reference probably to its successor, the height of which was considered
+abnormal and marvellous. Judged by the diameter of the drums, the
+columns of the Croesus temple were not two-thirds of the height of those
+of the Hellenistic temple. This fourth temple is, beyond question, that
+to which Croesus contributed, and it was, therefore, in process of
+building about 540 B.C. Our authorities seem to be referring to it when
+they tell us that the Artemision was raised by common contribution of
+the great cities of Asia, and took 120 years to complete. It was
+dedicated with great ceremony, probably between 430 and 420 B.C., and
+the famous Timotheus, son of Thersander, carried off the magnificent
+prize for a lyric ode against all comers. Its original architects were,
+probably, Paeonius of Ephesus, and Demetrius, a [Greek: hieros] of the
+shrine itself: but it has been suggested that the latter may have been
+rather the actual contracting builder than the architect. Of this temple
+Herodotus speaks as existing in his day; and unless weight be given to
+an isolated statement of Eusebius, that it was burned about 395 B.C., we
+must assume that it survived until the night when one Herostratus,
+desirous of acquiring eternal fame if only by a great crime, set it
+alight. This is said to have happened in 356 B.C. on the October night
+on which Alexander the Great came into the world, and, as Hegesias said,
+the goddess herself was absent, assisting at the birth; but the
+exactness of this portentous synchronism makes the date suspect. (5) It
+was succeeded by what is called the Hellenistic temple, begun almost
+immediately after the catastrophe, according to plans drawn by the
+famous Dinocrates the architect of Alexandria. The platform was once
+more raised to a higher level, some 7 ft. above that of the Archaic, by
+means of huge foundation blocks bedded upon the earlier structures; and
+this increase of elevation necessitated a slight expansion of the area
+all round, and ten steps in place of three. The new columns were of
+greater diameter than the old and over 60 ft. high; and from its great
+height the whole structure was regarded as a marvel, and accounted one
+of the wonders of the world. Since, however, other Greek temples had
+colonnades hardly less high, and were of equal or greater area, it has
+been suggested that the Ephesian temple had some distinct element of
+grandiosity, no longer known to us--perhaps a lofty sculptured parapet
+or some imposing form of _podium_. Bede, in his treatise _De sept. mir.
+mundi_, describes a stupendous erection of several storeys; but his
+other descriptions are so fantastic that no credence can be attached to
+this. The fifth temple was once more of Ionic order, but the finish and
+style of its details as attested by existing remains were inferior to
+those of its predecessor. The great sculptured drums and pedestals, now
+in the British Museum, belong to the lower part of certain of its
+columns: but nothing of its frieze or pediments (if it had any) has been
+recovered. Begun probably before 350 B.C., it was in building when
+Alexander came to Ephesus in 334 and offered to bear the cost of its
+completion. It was probably finished by the end of the century; for
+Pliny the Elder states that its cypress-wood doors had been in existence
+for 400 years up to his time. It stood intact, except for very partial
+restorations, till A.D. 262 when it was sacked and burned by the Goths:
+but it appears to have been to some extent restored afterwards, and its
+cult no doubt survived till the Edict of Theodosius closed the pagan
+temples. Its material was then quarried extensively for the construction
+of the great cathedral of St John Theológos on the neighbouring hill
+(Ayassoluk), and a large Byzantine building (a church?) came into
+existence on the central part of its denuded site, but did not last
+long. Before the Ottoman conquest its remains were already buried under
+several feet of silt.
+
+The organization of the temple hierarchy, and its customs and
+privileges, retained throughout an Asiatic character. The priestesses of
+the goddess were [Greek: parthenoi] (i.e. unwedded), and her priests
+were compelled to celibacy. The chief among the latter, who bore the
+Persian name of Megabyzus and the Greek title Neocorus, was doubtless a
+power in the state as well as a dignitary of religion. His official
+dress and spadonic appearance are probably revealed to us by a small
+ivory statuette found by D.G. Hogarth in 1905. Besides these there was a
+vast throng of dependents who lived by the temple and its
+services--_theologi_, who may have expounded sacred legends, _hymnodi_,
+who composed hymns in honour of the deity, and others, together with a
+great crowd of _hieroi_ who performed more menial offices. The making of
+shrines and images of the goddess occupied many hands. To support this
+greedy mob, offerings flowed in in a constant stream from votaries and
+from visitors, who contributed sometimes money, sometimes statues and
+works of art. These latter so accumulated that the temple became a rich
+museum, among the chief treasures of which were the figures of Amazons
+sculptured in competition by Pheidias, Polyclitus, Cresilas and
+Phradmon, and the painting by Apelles of Alexander holding a
+thunderbolt. The temple was also richly endowed with lands, and
+possessed the fishery of the Selinusian lakes, with other large
+revenues. But perhaps the most important of all the privileges possessed
+by the goddess and her priests was that of _asylum_. Fugitives from
+justice or vengeance who reached her precincts were perfectly safe from
+all pursuit and arrest. The boundaries of the space possessing such
+virtue were from time to time enlarged. Mithradates extended them to a
+bowshot from the temple in all directions, and Mark Antony imprudently
+allowed them to take in part of the city, which part thus became free of
+all law, and a haunt of thieves and villains. Augustus, while leaving
+the right of asylum untouched, diminished the space to which the
+privilege belonged, and built round it a wall, which still surrounds the
+ruins of the temple at the distance of about a quarter of a mile,
+bearing an inscription in Greek and Latin, which states that it was
+erected in the proconsulship of Asinius Gallus, out of the revenues of
+the temple. The right of asylum, however, had once more to be defended
+by a deputation sent to the emperor Tiberius. Besides being a place of
+worship, a museum and a sanctuary, the Ephesian temple was a great bank.
+Nowhere in Asia could money be more safely bestowed, and both kings and
+private persons placed their treasures under the guardianship of the
+goddess.
+
+_The City._--After Wood's superficial explorations, the city remained
+desolate till 1894, when the Austrian Archaeological Institute obtained
+a concession for excavation and began systematic work. This has
+continued regularly ever since, but has been carried down no farther
+than the imperial stratum. The main areas of operation have been: (1)
+The _Great Theatre_. The stage buildings, orchestra and lower parts of
+the _cavea_ have been cleared. In the process considerable additions
+were made to Wood's find of sculptures in marble and bronze, and of
+inscriptions, including missing parts of the Vibius Salutaris texts.
+This theatre has a peculiar interest as the scene of the tumult aroused
+by the mission of St Paul; but the existing remains represent a
+reconstruction carried out after his time. (2) The _Hellenistic Agora_,
+a huge square, surrounded by porticoes, lying S.W. of the theatre and
+having fine public halls on the S. It has yielded to the Austrians fine
+sculpture in marble and bronze and many inscriptions. (3) _The Roman
+Agora_, with its large halls, lying N.W. of the theatre. Here were found
+many inscriptions of Roman date and some statuary. (4) A street running
+from the S.E. angle of the Hellenic Agora towards the Magnesian gate.
+This was found to be lined with pedestals of honorific statues and to
+have on the west side a remarkable building, stated in an inscription to
+have been a library. The tomb of the founder, T. Julius Celsus, is hard
+by, and some fine Roman reliefs, which once decorated it, have been sent
+to Vienna. (5) A street running direct to the port from the theatre.
+This is of great breadth, and had a Horologion half-way down and fine
+porticoes and shops. It was known as the Arcadiane after having been
+restored at a higher level than formerly by the emperor Arcadius (A.D.
+395). It leaves on the right the great _Thermae_ of Constantine, of
+which the Austrians have cleared out the south-east part. This huge pile
+used to be taken for the Artemision by early visitors to Ephesus. Part
+of the quays and buildings round the port were exposed, after measures
+had been taken to drain the upper part of the marsh. (6) The Double
+Church of the Virgin "Deipara" in the N.W. of the city, wherein the
+council of 431 was held. Here interesting inscriptions and Byzantine
+architectural remains were found. Besides these excavated monuments, the
+Stadion; the _enceinte_ of fortifications erected by Lysimachus, which
+runs from the tower called the "Prison of St Paul" and right along the
+crests of the Bulbul (Prion) and Panajir hills; the round monument
+miscalled the "Tomb of St Luke"; and the Opistholeprian gymnasium near
+the Magnesian gate, are worthy of attention.
+
+The work done by the Austrians enables a good idea to be obtained of the
+appearance presented by a great Graeco-Roman city of Asia in the last
+days of its prosperity. It may be realized better there than anywhere
+how much architectural splendour was concentrated in the public
+quarters. But the restriction of the clearance to the upper stratum of
+deposit has prevented the acquisition of much further knowledge. Both
+the Hellenistic and, still more, the original Ionian cities remain for
+the most part unexplored. It should, however, be added that very
+valuable topographical exploration has been carried out in the environs
+of Ephesus by members of the Austrian expedition, and that the Ephesian
+district is now mapped more satisfactorily than any other district of
+ancient interest in Asia Minor.
+
+The Turkish village of Ayassoluk (the modern representative of Ephesus),
+more than a mile N.E. of the ancient city, has revived somewhat of
+recent years owing to the development of its fig gardens by the Aidin
+railway, which passes through the upper part of the plain. It is
+noteworthy for a splendid ruined mosque built by the Seljuk, Isa Bey
+II., of Aidin, in 1375, which contains magnificent columns: for a
+castle, near which lie remains of the pendentives from the cupola of the
+great cathedral of St John, now deeply buried in its own ruins: and for
+an aqueduct, Turkish baths and mosque-tombs. There is a fair inn managed
+by the Aidin Railway Company.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Guhl, _Ephesiaca_ (1843); E. Curtius, _Ephesos_
+  (1874); C. Zimmermann, _Ephesos im ersten christlichen Jahrhundert_
+  (1874); J.T. Wood, _Discoveries at Ephesus_ (1877); E.L. Hicks, _Anc.
+  Greek Inscr. in the Brit. Museum_, iii. 2 (1890); B.V. Head, "Coinage
+  of Ephesus" (_Numism. Chron._, 1880); J. Menadier, _Qua condicione
+  Ephesii usi sint_, &c. (1880); Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven
+  Churches_ (1904); O. Benndorf, R. Heberdey, &c., _Forschungen in
+  Ephesos_, vol. i. (1906) (Austrian Arch. Institute); D.G. Hogarth,
+  _Excavations at Ephesus: the Archaic Artemisia_ (2 vols., 1908), with
+  chapters by C.H. Smith, A. Hamilton Smith, B.V. Head, and A.E.
+  Henderson.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF. This Church council was convened in 431 for the
+purpose of taking authoritative action concerning the doctrine of the
+person of Christ. The councils of Nicaea and Constantinople had asserted
+the full divinity and real humanity of Christ, without, however,
+defining the manner of their union. The attempt to solve the apparent
+incongruity of a perfect union of two complete and distinct natures in
+one person produced first Apollinarianism, which substituted the divine
+Logos for the human [Greek: nous] or [Greek: pneuma] of Jesus, thereby
+detracting from the completeness of his humanity; and then Nestorianism,
+which destroyed the unity of Christ's person by affirming that the
+divine Logos dwelt in the man Jesus as in a temple, and that the union
+of the two was in respect of dignity, and furthermore that, inasmuch as
+the Logos could not have been born, to call Mary [Greek: theotokos],
+"Godbearer," was absurd and blasphemous. The Alexandrians, led by Cyril,
+stood for the doctrine of the perfect union of two complete natures in
+one person, and made [Greek: theotokos] the shibboleth of orthodoxy. The
+theological controversy was intensified by the rivalry of the two
+patriarchates, Alexandria and Constantinople, for the primacy of the
+East. As bishop of Constantinople Nestorius naturally looked to the
+emperor for support, while Cyril turned to Rome. A Roman synod in 430
+found Nestorius heretical and decreed his excommunication unless he
+should recant. Shortly afterwards an Alexandrian synod condemned his
+doctrines in twelve anathemas, which only provoked counter-anathemas.
+The emperor now intervened and summoned a council, which met at Ephesus
+on the 22nd of June 431. Nestorius was present with an armed escort, but
+refused to attend the council on the ground that the patriarch of
+Antioch (his friend) had not arrived. The council, nevertheless,
+proceeded to declare him excommunicate and deposed. When the Roman
+legates appeared they "examined and approved" the acts of the council,
+whether as if thereby giving them validity, or as if concurring with the
+council, is a question not easy to answer from the records. Cyril, the
+president, apparently regarded the subscription of the legates as the
+acknowledgment of "canonical agreement" with the synod.
+
+The disturbances that followed the arrival of John, the patriarch of
+Antioch, are sufficiently described in the article NESTORIUS.
+
+The emperor finally interposed to terminate that scandalous strife,
+banished Nestorius and dissolved the council. Ultimately he gave
+decision in favour of the orthodox. The council was generally received
+as ecumenical, even by the Antiochenes, and the differences between
+Cyril and John were adjusted (433) by a "Union Creed," which, however,
+did not prevent a recrudescence of theological controversy.
+
+  See Mansi iv. pp. 567-1482, v. pp. 1-1023; Hardouin i. pp. 1271-1722;
+  Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 141-247 (Eng. trans. iii. pp. 1-114);
+  Peltanus, _SS. Magni et Ecumen. Conc. Ephesini primi Acta omnia_ ...
+  (Ingolstadt, 1576); Wilhelm Kraetz, _Koptische Akten zum Ephes.
+  Konzil_ ... (Leipzig, 1904); also the articles NESTORIUS; CYRIL;
+  THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA.
+
+The so-called "Robber Synod" of Ephesus (_Latrocinium Ephesinum_) of
+449, although wholly irregular and promptly repudiated by the church,
+may, nevertheless, not improperly be treated here. The archimandrite
+Eutyches (q.v.) having been deposed by his bishop, Flavianus of
+Constantinople, on account of his heterodox doctrine of the person of
+Christ, had appealed to Dioscurus, the successor of Cyril in the see of
+Alexandria, who restored him and moved the emperor Theodosius II. to
+summon a council, which should "utterly destroy Nestorianism." Rome
+recognizing that she had more to fear from Alexandria, departed from her
+traditional policy and sided with Constantinople. The council of 130
+bishops, which convened on the 8th of August 449, was completely
+dominated by Dioscurus. Eutyches was acquitted of heresy and reinstated,
+Flavianus and other bishops deposed, the Roman legates insulted, and all
+opposition was overborne by intimidation or actual violence. The death
+of Flavianus, which soon followed, was attributed to injuries received
+in this synod; but the proof of the charge leaves something to be
+desired.
+
+The emperor confirmed the synod, but the Eastern Church was divided
+upon the question of accepting it, and Leo I. of Rome excommunicated
+Dioscurus, refused to recognize the successor of Flavianus and demanded
+a new and greater council. The death of Theodosius II. removed the main
+support of Dioscurus, and cleared the way for the council of Chalcedon
+(q.v.), which deposed the Alexandrian and condemned Eutychianism.
+
+  See Mansi vi. pp. 503 sqq., 606 sqq.; Hardouin ii. 71 sqq.; Hefele
+  (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 349 sqq. (Eng. trans. iii. pp. 221 sqq.); S.G.F.
+  Perry, _The Second Synod of Ephesus_ (Dartford, 1881); l'Abbé Martin,
+  _Actes du brigandage d'Éphèse_ (Amiens, 1874) and _Le Pseudo-synode
+  connu dans l'histoire sous le nom de brigandage d'Éphèse_ (Paris,
+  1875).     (T. F. C.)
+
+
+
+
+EPHOD, a Hebrew word (_ephod_) of uncertain meaning, retained by the
+translators of the Old Testament. In the post-exilic priestly writings
+(5th century B.C. and later) the ephod forms part of the gorgeous
+ceremonial dress of the high-priest (see Ex. xxix. 5 sq. and especially
+Ecclus. xlv. 7-13). It was a very richly decorated object of coloured
+threads interwoven with gold, worn outside the luxurious mantle or robe;
+it was kept in place by a girdle, and by shoulder-pieces (?), to which
+were attached brooches of onyx (fastened to the robe) and golden rings
+from which hung the "breastplate" (or rather pouch) containing the
+sacred lots, Urim and Thummim. The somewhat involved description in Ex.
+xxviii. 6 sqq., xxxix. 2 sqq. (see V. Ryssel's ed. of Dillmann's
+commentary on Ex.-Lev.) leaves it uncertain whether it covered the back,
+encircling the body like a kind of waistcoat, or only the front; at all
+events it was not a garment in the ordinary sense, and its association
+with the sacred lots indicates that the ephod was used for divination
+(cf. Num. xxvii. 21), and had become the distinguishing feature of the
+leading priestly line (cf. 1 Sam. ii. 28).[1] But from other passages it
+seems that the ephod had been a familiar object whose use was by no
+means so restricted. Like the teraphim (q.v.) it was part of the common
+stock of Hebrew cult; it is borne (rather than worn) by persons acting
+in a priestly character (Samuel at Shiloh, priests of Nob, David), it is
+part of the worship of individuals (Gideon at Ophrah), and is found in a
+private shrine with a lay attendant (Micah; Judg. xvii. 5; see, however,
+vv. 10-13).[2] Nevertheless, while the prophetical teaching came to
+regard the ephod as contrary to the true worship of Yahweh, the priestly
+doctrine of the post-exilic age (when worship was withdrawn from the
+community at large to the recognized priesthood of Jerusalem) has
+retained it along with other remains of earlier usage, legalizing it, as
+it were, by confining it exclusively to the Aaronites.
+
+  An intricate historical problem is involved at the outset in the
+  famous ephod, which the priest Abiathar brought in his hand when he
+  fled to David after the massacre of the priests of Nob. It is
+  evidently regarded as the one which had been in Nob (1 Sam. xxi. 9),
+  and the presence of the priests at Nob is no less clearly regarded as
+  the sequel of the fall of Shiloh. The ostensible intention is to
+  narrate the transference of the sacred objects to David (cf. 2 Sam. i.
+  10), and henceforth he regularly inquires of Yahweh in his movements
+  (1 Sam. xxiii. 9-12, xxx. 7 sq.; cf. xxiii. 2, 4; 2 Sam. ii. 1, v.
+  19-23). It is possible that the writer (or writers) desired to trace
+  the earlier history of the ephod through the line of Eli and Abiathar
+  to the time when the Zadokite priests gained the supremacy (see
+  LEVITES); but elsewhere Abiathar is said to have borne the ark (1
+  Kings ii. 26; cf. 2 Sam. vii. 6), and this fluctuation is noteworthy
+  by reason of the present confusion in the text of 1 Sam. xiv. 3, 18
+  (see commentaries).
+
+  On one view, the ark in Kirjath-jearim was in non-Israelite hands (1
+  Sam. vii. 1 sq.); on the other, Saul's position as king necessitates
+  the presumption that his sway extended over Judah and Israel,
+  including those cities which otherwise appear to have been in the
+  hands of aliens (1 Sam. xiv. 47 sq.; cf. xvii. 54, &c.). There are
+  some fundamental divergencies in the representations of the traditions
+  of both David and Saul (qq.v.), and there is indirect and independent
+  evidence which makes 1 Kings ii. 26 not entirely isolated. Here it
+  must suffice to remark that the ark, too, was also an object for
+  ascertaining the divine will (especially Judg. xx. 26-28; cf. 18, 23),
+  and it is far from certain that the later records of the ark (which
+  was too heavy to be borne by one), like those of the ephod, are valid
+  for earlier times.
+
+For the form of the earlier ephod the classic passage is 2 Sam. vi. 14,
+where David girt in (or with) a linen ephod dances before the ark at its
+entry into Jerusalem and incurs the unqualified contempt of his wife
+Michal, the daughter of Saul. Relying upon the known custom of
+performing certain observances in a practically, or even entirely, nude
+condition, it seems plausible to infer that the ephod was a scanty
+wrapping, perhaps a loin-cloth, and this view has found weighty support.
+On the other hand, the idea of contempt at the exposure of the person,
+to whatever extent, may not have been so prominent, especially if the
+custom were not unfamiliar, and it is possible that the sequel refers
+more particularly to grosser practices attending outbursts of religious
+enthusiasm.[3]
+
+The favourite view that the ephod was also an image rests partly upon 1
+Sam. xxi. 9, where Goliath's sword is wrapped in a cloth in the
+sanctuary of Nob _behind the ephod_. But it is equally natural to
+suppose that it hung on a nail in the wall, and apart from the omission
+of the significant words in the original Septuagint, the possibility
+that the text read "ark" cannot be wholly ignored (see above; also G.F.
+Moore, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1307, n. 2). Again, in the story of Micah's
+shrine and the removal of the sacred objects and the Levite priest by
+the Danites, parallel narratives have been used: the graven and molten
+images of Judg. xvii. 2-4 corresponding to the ephod and teraphim of
+ver. 5. Throughout there is confusion in the use of these terms, and the
+finale refers only to the graven image of Dan (xviii. 30 sq., see 1
+Kings xii. 28 sq.). But the combination of ephod and teraphim (as in
+Hos. iii. 4) is noteworthy, since the fact that the latter were images
+(1 Sam. xix. 13; Gen. xxxi. 34) could be urged against the view that the
+former were of a similar character. Finally, according to Judg. viii.
+27, Gideon made an ephod of gold, about 70 lb. in weight, and "put" it
+in Ophrah. It is regarded as a departure from the worship of Yahweh,
+although the writer of ver. 33 (cf. also ver. 23) hardly shared this
+feeling; it was probably something once harmlessly associated with the
+cult of Yahweh (cf. CALF, GOLDEN), and the term "ephod" may be due to a
+later hand under the influence of the prophetical teaching referred to
+above. The present passage is the only one which appears to prove that
+the ephod was an image, and several writers, including Lotz (_Realencyk.
+f. prot. Theol._ vol. v., s.v.), T.C. Foote (pp. 13-18) and A.
+Maecklenburg (_Zeit. f. wissens. Theol._, 1906, pp. 433 sqq.) find this
+interpretation unnecessary.
+
+Archaeological evidence for objects of divination (see, e.g., the
+interesting details in Ohnefalsch-Richter, _Kypros, the Bible and
+Homer_, i. 447 sq.), and parallels from the Oriental area, can be
+readily cited in support of any of the explanations of the ephod which
+have been offered, but naturally cannot prove the form which it actually
+took in Palestine. Since images were clothed, it could be supposed that
+the diviner put on the god's apparel (cf. _Ency. Bib._ col. 1141); but
+they were also plated, and in either case the transference from a
+covering to the object covered is intelligible. If the ephod was a
+loin-cloth, its use as a receptacle and the known evolution of the
+article find useful analogies (Foote, p. 43 sq., and _Ency. Bib._ col.
+1734 [1]). Finally, if there is no decisive evidence for the view that
+it was an image (Judg. viii. 27), or that as a wrapping it formed the
+sole covering of the officiating agent (2 Sam. vi.), all that can safely
+be said is that it was certainly used in divination and presumably did
+not differ radically from the ephod of the post-exilic age.
+
+  See further, in addition to the monographs already cited, the articles
+  in Hastings's _Dict. Bible_ (by S.R. Driver), _Ency. Bib._ (by G.F.
+  Moore), and _Jew. Encyc._ (L. Ginsburg), and E. Sellin, in _Oriental.
+  Studien: Theodor Nöldeke_ (ed. Bezold, 1906), pp. 699 sqq.
+       (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cf. the phrase "ephod of prophecy" (_Testament of Levi_, viii.
+    2). The priestly apparatus of the post-exilic age retains several
+    traces of old mythological symbolism and earlier cult, the meaning of
+    which had not altogether been forgotten. With the dress one may
+    perhaps compare the apparel of the gods Marduk and Adad, for which
+    see A. Jeremias, _Das Alte Test. im Lichte des Alten Orients_, 2nd
+    ed., figs. 33, 46, and pp. 162, 449.
+
+  [2] The ordinary interpretation "_linen_ ephod" (1 Sam. ii. 18, xxii.
+    18; 2 Sam. vi. 14) is questioned by T.C. Foote in his useful
+    monograph, _Journ. Bibl. Lit._ xxi., 1902, pp. 3, 47. This writer
+    also aptly compares the infant Samuel with the child who drew the
+    lots at the temple of Fortuna at Praeneste (Cicero, _De divin._ ii.
+    41, 86), and with the modern practice of employing innocent
+    instruments of chance in lotteries (_op. cit._ pp. 22, 27).
+
+  [3] It is not stated that the linen ephod was David's sole covering,
+    and it is difficult to account for the text in the parallel passage 1
+    Chron. xv. 27 (where he is clothed with a robe); "girt," too, is
+    ambiguous, since the verb is even used of a sword. On the question of
+    nudity (cf. 1 Sam. xix. 24) see Robertson Smith, _Rel. Sem._² pp.
+    161, 450 sq.; _Ency. Bib._ s.vv. "girdle," "sackcloth"; and M.
+    Jastrow, _Journ. Am. Or. Soc._ xx. 144, xxi. 23. The significant
+    terms "uncover," "play" (2 Sam. vi. 20 sq.), have other meanings
+    intelligible to those acquainted with the excesses practised in
+    Oriental cults.
+
+
+
+
+EPHOR (Gr. [Greek: ephoros]), the title of the highest magistrates of
+the ancient Spartan state. It is uncertain when the office was created
+and what was its original character. That it owed its institution to
+Lycurgus (Herod. i. 65; cf. Xen. _Respub. Lacedaem._ viii. 3) is very
+improbable, and we may either regard it as an immemorial Dorian
+institution (with C.O. Müller, H. Gabriel, H.K. Stein, Ed. Meyer and
+others), or accept the tradition that it was founded during the first
+Messenian War, which necessitated a prolonged absence from Sparta on the
+part of both kings (Plato, _Laws_, iii. 692 a; Aristotle, _Politics_, v.
+9. 1 = p. 1313 a 26; Plut. _Cleomenes_, 10; so G. Dum, G. Gilbert,
+A.H.J. Greenidge). There is no evidence for the theory that originally
+the ephors were market inspectors; they seem rather to have had from the
+outset judicial or police functions. Gradually they extended their
+powers, aided by the jealousy between the royal houses, which made it
+almost impossible for the two kings to co-operate heartily, and from the
+5th to the 3rd century they exercised a growing despotism which Plato
+justly calls a _tyrannis_ (_Laws_, 692). Cleomenes III. restored the
+royal power by murdering four of the ephors and abolishing the office,
+and though it was revived by Antigonus Doson after the battle of
+Sellasia, and existed at least down to Hadrian's reign (_Sparta Museum
+Catalogue_, Introd. p. 10), it never regained its former power.
+
+In historical times the ephors were five in number, the first of them
+giving his name to the year, like the eponymous archon at Athens. Where
+opinions were divided the majority prevailed. The ephors were elected
+annually, originally no doubt by the kings, later by the people; their
+term of office began with the new moon after the autumnal equinox, and
+they had an official residence ([Greek: ephoreion]) in the Agora. Every
+full citizen was eligible and no property qualification was required.
+
+The ephors summoned and presided over meetings of the Gerousia and
+Apella, and formed the executive committee responsible for carrying out
+decrees. In their dealings with the kings they represented the supremacy
+of the people. There was a monthly exchange of oaths, the kings swearing
+to rule according to the laws, the ephors undertaking on this condition
+to maintain the royal authority (Xen. _Resp. Laced._ 15. 7). They alone
+might remain seated in a king's presence, and had power to try and even
+to imprison a king, who must appear before them at the third summons.
+Two of them accompanied the army in the field, not interfering with the
+king's conduct of the campaign, but prepared, if need be, to bring him
+to trial on his return. The ephors, again, exercised a general
+guardianship of law and custom and superintended the training of the
+young. They shared the criminal jurisdiction of the Gerousia and decided
+civil suits. The administration of taxation, the distribution of booty,
+and the regulation of the calendar also devolved upon them. They could
+actually put _perioeci_ to death without trial, if we may believe
+Isocrates (xii. 181), and were responsible for protecting the state
+against the helots, against whom they formally declared war on entering
+office, so as to be able to kill any whom they regarded as dangerous
+without violating religious scruples. Finally, the ephors were supreme
+in questions of foreign policy. They enforced, when necessary, the alien
+acts ([Greek: xenêlasia]), negotiated with foreign ambassadors,
+instructed generals, sent out expeditions and were the guiding spirits
+of the Spartan confederacy.
+
+  See the constitutional histories of G. Gilbert (Eng. trans.), pp. 16,
+  52-59; G. Busolt, p. 84 ff., V. Thumser, p. 241 ff., G.F. Schömann
+  (Eng. trans.), p. 236 ff., A.H.J. Greenidge, p. 102 ff.; Szanto's
+  article "Ephoroi" in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, v. 2860 ff.;
+  Ed. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_, i. 244 ff.; C.O.
+  Müller, _Dorians_, bk. iii. ch. vii.; G. Grote, _History of Greece_,
+  pt. ii. ch. vi.; G. Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, i.² 555 ff.; B.
+  Niese, _Historische Zeitschrift_, lxii. 58 ff. Of the many monographs
+  dealing with this subject the following are specially useful: G. Dum,
+  _Entstehung und Entwicklung des spartan_. _Ephorats_ (Innsbruck,
+  1878); H.K. Stein, _Das spartan_. _Ephorat bis auf Cheilon_
+  (Paderborn, 1870); K. Kuchtner, _Entstehung und ursprüngliche
+  Bedeutung des spartan_. _Ephorats_ (Munich, 1897); C. Frick, _De
+  ephoris Spartanis_ (Göttingen, 1872); A. Schaefer, _De ephoris
+  Lacedaemoniis_ (Greifswald, 1863); E. von Stern, _Zur Entstehung und
+  ursprünglichen Bedeutung des Ephorats in Sparta_ (Berlin, 1894).
+       (M. N. T.)
+
+
+
+
+EPHORUS (c. 400-330 B.C.), of Cyme in Aeolis, in Asia Minor, Greek
+historian. Together with the historian Theopompus he was a pupil of
+Isocrates, in whose school he attended two courses of rhetoric. But he
+does not seem to have made much progress in the art, and it is said to
+have been at the suggestion of Isocrates himself that he took up
+literary composition and the study of history. The fruit of his labours
+was his [Greek: Historiai] in 29 books, the first universal history,
+beginning with the return of the Heraclidae to Peloponnesus, as the
+first well-attested historical event. The whole work was edited by his
+son Demophilus, who added a 30th book, containing a summary description
+of the Social War and ending with the taking of Perinthus (340) by
+Philip of Macedon (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi. 14 with xvi. 76). Each book was
+complete in itself, and had a separate title and preface. It is clear
+that Ephorus made critical use of the best authorities, and his work,
+highly praised and much read, was freely drawn upon by Diodorus
+Siculus[1] and other compilers. Strabo (viii. p. 332) attaches much
+importance to his geographical investigations, and praises him for being
+the first to separate the historical from the merely geographical
+element. Polybius (xii. 25 g) while crediting him with a knowledge of
+the conditions of naval warfare, ridicules his description of the
+battles of Leuctra and Mantineia as showing ignorance of the nature of
+land operations. He was further to be commended for drawing (though not
+always) a sharp line of demarcation between the mythical and historical
+(Strabo ix. p. 423); he even recognized that a profusion of detail,
+though lending corroborative force to accounts of recent events, is
+ground for suspicion in reports of far-distant history. His style was
+high-flown and artificial, as was natural considering his early
+training, and he frequently sacrificed truth to rhetoric effect; but,
+according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, he and Theopompus were the only
+historical writers whose language was accurate and finished. Other works
+attributed to him were:--_A Treatise on Discoveries; Respecting Good and
+Evil Things; On Remarkable Things in Various Countries_ (it is doubtful
+whether these were separate works, or merely extracts from the
+_Histories_); _A Treatise on my Country_, on the history and antiquities
+of Cyme, and an essay _On Style_, his only rhetorical work, which is
+occasionally mentioned by the rhetorician Theon. Nothing is known of his
+life, except the statement in Plutarch that he declined to visit the
+court of Alexander the Great.
+
+  Fragments in C.W. Müller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, i., with
+  critical introduction on the life and writings of Ephorus; see J.A.
+  Klügmann, _De Ephoro historico_ (1860); C.A. Volquardsen,
+  _Untersuchungen über die Quellen der griechischen und sicilischen
+  Geschichten bei Diodor_. _xi.-xvi._ (1868); and specially J.B. Bury,
+  _Ancient Greek Historians_ (1909); E. Schwartz, in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyc._ s.v.; and article GREECE: _History_: Ancient Authorities.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It is now generally recognized, thanks to Volquardsen and others,
+    that Ephorus is the principal authority followed by Diodorus, except
+    in the chapters relating to Sicilian history.
+
+
+
+
+EPHRAEM SYRUS (Ephraim the Syrian), a saint who lived in Mesopotamia
+during the first three quarters of the 4th century A.D. He is perhaps
+the most influential of all Syriac authors; and his fame as a poet,
+commentator, preacher and defender of orthodoxy has spread throughout
+all branches of the Christian Church. This reputation he owes partly to
+the vast fertility of his pen--according to the historian Sozomen he was
+credited with having written altogether 3,000,000 lines--partly to the
+elegance of his style and a certain measure of poetic inspiration, more
+perhaps to the strength and consistency of his personal character, and
+his ardour in defence of the creed formulated at Nicaea.
+
+An anonymous life of Ephraim was written not long after his death in
+373. The biography has come down to us in two recensions. But in neither
+form is it free from later interpolation; and its untrustworthiness is
+shown by its conflicting with data supplied by his own works, as well as
+by the manner in which it is overloaded with miraculous events. The
+following is a probable outline of the main facts of Ephraim's life. He
+was born in the reign of Constantine (perhaps in 306) at or near
+Nisibis. His father was a pagan, the priest of an idol called Abnil or
+Abizal.[1] During his boyhood Ephraim showed a repugnance towards
+heathen worship, and was eventually driven by his father from the home.
+He became a ward and disciple of the famous Jacob--the same who attended
+the Council of Nicaea as bishop of Nisibis, and died in 338. At his
+hands Ephraim seems to have received baptism at the age of 18 or of 28
+(the two recensions differ on this point), and remained at Nisibis till
+its surrender to the Persians by Jovian in 363. Probably in the course
+of these years he was ordained a deacon, but from his humble estimate of
+his own worth refused advancement to any higher degree in the church. He
+seems to have played an important part in guiding the fortunes of the
+city during the war begun by Shapur II. in 337, in the course of which
+Nisibis was thrice unsuccessfully besieged by the Persians (in 338, 346
+and 350). The statements of his biographer to this effect accord with
+the impression we derive from his own poems (_Carmina Nisibena_, 1-21).
+His intimate relations with Bishop Jacob were continued with the three
+succeeding bishops--Babu (338-?349), Vologaeses (?349-361), and
+Abraham--on all of whom he wrote encomia. The surrender of the city in
+363 to the Persians resulted in a general exodus of the Christians, and
+Ephraim left with the rest. After visiting Amid (Diarbekr) he proceeded
+to Edessa, and there settled and spent the last ten years of his life.
+He seems to have lived mainly as a hermit outside the city: his time was
+devoted to study, writing, teaching and the refutation of heresies. It
+is possible that during these years he paid a visit to Basil at
+Caesarea. Near the end of his life he rendered great public service by
+distributing provisions in the city during a famine. The best attested
+date for his death is the 9th of June 373. It is clear that this
+chronology leaves no room for the visit to Egypt, and the eight years
+spent there in refuting Arianism, which are alleged by his biographer.
+Perhaps, as has been surmised, there may be confusion with another
+Ephraim. Nor can he have written the funeral panegyric on Basil who
+survived him by three months. But with all necessary deductions the
+biography is valuable as witnessing to the immense reputation for
+sanctity and for theological acumen which Ephraim had gained in his
+lifetime, or at least soon after he died. His biographer's statement as
+to his habits and appearance is worth quoting, and is probably
+true:--"From the time he became a monk to the end of his life his only
+food was barley bread and sometimes pulse and vegetables: his drink was
+water. And his flesh was dried upon his bones, like a potter's sherd.
+His clothes were of many pieces patched together, the colour of dirt. In
+stature he was little; his countenance was always sad, and he never
+condescended to laughter. And he was bald and beardless."
+
+The statement in his Life that Ephraim miraculously learned Coptic falls
+to the ground with the narrative of his Egyptian visit: and the story of
+his suddenly learning to speak Greek through the prayer of St Basil is
+equally unworthy of credence. He probably wrote only in Syriac, though
+he may have possessed some knowledge of Greek and possibly of Hebrew.
+But many of his works must have been early translated into other
+languages; and we possess in MSS. versions into Greek, Armenian, Coptic,
+Arabic and Ethiopic. The Greek versions occupy three entire volumes of
+the Roman folio edition, and the extant Armenian versions (mainly of
+N.T. commentaries) were published at Venice in four volumes in 1836.
+
+It was primarily as a sacred poet that Ephraim impressed himself on his
+fellow-countrymen. With the exception of his commentaries on scripture,
+nearly all his extant Syriac works are composed in metre. In many cases
+the metrical structure is of the simplest, consisting only in the
+arrangement of the discourse in lines of uniform length--usually
+heptasyllabic (Ephraim's favourite metre) or pentasyllabic. A more
+complicated arrangement is found in other poems, such as the _Carmina
+Nisibena_: these are made up of strophes, each consisting of lines of
+different lengths according to a settled scheme, with a recurring
+refrain. T.J. Lamy has estimated that, in this class of poems, there are
+as many as 66 different varieties of metres to be found in the works of
+Ephraim. These strophic poems were set to music, and sung by alternating
+choirs of girls. According to Ephraim's biographer, his main motive for
+providing these hymns set to music was his desire to counteract the
+baneful effects produced by the heretical hymns of Bardaisan and his son
+Harmonius, which had enjoyed popularity and been sung among the
+Edessenes for a century and a half.
+
+The subject-matter of Ephraim's poems covers all departments of
+theology. Thus the Roman edition contains (of metrical works) exegetical
+discourses, hymns on the Nativity of Christ, 65 hymns against heretics,
+85 on the Faith against sceptics, a discourse against the Jews, 85
+funeral hymns, 4 on freewill, 76 exhortations to repentance, 12 hymns on
+paradise, and 12 on miscellaneous subjects. The edition of Lamy has
+added many other poems, largely connected with church festivals. It must
+be confessed that, judged by Western standards, the poems of Ephraim are
+prolix and wearisome in the extreme, and are distinguished by few
+striking poetic beauties. And so far as they are made the vehicle of
+reasoning, their efficiency is seriously hampered by their poetic form.
+On the other hand, it is fair to remember that the taste of Ephraim's
+countrymen in poetry was very different from ours. As Duval remarks:
+"quant à la prolixité de saint Éphrem que nous trouvons parfois
+fastidieuse, on ne peut la condamner sans tenir compte du goût des
+Syriens qui aimaient les répétitions et les développements de la même
+pensée, et voyaient des qualités là où nous trouvons des défauts"
+(_Littér. syriaque_, p. 19). He is no worse in these respects than the
+best of the Syriac writers who succeeded him. And he surpasses almost
+all of them in the richness of his diction, and his skill in the use of
+metaphors and illustrations.
+
+Of Ephraim as a commentator on Scripture we have only imperfect means of
+judging. His commentaries on the O.T. are at present accessible to us
+only in the form they had assumed in the _Catena Patrum_ of Severus
+(compiled in 861), and to some extent in quotations by later Syriac
+commentators. His commentary on the Gospels is of great importance in
+connexion with the textual history of the N.T., for the text on which he
+composed it was that of the Diatessaron. The Syriac original is lost:
+but the ancient Armenian version survives, and was published at Venice
+in 1836 along with Ephraim's commentary on the Pauline epistles (also
+only extant in Armenian) and some other works. A Latin version of the
+Armenian Diatessaron commentary has been made by Aucher and Mösinger
+(Venice, 1876). Using this version as a clue, J.R. Harris[2] has been
+able to identify a number of Syriac quotations from or references to
+this commentary in the works of Isho'dadh, Bar-Kepha (Severus),
+Bar-salibi and Barhebraeus. Although, as Harris points out, it is
+unlikely that the original text of the Diatessaron had come down
+unchanged through the two centuries to Ephraim's day, the text on which
+he comments was in the main unaffected by the revision which produced
+the Peshitta. Side by side with this conclusion may be placed the result
+of F.C. Burkitt's[3] careful examination of the quotations from the
+Gospels in the other works of Ephraim; he shows conclusively that in all
+the undoubtedly genuine works the quotations are from a pre-Peshitta
+text.
+
+As a theologian, Ephraim shows himself a stout defender of Nicaean
+orthodoxy, with no leanings in the direction of either the Nestorian or
+the Monophysite heresies which arose after his time. He regarded it as
+his special task to combat the views of Marcion, of Bardaisan and of
+Mani.
+
+To the modern historian Ephraim's main contribution is in the material
+supplied by the 72 hymns[4] known as _Carmina Nisibena_ and published by
+G. Bickell in 1866. The first 20 poems were written at Nisibis between
+350 and 363 during the Persian invasions; the remaining 52 at Edessa
+between 363 and 373. The former tell us much of the incidents of the
+frontier war, and particularly enable us to reconstruct in detail the
+history of the third siege of Nisibis in 350.
+
+  Of the many editions of Ephraim's works a full list is given by Nestle
+  in _Realenk. f. protest. Theol. und Kirche_ (3rd ed.). For modern
+  students the most important are: (1) the great folio edition in 6
+  volumes (3 of works in Greek and 3 in Syriac), in which the text is
+  throughout accompanied by a Latin version (Rome, 1732-1746); on the
+  unsatisfactory character of this edition (which includes many works
+  that are not Ephraim's) and especially of the Latin version, see
+  Burkitt, _Ephraim's Quotations_, pp. 4 sqq.; (2) _Carmina Nisibena_,
+  edited with a Latin translation by G. Bickell (Leipzig, 1866); (3)
+  _Hymni et sermones_, edited with a Latin translation by T.J. Lamy (4
+  vols., Malines, 1882-1902). Many selected homilies have been edited or
+  translated by Overbeck, Zingerle and others (cf. Wright, _Short
+  History_, pp. 35 sqq.); a selection of the _Hymns_ was translated by
+  H. Burgess, _Select Metrical Hymns of Ephrem Syrus_ (1853). Of the two
+  recensions of Ephraim's biography, one was edited in part by J.S.
+  Assemani (B.O. i. 26 sqq.) and in full by S.E. Assemani in the Roman
+  edition (iii. pp. xxiii.-lxiii.); the other by Lamy (ii. 5-90) and
+  Bedjan (_Acta mart. et sanct._ iii. 621-665). The long poem on the
+  history of Joseph, twice edited by Bedjan (Paris, 1887 and 1891) and
+  by him attributed to Ephraim, is more probably the work of Balai.
+       (N. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It is true that in the _Confession_ attributed to him and printed
+    among his Greek works in the first volume of the Roman edition he
+    speaks (p. 129) of his parents as having become martyrs for the
+    Christian faith. But this document is of very doubtful authenticity.
+
+  [2] _Fragments of the Commentary of Ephrem Syrus upon the
+    Diatessaron_ (London, 1895).
+
+  [3] "Ephraim's Quotations from the Gospel," in _Texts and Studies_,
+    vol. vii. (Cambridge, 1901).
+
+  [4] There were originally 77, but 5 have perished.
+
+
+
+
+EPHRAIM, a tribe of Israel, called after the younger son of Joseph, who
+in his benediction exalted Ephraim over the elder brother Manasseh (Gen.
+xlviii.). These two divisions were often known as the "house of Joseph"
+(Josh. xvii. 14 sqq.; Judg. i. 22; 2 Sam. xix. 20; 1 Kings xi. 28). The
+relations between them are obscure; conflicts are referred to in Is. ix.
+21,[1] and Ephraim's proud and ambitious character is indicated in its
+demands as narrated in Josh. xvii. 14; Judg. viii. 1-3, xii. 1-6.
+throughout, Ephraim played a distinctive and prominent part; it probably
+excelled Manasseh in numerical strength, and the name became a synonym
+for the northern kingdom of Israel. Originally the name may have been a
+geographical term for the central portion of Palestine. Regarded as a
+tribe, it lay to the north of Benjamin, which traditionally belongs to
+it; but whether the young "brother" (see BENJAMIN) sprang from it, or
+grew up separately, is uncertain. Northwards, Ephraim lost itself in
+Manasseh, even if it did not actually include it (Judg. i. 27; 1 Chron.
+vii. 29); the boundaries between them can hardly be recovered. Ephraim's
+strength lay in the possession of famous sites: Shechem, with the tomb
+of the tribal ancestor, also one of the capitals; Shiloh, at one period
+the home of the ark; Timnath-Serah (or Heres), the burial-place of
+Joshua; and Samaria, whose name was afterwards extended to the whole
+district (see SAMARIA).
+
+Shechem itself was visited by Abraham and Jacob, and the latter bought
+from the sons of Hamor a burial-place (Gen. xxxiii. 19). The story of
+Dinah may imply some early settlement of tribes in its vicinity (but see
+SIMEON), and the reference in Gen. xlviii. 22 (see R.V. marg.) alludes
+to its having been forcibly captured. But how this part of Palestine
+came into the hands of the Israelites is not definitely related in the
+story of the invasion (see JOSHUA).
+
+A careful discussion of the Biblical data referring to Ephraim is given
+by H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bib._, s.v. On the characteristic narratives which
+appear to have originated in Ephraim (viz. the Ephraimite or Elohist
+source, E), see GENESIS and BIBLE: _Old Testament Criticism._ See
+further ABIMELECH; GIDEON; MANASSEH; and JEWS: _History_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Inter-tribal feuds during the period of the monarchy may underlie
+    the events mentioned in 1 Kings xvi. 9 sq., 21 sq.; 2 Kings xv. 10,
+    14.
+
+
+
+
+EPHTHALITES, or WHITE HUNS. This many-named and enigmatical tribe was
+of considerable importance in the history of India and Persia in the 5th
+and 6th centuries, and was known to the Byzantine writers, who call them
+[Greek: Ephthalitoi, Euthagitoi,] [Greek: Nephthalitoi] or [Greek:
+Abdeloi]. The last of these is an independent attempt to render the
+original name, which was probably something like Aptal or Haptal, but
+the initial [Nu] of the third is believed to be a clerical error. They
+were also called [Greek: Leukoi Ounnoi] or [Greek: Chounoi], White (that
+is fair-skinned) Huns. In Arabic and Persian they are known as Haital
+and in Armenian as Haithal, Idal or Hepthal. The Chinese name Yetha
+seems an attempt to represent the same sound. In India they were called
+Hunas. Ephthalite is the usual orthography, but Hephthalite is perhaps
+more correct.
+
+Our earliest information about the Ephthalites comes from the Chinese
+chronicles, in which it is stated that they were originally a tribe of
+the great Yue-Chi (q.v.), living to the north of the Great Wall, and in
+subjection to the Jwen-Jwen, as were also the Turks at one time. Their
+original name was Hoa or Hoa-tun; subsequently they styled themselves
+Ye-tha-i-li-to after the name of their royal family, or more briefly
+Ye-tha. Before the 5th century A.D. they began to move westwards, for
+about 420 we find them in Transoxiana, and for the next 130 years they
+were a menace to Persia, which they continually and successfully
+invaded, though they never held it as a conquest. The Sassanid king,
+Bahram V., fought several campaigns with them and succeeded in keeping
+them at bay, but they defeated and killed Peroz (Firuz), A.D. 484. His
+son Kavadh I. (Kobad), being driven out of Persia, took refuge with the
+Ephthalites, and recovered his throne with the assistance of their khan,
+whose daughter he had married, but subsequently he engaged in prolonged
+hostilities with them. The Persians were not quit of the Ephthalites
+until 557 when Chosroes Anushirwan destroyed their power with the
+assistance of the Turks, who now make their first appearance in western
+Asia.
+
+The Huns who invaded India appear to have belonged to the same stock as
+those who molested Persia. The headquarters of the horde were at Bamian
+and at Balkh, and from these points they raided south-east and
+south-west. Skandagupta repelled an invasion in 455, but the defeat of
+the Persians in 484 probably stimulated their activity, and at the end
+of the 5th century their chief Toromana penetrated to Malwa in central
+India and succeeded in holding it for some time. His son Mihiragula (c.
+510-540) made Sakala in the Punjab his Indian capital, but the cruelty
+of his rule provoked the Indian princes to form a confederation and
+revolt against him about 528. He was not, however, killed, but took
+refuge in Kashmir, where after a few years he seized the throne and then
+attacked the neighbouring kingdom of Gandhara, perpetrating terrible
+massacres. About a year after this he died (c. 540), and shortly
+afterwards the Ephthalites collapsed under the attacks of the Turks.
+They do not appear to have moved on to another sphere, as these nomadic
+tribes often did when defeated, and were probably gradually absorbed in
+the surrounding populations. Their political power perhaps continued in
+the Gurjara empire, which at one time extended to Bengal in the east and
+the Nerbudda in the south, and continued in a diminished form until A.D.
+1040. These Gurjaras appear to have entered India in connexion with the
+Hunnish invasions.
+
+Our knowledge of the Indian Hunas is chiefly derived from coins, from a
+few inscriptions distributed from the Punjab to central India, and from
+the account of the Chinese pilgrim Hsùan Tsang, who visited the country
+just a century after the death of Mihiragula. The Greek monk Cosmas
+Indicopleustes, who visited India about 530, describes the ruler of the
+country, whom he calls Gollas, as a White Hun king, who exacted an
+oppressive tribute with the help of a large army of cavalry and war
+elephants. Gollas no doubt represents the last part of the name
+Mihiragula or Mihirakula.
+
+The accounts of the Ephthalites, especially those of the Indian Hunas,
+dwell on their ferocity and cruelty. They are represented as delighting
+in massacres and torture, and it is said that popular tradition in India
+still retains the story that Mihiragula used to amuse himself by rolling
+elephants down a precipice and watching their agonies. Their invasions
+shook Indian society and institutions to the foundations, but, unlike
+the earlier Kushans, they do not seem to have introduced new ideas into
+India or have acted as other than a destructive force, although they may
+perhaps have kept up some communication between India and Persia. The
+first part of Mihiragula seems to be the name of the Persian deity
+Mithra, but his patron deity was Siva, and he left behind him the
+reputation of a ferocious persecutor of Buddhism. Many of his coins bear
+the Nandi bull (Siva's emblem), and the king's name is preceded by the
+title _sahi_ (shah), which had previously been used by the Kushan
+dynasty. Toramana's coins are found plentifully in Kashmir, which,
+therefore, probably formed part of the Huna dominions before
+Mihiragula's time, so that when he fled there after his defeat he was
+taking refuge, if not with his own subjects, at least with a kindred
+clan.
+
+Greek writers give a more flattering account of the Ephthalites, which
+may perhaps be due to the fact that they were useful to the East Roman
+empire as enemies of Persia and also not dangerously near. Procopius
+says that they were far more civilized than the Huns of Attila, and the
+Turkish ambassador who was received by Justin is said to have described
+them as [Greek: astikoi], which may merely mean that they lived in the
+cities which they conquered. The Chinese writers say that their customs
+were like those of the Turks; that they had no cities, lived in felt
+tents, were ignorant of writing and practised polyandry. Nothing
+whatever is known of their language, but some scholars explain the names
+Toramana and Jauvla as Turkish.
+
+For the possible connexion between the Ephthalites and the European Huns
+see HUNS. The Chinese statement that the Hoa or Ye-tha were a section of
+the great Yue-Chi, and that their customs resembled those of the Turks
+(Tu-Kiue), is probably correct, but does not amount to much, for the
+relationship did not prevent them from fighting with the Yue-Chi and
+Turks, and means little more than that they belonged to the warlike and
+energetic section of central Asian nomads, which is in any case certain.
+They appear to have been more ferocious and less assimilative than the
+other conquering tribes. This may, however, be due to the fact that
+their contact with civilization was so short; the Yue-Chi and Turks had
+had some commerce with more advanced races before they played any part
+in political history, but the Ephthalites appear as raw barbarians, and
+were annihilated as a nation in little more than a hundred years. Like
+the Yue-Chi they have probably contributed to form some of the physical
+types of the Indian population, and it is noticeable that polyandry is a
+recognized institution among many Himalayan tribes, and is also said to
+be practised secretly by the Jats and other races of the plains.
+
+  Among original authorities may be consulted Procopius, Menander
+  Protector, Cosmas Indicopleustes (trans. McCrindle, Hakluyt Society,
+  1897), the Kashmir chronicle _Rajataranginî_ (trans. Stein, 1900, and
+  Yüan Chwang). See also A. Stein, _White Huns and Kindred Tribes_
+  (1905); O. Franke, _Beiträge aus chinesischen Quellen zur Kenntnis der
+  Türkvölker und Skythen_ (1904); Ujfalvy, _Mémoire sur les Huns Blancs_
+  (1898); Drouin, _Mémoire sur les Huns Ephthalites_ (1895); and various
+  articles by Vincent Smith, Specht, Drouin, and E.H. Parker in the
+  _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, _Journal asiatique_, _Revue
+  numismatique_, _Asiatic Quarterly_, &c.     (C. El.)
+
+
+
+
+ÉPI, the French architectural term for a light finial, generally of
+metal, but sometimes of terra-cotta, forming the termination of a spire
+or the angle of a roof.
+
+
+
+
+EPICENE (from the Gr. [Greek: epikoinos], common), a term in Greek and
+Latin grammar denoting nouns which, possessing but one gender, are used
+to describe animals of either sex. In English grammar there are no true
+epicene nouns, but the term is sometimes used instead of _common
+gender_. In figurative and literary language, epicene is an adjective
+applied to persons having the characteristics of both sexes, and hence
+is occasionally used as a synonym of "effeminate."
+
+
+
+
+EPICHARMUS (c. 540-450 B.C.), Greek comic poet, was born in the island
+of Cos. Early in life he went to Megara in Sicily, and after its
+destruction by Gelo (484) removed to Syracuse, where he spent the rest
+of his life at the court of Hiero, and died at the age of ninety or
+(according to a statement in Lucian, _Macrobii_, 25) ninety-seven. A
+brazen statue was set up in his honour by the inhabitants, for which
+Theocritus composed an inscription (_Epigr._ 17). Epicharmus was the
+chief representative of the Sicilian or Dorian comedy. Of his works 35
+titles and a few fragments have survived. In the city of tyrants it
+would have been dangerous to present comedies like those of the Athenian
+stage, in which attacks were made upon the authorities. Accordingly, the
+comedies of Epicharmus are of two kinds, neither of them calculated to
+give offence to the ruler. They are either mythological travesties
+(resembling the satyric drama of Athens) or character comedies. To the
+first class belong the _Busiris_, in which Heracles is represented as a
+voracious glutton; the _Marriage of Hebe_, remarkable for a lengthy list
+of dainties. The second class dealt with different classes of the
+population (the sailor, the prophet, the boor, the parasite). Some of
+the plays seem to have bordered on the political, as _The Plunderings_,
+describing the devastation of Sicily in the time of the poet. A short
+fragment has been discovered (in the Rainer papyri) from the [Greek:
+Odysseus automolos], which told how Odysseus got inside Troy in the
+disguise of a beggar and obtained valuable information. Another feature
+of his works was the large number of excellent sentiments expressed in a
+brief proverbial form; the Pythagoreans claimed him as a member of their
+school, who had forsaken the study of philosophy for the writing of
+comedy. Plato (_Theaetetus_, 152 E) puts him at the head of the masters
+of comedy, coupling his name with Homer and, according to a remark in
+Diogenes Laërtius, Plato was indebted to Epicharmus for much of his
+philosophy. Ennius called his didactic poem on natural philosophy
+_Epicharmus_ after the comic poet. The metres employed by Epicharmus
+were iambic trimeter, and especially trochaic and anapaestic tetrameter.
+The plot of the plays was simple, the action lively and rapid; hence
+they were classed among the _fabulae motoriae_ (stirring, bustling), as
+indicated in the well-known line of Horace (_Epistles_, ii. 1. 58):
+
+  "Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi."
+
+  Epicharmus is the subject of articles in Suidas and Diogenes Laërtius
+  (viii. 3). See A.O. Lorenz, _Leben und Schriften des Koers E._ (with
+  account of the Doric drama and fragments, 1864); J. Girard, _Études
+  sur la poésie grecque_ (1884); Kaibel in Pauly-Wissowa's
+  _Realencyclopädie_, according to whom Epicharmus was a Siceliot; for
+  the papyrus fragment, Blass in _Jahrbücher für Philologie_, cxxxix.,
+  1889.
+
+
+
+
+EPIC POETRY, or EPOS (from the Gr. [Greek: epos], a story, and [Greek:
+epikos], pertaining to a story), the names given to the most dignified
+and elaborate forms of narrative poetry. The word _epopee_ is also, but
+more rarely, employed to designate the same thing, [Greek: epopoios] in
+Greek being a maker of epic poetry, and [Greek: epopoiia] what he makes.
+
+It is to Greece, where the earliest literary monuments which we possess
+are of an epical character, that we turn for a definition of these vast
+heroic compositions, and we gather that their subject-matter was not
+confined, as Voltaire and the critics of the 18th century supposed, to
+"narratives in verse of warlike adventures." When we first discover the
+epos, hexameter verse has already been selected for its vehicle. In this
+form epic poems were composed not merely dealing with war and personal
+romance, but carrying out a didactic purpose, or celebrating the
+mysteries of religion. These three divisions, to which are severally
+attached the more or less mythical names of Homer, Hesiod and Orpheus
+seem to have marked the earliest literary movement of the Greeks. But,
+even here, we must be warned that what we possess is not primitive;
+there had been unwritten epics, probably in hexameters, long before the
+composition of any now-surviving fragment. The saga of the Greek nation,
+the catalogue of its arts and possessions, the rites and beliefs of its
+priesthood, must have been circulated, by word of mouth, long before any
+historical poet was born. We look upon Homer and Hesiod as records of
+primitive thought, but Professor Gilbert Murray reminds us that "our
+_Iliad, Odyssey_, _Erga_ and _Theogony_ are not the first, nor the
+second, nor the twelfth of such embodiments." The early epic poets,
+Lesches, Linus, Orpheus, Arctinus, Eugammon are the veriest shadows,
+whose names often betray their symbolic and fabulous character. It is
+now believed that there was a class of minstrels, the Rhapsodists or
+Homeridae, whose business it was to recite poetry at feasts and other
+solemn occasions. "The real bards of early Greece were all nameless and
+impersonal." When our tradition begins to be preserved, we find
+everything of a saga-character attributed to Homer, a blind man and an
+inhabitant of Chios. This gradually crystallized until we find Aristotle
+definitely treating Homer as a person, and attributing to him the
+composition of three great poems, the _Iliad_, the _Odyssey_ and the
+_Margites_, now lost (see HOMER). The first two of these have been
+preserved and form for us the type of the ancient epic; when we speak of
+epic poetry, we unconsciously measure it by the example of the _Iliad_
+and the _Odyssey_. It is quite certain, however, that these poems had
+not merely been preceded by a vast number of revisions of the mythical
+history of the country, but were accompanied by innumerable poems of a
+similar character, now entirely lost. That antiquity did not regard
+these other epics as equal in beauty to the _Iliad_ seems to be certain;
+but such poems as _Cypria_, _Iliou Persis_ (Sack of Ilion) and
+_Aethiopis_ can hardly but have exhibited other sides of the epic
+tradition. Did we possess them, it is almost certain that we could speak
+with more assurance as to the scope of epic poetry in the days of oral
+tradition, and could understand more clearly what sort of ballads in
+hexameter it was which rhapsodes took round from court to court. In the
+4th century B.C. it seems that people began to write down what was not
+yet forgotten of all this oral poetry. Unfortunately, the earliest
+critic who describes this process is Proclus, a Byzantine neo-Platonist,
+who did not write until some 800 years later, when the whole tradition
+had become hopelessly corrupted. When we pass from Homer and Hesiod,
+about whose actual existence critics will be eternally divided, we reach
+in the 7th century a poet, Peisander of Rhodes, who wrote an epic poem,
+the _Heracleia_, of which fragments remain. Other epic writers, who
+appear to be undoubtedly historic, are Antimachus of Colophon, who wrote
+a _Thebais_; Panyasis, who, like Peisander, celebrated the feats of
+Heracles; Choerilus of Samos; and Anyte, of whom we only know that she
+was an epic poetess, and was called "The female Homer." In the 6th and
+5th centuries B.C. there was a distinct school of philosophical epic,
+and we distinguish the names of Xenophanes, Parmenides and Empedocles as
+the leaders of it.
+
+From the dawn of Latin literature epic poetry seems to have been
+cultivated in Italy. A Greek exile, named Livius Andronicus, translated
+the _Odyssey_ into Latin during the first Punic War, but the earliest
+original epic of Rome was the lost _Bellum Punicum_ of Naevius, a work
+to which Virgil was indebted. A little later, Ennius composed, about 172
+B.C., in 18 books, an historical epic of the _Annales_, dealing with the
+whole chronicle of Rome. This was the foremost Latin poem, until the
+appearance of the _Aeneid_; it was not imitated, remaining, for a
+hundred years, as Mr Mackail has said, "not only the unique, but the
+satisfying achievement in this kind of poetry." Virgil began the most
+famous of Roman epics in the year 30 B.C., and when he died, nine years
+later, he desired that the MS. of the _Aeneid_ should be burned, as it
+required three years' work to complete it. Nevertheless, it seems to us,
+and seemed to the ancient world, almost perfect, and a priceless
+monument of art; it is written, like the great Greek poems on which it
+is patently modelled, in hexameters. In the next generation, the
+_Pharsalia_ of Lucan, of which Cato, as the type of the republican
+spirit, is the hero, was the principal example of Latin epic. Statius,
+under the Flavian emperors, wrote several epic poems, of which the
+_Thebaid_ survives. In the 1st century A.D. Valerius Flaccus wrote the
+_Argonautica_ in 8 books, and Silius Italicus the _Punic War_, in 17
+books; these authors show a great decline in taste and merit, even in
+comparison with Statius, and Silius Italicus, in particular, is as
+purely imitative as the worst of the epic writers of modern Europe. At
+the close of the 4th century the style revived with Claudian, who
+produced five or six elaborate historical and mythological epics of
+which the _Rape of Proserpine_ was probably the most remarkable; in his
+interesting poetry we have a valuable link between the Silver Age in
+Rome and the Italian Renaissance. With Claudian the history of epic
+poetry among the ancients closes.
+
+In medieval times there existed a large body of narrative poetry to
+which the general title of Epic has usually been given. Three principal
+schools are recognized, the French, the Teutonic and the Icelandic.
+Teutonic epic poetry deals, as a rule, with legends founded on the
+history of Germany in the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, and in particular
+with such heroes as Ermanaric, Attila and Theodoric. But there is also
+an important group in it which deals with English themes, and among
+these _Beowulf_, _Waldere_, _The Lay of Maldon_ and _Finnesburh_ are
+pre-eminent. To this group is allied the purely German poem of
+_Hildebrand_, attributed to c. 800. Among these _Beowulf_ is the only
+one which exists in anything like complete form, and it is of all
+examples of Teutonic epic the most important. With all its trivialities
+and incongruities, which belong to a barbarous age, _Beowulf_ is yet a
+solid and comprehensive example of native epic poetry. It is written,
+like all old Teutonic work of the kind, in alliterative unrhymed rhythm.
+In Iceland, a new heroic literature was invented in the middle ages, and
+to this we owe the Sagas, which are, in fact, a reduction to prose of
+the epics of the warlike history of the North. These Sagas took the
+place of a group of archaic Icelandic epics, the series of which seems
+to have closed with the noble poem of _Atlamál_, the principal surviving
+specimen of epic poetry as it was cultivated in the primitive literature
+of Iceland. The surviving epical fragments of Icelandic composition are
+found thrown together in the _Codex Regius_, under the title of _The
+Elder Edda_, a most precious MS. discovered in the 17th century. The
+Icelandic epics seem to have been shorter and more episodical in
+character than the lost Teutonic specimens; both kinds were written in
+alliterative verse. It is not probable that either possessed the organic
+unity and vitality of spirit which make the Sagas so delightful. The
+French medieval epics (see CHANSONS DE GESTE) are late in comparison
+with those of England, Germany and Iceland. They form a curious
+transitional link between primitive and modern poetry; the literature of
+civilized Europe may be said to begin with them. There is a great
+increase of simplicity, a great broadening of the scene of action. The
+Teutonic epics were obscure and intense, the French _chansons de geste_
+are lucid and easy. The existing masterpiece of this kind, the
+magnificent _Roland_, is doubtless the most interesting and pleasing of
+all the epics of medieval Europe. Professor Ker's analysis of its merits
+may be taken as typical of all that is best in the vast body of epic
+which comes between the antique models, which were unknown to the
+medieval poets, and the artificial epics of a later time which were
+founded on vast ideal themes, in imitation of the ancients. "There is
+something lyrical in _Roland_, but the poem is not governed by lyrical
+principles; it requires the deliberation and the freedom of epic; it
+must have room to move in before it can come up to the height of its
+argument. The abruptness of its periods is not really an interruption of
+its even flight; it is an abruptness of detail, like a broken sea with a
+larger wave moving under it; it does not impair or disguise the grandeur
+of the movement as a whole." Of the progress and decline of the chansons
+de geste (q.v.) from the ideals of _Roland_ a fuller account is given
+elsewhere. _To the Nibelungenlied_ (q.v.) also, detailed attention is
+given in a separate article.
+
+What may be called the artificial or secondary epics of modern Europe,
+founded upon an imitation of the _Iliad_ and the _Aeneid_, are more
+numerous than the ordinary reader supposes, although but few of them
+have preserved much vitality. In Italy the _Chanson de Roland_ inspired
+romantic epics by Luigi Pulci (1432-1487), whose _Morgante Maggiore_
+appeared in 1481, and is a masterpiece of burlesque; by M.M. Boiardo
+(1434-1494), whose _Orlando Innamorato_ was finished in 1486; by
+Francesco Bello (1440?-1495), whose _Mambriano_ was published in 1497;
+by Lodovico Ariosto (q.v.), whose _Orlando Furioso_, by far the greatest
+of its class, was published in 1516, and by Luigi Dolce (1508-1568), as
+well as by a great number of less illustrious poets. G.G. Trissino
+(1478-1549) wrote a _Deliverance of Italy from the Goths_ in 1547, and
+Bernardo Tasso (1493-1569) an _Amadigi_ in 1559; Berni remodelled the
+epic of Boiardo in 1541, and Teofilo Folengo (1491-1544), ridiculed the
+whole school in an _Orlandino_ of 1526. An extraordinary feat of
+mock-heroic epic was _The Bucket_ (1622) of Alessandro Tassoni
+(1565-1638). The most splendid of all the epics of Italy, however, was,
+and remains, the _Jerusalem Delivered_ of Torquato Tasso (q.v.),
+published originally in 1580, and afterwards rewritten as _The Conquest
+of Jerusalem_, 1593. The fantastic _Adone_ (1623) of G.B. Marini
+(1569-1625) and the long poems of Chiabrera, close the list of Italian
+epics. Early Portuguese literature is rich in epic poetry. Luis Pereira
+Brandão wrote an _Elegiada_ in 18 books, published in 1588; Jeronymo
+Corte-Real (d. 1588) a _Shipwreck of Sepulveda_ and two other epics;
+V.M. Quevedo, in 1601, an _Alphonso of Africa_, in 12 books; Sá de
+Menezes (d. 1664) a _Conquest of Malacca_, 1634; but all these, and many
+more, are obscured by the glory of Camoens (q.v.), whose magnificent
+_Lusiads_ had been printed in 1572, and forms the summit of Portuguese
+literature. In Spanish poetry, the _Poem of the Cid_ takes the first
+place, as the great national epic of the middle ages; it is supposed to
+have been written between 1135 and 1175. It was followed by the
+_Rodrigo_, and the medieval school closes with the _Alphonso XI._ of
+Rodrigo Yañez, probably written at the close of the 12th century. The
+success of the Italian imitative epics of the 15th century led to some
+imitation of their form in Spain. Juan de la Cueva (1550?-1606)
+published a _Conquest of Bética_ in 1603; Cristóbal de Virues
+(1550-1610) a _Monserrate_, in 1588; Luis Barahona de Soto continued
+Ariosto in a _Tears of Angélica_; Gutiérrez wrote an _Austriada_ in
+1584; but perhaps the finest modern epic in Spanish verse is the
+_Araucana_ (1569-1590) of Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga (1533-1595), "the
+first literary work of merit," as Mr Fitzmaurice-Kelly remarks,
+"composed in either American continent." In France, the epic never
+flourished in modern times, and no real success attended the _Franciade_
+of Ronsard, the _Alaric_ of Scudéry, the _Pucelle_ of Chapelain, the
+_Divine Épopée_ of Soumet, or even the _Henriade_ of Voltaire. In
+English literature _The Faery Queen_ of Spenser has the same claim as
+the Italian poems mentioned above to bear the name of epic, and Milton,
+who stands entirely apart, may be said, by his isolated _Paradise Lost_,
+to take rank with Homer and Virgil, as one of the three types of the
+mastery of epical composition.
+
+  See Bossu, _Traité du poeme épique_ (1675); Voltaire, _Sur la poésie
+  épique_; Fauviel, _L'Origine de l'épopée chevaleresque_ (1832); W.P.
+  Ker, _Epic and Romance_ (1897), and _Essays in Medieval Literature_
+  (1905); Gilbert Murray, _History of Ancient Greek Literature_ (1897);
+  W. von Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_ (1879); Gaston
+  Paris, _La Littérature française au moyen âge_ (1890); Léon Gautier,
+  _Les Épopées françaises_ (1865-1868). For works on the Greek epics see
+  also GREEK LITERATURE and CYCLE.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+EPICTETUS (born c. A.D. 60), Greek philosopher, was probably a native
+of Hierapolis in south-west Phrygia. The name Epictetus is merely the
+Greek for "acquired" (from [Greek: epiktasthai]); his original name is
+not known. As a boy he was a slave in the house of Epaphroditus, a
+freedman and courtier of the emperor Nero. He managed, however, to
+attend the lectures of the Stoic Musonius Rufus, and subsequently became
+a freedman. He was lame and of weakly health. In 90 he was expelled with
+the other philosophers by Domitian, who was irritated by the support and
+encouragement which the opposition to his tyranny found amongst the
+adherents of Stoicism. For the rest of his life he settled at Nicopolis,
+in southern Epirus, not far from the scene of the battle of Actium.
+There for several years he lived, and taught by close earnest personal
+address and conversation. According to some authorities he lived into
+the time of Hadrian; he himself mentions the coinage of the emperor
+Trajan. His contemporaries and the next generation held his character
+and teaching in high honour. According to Lucian, the earthenware lamp
+which had belonged to the sage was bought by an antiquarian for 3000
+drachmas. He was never married. He wrote nothing; but much of his
+teaching was taken down with affectionate care by his pupil Flavius
+Arrianus, the historian of Alexander the Great, and is preserved in two
+treatises, of the larger of which, called the _Discourses of Epictetus_
+([Greek: Epiktêtou Diatribai]), four books are still extant. The other
+treatise is a shorter and more popular work, the _Encheiridion_
+("Handbook"). It contains in an aphoristic form the main doctrines of
+the longer work.
+
+The philosophy of Epictetus is intensely practical, and exhibits a high
+idealistic type of morality. He is an earnest, sometimes stern and
+sometimes pathetic, preacher of righteousness, who despises the mere
+graces of style and the subtleties of an abstruse logic. He has no
+patience with mere antiquarian study of the Stoical writers. The problem
+of how life is to be carried out well is the one question which throws
+all other inquiries into the shade. True education lies in learning to
+wish things to be as they actually are; it lies in learning to
+distinguish what is our own from what does not belong to us. But there
+is only one thing which is fully our own,--that is, our will or purpose.
+God, acting as a good king and a true father, has given us a will which
+cannot be restrained, compelled or thwarted. Nothing external, neither
+death nor exile nor pain nor any such thing, can ever force us to act
+against our will; if we are conquered, it is because we have willed to
+be conquered. And thus, although we are not responsible for the ideas
+that present themselves to our consciousness, we are absolutely and
+without any modification responsible for the way in which we use them.
+Nothing is ours besides our will. The divine law which bids us keep fast
+what is our own forbids us to make any claim to what is not ours; and
+while enjoining us to make use of whatever is given to us, it bids us
+not long after what has not been given. "Two maxims," he says, "we must
+ever bear in mind--that apart from the will there is nothing either good
+or bad, and that we must not try to anticipate or direct events, but
+merely accept them with intelligence." We must, in short, resign
+ourselves to whatever fate and fortune bring to us, believing, as the
+first article of our creed, that there is a god, whose thought directs
+the universe, and that not merely in our acts, but even in our thoughts
+and plans, we cannot escape his eye. In the world the true position of
+man is that of member of a great system, which comprehends God and men.
+Each human being is in the first instance a citizen of his own nation or
+commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men,
+whereof the city political is only a copy in miniature. All men are the
+sons of God, and kindred in nature with the divinity. For man, though a
+member in the system of the world, has also within him a principle which
+can guide and understand the movement of all the members; he can enter
+into the method of divine administration, and thus can learn--and it is
+the acme of his learning--the will of God, which is the will of nature.
+Man, said the Stoic, is a rational animal; and in virtue of that
+rationality he is neither less nor worse than the gods, for the
+magnitude of reason is estimated not by length nor by height but by its
+judgments. Each man has within him a guardian spirit, a god within him,
+who never sleeps; so that even in darkness and solitude we are never
+alone, because God is within, our guardian spirit. The body which
+accompanies us is not strictly speaking ours; it is a poor dead thing,
+which belongs to the things outside us. But by reason we are the masters
+of those ideas and appearances which present themselves from without; we
+can combine them, and systematize, and can set up in ourselves an order
+of ideas corresponding with the order of nature.
+
+The natural instinct of animated life, to which man also is originally
+subject, is self-preservation and self-interest. But men are so ordered
+and constituted that the individual cannot secure his own interests
+unless he contribute to the common welfare. We are bound up by the law
+of nature with the whole fabric of the world. The aim of the philosopher
+therefore is to reach the position of a mind which embraces the whole
+world in its view,--to grow into the mind of God and to make the will of
+nature our own. Such a sage agrees in his thought with God; he no longer
+blames either God or man; he fails of nothing which he purposes and
+falls in with no misfortune unprepared; he indulges in neither anger nor
+envy nor jealousy; he is leaving manhood for godhead, and in his dead
+body his thoughts are concerned about his fellowship with God.
+
+The historical models to which Epictetus reverts are Diogenes and
+Socrates. But he frequently describes an ideal character of a missionary
+sage, the perfect Stoic--or, as he calls him, the Cynic. This missionary
+has neither country nor home nor land nor slave; his bed is the ground;
+he is without wife or child; his only mansion is the earth and sky and a
+shabby cloak. He must suffer stripes, and must love those who beat him
+as if he were a father or a brother. He must be perfectly unembarrassed
+in the service of God, not bound by the common ties of life, nor
+entangled by relationships, which if he transgresses he will lose the
+character of a man of honour, while if he upholds them he will cease to
+be the messenger, watchman and herald of the gods. The perfect man thus
+described will not be angry with the wrong-doer; he will only pity his
+erring brother; for anger in such a case would only betray that he too
+thought the wrong-doer gained a substantial blessing by his wrongful
+act, instead of being, as he is, utterly ruined.
+
+  The best editions of the works of Epictetus are by J. Schweighäuser (6
+  vols., Leipzig, 1799-1800) and H. Schenkl (Leipzig, 1894, 1898).
+  English translations by Elizabeth Carter (London, 1758); G. Long
+  (London, 1848, ed. 1877, 1892, 1897); T.W. Higginson (Boston, 1865,
+  new ed. 1890); of the _Encheiridion_ alone by H. Talbot (London,
+  1881); T.W.H. Rolleston (London, 1881). See A. Bonhöffer, _Epiktet und
+  die Stoa_ (Stuttgart, 1890) and _Die Ethik des Stoikers Epiktet_
+  (1894): E.M. Schranka, _Der Stoiker Epiktet und seine Philosophie_
+  (Frankfort, 1885); T. Zahn, _Der Stoiker Epiktet und sein Verhältnis
+  zum Christentum_ (2nd ed. Erlangen, 1895). See also STOICS and works
+  quoted.     (W. W.; X.)
+
+
+
+
+EPICURUS (342-270 B.C.), Greek philosopher, was born in Samos in the end
+of 342 or the beginning of 341 B.C., seven years after the death of
+Plato. His father Neocles, a native of Gargettos, a small village of
+Attica, had settled in Samos, not later than 352, as one of the cleruchs
+sent out after the victory of Timotheus in 366-365. At the age of
+eighteen he went to Athens, where the Platonic school was flourishing
+under the lead of Xenocrates. A year later, however, Antipater banished
+some 12,000 of the poorer citizens, and Epicurus joined his father, who
+was now living at Colophon. It seems possible that he had listened to
+the lectures of Nausiphanes, a Democritean philosopher, and Pamphilus
+the Platonist, but he was probably, like his father, merely an ordinary
+teacher. Stimulated, however, by the perusal of some writings of
+Democritus, he began to formulate a doctrine of his own; and at
+Mitylene, Colophon and Lampsacus, he gradually gathered round him
+several enthusiastic disciples. In 307 he returned to Athens, which had
+just been restored to a nominal independence by Demetrius Poliorcetes,
+and there he lived for the rest of his life. The scene of his teaching
+was a garden which he bought for about £300 (80 _minae_). There he
+passed his days as the loved and venerated head of a remarkable, and up
+to that time unique, society of men and women. Amongst the number were
+Metrodorus (d. 277), his brother Timocrates, and his wife Leontion
+(formerly a hetaera), Polyaenus, Hermarchus, who succeeded Epicurus as
+chief of the school, Leonteus and his wife Themista, and Idomeneus,
+whose wife was a sister of Metrodorus. It is possible that the relations
+between the sexes--in this prototype of Rabelais's Abbey of
+Thélème--were not entirely what is termed Platonic. But there is on the
+other hand scarcely a doubt that the tales of licentiousness circulated
+by opponents are groundless. The stories of the Stoics, who sought to
+refute the views of Epicurus by an appeal to his alleged antecedents and
+habits, were no doubt in the main, as Diogenes Laertius says, the
+stories of maniacs. The general charges, which they endeavoured to
+substantiate by forged letters, need not count for much, and in many
+cases they only exaggerated what, if true, was not so heinous as they
+suggested. Against them trustworthy authorities testified to his general
+and remarkable considerateness, pointing to the statues which the city
+had raised in his honour, and to the numbers of his friends, who were
+many enough to fill whole cities.
+
+The mode of life in his community was plain. The general drink was
+water and the food barley bread; half a pint of wine was held an ample
+allowance. "Send me," says Epicurus to a correspondent, "send me some
+Cythnian cheese, so that, should I choose, I may fare sumptuously."
+There was no community of property, which, as Epicurus said, would imply
+distrust of their own and others' good resolutions. The company was held
+in unity by the charms of his personality, and by the free intercourse
+which he inculcated and exemplified. Though he seems to have had a warm
+affection for his countrymen, it was as human beings brought into
+contact with him, and not as members of a political body, that he
+preferred to regard them. He never entered public life. His kindliness
+extended even to his slaves, one of whom, named Mouse, was a brother in
+philosophy.
+
+Epicurus died of stone in 270 B.C. He left his property, consisting of
+the garden ([Greek: Kêpoi Epikourou]), a house in Melite (the south-west
+quarter of Athens), and apparently some funds besides, to two trustees
+on behalf of his society, and for the special interest of some youthful
+members. The garden was set apart for the use of the school; the house
+became the house of Hermarchus and his fellow-philosophers during his
+lifetime. The surplus proceeds of the property were further to be
+applied to maintain a yearly offering in commemoration of his departed
+father, mother and brothers, to pay the expenses incurred in celebrating
+his own birthday every year on the 7th of the month Gamelion, and for a
+social gathering of the sect on the 20th of every month in honour of
+himself and Metrodorus. Besides similar tributes in honour of his
+brothers and Polyaenus, he directed the trustees to be guardians of the
+son of Polyaenus and the son of Metrodorus; whilst the daughter of the
+last mentioned was to be married by the guardians to some member of the
+society who should be approved of by Hermarchus. His four slaves, three
+men and one woman, were left their freedom. His books passed to
+Hermarchus.
+
+_Philosophy._--The Epicurean philosophy is traditionally divided into
+the three branches of logic, physics and ethics. It is, however, only as
+a basis of facts and principles for his theory of life that logical and
+physical inquiries find a place at all. Epicurus himself had not
+apparently shared in any large or liberal culture, and his influence was
+certainly thrown on the side of those who depreciated purely scientific
+pursuits as one-sided and misleading. "Steer clear of all culture" was
+his advice to a young disciple. In this aversion to a purely or mainly
+intellectual training may be traced a recoil from the systematic
+metaphysics of Plato and Aristotle, whose tendency was to subordinate
+the practical man to the philosopher. Ethics had been based upon logic
+and metaphysics. But experience showed that systematic knowledge of
+truth is not synonymous with right action. Hence, in the second place,
+Plato and Aristotle had assumed a perfect state with laws to guide the
+individual aright. It was thus comparatively easy to show how the
+individual could learn to apprehend and embody the moral law in his own
+conduct. But experience had in the time of Epicurus shown the temporary
+and artificial character of the civic form of social life. It was
+necessary, therefore, for Epicurus to go back to nature to find a more
+enduring and a wider foundation for ethical doctrine, to go back from
+words to realities, to give up reasonings and get at feelings, to test
+conceptions and arguments by a final reference to the only touchstone of
+truth--to sensation. There, and there only, one seems to find a common
+and a satisfactory ground, supposing always that all men's feelings give
+the same answer. Logic must go, but so also must the state, as a
+specially-privileged and eternal order of things, as anything more than
+a contrivance serving certain purposes of general utility.
+
+To the Epicureans the elaborate logic of the Stoics was a superfluity.
+In place of logic we find canonic, the theory of the three tests of truth
+and reality. (1) The only ultimate canon of reality is sensation;
+whatever we feel, whatever we perceive by any sense, that we know on the
+most certain evidence we can have to be real, and in proportion as our
+feeling is clear, distinct and vivid, in that proportion are we sure of
+the reality of its object. But in what that vividness ([Greek: enargeia])
+consists is a question which Epicurus does not raise, and which he would
+no doubt have deemed superfluous quibbling over a matter sufficiently
+settled by common sense. (2) Besides our sensations, we learn truth and
+reality by our preconceptions or ideas ([Greek: prolêpseis]). These are
+the fainter images produced by repeated sensations, the "ideas" resulting
+from previous "impressions"--sensations at second-hand as it were, which
+are stored up in memory, and which a general name serves to recall. These
+bear witness to reality, not because we feel anything now, but because we
+felt it once; they are sensations registered in language, and again, if
+need be, translatable into immediate sensations or groups of sensation.
+(3) Lastly, reality is vouched for by the imaginative apprehensions of
+the mind ([Greek: phantastikai epibolai]), immediate feelings of which
+the mind is conscious as produced by some action of its own. This last
+canon, however, was of dubious validity. Epicureanism generally was
+content to affirm that whatever we effectively feel in consciousness is
+real; in which sense they allow reality to the fancies of the insane, the
+dreams of a sleeper, and those feelings by which we imagine the existence
+of beings of perfect blessedness and endless life. Similarly, just
+because fear, hope and remembrance add to the intensity of consciousness,
+the Epicurean can hold that bodily pain and pleasure is a less durable
+and important thing than pain and pleasure of mind. Whatever we feel to
+affect us does affect us, and is therefore real. Error can arise only
+because we mix up our opinions and suppositions with what we actually
+feel. The Epicurean canon is a rejection of logic; it sticks fast to the
+one point that "sensation is sensation," and there is no more to be made
+of it. Sensation, it says, is unreasoning ([Greek: alogos]); it must be
+accepted, and not criticized. Reasoning can come in only to put
+sensations together, and to point out how they severally contribute to
+human welfare; it does not make them, and cannot alter them.
+
+_Physics._--In the Epicurean physics there are two parts--a general
+metaphysic and psychology, and a special explanation of particular
+phenomena of nature. The method of Epicurus is the argument of analogy.
+It is an attempt to make the phenomena of nature intelligible to us by
+regarding them as instances on a grand scale of that with which we are
+already familiar on a small scale. This is what Epicurus calls
+explaining what we do not see by what we do see.
+
+In physics Epicurus founded upon Democritus, and his chief object was to
+abolish the dualism between mind and matter which is so essential a
+point in the systems of Plato and Aristotle. All that exists, says
+Epicurus, is corporeal ([Greek: to pan esti sôma]); the intangible is
+non-existent, or empty space. If a thing exists it must be felt, and to
+be felt it must exert resistance. But not all things are intangible
+which our senses are not subtle enough to detect. We must indeed accept
+our feelings; but we must also believe much which is not directly
+testified by sensation, if only it serves to explain phenomena and does
+not contravene our sensations. The fundamental postulates of
+Epicureanism are atoms and the void ([Greek: atoma kai kenon]). Space is
+infinite, and there is an illimitable multitude of indestructible,
+indivisible and absolutely compact atoms in perpetual motion in this
+illimitable space. These atoms, differing only in size, figure and
+weight, are perpetually moving with equal velocities, but at a rate far
+surpassing our conceptions; as they move, they are for ever giving rise
+to new worlds; and these worlds are perpetually tending towards
+dissolution, and towards a fresh series of creations. This universe of
+ours is only one section out of the innumerable worlds in infinite
+space; other worlds may present systems very different from that of our
+own. The soul of man is only a finer species of body, spread throughout
+the whole aggregation which we term his bodily frame. Like a warm
+breath, it pervades the human structure and works with it; nor could it
+act as it does in perception unless it were corporeal. The various
+processes of sense, notably vision, are explained on the principles of
+materialism. From the surfaces of all objects there are continually
+flowing thin filmy images exactly copying the solid body whence they
+originate; and these images by direct impact on the organism produce (we
+need not care to ask how) the phenomena of vision. Epicurus in this way
+explains vision by substituting for the apparent action of a body at a
+distance a direct contact of image and organ. But without following the
+explanation into the details in which it revels, it may be enough to say
+that the whole hypothesis is but an attempt to exclude the occult
+conception of action at a distance, and substitute a familiar
+phenomenon.
+
+_The Gods._--This aspect of the Epicurean physics becomes clearer when
+we look at his mode of rendering particular phenomena intelligible. His
+purpose is to eliminate the common idea of divine interference. That
+there are gods Epicurus never dreams of denying. But these gods have not
+on their shoulders the burden of upholding and governing the world. They
+are themselves the products of the order of nature--a higher species
+than humanity, but not the rulers of man, neither the makers nor the
+upholders of the world. Man should worship them, but his worship is the
+reverence due to the ideals of perfect blessedness; it ought not to be
+inspired either by hope or by fear. To prevent all reference of the more
+potent phenomena of nature to divine action Epicurus rationalizes the
+processes of the cosmos. He imagines all possible plans or hypotheses,
+not actually contradicted by our experience of familiar events, which
+will represent in an intelligible way the processes of astronomy and
+meteorology. When two or more modes of accounting for a phenomena are
+equally admissible as not directly contradicted by known phenomena, it
+seems to Epicurus almost a return to the old mythological habit of mind
+when a savant asserts that the real cause is one and only one.
+"Thunder," he says, "may be explained in many other ways; only let us
+have no myths of divine action. To assign only a single cause for these
+phenomena, when the facts familiar to us suggest several, is insane, and
+is just the absurd conduct to be expected from people who dabble in the
+vanities of astronomy." We need not be too curious to inquire how these
+celestial phenomena actually do come about; we can learn how they might
+have been produced, and to go further is to trench on ground beyond the
+limits of human knowledge.
+
+Thus, if Epicurus objects to the doctrine of mythology, he objects no
+less to the doctrine of an inevitable fate, a necessary order of things
+unchangeable and supreme over the human will. The Stoic doctrine of
+Fatalism seemed to Epicurus no less deadly a foe of man's true welfare
+than popular superstition. Even in the movement of the atoms he
+introduces a sudden change of direction, which is supposed to render
+their aggregation easier, and to break the even law of destiny. So, in
+the sphere of human action, Epicurus would allow of no absolutely
+controlling necessity. In fact, it is only when we assume for man this
+independence of the gods and of fatality that the Epicurean theory of
+life becomes possible. It assumes that man can, like the gods, withdraw
+himself out of reach of all external influences, and thus, as a sage,
+"live like a god among men, seeing that the man is in no wise like a
+mortal creature who lives in undying blessedness." And this present life
+is the only one. With one consent Epicureanism preaches that the death
+of the body is the end of everything for man, and hence the other world
+has lost all its terrors as well as all its hopes.
+
+The attitude of Epicurus in this whole matter is antagonistic to
+science. The idea of a systematic enchainment of phenomena, in which
+each is conditioned by every other, and none can be taken in isolation
+and explained apart from the rest, was foreign to his mind. So little
+was the scientific conception of the solar system familiar to Epicurus
+that he could reproach the astronomers, because their account of an
+eclipse represented things otherwise than as they appear to the senses,
+and could declare that the sun and stars were just as large as they
+seemed to us.
+
+_Ethics._--The moral philosophy of Epicurus is a qualified hedonism,
+the heir of the Cyrenaic doctrine that pleasure is the good thing in
+life. Neither sect, it may be added, advocated sensuality pure and
+unfeigned--the Epicurean least of all. By pleasure Epicurus meant both
+more and less than the Cyrenaics. To the Cyrenaics pleasure was of
+moments; to Epicurus it extended as a habit of mind through life. To the
+Cyrenaics pleasure was something active and positive; to Epicurus it was
+rather negative--tranquillity more than vigorous enjoyment. The test of
+true pleasure, according to Epicurus, is the removal and absorption of
+all that gives pain; it implies freedom from pain of body and from
+trouble of mind. The happiness of the Epicurean was, it might almost
+seem, a grave and solemn pleasure--a quiet unobtrusive ease of heart,
+but not exuberance and excitement. The sage of Epicureanism is a
+rational and reflective seeker for happiness, who balances the claims of
+each pleasure against the evils that may possibly ensue, and treads the
+path of enjoyment cautiously. Prudence is, therefore, the only real
+guide to happiness; it is thus the chief excellence, and the foundation
+of all the virtues. It is, in fact, says Epicurus--in language which
+contrasts strongly with that of Aristotle on the same topic--"a more
+precious power than philosophy." The reason or intellect is introduced
+to balance possible pleasures and pains, and to construct a scheme in
+which pleasures are the materials of a happy life. Feeling, which
+Epicurus declared to be the means of determining what is good, is
+subordinated to a reason which adjudicates between competing pleasures
+with the view of securing tranquillity of mind and body. "We cannot live
+pleasantly without living wisely and nobly and righteously." Virtue is
+at least a means of happiness, though apart from that it is no good in
+itself, any more than mere sensual enjoyments, which are good only
+because they may sometimes serve to secure health of body and
+tranquillity of mind. (See further ETHICS.)
+
+_The Epicurean School._--Even in the lifetime of Epicurus we hear of the
+vast numbers of his friends, not merely in Greece, but in Asia and
+Egypt. The crowds of Epicureans were a standing enigma to the adherents
+of less popular sects. Cicero pondered over the fact; Arcesilaus
+explained the secession to the Epicurean camp, compared with the fact
+that no Epicurean was ever known to have abandoned his school, by saying
+that, though it was possible for a man to be turned into a eunuch, no
+eunuch could ever become a man. But the phenomenon was not obscure. The
+doctrine has many truths, and is attractive to many in virtue of its
+simplicity and its immediate relation to life. The dogmas of Epicurus
+became to his followers a creed embodying the truths on which salvation
+depended; and they passed on from one generation to another with
+scarcely a change or addition. The immediate disciples of Epicurus have
+been already mentioned, with the exception of Colotes of Lampsacus, a
+great favourite of Epicurus, who wrote a work arguing "that it was
+impossible even to live according to the doctrines of the other
+philosophers." In the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. Apollodorus, nicknamed
+[Greek: kêpotyrannos] ("Lord of the Garden"), and Zeno of Sidon (who
+describes Socrates as "the Attic buffoon": Cic. _De nat. deor._ i, 21,
+33, 34) taught at Athens. About 150 B.C. Epicureanism established itself
+at Rome. Beginning with C. Amafinius or Amafanius (Cic. _Acad._ i. 2,
+_Tusc._ iv. 3), we find the names of Phaedrus (who became scholarch at
+Athens c. 70 B.C.) and Philodemus (originally of Gadara in Palestine) as
+distinguished Epicureans in the time of Cicero. But the greatest of its
+Roman names was Lucretius, whose _De rerum natura_ embodies the main
+teaching of Epicurus with great exactness, and with a beauty which the
+subject seemed scarcely to allow. Lucretius is a proof, if any were
+needed, that Epicureanism is compatible with nobility of soul. In the
+1st century of the Christian era, the nature of the time, with its
+active political struggles, naturally called Stoicism more into the
+foreground, yet Seneca, though nominally a Stoic, draws nearly all his
+suavity and much of his paternal wisdom from the writings of Epicurus.
+The position of Epicureanism as a recognized school in the 2nd century
+is best seen in the fact that it was one of the four schools (the others
+were the Stoic, Platonist, and Peripatetic) which were placed on a
+footing of equal endowment when Marcus Aurelius founded chairs of
+philosophy at Athens. The evidence of Diogenes proves that it still
+subsisted as a school a century later, but its spirit lasted longer than
+its formal organization as a school. A great deal of the best of the
+Renaissance was founded on Epicureanism, and in more recent times a
+great number of prominent thinkers have been Epicureans in a greater or
+less degree. Among these may be mentioned Pierre Gassendi, who revived
+and codified the doctrine in the 17th century; Molière, the comte de
+Gramont, Rousseau, Fontenelle and Voltaire. All those whose ethical
+theory is in any degree hedonistic are to some extent the intellectual
+descendants of Epicurus (see HEDONISM).
+
+_Works._--Epicurus was a voluminous writer ([Greek: polygraphôtatos],
+Diog. Laërt. x. 26)--the author, it is said, of about 300 works. He had
+a style and vocabulary of his own. His chief aim in writing was
+plainness and intelligibility, but his want of order and logical
+precision thwarted his purpose. He pretended to have read little, and to
+be the original architect of his own system, and the claim was no doubt
+on the whole true. But he had read Democritus, and, it is said,
+Anaxagoras and Archelaus. His works, we learn, were full of repetition,
+and critics speak of vulgarities of language and faults of style. None
+the less his writings were committed to memory and remained the
+text-books of Epicureanism to the last. His chief work was a treatise on
+nature ([Greek: Peri physeôs]), in thirty-seven books, of which
+fragments from about nine books have been found in the rolls discovered
+at Herculaneum, along with considerable treatises by several of his
+followers, and most notably Philodemus. An epitome of his doctrine is
+contained in three letters preserved by Diogenes.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The chief ancient accounts of Epicurus are in the tenth
+  book of Diogenes Laërtius, in Lucretius, and in several treatises of
+  Cicero and Plutarch. Gassendi, in his _De vita, moribus, et doctrina
+  Epicuri_ (Lyons, 1647), and his _Syntagma philosophiae Epicuri_,
+  systematized the doctrine. The _Volumina Herculanensia_ (1st and 2nd
+  series) contain fragments of treatises by Epicurus and members of his
+  school. See also H. Usener, _Epicurea_ (Leipzig, 1887) and _Epicuri
+  recogniti specimen_ (Bonn, 1880); _Epicuri physica et meteorologica_
+  (ed. J.G. Schneider, Leipzig, 1813); Th. Gomperz in his _Herkulanische
+  Studien_, and in contributions to the Vienna Academy
+  (_Monatsberichte_), has tried to evolve from the fragments more
+  approximation to modern empiricism than they seem to contain. For
+  criticism see W. Wallace, _Epicureanism_ (London, 1880), and
+  _Epicurus; A Lecture_ (London, 1896); G. Trezza, _Epicuro e
+  l'Epicureismo_ (Florence, 1877; ed. Milan, 1885); E. Zeller,
+  _Philosophy of the Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics_ (Eng. trans. O.J.
+  Reichel, 1870; ed. 1880); Sir James Mackintosh, _On the Progress of
+  Ethical Philosophy_ (4th ed.); J. Watson, _Hedonistic Theories_
+  (Glasgow, 1895); J. Kreibig, _Epicurus_ (Vienna, 1886); A.
+  Goedeckemeyer, _Epikurs Verhältnis zu Demokrit in der Naturphil._
+  (Strassburg, 1897); Paul von Gizycki, _Über das Leben und die
+  Moralphilos. des Epikur (Halle, 1879), and Einleitende Bemerkungen zu
+  einer Untersuchung über den Werth der Naturphilos. des Epikur_
+  (Berlin, 1884); P. Cassel, _Epikur der Philosoph_ (Berlin, 1892); M.
+  Guyau, _La Morale d'Épicure et ses rapports avec les doctrines
+  contemporaines_ (Paris, 1878; revised and enlarged, 1881); F. Picavet,
+  _De Epicuro novae religionis sectatore_ (Paris, 1889); H. Sidgwick,
+  _History of Ethics_ (5th ed., 1902).     (W. W.; X.)
+
+
+
+
+EPICYCLE (Gr. [Greek: epi], upon, and [Greek: kyklos], circle), in
+ancient astronomy, a small circle the centre of which describes a larger
+one. It was especially used to represent geometrically the periodic
+apparent retrograde motion of the outer planets, Mars, Jupiter and
+Saturn, which we now know to be due to the annual revolution of the
+earth around the sun, but which in the Ptolemaic astronomy were taken to
+be real.
+
+
+
+
+EPICYCLOID, the curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a
+circle rolling externally on another circle. If the moving circle rolls
+internally on the fixed circle, a point on the circumference describes a
+"hypocycloid" (from [Greek: hypo], under). The locus of any other
+carried point is an "epitrochoid" when the circle rolls externally, and
+a "hypotrochoid" when the circle rolls internally. The epicycloid was so
+named by Ole Römer in 1674, who also demonstrated that cog-wheels having
+epicycloidal teeth revolved with minimum friction (see MECHANICS:
+_Applied_); this was also proved by Girard Desargues, Philippe de la
+Hire and Charles Stephen Louis Camus. Epicycloids also received
+attention at the hands of Edmund Halley, Sir Isaac Newton and others;
+spherical epicycloids, in which the moving circle is inclined at a
+constant angle to the plane of the fixed circle, were studied by the
+Bernoullis, Pierre Louis M. de Maupertuis, François Nicole, Alexis
+Claude Clairault and others.
+
+  In the annexed figure, there are shown various examples of the curves
+  named above, when the radii of the rolling and fixed circles are in
+  the ratio of 1 to 3. Since the circumference of a circle is
+  proportional to its radius, it follows that if the ratio of the radii
+  be commensurable, the curve will consist of a finite number of cusps,
+  and ultimately return into itself. In the particular case when the
+  radii are in the ratio of 1 to 3 the epicycloid (curve a) will
+  consist of three cusps external to the circle and placed at equal
+  distances along its circumference. Similarly, the corresponding
+  epitrochoids will exhibit three loops or nodes (curve b), or assume
+  the form shown in the curve c. It is interesting to compare the
+  forms of these curves with the three forms of the cycloid (q.v.). The
+  hypocycloid derived from the same circles is shown as curve d, and
+  is seen to consist of three cusps arranged internally to the fixed
+  circle; the corresponding hypotrochoid consists of a three-foil and is
+  shown in curve e. The epicycloid shown is termed the "three-cusped
+  epicycloid" or the "epicycloid of Cremona."
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The cartesian equation to the epicycloid assumes the form
+                                   _____
+    x = (a + b) cos[theta] - b cos(a + b / b)[theta],
+                                   _____
+    y = (a + b) sin[theta] - b sin(a + b / b)[theta],
+
+  when the centre of the fixed circle is the origin, and the axis of x
+  passes through the initial point of the curve (i.e. the original
+  position of the moving point on the fixed circle), a and b being the
+  radii of the fixed and rolling circles, and [theta] the angle through
+  which the line joining the centres of the two circles has passed. It
+  may be shown that if the distance of the carried point from the centre
+  of the rolling circle be mb, the equation to the epitrochoid is
+                                    _____
+    x = (a + b) cos[theta] - mb cos(a + b / b)[theta],
+                                    _____
+    y = (a + b) sin[theta] - mb sin(a + b / b)[theta].
+
+  The equations to the hypocycloid and its corresponding trochoidal
+  curves are derived from the two preceding equations by changing the
+  sign of b. Leonhard Euler (_Acta Petrop._ 1784) showed that the same
+  hypocycloid can be generated by circles having radii of ½(a ± b)
+  rolling on a circle of radius a; and also that the hypocycloid formed
+  when the radius of the rolling circle is greater than that of the
+  fixed circle is the same as the epicycloid formed by the rolling of a
+  circle whose radius is the difference of the original radii. These
+  propositions may be derived from the formulae given above, or proved
+  directly by purely geometrical methods.
+
+  The tangential polar equation to the epicycloid, as given above, is
+                       ______
+  p = (a + 2b) sin(a / a + 2b)[psi], while the intrinsic equation is
+                            ______
+  s = 4(b/a)(a + b) cos(a / a + 2b)[psi] and the pedal equation is
+                _____
+  r² = a² + (4b·a + b)p² / (a + 2b)². Therefore any epicycloid or
+  hypocycloid may be represented by the equations p = A sin B[psi] or p
+  = A cos B[psi], s = A sin B[psi] or s = A cos B[psi], or r² = A + Bp²,
+  the constants A and B being readily determined by the above
+  considerations.
+
+  If the radius of the rolling circle be one-half of the fixed circle,
+  the hypocycloid becomes a diameter of this circle; this may be
+  confirmed from the equation to the hypocycloid. If the ratio of the
+  radii be as 1 to 4, we obtain the four-cusped hypocycloid, which has
+  the simple cartesian equation x^(2/3) + y^(2/3) = a^(2/3). This curve
+  is the envelope of a line of constant length, which moves so that its
+  extremities are always on two fixed lines at right angles to each
+  other, i.e. of the line x/[alpha] + y/[beta] = 1, with the condition
+  [alpha]² + [beta]² = 1/a, a constant. The epicycloid when the radii of
+  the circles are equal is the cardioid (q.v.), and the corresponding
+  trochoidal curves are limaçons (q.v.). Epicycloids are also examples
+  of certain caustics (q.v.).
+
+  For the methods of determining the formulae and results stated above
+  see J. Edwards, _Differential Calculus_, and for geometrical
+  constructions see T.H. Eagles, _Plane Curves_.
+
+
+
+
+EPIDAURUS, the name of two ancient cities of southern Greece.
+
+1. A maritime city situated on the eastern coast of Argolis, sometimes
+distinguished as [Greek: hê hiera Epidauros], or Epidaurus the Holy. It
+stood on a small rocky peninsula with a natural harbour on the northern
+side and an open but serviceable bay on the southern; and from this
+position acquired the epithet of [Greek: distomos], or the two-mouthed.
+Its narrow but fertile territory consisted of a plain shut in on all
+sides except towards the sea by considerable elevations, among which the
+most remarkable were Mount Arachnaeon and Titthion. The conterminous
+states were Corinth, Argos, Troezen and Hermione. Its proximity to
+Athens and the islands of the Saronic gulf, the commercial advantages of
+its position, and the fame of its temple of Asclepius combined to make
+Epidaurus a place of no small importance. Its origin was ascribed to a
+Carian colony, whose memory was possibly preserved in Epicarus, the
+earlier name of the city; it was afterwards occupied by Ionians, and
+appears to have incorporated a body of Phlegyans from Thessaly. The
+Ionians in turn succumbed to the Dorians of Argos, who, according to the
+legend, were led by Deiphontes; and from that time the city continued to
+preserve its Dorian character. It not only colonized the neighbouring
+islands, and founded the city of Aegina, by which it was ultimately
+outstripped in wealth and power, but also took part with the people of
+Argos and Troezen in their settlements in the south of Asia Minor. The
+monarchical government introduced by Deiphontes gave way to an
+oligarchy, and the oligarchy degenerated into a despotism. When Procles
+the tyrant was carried captive by Periander of Corinth, the oligarchy
+was restored, and the people of Epidaurus continued ever afterwards
+close allies of the Spartan power. The governing body consisted of 180
+members, chosen from certain influential families, and the executive was
+entrusted to a select committee of _artynae_ (from [Greek: artynein], to
+manage). The rural population, who had no share in the affairs of the
+city, were called [Greek: konipodes] ("dusty-feet"). Among the objects
+of interest described by Pausanias as extant in Epidaurus are the image
+of Athena Cissaea in the Acropolis, the temple of Dionysus and Artemis,
+a shrine of Aphrodite, statues of Asclepius and his wife Epione, and a
+temple of Hera. The site of the last is identified with the chapel of St
+Nicolas; a few portions of the outer walls of the city can be traced;
+and the name Epidaurus is still preserved by the little village of
+Nea-Epidavros, or Pidhavro.
+
+[Illustration: Map--Epidaurus Hieron of Asclepius.]
+
+The _Hieron_ (sacred precinct) of Asclepius, which lies inland about 8
+m. from the town of Epidaurus, has been thoroughly excavated by the
+Greek Archaeological Society since the year 1881, under the direction of
+M. Kavvadias. In addition to the sacred precinct, with its temples and
+other buildings, the theatre and stadium have been cleared; and several
+other extensive buildings, including baths, gymnasia, and a hospital for
+invalids, have also been found. The sacred road from Epidaurus, which is
+flanked by tombs, approaches the precinct through a gateway or
+propylaea. The chief buildings are grouped together, and include temples
+of Asclepius and Artemis, the Tholos, and the Abaton, or portico where
+the patients slept. In addition to remains of architecture and
+sculpture, some of them of high merit, there have been found many
+inscriptions, throwing light on the cures attributed to the god. The
+chief buildings outside the sacred precinct are the theatre and the
+stadium.
+
+The temple of Asclepius, which contained the gold and ivory statue by
+Thrasymedes of Paros, had six columns at the ends and eleven at the
+sides; it was raised on stages and approached by a ramp at the eastern
+front. An inscription has been found recording the contracts for
+building this temple; it dates from about 460 B.C. The sculptor
+Timotheus--one of those who collaborated in the Mausoleum--is mentioned
+as undertaking to make the acroteria that stood on the ends of the
+pediments, and also models for the sculpture that filled one of them.
+Some of this sculpture has been found; the acroteria are Nereids mounted
+on sea-horses, and one pediment contained a battle of Greeks and
+Amazons. The great altar lay to the south of the temple, and a little to
+the east of it are what appear to be the remains of an earlier altar,
+built into the corner of a large square edifice of Roman date, perhaps a
+house of the priests. Just to the south of this are the foundations of a
+small temple of Artemis. The Tholos lay to the south-west of the temple
+of Asclepius; it must, when perfect, have been one of the most beautiful
+buildings in Greece; the exquisite carving of its mouldings is only
+equalled by that of the Erechtheum at Athens. It consisted of a circular
+chamber, surrounded on the outside by a Doric colonnade, and on the
+inside by a Corinthian one. The architect was Polyclitus, probably to be
+identified with the younger sculptor of that name. In the inscription
+recording the contracts for its building it is called the Thymele; and
+this name may give the clue to its purpose; it was probably the
+idealized architectural representative of a primitive pit of sacrifice,
+such as may still be seen in the Asclepianum at Athens. The foundations
+now visible present a very curious appearance, consisting of a series of
+concentric walls. Those in the middle are thin, having only the pavement
+of the cella to support, and are provided with doors and partitions that
+make a sort of subterranean labyrinth. There is no evidence for the
+statement sometimes made that there was a well or spring below the
+Tholos. North of the Tholos is the long portico described in
+inscriptions as the Abaton; it is on two different levels, and the lower
+or western portion of it had two storeys, of which the upper one was on
+a level with the ground in the eastern portion. Here the invalids used
+to sleep when consulting the god, and the inscriptions found here record
+not only the method of consulting the god, but the manner of his cures.
+Some of the inscriptions are contemporary dedications; but those which
+give us most information are long lists of cases, evidently compiled by
+the priests from the dedications in the sanctuary, or from tradition.
+There is no reason to doubt that most of the records have at least a
+basis of fact, for the cases are in accord with well-attested phenomena
+of a similar nature at the present day; but there are others, such as
+the miraculous mending of a broken vase, which suggest either invention
+or trickery.
+
+In early times, though there is considerable variety in the cases
+treated and the methods of cure, there are certain characteristics
+common to the majority of the cases. The patient consulting the god
+sleeps in the Abaton, sees certain visions, and, as a result, comes
+forth cured the next morning. Sometimes there seem to be surgical cases,
+like that of a man who had a spear-head extracted from his jaw, and
+found it laid in his hands when he awoke in the morning, and there are
+many examples resembling those known at the present day at Lourdes or
+Tenos, where hysterical or other similar affections are cured by the
+influence of imagination or sudden emotion. It is, however, difficult to
+make any scientific use of the records, owing to the indiscriminate
+manner in which genuine and apocryphal cases are mingled, and
+circumstantial details are added. We learn the practice of later times
+from some dedicated inscriptions. Apparently the old faith-healing had
+lost its efficacy, and the priests substituted for it elaborate
+prescriptions as to diet, baths and regimen which must have made
+Epidaurus and its visitors resemble their counterparts in a modern spa.
+At this time there were extensive buildings provided for the
+accommodation of invalids, some of which have been discovered and
+partially cleared; one was built by Antoninus Pius. They were in the
+form of great courtyards surrounded by colonnades and chambers.
+
+  Between the precinct and the theatre was a large gymnasium, which was
+  in later times converted to other purposes, a small odeum being built
+  in the middle of it. In a valley just to the south-west of the
+  precinct is the stadium, of which the seats and goal are well
+  preserved. There is a gutter round the level space of the stadium,
+  with basins at intervals for the use of spectators or competitors, and
+  a post at every hundred feet of the course, thus dividing it into six
+  portions. The goal, which is well preserved at the upper end, is
+  similar to that at Olympia; it consists of a sill of stone sunk level
+  with the ground, with parallel grooves for the feet of the runners at
+  starting, and sockets to hold the posts that separated the spaces
+  assigned to the various competitors, and served as guides to them in
+  running. For these were substituted later a set of stone columns
+  resembling those in the proscenium of a theatre. There was doubtless a
+  similar sill at the lower end for the start of the stadium, this upper
+  one being intended for the start of the diaulos and longer races.
+
+  The theatre still deserves the praise given it by Pausanias as the
+  most beautiful in Greece. The auditorium is in remarkable
+  preservation, almost every seat being still _in situ_, except a few
+  where the supporting walls have given way on the wings. The whole plan
+  is drawn from three centres, the outer portion of the curves being
+  arcs of a larger circle than the one used for the central portion; the
+  complete circle of the orchestra is marked by a sill of white
+  limestone, and greatly enhances the effect of the whole. There are
+  benches with backs not only in the bottom row, but also above and
+  below the diazoma. The acoustic properties of the theatre are
+  extraordinarily good, a speaker in the orchestra being heard
+  throughout the auditorium without raising his voice. The stage
+  buildings are not preserved much above their foundations, and show
+  signs of later repairs; but their general character can be clearly
+  seen. They consist of a long rectangular building, with a proscenium
+  or column front which almost forms a tangent to the circle of the
+  orchestra; at the middle and at either end of this proscenium are
+  doors leading into the orchestra, those at the end set in projecting
+  wings; the top of the proscenium is approached by a ramp, of which the
+  lower part is still preserved, running parallel to the parodi, but
+  sloping up as they slope down. The proscenium was originally about 14
+  ft. high and 12 ft. broad; so corresponding approximately to the Greek
+  stage as described by Vitruvius. M. Kavvadias, who excavated the
+  theatre, believes that the proscenium is contemporary with the rest of
+  the theatre, which, like the Tholos, was built by Polyclitus (the
+  younger); but Professor W. Dörpfeld maintains that it is a later
+  addition. In any case, the theatre at Epidaurus ranks as the most
+  typical of Greek theatres, both from the simplicity of its plan and
+  the beauty of its proportions.
+
+  See Pausanias i. 29; _Expédition de la Morée_, ii.; Curtius,
+  _Peloponnesus_, ii.; _Transactions of Roy. Soc. of Lit._, 2nd series,
+  vol. ii.; Weclawski, _De rebus Epidauriorum_ (Posen, 1854).
+
+  The excavations at the Hieron have been recorded as they went on in
+  the [Greek: Praktika] of the Greek Archaeological Society, especially
+  for 1881-1884 and 1889, and also in the [Greek: Ephêmeris
+  Archaiologikê], especially for 1883 and 1885; see also Kavvadias, Les
+  _Fouilles d'Épidaure_ and [Greek: To Hieron tou Asklêpiou en Epidaurô
+  kai hê therapeia tôn asthenôn]; Defrasse and Lechat, _Épidaure_. A
+  museum was completed in 1910.
+
+2. A city of Peloponnesus on the east coast of Laconia, distinguished by
+the epithet of Limera (either "The Well-havened" or "The Hungry"). It
+was founded by the people of Epidaurus the Holy, and its principal
+temples were those of Asclepius and Aphrodite. It was abandoned during
+the middle ages; its inhabitants took possession of the promontory of
+Minoa, turned it into an island, and built and fortified thereon the
+city of Monembasia, which became the most flourishing of all the towns
+in the Morea, and gave its name to the well-known Malmsey or Malvasia
+wine. The ruins of Epidaurus are to be seen at the place now called
+Palaea Monemvasia.
+
+A third Epidaurus was situated in Illyricum, on the site of the present
+Ragusa Vecchia; but it is not mentioned till the time of the civil wars
+of Pompey and Caesar, and has no special interest.     (E. Gr.)
+
+
+
+
+EPIDIORITE, in petrology, a typical member of a family of rocks
+consisting essentially of hornblende and felspar, often with epidote,
+garnet, sphene, biotite, or quartz, and having usually a foliated
+structure. The term is to some extent synonymous with "amphibolite" and
+"hornblende-schist." These rocks are metamorphic, and though having a
+mineral constitution somewhat similar to that of diorite, they have been
+produced really from rocks of more basic character, such as diabase,
+dolerite and gabbro. They occur principally among the schists, slates
+and gneisses of such districts as the Scottish Highlands, the north-west
+of Ireland, Brittany, the Harz, the Alps, and the crystalline ranges of
+eastern N. America. Their hornblende in microscopic section is usually
+dark green, rarely brownish; their felspar may be clear and
+recrystallized, but more frequently is converted into a turbid aggregate
+of epidote, zoisite, quartz, sericite and albite. In the less complete
+stages of alteration, ophitic structure may persist, and the original
+augite of the rock may not have been entirely replaced by hornblende.
+Pink or brownish garnets are common and may be an inch or two in
+diameter. The iron oxides, originally ilmenite, are usually altered to
+sphene. Biotite, if present, is brown; epidote is yellow or colourless;
+rutile, apatite and quartz all occur with some frequency. The essential
+minerals, hornblende and felspar, rarely show crystalline outlines, and
+this is generally true also of the others. The rocks may be fine
+grained, so that their constituents are hardly visible to the unaided
+eye; or may show crystals of hornblende an inch in length. Their
+prevalent colour is dark green and they weather with brown surfaces. In
+many parts of the world epidiorites and the quartz veins which sometimes
+occur in them have proved to be auriferous. As they are tough, hard
+rocks, when fresh, they are well suited for use as road-mending stones.
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+EPIDOSITE, in petrology, a typical member of a family of metamorphic
+rocks composed mainly of epidote and quartz. In colour they are pale
+yellow or greenish yellow, and they are hard and somewhat brittle. They
+may occur in more than one way and are derived from several kinds of
+rock. Some have been epidotic grits and sandstones; others are
+limestones which have undergone contact-alteration; probably the
+majority, however, are allied to epidiorite and amphibolite, and are
+local modifications of rocks which were primarily basic intrusions or
+lavas. The sedimentary epidosites occur with mica-schists, sheared grits
+and granulitic gneisses; they often show, on minute examination, the
+remains of clastic structures. The epidosites derived from limestones
+may contain a great variety of minerals such as calcite, augite, garnet,
+scapolite, &c., but their source may usually be inferred from their
+close association with calc-silicate rocks in the field. The third group
+of epidosites may form bands, veins, or irregular streaks and nodules in
+masses of epidiorite and hornblende-schist. In microscopic section they
+are often merely a granular mosaic of quartz and epidote with some iron
+oxides and chlorite, but in other cases they retain much of the
+structure of the original rock though there has been a complete
+replacement of the former minerals by new ones. Epidosites when streaked
+and variegated have been cut and polished as ornamental stones. They are
+translucent and hard, and hence serve for brooch stones, and the simpler
+kinds of jewelry. These rocks occasionally carry gold in visible yellow
+specks.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+EPIDOTE, a mineral species consisting of basic calcium, aluminium and
+iron orthosilicate, Ca2(AlOH)(Al, Fe)2(SiO4)3, crystallizing in the
+monoclinic system. Well-developed crystals are of frequent occurrence:
+they are commonly prismatic in habit, the direction of elongation being
+perpendicular to the single plane of symmetry. The faces lettered M, T
+and r in the figure are often deeply striated in the same direction: M
+is a direction of perfect cleavage, and T of imperfect cleavage:
+crystals are often twinned on the face T. Many of the characters of the
+mineral vary with the amount of iron present (Fe2O3, 5-17%), for
+instance, the colour, the optical constants, and the specific gravity
+(3.3-3.5). The hardness is 6½. The colour is green, grey, brown or
+nearly black, but usually a characteristic shade of yellowish-green or
+pistachio-green. The pleochroism is strong, the pleochroic colours being
+usually green, yellow and brown. The names thallite (from [Greek:
+thallos], "a young shoot") and pistacite (from [Greek: pistakia],
+"pistachio nut") have reference to the colour. The name epidote is one
+of R.J. Haüy's crystallographic names, and is derived from [Greek:
+epidosis], "increase," because the base of the primitive prism has one
+side longer than the other. Several other names (achmatite, bucklandite,
+escherite, puschkinite, &c.) have been applied to this species.
+Withamite is a carmine-red to straw-yellow, strongly pleochroic variety
+from Glencoe in Scotland. Fouqueite and clinozoisite are white or pale
+rose-red varieties containing very little iron, thus having the same
+chemical composition as the orthorhombic mineral zoisite (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Epidote is an abundant rock-forming mineral, but one of secondary
+origin. It occurs in crystalline limestones and schistose rocks of
+metamorphic origin; and is also a product of weathering of various
+minerals (felspars, micas, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, &c.)
+composing igneous rocks. A rock composed of quartz and epidote is known
+as epidosite. Well-developed crystals are found at many localities, of
+which the following may be specially mentioned: Knappenwand, near the
+Gross-Venediger in the Untersulzbachthal in Salzburg, as magnificent,
+dark green crystals of long prismatic habit in cavities in
+epidote-schist, with asbestos, adularia, calcite, and apatite; the Ala
+valley and Traversella in Piedmont; Arendal in Norway (arendalite); Le
+Bourg d'Oisans in Dauphiné (oisanite and delphinite); Haddam in
+Connecticut; Prince of Wales Island in Alaska, here as large, dark
+green, tabular crystals with copper ores in metamorphosed limestone.
+
+The perfectly transparent, dark green crystals from the Knappenwand and
+from Brazil have occasionally been cut as gem-stones.
+
+Belonging to the same isomorphous group with epidote are the species
+piedmontite and allanite, which may be described as manganese and cerium
+epidotes respectively.
+
+Piedmontite has the composition Ca2(AlOH)(Fe, Mn)2(SiO4)3; it occurs as
+small, reddish-black, monoclinic crystals in the manganese mines at San
+Marcel, near Ivrea in Piedmont, and in crystalline schists at several
+places in Japan. The purple colour of the Egyptian _porfido rosso
+antico_ is due to the presence of this mineral.
+
+Allanite has the same general formula R2"(R'"OH)R2'"(SiO4)3, where R"
+represents calcium and ferrous iron, and R'" aluminium, ferric iron and
+metals of the cerium group. In external appearance it differs widely
+from epidote, being black or dark brown in colour, pitchy in lustre, and
+opaque in the mass; further, there is little or no cleavage, and
+well-developed crystals are rarely met with. The crystallographic and
+optical characters are similar to those of epidote; the pleochroism is
+strong with reddish-, yellowish-, and greenish-brown colours. Although
+not a common mineral, allanite is of fairly wide distribution as a
+primary accessory constituent of many crystalline rocks, e.g. gneiss,
+granite, syenite, rhyolite, andesite, &c. It was first found in the
+granite of east Greenland and described by Thomas Allan in 1808, after
+whom the species was named. Allanite is a mineral readily altered by
+hydration, becoming optically isotropic and amorphous: for this reason
+several varieties have been distinguished, and many different names
+applied. Orthite, from [Greek: orthos], "straight," was the name given
+by J.J. Berzelius in 1818 to a hydrated form found as slender prismatic
+crystals, sometimes a foot in length, at Finbo, near Falun in Sweden.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+EPIGONI ("descendants"), in Greek legend, the sons of the seven heroes
+who fought against Thebes (see ADRASTUS). Ten years later, to avenge
+their fathers, the Epigoni undertook a second expedition, which was
+completely successful. Thebes was forced to surrender and razed to the
+ground. In early times the war of the Epigoni was a favourite subject of
+epic poetry. The term is also applied to the descendants of the
+Diadochi, the successors of Alexander the Great.
+
+
+
+
+EPIGONION (Gr. [Greek: epigoneion]), an ancient stringed instrument
+mentioned in Athenaeus 183 C, probably a psaltery. The epigonion was
+invented, or at least introduced into Greece, by Epigonus, a Greek
+musician of Ambracia in Epirus, who was admitted to citizenship at
+Sicyon as a recognition of his great musical ability and of his having
+been the first to pluck the strings with his fingers, instead of using
+the plectrum.[1] The instrument, which Epigonus named after himself, had
+forty strings.[2] It was undoubtedly a kind of harp or psaltery, since
+in an instrument of so many strings some must have been of different
+lengths, for tension and thickness only could hardly have produced forty
+different sounds, or even twenty, supposing that they were arranged in
+pairs of unisons. Strings of varying lengths require a frame like that
+of the harp, or of the Egyptian cithara which had one of the arms
+supporting the cross bar or zugon shorter than the other,[3] or else
+strings stretched over harp-shaped bridges on a sound-board in the case
+of a psaltery. Juba II., king of Mauretania, who reigned from 30 B.C.,
+said (ap. Athen. l.c.) that Epigonus brought the instrument from
+Alexandria and played upon it with the fingers of both hands, not only
+using it as an accompaniment to the voice, but introducing chromatic
+passages, and a chorus of other stringed instruments, probably citharas,
+to accompany the voice. Epigonus was also a skilled citharist and played
+with his bare hands without plectrum.[4] Unfortunately we have no record
+of when Epigonus lived. Vincenzo Galilei[5] has given us a description
+of the epigonion accompanied by an illustration, representing his
+conception of the ancient instrument, an upright psaltery with the
+outline of the clavicytherium (but no keyboard).     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Michael Praetorius, _Syntagma musicum_, tom. 1, c. 13, p. 380:
+    Salomon van Til, _Sing-Dicht und Spiel-Kunst_, p. 95.
+
+  [2] Pollux, _Onomasticon_, lib. iv. cap. 9, 59.
+
+  [3] For an illustration, see Kathleen Schlesinger, _Orchestral
+    Instruments_, part ii. "Precursors of the Violin Family," fig. 165,
+    p. 219.
+
+  [4] Athenaeus, iv. p. 183 d. and xiv. p. 638 a.
+
+  [5] _Dialogo della musica antica e moderna_, ed. 1602, p. 40.
+
+
+
+
+EPIGRAM, properly speaking, anything that is inscribed. Nothing could be
+more hopeless, however, than an attempt to discover or devise a
+definition wide enough to include the vast multitude of little poems
+which at one time or other have been honoured with the title of epigram,
+and precise enough to exclude all others. Without taking account of its
+evident misapplications, we find that the name has been given--first, in
+strict accordance with its Greek etymology, to any actual inscription on
+monument, statue or building; secondly, to verses never intended for
+such a purpose, but assuming for artistic reasons the epigraphical form;
+thirdly, to verses expressing with something of the terseness of an
+inscription a striking or beautiful thought; and fourthly, by
+unwarrantable restriction, to a little poem ending in a "point,"
+especially of the satirical kind. The last of these has obtained
+considerable popularity from the well-known lines--
+
+  "The qualities rare in a bee that we meet
+     In an epigram never should fail;
+   The body should always be little and sweet,
+     And a sting should be left in its tail"--
+
+which represent the older Latin of some unknown writer--
+
+  "Omne epigramma sit instar apis: sit aculeus illi;
+     Sint sua mella; sit et corporis exigui."
+
+Attempts not a few of a more elaborate kind have been made to state the
+essential element of the epigram, and to classify existing specimens;
+but, as every lover of epigrams must feel, most of them have been
+attended with very partial success. Scaliger, in the third book of his
+_Poetics_, gives a fivefold division, which displays a certain ingenuity
+in the nomenclature but is very superficial: the first class takes its
+name from _mel_, or honey, and consists of adulatory specimens; the
+second from _fel_, or gall; the third from _acetum_, or vinegar; and the
+fourth from _sal_, or salt; while the fifth is styled the condensed, or
+multiplex. This classification is adopted by Nicolaus Mercerius in his
+_De conscribendo epigrammate_ (Paris, 1653); but he supplemented it by
+another of much more scientific value, based on the figures of the
+ancient rhetoricians. Lessing, in the preface to his own epigrams, gives
+an interesting treatment of the theory, his principal doctrine being
+practically the same as that of several of his less eminent
+predecessors, that there ought to be two parts more or less clearly
+distinguished,--the first awakening the reader's attention in the same
+way as an actual monument might do, and the other satisfying his
+curiosity in some unexpected manner. An attempt was made by Herder to
+increase the comprehensiveness and precision of the theory; but as he
+himself confesses, his classification is rather vague--the expository,
+the paradigmatic, the pictorial, the impassioned, the artfully turned,
+the illusory, and the swift. After all, if the arrangement according to
+authorship be rejected, the simplest and most satisfactory is according
+to subjects. The epigram is one of the most catholic of literary forms,
+and lends itself to the expression of almost any feeling or thought. It
+may be an elegy, a satire, or a love-poem in miniature, an embodiment of
+the wisdom of the ages, a bon-mot set off with a couple of rhymes.
+
+  "I cannot tell thee who lies buried here;
+   No man that knew him followed by his bier;
+   The winds and waves conveyed him to this shore,
+   Then ask the winds and waves to tell thee more."
+
+      ANONYMOUS.
+
+  "Wherefore should I vainly try
+     To teach thee what my love will be
+   In after years, when thou and I
+     Have both grown old in company,
+   If words are vain to tell thee how,
+   Mary, I do love thee now?"
+
+      ANONYMOUS.
+
+  "O Bruscus, cease our aching ears to vex,
+   With thy loud railing at the softer sex;
+   No accusation worse than this could be,
+   That once a woman did give birth to thee."
+
+      ACILIUS.
+
+  "Treason doth never prosper. What's the reason?
+   For if it prospers none dare call it treason."
+
+      HARRINGTON.
+
+  "Ward has no heart they say, but I deny it;
+   He has a heart, and gets his speeches by it."
+
+      ROGERS.
+
+From its very brevity there is no small danger of the epigram passing
+into childish triviality: the paltriest pun, a senseless anagram, is
+considered stuff enough and to spare. For proof of this there is
+unfortunately no need to look far; but perhaps the reader could not find
+a better collection ready to his hand than the second twenty-five of the
+_Epigrammatum centuriae_ of Samuel Erichius; by the time he reaches No.
+11 of the 47th century, he will be quite ready to grant the
+appropriateness of the identity maintained between the German _Seele_,
+or soul, and the German _Esel_, or ass.
+
+Of the epigram as cultivated by the Greeks an account is given in the
+article ANTHOLOGY, discussing those wonderful collections which bid fair
+to remain the richest of their kind. The delicacy and simplicity of so
+much of what has been preserved is perhaps their most striking feature;
+and one cannot but be surprised at the number of poets proved capable of
+such work. In Latin literature, on the other hand, the epigrammatists
+whose work has been preserved are comparatively few, and though several
+of them, as Catullus and Martial, are men of high literary genius, too
+much of what they have left behind is vitiated by brutality and
+obscenity. On the subsequent history of the epigram, indeed, Martial has
+exercised an influence as baneful as it is extensive, and he may fairly
+be counted the far-off progenitor of a host of scurrilous verses. Nearly
+all the learned Latinists of the 16th and 17th centuries may claim
+admittance into the list of epigrammatists,--Bembo and Scaliger,
+Buchanan and More, Stroza and Sannazaro. Melanchthon, who succeeded in
+combining so much of Pagan culture with his Reformation Christianity,
+has left us some graceful specimens, but his editor, Joannes Major
+Joachimus, has so little idea of what an epigram is, that he includes in
+his collection some translations from the Psalms. The Latin epigrams of
+Étienne Pasquier were among the most admirable which the Renaissance
+produced in France. John Owen, or, as he Latinized his name, Johannes
+Audoenus, a Cambro-Briton, attained quite an unusual celebrity in this
+department, and is regularly distinguished as Owen the Epigrammatist.
+The tradition of the Latin epigram has been kept alive in England by
+such men as Porson, Vincent Bourne and Walter Savage Landor. Happily
+there is now little danger of any too personal epigrammatist suffering
+the fate of Niccolo Franco, who paid the forfeit of his life for having
+launched his venomous Latin against Pius V., though he may still incur
+the milder penalty of having his name inserted in the _Index
+Expurgatorius_, and find, like John Owen, that he consequently has lost
+an inheritance.
+
+In English literature proper there is no writer like Martial in Latin
+or Logau in German, whose fame is entirely due to his epigrams; but
+several even of those whose names can perish never have not disdained
+this diminutive form. The designation epigram, however, is used by
+earlier English writers with excessive laxity, and given or withheld
+without apparent reason. The epigrams of Robert Crowley (1550) and of
+Henry Parrot (1613) are worthless so far as form goes. John Weever's
+collection (1599) is of interest mainly because of its allusion to
+Shakespeare. Ben Jonson furnishes a number of noble examples in his
+_Underwoods_; and one or two of Spenser's little poems and a great many
+of Herrick's are properly classed as epigrams. Cowley, Waller, Dryden,
+Prior, Parnell, Swift, Addison, Johnson, Goldsmith and Young have all
+been at times successful in their epigrammatical attempts; but perhaps
+none of them has proved himself so much "to the manner born" as Pope,
+whose name indeed is almost identified with the epigrammatical spirit in
+English literature. Few English modern poets have followed in his
+footsteps, and though nearly all might plead guilty to an epigram or
+two, there is no one who has a distinct reputation as an epigrammatist.
+Such a reputation might certainly have been Landor's, had he not chosen
+to write the best of his minor poems in Latin, and thus made his readers
+nearly as select as his language.
+
+The French are undoubtedly the most successful cultivators of the "salt"
+and the "vinegar" epigram; and from the 16th century downwards many of
+their principal authors have earned no small celebrity in this
+department. The epigram was introduced into French literature by Mellin
+de St Gelais and Clément Marot. It is enough to mention the names of
+Boileau, J.B. Rousseau, Lebrun, Voltaire, Marmontel, Piron, Rulhière,
+and M.J. Chénier. In spite of Rapin's dictum that a man ought to be
+content if he succeeded in writing one really good epigram, those of
+Lebrun alone number upwards of 600, and a very fair proportion of them
+would doubtless pass muster even with Rapin himself. If Piron was never
+anything better, "pas même académicien," he appears at any rate in
+Grimm's phrase to have been "une machine à saillies, à épigrammes, et à
+bons mots." Perhaps more than anywhere else the epigram has been
+recognized in France as a regular weapon in literary and political
+contests, and it might not be altogether a hopeless task to compile an
+epigrammatical history from the Revolution to the present time.
+
+While any fair collection of German epigrams will furnish examples that
+for keenness of wit would be quite in place in a French anthology, the
+Teutonic tendency to the moral and didactic has given rise to a class
+but sparingly represented in French. The very name of _Sinngedichte_
+bears witness to this peculiarity, which is exemplified equally by the
+rude _priameln_ or _proeameln_, of the 13th and 14th centuries and the
+polished lines of Goethe and Schiller. Logau published his _Deutsche
+Sinngetichte Drey Tausend_ in 1654, and Wernicke no fewer than six
+volumes of _Ueberschriften oder Epigrammata_ in 1697; Kästner's
+_Sinngedichte_ appeared in 1782, and Haug and Weissen's _Epigrammatische
+Anthologie_ in 1804. Kleist, Opitz, Gleim, Hagedorn, Klopstock and A.W.
+Schlegel all possess some reputation as epigrammatists; Lessing is
+_facile princeps_ in the satirical style; and Herder has the honour of
+having enriched his language with much of what is best from Oriental and
+classical sources.
+
+It is often by no means easy to trace the history of even a single
+epigram, and the investigator soon learns to be cautious of
+congratulating himself on the attainment of a genuine original. The same
+point, refurbished and fitted anew to its tiny shaft, has been shot
+again and again by laughing cupids or fierce-eyed furies in many a
+frolic and many a fray. During the period when the epigram was the
+favourite form in Germany, Gervinus tells us how the works, not only of
+the Greek and Roman writers, but of Neo-Latinists, Spaniards, Dutchmen,
+Frenchmen, Englishmen and Poles were ransacked and plundered; and the
+same process of pillage has gone on in a more or less modified degree in
+other times and countries. Very noticeable often are the modifications
+of tone and expression occasioned by national and individual
+characteristics; the simplicity of the prototype may become common-place
+in the imitation, the sublime be distorted into the grotesque, the
+pathetic degenerate into the absurdly sentimental; or on the other hand,
+an unpromising _motif_ may be happily developed into unexpected beauty.
+A good illustration of the variety with which the same epigram may be
+translated and travestied is afforded by a little volume published in
+Edinburgh in 1808, under the title of _Lucubrations on the Epigram--_
+
+  [Greek: Ei men ên mathein a dei pathein,
+  kai mê pathein, kalon ên to mathein
+  ei de dei pathein a d' ên mathein,
+  ti dei mathein; chrê gar pathein.]
+
+  The two collections of epigrams most accessible to the English reader
+  are Booth's _Epigrams, Ancient and Modern_ (1863) and Dodd's _The
+  Epigrammatists_ (1870). In the appendix to the latter is a pretty full
+  bibliography, to which the following list may serve as a
+  supplement:--Thomas Corraeus, _De toto eo poëmatis genere quod
+  epigramma dicitur_ (Venice, 1569; Bologna, 1590); Cottunius, _De
+  conficiendo epigrammate_ (Bologna, 1632); Vincentius Gallus,
+  _Opusculum de epigrammate_ (Milan, 1641); Vavassor, _De epigrammate
+  liber_ (Paris, 1669); _Gedanke von deutschen Epigrammatibus_ (Leipzig,
+  1698); _Doctissimorum nostra aetate Italorum epigrammata; Flaminii
+  Moleae Naugerii, Cottae, Lampridii, Sadoleti, et aliorum, cura Jo.
+  Gagnaei_ (Paris, c. 1550); Brugière de Barante, _Recueil des plus
+  belles épigrammes des poètes français_ (2 vols., Paris, 1698); Chr.
+  Aug. Heumann, _Anthologia Latina: hoc est, epigrammata partim a
+  priscis partim junioribus a poëtis_ (Hanover, 1721); Fayolle,
+  _Acontologie ou dictionnaire d'épigrammes_ (Paris, 1817); Geijsbeck,
+  _Epigrammatische Anthologie_, Sauvage, _Les Guêpes gauloises: petit
+  encyclopédie des meilleurs épigrammes, &c., depuis Clément Marot
+  jusqu'aux poètes de nos jours_ (1859); _La Récréation et passe-temps
+  des tristes: recueil d'épigrammes et de petits contes en vers
+  réimprimé sur l'édition de Rouen_ 1595, &c. (Paris, 1863). A large
+  number of epigrams and much miscellaneous information in regard to
+  their origin, application and translation is scattered through _Notes
+  and Queries_.
+
+  See also an article in _The Quarterly Review_, No. 233.
+
+
+
+
+EPIGRAPHY (Gr. [Greek: epi], on, and [Greek: graphein], to write), a
+term used to denote (1) the study of inscriptions collectively, and (2)
+the science connected with the classification and explanation of
+inscriptions. It is sometimes employed, too, in a more contracted sense,
+to denote the palaeography, in inscriptions. Generally, it is that part
+of archaeology which has to do with inscriptions engraved on stone,
+metal or other permanent material (not, however, coins, which come under
+the heading NUMISMATICS).
+
+  See INSCRIPTIONS; PALAEOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+EPILEPSY (Gr. [Greek: epi], upon, and [Greek: lambanein], to seize), or
+FALLING SICKNESS, a term applied generally to a nervous disorder,
+characterized by a fit of sudden loss of consciousness, attended with
+convulsions. There may, however, exist manifestations of epilepsy much
+less marked than this, yet equally characteristic of the disease; while,
+on the other hand, it is to be borne in mind that many other attacks of
+a convulsive nature have the term "epileptic" or "epileptiform" applied
+to them.
+
+Epilepsy was well known in ancient times, and was regarded as a special
+infliction of the gods, hence the names _morbus sacer_, _morbus divus_.
+It was also termed _morbus Herculeus_, from Hercules having been
+supposed to have been epileptic, and _morbus comitialis_, from the
+circumstance that when any member of the forum was seized with an
+epileptic fit the assembly was broken up. _Morbus caducus_, _morbus
+lunaticus astralis_, _morbus demoniacus_, _morbus major_, were all terms
+employed to designate epilepsy.
+
+There are three well-marked varieties of the epileptic seizure; to these
+the terms _le grand mal_, _le petit mal_ and _Jacksonian epilepsy_ are
+usually applied. Any of these may exist alone, but the two former may be
+found to exist in the same individual. The first of these, if not the
+more common, is at least that which attracts the most attention, being
+what is generally known as an _epileptic fit_.
+
+Although in most instances such an attack comes on suddenly, it is in
+many cases preceded by certain premonitory indications or warnings,
+which may be present for a greater or less time previously. These are of
+very varied character, and may be in the form of some temporary change
+in the disposition, such as unusual depression or elevation of spirits,
+or of some alteration in the look. Besides these general symptoms, there
+are frequently peculiar sensations which immediately precede the onset
+of the fit, and to such the name of _aura epileptica_ is applied. In its
+strict sense this term refers to a feeling of a breath of air blowing
+upon some part of the body, and passing upwards towards the head. This
+sensation, however, is not a common one, and the term has now come to be
+applied to any peculiar feeling which the patient experiences as a
+precursor of the attack. The so-called _aura_ may be of mental
+character, in the form of an agonizing feeling of momentary duration; of
+sensorial character, in the form of pain in a limb or in some internal
+organ, such as the stomach, or morbid feeling connected with the special
+senses; or, further, of motorial character, in the form of contractions
+or trembling in some of the muscles. When such sensations affect a limb,
+the employment of firm compression by the hand or by a ligature
+occasionally succeeds in warding off an attack. The aura may be so
+distinct and of such duration as to enable the patient to lie down, or
+seek a place of safety before the fit comes on.
+
+The seizure is usually preceded by a loud scream or cry, which is not to
+be ascribed, as was at one time supposed, to terror or pain, but is due
+to the convulsive action of the muscles of the larynx, and the expulsion
+of a column of air through the narrowed glottis. If the patient is
+standing he immediately falls, and often sustains serious injury.
+Unconsciousness is complete, and the muscles generally are in a state of
+stiffness or tonic contraction, which will usually be found to affect
+those of one side of the body in particular. The head is turned by a
+series of jerks towards one or other shoulder, the breathing is for the
+moment arrested, the countenance first pale then livid, the pupils
+dilated and the pulse rapid. This, the first stage of the fit, generally
+lasts for about half a minute, and is followed by the state of clonic
+(i.e. tumultuous) spasm of the muscles, in which the whole body is
+thrown into violent agitation, occasionally so great that bones may be
+fractured or dislocated. The eyes roll wildly, the teeth are gnashed
+together, and the tongue and cheeks are often severely bitten. The
+breathing is noisy and laborious, and foam (often tinged with blood)
+issues from the mouth, while the contents of the bowels and bladder are
+ejected. The aspect of the patient in this condition is shocking to
+witness, and the sight has been known to induce a similar attack in an
+onlooker. This stage lasts for a period varying from a few seconds to
+several minutes, when the convulsive movements gradually subside, and
+relaxation of the muscles takes place, together with partial return of
+consciousness, the patient looking confusedly about him and attempting
+to speak. This, however, is soon followed by drowsiness and stupor,
+which may continue for several hours, when he awakes either apparently
+quite recovered or fatigued and depressed, and occasionally in a state
+of excitement which sometimes assumes the form of mania.
+
+Epileptic fits of this sort succeed each other with varying degrees of
+frequency, and occasionally, though not frequently, with regular
+periodicity. In some persons they only occur once in a lifetime, or once
+in the course of many years, while in others they return every week or
+two, or even are of daily occurrence, and occasionally there are
+numerous attacks each day. According to Sir J.R. Reynolds, there are
+four times as many epileptics who have their attacks more frequently
+than once a month as there are of those whose attacks recur at longer
+intervals. When the fit returns it is not uncommon for one seizure to be
+followed by another within a few hours or days. Occasionally there
+occurs a constant succession of attacks extending over many hours, and
+with such rapidity that the patient appears as if he had never come out
+of the one fit. The term _status epilepticus_ is applied to this
+condition, which is sometimes followed with fatal results. In many
+epileptics the fits occur during the night as well as during the day,
+but in some instances they are entirely nocturnal, and it is well known
+that in such cases the disease may long exist and yet remain
+unrecognized either by the patient or the physician.
+
+The second manifestation of epilepsy, to which the names _epilepsia
+mitior_ or _le petit mal_ are given, differs from that above described
+in the absence of the convulsive spasms. It is also termed by some
+authors _epileptic vertigo_ (giddiness), and consists essentially in the
+sudden arrest of volition and consciousness, which is of but short
+duration, and may be accompanied with staggering or some alteration in
+position or motion, or may simply exhibit itself in a look of absence or
+confusion, and should the patient happen to be engaged in conversation,
+by an abrupt termination of the act. In general it lasts but a few
+seconds, and the individual resumes his occupation without perhaps being
+aware of anything having been the matter. In some instances there is a
+degree of spasmodic action in certain muscles which may cause the
+patient to make some unexpected movement, such as turning half round, or
+walking abruptly aside, or may show itself by some unusual expression of
+countenance, such as squinting or grinning. There may be some amount of
+_aura_ preceding such attacks, and also of faintness following them. The
+_petit mal_ most commonly co-exists with the _grand mal_, but has no
+necessary connexion with it, as each may exist alone. According to
+Armand Trousseau, the _petit mal_ in general precedes the manifestation
+of the _grand mal_, but sometimes the reverse is the case.
+
+The third manifestation--_Jacksonian epilepsy_ or _partial epilepsy_--is
+distinguished by the fact that consciousness is retained or lost late.
+The patient is conscious throughout, and is able to watch the march of
+the spasm. The attacks are usually the result of lesions in the motor
+area of the brain, such being caused, in many instances, by depression
+of the vault of the skull, due to trauma.
+
+Epilepsy appears to exert no necessarily injurious effect upon the
+general health, and even where it exists in an aggravated form is quite
+consistent with a high degree of bodily vigour. It is very different,
+however, with regard to its influence upon the mind; and the question of
+the relation of epilepsy to insanity is one of great and increasing
+importance. Allusion has already been made to the occasional occurrence
+of maniacal excitement as one of the results of the epileptic seizure.
+Such attacks, to which the name of _furor epilepticus_ is applied, are
+generally accompanied with violent acts on the part of the patient,
+rendering him dangerous, and demanding prompt measures of restraint.
+These attacks are by no means limited to the more severe form of
+epilepsy, but appear to be even more frequently associated with the
+milder form--the epileptic vertigo--where they either replace altogether
+or immediately follow the short period of absence characteristic of this
+form of the disease. Numerous cases are on record of persons known to be
+epileptic being suddenly seized, either after or without apparent
+spasmodic attack, with some sudden impulse, in which they have used
+dangerous violence to those beside them, irrespective altogether of
+malevolent intention, as appears from their retaining no recollection
+whatever, after the short period of excitement, of anything that had
+occurred; and there is reason to believe that crimes of heinous
+character, for which the perpetrators have suffered punishment, have
+been committed in a state of mind such as that now described. The
+subject is obviously one of the greatest medico-legal interest and
+importance in regard to the question of criminal responsibility.
+
+Apart, however, from such marked and comparatively rare instances of
+what is termed epileptic insanity, the general mental condition of the
+epileptic is in a large proportion of cases unfavourably affected by the
+disease. There are doubtless examples (and their number according to
+statistics is estimated at less than one-third) where, even among those
+suffering from frequent and severe attacks, no departure from the normal
+condition of mental integrity can be recognized. But in general there
+exists some peculiarity, exhibiting itself either in the form of
+defective memory, or diminishing intelligence, or what is perhaps as
+frequent, in irregularities of temper, the patient being irritable or
+perverse and eccentric. In not a few cases there is a steady mental
+decline, which ends in dementia or idiocy. It is stated by some high
+authorities that epileptic women suffer in regard to their mental
+condition more than men. It also appears to be the case that the later
+in life the disease shows itself the more likely is the mind to suffer.
+Neither the frequency nor the severity of the seizures seem to have any
+necessary influence in the matter; and the general opinion appears to be
+that the milder form of the disease is that with which mental failure is
+more apt to be associated. (For a consideration of the conditions of the
+nervous system which result in epilepsy, see the article
+NEUROPATHOLOGY.)
+
+The influence of hereditary predisposition in epilepsy is very marked.
+It is necessary, however, to bear in mind the point so forcibly insisted
+on by Trousseau in relation to epilepsy, that hereditary transmission
+may be either direct or indirect, that is to say, that what is epilepsy
+in one generation may be some other form of neurosis in the next, and
+conversely, nervous diseases being remarkable for their tendency to
+transformation in their descent in families. Where epilepsy is
+hereditary, it generally manifests itself at an unusually early period
+of life. A singular fact, which also bears to some extent upon the
+pathology of this disease, was brought to light by Dr Brown Séquard in
+his experiments, namely, that the young of animals which had been
+artifically rendered epileptic were liable to similar seizures. In
+connexion with the hereditary transmission of epilepsy it must be
+observed that all authorities concur in the opinion that this disease is
+one among the baneful effects that often follow marriages of
+consanguinity. Further, there is reason to believe that intemperance,
+apart altogether from its direct effect in favouring the occurrence of
+epilepsy, has an evil influence in the hereditary transmission of this
+as of other nervous diseases. A want of symmetry in the formation of the
+skull and defective cerebral development are not infrequently observed
+where epilepsy is hereditarily transmitted.
+
+Age is of importance in reference to the production of epilepsy. The
+disease may come on at any period of life, but it appears from the
+statistics of Reynolds and others, that it most frequently first
+manifests itself between the ages of ten and twenty years, the period of
+second dentition and puberty, and again at or about the age of forty.
+
+Among other causes which are influential in the development of epilepsy
+may be mentioned sudden fright, prolonged mental anxiety, over-work and
+debauchery. Epileptic fits also occur in connexion with a depraved stage
+of the general health, and with irritations in distant organs, as seen
+in the fits occurring in dentition, in kidney disease, and as a result
+of worms in the intestines. The symptoms traceable to these causes are
+sometimes termed _sympathetic_ or _eccentric epilepsy_; these are but
+rarely _epileptic_ in the strictest sense of the word, but rather
+epileptiform.
+
+Epilepsy is occasionally feigned for the purpose of extortion, but an
+experienced medical practitioner will rarely be deceived; and when it is
+stated that although many of the phenomena of an attack, particularly
+the convulsive movements, can be readily simulated, yet that the
+condition of the pupils, which are dilated during the fit, cannot be
+feigned, and that the impostor seldom bites his tongue or injures
+himself, deception is not likely to succeed even with non-medical
+persons of intelligence.
+
+The _medical treatment_ of epilepsy can only be briefly alluded to here.
+During the fit little can be done beyond preventing as far as possible
+the patient from injuring himself while unconsciousness continues. Tight
+clothing should be loosened, and a cork or pad inserted between the
+teeth. When the fit is of long continuance, the dashing of cold water on
+the face and chest, or the inhalation of chloroform, or of nitrite of
+amyl, may be useful; in general, however, the fit terminates
+independently of any such measures. When the fit is over the patient
+should be allowed to sleep, and have the head and shoulders well raised.
+
+In the intervals of the attack, the general health of the patient is
+one of the most important points to be attended to. The strictest
+hygienic and dietetic rules should be observed, and all such causes as
+have been referred to as favouring the development of the disease
+should, as far as possible, be avoided. In the case of children, parents
+must be made to realize that epilepsy is a chronic disease, and that
+therefore the seizures must not be allowed to interfere unnecessarily
+with the child's training. The patient must be treated as such only
+during the attack; between times, though being carefully watched, must
+be made to follow a child's normal pursuits, and no distinction must be
+made from other children. The same applies to adults: it is far better
+for them to have some definite occupation, preferably one that keeps
+them in the open air. If such patients become irritable, then they
+should be placed under supervision. As regards those who cannot be
+looked after at home, colonies on a self-supporting basis have been
+tried, and where the supervision has been intelligent the success has
+been proved, a fairly high level of health and happiness being attained.
+
+The various bromides are the only medical drugs that have produced any
+beneficial results. They require to be given in large doses which are
+carefully regulated for every individual patient, as the quantities
+required vary enormously. Children take far larger doses in proportion
+than adults. They are best given in a very diluted form, and after
+meals, to diminish the chances of gastric disturbance. Belladonna seems
+also to have some influence on the disease, and forms a useful addition;
+arsenic should also be prescribed at times, both as a tonic, and for the
+sake of the improvement it effects in those patients who develop a
+tendency to _acne_, which is one of the troublesome results of bromism.
+The administration of the bromides should be maintained until three
+years after the cessation of the fits. The occurrence of gastric pain,
+palpitations and loss of the palate reflex are indications to stop, or
+to decrease the quantity of the drug. In very severe cases opium may be
+required.
+
+Surgical treatment for epilepsy is yet in its infancy, and it is too
+early to judge of its results. This does not apply, however, to cases of
+_Jacksonian epilepsy_, where a very large number have been operated on
+with marked benefit. Here the lesion of the brain is, in a very large
+percentage of the patients, caused by pressure from outside, from the
+presence of a tumour or a depressed fracture; the removal of the one, or
+the elevation of the other is the obvious procedure, and it is usually
+followed by the complete disappearance of the seizures.
+
+
+
+
+EPILOGUE. The appendix or supplement to a literary work, and in
+particular to a drama in verse, is called an _epilogue_, from [Greek:
+epilogos], the name given by the Greeks to the peroration of a speech.
+As we read in Shakespeare's _Midsummer Night's Dream_, the epilogue was
+generally treated as the apology for a play; it was a final appeal made
+to encourage the good-nature of the audiences, and to deprecate attack.
+The epilogue should form no part of the work to which it is attached,
+but should be independent of it; it should be treated as a sort of
+commentary. Sometimes it adds further information with regard to what
+has been left imperfectly concluded in the work itself. For instance, in
+the case of a play, the epilogue will occasionally tell us what became
+of the characters after the action closed; but this is irregular and
+unusual, and the epilogue is usually no more than a graceful way of
+dismissing the audience. Among the ancients the form was not cultivated,
+further than that the leader of the chorus or the last speaker advanced
+and said "Vos valete, et plaudite, cives"--"Good-bye, citizens, and we
+hope you are pleased." Sometimes this formula was reduced to the one
+word, "Plaudite!" The epilogue as a literary species is almost entirely
+confined to England, and it does not occur in the earliest English
+plays. It is rare in Shakespeare, but Ben Jonson made it a particular
+feature of his drama, and may almost be said to have invented the
+tradition of its regular use. He employed the epilogue for two purposes,
+either to assert the merit of the play or to deprecate censure of its
+defects. In the former case, as in _Cynthia's Revels_ (1600), the actor
+went off, and immediately came on again saying:--
+
+  "Gentles, be't known to you, since I went in
+   I am turned rhymer, and do thus begin:--
+   The author (jealous how your sense doth take
+   His travails) hath enjoined me to make
+   Some short and ceremonious epilogue,"--
+
+and then explained to the audience what an extremely interesting play it
+had been. In the second case, when the author was less confident, his
+epilogue took a humbler form, as in the comedy of _Volpone_ (1605),
+where the actor said:--
+
+  "The seasoning of a play is the applause.
+   Now, as the Fox be punished by the laws,
+   He yet doth hope, there is no suffering due
+   For any fact which he hath done 'gainst _you_.
+   If there be, censure him; here he doubtful stands:
+   If not, fare jovially and clap your hands."
+
+Beaumont and Fletcher used the epilogue sparingly, but after their day
+it came more and more into vogue, and the form was almost invariably
+that which Ben Jonson had brought into fashion, namely, the short
+complete piece in heroic couplets. The hey-day of the epilogue, however,
+was the Restoration, and from 1660 to the decline of the drama in the
+reign of Queen Anne scarcely a play, serious or comic, was produced on
+the London stage without a prologue and an epilogue. These were almost
+always in verse, even if the play itself was in the roughest prose, and
+they were intended to impart a certain literary finish to the piece.
+These Restoration epilogues were often very elaborate essays or satires,
+and were by no means confined to the subject of the preceding play. They
+dealt with fashions, or politics, or criticism. The prologues and
+epilogues of Dryden are often brilliantly finished exercises in literary
+polemic. It became the custom for playwrights to ask their friends to
+write these poems for them, and the publishers would even come to a
+prominent poet and ask him to supply one for a fee. It gives us an idea
+of the seriousness with which the epilogue was treated that Dryden
+originally published his valuable "Defence of the Epilogue; or An Essay
+on the Dramatic Poetry of the Last Age" (1672) as a defence of the
+epilogue which he had written for _The Conquest of Granada_. In France
+the custom of reciting dramatic epilogues has never prevailed. French
+criticism gives the name to such adieux to the public, at the close of a
+non-dramatic work, as are reserved by La Fontaine for certain critical
+points in the "Fables."     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+EPIMENIDES, poet and prophet of Crete, lived in the 6th century B.C.
+Many fabulous stories are told of him, and even his existence is
+doubted. While tending his father's sheep, he is said to have fallen
+into a deep sleep in the Dictaean cave near Cnossus where he lived, from
+which he did not awake for fifty-seven years (Diogenes Laërtius i.
+109-115). When the Athenians were visited by a pestilence in consequence
+of the murder of Cylon, he was invited by Solon (596) to purify the
+city. The only reward he would accept was a branch of the sacred olive,
+and a promise of perpetual friendship between Athens and Cnossus
+(Plutarch, _Solon_, 12; Aristotle, _Ath. Pol._ 1). He died in Crete at
+an advanced age; according to his countrymen, who afterwards honoured
+him as a god, he lived nearly three hundred years. According to another
+story, he was taken prisoner in a war between the Spartans and
+Cnossians, and put to death by his captors, because he refused to
+prophesy favourably for them. A collection of oracles, a theogony, an
+epic poem on the Argonautic expedition, prose works on purifications and
+sacrifices, and a cosmogony, were attributed to him. Epimenides must be
+reckoned with Melampus and Onomacritus as one of the founders of
+Orphism. He is supposed to be the Cretan prophet alluded to in the
+epistle to Titus (i. 12).
+
+  See C. Schultess, _De Epimenide Cretensi_ (1877); O. Kern, _De Orphei,
+  Epimenidis ... Theogoniis_ (1888); G. Barone di Vincenzo, _E. di Creta
+  e le Credenze religiose de' suoi Tempi_ (1880); H. Demoulin,
+  _Épiménide de Crète_ (1901); H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der
+  Vorsokratiker_ (1903); O. Kern in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_.
+
+
+
+
+ÉPINAL, a town on the north-eastern frontier of France, capital of the
+department of Vosges, 46 m. S.S.E. of Nancy on the Eastern railway
+between that town and Belfort. Pop. (1906), town 21,296, commune
+(including garrison) 29,058. The town proper--the Grande Ville--is
+situated on the right bank of the Moselle, which at this point divides
+into two arms forming an island whereon another quarter--the Petite
+Ville--is built. The lesser of these two arms, which is canalized,
+separates the island from the suburb of Hospice on its left bank. The
+right bank of the Moselle is bordered for some distance by pleasant
+promenades, and an extensive park surrounds the ruins of an old
+stronghold which dominated the Grande Ville from an eminence on the
+east. Apart from the church of St Goëry (or St Maurice) rebuilt in the
+13th century but preserving a tower of the 12th century, the public
+buildings of Épinal offer little of architectural interest. The old
+hospital on the island-quarter contains a museum with interesting
+collections of paintings, Gallo-Roman antiquities, sculpture, &c. Close
+by stands the library, which possesses many valuable MSS.
+
+The fortifications of Épinal are connected to the southward with
+Belfort, Dijon and Besançon, by the fortified line of the Moselle, and
+north of it lies the unfortified zone called the _Trouée d'Épinal_, a
+gap designedly left open to the invaders between Épinal and Toul,
+another great fortress which is itself connected by the Meuse _forts
+d'arrêt_ with Verdun and the places of the north-east. Épinal therefore
+is a fortress of the greatest possible importance to the defence of
+France, and its works, all built since 1870, are formidable permanent
+fortifications. The Moselle runs from S. to N. through the middle of the
+girdle of forts; the fortifications of the right bank, beginning with
+Fort de la Mouche, near the river 3 m. above Épinal, form a chain of
+detached forts and batteries over 6 m. long from S. to N., and the
+northernmost part of this line is immensely strengthened by numerous
+advanced works between the villages of Dognéville and Longchamp. On the
+left bank, a larger area of ground is included in the perimeter of
+defence for the purposes of encampment, the most westerly of the forts,
+Girancourt, being 7 m. distant from Épinal; from the lower Moselle to
+Girancourt the works are grouped principally about Uxegney and Sarchey;
+from Girancourt to the upper river and Fort de la Mouche a long ridge
+extends in an arc, and on this south-western section the principal
+defence is Fort Ticha and its annexes. The circle of forts, which has a
+perimeter of nearly 30 m., was in 1895 reinforced by the construction of
+sixteen new works, and the area of ground enclosed and otherwise
+protected by the defences of Épinal is sufficiently extensive to
+accommodate a large army.
+
+Épinal is the seat of a prefect and of a court of assizes and has
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of
+trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, training-colleges, a communal
+college and industrial school, and exchange and a branch of the Bank of
+France. The town, which is important as the centre of a cotton-spinning
+region, carries on cotton-spinning, -weaving and -printing, brewing and
+distilling, and the manufacture of machinery and iron goods, glucose,
+embroidery, hats, wall-paper and tapioca. An industry peculiar to Épinal
+is the production of cheap images, lithographs and engravings. There is
+also trade in wine, grain, live-stock and starch products made in the
+vicinity. Épinal is an important junction on the Eastern railway.
+
+Épinal originated towards the end of the 10th century with the founding
+of a monastery by Theodoric (Dietrich) I., bishop of Metz, whose
+successors ruled the town till 1444, when its inhabitants placed
+themselves under the protection of King Charles VII. In 1466 it was
+transferred to the duchy of Lorraine, and in 1766 it was, along with
+that duchy, incorporated with France. It was occupied by the Germans on
+the 12th of October 1870 after a short fight, and until the 15th was the
+headquarters of General von Werder.
+
+
+
+
+EPINAOS (Gr. [Greek: epi], after, and [Greek: naos], a temple), in
+architecture, the open vestibule behind the nave. The term is not found
+in any classic author, but is a modern coinage, originating in Germany,
+to differentiate the feature from "opisthodomus," which in the Parthenon
+was an enclosed chamber.
+
+
+
+
+ÉPINAY, LOUISE FLORENCE PÉTRONILLE TARDIEU D'ESCLAVELLES D'
+(1726-1783), French writer, was born at Valenciennes on the 11th of
+March 1726. She is well known on account of her _liaisons_ with Rousseau
+and Baron von Grimm, and her acquaintanceship with Diderot, D'Alembert,
+D'Holbach and other French men of letters. Her father, Tardieu
+d'Esclavelles, a brigadier of infantry, was killed in battle when she
+was nineteen; and she married her cousin Denis Joseph de La Live
+d'Épinay, who was made a collector-general of taxes. The marriage was an
+unhappy one; and Louise d'Épinay believed that the prodigality,
+dissipation and infidelities of her husband justified her in obtaining a
+formal separation in 1749. She settled in the château of La Chevrette in
+the valley of Montmorency, and there received a number of distinguished
+visitors. Conceiving a strong attachment for J.J. Rousseau, she
+furnished for him in 1756 in the valley of Montmorency a cottage which
+she named the "Hermitage," and in this retreat he found for a time the
+quiet and natural rural pleasures he praised so highly. Rousseau, in his
+_Confessions_, affirmed that the inclination was all on her side; but
+as, after her visit to Geneva, Rousseau became her bitter enemy, little
+weight can be given to his statements on this point. Her intimacy with
+Grimm, which began in 1755, marks a turning-point in her life, for under
+his influence she escaped from the somewhat compromising conditions of
+her life at La Chevrette. In 1757-1759 she paid a long visit to Geneva,
+where she was a constant guest of Voltaire. In Grimm's absence from
+France (1775-1776), Madame d'Épinay continued, under the superintendence
+of Diderot, the correspondence he had begun with various European
+sovereigns. She spent most of her later life at La Briche, a small house
+near La Chevrette, in the society of Grimm and of a small circle of men
+of letters. She died on the 17th of April 1783. Her _Conversations
+d'Émilie_ (1774), composed for the education of her grand-daughter,
+Émilie de Belsunce, was crowned by the French Academy in 1783. The
+_Mémoires et Correspondance de Mme d'Épinay, renfermant un grand nombre
+de lettres inédites de Grimm, de Diderot, et de J.-J. Rousseau, ainsi
+que des détails_, &c, was published at Paris (1818) from a MS. which she
+had bequeathed to Grimm. The _Mémoires_ are written by herself in the
+form of a sort of autobiographic romance. Madame d'Épinay figures in it
+as Madame de Montbrillant, and René is generally recognized as Rousseau,
+Volx as Grimm, Garnier as Diderot. All the letters and documents
+published along with the _Mémoires_ are genuine. Many of Madame
+d'Épinay's letters are contained in the _Correspondance de l'abbé
+Galiani_ (1818). Two anonymous works, _Lettres à mon fils_ (Geneva,
+1758) and _Mes moments heureux_ (Geneva, 1759), are also by Madame
+d'Épinay.
+
+  See Rousseau's _Confessions_; Lucien Perey [Mlle Herpin] and Gaston
+  Maugras, _La Jeunesse de Mme d'Épinay, les dernières années de Mme
+  d'Épinay_ (1882-1883); Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. ii.;
+  Edmond Scherer, _Études sur la littérature contemporaine_, vols. iii.
+  and vii. There are editions of the _Mémoires_ by L. Énault (1855) and
+  by P. Boiteau (1865); and an English translation, with introduction
+  and notes (1897), by J.H. Freese.
+
+
+
+
+EPIPHANIUS, SAINT (c. 315-402), a celebrated Church Father, born in the
+beginning of the 4th century at Bezanduca, a village of Palestine, near
+Eleutheropolis. He is said to have been of Jewish extraction. In his
+youth he resided in Egypt, where he began an ascetic course of life,
+and, freeing himself from Gnostic influences, invoked episcopal
+assistance against heretical thinkers, eighty of whom were driven from
+the cities. On his return to Palestine he was ordained presbyter by the
+bishop of Eleutheropolis, and became the president of a monastery which
+he founded near his native place. The account of his intimacy with the
+patriarch Hilarion is not trustworthy. In 367 he was nominated bishop of
+Constantia, previously known as Salamis, the metropolis of Cyprus--an
+office which he held till his death in 402. Zealous for the truth, but
+passionate and bigoted, he devoted himself to two great labours, namely,
+the spread of the recently established monasticism, and the confutation
+of heresy, of which he regarded Origen and his followers as the chief
+representatives. The first of the Origenists that he attacked was John,
+bishop of Jerusalem, whom he denounced from his own pulpit at Jerusalem
+(394) in terms so violent that the bishop sent his archdeacon to request
+him to desist; and afterwards, instigated by Theophilus, bishop of
+Alexandria, he proceeded so far as to summon a council of Cyprian
+bishops to condemn the errors of Origen. In his closing years he came
+into conflict with Chrysostom, the patriarch of Constantinople, who had
+given temporary shelter to four Nitrian monks whom Theophilus had
+expelled on the charge of Origenism. The monks gained the support of the
+empress Eudoxia, and when she summoned Theophilus to Constantinople that
+prelate forced the aged Epiphanius to go with him. He had some
+controversy with Chrysostom but did not stay to see the result of
+Theophilus's machinations, and died on his way home. The principal work
+of Epiphanius is the _Panarion_, or treatise on heresies, of which he
+also wrote an abridgment. It is a "medicine chest" of remedies for all
+kinds of heretical belief, of which he names eighty varieties. His
+accounts of the earlier errors (where he has preserved for us large
+excerpts from the original Greek of Irenaeus) are more reliable than
+those of contemporary heresies. In his desire to see the Church safely
+moored he also wrote the _Ancoratus_, or discourse on the true faith.
+His encyclopaedic learning shows itself in a treatise on Jewish weights
+and measures, and another (incomplete) on ancient gems. These, with two
+epistles to John of Jerusalem and Jerome, are his only genuine remains.
+He wrote a large number of works which are lost. In allusion to his
+knowledge of Hebrew, Syriac, Egyptian, Greek and Latin, Jerome styles
+Epiphanius [Greek: Pentaglôssos] (Five-tongued); but if his knowledge of
+languages was really so extensive, it is certain that he was utterly
+destitute of critical and logical power. His early asceticism seems to
+have imbued him with a love of the marvellous; and his religious zeal
+served only to increase his credulity. His erudition is outweighed by
+his prejudice, and his inability to recognize the responsibilities of
+authorship makes it necessary to assign most value to those portions of
+his works which he simply cites from earlier writers.
+
+  The primary sources for the life are the church histories of Socrates
+  and Sozomen, Palladius's _De vita Chrysostomi_ and Jerome's _De vir.
+  illust._ 114. Petau (Petavius) published an edition of the works in 2
+  vols. fol. at Paris in 1622; cf. Migne, _Patr. Graec._ 41-43. The
+  Panarion and other works were edited by F. Oehler (Berlin, 1859-1861).
+  For more recent work especially on the fragments see K. Bonwetsch's
+  art. in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk._ v. 417.
+
+  Other theologians of the same name were: (1) Epiphanius Scholasticus,
+  friend and helper of Cassiodorus; (2) Epiphanius, bishop of Ticinum
+  (Pavia), c. 438-496; (3) Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia and
+  Metropolitan of Cyprus (the Younger), c. A.D. 680, to whom some
+  critics have ascribed certain of the works supposed to have been
+  written by the greater Epiphanius; (4) Epiphanius, bishop of
+  Constantia in the 9th century, to whom a similar attribution has been
+  made.
+
+
+
+
+EPIPHANY, FEAST OF. The word epiphany, in Greek, signifies an apparition
+of a divine being. It was used as a singular or a plural, both in its
+Greek and Latin forms, according as one epiphany was contemplated or
+several united in a single commemoration. For in the East from an early
+time were associated with the feast of the Baptism of Christ
+commemorations of the physical birth, of the Star of the Magi, of the
+miracles of Cana, and of the feeding of the five thousand. The
+commemoration of the Baptism was also called by the Greek fathers of the
+4th century the Theophany or Theophanies, and the Day of Lights, i.e. of
+the Illumination of Jesus or of the Light which shone in the Jordan. In
+the Teutonic west it has become the Festival of the three kings (i.e.
+the Magi), or simply Twelfth day. Leo the Great called it the Feast of
+the _Declaration_; Fulgentius, of the _Manifestation_; others, of the
+_Apparition_ of Christ.
+
+In the following article it is attempted to ascertain the date of
+institution of the Epiphany feast, its origin, and its significance and
+development.
+
+Clement of Alexandria first mentions it. Writing c. 194 he states that
+the Basilidians feasted the day of the Baptism, devoting the whole night
+which preceded it to lections of the scriptures. They fixed it in the
+15th year of Tiberius, on the 15th or 11th of the month Tobi, dates of
+the Egyptian fixed calendar equivalent to January 10th and 6th. When
+Clement wrote the great church had not adopted the feast, but toward
+A.D. 300 it was widely in vogue. Thus the Acts of Philip the Martyr,
+bishop of Heraclea in Thrace, A.D. 304, mention the "holy day of the
+Epiphany." Note the singular. Origen seems not to have heard of it as a
+feast of the Catholic church, but Hippolytus (died c. 235) recognized it
+in a homily which may be genuine.
+
+In the age of the Nicene Council, A.D. 325, the primate of Alexandria
+was charged at every Epiphany Feast to announce to the churches in a
+"Festal Letter" the date of the forthcoming Easter. Several such letters
+written by Athanasius and others remain. In the churches so addressed
+the feast of Jan. 6 must have been already current.
+
+In Jerusalem, according to the Epistle of Macarius[1] to the Armenians,
+c. 330, the feast was kept with zeal and splendour, and was with Easter
+and Pentecost a favourite season for Baptism.
+
+We have evidence of the 4th century from Spain that a long fast marked
+the season of Advent, and prepared for the feast of Epiphany on the 6th
+of January. The council of Saragossa c. 380 enacted that for 21 days,
+from the 17th of December to the 6th of January, the Epiphany, the
+faithful should not dance or make merry, but steadily frequent the
+churches. The synod of Lerida in 524 went further and forbade marriages
+during Advent. Our earliest Spanish lectionary, the _Liber comicus_ of
+Toledo, edited by Don Morin (_Anecd. Maredsol._ vol. i.), provides
+lections for five Sundays in Advent, and the gospel lections[2] chosen
+regard the Baptism of Christ, not His Birth, of which the feast, like
+that of the Annunciation, is mentioned, but not yet dated, December 25
+being assigned to St Stephen. It is odd that for "the Apparition of the
+Lord" the lection Matt. ii. 1-15 is assigned, although the lections for
+Advent belong to a scheme which identified Epiphany with the Baptism.
+This anomaly we account for below. The old editor of the Mozarabic
+Liturgy, Fr. Antonio Lorenzano, notes in his preface § 28 that the
+Spaniards anciently terminated the Advent season with the Epiphany
+Feast. In Rome also the earliest fixed system of the ecclesiastical
+year, which may go back to 300, makes Epiphany the _caput festorum_ or
+chief of feasts. The Sundays of Advent lead up to it, and the first
+Sundays of the year are "The Sunday within the octave of Epiphany," "the
+first Sunday after," and so forth. December 25 is no critical date at
+all. In Armenia as early as 450 a month of fasting prepared for the
+Advent of the Lord at Epiphany, and the fast was interpreted as a
+reiteration of John the Baptist's season of Repentance.
+
+In Antioch as late as about 386 Epiphany and Easter were the two great
+feasts, and the physical Birth of Christ was not yet feasted. On the eve
+of Epiphany after nightfall the springs and rivers were blessed, and
+water was drawn from them and stored for the whole year to be used in
+lustrations and baptisms. Such water, says Chrysostom, to whose orations
+we owe the information, kept pure and fresh for one, two and three
+years, and like good wine actually improved the longer it was kept. Note
+that Chrysostom speaks of the Feast of the _Epiphanies_, implying two,
+one of the Baptism, the other of the Second Advent, when Christ will be
+manifested afresh, and we with him in glory. This Second Epiphany
+inspired, as we saw, the choice of Pauline lections in the _Liber
+comicus_. But the salient event commemorated was the Baptism, and
+Chrysostom almost insists on this as the exclusive significance of the
+feast:--"It was not when he was born that he became manifest to all, but
+when he was baptized." In his commentary on Ezekiel Jerome employs the
+same language _absconditus est et non apparuit_, by way of protest
+against an interpretation of the Feast as that of the Birth of Jesus in
+Bethlehem, which was essayed as early as 375 by Epiphanius in Cyprus,
+and was being enforced in Jerome's day by John, bishop of Jerusalem.
+Epiphanius boldly removed the date of the Baptism to the 8th of
+November. "January 6" (= Tobi 11), he writes, "is the day of Christ's
+Birth, that is, of the Epiphanies." He uses the plural, because he adds
+on January 6 the commemoration of the water miracle of Cana. Although in
+375 he thus protested that January 6 was the day "of the Birth after the
+Flesh," he became before the end of the century a convert, according to
+John of Nice, to the new opinion that December 25 was the real day of
+this Birth. That as early as about 385, January 6 was kept as the
+physical birthday in Jerusalem, or rather in Bethlehem, we know from a
+contemporary witness of it, the lady pilgrim of Gaul, whose
+_peregrinatio_, recently discovered by Gamurrini, is confirmed by the
+old Jerusalem Lectionary preserved in Armenian.[3] Ephraem the Syrian
+father is attested already by Epiphanius (c. 375) to have celebrated the
+physical birth on January 6. His genuine Syriac hymns confirm this, but
+prove that the Baptism, the Star of the Magi, and the Marriage at Cana
+were also commemorated on the same day. That the same union prevailed in
+Rome up to the year 354 may be inferred from Ambrose. Philastrius (_De
+haer._ ch. 140) notes that some abolished the Epiphany feast and
+substituted a Birth feast. This was between 370 and 390.
+
+In 385 Pope Siricius[4] calls January 6 _Natalicia_, "the Birthday of
+Christ or of Apparition," and protests against the Spanish custom (at
+Tarragona) of baptizing on that day--another proof that in Spain in the
+4th century it commemorated the Baptism. In Gaul at Vienna in 360 Julian
+the Apostate, out of deference to Christian feeling, went to church "on
+the festival which they keep in January and call Epiphania." So
+Ammianus; but Zonaras in his Greek account of the event calls it the day
+of the Saviour's Birth.
+
+Why the feast of the Baptism was called the feast or day of the
+Saviour's Birth, and why fathers of that age when they call Christmas
+the birthday constantly qualify and add the words "in the flesh," we are
+able to divine from Pope Leo's (c. 447) 18th Epistle to the bishops of
+Sicily. For here we learn that in Sicily they held that in His Baptism
+the Saviour was reborn through the Holy Spirit. "The Lord," protests
+Leo, "needed no remission of sins, no remedy of rebirth." The Sicilians
+also baptized neophytes on January 6, "because baptism conveyed to Jesus
+and to them one and the same grace." Not so, argues Leo, the Lord
+sanctioned and hallowed the power of regeneration, not when He was
+baptized, but "when the blood of redemption and the water of baptism
+flowed forth from his side." Neophytes should therefore be baptized at
+Easter and Pentecost alone, never at Epiphany.
+
+Fortune has preserved to us among the _Spuria_ of several Latin fathers,
+Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome and Maximus of Turin, various homilies for
+Sundays of the Advent fast and for Epiphany. The Advent lections of
+these homilists were much the same as those of the Spanish _Liber
+comicus_; and they insist on Advent being kept as a strict fast, without
+marriage celebrations. Their Epiphany lection is however Matt. iii.
+1-17, which must therefore have once on a time been assigned in the
+_Liber comicus_ also in harmony with its general scheme. The psalms used
+on the day are, cxiii. (cxiv.) "When Israel went forth," xxviii. (xxix.)
+"Give unto the Lord," and xxii. (xxiii.) "the Lord is my Shepherd." The
+same lection of Matthew and also Ps. xxix. are noted for Epiphany in the
+Greek oration for the day ascribed to Hippolytus, which is at least
+earlier than 300, and also in special old Epiphany rites for the
+Benediction of the waters found in Latin, Greek, Armenian, Coptic,
+Syriac, &c. Now by these homilists as by Chrysostom,[5] the Baptism is
+regarded as the occasion on which "the Saviour first _appeared_ after
+the flesh in the world or on earth." These words were classical to the
+homilists, who explain them as best they can. The baptism is also
+declared to have been "the consecration of Christ," and "regeneration of
+Christ and a strengthening of our faith," to have been "Christ's second
+nativity." "This _second birth_ hath more renown than his first ... for
+now the God of majesty is inscribed (as his father), but then (at his
+first birth) Joseph the Carpenter was assumed to be his father ... he
+hath more honour who cries aloud from Heaven (viz. God the Father), than
+he who labours upon earth" (viz. Joseph).[6]
+
+Similarly the old _ordo Romanus_ of the age of Pepin (given by
+Montfaulcon in his preface to the Mozarabic missal in Migne, _Patr.
+Latina_, 85, col. 46), under the rubric of the Vigil of the Theophany,
+insists that "the _second birth_ of Christ (in Baptism) being
+distinguished by so many mysteries (e.g. the miracle of Cana) is more
+honoured than the first" (birth from Mary).
+
+These homilies mostly belong to an age (? 300-400) when the commemoration
+of the physical Birth had not yet found its own day (Dec. 25), and was
+therefore added alongside of the Baptism on January 6. Thus the two
+Births, the physical and the spiritual, of Jesus were celebrated on one
+and the same day, and one homily contains the words: "Not yet is the feast
+of his origin fully completed, and already we have to celebrate the solemn
+commemoration of his Baptism. He has hardly been born humanwise, and
+already he is being _reborn_ in sacramental wise. For to-day, though after
+a lapse of many annual cycles, he was hallowed (or consecrated) in Jordan.
+So the Lord arranged as to link rite with rite; I mean, in such wise as to
+be brought forth through the Virgin and to be begotten through the mystery
+(i.e. sacrament) in one and the same season." Another homily preserved in
+a MS. of the 7th or 8th century and assigned to Maximus of Turin declares
+that the Epiphany was known as the Birthday of Jesus, either because He
+was then born of the Virgin or _reborn in baptism_. This also was the
+classical defence made by Armenian fathers of their custom of keeping the
+feast of the Birth and Baptism together on January 6. They argued from
+Luke's gospel that the Annunciation took place on April 6, and therefore
+the Birth on January 6. The Baptism was on Christ's thirtieth birthday,
+and should therefore be also kept on January 6. Cosmas Indicopleustes (c.
+550) relates that on the same grounds believers of Jerusalem joined the
+feasts. All such reasoning was of course _après coup_. As late as the 9th
+century the Armenians had at least three discrepant dates for the
+Annunciation--January 5, January 9, April 6; and of these January 5 and 9
+were older than April 6, which they perhaps borrowed from Epiphanius's
+commentary on the Gospels. The old Latin homilist, above quoted, hits the
+mark when he declares that the innate logic of things required the Baptism
+(which must, he says, be any how called a natal or birth festival) to fall
+on the same day as Christmas--_Ratio enim exigit_. Of the argument from
+the 6th of April as the date of the Annunciation he knows nothing. The
+12th century Armenian Patriarch Nerses, like this homilist, merely rests
+his case against the Greeks, who incessantly reproached the Armenians for
+ignoring their Christmas on December 25, on the inherent logic of things,
+as follows:
+
+  "Just as he was born after the flesh from the holy virgin, so he was
+  _born_ through baptism and from the Jordan, by way of example unto us.
+  And since there are here _two births_, albeit differing one from the
+  other in mystic import and in point of time, therefore it was
+  appointed that we should feast them together, as the first, so also
+  the second birth."
+
+The Epiphany feast had therefore in its own right acquired the name of
+_natalis dies_ or birthday, as commemorating the spiritual rebirth of
+Jesus in Jordan, before the _natalis in carne_, the Birthday _in the
+flesh_, as Jerome and others call it, was associated with it. This idea
+was condemned as Ebionite in the 3rd century, yet it influences
+Christian writers long before and long afterwards. So Tertullian says:
+"We little fishes (_pisciculi_), after the example of our great fish
+([Greek: ichthyn]) Jesus Christ the Lord, are born (_gignimur_) in the
+water, nor except by abiding in the water are we in a state of
+salvation." And Hilary, like the Latin homilists cited above, writes of
+Jesus that "he was _born again_ through baptism, and then became Son of
+God," adding that the Father cried, when he had gone up out of the
+water, "My Son art thou, I have this day begotten thee" (Luke iii. 22).
+"But this," he adds, "was with the begetting of a man who is being
+reborn; on that occasion too he himself was being reborn unto God to be
+perfect son; as he was son of man, so in baptism, he was constituted son
+of God as well." The idea frequently meets us in Hilary; it occurs in
+the Epiphany hymn of the orthodox Greek church, and in the Epiphany
+hymns and homilies of the Armenians.
+
+A letter is preserved by John of Nice of a bishop of Jerusalem to the
+bishop of Rome which attests a temporary union of both feasts on January
+6 in the holy places. The faithful, it says, met before dawn at
+Bethlehem to celebrate the Birth from the Virgin in the cave; but before
+their hymns and lections were finished they had to hurry off to Jordan,
+13 m. the other side of Jerusalem, to celebrate the Baptism, and by
+consequence neither commemoration could be kept fully and reverently.
+The writer therefore begs the pope to look in the archives of the Jews
+brought to Rome after the destruction of Jerusalem, and to ascertain
+from them the real date of Christ's birth. The pope looked in the works
+of Josephus and found it to be December 25. The letter's genuineness has
+been called in question; but revealing as it does the Church's ignorance
+of the date of the Birth, the inconvenience and precariousness of its
+association with the Baptism, the recency of its separate institution,
+it could not have been invented. It is too tell-tale a document. Not the
+least significant fact about it is that it views the Baptism as an
+established feast which cannot be altered and set on another date. Not
+it but the physical birth must be removed from January 6 to another
+date. It has been shown above that perhaps as early as 380 the
+difficulty was got over in Jerusalem by making the Epiphany wholly and
+solely a commemoration of the miraculous birth, and suppressing the
+commemoration of the Baptism. Therefore this letter must have been
+written--or, if invented, then invented before that date. Chrysostom
+seems to have known of it, for in his Epiphany homily preached at
+Antioch, c. 392 (op. vol. ii. 354, ed. Montf.), he refers to the
+archives at Rome as the source from which the date December 25 could be
+confirmed, and declares that he had obtained it from those who dwell
+there, and who observing it from the beginning and by old tradition, had
+communicated it to the East. The question arises why the feast of the
+Baptism was set on January 6 by the sect of Basilides? And why the great
+church adopted the date? Now we know what sort of considerations
+influenced this sect in fixing other feasts, so we have a clue. They
+fixed the Birth of Jesus on Pachon 25 (= May 20), the day of the Niloa,
+or feast of the descent of the Nile from heaven. We should thus expect
+January 6 to be equally a Nile festival. And this from various sources
+we know it was. On Tobi 11, says Epiphanius[7] (c. 370), every one draws
+up water from the river and stores it up, not only in Egypt itself, but
+in many other countries. In many places, he adds, springs and rivers
+turn into wine on this day, e.g. at Cibyra in Caria and Gerasa in
+Arabia. Aristides Rhetor (c. 160) also relates how in the winter, which
+began with Tobi, the Nile water was at its purest. Its water, he says,
+if drawn at the right time conquers time, for it does not go bad,
+whether you keep it on the spot or export it. Galleys were waiting on a
+certain night to take it on board and transport it to Italy and
+elsewhere for libations and lustrations in the Temples of Isis. "Such
+water," he adds, "remained fresh, long after other water supplies had
+gone bad. The Egyptians filled their pitchers with this water, as others
+did with wine; they stored it in their houses for three or four years or
+more, and recommended it the more, the older it grew, just as the Greeks
+did their wines."
+
+Two centuries later Chrysostom, as we have seen, commends in identical
+terms the water blessed and drawn from the rivers at the Baptismal
+feast. It is therefore probable that the Basilidian feast was a
+Christianized form of the blessing of the Nile, called by Chabas in his
+Coptic calendar _Hydreusis_. Mas'udi the Arab historian of the 10th
+century, in his _Prairies d'or_ (French trans. Paris, 1863, ii. 364),
+enlarges on the splendours of this feast as he saw it still celebrated
+in Egypt.
+
+Epiphanius also (_Haer._ 51) relates a curious celebration held at
+Alexandria of the Birth of the Aeon. On January 5 or 6 the votaries met
+in the holy compound or Temple of the Maiden (Kore), and sang hymns to
+the music of the flute till dawn, when they went down with torches into
+a shrine under ground, and fetched up a wooden idol on a bier
+representing Kore, seated and naked, with crosses marked on her brow,
+her hands and her knees. Then with flute-playing, hymns and dances they
+carried the image seven times round the central shrine, before restoring
+it again to its dwelling-place below. He adds: "And the votaries say
+that to-day at this hour _Kore_, that is, the Virgin, gave birth to the
+Aeon."
+
+Epiphanius says this was a heathen rite, but it rather resembles some
+Basilidian or Gnostic commemoration of the spiritual birth of the Divine
+life in Jesus of the Christhood, from the older creation the Ecclesia.
+
+The earliest extant Greek text of the Epiphany rite is in a Euchologion
+of about the year 795, now in the Vatican. The prayers recite that at
+His baptism Christ hallowed the waters by His presence in Jordan,[8] and
+ask that they may now be blessed by the Holy Spirit visiting them, by
+its power and inworking, as the streams of Jordan were blessed. So they
+will be able to purify soul and body of all who draw up and partake of
+them. The hymn sung contains such clauses as these:
+
+  "To-day the grace of the Holy Spirit hallowing the waters appears
+  ([Greek: epiphainetai], cf. Epiphany).... To-day the systems of waters
+  spread out their backs under the Lord's footsteps. To-day the unseen
+  is seen, that he may reveal himself to us. To-day the Increate is of
+  his own will ordained (lit. hath hands laid on him) by his own
+  creature. To-day the Unbending bends his neck to his own servant, in
+  order to free us from servitude. To-day we were liberated from
+  darkness and are illumined by light of divine knowledge. To-day for us
+  the Lord by means of rebirth (lit. palingenesy) of the Image reshapes
+  the Archetype."
+
+This last clause is obscure. In the Armenian hymns the ideas of the
+rebirth not only of believers, but of Jesus, and of the latter's
+ordination by John, are very prominent.
+
+The history of the Epiphany feast may be summed up thus:--
+
+From the Jews the Church took over the feasts of Pascha and Pentecost;
+and Sunday was a weekly commemoration of the Resurrection. It was
+inevitable, however, that believers should before long desire to
+commemorate the Baptism, with which the oldest form of evangelical
+tradition began, and which was widely regarded as the occasion when the
+divine life began in Jesus; when the Logos or Holy Spirit appeared and
+rested on Him, conferring upon Him spiritual unction as the promised
+Messiah; when, according to an old reading of Luke iii. 22, He was
+begotten of God. Perhaps the Ebionite Christians of Palestine first
+instituted the feast, and this, if a fact, must underlie the statement
+of John of Nice, a late but well-informed writer (c. 950), that it was
+fixed by the disciples of John the Baptist who were present at Jesus'
+Baptism. The Egyptian gnostics anyhow had the feast and set it on
+January 6, a day of the blessing of the Nile. It was a feast of
+Adoptionist complexion, as one of its names, viz. the Birthday (Greek
+[Greek: genethlia], Latin _Natalicia_ or _Natalis dies_), implies. This
+explains why in east and west the feast of the physical Birth was for a
+time associated with it; and to justify this association it was
+suggested that Jesus was baptized just on His thirtieth birthday. In
+Jerusalem and Syria it was perhaps the Ebionite or Adoptionist, we may
+add also the Gnostic, associations of the Baptism that caused this
+aspect of Epiphany to be relegated to the background, so that it became
+wholly a feast of the miraculous birth. At the same time other
+epiphanies of Christ were superadded, e.g. of Cana where Christ began
+His miracles by turning water into wine and _manifested_ forth His
+glory, and of the Star of the Magi. Hence it is often called the Feast
+of _Epiphanies_ (in the plural). In the West the day is commonly called
+the Feast of the three kings, and its early significance as a
+commemoration of the Baptism and season of blessing the waters has been
+obscured; the Eastern churches, however, of Greece, Russia, Georgia,
+Armenia, Egypt, Syria have been more conservative. In the far East it is
+still the season of seasons for baptisms, and in Armenia children born
+long before are baptized at it. Long ago it was a baptismal feast in
+Sicily, Spain, Italy (see Pope Gelasius to the Lucanian Bishops), Africa
+and Ireland. In the Manx prayer-book of Bishop Phillips of the year 1610
+Epiphany is called the "little Nativity" (_La nolicky bigge_), and the
+Sunday which comes between December 25 and January 6 is "the Sunday
+between _the two Nativities_," or _Jih dúni oedyr 'a Nolick_; Epiphany
+itself is the "feast of the water vessel," _lail ymmyrt uyskey_, or "of
+the well of water," _Chibbyrt uysky_.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Gregory Nazianz., Orat. xli.; Suicer, _Thesaurus_, s.v.
+  [Greek: epiphaneia]; Cotelerius _In constit. Apost._ (Antwerp, 1698),
+  lib. v. cap. 13; R. Bingham, _Antiquities_ (London, 1834), bk. xx.;
+  Ad. Jacoby, _Bericht über die Taufe Jesu_ (Strassburg, 1902); H.
+  Blumenbach, _Antiquitates Epiphaniorum_ (Leipzig, 1737); J.L. Schulze,
+  _De festo Sanctorum Luminum_, ed. J.E. Volbeding (Leipzig, 1841); and
+  K.A.H. Kellner, _Heortologie_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906). (See also
+  the works enumerated under CHRISTMAS.)     (F. C. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For its text see _The Key of Truth_, translated by F.C.
+    Conybeare, Oxford, and the article ARMENIAN CHURCH.
+
+  [2] These are Matt. iii. 1-11, xi. 2-15, xxi. 1-9; Mark i. 1-8; Luke
+    iii. 1-18. The Pauline lections regard the Epiphany of the Second
+    Advent, of the prophetic or Messianic kingdom.
+
+  [3] Translated in _Rituale Armenorum_ (Oxford, 1905).
+
+  [4] Epist. ad Himerium, c. 2.
+
+  [5] Hom. I. in Pentec. _op._ tom. ii. 458; "With us the Epiphanies is
+    the first festival. What is this festival's significance? This, that
+    God was seen upon earth and consorted with men." For this idea there
+    had soon to be substituted that of the manifestation of Christ to the
+    Gentiles.
+
+  [6] See the Paris edition of Augustine (1838), tom. v., Appendix,
+    _Sermons_ cxvi., cxxv., cxxxv., cxxxvi., cxxxvii.; cf. tom. vi.
+    _dial. quaestionum_, xlvi.; Maximus of Turin, Homily xxx.
+
+  [7] Perhaps Epiphanius is here, after his wont, transcribing an
+    earlier source.
+
+  [8] The same idea is frequent in Epiphany homilies of Chrysostom and
+    other 4th-century fathers.
+
+
+
+
+EPIRUS, or EPEIRUS, an ancient district of Northern Greece extending
+along the Ionian Sea from the Acroceraunian promontory on the N. to the
+Ambracian gulf on the S. It was conterminous on the landward side with
+Illyria, Macedonia and Thessaly, and thus corresponds to the southern
+portion of Albania (q.v.). The name Epirus ([Greek: Êpeiros]) signified
+"mainland," and was originally applied to the whole coast southward to
+the Corinthian Gulf, in contradistinction to the neighbouring islands,
+Corcyra, Leucas, &c. The country is all mountainous, especially towards
+the east, where the great rivers of north-western Greece--Achelous,
+Arachthus and Aous--rise in Mt Lacmon, the back-bone of the Pindus
+chain. In ancient times Epirus did not produce corn sufficient for the
+wants of its inhabitants; but it was celebrated, as it has been almost
+to the present day, for its cattle and its horses. According to
+Theopompus (4th cent. B.C.), the Epirots were divided into fourteen
+independent tribes, of which the principal were the Chaones, the
+Thesproti and the Molossi. The Chaones (perhaps akin to the Chones who
+dwelt in the heel of Italy) inhabited the Acroceraunian shore, the
+Molossians the inland districts round the lake of Pambotis (mod.
+Jannina), and the Thesprotians the region to the north of the Ambracian
+gulf. In spite of its distance from the chief centres of Greek thought
+and action, and the barbarian repute of its inhabitants, Epirus was
+believed to have exerted at an early period no small influence on
+Greece, by means more especially of the oracle of Dodona. Aristotle even
+placed in Epirus the original home of the Hellenes. But in historic
+times its part in Greek history is mainly passive. The states of Greece
+proper founded a number of colonies on its coast, which formed
+stepping-stones towards the Adriatic and the West. Of these one of the
+earliest and most flourishing was the Corinthian colony of Ambracia,
+which gives its name to the neighbouring gulf. Elatria, Bucheta and
+Pandosia, in Thesprotia, originated from Elis. Among the other towns in
+the country the following were of some importance. In Chaonia: Palaeste
+and Chimaera, fortified posts to which the dwellers in the open country
+could retire in time of war; Onchesmus or Anchiasmus, opposite Corcyra
+(Corfu), now represented by Santi Quarante; Phoenice, still so called,
+the wealthiest of all the native cities of Epirus, and after the fall of
+the Molossian kingdom the centre of an Epirotic League; Buthrotum, the
+modern Butrinto; Phanote, important in the Roman campaigns in Epirus;
+and Adrianopolis, founded by the emperor whose name it bore. In
+Thesprotia: Cassope, the chief town of the most powerful of the
+Thesprotian clans; and Ephyra, afterwards Cichyrus, identified by W.M.
+Leake with the monastery of St John 3 or 4 m. from Phanari, and by C.
+Bursian with Kastri at the northern end of the Acherusian Lake. In
+Molossia: Passaron, where the kings were wont to take the oath of the
+constitution and receive their people's allegiance; and Tecmon, Phylace
+and Horreum, all of doubtful identification. The Byzantine town of Rogus
+is probably the same as the modern Luro, the Greek Oropus.
+
+_History._--The kings, or rather chieftains, of the Molossians, who
+ultimately extended their power over all Epirus, claimed to be descended
+from Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, who, according to legend, settled in the
+country after the sack of Troy, and transmitted his kingdom to Molossus,
+his son by Andromache. The early history of the dynasty is very obscure;
+but Admetus, who lived in the 5th century B.C., is remembered for his
+hospitable reception of the banished Themistocles, in spite of the fact
+that the great Athenian had persuaded his countrymen to refuse the
+alliance tardily offered by the Molossians when victory against the
+Persians was already secured. Admetus was succeeded, about 429 B.C., by
+his son or grandson, Tharymbas or Arymbas I., who being placed by a
+decree of the people under the guardianship of Sabylinthus, chief of the
+Atintanes, was educated at Athens, and at a later date introduced a
+higher civilization among his subjects. Alcetas, the next king mentioned
+in history, was restored to his throne by Dionysius of Syracuse about
+385 B.C. His son Arymbas II. (who succeeded by the death of his brother
+Neoptolemus) ruled with prudence and equity, and gave encouragement to
+literature and the arts. To him Xenocrates of Chalcedon dedicated his
+four books on the art of governing; and it is specially mentioned that
+he bestowed great care on the education of his brother's children. One
+of them, Troas, he married; Olympias, the other niece, was married to
+Philip II. of Macedon and became the mother of Alexander the Great. On
+the death of Arymbas, Alexander the brother of Olympias, was put on the
+throne by Philip and married his daughter Cleopatra. Alexander assumed
+the new title of king of Epirus, and raised the reputation of his
+country abroad. Asked by the Tarentines for aid against the Samnites and
+Lucanians, he made a descent at Paestum in 332 B.C., and reduced several
+cities of the Lucani and Bruttii; but in a second attack he was
+surrounded, defeated and slain near Pandosia in Bruttium.
+
+Aeacides, the son of Arymbas II., succeeded Alexander. He espoused the
+cause of Olympias against Cassander, but was dethroned by his own
+soldiers, and had hardly regained his position when he fell in battle
+(313 B.C.) against Philip, brother of Cassander. He had, by his wife
+Phthia, a son, the celebrated Pyrrhus, and two daughters, Deidamia and
+Troas, of whom the former married Demetrius Poliorcetes. His brother
+Alcetas, who succeeded him, continued unsuccessfully the war with
+Cassander; he was put to death by his rebellious subjects in 295 B.C.,
+and was succeeded by Pyrrhus (q.v.), who for six years fought against
+the Romans in south Italy and Sicily, and gave to Epirus a momentary
+importance which it never again possessed.
+
+Alexander, his son, who succeeded in 272 B.C., attempted to seize
+Macedonia, and defeated Antigonus Gonatas, but was himself shortly
+afterwards driven from his kingdom by Demetrius. He recovered it,
+however, and spent the rest of his days in peace. Two other
+insignificant reigns brought the family of Pyrrhus to its close, and
+Epirus was thenceforward governed by a magistrate, elected annually in a
+general assembly of the nation held at Passaron. Having imprudently
+espoused the cause of Perseus (q.v.) in his ill-fated war against the
+Romans, 168 B.C., it was exposed to the fury of the conquerors, who
+destroyed, it is said, seventy towns, and carried into slavery 150,000
+of the inhabitants. From this blow it never recovered. At the
+dissolution of the Achaean League (q.v.), 146 B.C., it became part of
+the province of Macedonia, receiving the name Epirus Vetus, to
+distinguish it from Epirus Nova, which lay to the east.
+
+On the division of the empire it fell to the East, and so remained
+until the taking of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, when Michel
+Angelus Comnenus seized Aetolia and Epirus. On the death of Michel in
+1216, these countries fell into the hands of his brother Theodore.
+Thomas, the last of the direct line, was murdered in 1318 by his nephew
+Thomas, lord of Zante and Cephalonia, and his dominions were
+dismembered. Not long after, Epirus was overrun by the Samians and
+Albanians, and the confusion which had been growing since the division
+of the empire was worse confounded still. Charles II. Tocco, lord of
+Cephalonia and Zante, obtained the recognition of his title of Despot of
+Epirus from the emperor Manuel Comnenus in the beginning of the 15th
+century; but his family was deprived of their possession in 1431 by
+Murad (Amurath) II. In 1443, Scanderbeg, king of Albania, made himself
+master of a considerable part of Epirus; but on his death it fell into
+the power of the Venetians. From these it passed again to the Turks,
+under whose dominion it still remains. For modern history see ALBANIA.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Nauze, "Rech. hist. sur les peuples qui s'établirent en
+  Épire," in _Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscr._ (1729); Pouqueville, _Voyage
+  en Morée, &c, en Albanie_ (Paris, 1805); Hobhouse, _A Journey through
+  Albania, &c._ (2 vols., London, 1813); Wolfe, "Observations on the
+  Gulf of Arta" in _Journ. Royal Geog. Soc._, 1834; W.M. Leake, Travels
+  in Northern Greece (London, 1835): Merleker, Darstellung des _Landes
+  und der Bewohner von Epeiros_ (Königsberg, 1841); J.H. Skene,
+  "Remarkable Localities on the Coast of Epirus," in _Journ. Roy. Geog.
+  Soc._, 1848; Bowen, _Mount Athos, Thessaly and Epirus_ (London, 1852);
+  von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854); Bursian, _Geog. von
+  Griechenland_ (vol. i., Leipzig, 1862); Schäfli, "Versuch einer
+  Klimatologie des Thales von Jannina," _Neue Denkschr. d. allgem.
+  schweizer. Ges. f. Naturw._ xix. (Zürich, 1862); Major R. Stuart, "On
+  Phys. Geogr. and Natural Resources of Epirus," in _Journ. R.G.S._,
+  1869; Guido Cora, in _Cosmos_; Dumont, "Souvenirs de l'Adriatique, de
+  l'Épire, &c." in _Rev. des deux mondes_ (Paris, 1872); de Gubernatis,
+  "L'Epiro," _Bull. Soc. Geogr. Ital._ viii. (Rome, 1872); Dozon,
+  "Excursion en Albanie," _Bull. Soc. Geogr._, 6th series; Karapanos,
+  _Dodone et ses ruines_ (Paris, 1878); von Heldreich, "Ein Beitrag zur
+  Flora von Epirus," _Verh. Bot. Vereins Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1880);
+  Kiepert, "Zur Ethnographie von Epirus," _Ges. Erdk._ xvii. (Berlin,
+  1879); Zompolides, "Das Land und die Bewohner von Epirus," _Ausland_
+  (Berlin, 1880); A. Philippson, _Thessalien und Epirus_ (Berlin, 1897).
+       (J. L. M.)
+
+
+
+
+EPISCOPACY (from Late Lat. _episcopatus_, the office of a bishop,
+_episcopus_), the general term technically applied to that system of
+church organization in which the chief ecclesiastical authority within a
+defined district, or diocese, is vested in a bishop. As such it is
+distinguished on the one hand from Presbyterianism, government by
+elders, and Congregationalism, in which the individual church or
+community of worshippers is autonomous, and on the other from Papalism.
+The origin and development of episcopacy in the Christian Church, and
+the functions and attributes of bishops in the various churches, are
+dealt with elsewhere (see CHURCH HISTORY and BISHOP). Under the present
+heading it is proposed only to discuss briefly the various types of
+episcopacy actually existing, and the different principles that they
+represent.
+
+The deepest line of cleavage is naturally between the view that
+episcopacy is a divinely ordained institution essential to the effective
+existence of a church as a channel of grace, and the view that it is
+merely a convenient form of church order, evolved as the result of a
+variety of historical causes, and not necessary to the proper
+constitution of a church. The first of these views is closely connected
+with the doctrine of the Apostolical Succession. According to this,
+Christ committed to his apostles certain powers of order and
+jurisdiction in the Church, among others that of transmitting these
+powers to others through "the laying on of hands"; and this power,
+whatever obscurity may surround the practice of the primitive Church
+(see APOSTLE, ad fin.) was very early confined to the order of bishops,
+who by virtue of a special consecration became the successors of the
+apostles in the function of handing on the powers and graces of the
+ministry.[1] A valid episcopate, then, is one derived in an unbroken
+series of "layings on of hands" by bishops from the time of the apostles
+(see ORDER, HOLY). This is the Catholic view, common to all the ancient
+Churches whether of the West or East, and it is one that necessarily
+excludes from the union of Christendom all those Christian communities
+which possess no such apostolically derived ministry.
+
+Apart altogether, however, from the question of orders, episcopacy
+represents a very special conception of the Christian Church. In the
+fully developed episcopal system the bishop sums up in his own person
+the collective powers of the Church in his diocese, not by delegation of
+these powers from below, but by divinely bestowed authority from above.
+"Ecclesia est in episcopo," wrote St Cyprian (Cyp. iv. _Ep._ 9); the
+bishop, as the successor of the apostles, is the centre of unity in his
+diocese, the unity of the Church as a whole is maintained by the
+intercommunion of the bishops, who for this purpose represent their
+dioceses. The bishops, individually and collectively, are thus the
+essential ties of Catholic unity; they alone, as the depositories of the
+apostolic traditions, establish the norm of Catholic orthodoxy in the
+general councils of the Church. This high theory of episcopacy which, if
+certain of the Ignatian letters be genuine, has a very early origin,
+has, of course, fallen upon evil days. The power of the collective
+episcopate to maintain Catholic unity was disproved long before it was
+overshadowed by the centralized authority of Rome; before the
+Reformation, its last efforts to assert its supremacy in the Western
+Church, at the councils of Basel and Constance, had broken down; and the
+religious revolution of the 16th century left it largely discredited and
+exposed to a double attack, by the papal monarchy on the one hand and
+the democratic Presbyterian model on the other. Within the Roman
+Catholic Church the high doctrine of episcopacy continued to be
+maintained by the Gallicans and Febronians (see GALLICANISM and
+FEBRONIANISM) as against the claims of the Papacy, and for a while with
+success; but a system which had failed to preserve the unity of the
+Church even when the world was united under the Roman empire could not
+be expected to do so in a world split up into a series of rival states,
+of which many had already reorganized their churches on a national
+basis. "Febronius," indeed, was in favour of a frank recognition of this
+national basis of ecclesiastical organization, and saw in Episcopacy the
+best means of reuniting the dissidents to the Catholic Church, which was
+to consist, as it were, of a free federation of episcopal churches under
+the presidency of the bishop of Rome. The idea had considerable success;
+for it happened to march with the views of the secular princes. But
+religious people could hardly be expected to see in the worldly
+prince-bishops of the Empire, or the wealthy courtier-prelates of
+France, the trustees of the apostolical tradition. The Revolution
+intervened; and when, during the religious reaction that followed, men
+sought for an ultimate authority, they found it in the papal monarch,
+exalted now by ultramontane zeal into the sole depositary of the
+apostolical tradition (see ULTRAMONTANISM). At the Vatican Council of
+1870 episcopacy made its last stand against papalism, and was vanquished
+(see VATICAN COUNCIL). The pope still addresses his fellow-bishops as
+"venerable brothers"; but from the Roman Catholic Church the fraternal
+union of coequal authorities, which is of the essence of episcopacy, has
+vanished; and in its place is set the autocracy of one. The modern Roman
+Catholic Church is episcopal, for it preserves the bishops, whose
+_potestas ordinis_ not even the pope can exercise until he has been duly
+consecrated; but the bishops as such are now but subordinate elements in
+a system for which "Episcopacy" is certainly no longer an appropriate
+term.
+
+The word Episcopacy has, in fact, since the Reformation, been more
+especially associated with those churches which, while ceasing to be in
+communion with Rome, have preserved the episcopal model. Of these by far
+the most important is the Church of England, which has preserved its
+ecclesiastical organization essentially unchanged since its foundation
+by St Augustine, and its daughter churches (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF, and
+ANGLICAN COMMUNION). The Church of England since the Reformation has
+been the chief champion of the principle of Episcopacy against the papal
+pretensions on the one hand and Presbyterianism and Congregationalism on
+the other. As to the divine origin of Episcopacy and, consequently, of
+its universal obligation in the Christian Church, Anglican opinion has
+been, and still is, considerably divided.[2] The "High Church" view, now
+predominant, is practically identical with that of the Gallicans and
+Febronians, and is based on Catholic practice in those ages of the
+Church to which, as well as to the Bible, the formularies of the Church
+of England make appeal. So far as this view, however, is the outcome of
+the general Catholic movement of the 19th century, it can hardly be
+taken as typical of Anglican tradition in this matter. Certainly, in the
+16th and 17th centuries, the Church of England, while rigorously
+enforcing the episcopal model at home, and even endeavouring to extend
+it to Presbyterian Scotland, did not regard foreign non-episcopal
+Churches otherwise than as sister communions. The whole issue had, in
+fact, become confused with the confusion of functions of the Church and
+State. In the view of the Church of England the ultimate governance of
+the Christian community, in things spiritual and temporal, was vested
+not in the clergy but in the "Christian prince" as the vicegerent of
+God.[3] It was the transference to the territorial sovereigns of modern
+Europe of the theocratic character of the Christian heads of the Roman
+world-empire; with the result that for the reformed Churches the unit of
+church organization was no longer the diocese, or the group of dioceses,
+but the Christian state. Thus in England the bishops, while retaining
+their _potestas ordinis_ in virtue of their consecration as successors
+of the apostles, came to be regarded not as representing their dioceses
+in the state, but the state in their dioceses. Forced on their dioceses
+by the royal _Congé d'élire_ (q.v.), and enthusiastic apostles of the
+High Church doctrine of non-resistance, the bishops were looked upon as
+no more than lieutenants of the crown;[4] and Episcopacy was ultimately
+resisted by Presbyterians and Independents as an expression and
+instrument of arbitrary government, "Prelacy" being confounded with
+"Popery" in a common condemnation. With the constitutional changes of
+the 18th and 19th centuries, however, a corresponding modification took
+place in the character of the English episcopate; and a still further
+change resulted from the multiplication of colonial and missionary sees
+having no connexion with the state (see ANGLICAN COMMUNION). The
+consciousness of being in the line of apostolic succession helped the
+English clergy to revert to the principle _Ecclesia est in episcopo_,
+and the great periodical conferences of Anglican bishops from all parts
+of the world have something of the character, though they do not claim
+the ecumenical authority, of the general councils of the early Church
+(see LAMBETH CONFERENCES).
+
+Of the reformed Churches of the continent of Europe only the Lutheran
+Churches of Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Finland preserve the
+episcopal system in anything of its historical sense; and of these only
+the two last can lay claim to the possession of bishops in the unbroken
+line of episcopal succession.[5] The superintendents (variously entitled
+also arch-priests, deans, provosts, ephors) of the Evangelical
+(Lutheran) Church, as established in the several states of Germany and
+in Austria, are not bishops in any canonical sense, though their
+jurisdictions are known as dioceses and they exercise many episcopal
+functions. They have no special powers of order, being presbyters, and
+their legal status is admittedly merely that of officials of the
+territorial sovereign in his capacity as head of the territorial church
+(see SUPERINTENDENT). The "bishops" of the Lutheran Church in
+Transylvania are equivalent to the superintendents.
+
+Episcopacy in a stricter sense is the system of the Moravian Brethren
+(q.v.) and the Methodist Episcopal Church of America (see METHODISM). In
+the case of the former, claim is laid to the unbroken episcopal
+succession through the Waldenses, and the question of their eventual
+intercommunion with the Anglican Church was accordingly mooted at the
+Lambeth Conference of 1908. The bishops of the Methodist Episcopal
+Church, on the other hand, derive their orders from Thomas Coke, a
+presbyter of the Church of England, who in 1784 was ordained by John
+Wesley, assisted by two other presbyters, "superintendent" of the
+Methodist Society in America. Methodist episcopacy is therefore based on
+the denial of any special _potestas ordinis_ in the degree of bishop,
+and is fundamentally distinct from that of the Catholic Church--using
+this term in its narrow sense as applied to the ancient churches of the
+East and West.
+
+In all of these ancient churches episcopacy is regarded as of divine
+origin; and in those of them which reject the papal supremacy the
+bishops are still regarded as the guardians of the tradition of
+apostolic orthodoxy and the stewards of the gifts of the Holy Ghost to
+men (see ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH; ARMENIAN CHURCH; COPTS: _Coptic
+Church_, &c). In the West, Gallican and Febronian Episcopacy are
+represented by two ecclesiastical bodies: the Jansenist Church under the
+archbishop of Utrecht (see JANSENISM and UTRECHT), and the Old Catholics
+(q.v.). Of these the latter, who separated from the Roman communion
+after the promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility, represent a
+pure revolt of the system of Episcopacy against that of Papalism.
+     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Bishop C. Gore, _The Church and the Ministry_ (1887).
+
+  [2] Neither the Articles nor the authoritative Homilies of the Church
+    of England speak of episcopacy as essential to the constitution of a
+    church. The latter make "the three notes or marks" by which a true
+    church is known "pure and sound doctrine, the sacraments administered
+    according to Christ's holy institution, and the right use of
+    ecclesiastical discipline." These marks are perhaps ambiguous, but
+    they certainly do not depend on the possession of the Apostolic
+    Succession; for it is further stated that "the bishops of Rome and
+    their adherents are not the true Church of Christ" (Homily
+    "concerning the Holy Ghost," ed. Oxford, 1683, p. 292).
+
+  [3] "He and his holy apostles likewise, namely Peter and Paul, did
+    forbid unto all Ecclesiastical Ministers, dominion over the Church of
+    Christ" (_Homilies appointed to be read in Churches_, "The V. part of
+    the Sermon against Wilful Rebellion," ed. Oxford, 1683, p. 378).
+    Princes are "God's lieutenants, God's presidents, God's officers,
+    God's commissioners, God's judges ... God's vicegerents" ("The II.
+    part of the Sermon of Obedience," ib. p. 64).
+
+  [4] Juridically they were, of course, never this in the strict sense
+    in which the term could be used of the Lutheran superintendents (see
+    below). They were never mere royal officials, but peers of
+    parliament, holding their temporalities as baronies under the crown.
+
+  [5] During the crisis of the Reformation all the Swedish sees became
+    vacant but two, and the bishops of these two soon left the kingdom.
+    The episcopate, however, was preserved by Peter Magnusson, who, when
+    residing as warden of the Swedish hospital of St Bridget in Rome, had
+    been duly elected bishop of the see of Westeraes, and consecrated, c.
+    1524. No official record of his consecration can be discovered, but
+    there is no sufficient reason to doubt the fact; and it is certain
+    that during his lifetime he was acknowledged as a canonical bishop
+    both by Roman Catholics and by Protestants. In 1528 Magnusson
+    consecrated bishops to fill the vacant sees, and, assisted by one of
+    these, Magnus Sommar, bishop of Strengness, he afterwards consecrated
+    the Reformer, Lawrence Peterson, as archbishop of Upsala, Sept. 22,
+    1531. Some doubt has been raised as to the validity of the
+    consecration of Peterson's successor, also named Lawrence Peterson,
+    in 1575, from the insufficiency of the documentary evidence of the
+    consecration of his consecrator, Paul Justin, bishop of Åbo. The
+    integrity of the succession has, however, been accepted after
+    searching investigation by men of such learning as Grabe and Routh,
+    and has been formally recognized by the convention of the American
+    Episcopal Church. The succession to the daughter church of Finland,
+    now independent, stands or falls with that of Sweden.
+
+
+
+
+EPISCOPIUS, SIMON (1583-1643), the Latin form of the name of Simon
+Bischop, Dutch theologian, was born at Amsterdam on the 1st of January
+1583. In 1600 he entered the university of Leiden, where he studied
+theology under Jacobus Arminius, whose teaching he followed. In 1610,
+the year in which the Arminians presented the famous Remonstrance to the
+states of Holland, he became pastor at Bleyswick, a small village near
+Rotterdam; in the following year he advocated the cause of the
+Remonstrants (q.v.) at the Hague conference. In 1612 he succeeded
+Francis Gomarus as professor of theology at Leiden, an appointment which
+awakened the bitter enmity of the Calvinists, and, on account of the
+influence lent by it to the spread of Arminian opinions, was doubtless
+an ultimate cause of the meeting of the synod of Dort in 1618.
+Episcopius was chosen as the spokesman of the thirteen representatives
+of the Remonstrants before the synod; but he was refused a hearing, and
+the Remonstrant doctrines were condemned without any explanation or
+defence of them being permitted. At the end of the synod's sittings in
+1619, Episcopius and the other twelve Arminian representatives were
+deprived of their offices and expelled from the country (see DORT, SYNOD
+OF). Episcopius retired to Antwerp and ultimately to France, where he
+lived partly at Paris, partly at Rouen. He devoted most of his time to
+writings in support of the Arminian cause; but the attempt of Luke
+Wadding (1588-1657) to win him over to the Romish faith involved him
+also in a controversy with that famous Jesuit. After the death (1625) of
+Maurice, prince of Orange, the violence of the Arminian controversy
+began to abate, and Episcopius was permitted in 1626 to return to his
+own country. He was appointed preacher at the Remonstrant church in
+Rotterdam and afterwards rector of the Remonstrant college in Amsterdam.
+Here he died in 1643. Episcopius may be regarded as in great part the
+theological founder of Arminianism, since he developed and systematized
+the principles tentatively enunciated by Arminius. Besides opposing at
+all points the peculiar doctrines of Calvinism, Episcopius protested
+against the tendency of Calvinists to lay so much stress on abstract
+dogma, and argued that Christianity was practical rather than
+theoretical--not so much a system of intellectual belief as a moral
+power--and that an orthodox faith did not necessarily imply the
+knowledge of and assent to a system of doctrine which included the whole
+range of Christian truth, but only the knowledge and acceptance of so
+much of Christianity as was necessary to effect a real change on the
+heart and life.
+
+  The principal works of Episcopius are his _Confessio s. declaratio
+  sententiae pastorum qui in foederato Belgio Remonstrantes vocantur
+  super praecipuis articulis religionis Christianae_ (1621), his
+  _Apologia pro confessione_ (1629), his _Verus theologus remonstrans_,
+  and his uncompleted work _Institutiones theologicae_. A life of
+  Episcopius was written by Philip Limborch, and one was also prefixed
+  by his successor, Étienne de Courcelles (Curcellaeus) (1586-1659), to
+  an edition of his collected works published in 2 vols. (1650-1665).
+  See also article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_.
+
+
+
+
+EPISODE, an incident occurring in the history of a nation, an
+institution or an individual, especially with the significance of being
+an interruption of an ordered course of events, an irrelevance. The word
+is derived from a word ([Greek: epeisodos]) with a technical meaning in
+the ancient Greek tragedy. It is defined by Aristotle (_Poetics_, 12) as
+[Greek: meros holon tragôdias to metaxy holôn chorikôn melôn], all the
+scenes, that is, which fall between the choric songs. [Greek: eisodos],
+or entrance, is generally applied to the entrance of the chorus, but the
+reference may be to that of the actors at the close of the choric songs.
+In the early Greek tragedy the parts which were spoken by the actors
+were considered of subsidiary importance to those sung by the chorus,
+and it is from this aspect that the meaning of the word, as something
+which breaks off the course of events, is derived (see A.E. Haigh, _The
+Tragic Drama of the Greeks_, 1896, at p. 353).
+
+
+
+
+EPISTAXIS (Gr. [Greek: epi], upon, and [Greek: stazein], to drop), the
+medical term for bleeding from the nose, whether resulting from local
+injury or some constitutional condition. In persistent cases of
+nose-bleeding, various measures are adopted, such as holding the arms
+over the head, the application of ice, or of such astringents as zinc or
+alum, or plugging the nostrils.
+
+
+
+
+EPISTEMOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: epistêmê], knowledge, and [Greek: logos],
+theory, account; Germ. _Erkenntnistheorie_), in philosophy, a term
+applied, probably first by J.F. Ferrier, to that department of thought
+whose subject matter is the nature and origin of knowledge. It is thus
+contrasted with metaphysics, which considers the nature of reality, and
+with psychology, which deals with the objective part of cognition, and,
+as Prof. James Ward said, "is essentially genetic in its method"
+(_Mind_, April 1883, pp. 166-167). Epistemology is concerned rather with
+the possibility of knowledge in the abstract (_sub specie aeternitatis_,
+Ward, ibid.). In the evolution of thought epistemological inquiry
+succeeded the speculations of the early thinkers, who concerned
+themselves primarily with attempts to explain existence. The differences
+of opinion which arose on this problem naturally led to the inquiry as
+to whether any universally valid statement was possible. The Sophists
+and the Sceptics, Plato and Aristotle, the Stoics and the Epicureans
+took up the question, and from the time of Locke and Kant it has been
+prominent in modern philosophy. It is extremely difficult, if not
+impossible, to draw a hard and fast line between epistemology and other
+branches of philosophy. If, for example, philosophy is divided into the
+theory of knowing and the theory of being, it is impossible entirely to
+separate the latter (Ontology) from the analysis of knowledge
+(Epistemology), so close is the connexion between the two. Again, the
+relation between logic in its widest sense and the theory of knowledge
+is extremely close. Some thinkers have identified the two, while others
+regard Epistemology as a subdivision of logic; others demarcate their
+relative spheres by confining logic to the science of the laws of
+thought, i.e. to formal logic. An attempt has been made by some
+philosophers to substitute "Gnosiology" (Gr. [Greek: gnôsis]) for
+"Epistemology" as a special term for that part of Epistemology which is
+confined to "systematic analysis of the conceptions employed by ordinary
+and scientific thought in interpreting the world, and including an
+investigation of the art of knowledge, or the nature of knowledge as
+such." "Epistemology" would thus be reserved for the broad questions of
+"the origin, nature and limits of knowledge" (Baldwin's _Dict. of
+Philos._ i. pp. 333 and 414). The term Gnosiology has not, however, come
+into general use. (See PHILOSOPHY.)
+
+
+
+
+EPISTLE, in its primary sense any letter addressed to an absent person;
+from the Greek word [Greek: epistolê], a thing sent on a particular
+occasion. Strictly speaking, any such communication is an epistle, but
+at the present day the term has become archaic, and is used only for
+letters of an ancient time, or for elaborate literary productions which
+take an epistolary form, that is to say, are, or affect to be, written
+to a person at a distance.
+
+1. _Epistles and Letters._--The student of literary history soon
+discovers that a broad distinction exists between the letter and the
+epistle. The letter is essentially a spontaneous, non-literary
+production, ephemeral, intimate, personal and private, a substitute for
+a spoken conversation. The epistle, on the other hand, rather takes the
+place of a public speech, it is written with an audience in view, it is
+a literary form, a distinctly artistic effort aiming at permanence; and
+it bears much the same relation to a letter as a Platonic dialogue does
+to a private talk between two friends. The posthumous value placed on a
+great man's letters would naturally lead to the production of epistles,
+which might be written to set forth the views of a person or a school,
+either genuinely or as forgeries under some eminent name. Pseudonymous
+epistles were especially numerous under the early Roman empire, and
+mainly attached themselves to the names of Plato, Demosthenes, Aristotle
+and Cicero.
+
+Both letters and epistles have come down to us in considerable variety
+and extent from the ancient world. Babylonia and Assyria, Egypt, Greece
+and Rome alike contribute to our inheritance of letters. Those of
+Aristotle are of questionable genuineness, but we can rely, at any rate
+in part, on those of Isocrates and Epicurus. Some of the letters of
+Cicero are rather epistles, since they were meant ultimately for the
+general eye. The papyrus discoveries in Egypt have a peculiar interest,
+for they are mainly the letters of people unknown to fame, and having no
+thought of publicity. It is less to be wondered at that we have a large
+collection of ancient epistles, especially in the realm of magic and
+religion, for epistles were meant to live, were published in several
+copies, and were not a difficult form of literary effort. The Tell
+el-Amarna tablets found in Upper Egypt in 1887 are a series of
+despatches in cuneiform script from Babylonian kings and Phoenician and
+Palestinian governors to the Pharaohs (c. 1400 B.C.). The epistles of
+Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plutarch, Seneca and the Younger Pliny claim
+mention at this point. In the later Roman period and into the middle
+ages, formal epistles were almost a distinct branch of literature. The
+ten books of Symmachus' _Epistolae_, so highly esteemed in the cultured
+circles of the 4th century, may be contrasted with the less elegant but
+more forceful epistles of Jerome.
+
+The distinction between letters and epistles has particular interest
+for the student of early Christian literature. G.A. Deissmann (_Bible
+Studies_) assigns to the category of letters all the Pauline writings as
+well as 2 and 3 John. The books bearing the names of James, Peter and
+Jude, together with the Pastorals (though these may contain fragments of
+genuine Pauline letters) and the Apocalypse, he regards as epistles. The
+first epistle of John he calls less a letter or an epistle than a
+religious tract. It is doubtful, however, whether we can thus reduce all
+the letters of the New Testament to one or other of these categories;
+and W.M. Ramsay (Hastings' _Dict. Bib._ Extra vol. p. 401) has pointed
+out with some force that "in the new conditions a new category had been
+developed--the general letter addressed to a whole class of persons or
+to the entire Church of Christ." Such writings have affinities with both
+the letter and the epistle, and they may further be compared with the
+"edicts and rescripts by which Roman law grew, documents arising out of
+special circumstances but treating them on general principles." Most of
+the literature of the sub-apostolic age is epistolary, and we have a
+particularly interesting form of epistle in the communications between
+churches (as distinct from individuals) known as the _First Epistle of
+Clement_ (Rome to Corinth), the _Martyrdom of Polycarp_ (Smyrna to
+Philomelium), and the _Letters of the Churches of Vienne and Lyons_ (to
+the congregations of Asia Minor and Phrygia) describing the Gallican
+martyrdoms of A.D. 177. In the following centuries we have the valuable
+epistles of Cyprian, of Gregory Nazianzen (to Cledonius on the
+Apollinarian controversy), of Basil (to be classed rather as letters),
+of Ambrose, Chrysostom, Augustine and Jerome. The encyclical letters of
+the Roman Catholic Church are epistles, even more so than bulls, which
+are usually more special in their destination. In the Renaissance one of
+the most common forms of literary production was that modelled upon
+Cicero's letters. From Petrarch to the _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_
+there is a whole epistolary literature. The _Epistolae obscurorum
+virorum_ have to some extent a counterpart in the Epistles of Martin
+Marprelate. Later satires in an epistolary form are Pascal's _Provincial
+Letters_, Swift's _Drapier Letters_, and the _Letters of Junius_. The
+"open letter" of modern journalism is really an epistle. (A. J. G.)
+
+2. _Epistles in Poetry._--A branch of poetry bears the name of the
+Epistle, and is modelled on those pieces of Horace which are almost
+essays (_sermones_) on moral or philosophical subjects, and are chiefly
+distinguished from other poems by being addressed to particular patrons
+or friends. The epistle of Horace to his agent (or _villicus_) is of a
+more familiar order, and is at once a masterpiece and a model of what an
+epistle should be. Examples of the work in this direction of Ovid,
+Claudian, Ausonius and other late Latin poets have been preserved, but
+it is particularly those of Horace which have given this character to
+the epistles in verse which form so very characteristic a section of
+French poetry. The graceful precision and dignified familiarity of the
+epistle are particularly attractive to the temperament of France.
+Clement Marot, in the 16th century, first made the epistle popular in
+France, with his brief and spirited specimens. We pass the witty
+epistles of Scarron and Voiture, to reach those of Boileau, whose
+epistles, twelve in number, are the classic examples of this form of
+verse in French literature; they were composed at different dates
+between 1668 and 1695. In the 18th century Voltaire enjoyed a supremacy
+in this graceful and sparkling species of writing; the _Épître à Uranie_
+is perhaps the most famous of his verse-letters. Gresset, Bernis,
+Sedaine, Dorat, Gentil-Bernard, all excelled in the epistle. The curious
+"Épîtres" of J.P.G. Viennet (1777-1868) were not easy and mundane like
+their predecessors, but violently polemical. Viennet, a hot defender of
+lost causes, may be considered the latest of the epistolary poets of
+France.
+
+In England the verse-epistle was first prominently employed by Samuel
+Daniel in his "Letter from Octavia to Marcus Antonius" (1599), and later
+on, more legitimately, in his "Certain Epistles" (1601-1603). His
+letter, in _terza rima_, to Lucy, Countess of Bristol, is one of the
+finest examples of this form in English literature. It was Daniel's
+deliberate intention to introduce the Epistle into English poetry,
+"after the manner of Horace." He was supported by Ben Jonson, who has
+some fine Horatian epistles in his _Forests_ (1616) and his
+_Underwoods_. _Letters to Several Persons of Honour_ form an important
+section in the poetry of John Donne. Habington's _Epistle to a Friend_
+is one of his most finished pieces. Henry Vaughan (1622-1695) addressed
+a fine epistle in verse to the French romance-writer Gombauld
+(1570-1666). Such "letters" were not unfrequent down to the Restoration,
+but they did not create a department of literature such as Daniel had
+proposed. At the close of the 17th century Dryden greatly excelled in
+this class of poetry, and his epistles to Congreve (1694) and to the
+duchess of Ormond (1700) are among the most graceful and eloquent that
+we possess. During the age of Anne various Augustan poets in whom the
+lyrical faculty was slight, from Congreve and Richard Duke down to
+Ambrose Philips and William Somerville, essayed the epistle with more or
+less success, and it was employed by Gay for several exercises in his
+elegant persiflage. Among the epistles of Gay, one rises to an eminence
+of merit, that called "Mr Pope's welcome from Greece," written in 1720.
+But the great writer of epistles in English is Pope himself, to whom the
+glory of this kind of verse belongs. His "Eloisa to Abelard" (1717) is
+carefully modelled on the form of Ovid's "Heroides," while in his _Moral
+Essays_ he adopts the Horatian formula for the epistle. In either case
+his success was brilliant and complete. The "Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot"
+has not been surpassed, if it has been equalled, in Latin or French
+poetry of the same class. But Pope excelled, not only in the voluptuous
+and in the didactic epistle, but in that of compliment as well, and
+there is no more graceful example of this in literature than is afforded
+by the letter about the poems of Parnell addressed, in 1721, to Robert,
+earl of Oxford. After the day of Pope the epistle again fell into
+desuetude, or occasional use, in England. It revived in the charming
+naïveté of Cowper's lyrical letters in octosyllabics to his friends,
+such as William Bull and Lady Austin (1782). At the close of the century
+Samuel Rogers endeavoured to resuscitate the neglected form in his
+"Epistle to a Friend" (1798). The formality and conventional grace of
+the epistle were elements with which the leaders of romantic revival
+were out of sympathy, and it was not cultivated to any important degree
+in the 19th century. It is, however, to be noted that Shelley's "Letter
+to Maria Gisborne" (1820), Keats's "Epistle to Charles Clarke" (1816),
+and Landor's "To Julius Hare" (1836), in spite of their romantic
+colouring, are genuine Horatian epistles and of the pure Augustan type.
+This type, in English literature, is commonly, though not at all
+universally, cast in heroic verse. But Daniel employs _rime royal_ and
+_terza rima_, while some modern epistles have been cast in short iambic
+rhymed measures or in blank verse. It is sometimes not easy to
+distinguish the epistle from the elegy and from the dedication. (E. G.)
+
+  For St Paul's Epistles see PAUL, for St Peter's see PETER, for
+  Apocryphal Epistles see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, for Plato's see PLATO,
+  &c.
+
+
+
+
+EPISTYLE (Gr. [Greek: epi], upon, and [Greek: stylos], column), the
+Greek architectural term for architrave, the lower member of the
+entablature of the classic orders (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+EPISTYLIS (C.G. Ehrenberg), in zoology, a genus of peritrichous
+Infusoria with a short oral disc and collar, and a rigid stalk, often
+branching to form a colony.
+
+
+
+
+EPITAPH (Gr. [Greek: epitaphios], sc. [Greek: logos], from [Greek: epi],
+upon, and [Greek: taphos], a tomb), strictly, an inscription upon a
+tomb, though by a natural extension of usage the name is applied to
+anything written ostensibly for that purpose whether actually inscribed
+upon a tomb or not. When the word was introduced into English in the
+14th century it took the form _epitaphy_, as well as _epitaphe_, which
+latter word is used both by Gower and Lydgate. Many of the best-known
+epitaphs, both ancient and modern, are merely literary memorials, and
+find no place on sepulchral monuments. Sometimes the intention of the
+writer to have his production placed upon the grave of the person he has
+commemorated may have been frustrated, sometimes it may never have
+existed; what he has written is still entitled to be called an epitaph
+if it be suitable for the purpose, whether the purpose has been carried
+out or not. The most obvious external condition that suitability for
+mural inscription imposes is one of rigid limitation as to length. An
+epitaph cannot in the nature of things extend to the proportions that
+may be required in an elegy.
+
+The desire to perpetuate the memory of the dead being natural to man,
+the practice of placing epitaphs upon their graves has been common among
+all nations and in all ages. And the similarity, amounting sometimes
+almost to identity, of thought and expression that often exists between
+epitaphs written more than two thousand years ago and epitaphs written
+only yesterday is as striking an evidence as literature affords of the
+close kinship of human nature under the most varying conditions where
+the same primary elemental feelings are stirred. The grief and hope of
+the Roman mother as expressed in the touching lines--
+
+  "Lagge fili bene quiescas;
+   Mater tua rogat te,
+   Ut me ad te recipias:
+     Vale!"
+
+find their echo in similar inscriptions in many a modern cemetery.
+
+Probably the earliest epitaphial inscriptions that have come down to us
+are those of the ancient Egyptians, written, as their mode of sepulture
+necessitated, upon the sarcophagi and coffins. Those that have been
+deciphered are all very much in the same form, commencing with a prayer
+to a deity, generally Osiris or Anubis, on behalf of the deceased, whose
+name, descent and office are usually specified. There is, however, no
+attempt to delineate individual character, and the feelings of the
+survivors are not expressed otherwise than in the fact of a prayer being
+offered. Ancient Greek epitaphs, unlike the Egyptian, are of great
+literary interest, deep and often tender in feeling, rich and varied in
+expression, and generally epigrammatic in form. They are written usually
+in elegiac verse, though many of the later epitaphs are in prose. Among
+the gems of the Greek anthology familiar to English readers through
+translations are the epitaphs upon those who had fallen in battle. There
+are several ascribed to Simonides on the heroes of Thermopylae, of which
+the most celebrated is the epigram--
+
+  "Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by,
+   That here, obedient to their laws, we lie."
+
+A hymn of Simonides on the same subject contains some lines of great
+beauty in praise of those who were buried at Thermopylae, and these may
+be regarded as forming a literary epitaph. In Sparta epitaphs were
+inscribed only upon the graves of those who had been especially
+distinguished in war; in Athens they were applied more indiscriminately.
+They generally contained the name, the descent, the demise, and some
+account of the life of the person commemorated. It must be remembered,
+however, that many of the so-called Greek epitaphs are merely literary
+memorials not intended for monumental inscription, and that in these
+freer scope is naturally given to general reflections, while less
+attention is paid to biographical details. Many of them, even some of
+the monumental, do not contain any personal name, as in the one ascribed
+to Plato--
+
+  "I am a shipwrecked sailor's tomb; a peasant's there doth stand:
+   Thus the same world of Hades lies beneath both sea and land."
+
+Others again are so entirely of the nature of general reflections upon
+death that they contain no indication of the particular case that called
+them forth. It may be questioned, indeed, whether several of this
+character quoted in ordinary collections are epitaphs at all, in the
+sense of being intended for a particular occasion.
+
+Roman epitaphs, in contrast to those of the Greeks, contained, as a
+rule, nothing beyond a record of facts. The inscriptions on the urns, of
+which numerous specimens are to be found in the British Museum, present
+but little variation. The letters D.M. or D.M.S. (_Diis Manibus_ or
+_Diis Manibus Sacrum_) are followed by the name of the person whose
+ashes are enclosed, his age at death, and sometimes one or two other
+particulars. The inscription closes with the name of the person who
+caused the urn to be made, and his relationship to the deceased. It is a
+curious illustration of the survival of traces of an old faith after it
+has been formally discarded to find that the letters D.M. are not
+uncommon on the Christian inscriptions in the catacombs. It has been
+suggested that in this case they mean _Deo Maximo_ and not _Diis
+Manibus_, but the explanation would be quite untenable, even if there
+were not many other undeniable instances of the survival of pagan
+superstitions in the thought and life of the early Christians. In these
+very catacomb inscriptions there are many illustrations to be found,
+apart from the use of the letters D.M., of the union of heathen with
+Christian sentiment, (see Maitland's _Church in the Catacombs_). The
+private burial-places for the ashes of the dead were usually by the side
+of the various roads leading into Rome, the Via Appia, the Via Flaminia,
+&c. The traveller to or from the city thus passed for miles an almost
+uninterrupted succession of tombstones, whose inscriptions usually began
+with the appropriate words _Siste Viator_ or _Aspice Viator_, the origin
+doubtless of the "Stop Passenger," which still meets the eye in many
+parish churchyards of Britain. Another phrase of very common occurrence
+on ancient Roman tombstones, _Sit tibi terra levis_ ("Light lie the
+earth upon thee"), has continued in frequent use, as conveying an
+appropriate sentiment, down to modern times. A remarkable feature of
+many of the Roman epitaphs was the terrible denunciation they often
+pronounced upon those who violated the sepulchre. Such denunciations
+were not uncommon in later times. A well-known instance is furnished in
+the lines on Shakespeare's tomb at Stratford-on-Avon, said to have been
+written by the poet himself--
+
+  "Good frend, for Jesus' sake forbeare
+   To digg the dust enclosed heare;
+   Bleste be y^e man y^t spares thes stones.
+   And curst be he y^t moves my bones."
+
+The earliest existing British epitaphs belonged to the Roman period,
+and are written in Latin after the Roman form. Specimens are to be seen
+in various antiquarian museums throughout the country; some of the
+inscriptions are given in Bruce's _Roman Wall_, and the seventh volume
+of the _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_ edited by Hübner, containing the
+British inscriptions, is a valuable repertory for the earlier Roman
+epitaphs in Britain. The earliest, of course, are commemorative of
+soldiers, belonging to the legions of occupation, but the Roman form was
+afterwards adopted for native Britons. Long after the Roman form was
+discarded, the Latin language continued to be used, especially for
+inscriptions of a more public character, as being from its supposed
+permanence the most suitable medium of communication to distant ages. It
+is only, in fact, within recent years that Latin has become unusual, and
+the more natural practice has been adopted of writing the epitaphs of
+distinguished men in the language of the country in which they lived.
+While Latin was the chief if not the sole literary language, it was, as
+a matter of course, almost exclusively used for epitaphial inscriptions.
+The comparatively few English epitaphs that remain of the 11th and 12th
+centuries are all in Latin. They are generally confined to a mere
+statement of the name and rank of the deceased following the words "Hic
+jacet." Two noteworthy exceptions to this general brevity are, however,
+to be found in most of the collections. One is the epitaph to Gundrada,
+daughter of the Conqueror (d. 1085), which still exists at Lewes, though
+in an imperfect state, two of the lines having been lost; another is
+that to William de Warren, earl of Surrey (d. 1089), believed to have
+been inscribed in the abbey of St Pancras, near Lewes, founded by him.
+Both are encomiastic, and describe the character and work of the
+deceased with considerable fulness and beauty of expression. They are
+written in leonine verse. In the 13th century French began to be used in
+writing epitaphs, and most of the inscriptions to celebrated historical
+personages between 1200 and 1400 are in that language. Mention may be
+made of those to Robert, the 3rd earl of Oxford (d. 1221), as given in
+Weever, to Henry III. (d. 1272) at Westminster Abbey, and to Edward the
+Black Prince (d. 1376) at Canterbury. In most of the inscriptions of
+this period the deceased addresses the reader in the first person,
+describes his rank and position while alive, and, as in the case of the
+Black Prince, contrasts it with his wasted and loathsome state in the
+grave, and warns the reader to prepare for the same inevitable change.
+The epitaph almost invariably closes with a request, sometimes very
+urgently worded, for the prayers of the reader that the soul of the
+deceased may pass to glory, and an invocation of blessing, general or
+specific, upon all who comply. Epitaphs preserved much of the same
+character after English began to be used towards the close of the 14th
+century. The following, to a member of the Savile family at Thornhill,
+is probably even earlier, though its precise date cannot be fixed:--
+
+  "Bonys emongg stonys lys ful
+   steyl gwylste the sawle wan-
+   deris were that God wylethe"--
+
+that is, Bones among stones lie full still, whilst the soul wanders
+whither God willeth. It may be noted here that the majority of the
+inscriptions, Latin and English, from 1300 to the period of the
+Reformation, that have been preserved, are upon brasses (see BRASSES,
+MONUMENTAL). The very curious epitaph on St Bernard, probably written by
+a monk of Clairvaux, has the peculiarity of being a dialogue in Latin
+verse.
+
+It was in the reign of Elizabeth that epitaphs in English began to
+assume a distinct literary character and value, entitling them to rank
+with those that had hitherto been composed in Latin. We learn from Nash
+that at the close of the 16th century it had become a trade to supply
+epitaphs in English verse. There is one on the dowager countess of
+Pembroke (d. 1621), remarkable for its successful use of a somewhat
+daring hyperbole. It was written by William Browne, author of
+_Britannia's Pastorals_:--
+
+  "Underneath this sable hearse
+   Lies the subject of all verse;
+   Sydney's sister, Pembroke's mother;
+   Death, ere thou hast slain another
+   Fair and learn'd and good as she,
+   Time will throw his dart at thee.
+   Marble piles let no man raise
+   To her name for after days;
+   Some kind woman, born as she,
+   Reading this, like Niobe,
+   Shall turn marble, and become
+   Both her mourner and her tomb."
+
+If there be something of the exaggeration of a conceit in the second
+stanza, it needs scarcely to be pointed out that epitaphs, like every
+other form of composition, necessarily reflect the literary
+characteristics of the age in which they were written. The deprecation
+of marble as unnecessary suggests one of the finest literary epitaphs in
+the English language, that by Milton upon Shakespeare.
+
+The epitaphs of Pope are still considered to possess very great literary
+merit, though they were rated higher by Johnson and critics of his
+period than they are now.
+
+Dr Johnson, who thought so highly of Pope's epitaphs, was himself a
+great authority on both the theory and practice of this species of
+composition. His essay on epitaphs is one of the few existing monographs
+on the subject, and his opinion as to the use of Latin had great
+influence. The manner in which he met the delicately insinuated request
+of a number of eminent men that English should be employed in the case
+of Oliver Goldsmith was characteristic, and showed the strength of his
+conviction on the subject. His arguments in favour of Latin were chiefly
+drawn from its inherent fitness for epitaphial inscriptions and its
+classical stability. The first of these has a very considerable force,
+it being admitted on all hands that few languages are in themselves so
+suitable for the purpose; the second is outweighed by considerations
+that had considerable force in Dr Johnson's time, and have acquired more
+since. Even to the learned Latin is no longer the language of daily
+thought and life as it was at the period of the Reformation, and the
+great body of those who may fairly claim to be called the well-educated
+classes can only read it with difficulty, if at all. It seems,
+therefore, little less than absurd, for the sake of a stability which is
+itself in great part delusive, to write epitaphs in a language
+unintelligible to the vast majority of those for whose information
+presumably they are intended. Though a stickler for Latin, Dr Johnson
+wrote some very beautiful English epitaphs, as, for example, the
+following on Philips, a musician:--
+
+  "Philips, whose touch harmonious could remove
+   The pangs of guilty power or hapless love;
+   Rest here, distressed by poverty no more,
+   Here find that calm thou gav'st so oft before;
+   Sleep undisturbed within this peaceful shrine
+   Till angels wake thee with a note like thine!"
+
+In classifying epitaphs various principles of division may be adopted.
+Arranged according to nationality they indicate distinctions of race
+less clearly perhaps than any other form of literature does,--and this
+obviously because when under the influence of the deepest feeling men
+think and speak very much in the same way whatever be their country. At
+the same time the influence of nationality may to some extent be traced
+in epitaphs. The characteristics of the French style, its grace,
+clearness, wit and epigrammatic point, are all recognizable in French
+epitaphs. In the 16th century those of Étienne Pasquier were universally
+admired. Instances such as "La première au rendez-vous," inscribed on
+the grave of a mother, Piron's epitaph, written for himself after his
+rejection by the French Academy--
+
+  "Ci-gît Piron, qui ne fut rien,
+   Pas même académicien"--
+
+and one by a relieved husband, to be seen at Père la Chaise--
+
+  "Ci-gît ma femme. Ah! qu'elle est bien
+   Pour son repos et pour le mien"--
+
+might be multiplied indefinitely. One can hardly look through a
+collection of English epitaphs without being struck with the fact that
+these represent a greater variety of intellectual and emotional states
+than those of any other nation, ranging through every style of thought
+from the sublime to the commonplace, every mood of feeling from the most
+delicate and touching to the coarse and even brutal. Few subordinate
+illustrations of the complex nature of the English nationality are more
+striking.
+
+Epitaphs are sometimes classified according to their authorship and
+sometimes according to their subject, but neither division is so
+interesting as that which arranges them according to their
+characteristic features. What has just been said of English epitaphs is,
+of course, more true of epitaphs generally. They exemplify every variety
+of sentiment and taste, from lofty pathos and dignified eulogy to coarse
+buffoonery and the vilest scurrility. The extent to which the humorous
+and even the low comic element prevails among them is a noteworthy
+circumstance. It is curious that the most solemn of all subjects should
+have been frequently treated, intentionally or unintentionally, in a
+style so ludicrous that a collection of epitaphs is generally one of the
+most amusing books that can be picked up. In this as in other cases,
+too, it is to be observed that the unintended humour is generally of a
+much more entertaining kind than that which has been deliberately
+perpetrated.
+
+  See Weever, _Ancient Funerall Monuments_ (1631, 1661, Tooke's edit.,
+  1767); Philippe Labbe, _Thesaurus epitaphiorum_ (Paris, 1666);
+  _Theatrum funebre extructum a Dodone Richea seu Ottone Aicher_ (1675);
+  Hackett, _Select and Remarkable Epitaphs_ (1757); de Laplace,
+  _Épitaphes sérieuses, badines, satiriques et burlesques_ (3 vols.,
+  Paris, 1782); Pulleyn, _Churchyard Gleanings_ (c. 1830); L. Lewysohn,
+  _Sechzig Epitaphien von Grabsteinen d. israelit. Friedhofes zu Worms_
+  (1855); Pettigrew, _Chronicles of the Tombs_ (1857); S. Tissington,
+  _Epitaphs_ (1857); Robinson, _Epitaphs from Cemeteries in London,
+  Edinburgh, &c._ (1859); le Blant, _Inscriptions chrétiennes de la
+  Gaule antérieures au VIII^e siècle_ (1856, 1865); Blommaert, Galliard,
+  &c, _Inscriptions funéraires et monumentales de la prov. de Flandre
+  Orient_ (Ghent, 1857, 1860); _Inscriptions fun. et mon. de la prov.
+  d'Anvers_ (Antwerp, 1857-1860); Chwolson, _Achtzehn hebräische
+  Grabschriften aus der Krim_ (1859); J. Brown, _Epitaphs, &c, in
+  Greyfriars Churchyard, Edinburgh_ (1867); H.J. Loaring, _Quaint,
+  Curious, and Elegant Epitaphs_ (1872); J.K. Kippax, _Churchyard
+  Literature, a Choice Collection of American Epitaphs_ (Chicago, 1876);
+  also the poet William Wordsworth's _Essay on Epitaphs_.
+
+
+
+
+EPITHALAMIUM (Gr. [Greek: epi], at or upon, and [Greek: thalamos], a
+nuptial chamber), originally among the Greeks a song in praise of bride
+and bridegroom, which was sung by a number of boys and girls at the door
+of the nuptial chamber. According to the scholiast on Theocritus, one
+form, the [Greek: katakoimêtikon], was employed at night, and another,
+the [Greek: diegertikon], to arouse the bride and bridegroom on the
+following morning. In either case, as was natural, the main burden of
+the song consisted of invocations of blessing and predictions of
+happiness, interrupted from time to time by the ancient chorus of _Hymen
+hymenaee_. Among the Romans a similar custom was in vogue, but the song
+was sung by girls only, after the marriage guests had gone, and it
+contained much more of what modern morality would condemn as obscene. In
+the hands of the poets the epithalamium was developed into a special
+literary form, and received considerable cultivation. Sappho, Anacreon,
+Stesichorus and Pindar are all regarded as masters of the species, but
+the finest example preserved in Greek literature is the 18th Idyll of
+Theocritus, which celebrates the marriage of Menelaus and Helen. In
+Latin, the epithalamium, imitated from Fescennine Greek models, was a
+base form of literature, when Catullus redeemed it and gave it dignity
+by modelling his _Marriage of Thetis and Peleus_ on a lost ode of
+Sappho. In later times Statius, Ausonius, Sidonius Apollinaris and
+Claudian are the authors of the best-known epithalamia in classical
+Latin; and they have been imitated by Buchanan, Scaliger, Sannazaro, and
+a whole host of modern Latin poets, with whom, indeed, the form was at
+one time in great favour. The names of Ronsard, Malherbe and Scarron are
+especially associated with the species in French literature, and Marini
+and Metastasio in Italian. Perhaps no poem of this class has been more
+universally admired than the _Epithalamium_ of Spenser (1595), though he
+has found no unworthy rivals in Ben Jonson, Donne and Quarles. At the
+close of _In Memoriam_ Tennyson has appended a poem, on the nuptials of
+his sister, which is strictly an epithalamium.
+
+
+
+
+EPITHELIAL, ENDOTHELIAL and GLANDULAR TISSUES,
+
+  Epithelium.
+
+in anatomy. Every surface of the body which may come into contact with
+foreign substances is covered with a protecting layer of cells closely
+bound to one another to form continuous sheets. These are epithelial
+cells (from [Greek: thêlê], a nipple). By the formation of outgrowths or
+ingrowths from these surfaces further structures, consisting largely or
+entirely of cells directly derived from the surface epithelium, may be
+formed. In this way originate the central nervous system, the sensitive
+surfaces of the special sense organs, the glands, and the hairs, nails,
+&c. The epithelial cells possess typical microscopical characters which
+enable them to be readily distinguished from all others. Thus the cell
+outline is clearly marked, the nucleus large and spherical or
+ellipsoidal. The protoplasm of the cell is usually large in amount and
+often contains large numbers of granules.
+
+
+  Varieties.
+
+The individual cells forming an epithelial membrane are classified
+according to their shape. Thus we find _flattened_, or _squamous_,
+_cubical_, _columnar_, _irregular_, _ciliated_ or _flagellated_ cells.
+Many of the membranes formed by these cells are only one cell thick, as
+for instance is the case for the major part of the alimentary canal. In
+other instances the epithelial membrane may consist of a number of
+layers of cells, as in the case of the epidermis of the skin.
+Considering in the first place those membranes of which the cells are in
+a single layer we may distinguish the following:--
+
+1. _Columnar Epithelium_ (figs. 1 and 2).--This variety covers the main
+part of the intestinal tract, i.e. from the end of the oesophagus to the
+commencement of the rectum. It is also found lining the ducts of many
+glands. In a highly typical form it is found covering the villi of the
+small intestine (fig. 1). The external layer of the cell is commonly
+modified to form a thin membrane showing a number of very fine radially
+arranged lines, which are probably the expression of very minute tubular
+perforations through the membrane.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Isolated Epithelial Cells from the Small
+Intestine of the Frog.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Columnar Epithelial Cells resting upon a
+Basement Membrane.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Mosaic appearance of a Columnar Epithelial
+Surface as seen from above.]
+
+The close apposition of these cells to form a closed membrane is well
+seen when a surface covered by them is examined from above (fig. 3). The
+surfaces of the cells are then seen to form a mosaic, each cell area
+having a polyhedral shape.
+
+2. _Cubical Epithelium._--This differs from the former in that the cells
+are less in height. It is found in many glands and ducts (e.g. the
+kidney), in the middle ear, choroid plexuses of the brain, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Squamous Epithelial Cells from the Mucous
+Membrane of the Mouth.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Isolated ciliated Epithelial Cells from the
+Trachea.]
+
+3. _Squamous or Flattened Epithelium_ (fig. 4).--In this variety the
+cell is flattened, very thin and irregular in outline. It occurs as the
+covering epithelium of the alveoli of the lung, of the kidney glomerules
+and capsule, &c. The surface epithelial cells of a stratified epithelium
+are also of this type (fig. 4). Closely resembling these cells are those
+known as endothelial (see later).
+
+4. _Ciliated Epithelium_ (fig. 5).--The surface cells of many
+epithelial membranes are often provided with a number of very fine
+protoplasmic processes or _cilia_. Most commonly the cells are columnar,
+but other shapes are also found. During life the cilia are always in
+movement, and set up a current tending to drive fluid or other material
+on the surface in one direction along the membrane or tube lined by such
+epithelium. It is found lining the trachea, bronchi, parts of the nasal
+cavities and the uterus, oviduct, vas deferens, epididymis, a portion of
+the renal tubule, &c.
+
+In the instance of some cells there may be but a single process from the
+exposed surface of the cell, and then the process is usually of large
+size and length. It is then known as a _flagellum_. Such cells are
+common among the surface cells of many of the simple animal organisms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--A Stratified Epithelium from a Mucous Membrane.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Stratified Epithelium from the Skin.
+
+  c, Columnar cells resting on the fibrous true skin.
+  p, The so-called prickle cells.
+  g, Stratum granulosum.
+  h, Horny cells.
+  s, Squamous horny cells.]
+
+When the cells of an epithelial surface are arranged several layers
+deep, we can again distinguish various types:--
+
+1. _Stratified Epithelium_ (figs. 6 and 7).--This is found in the
+epithelium of the skin and of many mucous membranes (mouth, oesophagus,
+rectum, conjunctiva, vagina, &c.). Here the surface cells are very much
+flattened (squamous epithelium), those of the middle layer are
+polyhedral and those of the lowest layer are cubical or columnar. This
+type of epithelium is found covering surfaces commonly exposed to
+friction. The surface may be dry as in the skin, or moist, e.g. the
+mouth. The surface cells are constantly being rubbed off, and are then
+replaced by new cells growing up from below. Hence the deepest layer,
+that nearest the blood supply, is a formative layer, and in successive
+stages from this we can trace the gradual transformation of these
+protoplasmic cells into scaly cells, which no longer show any sign of
+being alive. In the moist mucous surfaces the number of cells forming
+the epithelial layer is usually much smaller than in a dry stratified
+epithelium.
+
+2. _Stratified Ciliated Epithelium._--In this variety the superficial
+cells are ciliated and columnar, between the bases of these are found
+fusiform cells and the lowest cells are cubical or pyramidal. This
+epithelium is found lining parts of the respiratory passages, the vas
+deferens and the epididymis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Transitional Epithelium from the Urinary
+Bladder, showing the outlines of the cells only.]
+
+3. _Transitional Epithelium_ (fig. 8).--This variety of epithelium is
+found lining the bladder, and the appearance observed depends upon the
+contracted or distended state of the bladder from which the preparation
+was made. If the bladder was contracted the form seen in fig. 8 is
+obtained. The epithelium is in three or more layers, the superficial one
+being very characteristic. The cells are cubical and fit over the
+rounded ends of the cells of the next layer. These are pear-shaped, the
+points of the pear resting on the basement membrane. Between the bases
+of these cells lie those of the lowermost layer. These are irregularly
+columnar. If the bladder is distended before the preparation is made,
+the cells are then found stretched out transversely. This is especially
+the case with the surface cells, which may then become very flattened.
+
+Considering epithelium from the point of view of function, it may be
+classified as protective, absorptive or secretory. It may produce
+special outgrowths for protective or ornamental purposes, such are
+hairs, nails, horns, &c., and for such purposes it may manufacture
+within itself chemical material best suited for that purpose, e.g.
+keratin; here the whole cell becomes modified. In other instances may be
+seen in the interior of the cells many chemical substances which
+indicate the nature of their work, e.g. fat droplets, granules of
+various kinds, protein, mucin, watery granules, glycogen, &c. In a
+typical absorbing cell granules of material being absorbed may be seen.
+A secreting cell of normal type forming specific substances stores these
+in its interior until wanted, e.g. fat as in sebaceous and mammary
+glands, ferment precursors (salivary, gastric glands, &c.), and various
+excretory substances, as in the renal epithelium.
+
+Initially the epithelium cell might have all these functions, but later
+came specialization and therefore to most cells a specific work. Some of
+that work does not require the cell to be at the surface, while for
+other work this is indispensable, and hence when the surface becomes
+limited those of the former category are removed from the surface to the
+deeper parts. This is seen typically in secretory and excretory cells,
+which usually lie below the surface on to which they pour their
+secretions. If the secretion required at any one point is considerable,
+then the secreting cells are numerous in proportion and a typical gland
+is formed. The secretion is then conducted to the surface by a duct, and
+this duct is also lined with epithelium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A Compound Tubular Gland. One of the pyloric
+glands of the stomach of the dog.]
+
+
+  Glands.
+
+_Glandular Tissues._--Every gland is formed by an ingrowth from an
+epithelial surface. This ingrowth may from the beginning possess a
+tubular structure, but in other instances may start as a solid column of
+cells which subsequently becomes tubulated. As growth proceeds, the
+column of cells may divide or give off offshoots, in which case a
+compound gland is formed. In many glands the number of branches is
+limited, in others (salivary, pancreas) a very large structure is
+finally formed by repeated growth and subdivision. As a rule the
+branches do not unite with one another, but in one instance, the liver,
+this does occur when a reticulated compound gland is produced. In
+compound glands the more typical or secretory epithelium is found
+forming the terminal portion of each branch, and the uniting portions
+form ducts and are lined with a less modified type of epithelial cell.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--A Tubulo-alveolar Gland. One of the mucous
+salivary glands of the dog. On the left the alveoli are unfolded to show
+their general arrangement. d, Small duct of gland subdividing into
+branches; e, f and g, terminal tubular alveoli of gland.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--A Compound Alveolar Gland. One of the terminal
+lobules of the pancreas, showing the spherical form of the alveoli.]
+
+Glands are classified according to their shape. If the gland retains its
+shape as a tube throughout it is termed a _tubular_ gland, simple
+tubular if there is no division (large intestine), _compound_ tubular
+(fig. 9) if branching occurs (pyloric glands of stomach). In the simple
+tubular glands the gland may be coiled without losing its tubular form,
+e.g. in sweat glands. In the second main variety of gland the secretory
+portion is enlarged and the lumen variously increased in size. These are
+termed _alveolar_ or _saccular_ glands. They are again subdivided into
+simple or compound alveolar glands, as in the case of the tubular glands
+(fig. 10). A further complication in the case of the alveolar glands may
+occur in the form of still smaller saccular diverticuli growing out from
+the main sacculi (fig. 11). These are termed _alveoli_.
+
+The typical secretory cells of the glands are found lining the terminal
+portions of the ramifications and extend upwards to varying degrees.
+Thus in a typical acinous gland the cells are restricted to the final
+alveoli. The remaining tubes are to be considered mainly as ducts. In
+tubulo-alveolar glands the secreting epithelium lines the alveus as well
+as the terminal tubule.
+
+The gland cells are all placed upon a basement membrane. In many
+instances this membrane is formed of very thin flattened cells, in other
+instances it is apparently a homogeneous membrane, and according to some
+observers is simply a modified part of the basal surface of the cell,
+while according to others it is a definite structure distinct from the
+epithelium.
+
+In the secretory portion of the gland and in the smaller ducts the
+epithelial layer is one cell thick only. In the larger ducts there are
+two layers of cells, but even here the surface cell usually extends by a
+thinned-out stalk down to the basement membrane.
+
+The detailed characters of the epithelium of the different glands of the
+body are given in separate articles (see ALIMENTARY CANAL, &c.). It will
+be sufficient here to give the more general characters possessed by
+these cells. They are cubical or conical cells with distinct oval nuclei
+and granular protoplasm. Within the protoplasm is accumulated a large
+number of spherical granules arranged in diverse manners in different
+cells. The granules vary much in size in different glands, and in
+chemical composition, but in all cases represent a store of material
+ready to be discharged from the cell as its secretion. Hence the general
+appearance of the cell is found to vary according to the previous degree
+of activity of the cell. If it has been at rest for some time the cell
+contains very many granules which swell it out and increase its size.
+The nucleus is then largely hidden by the granules. In the opposite
+condition, i.e. when the cell has been actively secreting, the
+protoplasm is much clearer, the nucleus obvious and the cell shrunken in
+size, all these changes being due to the extrusion of the granules.
+
+
+  Endothelium and mesothelium.
+
+_Endothelium and Mesothelium._--Lining the blood vessels, lymph vessels
+and lymph spaces are found flattened cells apposed to one another by
+their edges to form an extremely thin membrane. These cells are
+developed from the middle embryonic layer and are termed endothelium. A
+very similar type of cells is also found, formed into a very thin
+continuous sheet, lining the body-cavity, i.e. pleural pericardial, and
+peritoneal cavities. These cells develop from that portion of the
+mesoderm known as the mesothelium, and are therefore frequently termed
+mesothelial, though by many they are also included as endothelial cells.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Mesothelial Cells forming the Peritoneal Serous
+Membrane. Three stomata are seen surrounded by cubical cells. One of
+these is closed. The light band marks the position of a lymphatic.
+(After Klein.)]
+
+A mesothelial cell is very flattened, thus resembling a squamous
+epithelial cell. It possesses a protoplasm with faint granules and an
+oval or round nucleus (fig. 12). The outline of the cell is irregularly
+polyhedral, and the borders may be finely serrated. The cells are united
+to one another by an intercellular cement substance which, however, is
+very scanty in amount, but can be made apparent by staining with silver
+nitrate when the appearance reproduced in the figure is seen. By being
+thus united together, the cells form a continuous layer. This layer is
+pierced by a number of small openings, known as stomata, which bring the
+cavity into direct communication with lymph spaces or vessels lying
+beneath the membrane. The stomata are surrounded by a special layer of
+cubical and granular cells. Through these stomata fluids and other
+materials present in the body-cavity can be removed into the lymph
+spaces.
+
+_Endothelial membranes_ (fig. 13) are quite similar in structure to
+mesothelial. They are usually elongated cells of irregular outline and
+serrated borders.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Endothelial Cells from the Interior of an
+Artery.]
+
+By means of endothelial or mesothelial membranes the surfaces of the
+parts covered by them are rendered very smooth, so that movement over
+the surface is greatly facilitated. Thus the abdominal organs can glide
+easily over one another within the peritoneal cavity; the blood or lymph
+experiences the least amount of friction; or again the friction is
+reduced to a minimum between a tendon and its sheath or in the joint
+cavities. The cells forming these membranes also possess further
+physiological properties. Thus it is most probable that they play an
+active part in the blood capillaries in transmitting substances from the
+blood into the tissue spaces, or conversely in preventing the passage of
+materials from blood to tissue space or from tissue space to blood.
+Hence the fluid of the blood and that of the tissue space need not be of
+the same chemical composition.     (T. G. Br.)
+
+
+
+
+EPITOME (Gr. [Greek: epitomê], from [Greek: epitemnein], to cut short),
+an abridgment, abstract or summary giving the salient points of a book,
+law case, &c., a short and concise account of any particular subject or
+event. By transference _epitome_ is also used to express the
+representation of a larger thing, concrete or abstract, reproduced in
+miniature. Thus St Mark's was called by Ruskin the "epitome of Venice,"
+as it embraces examples of all the periods of architecture from the 10th
+to the 19th centuries.
+
+
+
+
+EPOCH (Gr. [Greek: epochê], holding in suspense, a pause, from [Greek:
+epechein], to hold up, to stop), a term for a stated period of time, and
+so used of a date accepted as the starting-point of an era or of a new
+period in chronology, such as the birth of Christ. It is hence
+transferred to a period which marks a great change, whether in the
+history of a country or a science, such as a great discovery or
+invention. Thus an event may be spoken of as "epoch-making." The word is
+also used, synonymously with "period," for any space of time marked by a
+distinctive condition or by a particular series of events.
+
+In astronomy the word is used for a moment from which time is measured,
+or at which a definite position of a body or a definite relation of two
+bodies occurs. For example, the position of a body moving in an orbit
+cannot be determined unless its position at some given time is known.
+The given time is then the epoch; but the term is often applied to the
+mean longitude of the body at the given time.
+
+
+
+
+EPODE, in verse, the third part in an ode, which followed the strophe
+and the antistrophe, and completed the movement; it was called [Greek:
+epôdos periodos] by the Greeks. At a certain moment the choirs, which
+had chanted to right of the altar or stage and then to left of it,
+combined and sang in unison, or permitted the coryphaeus to sing for
+them all, standing in the centre. When, with the appearance of
+Stesichorus and the evolution of choral lyric, a learned and artificial
+kind of poetry began to be cultivated in Greece, a new form, the [Greek:
+eidos epôdikon], or epode-song, came into existence. It consisted of a
+verse of trimeter iambic, followed by a dimeter iambic, and it is
+reported that, although the epode was carried to its highest perfection
+by Stesichorus, an earlier poet, Archilochus, was really the inventor of
+this form. The epode soon took a firm place in choral poetry, which it
+lost when that branch of literature declined. But it extended beyond the
+ode, and in the early dramatists we find numerous examples of monologues
+and dialogues framed on the epodical system. In Latin poetry the epode
+was cultivated, in conscious archaism, both as a part of the ode and as
+an independent branch of poetry. Of the former class, the epithalamia of
+Catullus, founded on an imitation of Pindar, present us with examples of
+strophe, antistrophe and epode; and it has been observed that the
+celebrated ode of Horace, beginning _Quem virum aut heroa lyra vel
+acri_, possesses this triple character. But the word is now mainly
+familiar from an experiment of Horace in the second class, for he
+entitled his fifth book of odes _Epodon liber_ or the Book of Epodes. He
+says in the course of these poems, that in composing them he was
+introducing a new form, at least in Latin literature, and that he was
+imitating the effect of the iambic distichs invented by Archilochus.
+Accordingly we find the first ten of these epodes composed in alternate
+verses of iambic trimeter and iambic dimeter, thus:--
+
+  "At o Deorum quicquid in coelo regit
+     Terras et humanum genus."
+
+In the seven remaining epodes Horace has diversified the measures, while
+retaining the general character of the distich. This group of poems
+belongs in the main to the early youth of the poet, and displays a
+truculence and a controversial heat which are absent from his more
+mature writings. As he was imitating Archilochus in form, he believed
+himself justified, no doubt, in repeating the sarcastic violence of his
+fierce model. The curious thing is that these particular poems of
+Horace, which are really short lyrical satires, have appropriated almost
+exclusively the name of epodes, although they bear little enough
+resemblance to the genuine epode of early Greek literature.
+
+
+
+
+EPONA, a goddess of horses, asses and mules, worshipped by the Romans,
+though of foreign, probably Gallic, origin. The majority of inscriptions
+and images bearing her name have been found in Gaul, Germany and the
+Danube countries; of the few that occur in Rome itself most were exhumed
+on the site of the barracks of the _equites singulares_, a foreign
+imperial body-guard mainly recruited from the Batavians. Her name does
+not appear in Tertullian's list of the _indigetes di_, and Juvenal
+contrasts her worship unfavourably with the old Roman Numa ritual. Her
+cult does not appear to have been introduced before imperial times, when
+she is often called Augusta and invoked on behalf of the emperor and the
+imperial house. Her chief function, however, was to see that the beasts
+of burden were duly fed, and to protect them against accidents and
+malicious influence. In the countries in which the worship of Epona was
+said to have had its origin it was a common belief that certain beings
+were in the habit of casting a spell over stables during the night. The
+Romans used to place the image of the goddess, crowned with flowers on
+festive occasions, in a sort of shrine in the centre of the architrave
+of the stable. In art she is generally represented seated, with her hand
+on the head of the accompanying horse or animal.
+
+  See Tertullian, Apol. 16; Juvenal viii. 157; Prudentius, _Apoth._ 197;
+  Apuleius, _Metam._ iii. 27; articles in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dict,
+  des antiquités_ and Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_.
+
+
+
+
+EPONYMOUS, that which gives a name to anything (Gr. [Greek: epônymos],
+from [Greek: onoma], a name), a term especially applied to the mythical
+or semi-mythical personages, heroes, deities, &c. from whom a country or
+city took its name. Thus Pelops is the giver of the name to the
+Peloponnese. At Athens the chief archon of the year was known as the
+[Greek: archôn epônymos], as the year was known by his name. There was a
+similar official in ancient Assyria. In ancient times, as in historical
+and modern cases, a country or a city has been named after a real
+personage, but in many cases the person has been invented to account for
+the name.
+
+
+
+
+EPPING, a market town in the Epping parliamentary division of Essex,
+England, 17 m. N.N.E. from London by a branch of the Great Eastern
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 3789. The town lies high and
+picturesquely, at the northern outskirts of Epping Forest. The modern
+church of St John the Baptist replaces the old parish church of All
+Saints in the village of Epping Upland 2 m. N.W. This is in part Norman.
+There is considerable trade in butter, cheese and sausages.
+
+Epping Forest forms part of the ancient Waltham Forest, which covered
+the greater part of the county. All the "London Basin," within which the
+Forest lies, was densely wooded. The Forest became one of the commonable
+lands of Royal Chases or hunting-grounds. It was threatened with total
+disafforestation, when under the Epping Forest Act of 1871 a board of
+commissioners was appointed for the better management of the lands. The
+corporation of the city of London then acquired the freehold interest of
+waste land belonging to the lords of the manor, and finally secured
+5559½ acres, magnificently timbered, to the use of the public for ever,
+the tract being declared open by Queen Victoria in 1882. The Ancient
+Court of Verderers was also revived, consisting of an hereditary lord
+warden together with four verderers elected by freeholders of the
+county. The present forest lies between the valleys of the Roding and
+the Lea, and extends southward from Epping to the vicinity of Woodford
+and Walthamstow, a distance of about 7 m. It is readily accessible from
+the villages on its outskirts, such as Woodford, Chingford and Loughton,
+which are served by branches of the Great Eastern railway. These are
+centres of residential districts, and, especially on public holidays in
+the summer, receive large numbers of visitors.
+
+
+
+
+EPPS, the name of an English family, well known in commerce and
+medicine. In the second half of the 18th century they had been settled
+near Ashford, Kent, for some generations, claiming descent from an
+equerry of Charles II., but were reduced in circumstances, when JOHN
+EPPS rose to prosperity as a provision merchant in London, and restored
+the family fortunes. He had four sons, of whom JOHN EPPS (1805-1869),
+GEORGE NAPOLEON EPPS (1815-1874), and JAMES EPPS (1821-1907) were
+notable men of their day, the two former as prominent doctors who were
+ardent converts to homoeopathy, and James as a homoeopathic chemist and
+the founder of the great cocoa business associated with his name. Among
+Dr G.N. Epps's children were Dr Washington Epps, a well-known
+homoeopathist, Lady Alma-Tadema, and Mrs Edmund Gosse.
+
+
+
+
+ÉPRÉMESNIL (ÉSPRÉMESNIL or ÉPRÉMÉNIL), JEAN JACQUES DUVAL D'
+(1745-1794), French magistrate and politician, was born in India on the
+5th of December 1745 at Pondicherry, his father being a colleague of
+Dupleix. Returning to France in 1750 he was educated in Paris for the
+law, and became in 1775 _conseiller_ in the parlement of Paris, where he
+soon distinguished himself by his zealous defence of its rights against
+the royal prerogative. He showed bitter enmity to Marie Antoinette in
+the matter of the diamond necklace, and on the 19th of November 1787 he
+was the spokesman of the parlement in demanding the convocation of the
+states-general. When the court retaliated by an edict depriving the
+parlement of its functions, Éprémesnil bribed the printers to supply him
+with a copy before its promulgation, and this he read to the assembled
+parlement. A royal officer was sent to the palais de justice to arrest
+Éprémesnil and his chief supporter Goislard de Montsabert, but the
+parlement (5th of May 1788) declared that they were all Éprémesnils, and
+the arrest was only effected on the next day on the voluntary surrender
+of the two members. After four months' imprisonment on the island of Ste
+Marguerite, Éprémesnil found himself a popular hero, and was returned to
+the states-general as deputy of the nobility of the outlying districts
+of Paris. But with the rapid advance towards revolution his views
+changed; in his _Réflexions impartiales_ ... (January 1789) he defended
+the monarchy, and he led the party among the nobility that refused to
+meet with the third estate until summoned to do so by royal command. In
+the Constituent Assembly he opposed every step towards the destruction
+of the monarchy. After a narrow escape from the fury of the Parisian
+populace in July 1792 he was imprisoned in the Abbaye, but was set at
+liberty before the September massacres. In September 1793, however, he
+was arrested at Le Havre, taken to Paris, and denounced to the
+Convention as an agent of Pitt. He was brought to trial before the
+revolutionary tribunal on the 21st of April 1794, and was guillotined
+the next day.
+
+  D'Éprémesnil's speeches were collected in a small volume in 1823. See
+  also H. Carré, _Un Précurseur inconscient de la Révolution_ (Paris,
+  1897).
+
+
+
+
+EPSOM, a market town in the Epsom parliamentary division of Surrey,
+England, 14 m. S.W. by S. of London Bridge. Pop. of urban district
+(1901), 10,915. It is served by the London & South-Western and the
+London, Brighton & South Coast railways, and on the racecourse on the
+neighbouring Downs there is a station (Tattenham Corner) of the
+South-Eastern & Chatham railway. The principal building is the parish
+church of St Martin, a good example of modern Gothic, the interior of
+which contains some fine sculptures by Flaxman and Chantrey. Epsom (a
+contraction of Ebbisham, still the name of the manor) first came into
+notice when mineral springs were discovered there about 1618. For some
+time after their discovery the town enjoyed a wonderful degree of
+prosperity. After the Restoration it was often visited by Charles II.,
+and when Queen Anne came to the throne, her husband, Prince George of
+Denmark, made it his frequent resort. Epsom gradually lost its celebrity
+as a spa, but the annual races held on its downs arrested the decay of
+the town. Races appear to have been established here as early as James
+I's residence at Nonsuch, but they did not assume a permanent character
+until 1730. The principal races--the Derby and Oaks--are named after one
+of the earls of Derby and his seat, the Oaks, which is in the
+neighbourhood. The latter race was established in 1779, and the former
+in the following year. The spring races are held on a Thursday and
+Friday towards the close of April; and the great Epsom meeting takes
+place on the Tuesday and three following days immediately before
+Whitsuntide,--the Derby on the Wednesday, and the Oaks on the Friday
+(see HORSE-RACING). The grand stand was erected in 1829, and
+subsequently enlarged; and there are numerous training stables in the
+vicinity. Close to the town are the extensive buildings of the Royal
+Medical Benevolent College, commonly called Epsom College, founded in
+1855. Scholars on the foundation must be the sons of medical men, but in
+other respects the school is open. In the neighbourhood is the Durdans,
+a seat of the earl of Rosebery.
+
+
+
+
+EPSOM SALTS, heptohydrated magnesium sulphate, MgSO4·7H2O, the _magnesii
+sulphas_ of pharmacy (Ger. _Bittersalz_). It occurs dissolved in sea
+water and in most mineral waters, especially in those at Epsom (from
+which place it takes its name), Seidlitz, Saidschutz and Pullna. It also
+occurs in nature in fibrous excrescences, constituting the mineral
+epsomite or hair-salt; and as compact masses (reichardite), as in the
+Stassfurt mines. It is also found associated with limestone, as in the
+Mammoth Caves, Kentucky, and with gypsum, as at Montmartre. Epsom salts
+crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, being isomorphous with the
+corresponding zinc and nickel sulphates, and also with magnesium
+chromate. Occasionally monoclinic crystals are obtained by crystallizing
+from a strong solution. It is used in the arts for weighting cotton
+fabrics, as a top-dressing for clover hay in agriculture, and in dyeing.
+In medicine it is frequently employed as a hydragogue purgative,
+specially valuable in febrile diseases, in congestion of the portal
+system, and in the obstinate constipation of painters' colic. In the
+last case it is combined with potassium iodide, the two salts being
+exceedingly effective in causing the elimination of lead from the
+system. It is also very useful as a supplement to mercury, which needs a
+saline aperient to complete its action. The salt should be given a few
+hours after the mercury, e.g. in the early morning, the mercury having
+been given at night. It possesses the advantage of exercising but little
+irritant effect upon the bowels. Its nauseous bitter taste may to some
+extent be concealed by acidifying the solution with dilute sulphuric
+acid, and in some cases where full doses have failed the repeated
+administration of small ones has proved effectual.
+
+  For the manufacture of Epsom salts and for other hydrated magnesium
+  sulphates see MAGNESIUM.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 9, Slice 6, by Various
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 9, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 9, Slice 6
+       "English Language" to "Epsom Salts"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 17, 2011 [EBook #35306]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME IX SLICE VI<br /><br />
+English Language to Epsom Salts</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">ENGLISH LANGUAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">EPHEBI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">ENGLISH LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">EPHEMERIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">ENGLISH LITERATURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">ENGLISHRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">EPHESUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">ENGRAVING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">ENGROSSING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">EPHOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">ENGYON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">EPHOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">ENID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">EPHORUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">ENIGMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">EPHRAEM SYRUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">ENKHUIZEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">EPHRAIM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">ENNEKING, JOHN JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">EPHTHALITES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">ENNIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">ÉPI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">ENNISCORTHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">EPICENE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">ENNISKILLEN, WILLIAM WILLOUGHBY COLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">EPICHARMUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">ENNISKILLEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">EPIC POETRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">ENNIUS, QUINTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">EPICTETUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">EPICURUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">ENNS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">EPICYCLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">ENOCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">EPICYCLOID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">ENOCH, BOOK OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">EPIDAURUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">ENOMOTO, BUYO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">EPIDIORITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">ENOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">EPIDOSITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">ENRIQUEZ GOMEZ, ANTONIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">EPIDOTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">ENSCHEDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">EPIGONI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">ENSENADA, CENON DE SOMODEVILLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">EPIGONION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">ENSIGN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">EPIGRAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">ENSILAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">EPIGRAPHY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">ENSTATITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">EPILEPSY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">ENTABLATURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">EPILOGUE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">ENTADA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">EPIMENIDES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">ENTAIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">ÉPINAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">ENTASIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">EPINAOS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">ENTERITIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">ÉPINAY, LOUISE FLORENCE PÉTRONILLE TARDIEU D&rsquo;ESCLAVELLES D&rsquo;</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">ENTHUSIASM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">EPIPHANIUS, SAINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">ENTHYMEME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">EPIPHANY, FEAST OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">ENTOMOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">EPIRUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">ENTOMOSTRACA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">EPISCOPACY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">ENTRAGUES, CATHERINE HENRIETTE DE BALZAC D&rsquo;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">EPISCOPIUS, SIMON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">ENTRECASTEAUX, JOSEPH-ANTOINE BRUNI D&rsquo;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">EPISODE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">ENTRE MINHO E DOURO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">EPISTAXIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">ENTREPÔT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">EPISTEMOLOGY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">ENTRE RIOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">EPISTLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">ENVOY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">EPISTYLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">ENZIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">EPISTYLIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">ENZYME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">EPITAPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">EOCENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">EPITHALAMIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">EON DE BEAUMONT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">EPITHELIAL, ENDOTHELIAL and GLANDULAR TISSUES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">EÖTVÖS, JÓZSEF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">EPITOME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">EPAMINONDAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">EPOCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">EPARCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">EPODE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">EPAULETTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">EPONA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">ÉPÉE, CHARLES-MICHEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">EPONYMOUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">ÉPÉE-DE-COMBAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">EPPING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">EPERJES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">EPPS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">ÉPERNAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">ÉPRÉMESNIL, JEAN JACQUES DUVAL D&rsquo;</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">ÉPERNON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">EPSOM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">EPHEBEUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">EPSOM SALTS</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">ENGLISH LANGUAGE.<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> In its historical sense, the name
+<i>English</i> is now conveniently used to comprehend the language
+of the English people from their settlement in Britain to the
+present day, the various stages through which it has passed being
+distinguished as Old, Middle, and New or Modern English. In
+works yet recent, and even in some still current, the term is
+confined to the third, or at most extended to the second and third
+of these stages, since the language assumed in the main the
+vocabulary and grammatical forms which it now presents, the
+oldest or inflected stage being treated as a separate language,
+under the title of <i>Anglo-Saxon</i>, while the transition period which
+connects the two has been called <i>Semi-Saxon</i>. This view had
+the justification that, looked upon by themselves, either as
+vehicles of thought or as objects of study and analysis, Old
+English or Anglo-Saxon and Modern English are, for all practical
+ends, distinct languages,&mdash;as much so, for example, as Latin and
+Spanish. No amount of familiarity with Modern English,
+including its local dialects, would enable the student to read
+Anglo-Saxon, three-fourths of the vocabulary of which have
+perished and been reconstructed within 900 years;<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> nor would a
+knowledge even of these lost words give him the power, since
+the grammatical system, alike in accidence and syntax, would
+be entirely strange to him. Indeed, it is probable that a modern
+Englishman would acquire the power of reading and writing
+French in less time than it would cost him to attain to the same
+proficiency in Old English; so that if the test of distinct languages
+be their degree of practical difference from each other,
+it cannot be denied that &ldquo;Anglo-Saxon&rdquo; is a distinct language
+from Modern English. But when we view the subject historically,
+recognizing the fact that living speech is subject to continuous
+change in certain definite directions, determined by the constitution
+and circumstances of mankind, as an evolution or
+development of which we can trace the steps, and that, owing
+to the abundance of written materials, this evolution appears
+so gradual in English that we can nowhere draw distinct lines
+separating its successive stages, we recognize these stages as
+merely temporary phases of an individual whole, and speak
+of the English language as used alike by Cynewulf, by Chaucer,
+by Shakespeare and by Tennyson.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It must not be forgotten,
+however, that in this wide sense the English language includes,
+not only the literary or courtly forms of speech used at successive
+periods, but also the popular and, it may be, altogether unwritten
+dialects that exist by their side. Only on this basis, indeed, can
+we speak of Old, Middle and Modern English as the same
+<i>language</i>, since in actual fact the precise <i>dialect</i> which is now
+the cultivated language, or &ldquo;Standard English,&rdquo; is not the
+descendant of that dialect which was the cultivated language
+or &ldquo;Englisc&rdquo; of Alfred, but of a sister dialect then sunk in comparative
+obscurity,&mdash;even as the direct descendant of Alfred&rsquo;s
+Englisc is now to be found in the non-literary rustic speech
+of Wiltshire and Somersetshire. Causes which, linguistically
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span>
+considered, are external and accidental, have shifted the
+political and intellectual centre of England, and along with it
+transferred literary and official patronage from one form of
+English to another; if the centre of influence had happened to
+be fixed at York or on the banks of the Forth, both would
+probably have been neglected for a third.</p>
+
+<p>The English language, thus defined, is not &ldquo;native&rdquo; to
+Britain, that is, it was not found there at the dawn of history,
+but was introduced by foreign immigrants at a date many
+centuries later. At the Roman Conquest of the island the
+languages spoken by the natives belonged all (so far as is known)
+to the Celtic branch of the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic
+family, modern forms of which still survive in Wales, Ireland,
+the Scottish Highlands, Isle of Man and Brittany, while one has
+at no distant date become extinct in Cornwall (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>:
+Language). Brythonic dialects, allied to Welsh and Cornish,
+were apparently spoken over the greater part of Britain, as far
+north as the firths of Forth and Clyde; beyond these estuaries
+and in the isles to the west, including Ireland and Man, Goidelic
+dialects, akin to Irish and Scottish Gaelic, prevailed. The long
+occupation of south Britain by the Romans (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 43-409)&mdash;a
+period, it must not be forgotten, equal to that from the Reformation
+to the present day, or nearly as long as the whole duration
+of modern English&mdash;familiarized the provincial inhabitants with
+Latin, which was probably the ordinary speech of the towns.
+Gildas, writing nearly a century and a half after the renunciation
+of Honorius in 410, addressed the British princes in that
+language;<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and the linguistic history of Britain might have been
+not different from that of Gaul, Spain and the other provinces
+of the Western Empire, in which a local type of Latin, giving
+birth to a neo-Latinic language, finally superseded the native
+tongue except in remote and mountainous districts,<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> had not
+the course of events been entirely changed by the Teutonic
+conquests of the 5th and 6th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The Angles, Saxons, and their allies came of the Teutonic
+stock, and spoke a tongue belonging to the Teutonic or Germanic
+branch of the Indo-Germanic (Indo-European) family, the same
+race and form of speech being represented in modern times by
+the people and languages of Holland, Germany, Denmark, the
+Scandinavian peninsula and Iceland, as well as by those of
+England and her colonies. Of the original home of the so-called
+primitive Aryan race (<i>q.v.</i>), whose language was the parent
+Indo-European, nothing is certainly known, though the subject
+has called forth many conjectures; the present tendency is to
+seek it in Europe itself. The tribe can hardly have occupied
+an extensive area at first, but its language came by degrees to be
+diffused over the greater part of Europe and some portion of
+Asia. Among those whose Aryan descent is generally recognized
+as beyond dispute are the Teutons, to whom the Angles and
+Saxons belonged.</p>
+
+<p>The Teutonic or Germanic people, after dwelling together in a
+body, appear to have scattered in various directions, their
+language gradually breaking up into three main groups, which
+can be already clearly distinguished in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>,
+North Germanic or Scandinavian, West Germanic or Low and
+High German, and East Germanic, of which the only important
+representative is Gothic. Gothic, often called Moeso-Gothic, was
+the language of a people of the Teutonic stock, who, passing
+down the Danube, invaded the borders of the Empire, and
+obtained settlements in the province of Moesia, where their
+language was committed to writing in the 4th century; its
+literary remains are of peculiar value as the oldest specimens, by
+several centuries, of Germanic speech. The dialects of the
+invaders of Britain belonged to the West Germanic branch, and
+within this to the Low German group, represented at the present
+day by Dutch, Frisian, and the various &ldquo;Platt-Deutsch&rdquo;
+dialects of North Germany. At the dawn of history the forefathers
+of the English appear to have been dwelling between
+and about the estuaries and lower courses of the Rhine and the
+Weser, and the adjacent coasts and isles; at the present day the
+most English or Angli-form dialects of the European continent
+are held to be those of the North Frisian islands of Amrum and
+Sylt, on the west coast of Schleswig. It is well known that the
+greater part of the ancient Friesland has been swept away by the
+encroachments of the North Sea, and the <i>disjecta membra</i> of the
+Frisian race, pressed by the sea in front and more powerful
+nationalities behind, are found only in isolated fragments from the
+Zuider Zee to the coasts of Denmark. Many Frisians accompanied
+the Angles and Saxons to Britain, and Old English was
+in many respects more closely connected with Old Frisian than
+with any other Low German dialect. Of the Geatas, Eotas or
+&ldquo;Jutes,&rdquo; who, according to Bede, occupied Kent and the Isle of
+Wight, and formed a third tribe along with the Angles and
+Saxons, it is difficult to speak linguistically. The speech of
+Kent certainly formed a distinct dialect in both the Old English
+and the Middle English periods, but it has tended to be assimilated
+more and more to neighbouring southern dialects, and is at the
+present day identical with that of Sussex, one of the old Saxon
+kingdoms. Whether the speech of the Isle of Wight ever showed
+the same characteristic differences as that of Kent cannot now be
+ascertained, but its modern dialect differs in no respect from that
+of Hampshire, and shows no special connexion with that of Kent.
+It is at least entirely doubtful whether Bede&rsquo;s Geatas came from
+Jutland; on linguistic grounds we should expect that they
+occupied a district lying not to the north of the Angles, but
+between these and the old Saxons.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest specimens of the language of the Germanic
+invaders of Britain that exist point to three well-marked dialect
+groups: the Anglian (in which a further distinction may be
+made between the Northumbrian and the Mercian, or South-Humbrian);
+the Saxon, generally called West-Saxon from the
+almost total lack of sources outside the West-Saxon domain;
+and the Kentish. The Kentish and West-Saxon are sometimes,
+especially in later times, grouped together as southern dialects as
+opposed to midland and northern. These three groups were
+distinguished from each other by characteristic points of phonology
+and inflection. Speaking generally, the Anglian dialects may
+be distinguished by the absence of certain normal West-Saxon
+vowel-changes, and the presence of others not found in West-Saxon,
+and also by a strong tendency to confuse and simplify
+inflections, in all which points, moreover, Northumbrian tended to
+deviate more widely than Mercian. Kentish, on the other hand,
+occupied a position intermediate between Anglian and West-Saxon,
+early Kentish approaching more nearly to Mercian,
+owing perhaps to early historical connexion between the two, and
+late Kentish tending to conform to West-Saxon characteristics,
+while retaining several points in common with Anglian. Though
+we cannot be certain that these dialectal divergences date from a
+period previous to the occupation of Britain, such evidence as
+can be deduced points to the existence of differences already on
+the continent, the three dialects corresponding in all likelihood
+to Bede&rsquo;s three tribes, the Angles, Saxons and Geatas.</p>
+
+<p>As it was amongst the <i>Engle</i> or Angles of Northumbria that
+literary culture first appeared, and as an Angle or <i>Englisc</i> dialect
+was the first to be used for vernacular literature, <i>Englisc</i> came
+eventually to be a general name for all forms of the vernacular
+as opposed to Latin, &amp;c.; and even when the West-Saxon of
+Alfred became in its turn the literary or classical form of speech,
+it was still called Englisc or <i>English</i>. The origin of the name
+<i>Angul-Seaxan</i> (Anglo-Saxons) has been disputed, some maintaining
+that it means a union of Angles and Saxons, others (with better
+foundation) that it meant <i>English Saxons</i>, or Saxons of England
+or of the Angel-cynn as distinguished from Saxons of the
+Continent (see <i>New English Dictionary, s.v.</i>). Its modern use is
+mainly due to the little band of scholars who in the 16th and
+17th centuries turned their attention to the long-forgotten
+language of Alfred and Ælfric, which, as it differed so greatly from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span>
+the English of their own day, they found it convenient to distinguish
+by a name which was applied to themselves by those who
+spoke it.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> To these scholars &ldquo;Anglo-Saxon&rdquo; and &ldquo;English&rdquo;
+were separated by a gulf which it was reserved for later scholarship
+to bridge across, and show the historical continuity of the
+English of all ages.</p>
+
+<p>As already hinted, the English language, in the wide sense,
+presents three main stages of development&mdash;Old, Middle and
+Modern&mdash;distinguished by their inflectional characteristics.
+The latter can be best summarized in the words of Dr Henry
+Sweet in his <i>History of English Sounds</i>:<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> &ldquo;Old English is the
+period of <i>full</i> inflections (<i>nama</i>, <i>gifan</i>, <i>caru</i>), Middle English of
+<i>levelled</i> inflections (<i>naame</i>, <i>given</i>, <i>caare</i>), and Modern English of
+<i>lost</i> inflections (<i>name</i>, <i>give</i>, <i>care</i> = <i>n&#257;m</i>, <i>giv</i>, <i>c&#257;r</i>). We have besides
+two periods of transition, one in which <i>nama</i> and <i>name</i> exist side
+by side, and another in which final <i>e</i> [with other endings] is
+beginning to drop.&rdquo; By <i>lost</i> inflections it is meant that only very
+few remain, and those mostly non-syllabic, as the <i>-s</i> in stones and
+loves, the <i>-ed</i> in loved, the <i>-r</i> in their, as contrasted with the Old
+English stán<i>-as</i>, lufað, luf<i>-od-e</i> and luf<i>-od-on</i>, þá<i>-ra</i>. Each of
+these periods may also be divided into two or three; but from
+the want of materials it is difficult to make any such division for
+all dialects alike in the first.</p>
+
+<p>As to the chronology of the successive stages, it is of course
+impossible to lay down any exclusive series of dates, since the
+linguistic changes were inevitably gradual, and also made themselves
+felt in some parts of the country much earlier than in others,
+the north being always in advance of the midland, and the south
+much later in its changes. It is easy to point to periods at which
+Old, Middle and Modern English were fully developed, but much
+less easy to draw lines separating these stages; and even if we
+recognize between each part a &ldquo;transition&rdquo; period or stage, the
+determination of the beginning and end of this will to a certain
+extent be a matter of opinion. But bearing these considerations
+in mind, and having special reference to the midland dialect
+from which literary English is mainly descended, the following
+may be given as approximate dates, which if they do not
+demarcate the successive stages, at least include them:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Old English or Anglo-Saxon</td> <td class="tcr">to 1100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Transition Old English (&ldquo;Semi-Saxon&rdquo;)</td> <td class="tcr">1100 to 1150</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Early Middle English</td> <td class="tcr">1150 to 1250</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">(Normal) Middle English</td> <td class="tcr">1250 to 1400</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Late and Transition Middle English</td> <td class="tcr">1400 to 1485</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Early Modern or Tudor English</td> <td class="tcr">1485 to 1611</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Seventeenth century transition</td> <td class="tcr">1611 to 1688</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Modern or current English</td> <td class="tcr">1689 onward</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Dr Sweet has reckoned Transition Old English (Old Transition)
+from 1050 to 1150, Middle English thence to 1450, and Late or
+Transition Middle English (Middle Transition) 1450 to 1500.
+As to the Old Transition see further below.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Old English</span> or Anglo-Saxon tongue, as introduced into
+Britain, was highly inflectional, though its inflections at the date
+when it becomes known to us were not so full as those of the
+earlier Gothic, and considerably less so than those of Greek and
+Latin during their classical periods. They corresponded more
+closely to those of modern literary German, though both in
+nouns and verbs the forms were more numerous and distinct;
+for example, the German <i>guten</i> answers to <i>three</i> Old English
+forms,&mdash;<i>gódne</i>, <i>gódum</i>, <i>gódan</i>; <i>guter</i> to <i>two</i>&mdash;<i>gódre</i>, <i>gódra</i>;
+<i>liebten</i> to <i>two</i>,&mdash;<i>lufodon</i> and <i>lufeden</i>. Nouns had four cases.
+<i>Nominative</i>, <i>Accusative</i> (only sometimes distinct), <i>Genitive</i>,
+<i>Dative</i>, the latter used also with prepositions to express locative,
+instrumental, and most ablative relations; of a distinct <i>instrumental</i>
+case only vestiges occur. There were several declensions of
+nouns, the main division being that known in Germanic languages
+generally as strong and weak,&mdash;a distinction also extending to
+adjectives in such wise that every adjective assumed either the
+strong or the weak inflection as determined by associated grammatical
+forms. The first and second personal pronouns possessed
+a dual number = <i>we two</i>, <i>ye two</i>; the third person had a complete
+declension of the stem he, instead of being made up as now of the
+three stems seen in <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>they</i>. The verb distinguished the
+subjunctive from the indicative mood, but had only two inflected
+tenses, present and past (more accurately, that of incomplete
+and that of completed or &ldquo;perfect&rdquo; action)&mdash;the former also used
+for the future, the latter for all the shades of past time. The order
+of the sentence corresponded generally to that of German. Thus
+from King Alfred&rsquo;s additions to his translation of Orosius:
+&ldquo;Donne þy ylcan dæge hi hine to þæm ade beran wyllað þonne
+todælað hi his feoh þaet þær to lafe bið æfter þæm gedrynce and
+þæm plegan, on fif oððe syx, hwilum on ma, swa swa þaes feos
+andefn bið&rdquo; (&ldquo;Then on the same day [that] they him to
+the pile bear will, then divide they his property that there to
+remainder shall be after the drinking and the sports, into five or
+six, at times into more, according as the property&rsquo;s value is&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>The poetry was distinguished by alliteration, and the abundant
+use of figurative and metaphorical expressions, of bold compounds
+and archaic words never found in prose. Thus in the following
+lines from Beowulf (ed. Thorpe, l. 645, Zupitza 320):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Stræt wæs stán-fáh, stig wisode</p>
+<p>Gumum ætgædere. gúð-byrne scán</p>
+<p>Heard hond-locen. hring-iren scir</p>
+<p>Song in searwum, þa hie to sele furðum</p>
+<p>In hyra gry&prime;re geatwum gangan cwomon.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Trans.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>The street was stone-variegated, the path guided</p>
+<p>(The) men together; the war-mailcoat shone,</p>
+<p>Hard hand-locked. Ring-iron sheer (bright ring-mail)</p>
+<p>Sang in (their) cunning-trappings, as they to hall forth</p>
+<p>In their horror-accoutrements going came.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Old English was a homogeneous language, having very
+few foreign elements in it, and forming its compounds and
+derivatives entirely from its own resources. A few Latin
+appellatives learned from the Romans in the German wars had
+been adopted into the common West Germanic tongue, and are
+found in English as in the allied dialects. Such were <i>stræte</i>
+(street, <i>via strata</i>), <i>camp</i> (battle), <i>cásere</i> (Cæsar), <i>míl</i> (mile), <i>pín</i>
+(punishment), <i>mynet</i> (money), <i>pund</i> (pound), <i>wín</i> (wine); probably
+also <i>cyri&#263;e</i> (church), <i>biscop</i> (bishop), <i>læden</i> (Latin language), <i>cése</i>
+(cheese), <i>butor</i> (butter), <i>pipor</i> (pepper), <i>olfend</i> (camel, elephantus),
+<i>ynce</i> (inch, uncia), and a few others. The relations of the first
+invaders to the Britons were to a great extent those of destroyers;
+and with the exception of the proper names of places and prominent
+natural features, which as is usual were retained by the
+new population, few British words found their way into the Old
+English. Among these are named <i>broc</i> (a badger), <i>bréc</i> (breeches),
+<i>clút</i> (clout), <i>púl</i> (pool), and a few words relating to the employment
+of field or household menials. Still fewer words seem to
+have been adopted from the provincial Latin, almost the only
+certain ones being castra, applied to the Roman towns, which
+appeared in English as <i>cæstre</i>, <i>ceaster</i>, now found in composition as
+-<i>caster</i>, -<i>chester</i>, -<i>cester</i>, and <i>culina</i> (kitchen), which gave <i>cylen</i> (kiln).
+The introduction and gradual adoption of Christianity, brought
+a new series of Latin words connected with the offices of the
+church, the accompaniments of higher civilization, the foreign
+productions either actually made known, or mentioned in the
+Scriptures and devotional books. Such were <i>mynster</i> (monasterium),
+<i>munuc</i> (monk), <i>nunne</i> (nun), <i>maesse</i> (mass), <i>schol</i>
+(school), <i>&oelig;lmesse</i> (eleemosyna), <i>candel</i> (candela), <i>turtle</i> (turtur),
+<i>fic</i> (ficus), <i>cedar</i> (cedrus). These words, whose number increased
+from the 7th to the 10th century, are commonly called <i>Latin
+of the second period</i>, the Latin of the first period including the
+Latin words brought by the English from the continent, as well
+as those picked up in Britain either from the Roman provincials
+or the Welsh. The Danish invasions of the 8th and 10th centuries
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span>
+resulted in the establishment of extensive Danish and Norwegian
+populations, about the basin of the Humber and its tributaries,
+and above Morecambe Bay. Although these Scandinavian
+settlers must have greatly affected the language of their own
+localities, but few traces of their influence are to be found in the
+literature of the Old English period. As with the greater part
+of the words adopted from the Celtic, it was not until after the
+dominion of the Norman had overlaid all preceding conquests,
+and the new English began to emerge from the ruins of the old,
+that Danish words in any number made their appearance in
+books, as equally &ldquo;native&rdquo; with the Anglo-Saxon.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest specimens we have of English date to the end of
+the 7th century, and belong to the Anglian dialect, and particularly
+to Northumbrian, which, under the political eminence of
+the early Northumbrian kings from Edwin to Ecgfrið, aided
+perhaps by the learning of the scholars of Ireland and Iona, first
+attained to literary distinction. Of this literature in its original
+form mere fragments exist, one of the most interesting of which
+consists of the verses uttered by Bede on his deathbed, and
+preserved in a nearly contemporary MS.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Fore there neid faerae . naenig uuiurthit</p>
+<p>thonc snotturra . than him tharf sie,</p>
+<p>to ymb-hycggannæ . aer his hin-iongae,</p>
+<p>huaet his gastae . godaes aeththa yflaes,</p>
+<p>aefter deoth-daege . doemid uueorthae.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Trans.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Before the inevitable journey becomes not any</p>
+<p>Thought more wise than (that) it is needful for him,</p>
+<p>To consider, ere his hence-going,</p>
+<p>What, to his ghost, of good or ill,</p>
+<p>After death-day, doomed may be.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>But our chief acquaintance with Old English is in its West-Saxon
+form, the earliest literary remains of which date to the
+9th century, when under the political supremacy of Wessex and
+the scholarship of King Alfred it became the literary language
+of the English nation, the classical &ldquo;Anglo-Saxon.&rdquo; If our
+materials were more extensive, it would probably be necessary
+to divide the Old English into several periods; as it is, considerable
+differences have been shown to exist between the &ldquo;early
+West-Saxon&rdquo; of King Alfred and the later language of the 11th
+century, the earlier language having numerous phonetic and
+inflectional distinctions which are &ldquo;levelled&rdquo; in the later, the
+inflectional changes showing that the tendency to pass from the
+synthetical to the analytical stage existed quite independently
+of the Norman Conquest. The northern dialect, whose literary
+career had been cut short in the 8th century by the Danish
+invasions, reappears in the 10th in the form of glosses to the
+Latin gospels and a service-book, often called the <i>Ritual of
+Durham</i>, where we find that, owing to the confusion which had
+so long reigned in the north, and to special Northumbrian
+tendencies, <i>e.g.</i> the dropping of the inflectional n in both verbs
+and nouns, this dialect had advanced in the process of inflection-levelling
+far beyond the sister dialects of Mercian and the south,
+so as already to anticipate the forms of Early Middle English.</p>
+
+<p>Among the literary remains of the Old English may be mentioned
+the epic poem of Beowulf, the original nucleus of which
+has been supposed to date to heathen and even continental
+times, though we now possess it only in a later form; the poetical
+works of Cynewulf; those formerly ascribed to Cædmon; several
+works of Alfred, two of which, his translation of Orosius and of
+<i>The Pastoral Care</i> of St Gregory, are contemporary specimens
+of his language; the Old English or Anglo-Saxon Chronicle;
+the theological works of Ælfric (including translations of the
+Pentateuch and the gospels) and of Wulfstan; and many works
+both in prose and verse, of which the authors are unknown.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest specimens, the inscriptions on the Ruthwell and
+Bewcastle crosses, are in a Runic character; but the letters used
+in the manuscripts generally are a British variety of the Roman
+alphabet which the Anglo-Saxons found in the island, and which
+was also used by the Welsh and Irish.<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Several of the Roman
+letters had in Britain developed forms, and retained or acquired
+values, unlike those used on the continent, in particular <img style="width:83px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img590a.jpg" alt="" />
+(d f g r s t). The letters <i>q</i> and <i>z</i> were not used, <i>q</i> being represented
+by <i>cw</i>, and <i>k</i> was a rare alternative to <i>c</i>; <i>u</i> or <i>v</i> was only
+a vowel, the consonantal power of <i>v</i> being represented as in
+Welsh by <i>f</i>. The Runes called <i>thorn</i> and <i>w&#275;n</i>, having the consonantal
+values now expressed by <i>th</i> and <i>w</i>, for which the Roman
+alphabet had no character, were at first expressed by <i>th</i>, ð (a
+contraction for &#611;&#611; or &#611;h), and <i>v</i> or <i>u</i>; but at a later period the
+characters þ and Þ were revived from the old Runic alphabet.
+Contrary to Continental usage, the letters <i>c</i> and <img style="width:13px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img590.jpg" alt="" /> (<i>g</i>) had
+originally only their hard or guttural powers, as in the neighbouring
+Celtic languages; so that words which, when the Continental
+Roman alphabet came to be used for Germanic languages, had
+to be written with <i>k</i>, were in Old English written with <i>c</i>, as
+<i>cêne</i> = keen, <i>cynd</i> = kind.<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The key to the values of the letters,
+and thus to the pronunciation of Old English, is also to be
+found in the Celtic tongues whence the letters were taken.</p>
+
+<p>The Old English period is usually considered as terminating
+1120, with the death of the generation who saw the Norman
+Conquest. The Conquest established in England a foreign
+court, a foreign aristocracy and a foreign hierarchy.<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> The
+French language, in its Norman dialect, became the only polite
+medium of intercourse. The native tongue, despised not only
+as unknown but as the language of a subject race, was left to the
+use of boors and serfs, and except in a few stray cases ceased to
+be written at all. The natural results followed.<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> When the
+educated generation that saw the arrival of the Norman died
+out, the language, ceasing to be read and written, lost all its
+literary words. The words of ordinary life whose preservation
+is independent of books lived on as vigorously as ever, but the
+literary terms, those that related to science, art and higher
+culture, the bold artistic compounds, the figurative terms of
+poetry, were speedily forgotten. The practical vocabulary
+shrank to a fraction of its former extent. And when, generations
+later, English began to be used for general literature, the only
+terms at hand to express ideas above those of every-day life
+were to be found in the French of the privileged classes, of whom
+alone art, science, law and theology had been for generations
+the inheritance. Hence each successive literary effort of the
+reviving English tongue showed a larger adoption of French
+words to supply the place of the forgotten native ones, till by
+the days of Chaucer they constituted a notable part of the
+vocabulary. Nor was it for the time being only that the French
+words affected the English vocabulary. The Norman French
+words introduced by the Conquest, as well as the Central or
+Parisian French words which followed under the early Plantagenets,
+were mainly Latin words which had lived on among
+the people of Gaul, and, modified in the mouths of succeeding
+generations, had reached forms more or less remote from their
+originals. In being now adopted as English, they supplied
+precedents in accordance with which other Latin words might
+be converted into English ones, whenever required; and long
+before the Renascence of classical learning, though in much
+greater numbers after that epoch, these precedents were freely
+followed.</p>
+
+<p>While the eventual though distant result of the Norman Conquest
+was thus a large reconstruction of the English vocabulary,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span>
+the grammar of the language was not directly affected by it.
+There was no reason why it should&mdash;we might almost add, no
+way by which it could. While the English used their own <i>words</i>,
+they could not forget their own <i>way</i> of using them, the inflections
+and constructions by which alone the words expressed ideas&mdash;in
+other words, their grammar; when one by one French words
+were introduced into the sentence they became English by the
+very act of admission, and were at once subjected to all the
+duties and liabilities of English words in the same position. This
+is of course precisely what happens at the present day: <i>telegraph</i>
+and <i>telegram</i> make participle <i>telegraphing</i> and plural <i>telegrams</i>,
+and <i>naïve</i> the adverb <i>naïvely</i>, precisely as if they had been in the
+language for ages.</p>
+
+<p>But indirectly the grammar was affected very quickly. In
+languages in the inflected or synthetic stage the terminations
+must be pronounced with marked distinctness, as these contain
+the correlation of ideas; it is all-important to hear whether a
+word is <i>bonus</i> or <i>bonis</i> or <i>bonas</i> or <i>bonos</i>. This implies a measured
+and distinct pronunciation, against which the effort for ease and
+rapidity of utterance is continually struggling, while indolence
+and carelessness continually compromise it. In the Germanic
+languages, as a whole, the main stress-accent falls on the radical
+syllable, or on the prefix of a nominal compound, and thus at
+or near the beginning of the word; and the result of this in
+English has been a growing tendency to suffer the concluding
+syllables to fall into obscurity. We are familiar with the cockney
+<i>winder</i>, <i>sofer</i>, <i>holler</i>, <i>Sarer</i>, <i>Sunder</i>, <i>would yer</i>, for wind<i>ow</i>, sof<i>a</i>,
+holl<i>a</i>, Sar<i>ah</i>, Sund<i>ay</i>, would y<i>ou</i>, the various final vowels sinking
+into an obscure neutral one now conventionally spelt <i>er</i>, but
+formerly represented by final <i>e</i>. Already before the Conquest,
+forms originally <i>hatu</i>, <i>sello</i>, <i>tunga</i>, appeared as <i>hate</i>, <i>selle</i>, <i>tunge</i>,
+with the terminations levelled to obscure &#283;; but during the
+illiterate period of the language after the Conquest this careless
+obscuring of terminal vowels became universal, all unaccented
+vowels in the final syllable (except <i>i</i>) sinking into <i>e</i>. During
+the 12th century, while this change was going on, we see a great
+confusion of grammatical forms, the full inflections of Old English
+standing side by side in the same sentence with the levelled ones
+of Middle English. It is to this state of the language that the
+names <i>Transition</i> and <i>Period of Confusion</i> (Dr Abbott&rsquo;s appellation)
+point; its appearance, as that of Anglo-Saxon broken down
+in its endings, had previously given to it the suggestive if not
+logical appellation of Semi-Saxon.</p>
+
+<p>Although the written remains of the transition stage are few,
+sufficient exist to enable us to trace the course of linguistic
+change in some of the dialects. Within three generations after
+the Conquest, faithful pens were at work transliterating the old
+homilies of Ælfric, and other lights of the Anglo-Saxon Church,
+into the current idiom of their posterity.<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Twice during the period,
+in the reigns of Stephen and Henry II., Ælfric&rsquo;s gospels were
+similarly modernized so as to be &ldquo;understanded of the people.&rdquo;<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a>
+Homilies and other religious works of the end of the 12th century<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a>
+show us the change still further advanced, and the language
+passing into Early Middle English in its southern form. While
+these southern remains carry on in unbroken sequence the history
+of the Old English of Alfred and Ælfric, the history of the northern
+English is an entire blank from the 11th to the 13th century.
+The stubborn resistance of the north, and the terrible retaliation
+inflicted by William, apparently effaced northern English
+culture for centuries. If anything was written in the vernacular
+in the kingdom of Scotland during the same period, it probably
+perished during the calamities to which that country was subjected
+during the half-century of struggle for independence. In
+reality, however, the northern English had entered upon its
+transition stage two centuries earlier; the glosses of the 10th
+century show that the Danish inroads had there anticipated the
+results hastened by the Norman Conquest in the south.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile a dialect was making its appearance in another
+quarter of England, destined to overshadow the old literary
+dialects of north and south alike, and become the English of the
+future. The Mercian kingdom, which, as its name imports, lay
+along the <i>marches</i> of the earlier states, and was really a congeries
+of the outlying members of many tribes, must have presented
+from the beginning a linguistic mixture and transition; and it is
+evident that more than one intermediate form of speech arose
+within its confines, between Lancashire and the Thames. The
+specimens of early Mercian now in existence consist mainly
+of glosses, in a mixed Mercian and southern dialect, dating from
+the 8th century; but, in a 9th-century gloss, the so-called
+Vespasian Psalter, representing what is generally held to be pure
+Mercian. Towards the close of the Old English period we find
+some portions of a gloss to the Rushworth Gospels, namely
+St Matthew and a few verses of St John xviii., to be in Mercian.
+These glosses, with a few charters and one or two small fragments,
+represent a form of Anglian which in many respects stands
+midway between Northumbrian and Kentish, approaching the
+one or the other more nearly as we have to do with North
+Mercian or South Mercian. And soon after the Conquest we
+find an undoubted midland dialect in the transition stage from
+Old to Middle English, in the eastern part of ancient Mercia, in
+a district bounded on the south and south-east by the Saxon
+Middlesex and Essex, and on the east and north by the East
+Anglian Norfolk and Suffolk and the Danish settlements on the
+Trent and Humber. In this district, and in the monastery of
+Peterborough, one of the copies of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
+transcribed about 1120, was continued by two succeeding hands
+to the death of Stephen in 1154. The section from 1122 to 1131,
+probably written in the latter year, shows a notable confusion
+between Old English forms and those of a Middle English, impatient
+to rid itself of the inflectional trammels which were still,
+though in weakened forms, so faithfully retained south of the
+Thames. And in the concluding section, containing the annals
+from 1132 to 1154, and written somewhere about the latter
+year, we find Middle English fairly started on its career. A
+specimen of this new tongue will best show the change that had
+taken place:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1140 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>&mdash;<i>And</i><a name="fa14a" id="fa14a" href="#ft14a"><span class="sp">14</span></a> te eorl of Angæu wærd ded, and his sune Henri
+toc to þe rice. And te cuen of France to-dælde fra þe king, and scæ
+co<i>m</i> to þe iunge eorl Henri. <i>and</i> he toc hire to wiue, <i>and</i> al Peitou
+mid hire. þa ferde he mid micel færd into Engleland <i>and</i> wan castles&mdash;<i>and</i>
+te king ferde agenes hi<i>m</i> mid micel mare ferd. þoþwæthere
+fuhtten hi noht. oc ferden þe ærceb<i>iscop</i> <i>and</i> te wise men betwux
+heo<i>m</i>, and makede <i>that</i> sahte <i>that</i> te king sculde ben lauerd <i>and</i> king
+wile he liuede. <i>and</i> æft<i>er</i> his dæi ware Henri king. <i>and</i> he helde hi<i>m</i>
+for fader, <i>and</i> he hi<i>m</i> for sune, <i>and</i> sib <i>and</i> sæhte sculde ben betwyx
+heo<i>m</i>, and on al Engleland.<a name="fa15a" id="fa15a" href="#ft15a"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With this may be contrasted a specimen of southern English,
+from 10 to 20 years later (Hatton Gospels, Luke i. 46<a name="fa16a" id="fa16a" href="#ft16a"><span class="sp">16</span></a>):</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Da cwæð Maria: Min saule mersed drihten, and min gast geblissode
+on gode minen hælende. For þam þe he geseah his þinene
+eadmodnysse. Soðlice henen-forð me eadige seggeð alle cneornesse;
+for þam þe me mychele þing dyde se þe mihtyg ys; <i>and</i> his name is
+halig. <i>And</i> his mildheortnysse of cneornisse on cneornesse hine ondraedende.
+He worhte maegne on hys earme; he to-daelde þa
+ofermode, on moda heora heortan. He warp þa rice of setlle, and
+þa eadmode he up-an-hof. Hyngriende he mid gode ge-felde, <i>and</i>
+þa ofermode ydele for-let. He afeng israel his cniht, and gemynde
+his mildheortnysse; Swa he spræc to ure fæderen, Abrahame <i>and</i>
+his sæde on a weorlde.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To a still later date, apparently close upon 1200, belongs the
+versified chronicle of Layamon or Laweman, a priest of Ernely
+on the Severn, who, using as his basis the French <i>Brut</i> of Wace,
+expanded it by additions from other sources to more than twice
+the extent: his work of 32,250 lines is a mine of illustration for
+the language of his time and locality. The latter was intermediate
+between midland and southern, and the language, though forty
+years later than the specimen from the Chronicle, is much more
+archaic in structure, and can scarcely be considered even as
+Early Middle English. The following is a specimen (lines
+9064-9079):</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On Kinbelines daeie ... þe king wes inne Bruttene, com a
+þissen middel aerde ... anes maidenes sune, iboren wes in Beþleem ... of
+bezste alre burden. He is ihaten Jesu Crist ... þurh
+þene halie gost, alre worulde wunne ... walden englenne; faeder
+he is on heuenen ... froure moncunnes; sune he is on eorðen ... of
+sele þon maeidene, &amp; þene halie gost ... haldeð mid him
+seoluen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Middle English</span> was pre-eminently the <i>Dialectal</i> period
+of the language. It was not till after the middle of the 14th
+century that English obtained official recognition. For three
+centuries, therefore, there was no standard form of speech which
+claimed any pre-eminence over the others. The writers of each
+district wrote in the dialect <span class="correction" title="amended from familar">familiar</span> to them; and between
+extreme forms the difference was so great as to amount to
+unintelligibility; works written for southern Englishmen had to
+be translated for the benefit of the men of the north:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;In sotherin Inglis was it drawin,</p>
+<p class="i05">And turnid ic haue it till ur awin</p>
+<p class="i05">Langage of þe northin lede</p>
+<p class="i05">That can na nothir Inglis rede.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="i10"><i>Cursor Mundi</i>, 20,064.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Three main dialects were distinguished by contemporary
+writers, as in the often-quoted passage from Trevisa&rsquo;s translation
+of Higden&rsquo;s <i>Polychronicon</i> completed in 1387:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Also Englysche men ... hadde fram þe bygynnynge þre maner
+speche, Souþeron, Norþeron <i>and</i> Myddel speche (in þe myddel of
+þe lond) as hy come of þre maner people of Germania.... Also
+of þe forseyde Saxon tonge, þat ys deled a þre, <i>and</i> ys abyde scarslyche
+wiþ feaw uplondysche men <i>and</i> ys gret wondur, for men of
+þe est wiþ men of þe west, as hyt were under þe same part of heyvene,
+acordeþ more in sounynge of sþeche þan men of þe norþ wiþ men of
+þe souþ; þerfore hyt ys þat Mercii, þat buþ men of myddel Engelond,
+as hyt were parteners of þe endes, undurstondeþ betre þe syde
+longages Norþeron and Souþeron, þan Norþern <i>and</i> Souþern undurstondeþ
+oyþer oþer.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The modern study of these Middle English dialects, initiated by
+the elder Richard Garnett, scientifically pursued by Dr Richard
+Morris, and elaborated by many later scholars, both English and
+German, has shown that they were readily distinguished by the
+conjugation of the present tense of the verb, which in typical
+specimens was as follows:&mdash;-</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2"><i>Southern.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ich singe.</td> <td class="tcl">We singeþ.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Þou singest.</td> <td class="tcl">&#540;e singeþ.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">He singeþ.</td> <td class="tcl">Hy singeþ.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2"><i>Midland.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ich, I, singe.</td> <td class="tcl">We singen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Þou singest.</td> <td class="tcl">&#540;e singen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">He singeþ.</td> <td class="tcl">Hy, thei, singen.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2"><i>Northern.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ic. I, sing(e) (I þat singes).</td> <td class="tcl">We sing(e). We þat synges.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Þu singes.</td> <td class="tcl">&#540;e sing(e), &#540;e foules synges.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">He singes.</td> <td class="tcl">Thay sing(e). Men synges.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Of these the southern is simply the old West-Saxon, with the
+vowels levelled to <i>e</i>. The northern second person in <i>-es</i> preserves
+an older form than the southern and West-Saxon <i>-est</i>; but the
+<i>-es</i> of the third person and plural is derived from an older <i>-eth</i>, the
+change of <i>-th</i> into <i>-s</i> being found in progress in the Durham
+glosses of the 10th century. In the plural, when accompanied by
+the pronoun subject, the verb had already dropped the inflections
+entirely as in Modern English. The origin of the <i>-en</i> plural in the
+midland dialect, unknown to Old English, is probably an instance
+of <i>form-levelling</i>, the inflection of the present indicative being
+assimilated to that of the past, and the present and past subjunctive,
+in all of which <i>-en</i> was the plural termination. In the
+declension of nouns, adjectives and pronouns, the northern
+dialect had attained before the end of the 13th century to the
+simplicity of Modern English, while the southern dialect still
+retained a large number of inflections, and the midland a considerable
+number. The dialects differed also in phonology, for while
+the northern generally retained the hard or guttural values of
+<i>k</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>sc</i>, these were in the two other dialects palatalized before
+front vowels into <i>ch</i>, <i>j</i> and <i>sh</i>. <i>Kirk</i>, <i>chirche</i> or <i>church</i>, <i>bryg</i>,
+<i>bridge</i>; <i>scryke</i>, <i>shriek</i>, are examples. Old English <i>hw</i> was written
+in the north <i>qu</i>(h), but elsewhere <i>wh</i>, often sinking into <i>w</i>.
+The original long <i>á</i> in <i>stán</i>, <i>már</i>, preserved in the northern <i>stane</i>,
+<i>mare</i>, became <i>&#333;</i> elsewhere, as in <i>stone</i>, <i>more</i>. So that the north
+presented a general aspect of conservation of old sounds with the
+most thorough-going dissolution of old inflections; the south, a
+tenacious retention of the inflections, with an extensive evolution
+in the sounds. In one important respect, however, phonetic decay
+was far ahead in the north: the final e to which all the old vowels
+had been levelled during the transition stage, and which is a distinguishing
+feature of Middle English in the midland and southern
+dialects, became mute, <i>i.e.</i>, disappeared, in the northern dialect
+before that dialect emerged from its three centuries of obscuration,
+shortly before 1300. So thoroughly modern had its form consequently
+become that we might almost call it Modern English, and
+say that the Middle English stage of the northern dialect is lost.
+For comparison with the other dialects, however, the same
+nomenclature may be used, and we may class as Middle English
+the extensive literature which northern England produced
+during the 14th century. The earliest specimen is probably the
+Metrical Psalter in the Cotton Library,<a name="fa17a" id="fa17a" href="#ft17a"><span class="sp">17</span></a> copied during the reign of
+Edward II. from an original of the previous century. The
+gigantic versified paraphrase of Scripture history called the
+<i>Cursor Mundi</i>,<a name="fa18a" id="fa18a" href="#ft18a"><span class="sp">18</span></a> is held also to have been composed before 1300.
+The dates of the numerous alliterative romances in this dialect
+have not been determined with exactness, as all survive in later
+copies, but it is probable that some of them were written before
+1300. In the 14th century appeared the theological and
+devotional works of Richard Rolle the anchorite of Hampole, Dan
+Jon Gaytrigg, William of Nassington, and other writers whose
+names are unknown; and towards the close of the century,
+specimens of the language also appear from Scotland both in
+official documents and in the poetical works of John Barbour,
+whose language, barring minute points of orthography, is
+identical with that of the contemporary northern English
+writers. From 1400 onward, the distinction between northern
+English and Lowland Scottish becomes clearly marked.</p>
+
+<p>In the southern dialect one version of the work called the
+<i>Ancren Riwle</i> or &ldquo;Rule of Nuns,&rdquo; adapted about 1225 for a small
+sisterhood at Tarrant-Kaines, in Dorsetshire, exhibits a dialectal
+characteristic which had probably long prevailed in the south,
+though concealed by the spelling, in the use of <i>v</i> for <i>f</i>, as <i>valle</i>
+fall, <i>vordonne</i> fordo, <i>vorto</i> for to, <i>veder</i> father, <i>vrom</i> from. Not
+till later do we find a recognition of the parallel use of <i>z</i> for <i>s</i>.
+Among the writings which succeed, <i>The Owl and the Nightingale</i> of
+Nicholas de Guildford, of Portesham in Dorsetshire, before 1250,
+the <i>Chronicle</i> of Robert of Gloucester, 1298, and Trevisa&rsquo;s
+translation of Higden, 1387, are of special importance in illustrating
+the history of southern English. The earliest form of
+Langland&rsquo;s <i>Piers Ploughman</i>, 1362, as preserved in the Vernon
+MS., appears to be in an intermediate dialect between southern
+and midland.<a name="fa19a" id="fa19a" href="#ft19a"><span class="sp">19</span></a> The Kentish form of southern English seems to
+have retained specially archaic features; five short sermons in
+it of the middle of the 13th century were edited by Dr Morris
+(1866); but the great work illustrating it is the <i>Ayenbite of Inwyt</i>
+(Remorse of Conscience), 1340,<a name="fa20a" id="fa20a" href="#ft20a"><span class="sp">20</span></a> a translation from the French
+by Dan Michel of Northgate, Kent, who tells us&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Þet þis boc is y-write mid engliss of Kent;</p>
+<p class="i05">Þis boc is y-mad uor lewede men,</p>
+<p class="i05">Vor uader, and uor moder, and uor oþer ken,</p>
+<p class="i05">Ham uor to ber&#541;e uram alle manyere zen,</p>
+<p class="i05">Þet ine hare inwytte ne bleue no uoul wen.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In its use of <i>v</i> (<i>u</i>) and <i>z</i> for &fnof; and <i>s</i>, and its grammatical inflections,
+it presents an extreme type of southern speech, with
+peculiarities specially Kentish; and in comparison with contemporary
+Midland English works, it looks like a fossil of two
+centuries earlier.</p>
+
+<p>Turning from the dialectal extremes of the Middle English to
+the midland speech, which we left at the closing leaves of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span>
+Peterborough <i>Chronicle</i> of 1154, we find a rapid development of
+this dialect, which was before long to become the national
+literary language. In this, the first great work is the <i>Ormulum</i>,
+or metrical Scripture paraphrase of Orm or Ormin, written about
+1200, somewhere near the northern frontier of the midland area.
+The dialect has a decided smack of the north, and shows for the
+first time in English literature a large percentage of Scandinavian
+words, derived from the Danish settlers, who, in adopting
+English, had preserved a vast number of their ancestral forms of
+speech, which were in time to pass into the common language, of
+which they now constitute some of the most familiar words.
+<i>Blunt</i>, <i>bull</i>, <i>die</i>, <i>dwell</i>, <i>ill</i>, <i>kid</i>, <i>raise</i>, <i>same</i>, <i>thrive</i>, <i>wand</i>, <i>wing</i>,
+are words from this source, which appear first in the work of
+Orm, of which the following lines may be quoted:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Þe Judewisshe folkess boc</p>
+<p class="i1">hemm se&#541;&#541;de, þatt hemm birrde</p>
+<p class="i05">Twa bukkes samenn to þe preost</p>
+<p class="i1">att kirrke-dure brinngenn;</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And</i> te&#541;&#541; þa didenn bliþeli&#541;,</p>
+<p class="i1">swa summ þe boc hemm tahhte,</p>
+<p class="i05">And brohhtenn twe&#541;&#541;enn bukkess þær</p>
+<p class="i1">Drihhtin þærwiþþ to lakenn.</p>
+<p class="i05">And att<a name="fa21a" id="fa21a" href="#ft21a"><span class="sp">21</span></a> te kirrke-dure toc</p>
+<p class="i1">þe preost ta twe&#541;&#541;enn bukkess,</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And</i> o þatt an he le&#541;&#541;de þær</p>
+<p class="i1">all þe&#541;&#541;re sake <i>and</i> sinne,</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And</i> lét itt eornenn for þwiþþ all</p>
+<p class="i1">út inntill wilde wesste;</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And</i> toc <i>and</i> snaþ þatt oþerr bucc</p>
+<p class="i1">Drihhtin þaerwiþþ to lakenn.</p>
+<p class="i05">All þiss wass don forr here ned,</p>
+<p class="i1"><i>and</i> ec forr ure nede;</p>
+<p class="i05">For hemm itt hallp biforenn Godd</p>
+<p class="i1">to clennssenn hemm of sinne;</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And</i> all swa ma&#541;&#541; itt hellpenn þe</p>
+<p class="i1">&#541;iff þatt tu willt [itt] foll&#541;henn.</p>
+<p class="i05">&#540;iff þatt tu willt full innwarrdli&#541;</p>
+<p class="i1">wiþþ fulle trowwþe lefenn</p>
+<p class="i05">All þatt tatt wass bitacnedd tær,</p>
+<p class="i1">to lefenn <i>and</i> to trowwenn.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="i10"><i>Ormulum</i>, ed. White, l. 1324.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The author of the <i>Ormulum</i> was a phonetist, and employed a
+special spelling of his own to represent not only the quality but
+the <i>quantities</i> of vowels and consonants&mdash;a circumstance which
+gives his work a peculiar value to the investigator. He is
+generally assumed to have been a native of Lincolnshire or Notts,
+but the point is a disputed one, and there is somewhat to be said
+for the neighbourhood of Ormskirk in Lancashire.</p>
+
+<p>It is customary to differentiate between east and west midland,
+and to subdivide these again into north and south. As was
+natural in a tract of country which stretched from Lancaster to
+Essex, a very considerable variety is found in the documents
+which agree in presenting the leading midland features, those of
+Lancashire and Lincolnshire approaching the northern dialect
+both in vocabulary, phonetic character and greater neglect of
+inflections. But this diversity diminishes as we advance.</p>
+
+<p>Thirty years after the <i>Ormulum</i>, the east midland rhymed
+<i>Story of Genesis and Exodus</i><a name="fa22a" id="fa22a" href="#ft22a"><span class="sp">22</span></a> shows us the dialect in a more
+southern form, with the vowels of modern English, and from
+about the same date, with rather more northern characteristics,
+we have an east midland <i>Bestiary</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Different tests and different dates have been proposed for
+subdividing the Middle English period, but the most important
+is that of Henry Nicol, based on the observation that in the
+early 13th century, as in Ormin, the Old English short vowels
+in an open syllable still retained their short quantity, as <i>n&#259;ma</i>,
+<i>&#335;ver</i>, <i>m&#277;te</i>; but by 1250 or 1260 they had been lengthened to
+<i>n&#257;-me</i>, <i>&#333;-ver</i>, <i>m&#275;-te</i>, a change which has also taken place at a
+particular period in all the Germanic, and even the Romanic
+languages, as in <i>bu&#333;-no</i> for <i>b&#335;-num</i>, <i>p&#257;-dre</i> for <i>p&#259;-trem</i>, &amp;c. The
+lengthening of the penult left the final syllable by contrast
+shortened or weakened, and paved the way for the disappearance
+of final <i>e</i> in the century following, through the stages <i>n&#259;-me</i>,
+<i>n&#257;-m&#277;</i>, <i>n&#257;-m&rsquo;</i>, <i>n&#257;m</i>, the one long syllable in <i>n&#257;m</i>(<i>e</i>) being the
+quantitative equivalent of the two short syllables in <i>n&#259;-m&#277;</i>;
+hence the notion that mute <i>e</i> makes a preceding vowel long,
+the truth being that the lengthening of the vowel led to the e
+becoming mute.</p>
+
+<p>After 1250 we have the <i>Lay of Havelok</i>, and about 1300 the
+writings of Robert of Brunne in South Lincolnshire. In the
+14th century we find a number of texts belonging to the western
+part of the district. South-west midland is hardly to be distinguished
+from southern in its south-western form, and hence texts
+like <i>Piers Plowman</i> elude any satisfactory classification, but
+several metrical romances exhibit what are generally considered
+to be west midland characteristics, and a little group of poems,
+<i>Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knighte</i>, the <i>Pearl</i>, <i>Cleanness</i> and
+<i>Patience</i>, thought to be the work of a north-west midland writer
+of the 14th century, bear a striking resemblance to the modern
+Lancashire dialect. The end of the century witnessed the prose
+of Wycliff and Mandeville, and the poetry of Chaucer, with
+whom Middle English may be said to have culminated, and in
+whose writings its main characteristics as distinct from Old and
+Modern English may be studied. Thus, we find final e in full
+use representing numerous original vowels and terminations as</p>
+
+<p class="f90" style="margin-left: 5em">Him thoughtè that his hertè woldè brekè,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">in Old English&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="f90" style="margin-left: 5em">Him þuhte þæt his heorte wolde brecan,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">which may be compared with the modern German&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="f90" style="margin-left: 5em">Ihm däuchte dass sein Herze wollte brechen.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">In nouns the -<i>es</i> of the plural and genitive case is still syllabic&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="f90" style="margin-left: 5em">Reede as the berstl-es of a sow-es eer-es.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Several old genitives and plural forms continued to exist,
+and the dative or prepositional case has usually a final <i>e</i>.
+Adjectives retain so much of the old declension as to have -<i>e</i>
+in the definite form and in the plural&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>The tend-re cropp-es and the yong-e sonne.</p>
+<p>And smal-e fowl-es maken melodie.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Numerous old forms of comparison were in use, which have
+not come down to Modern English, as <i>herre</i>, <i>ferre</i>, <i>lenger</i>, <i>hext</i> = higher,
+farther, longer, highest. In the pronouns, <i>ich</i> lingered
+alongside of <i>I</i>; <i>ye</i> was only nominative, and <i>you</i> objective;
+the northern <i>thei</i> had dispossessed the southern <i>hy</i>, but <i>her</i> and
+<i>hem</i> (the modern &rsquo;<i>em</i>) stood their ground against <i>their</i> and <i>them</i>.
+The verb is <i>I lov-e</i>, <i>thou lov-est</i>, <i>he lov-eth</i>; but, in the plural,
+<i>lov-en</i> is interchanged with <i>lov-e</i>, as rhyme or euphony requires.
+So in the plural of the past <i>we love-den</i> or <i>love-de</i>. The infinitive
+also ends in <i>en</i>, often <i>e</i>, always syllabic. The present participle,
+in Old English -<i>ende</i>, passing through -<i>inde</i>, has been confounded
+with the verbal noun in -<i>ynge</i>, -<i>yng</i>, as in Modern English. The
+past participle largely retains the prefix <i>y</i>- or <i>i</i>-, representing
+the Old English <i>ge</i>-, as in <i>i-ronne</i>, <i>y-don</i>, Old English <i>zerunnen</i>,
+<i>zedón</i>, run, done. Many old verb forms still continued in
+existence. The adoption of French words, not only those of
+Norman introduction, but those subsequently introduced under
+the Angevin kings, to supply obsolete and obsolescent English
+ones, which had kept pace with the growth of literature since
+the beginning of the Middle English period, had now reached
+its climax; later times added many more, but they also dropped
+some that were in regular use with Chaucer and his contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>Chaucer&rsquo;s great contemporary, William Langland, in his
+<i>Vision of William concerning Piers the Ploughman</i>, and his
+imitator the author of <i>Pierce the Ploughman&rsquo;s Crede</i> (about 1400)
+used the Old English alliterative versification for the last time
+in the south. Rhyme had made its appearance in the language
+shortly after the Conquest&mdash;if not already known before; and
+in the south and midlands it became decidedly more popular
+than alliteration; the latter retained its hold much longer in the
+north, where it was written even after 1500: many of the
+northern romances are either simply alliterative, or have both
+alliteration and rhyme. To these characteristics of northern
+and southern verse respectively Chaucer alludes in the prologue
+of the &ldquo;Persone,&rdquo; who, when called upon for his tale said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span></p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;But trusteth wel; I am a sotherne man,</p>
+<p class="i05">I cannot geste <i>rom</i>, <i>ram</i>, <i>ruf</i>, by my letter.</p>
+<p class="i05">And, God wote, rime hold I but litel better:</p>
+<p class="i05">And therefore, if you list, I wol not glose,</p>
+<p class="i05">I wol you tell a litel tale in prose.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The changes from Old to Middle English may be summed up
+thus: Loss of a large part of the native vocabulary, and
+adoption of French words to fill their place; not infrequent
+adoption of French words as synonyms of existing native ones;
+modernization of the English words preserved, by vowel change
+in a definite direction from back to front, and from open to
+close, <i>&#257;,</i> becoming <i>&#333;,</i>, original <i>&#275;</i>, <i>&#333;</i> tending to <i>ee</i>, <i>oo</i>, monophthongization
+of the old diphthongs <i>eo</i>, <i>ea</i>, and development of new
+diphthongs in connexion with <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, and <i>w</i>; adoption of French
+orthographic symbols, <i>e.g.</i> <i>ou</i> for <i>&#363;,</i>, <i>qu</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>ch</i>, and gradual loss
+of the symbols &#596;, þ, ð, Þ; obscuration of vowels after the accent,
+and especially of final <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i> to <i>&#277;</i>; consequent confusion and loss
+of old inflections, and their replacement by prepositions, auxiliary
+verbs and rules of position; abandonment of alliteration for
+rhyme; and great development of dialects, in consequence of
+there being no standard or recognized type of English.</p>
+
+<p>But the recognition came at length. Already in 1258 was
+issued the celebrated English proclamation of Henry III., or
+rather of Simon de Montfort in his name, which, as the only
+public recognition of the native tongue between William the
+Conqueror and Edward III., has sometimes been spoken of as
+the first specimen of English. It runs:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Henr<i>i</i> þur&#541; godes fultume king on Engleneloande Lhoauerd
+on Yrloand<i>e</i>. Duk on Norm<i>andie</i> on Aquitaine and eorl on Aniow.
+Send igretinge to alle hise holde ilærde and ileawede on Huntendoneschir<i>e</i>.
+þæt witen &#541;e wel alle þæt <i>we</i> willen and vnne<i>n</i> þæt þæt vre
+rædesmen alle oþer þe moare dæl of heom þæt beoþ ichosen þur&#541; us
+and þur&#541; þæt loandes folk on vre kuneriche. habbeþ idon and schullen
+don in þe worþnesse of gode and on vre treowþe. for þe freme of þe
+loande. þur&#541; þe besi&#541;te of þan to-foren-iseide redesmen. beo stedefæst
+and ilestinde in alle þinge a buten ænde. And we hoaten alle vre
+treowe in þe treowþe þæt heo vs o&#541;en. þæt heo stedefæstliche healden
+and swerien to healden and to werien þo isetnesses þæt ben imakede
+and beon to makien þur&#541; þan to-foren iseide rædesmen. oþer þur&#541;
+þe moare dæl of heom alswo alse hit is biforen iseid. And þæt æhc
+oþer helpe þæt for to done bi þan ilche oþe a&#541;enes alle men. Ri&#541;t
+for to done and to foangen. And noan ne nime of loande ne of e&#541;te.
+wherþur&#541; þis besi&#541;te mu&#541;e beon ilet oþer iwersed on onie wise.&rsquo; And
+&#541;if oni oþer onie cumen her on&#541;enes; we willen and hoaten þæt alle
+vre treowe heom healden deadliche ifoan. And for þæt we willen
+þæt þis beo stedefæst and lestinde; we senden &#541;ew þis writ open
+iseined wiþ vre seel. to halden amanges &#541;ew ine hord. Witnesse vs
+seluen æt Lunden<i>e</i>. þane E&#541;tetenþe day. on þe Monþe of Octobr<i>e</i> In
+þe Two-and-fowerti&#541;þe &#541;eare of vre cruninge. And þis wes idon
+ætforen vre isworene redesmen....</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;And al on þo ilche worden is isend in to æurihce oþre shcire ouer
+al þære kuneriche on Engleneloande. and ek in tel Irelonde.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dialect of this document is more southern than anything
+else, with a slight midland admixture. It is much more archaic
+inflectionally than the <i>Genesis and Exodus</i> or <i>Ormulum</i>; but it
+closely resembles the old Kentish sermons and <i>Proverbs of
+Alfred</i> in the southern dialect of 1250. It represents no doubt
+the London speech of the day. London being in a Saxon county,
+and contiguous to Kent and Surrey, had certainly at first a
+southern dialect; but its position as the capital, as well as its
+proximity to the midland district, made its dialect more and
+more midland. Contemporary London documents show that
+Chaucer&rsquo;s language, which is distinctly more southern than
+standard English eventually became, is behind the London
+dialect of the day in this respect, and is at once more archaic
+and consequently more southern.</p>
+
+<p>During the next hundred years English gained ground steadily,
+and by the reign of Edward III. French was so little known in
+England, even in the families of the great, that about 1350
+&ldquo;John Cornwal, a maystere of gramere, chaungede þe lore
+(= teaching) in gramere scole <i>and</i> construccion of [<i>i.e.</i> <i>from</i>]
+Freynsch into Englysch&rdquo;;<a name="fa23a" id="fa23a" href="#ft23a"><span class="sp">23</span></a> and in 1362-1363 English by
+statute took the place of French in the pleadings in courts of
+law. Every reason conspired that this &ldquo;English&rdquo; should be
+the midland dialect. It was the intermediate dialect, intelligible,
+as Trevisa has told us, to both extremes, even when these failed
+to be intelligible to each other; in its south-eastern form, it was
+the language of London, where the supreme law courts were,
+the centre of political and commercial life; it was the language
+in which the Wycliffite versions had given the Holy Scriptures
+to the people; the language in which Chaucer had raised English
+poetry to a height of excellence admired and imitated by contemporaries
+and followers. And accordingly after the end of
+the 14th century, all Englishmen who thought they had anything
+to say to their countrymen generally said it in the midland
+speech. Trevisa&rsquo;s own work was almost the last literary effort
+of the southern dialect; henceforth it was but a rustic patois,
+which the dramatist might use to give local colouring to his
+creations, as Shakespeare uses it to complete Edgar&rsquo;s peasant
+disguise in <i>Lear</i>, or which 19th century research might disinter
+to illustrate obscure chapters in the history of language. And
+though the northern English proved a little more stubborn, it
+disappeared also from literature in England; but in Scotland,
+which had now become politically and socially estranged from
+England, it continued its course as the national language of the
+country, attaining in the 15th and 16th centuries a distinct
+development and high literary culture, for the details of which
+readers are referred to the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scottish Language</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The 15th century of English history, with its bloody French
+war abroad and Wars of the Roses at home, was a barren period
+in literature, and a transition one in language, witnessing the
+decay and disappearance of the final <i>e</i>, and most of the syllabic
+inflections of Middle English. Already by 1420, in Chaucer&rsquo;s
+disciple Hoccleve, final <i>e</i> was quite uncertain; in Lydgate it
+was practically gone. In 1450 the writings of Pecock against
+the Wycliffites show the verbal inflections in <i>-en</i> in a state of
+obsolescence; he has still the southern pronouns <i>her</i> and <i>hem</i>
+for the northern <i>their</i>, <i>them</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;And here-a&#541;ens holi scripture wole þat men schulden lacke þe
+coueryng which wommen schulden haue, &amp; thei schulden so lacke bi
+þat þe heeris of her heedis schulden be schorne, &amp; schulde not growe
+in lengþe doun as wommanys heer schulde growe....</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Also here-wiþal into þe open si&#541;t of ymagis in open chirchis,
+alle peple, men &amp; wommen &amp; children mowe come whanne euere þei
+wolen in ech tyme of þe day, but so mowe þei not come in-to þe vce of
+bokis to be delyuered to hem neiþer to be red bifore hem; &amp; þerfore,
+as for to soone &amp; ofte come into remembraunce of a long mater bi
+ech oon persoon, and also as forto make þat þe mo persoones come
+into remembraunce of a mater, ymagis &amp; picturis serven in a
+specialer maner þan bokis doon, þou&#541; in an oþer maner ful substanciali
+bokis seruen better into remembrauncing of þo same
+materis þan ymagis &amp; picturis doon; &amp; þerfore, þou&#541; writing is
+seruen weel into remembrauncing upon þe bifore seid þingis, &#541;it
+not at þe ful: Forwhi þe bokis han not þe avail of remembrauncing
+now seid whiche ymagis han.&rdquo;<a name="fa24a" id="fa24a" href="#ft24a"><span class="sp">24</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The change of the language during the second period of
+Transition, as well as the extent of dialectal differences, is
+quaintly expressed a generation later by Caxton, who in the
+prologue to one of the last of his works, his translation of Virgil&rsquo;s
+<i>Eneydos</i> (1490), speaks of the difficulty he had in pleasing all
+readers:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;I doubted that it sholde not please some gentylmen, whiche late
+blamed me, sayeng, y<span class="sp">t</span> in my translacyons I had ouer curyous termes,
+whiche coud not be vnderstande of comyn peple, and desired me to
+vse olde and homely termes in my translacyons. And fayn wolde I
+satysfy euery man; and so to doo, toke an olde boke and redde
+therein; and certaynly the englysshe was so rude and brood that I
+coude not wele vnderstande it. And also my lorde abbot of Westmynster
+ded do shewe to me late certayn euydences wryton in olde
+englysshe for to reduce it in to our englysshe now vsid. And certaynly
+it was wreton in suche wyse that it was more lyke to dutche
+than englysshe; I coude not reduce ne brynge it to be vnderstonden.
+And certaynly, our langage now vsed varyeth ferre from that whiche
+was vsed and spoken whan I was borne. For we englysshemen ben
+borne vnder the domynacyon of the mone, whiche is neuer stedfaste,
+but euer wauerynge, wexynge one season, and waneth and dycreaseth
+another season. And that comyn englysshe that is spoken in one
+shyre varyeth from a nother. In so much that in my days happened
+that certayn marchauntes were in a ship<i>e</i> in tamyse, for to haue
+sayled ouer the sea into zelande, and for lacke of wynde thei taryed
+atte forlond, and wente to lande for to refreshe them. And one of
+theym named sheffelde, a mercer, cam in to an hows and axed for
+mete, and specyally he axyd after eggys, And the goode wyf answerde,
+that she coude speke no frenshe. And the marchaunt was angry,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span>
+for he also coulde speke no frenshe, but wolde haue hadde egges;
+and she vnderstode hym not. And thenne at laste a nother sayd
+that he wolde haue eyren; then the good wyf sayd that she vnderstod
+hym wel. Loo! what sholde a man in thyse dayes now wryte,
+egges or eyren? certaynly, it is harde to playse euery man, by
+cause of dyuersite &amp; chaunge of langage. For in these dayes, euery
+man that is in ony reputacyon in his countre wyll vtter his comynycacyon
+and maters in suche maners &amp; termes that fewe men shall
+vnderstonde theym. And som honest and grete clerkes haue ben
+wyth me, and desired me to wryte the moste curyous termes that I
+coude fynde. And thus bytwene playn, rude and curyous, I stande
+abasshed; but in my Iudgemente, the comyn termes that be dayli
+vsed ben lyghter to be vnderstonde than the olde and auncyent
+englysshe.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the productions of Caxton&rsquo;s press we see the passage from
+Middle to Early Modern English completed. The earlier of
+these have still an occasional verbal plural in <i>-n</i>, especially in
+the word <i>they ben</i>; the southern <i>her</i> and <i>hem</i> of Middle English
+vary with the northern and Modern English <i>their</i>, <i>them</i>. In the
+late works, the older forms have been practically ousted, and
+the year 1485, which witnessed the establishment of the Tudor
+dynasty, may be conveniently put as that which closed the
+Middle English transition, and introduced Modern English.
+Both in the completion of this result, and in its comparative
+permanence, the printing press had an important share. By its
+exclusive patronage of the midland speech, it raised it still
+higher above the sister dialects, and secured its abiding victory.
+As books were multiplied and found their way into every corner
+of the land, and the art of reading became a more common
+acquirement, the man of Northumberland or of Somersetshire
+had forced upon his attention the book-English in which alone
+these were printed. This became in turn the model for his own
+writings, and by-and-by, if he made any pretensions to education,
+of his own speech. The written <i>form</i> of the language also tended
+to uniformity. In previous periods the scribe made his own
+spelling with a primary aim at expressing his own speech, according
+to the particular values attached by himself or his contemporaries
+to the letters and combinations of the alphabet,
+though liable to disturbance in the most common words and
+combinations by his ocular recollections of the spelling of others.
+But after the introduction of printing, this ocular recognition
+of words became ever more and more an aim; the book addressed
+the mind directly through the eye, instead of circuitously
+through eye and ear; and thus there was a continuous tendency
+for written words and parts of words to be reduced to a single
+form, and that the most usual, or through some accident the best
+known, but not necessarily that which would have been chosen
+had the <i>ear</i> been called in as umpire. Modern English spelling,
+with its rigid uniformity as to individual results and whimsical
+caprice as to principles, is the creation of the printing-office, the
+victory which, after a century and a half of struggle, mechanical
+convenience won over natural habits. Besides eventually
+creating a uniformity in writing, the introduction of printing
+made or at least ratified some important changes. The British
+and Old English form of the Roman alphabet has already been
+referred to. This at the Norman Conquest was superseded by
+an alphabet with the French forms and values of the letters.
+Thus <i>k</i> took the place of the older <i>c</i> before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i>; <i>qu</i> replaced
+<i>cw</i>; the Norman <i>w</i> took the place of the <i>wén</i> (Þ), &amp;c.; and hence
+it has often been said that Middle English stands nearer to Old
+English in pronunciation, but to Modern English in spelling.
+But there were certain sounds in English for which Norman
+writing had no provision; and for these, in writing English, the
+native characters were retained. Thus the Old English g (<img style="width:13px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img590.jpg" alt="" />),
+beside the sound in <i>go</i>, had a guttural sound as in German ta<i>g</i>,
+Irish ma<i>gh</i>, and in certain positions a palatalized form of this
+approaching <i>y</i> as in <i>y</i>ou (if pronounced with aspiration <i>hy</i>ou or
+<i>gh</i>you). These sounds continued to be written with the native
+form of the letter as <i>bur</i>&#541;, &#541;<i>our</i>, while the French form was used
+for the sounds in <i>go</i>, <i>age</i>,&mdash;one original letter being thus represented
+by two. So for the sounds of <i>th</i>, especially the sound in
+<i>th</i>at, the Old English <i>thorn</i> (þ) continued to be used. But as
+these characters were not used for French and Latin, their use
+even in English became disturbed towards the 15th century,
+and when printing was introduced, the founts, cast for continental
+languages, had no characters for them, so that they were dropped
+entirely, being replaced, &#541; by <i>gh</i>, <i>yh</i>, <i>y</i>, and <i>þ</i> by <i>th</i>. This was a
+real loss to the English alphabet. In the north it is curious that
+the printers tried to express the <i>forms</i> rather than the powers of
+these letters, and consequently  &#541; was represented by <i>z</i>, the black
+letter form of which was confounded with it, while the þ was
+expressed by <i>y</i>, which its MS. form had come to approach or in
+some cases simulate. So in early Scotch books we find <i>zellow</i>, <i>ze</i>,
+<i>yat</i>, <i>yem</i> = <i>yellow</i>, <i>ye</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>them</i>; and in Modern Scottish, such
+names as <i>Menzies</i>, <i>Dalziel</i>, <i>Cockenzie</i>, and the word <i>gaberlunzie</i>,
+in which the <i>z</i> stands for <i>y</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Modern English</span> thus dates from Caxton. The language had
+at length reached the all but flectionless state which it now
+presents. A single older verbal form, the southern <i>-eth</i> of the
+third person singular, continued to be the literary prose form
+throughout the 16th century, but the northern form in <i>-s</i> was
+intermixed with it in poetry (where it saved a syllable), and
+must ere long, as we see from Shakespeare, have taken its place
+in familiar speech. The fuller <i>an</i>, <i>none</i>, <i>mine</i>, <i>thine</i>, in the early
+part of the 16th century at least, were used in positions where
+their shortened forms <i>a</i>, <i>no</i>, <i>my</i>, <i>thy</i> are now found (<i>none other</i>,
+<i>mine own</i> = <i>no other</i>, <i>my own</i>). But with such minute exceptions,
+the accidence of the 16th century was the accidence of the 19th.
+While, however, the older inflections had disappeared, there
+was as yet no general agreement as to the mode of their replacement.
+Hence the 16th century shows a syntactic licence and
+freedom which distinguishes it strikingly from that of later times.
+The language seems to be in a plastic, unformed state, and its
+writers, as it were, experiment with it, bending it to constructions
+which now seem indefensible. Old distinctions of case and mood
+have disappeared from noun and verb, without custom having
+yet decided what prepositions or auxiliary verbs shall most
+fittingly convey their meaning. The laxity of word-order which
+was permitted in older states of the language by the <i>formal</i>
+expression of relations was often continued though the inflections
+which expressed the relations had disappeared. Partial analogy
+was followed in allowing forms to be identified in one case,
+because, in another, such identification was accidentally produced,
+as for instance the past participles of <i>write</i> and <i>take</i> were often
+made <i>wrote</i> and <i>took</i>, because the contracted participles of <i>bind</i>
+and <i>break</i> were <i>bound</i> and <i>broke</i>. Finally, because, in dropping
+inflections, the former distinctions even between parts of speech
+had disappeared, so that <i>iron</i>, <i>e.g.</i>, was at once noun, adjective
+and verb, <i>clean</i>, adjective, verb and adverb, it appeared as if
+any word whatever might be used in any grammatical relation,
+where it conveyed the idea of the speaker. Thus, as has been
+pointed out by Dr Abbott, &ldquo;you can <i>happy</i> your friend, <i>malice</i>
+or <i>foot</i> your enemy, or <i>fall</i> an axe on his neck. You can speak
+and act <i>easy</i>, <i>free</i>, <i>excellent</i>, you can talk of <i>fair</i> instead of beauty
+(fairness), and a <i>pale</i> instead of a <i>paleness</i>. A <i>he</i> is used for a
+man, and a lady is described by a gentleman as &lsquo;the fairest
+<i>she</i> he has yet beheld.&rsquo; An adverb can be used as a verb, as
+&rsquo;they <i>askance</i> their eyes&rsquo;; as a noun, &lsquo;the <i>backward</i> and abyss
+of time&rsquo;; or as an adjective, a &lsquo;<i>seldom</i> pleasure.&rsquo;&rdquo;<a name="fa25a" id="fa25a" href="#ft25a"><span class="sp">25</span></a> For, as he
+also says, &ldquo;clearness was preferred to grammatical correctness,
+and brevity both to correctness and clearness. Hence it was
+common to place words in the order in which they came uppermost
+in the mind without much regard to syntax, and the result
+was a forcible and perfectly unambiguous but ungrammatical
+sentence, such as</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>The prince that feeds great natures they will slay him.</p>
+<p class="i10"><i>Ben Jonson.</i></p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">or, as instances of brevity,</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Be guilty of my death since of my crime.</p>
+<p class="i10"><i>Shakespeare.</i></p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>It cost more to get than to lose in a day.</p>
+<p class="i10"><i>Ben Jonson.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>These characteristics, together with the presence of words
+now obsolete or archaic, and the use of existing words in senses
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span>
+different from our own, as general for specific, literal for metaphorical,
+and vice versa, which are so apparent to every reader
+of the 16th-century literature, make it useful to separate <i>Early
+Modern</i> or <i>Tudor</i> English from the subsequent and still existing
+stage, since the consensus of usage has declared in favour of individual
+senses and constructions which are alone admissible
+in ordinary language.</p>
+
+<p>The beginning of the Tudor period was contemporaneous
+with the Renaissance in art and literature, and the dawn of
+modern discoveries in geography and science. The revival of
+the study of the classical writers of Greece and Rome, and the
+translation of their works into the vernacular, led to the introduction
+of an immense number of new words derived from these
+languages, either to express new ideas and objects or to indicate
+new distinctions in or grouping of old ideas. Often also it seemed
+as if scholars were so pervaded with the form as well as the spirit
+of the old, that it came more natural to them to express themselves
+in words borrowed from the old than in their native
+tongue, and thus words of Latin origin were introduced even
+when English already possessed perfectly good equivalents. As
+has already been stated, the French words of Norman and
+Angevin introduction, being principally Latin words in an altered
+form, when used as English supplied models whereby other
+Latin words could be converted into English ones, and it is after
+these models that the Latin words introduced during and since
+the 16th century have been fashioned. There is nothing in the
+<i>form</i> of the words <i>procession</i> and <i>progression</i> to show that the
+one was used in England in the 11th, the other not till the 16th
+century. Moreover, as the formation of new words from Latin
+had gone on in French as well as in English since the Renaissance,
+we often cannot tell whether such words, <i>e.g.</i> as <i>persuade</i> and
+<i>persuasion</i>, were borrowed from their French equivalents or
+formed from Latin in England independently. With some
+words indeed it is impossible to say whether they were formed
+in England directly from Latin, borrowed from contemporary
+late French, or had been in England since the Norman period,
+even <i>photograph</i>, <i>geology</i> and <i>telephone</i> have the form that they
+would have had if they had been living words in the mouths of
+Greeks, Latins, French and English from the beginning, instead
+of formations of the 19th century.<a name="fa26a" id="fa26a" href="#ft26a"><span class="sp">26</span></a> While every writer was thus
+introducing new words according to his notion of their being
+needed, it naturally happened that a large number were not
+accepted by contemporaries or posterity; a long list might be
+formed of these mintages of the 16th and 17th centuries, which
+either never became current coin, or circulated only as it were
+for a moment. The revived study of Latin and Greek also led
+to modifications in the spelling of some words which had entered
+Middle English in the French form. So Middle English <i>doute</i>,
+<i>dette</i>, were changed to <i>doubt</i>, <i>debt</i>, to show a more immediate
+connexion with Latin <i>dubitum</i>, <i>debitum</i>; the actual derivation
+from the French being ignored. Similarly, words containing a
+Latin and French <i>t</i>, which might be traced back to an original
+Greek &theta;, were remodelled upon the Greek, <i>e.g.</i> <i>theme</i>, <i>throne</i>, for
+Middle English <i>teme</i>, <i>trone</i>, and, by false association with Greek,
+<i>anthem</i>, Old English <i>antefne</i>, Latin <i>antiphona</i>; <i>Anthony</i>, Latin
+<i>Antonius</i>; <i>Thames</i>, Latin <i>Tamesis</i>, apparently after <i>Thomas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The voyages of English navigators in the latter part of the
+16th century introduced a considerable number of Spanish
+words, and American words in Spanish forms, of which <i>negro</i>,
+<i>potato</i>, <i>tobacco</i>, <i>cargo</i>, <i>armadillo</i>, <i>alligator</i>, <i>galleon</i> may serve as
+examples.</p>
+
+<p>The date of 1611, which nearly coincides with the end of
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s literary work, and marks the appearance of the
+Authorized Version of the Bible (a compilation from the various
+16th-century versions), may be taken as marking the close of
+Tudor English. The language was thenceforth Modern in
+structure, style and expression, although the spelling did not
+settle down to present usage till about the revolution of 1688.
+The latter date also marks the disappearance from literature of
+a large number of words, chiefly of such as were derived from
+Latin during the 16th and 17th centuries. Of these nearly all
+that survived 1688 are still in use; but a long list might be made
+out of those that appear for the last time before that date. This
+sifting of the literary vocabulary and gradual fixing of the literary
+spelling, which went on between 1611, when the language became
+modern in structure, and 1689, when it became modern also in
+form, suggests for this period the name of Seventeenth-Century
+Transition. The distinctive features of Modern English have
+already been anticipated by way of contrast with preceding
+stages of the language. It is only necessary to refer to the fact
+that the vocabulary is now much more composite than at any
+previous period. The immense development of the physical
+sciences has called for a corresponding extension of terminology
+which has been supplied from Latin and especially Greek; and
+although these terms are in the first instance <i>technical</i>, yet, with
+the spread of education and general diffusion of the rudiments
+and appliances of science, the boundary line between <i>technical</i>
+and <i>general</i>, indefinite at the best, tends more and more to melt
+away&mdash;this in addition to the fact that words still technical
+become general in figurative or metonymic senses. <i>Ache</i>,
+<i>diamond</i>, <i>stomach</i>, <i>comet</i>, <i>organ</i>, <i>tone</i>, <i>ball</i>, <i>carte</i>, are none the
+less familiar because once technical words. Commercial, social,
+artistic or literary contact has also led to the adoption of
+numerous words from modern European languages, especially
+French, Italian, Portuguese, Dutch (these two at a less recent
+period): thus from French <i>soirée</i>, <i>séance</i>, <i>dépôt</i>, <i>débris</i>, <i>programme</i>,
+<i>prestige</i>; from Italian <i>bust</i>, <i>canto</i>, <i>folio</i>, <i>cartoon</i>, <i>concert</i>,
+<i>regatta</i>, <i>ruffian</i>; from Portuguese <i>caste</i>, <i>palaver</i>; from Dutch
+<i>yacht</i>, <i>skipper</i>, <i>schooner</i>, <i>sloop</i>. Commercial intercourse and
+colonization have extended far beyond Europe, and given us
+words more or fewer from Hindostani, Persian, Arabic, Turkish,
+Malay, Chinese, and from American, Australian, Polynesian and
+African languages.<a name="fa27a" id="fa27a" href="#ft27a"><span class="sp">27</span></a> More important even than these, perhaps,
+are the dialect words that from time to time obtain literary
+recognition, restoring to us obsolete Old English forms, and not
+seldom words of Celtic or Danish origin, which have been preserved
+in local dialects, and thus at length find their way into
+the standard language.</p>
+
+<p>As to the actual proportion of the various elements of the
+language, it is probable that original English words do not now
+form more than a fourth or perhaps a fifth of the total entries
+in a full English dictionary; and it may seem strange, therefore,
+that we still identify the language with that of the 9th century,
+and class it as a member of the <i>Low German</i> division. But this
+explains itself, when we consider that of the total words in a
+dictionary only a small portion are used by any one individual
+in speaking or even in writing; that this portion includes the
+great majority of the Anglo-Saxon words, and but a minority of
+the others. The latter are in fact almost all <i>names</i>&mdash;the vast
+majority names of <i>things</i> (nouns), a smaller number names of
+<i>attributes</i> and <i>actions</i> (adjectives and verbs), and, from their
+very nature, names of the things, attributes and actions which
+come less usually or, it may be, very rarely under our notice.
+Thus in an ordinary book, a novel or story, the foreign elements
+will amount to from 10 to 15% of the whole; as the subject
+becomes more recondite or technical their number will increase;
+till in a work on chemistry or abstruse mathematics the proportion
+may be 40%. But after all, it is not the question whence words
+<i>may</i> have been taken, but <i>how they are used</i> in a language that
+settles its character. If new words when adopted conform themselves
+to the manner and usage of the adopting language, it makes
+absolutely no difference whether they are taken over from some
+other language, or invented off at the ground. In either case
+they are <i>new</i> words to begin with; in either case also, if they are
+needed, they will become as thoroughly native, <i>i.e.</i> familiar from
+childhood to those who use them, as those that possess the longest
+native pedigree. In this respect English is still the same language
+it was in the days of Alfred; and, comparing its history with that
+of other Low German tongues, there is no reason to believe that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span>
+its grammar or structure would have been very different, however
+different its vocabulary might have been, if the Norman Conquest
+had never taken place.</p>
+
+<p>A general broad view of the sources of the English vocabulary
+and of the dates at which the various foreign elements flowed
+into the language, as well as of the great change produced in it
+by the Norman Conquest, and consequent influx of French and
+Latin elements, is given in the accompanying chart. The
+transverse lines represent centuries, and it will be seen how
+limited a period after all is occupied by modern English, how
+long the language had been in the country before the Norman
+Conquest, and how much of this is prehistoric and without any
+literary remains. Judging by what has happened during the
+historic period, great changes may and indeed <i>must</i> have taken
+place between the first arrival of the Saxons and the days of
+King Alfred, when literature practically begins. The chart also
+illustrates the continuity of the main stock of the vocabulary,
+the body of primary &ldquo;words of common life,&rdquo; which, notwithstanding
+numerous losses and more numerous additions, has
+preserved its corporate identity through all the periods. But
+the &ldquo;poetic and rhetorical,&rdquo; as well as the &ldquo;scientific&rdquo; terms
+of Old English have died out, and a new vocabulary of &ldquo;abstract
+and general terms&rdquo; has arisen from French, Latin and Greek,
+while a still newer &ldquo;technical, commercial and scientific&rdquo;
+vocabulary is composed of words not only from these, but from
+every civilized and many uncivilized languages.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:636px; height:729px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img597.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The preceding sketch has had reference mainly to the grammatical
+changes which the language has undergone; distinct from,
+though intimately connected with these (as where the confusion
+or loss of inflections was a consequence of the weakening of final
+sounds) are the great phonetic changes which have taken place
+between the 8th and 19th centuries, and which result in making
+modern English words very different from their Anglo-Saxon
+originals, even where no element has been lost, as in words like
+<i>stone</i>, <i>mine</i>, <i>doom</i>, <i>day</i>, <i>nail</i>, <i>child</i>, <i>bridge</i>, <i>shoot</i>, Anglo-Saxon <i>stán</i>,
+<i>mín</i>, <i>dóm</i>, <i>dæg</i>, <i>nægel</i>, <i>cild</i>, <i>brycg</i>, <i>scéot</i>. The history of English
+sounds (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Phonetics</a></span>) has been treated at length by Dr A.J.
+Ellis and Dr Henry Sweet; and it is only necessary here to
+indicate the broad facts, which are the following, (1) In an
+accented closed syllable, original short vowels have remained
+nearly unchanged; thus the words <i>at</i>, <i>men</i>, <i>bill</i>, <i>God</i>, <i>dust</i> are
+pronounced now nearly as in Old English, though the last two
+were more like the Scotch <i>o</i> and North English <i>u</i> respectively,
+and in most words the short <i>a</i> had a broader sound like the
+provincial <i>a</i> in <i>man</i>. (2) Long accented vowels and diphthongs
+have undergone a regular sound shift towards closer and more
+advanced positions, so that the words <i>bán</i>, <i>hær</i>, <i>soece</i> or <i>séce</i>, <i>stól</i>
+(<i>bahn</i> or <i>bawn</i>, <i>hêr</i>, <i>sök</i> or <i>saik</i>, <i>st&#333;le</i>) are now <i>b&#333;ne</i>, <i>hair</i>, <i>seek</i>,
+<i>stool</i>; while the two high vowels <i>ú</i> (= <i>oo</i>) and <i>i</i> (<i>ee</i>) have become
+diphthongs, as <i>hús</i>, <i>scír</i>, now <i>house</i>, <i>shire</i>, though
+the old sound of <i>u</i> remains in the north (<i>hoose</i>),
+and the original <i>i</i> in the pronunciation <i>sheer</i>,
+approved by Walker, &ldquo;as in mach<i>i</i>ne, and sh<i>i</i>re,
+and magaz<i>i</i>ne.&rdquo; (3) Short vowels in an open
+syllable have usually been lengthened, as in
+<i>n&#259;-ma</i>, <i>c&#335;-fa</i>, now <i>name</i>, <i>cove</i>; but to this there
+are exceptions, especially in the case of <i>&#301;</i> and <i>&#365;</i>.
+(4) Vowels in terminal unaccented syllables have
+all sunk into short obscure <i>&#277;</i>, and then, if final,
+disappeared; so <i>oxa</i>, <i>séo</i>, <i>wudu</i> became <i>ox-e</i>, <i>se-e</i>,
+<i>wud-e</i>, and then <i>ox</i>, <i>see</i>, <i>wood</i>; <i>oxan</i>, <i>lufod</i>, now
+<i>oxen</i>, <i>loved</i>, <i>lov&rsquo;d</i>; <i>settan</i>, <i>setton</i>, later <i>setten</i>, <i>sette</i>,
+<i>sett</i>, now <i>set</i>. (5) The back consonants, <i>c</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>sc</i>, in
+connexion with front vowels, have often become
+palatalized to <i>ch</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>sh</i>, as <i>circe</i>, <i>rycg</i>, <i>fisc</i>, now
+<i>church</i>, <i>ridge</i>, <i>fish</i>. A medial or final <i>g</i> has passed
+through a guttural or palatal continuant to <i>w</i> or
+<i>y</i>, forming a diphthong or new vowel, as in <i>boga</i>,
+<i>laga</i>, <i>dæg</i>, <i>heg</i>, <i>drig</i>, now <i>bow</i>, <i>law</i>, <i>day</i>, <i>hay</i>, <i>dry</i>.
+<i>W</i> and <i>h</i> have disappeared before <i>r</i> and <i>l</i>, as in
+<i>write</i>, (<i>w</i>)<i>lisp</i>, (<i>h</i>)<i>ring</i>; <i>h</i> final (= <i>gh</i>) has become
+<i>f</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>w</i> or nothing, but has developed the glides
+<i>u</i> or <i>i</i> before itself, these combining with the preceding
+vowel to form a diphthong, or merging
+with it into a simple vowel-sound, as <i>ruh</i>, <i>hoh</i>,
+<i>boh</i>, <i>deah</i>, <i>heah</i>, <i>hleah</i>, now <i>rough</i>, <i>hough</i>, <i>bough</i>,
+<i>dough</i>, <i>high</i>, <i>laugh=ruf</i>, <i>hok</i>, <i>b&#335;w</i>, <i>d&#333;</i>, <i>h&#299;</i>, <i>lâf</i>. <i>R</i>
+after a vowel has practically disappeared in
+standard English, or at most become vocalized, or
+combined with the vowel, as in <i>hear</i>, <i>bar</i>, <i>more</i>,
+<i>her</i>. These and other changes have taken place
+gradually, and in accordance with well-known
+phonetic laws; the details as to time and mode
+may be studied in special works. It may be
+mentioned that the total loss of grammatical <i>gender</i>
+in English, and the almost complete disappearance
+of <i>cases</i>, are purely phonetic phenomena.
+<i>Gender</i> (whatever its remote origin) was practically the use of
+adjectives and pronouns with certain distinctive terminations,
+in accordance with the <i>genus</i>, <i>genre</i>, <i>gender</i> or <i>kind</i> of nouns to
+which they were attached; when these distinctive terminations
+were uniformly levelled to final <i>&#277;</i>, or other weak sounds, and thus
+ceased to distinguish nouns into kinds, the distinctions into
+genders or kinds having no other existence disappeared. Thus
+when <i>þæt godé hors</i>, <i>þone godan hund</i>, <i>þa godan bóc</i>, became, by
+phonetic weakening, <i>þe gode hors</i>, <i>þe gode hownd</i>, <i>þe gode boke</i>,
+and later still the <i>good horse</i>, the <i>good hound</i>, the <i>good book</i>, the
+words <i>horse</i>, <i>hound</i>, <i>book</i> were no longer grammatically different
+kinds of nouns; grammatical gender had ceased to exist. The
+concord of adjectives has entirely disappeared; the concord
+of the pronouns is now regulated by <i>rationality</i> and <i>sex</i>, instead
+of grammatical gender, which has no existence in English. The
+man <i>who</i> lost <i>his</i> life; the bird <i>which</i> built <i>its</i> nest.</p>
+
+<p>Our remarks from the end of the 14th century have been
+confined to the standard or literary form of English, for of the
+other dialects from that date (with the exception of the northern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span>
+English in Scotland, where it became in a social and literary
+sense a distinct language), we have little history. We know,
+however, that they continued to exist as local and popular forms
+of speech, as well from occasional specimens and from the fact
+that they exist still as from the statements of writers during
+the interval. Thus Puttenham in his <i>Arte of English Poesie</i>
+(1589) says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Our maker [<i>i.e.</i> poet] therfore at these dayes shall not follow
+Piers Plowman, nor Gower, nor Lydgate, not yet Chaucer, for their
+language is now not of use with us: neither shall he take the termes
+of Northern-men, such as they use in dayly talke, whether they be
+noble men or gentle men or of their best clarkes, all is a [= one]
+matter; nor in effect any speach used beyond the river of Trent,
+though no man can deny but that theirs is the purer English Saxon
+at this day, yet it is not so Courtly nor so currant as our <i>Southerne</i>
+English is, no more is the far Westerne mans speach: ye shall
+therefore take the usual speach of the Court, and that of London and
+the shires lying about London within lx myles, and not much above.
+I say not this but that in every shyre of England there be gentlemen
+and others that speake but specially write as good Southerne as we
+of Middlesex or Surrey do, but not the common people of every shire,
+to whom the gentlemen, and also their learned clarkes do for the
+most part condescend, but herein we are already ruled by th&rsquo; English
+Dictionaries and other bookes written by learned men.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Arber&rsquo;s
+Reprint</i>, p. 157.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In comparatively modern times there has been a revival of
+interest in these forms of English, several of which following in
+the wake of the revival of Lowland Scots in the 18th and 19th
+centuries, have produced a considerable literature in the form
+of local poems, tales and &ldquo;folk-lore.&rdquo; In these respects Cumberland,
+Lancashire, Yorkshire, Devon, Somerset and Dorset, the
+&ldquo;far north&rdquo; and &ldquo;far west&rdquo; of Puttenham, where the dialect
+was felt to be so independent of literary English as not to be
+branded as a mere vulgar corruption of it, stand prominent.
+More recently the dialects have been investigated philologically,
+a department in which, as in other departments of English
+philology, the elder Richard Garnett must be named as a pioneer.
+The work was carried out zealously by Prince Louis Lucien
+Bonaparte and Dr A.J. Ellis, and more recently by the English
+Dialect Society, founded by the Rev. Professor Skeat, for the
+investigation of this branch of philology. The efforts of this
+society resulted in the compilation and publication of glossaries
+or word-books, more or less complete and trustworthy, of most
+of the local dialects, and in the production of grammars dealing
+with the phonology and grammatical features of a few of these,
+among which that of the Windhill dialect in Yorkshire, by
+Professor Joseph Wright, and that of West Somerset, by the
+late F.T. Elworthy, deserve special mention. From the whole
+of the glossaries of the Dialect Society, and from all the earlier
+dialect works of the 18th and 19th centuries, amplified and
+illustrated by the contributions of local collaborators in nearly
+every part of the British Isles, Professor Joseph Wright has
+constructed his <i>English Dialect Dictionary</i>, recording the local
+words and senses, with indication of their geographical range,
+their pronunciation, and in most cases with illustrative quotations
+or phrases. To this he has added an <i>English Dialect Grammar</i>,
+dealing very fully with the phonology of the dialects, showing
+the various sounds which now represent each Old English sound,
+and endeavouring to define the area over which each modern form
+extends; the accidence is treated more summarily, without
+going minutely into that of each dialect-group, for which special
+dialect grammars must be consulted. The work has also a very
+full and valuable index of every word and form treated.</p>
+
+<p>The researches of Prince L.L. Bonaparte and Dr Ellis were
+directed specially to the classification and mapping of the
+existing dialects,<a name="fa28a" id="fa28a" href="#ft28a"><span class="sp">28</span></a> and the relation of these to the dialects of Old
+and Middle English. They recognized a <i>Northern</i> dialect lying
+north of a line drawn from Morecambe Bay to the Humber,
+which, with the kindred Scottish dialects (already investigated
+and classed),<a name="fa29a" id="fa29a" href="#ft29a"><span class="sp">29</span></a> is the direct descendant of early northern English,
+and a <i>South-western</i> dialect occupying Somerset, Wilts, Dorset,
+Gloucester and western Hampshire, which, with the <i>Devonian</i>
+dialect beyond it, are the descendants of early southern English
+and the still older West-Saxon of Alfred. This dialect must in the
+14th Century have been spoken everywhere south of Thames;
+but the influence of London caused its extinction in Surrey,
+Sussex and Kent, so that already in Puttenham it had become
+&ldquo;far western.&rdquo; An <i>East Midland</i> dialect, extending from south
+Lincolnshire to London, occupies the cradle-land of the standard
+English speech, and still shows least variation from it. Between
+and around these typical dialects are ten others, representing the
+old Midland proper, or dialects between it and the others already
+mentioned. Thus &ldquo;north of Trent&rdquo; the <i>North-western</i> dialect
+of south Lancashire, Cheshire, Derby and Stafford, with that of
+Shropshire, represents the early West Midland English, of which
+several specimens remain; while the <i>North-eastern</i> of Nottingham
+and north Lincolnshire represents the dialect of the <i>Lay of
+Havelok</i>. With the <i>North Midland</i> dialect of south-west Yorkshire,
+these represent forms of speech which to the modern
+Londoner, as to Puttenham, are still decidedly northern, though
+actually intermediate between northern proper and midland, and
+preserving interesting traces of the midland pronouns and verbal
+inflections. There is an <i>Eastern</i> dialect in the East Anglian
+counties; a <i>Midland</i> in Leicester and Warwick shires; a
+<i>Western</i> in Hereford, Worcester and north Gloucestershire,
+intermediate between south-western and north-western, and
+representing the dialect of <i>Piers Plowman</i>. Finally, between the
+east midland and south-western, in the counties of Buckingham,
+Oxford, Berks, Hants, Surrey and Sussex, there is a dialect
+which must have once been south-western, but of which the most
+salient characters have been rubbed off by proximity to London
+and the East Midland speech. In east Sussex and Kent this
+<i>South-eastern</i> dialect attains to a more distinctive character.
+The <i>Kentish</i> form of early Southern English evidently maintained
+its existence more toughly than that of the counties immediately
+south of London. It was very distinct in the days of Sir Thomas
+More; and even, as we see from the dialect attributed to Edgar
+in <i>Lear</i>, was still strongly marked in the days of Shakespeare.
+In the south-eastern corner of Ireland, in the baronies of Forth
+and Bargy, in county Wexford, a very archaic form of English, of
+which specimens have been preserved,<a name="fa30a" id="fa30a" href="#ft30a"><span class="sp">30</span></a> was still spoken in the
+18th century. In all probability it dated from the first English
+invasion. In many parts of Ulster forms of Lowland Scotch
+dating to the settlement under James I. are still spoken; but the
+English of Ireland generally seems to represent 16th and 17th
+century English, as in the pronunciation of <i>tea</i>, <i>wheat</i> (<i>tay</i>,
+<i>whait</i>), largely affected, of course, by the native Celtic. The
+subsequent work of the English Dialect Society, and the facts set
+forth in the <i>English Dialect Dictionary</i>, confirm in a general way
+the classification of Bonaparte and Ellis; but they bring out
+strongly the fact that only in a few cases can the boundary
+between dialects now be determined by precise lines. For every
+dialect there is a central region, larger or smaller, in which its
+characteristics are at a maximum; but towards the edges of the
+area these become mixed and blended with the features of the
+contiguous dialects, so that it is often impossible to define the
+point at which the one dialect ends and the other begins. The
+fact is that the various features of a dialect, whether its distinctive
+words, characteristic pronunciations or special grammatical
+features, though they may have the same centre, have not all the
+same circumference. Some of them extend to a certain distance
+round the centre; others to a much greater distance. The only
+approximately accurate way to map the area of any dialect,
+whether in England, France, Germany or elsewhere, is to take
+a well-chosen set of its characteristic features&mdash;words, senses,
+sounds or grammatical peculiarities, and draw a line round the
+area over which each of these extends; between the innermost
+and outermost of these there will often be a large border district.
+If the same process be followed with the contiguous dialects,
+it will be found that some of the lines of each intersect some of
+the lines of the other, and that the passing of one dialect into
+another is not effected by the formation of intermediate or
+blended forms of any one characteristic, but by the overlapping
+or intersecting of more or fewer of the features of each. Thus a
+definite border village or district may use 10 of the 20 features of
+dialect A and 10 of those of B, while a village on the one side has
+12 of those of A with 8 of those of B, and one on the other side
+has 7 of those of A with 13 of those of B. Hence a dialect
+boundary line can at best indicate the line within which the
+dialect has, on the whole, more of the features of A than of B or
+C; and usually no single line can be drawn as a dialect boundary,
+but that without it there are some features of the same dialect,
+and within it some features of the contiguous dialects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE PERIODS AND DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:920px; height:1124px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img599.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The vertical lines represent the four leading forms of English&mdash;<i>Northern</i>, <i>Midland</i>, <i>Southern</i>, and <i>Kentish</i>&mdash;and the names occurring down the
+course of each are those of writers and works in that form of English at the given date. The thickness of the line shows the comparative literary
+position of this form of speech at the time: <i>thick</i> indicating a <i>literary language</i>; <i>medium</i>, a <i>literary dialect</i>; <i>thin</i>, a <i>popular dialect</i> or <i>patois</i>; a <i>dotted</i>
+line shows that this period is <i>unrepresented</i> by specimens. The horizontal lines divide the periods; these (after the first two) refer mainly to
+the Midland English; in inflectional decay the Northern English was at least a century in advance of the Midland, and the Southern nearly
+as much behind it.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">Beyond the limits of the British Isles, English is the language of
+extensive regions, now or formerly colonies. In all these
+countries the presence of numerous new objects and new conditions
+of life has led to the supplementing of the vocabulary by
+the adoption of words from native languages, and special adaptation
+and extension of the sense of English words. The use of a
+common literature, however, prevents the overgrowth of these
+local peculiarities, and also makes them more or less familiar to
+Englishmen at home. It is only in the older states of the
+American Union that anything like a local dialect has been
+produced; and even there many of the so-called Americanisms
+are quite as much archaic English forms which have been lost
+or have become dialectal in England as developments of the
+American soil.</p>
+
+<p>The steps by which English, from being the language of a few
+thousand invaders along the eastern and southern seaboard of
+Britain, has been diffused by conquest and colonization over its
+present area form a subject too large for the limits of this article.
+It need only be remarked that within the confines of Britain itself
+the process is not yet complete. Representatives of earlier
+languages survive in Wales and the Scottish Highlands, though
+in neither case can the substitution of English be very remote.
+In Ireland, where English was introduced by conquest much later,
+Irish is still spoken in patches all over the country; though
+English is understood, and probably spoken after a fashion,
+almost everywhere. At opposite extremities of Britain, the
+Cornish of Cornwall and the Norse dialects of Orkney and Shetland
+died out very gradually in the course of the 18th century. The
+Manx, or Celtic of Man, is even now in the last stage of dissolution;
+and in the Channel Isles the Norman <i>patois</i> of Jersey and
+Guernsey have largely yielded to English.</p>
+
+<p>The table on p. 599 (a revision of that brought before the
+Philological Society in Jan. 1876) graphically presents the chronological
+and dialectal development of English. Various names
+have been proposed for the different stages; it seems only
+necessary to add to those in the table the descriptive names of
+Dr Abbott, who has proposed (<i>How to Parse</i>, p. 298) to call the
+Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, the &ldquo;Synthetical or Inflexional
+Period&rdquo;; the Old English Transition (Late Anglo-Saxon of Dr
+Skeat), the &ldquo;Period of Confusion&rdquo;; the Early Middle English,
+&ldquo;Analytical Period&rdquo; (1250-1350); the normal Middle English,
+&ldquo;National Period&rdquo; (1350-1500); the Tudor English, &ldquo;Period
+of Licence&rdquo;; and the Modern English, &ldquo;Period of Settlement.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;As the study of English has made immense
+advances within the last generation, it is only in works recently
+published that the student will find the subject satisfactorily handled.
+Among the earlier works treating of the whole subject or parts of it
+may be mentioned&mdash;<i>A History of English Rhythms</i>, by Edwin Guest
+(London, 1838); the <i>Philological Essays</i> of Richard Garnett (1835-1848),
+edited by his son (London, 1859); <i>The English Language</i>, by
+R.G. Latham (5th ed., London, 1862); <i>Origin and History of the
+English Language</i>, by G.P. Marsh (revised 1885); <i>Lectures on the
+English Language</i>, by the same (New York and London, 1863);
+<i>Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache</i>, by C.F. Koch (Weimar,
+1863, &amp;c.); <i>Englische Grammatik</i>, by Eduard Mätzner (Berlin, 1860-1865),
+(an English translation by C.J. Grece, LL.B., London, 1874);
+<i>The Philology of the English Tongue</i>, by John Earle, M.A. (Oxford,
+1866, 5th ed. 1892); <i>Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon
+Language</i>, by F.A. March (New York, 1870); <i>Historical Outlines of
+English Accidence</i>, by the Rev. R. Morris, LL.D. (London, 1873),
+(new ed. by Kellner); <i>Elementary Lessons in Historical English
+Grammar</i>, by the same (London, 1874); <i>The Sources of Standard
+English</i>, by T.L. Kington Oliphant, M.A. (London, 1873); <i>Modern
+English</i>, by F. Hall (London, 1873); <i>A Shakespearian Grammar</i>, by
+E.A. Abbott, D.D. (London, 1872); <i>How to Parse</i>, by the same
+(London, 1875); <i>Early English Pronunciation</i>, &amp;c., by A.J. Ellis
+(London, 1869); <i>The History of English Sounds</i>, by Henry Sweet
+(London, 1874, 2nd ed. 1888); as well as many separate papers
+by various authors in the <i>Transactions of the Philological Society</i>, and
+the publications of the Early English Text Society.</p>
+
+<p>Among more recent works are: M. Kaluza, <i>Historische Grammatik
+der englischen Sprache</i> (Berlin, 1890); Professor W.W. Skeat,
+<i>Principles of English Etymology</i> (Oxford, 1887-1891); Johan Storm,
+<i>Englische Philologie</i> (Leipzig, 1892-1896); L. Kellner, <i>Historical
+Outlines of English Syntax</i> (London, 1892); O.F. Emerson, <i>History
+of the English Language</i> (London and New York, 1894); Otto
+Jespersen, <i>Progress in Language</i>, with special reference to English
+(London, 1894); Lorenz Morsbach, <i>Mittelenglische Grammatik</i>, part i.
+(Halle, 1896); Paul, &ldquo;Geschichte der englischen Sprache,&rdquo; in
+<i>Grundriss der german. Philologie</i> (Strassburg, 1898); Eduard Sievers,
+<i>Angelsächsische Grammatik</i> (3rd ed., Halle, 1898); Eng. transl. of
+same (2nd ed.), by A.S. Cook (Boston, 1887); K.D. Bülbring, <i>Altenglisches
+Elementarbuch</i> (Heidelberg, 1902); Greenough and Kittredge,
+<i>Words and their Ways in English Speech</i> (London and New
+York, 1902); Henry Bradley, <i>The Making of English</i> (London, 1904).
+Numerous contributions to the subject have also been made in
+<i>Englische Studien</i> (ed. Kölbing, later Hoops; Leipzig, 1877 onward);
+<i>Anglia</i> (ed. Wülker, Flügel, &amp;c.; Halle, 1878 onward); publications
+of Mod. Lang. Assoc. of America (J.W. Bright; Baltimore, 1884 onward),
+and A.M. Elliott, <i>Modern Language Notes</i> (Baltimore, 1886
+onward).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. H. M.; H. M. R. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A careful examination of several letters of Bosworth&rsquo;s Anglo-Saxon
+dictionary gives in 2000 words (including derivatives and
+compounds, but excluding orthographic variants) 535 which still
+exist as modern English words.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The practical convenience of having one name for what was the
+same thing in various stages of development is not affected by the
+probability that (E.A. Freeman notwithstanding) <i>Engle</i> and <i>Englisc</i>
+were, at an early period, <i>not</i> applied to the whole of the inhabitants of
+Teutonic Britain, but only to a part of them. The dialects of <i>Engle</i>
+and <i>Seaxan</i> were alike old forms of what was afterwards English
+speech, and so, viewed in relation to it, <i>Old English</i>, whatever their
+contemporary names might be.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The works of Gildas in the original Latin were edited by Mr
+Stevenson for the English Historical Society. There is an English
+translation in <i>Six Old English Chronicles</i> in Bohn&rsquo;s Antiquarian
+library.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> As to the continued existence of Latin in Britain, see further in
+Rhys&rsquo;s <i>Lectures on Welsh Philology</i>, pp. 226-227; also Dogatschar,
+<i>Lautlehre d. gr., lat. u. roman. Lehnworte im Altengl.</i> (Strassburg,
+1888).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Æthelstan in 934 calls himself in a charter &ldquo;Ongol-Saxna cyning
+and Brytaenwalda eallaes thyses iglandes&rdquo;; Eadred in 955 is
+&ldquo;Angul-seaxna cyning and cásere totius Britanniae,&rdquo; and the name
+is of frequent occurrence in documents written in Latin. These facts
+ought to be remembered in the interest of the scholars of the 17th
+century, who have been blamed for the use of the term Anglo-Saxon,
+as if they had invented it. By &ldquo;Anglo-Saxon&rdquo; language they
+meant the language of the people who <i>sometimes at least</i> called
+themselves &ldquo;Anglo-Saxons.&rdquo; Even now the name is practically
+useful, when we are dealing with the subject <i>per se</i>, as is <i>Old English</i>,
+on the other hand, when we are treating it historically or in connexion
+with English as a whole.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Transactions of the Philological Society</i> (<i>1873-1874</i>), p. 620;
+new and much enlarged edition, 1888.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See on this Rhys, <i>Lectures on Welsh Philology</i>, v.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> During the Old English period both <i>c</i> and <img style="width:13px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img590.jpg" alt="" /> appear to have
+acquired a palatal value in conjunction with front or palatal vowel-sounds,
+except in the north where <i>c</i>, and in some cases <img style="width:13px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img590.jpg" alt="" />, tended to
+remain guttural in such positions. This value was never distinguished
+in Old English writing, but may be deduced from certain
+phonetic changes depending upon it, and from the use of <i>c</i>, <i>cc</i>, as
+an alternative for <i>tj</i> (as in <i>ort</i><img style="width:13px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img590.jpg" alt="" /><i>eard</i>, <i>orceard</i> = orchard, <i>fetian</i>, <i>feccean</i> = fetch),
+as well as from the normal occurrence of <i>ch</i> and <i>y</i> in these
+positions in later stages of the language, <i>e.g.</i> <i>cild</i> = child, <i>taècean</i> = teach,
+<img style="width:13px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img590.jpg" alt="" /><i>iellan</i> = yell, <i>dae</i><img style="width:13px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img590.jpg" alt="" /> = day, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> For a discriminating view of the effects of the Norman Conquest
+on the English Language, see Freeman, <i>Norman Conquest</i>, ch. xxv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> There is no reason to suppose that any attempt was made to
+proscribe or suppress the native tongue, which was indeed used in
+some official documents addressed to Englishmen by the Conqueror
+himself. Its social degradation seemed even on the point of coming
+to an end, when it was confirmed and prolonged for two centuries
+more by the accession of the Angevin dynasty, under whom everything
+French received a fresh impetus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> MS. Cotton Vesp. A. 22.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Gospels in Anglo-Saxon, &amp;c., ed. for Cambridge Press, by W.W.
+Skeat (1871-1887), second text.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Old English Homilies of Twelfth Century</i>, first and second series,
+ed. R. Morris (E.E.T.S.), (1868-1873).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> The article <i>þe</i> becomes <i>te</i> after a preceding <i>t</i> or <i>d</i> by assimilation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Earle, <i>Two of the Saxon Chronicles parallel</i> (1865), p. 265.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Skeat, <i>Anglo-Saxon and Northumbrian Gospels</i> (1874).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17a" id="ft17a" href="#fa17a"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Edited for the Surtees Society, by Rev. J. Stevenson.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18a" id="ft18a" href="#fa18a"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Edited for the Early English Text Society, by Rev. Dr Morris.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19a" id="ft19a" href="#fa19a"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>The Vision of William concerning Piers the Ploughman</i> exists
+in three different recensions, all of which have been edited for the
+Early English Text Society by Rev. W.W. Skeat.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20a" id="ft20a" href="#fa20a"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Edited by Rev. Dr Morris for Early English Text Society, in
+1866.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21a" id="ft21a" href="#fa21a"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Here, and in <i>tatt</i>, <i>tu</i>, <i>taer</i>, for <i>þatt</i>, <i>þu</i>, <i>þaet</i>, after <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, there is
+the same phonetic assimilation as in the last section of the Anglo-Saxon
+Chronicle above.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22a" id="ft22a" href="#fa22a"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Edited for the Early English Text Society by Dr Morris (1865).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23a" id="ft23a" href="#fa23a"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Trevisa, <i>Translation of Higden&rsquo;s Polychronicon</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24a" id="ft24a" href="#fa24a"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Skeat, <i>Specimens of English Literature</i>, pp. 49, 54.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25a" id="ft25a" href="#fa25a"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>A Shakspearian Grammar</i>, by Dr E.A. Abbott. To this book
+we are largely indebted for its admirable summary of the characters
+of Tudor English.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26a" id="ft26a" href="#fa26a"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Evangelist</i>, <i>astronomy</i>, <i>dialogue</i>, are words that have so lived, of
+which their form is the result. <i>Photograph</i>, <i>geology</i>, &amp;c., take this
+form as <i>if</i> they had the same history.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27a" id="ft27a" href="#fa27a"><span class="fn">27</span></a> See extended lists of the foreign words in English in Dr Morris&rsquo;s
+<i>Historical Outlines of English Accidence</i>, p. 33.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28a" id="ft28a" href="#fa28a"><span class="fn">28</span></a> See description and map in <i>Trans. of Philol. Soc.</i>, 1875-1876, p. 570.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29a" id="ft29a" href="#fa29a"><span class="fn">29</span></a> <i>The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland, its Pronunciation,
+Grammar and Historical Relations, with an Appendix on the present
+limits of the Gaelic and Lowland Scotch, and the Dialectal Divisions
+of the Lowland Tongue; and a Linguistical Map of Scotland</i>, by
+James A.H. Murray (London, 1873).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30a" id="ft30a" href="#fa30a"><span class="fn">30</span></a> <i>A Glossary (with some pieces of Verse) of the Old Dialect of the
+English Colony of Forth and Bargy</i>, collected by Jacob Poole, edited
+by W. Barnes, B.D. (London, 1867).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENGLISH LAW<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (<i>History</i>). In English jurisprudence &ldquo;legal
+memory&rdquo; is said to extend as far as, but no further than the
+coronation of Richard I. (Sept. 3, 1189). This is a technical
+doctrine concerning prescriptive rights, but is capable of expressing
+an important truth. For the last seven centuries, little more
+or less, the English law, which is now overshadowing a large
+share of the earth, has had not only an extremely continuous,
+but a matchlessly well-attested history, and, moreover, has
+been the subject matter of rational exposition. Already in
+1194 the daily doings of a tribunal which was controlling and
+moulding the whole system were being punctually recorded in
+letters yet legible, and from that time onwards it is rather the
+enormous bulk than any dearth of available materials that
+prevents us from tracing the transformation of every old doctrine
+and the emergence and expansion of every new idea. If we are
+content to look no further than the text-books&mdash;the books written
+by lawyers for lawyers&mdash;we may read our way backwards to
+Blackstone (d. 1780), Hale (d. 1676), Coke (d. 1634), Fitzherbert
+(d. 1538), Littleton (d. 1481), Bracton (d. 1268), Glanvill (d.
+1190), until we are in the reign of Henry of Anjou, and yet shall
+perceive that we are always reading of one and the same body
+of law, though the little body has become great, and the ideas
+that were few and indefinite have become many and explicit.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond these seven lucid centuries lies a darker period.
+Nearly six centuries will still divide us from the dooms of
+Æthelberht (<i>c.</i> 600), and nearly seven from the <i>Lex Salica</i> (<i>c.</i> 500).
+We may regard the Norman conquest of England as marking
+the confluence of two streams of law. The one we may call
+French or Frankish. If we follow it upwards we pass through
+the capitularies of Carlovingian emperors and Merovingian
+kings until we see Chlodwig and his triumphant Franks invading
+Gaul, submitting their Sicambrian necks to the yoke of the
+imperial religion, and putting their traditional usages into
+written Latin. The other rivulet we may call Anglo-Saxon.
+Pursuing it through the code of Canute (d. 1035) and the ordinances
+of Alfred (<i>c.</i> 900) and his successors, we see Ine publishing
+laws in the newly converted Wessex (<i>c.</i> 690), and, almost a
+century earlier, Æthelberht doing the same in the newly converted
+Kent (<i>c.</i> 600). This he did, says Beda, in accordance with
+Roman precedents. Perhaps from the Roman missionaries
+he had heard tidings of what the Roman emperor had lately
+been doing far off in New Rome. We may at any rate notice
+with interest that in order of time Justinian&rsquo;s law-books fall
+between the <i>Lex Salica</i> and the earliest Kentish dooms; also that
+the great pope who sent Augustine to England is one of the
+very few men who between Justinian&rsquo;s day and the 11th century
+lived in the Occident and yet can be proved to have known the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span>
+Digest. In the Occident the time for the Germanic &ldquo;folk-laws&rdquo;
+(<i>Leges Barbarorum</i>) had come, and a Canon law, ambitious of
+independence, was being constructed, when in the Orient the
+lord of church and state was &ldquo;enucleating&rdquo; all that was to live
+of the classical jurisprudence of pagan Rome. It was but a
+brief interval between Gothic and Lombardic domination that
+enabled him to give law to Italy: Gaul and Britain were beyond
+his reach.</p>
+
+<p>The Anglo-Saxon laws that have come down to us (and we
+have no reason to fear the loss of much beyond some dooms of
+the Mercian Offa) are best studied as members of a large Teutonic
+family. Those that proceed from the Kent and Wessex of the
+7th century are closely related to the continental folk-laws.
+Their next of kin seem to be the <i>Lex Saxonum</i> and the laws of
+the Lombards. Then, though the 8th and 9th centuries are
+unproductive, we have from Alfred (<i>c.</i> 900) and his successors
+a series of edicts which strongly resemble the Frankish capitularies&mdash;so
+strongly that we should see a clear case of imitation, were
+it not that in Frankland the age of legislation had come to its
+disastrous end long before Alfred was king. This, it may be
+noted, gives to English legal history a singular continuity from
+Alfred&rsquo;s day to our own. The king of the English was expected
+to publish laws at a time when hardly any one else was attempting
+any such feat, and the English dooms of Canute the Dane are
+probably the most comprehensive statutes that were issued in
+the Europe of the 11th century. No genuine laws of the sainted
+Edward have descended to us, and during his reign England
+seems but too likely to follow the bad example of Frankland,
+and become a loose congeries of lordships. From this fate it
+was saved by the Norman duke, who, like Canute before him,
+subdued a land in which kings were still expected to publish laws.</p>
+
+<p>In the study of early Germanic law&mdash;a study which now for
+some considerable time has been scientifically prosecuted in
+Germany&mdash;the Anglo-Saxon dooms have received their due
+share of attention. A high degree of racial purity may be
+claimed on their behalf. Celtic elements have been sought for
+in them, but have never been detected. At certain points,
+notably in the regulation of the blood-feud and the construction
+of a tariff of atonements, the law of one rude folk will always
+be somewhat like the law of another; but the existing remains
+of old Welsh and old Irish law stand far remoter from the dooms
+of Æthelberht and Ine than stand the edicts of Rothari and
+Liutprand, kings of the Lombards. Indeed, it is very dubious
+whether distinctively Celtic customs play any considerable
+part in the evolution of that system of rules of Anglian, Scandinavian
+and Frankish origin which becomes the law of Scotland.
+Within England itself, though for a while there was fighting
+enough between the various Germanic folks, the tribal differences
+were not so deep as to prevent the formation of a common language
+and a common law. Even the strong Scandinavian strain
+seems to have rapidly blended with the Anglian. It amplified
+the language and the law, but did not permanently divide the
+country. If, for example, we can to-day distinguish between
+<i>law</i> and <i>right</i>, we are debtors to the Danes; but very soon <i>law</i>
+is not distinctive of eastern or <i>right</i> of western England. In the
+first half of the 12th century a would-be expounder of the law
+of England had still to say that the country was divided between
+the Wessex law, the Mercian law, and the Danes&rsquo; law, but he
+had also to point out that the law of the king&rsquo;s own court stood
+apart from and above all partial systems. The local customs
+were those of shires and hundreds, and shaded off into each
+other. We may speak of more Danish and less Danish counties;
+it was a matter of degree; for rivers were narrow and hills were
+low. England was meant by nature to be the land of one law.</p>
+
+<p>Then as to Roman law. In England and elsewhere Germanic
+law developed in an atmosphere that was charged with traditions
+of the old world, and many of these traditions had become
+implicit in the Christian religion. It might be argued that all
+that we call progress is due to the influence exercised by Roman
+civilization; that, were it not for this, Germanic law would
+never have been set in writing; and that theoretically unchangeable
+custom would never have been supplemented or superseded
+by express legislation. All this and much more of the same sort
+might be said; but the survival in Britain, or the reintroduction
+into England, of anything that we should dare to call Roman
+jurisprudence would be a different matter. Eyes, carefully
+trained, have minutely scrutinized the Anglo-Saxon legal texts
+without finding the least trace of a Roman rule outside the
+ecclesiastical sphere. Even within that sphere modern research
+is showing that the church-property-law of the middle ages,
+the law of the ecclesiastical &ldquo;benefice,&rdquo; is permeated by Germanic
+ideas. This is true of Gaul and Italy, and yet truer of an
+England in which Christianity was for a while extinguished.
+Moreover, the laws that were written in England were, from the
+first, written in the English tongue; and this gives them a
+unique value in the eyes of students of Germanic folk-law, for
+even the very ancient and barbarous <i>Lex Salica</i> is a Latin
+document, though many old Frankish words are enshrined in it.
+Also we notice&mdash;and this is of grave importance&mdash;that in England
+there are no vestiges of any &ldquo;Romani&rdquo; who are being suffered
+to live under their own law by their Teutonic rulers. On the
+Continent we may see Gundobad, the Burgundian, publishing
+one law-book for the Burgundians and another for the Romani
+who own his sway. A book of laws, excerpted chiefly from the
+Theodosian code, was issued by Alaric the Visigoth for his Roman
+subjects before the days of Justinian, and this book (the so-called
+<i>Breviarium Alarici or Lex Romana Visigothorum</i>) became for a
+long while the chief representative of Roman law in Gaul. The
+Frankish king in his expansive realm ruled over many men
+whose law was to be found not in the <i>Lex Salica</i> or <i>Lex Ribuaria</i>,
+but in what was called the <i>Lex Romana</i>. &ldquo;A system of personal
+law&rdquo; prevailed: the <i>homo Romanus</i> handed on his Roman law
+to his children, while Frankish or Lombardic, Swabian or Saxon
+law would run in the blood of the <i>homo barbarus</i>. Of all this we
+hear nothing in England. Then on the mainland of Europe
+Roman and barbarian law could not remain in juxtaposition
+without affecting each other. On the one hand we see distinctively
+Roman rules making their way into the law of the
+victorious tribes, and on the other hand we see a decay and
+debasement of jurisprudence which ends in the formation of
+what modern historians have called a Roman &ldquo;vulgar-law&rdquo;
+(<i>Vulgarrecht</i>). For a short age which centres round the year 800
+it seemed possible that Frankish kings, who were becoming
+Roman emperors, would be able to rule by their capitularies
+nearly the whole of the Christian Occident. The dream vanished
+before fratricidal wars, heathen invaders, centrifugal feudalism,
+and a centripetal church which found its law in the newly
+concocted forgeries of the Pseudo-Isidore (<i>c.</i> 850). The &ldquo;personal
+laws&rdquo; began to transmute themselves into local customs, and
+the Roman vulgar-law began to look like the local custom of
+those districts where the Romani were the preponderating
+element in the population. Meanwhile, the Norse pirates subdued
+a large tract of what was to be northern France&mdash;a land where
+Romani were few. Their restless and boundless vigour these
+Normans retained; but they showed a wonderful power of
+appropriating whatever of alien civilization came in their way.
+In their language, religion and law, they had become French
+many years before they subdued England. It is a plausible
+opinion that among them there lived some sound traditions
+of the Frankish monarchy&rsquo;s best days, and that Norman dukes,
+rather than German emperors or kings, of the French, are the
+truest spiritual heirs of Charles the Great.</p>
+
+<p>In our own day, German historians are wont to speak of English
+law as a &ldquo;daughter&rdquo; of French or Frankish law. This tendency
+derived its main impulse from H. Brunner&rsquo;s proof that the germ
+of trial by jury, which cannot be found in the Anglo-Saxon laws,
+can be found in the prerogative procedure of the Frankish kings.
+We must here remember that during a long age English lawyers
+wrote in French and even thought in French, and that to this
+day most of the technical terms of the law, more especially of
+the private law, are of French origin. Also it must be allowed
+that when English law has taken shape in the 13th century it
+is very like one of the <i>coutumes</i> of northern France. Even when
+linguistic difficulties have been surmounted, the Saxon Mirror
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span>
+of Eike von Repgow will seem far less familiar to an Englishman
+than the so-called Establishments of St Louis. This was the
+outcome of a slow process which fills more than a century (1066-1189),
+and was in a great measure due to the reforming energy
+of Henry II., the French prince who, in addition to England,
+ruled a good half of France. William the Conqueror seems to
+have intended to govern Englishmen by English law. After
+the tyranny of Rufus, Henry I. promised a restoration of King
+Edward&rsquo;s law: that is, the law of the Confessor&rsquo;s time (<i>Lagam
+Eadwardi regis vobis reddo</i>). Various attempts were then made,
+<span class="sidenote">The Norman age.</span>
+mostly, so it would seem, by men of French birth,
+to state in a modern and practicable form the <i>laga
+Eadwardi</i> which was thus restored. The result of
+their labours is an intricate group of legal tracts which has been
+explored of late years by Dr Liebermann. The best of these
+has long been known as the <i>Leges Henrici Primi</i>, and aspires
+to be a comprehensive law-book. Its author, though he had
+some foreign sources at his command, such as the <i>Lex Ribuaria</i>
+and an epitome of the Breviary of Alaric, took the main part of
+his matter from the code of Canute and the older English dooms.
+Neither the Conqueror nor either of his sons had issued many
+ordinances: the invading Normans had little, if any, written
+law to bring with them, and had invaded a country where kings
+had been lawgivers. Moreover, there was much in the English
+system that the Conqueror was keenly interested in retaining&mdash;especially
+an elaborate method of taxing the land and its holders.
+The greatest product of Norman government, the grandest feat
+of government that the world had seen for a long time past,
+the compilation of <i>Domesday Book</i>, was a conservative effort,
+an attempt to fix upon every landholder, French or English,
+the amount of geld that was due from his predecessor in title.
+Himself the rebellious vassal of the French king, the duke of
+the Normans, who had become king of the English, knew much
+of disruptive feudalism, and had no mind to see England that
+other France which it had threatened to become in the days of
+his pious but incompetent cousin. The sheriffs, though called
+<i>vice-comites</i>, were to be the king&rsquo;s officers; the shire-moots might
+be called county courts, but were not to be the courts of counts.
+Much that was sound and royal in English public law was to be
+preserved if William could preserve it.</p>
+
+<p>The gulf that divides the so-called <i>Leges Henrici</i> (<i>c.</i> 1115)
+from the text-book ascribed to Ranulf Glanvill (<i>c.</i> 1188) seems
+at first sight very wide. The one represents a not
+easily imaginable chaos and clash of old rules and
+<span class="sidenote">Royal justice.</span>
+new; it represents also a stage in the development of
+feudalism which in other countries is represented chiefly by a
+significant silence. The other is an orderly, rational book,
+which through all the subsequent centuries will be readily understood
+by English lawyers. Making no attempt to tell us what
+goes on in the local courts, its author, who may be Henry II.&rsquo;s
+chief justiciar, Ranulf Glanvill, or may be Glanvill&rsquo;s nephew,
+Hubert Walter, fixes our attention on a novel element which is
+beginning to subdue all else to its powerful operation. He speaks
+to us of the justice that is done by the king&rsquo;s own court. Henry
+II. had opened the doors of his French-speaking court to the
+mass of his subjects. Judges chosen for their ability were to
+sit there, term after term; judges were to travel in circuits
+through the land, and in many cases the procedure by way of
+&ldquo;an inquest of the country,&rdquo; which the Norman kings had used
+for the ascertainment of their fiscal rights, was to be at the
+disposal of ordinary litigants. All this had been done in a
+piecemeal, experimental fashion by ordinances that were known
+as &ldquo;assizes.&rdquo; There had not been, and was not to be, any
+enunciation of a general principle inviting all who were wronged
+to bring in their own words their complaints to the king&rsquo;s
+audience. The general prevalence of feudal justice, and of the
+world-old methods of supernatural probation (ordeals, battle,
+oaths sworn with oath-helpers), was to be theoretically respected;
+but in exceptional cases, which would soon begin to devour the
+rule, a royal remedy was to be open to any one who could frame
+his case within the compass of some carefully-worded and
+prescript formula. With allusion to a remote stage in the history
+of Roman law, a stage of which Henry&rsquo;s advisers can have known
+little or nothing, we may say that a &ldquo;formulary system&rdquo; is
+established which will preside over English law until modern
+times. Certain actions, each with a name of its own, are open
+to litigants. Each has its own formula set forth in its original
+(or, as we might say, originating) writ; each has its own procedure
+and its appropriate mode of trial. The litigant chooses
+his writ, his action, and must stand or fall by his choice. Thus
+a book about royal justice tends to become, and Glanvill&rsquo;s book
+already is, a commentary on original writs.</p>
+
+<p>The precipitation of English law in so coherent a form as that
+which it has assumed in Glanvill&rsquo;s book is not to be explained
+without reference to the revival of Roman jurisprudence in
+Italy. Out of a school of Lombard lawyers at Pavia had come
+Lanfranc the Conqueror&rsquo;s adviser, and the Lombardists had
+already been studying Justinian&rsquo;s Institutes. Then at length
+the Digest came by its rights. About the year 1100 Irnerius
+was teaching at Bologna, and from all parts of the West men
+were eagerly flocking to hear the new gospel of civilization.
+About the year 1149 Vacarius was teaching Roman law in
+England. The rest of a long life he spent here, and faculties of
+Roman and Canon law took shape in the nascent university of
+Oxford. Whatever might be the fate of Roman law in England,
+there could be no doubt that the Canon law, which was crystallizing
+in the <i>Decretum Gratiani</i> (<i>c.</i> 1139) and in the decretals of
+Alexander III., would be the law of the English ecclesiastical
+tribunals. The great quarrel between Henry II. and Thomas of
+Canterbury brought this system into collision with the temporal
+law of England, and the king&rsquo;s ministers must have seen that
+they had much to learn from the methodic enemy. Some of
+them were able men who became the justices of Henry&rsquo;s court,
+and bishops to boot. The luminous <i>Dialogue of the Exchequer</i>
+(<i>c.</i> 1179), which expounds the English fiscal system, came from
+the treasurer, Richard Fitz Nigel, who became bishop of London;
+and the treatise on the laws of England came perhaps from
+Glanvill, perhaps from Hubert Walter, who was to be both
+primate and chief justiciar. There was healthy emulation of
+the work that was being done by Italian jurists, but no meek
+acceptance of foreign results.</p>
+
+<p>A great constructive era had opened, and its outcome was a
+large and noble book. The author was Henry of Bratton (his
+name has been corrupted into Bracton), who died in
+1268 after having been for many years one of Henry
+<span class="sidenote">Bracton.</span>
+III.&rsquo;s justices. The model for its form was the treatise of Azo
+of Bologna (&ldquo;master of all the masters of the laws,&rdquo; an Englishman
+called him), and thence were taken many of the generalities
+of jurisprudence: maxims that might be regarded as of universal
+and natural validity. But the true core of the work was the
+practice of an English court which had yearly been extending
+its operations in many directions. For half a century past
+diligent record had been kept on parchment of all that this court
+had done, and from its rolls Bracton cited numerous decisions.
+He cited them as precedents, paying special heed to the judgments
+of two judges who were already dead, Martin Pateshull and
+William Raleigh. For this purpose he compiled a large Note
+Book, which was discovered by Prof. Vinogradoff in the British
+Museum in 1884. Thus at a very early time English &ldquo;common
+law&rdquo; shows a tendency to become what it afterwards definitely
+became, namely, &ldquo;case law.&rdquo; The term &ldquo;common law&rdquo; was
+being taken over from the canonists by English lawyers, who
+used it to distinguish the general law of the land from local
+customs, royal prerogatives, and in short from all that was
+exceptional or special. Since statutes and ordinances were still
+rarities, all expressly enacted laws were also excluded from the
+English lawyers&rsquo; notion of &ldquo;the common law.&rdquo; The Great
+Charter (1215) had taken the form of a grant of &ldquo;liberties and
+privileges,&rdquo; comparable to the grants that the king made to
+individual men and favoured towns. None the less, it was in
+that age no small body of enacted law, and, owing to its importance
+and solemnity, it was in after ages regarded as the first
+article of a statute book. There it was followed by the &ldquo;provisions&rdquo;
+issued at Merton in 1236 and by those issued at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span>
+Marlborough after the end of the Barons&rsquo; War. But during
+Henry III.&rsquo;s long reign the swift development of English law
+was due chiefly to new &ldquo;original writs&rdquo; and new &ldquo;forms of
+action&rdquo; devised by the chancery and sanctioned by the court.
+Bracton knew many writs that were unknown to Glanvill, and
+men were already perceiving that limits must be set to the
+inventive power of the chancery unless the king was to be an
+uncontrollable law-maker. Thus the common law was losing
+the power of rapid growth when Bracton summed the attained
+results in a book, the success of which is attested by a crowd of
+manuscript copies. Bracton had introduced just enough of
+Roman law and Bolognese method to save the law of England
+from the fate that awaited German law in Germany. His book
+was printed in 1569, and Coke owed much to Bracton.</p>
+
+<p>The comparison that is suggested when Edward I. is called
+the English Justinian cannot be pressed very far. Nevertheless,
+as is well known, it is in his reign (1272-1307) that English
+institutions finally take the forms that they are to keep through
+coming centuries. We already see the parliament of the three
+estates, the convocations of the clergy, the king&rsquo;s council, the
+chancery or secretarial department, the exchequer or financial
+department, the king&rsquo;s bench, the common bench, the commissioners
+of assize and gaol delivery, the small group of professionally
+learned judges, and a small group of professionally
+learned lawyers, whose skill is at the service of those who will
+employ them. Moreover, the statutes that were passed in the
+first eighteen years of the reign, though their bulk seems slight
+to us nowadays, bore so fundamental a character that in subsequent
+ages they appeared as the substructure of huge masses
+of superincumbent law. Coke commented upon them sentence
+by sentence, and even now the merest smatterer in English law
+must profess some knowledge of <i>Quia emptores</i> and <i>De donis
+conditionalibus</i>. If some American states have, while others
+have not, accepted these statutes, that is a difference which is
+not unimportant to citizens of the United States in the 20th
+century. Then from the early years of Edward&rsquo;s reign come
+the first &ldquo;law reports&rdquo; that have descended to us: the oldest
+of them have not yet been printed; the oldest that has been
+printed belongs to 1292. These are the precursors of the long
+series of Year Books (Edw. II.-Hen. VIII.) which runs through
+the residue of the middle ages. Lawyers, we perceive, are
+already making and preserving notes of the discussions that take
+place in court; French notes that will be more useful to them
+than the formal Latin records inscribed upon the plea rolls.
+From these reports we learn that there are already, as we should
+say, a few &ldquo;leading counsel,&rdquo; some of whom will be retained
+in almost every important cause. Papal decretals had been
+endeavouring to withdraw the clergy from secular employment.
+The clerical element had been strong among the judges of Henry
+III.&rsquo;s reign: Bracton was an archdeacon, Pateshull a dean,
+Raleigh died a bishop. Their places begin to be filled by men who
+are not in orders, but who have pleaded the king&rsquo;s causes for him&mdash;his
+serjeants or servants at law&mdash;and beside them there are
+young men who are &ldquo;apprentices at law,&rdquo; and are learning to
+plead. Also we begin to see men who, as &ldquo;attorneys at law,&rdquo;
+are making it their business to appear on behalf of litigants.
+The history of the legal profession and its monopoly of legal aid
+is intricate, and at some points still obscure; but the influence
+of the canonical system is evident: the English attorney corresponds
+to the canonical proctor, and the English barrister to
+the canonical advocate. The main outlines were being drawn
+in Edward I.&rsquo;s day; the legal profession became organic, and
+professional opinion became one of the main forces that moulded
+the law.</p>
+
+<p>The study of English law fell apart from all other studies, and
+the impulse that had flowed from Italian jurisprudence was
+ebbing. We have two comprehensive text-books from Edward&rsquo;s
+reign: the one known to us as <i>Fleta</i>, the other as <i>Britton</i>; both
+of them, however, quarry their materials from Bracton&rsquo;s treatise.
+Also we have two little books on procedure which are attributed
+to Chief-Justice Hengham, and a few other small tracts of an
+intensely practical kind. Under the cover of fables about King
+Alfred, the author of the <i>Mirror of Justices</i> made a bitter attack
+upon King Edward&rsquo;s judges, some of whom had fallen into deep
+disgrace. English legal history has hardly yet been purged of
+the leaven of falsehood that was introduced by this fantastic
+and unscrupulous pamphleteer. His enigmatical book ends that
+literate age which begins with Glanvill&rsquo;s treatise and the treasurer&rsquo;s
+dialogue. Between Edward I.&rsquo;s day and Edward IV.&rsquo;s
+hardly anything that deserves the name of book was written
+by an English lawyer.</p>
+
+<p>During that time the body of statute law was growing, but
+not very rapidly. Acts of parliament intervened at a sufficient
+number of important points to generate and maintain
+a persuasion that no limit, or no ascertainable limit,
+<span class="sidenote">14th and 15th centuries.</span>
+can be set to the legislative power of king and parliament.
+Very few are the signs that the judges ever
+permitted the validity of a statute to be drawn into debate.
+Thus the way was being prepared for the definite assertion of
+parliamentary &ldquo;omnicompetence&rdquo; which we obtain from the
+Elizabethan statesman Sir Thomas Smith, and for those theories
+of sovereignty which we couple with the names of Hobbes and
+Austin. Nevertheless, English law was being developed rather
+by debates in court than by open legislation. The most distinctively
+English of English institutions in the later middle
+ages are the Year-Books and the Inns of Court. Year by year,
+term by term, lawyers were reporting cases in order that they
+and their fellows might know how cases had been decided. The
+allegation of specific precedents was indeed much rarer than it
+afterwards became, and no calculus of authority so definite as
+that which now obtains had been established in Coke&rsquo;s day, far
+less in Littleton&rsquo;s. Still it was by a perusal of reported cases
+that a man would learn the law of England. A skeleton for the
+law was provided, not by the Roman rubrics (such as public
+and private, real and personal, possessory and proprietary,
+contract and delict), but by the cycle of original writs that were
+inscribed in the chancery&rsquo;s <i>Registrum Brevium</i>. A new form of
+action could not be introduced without the authority of Parliament,
+and the growth of the law took the shape of an explication
+of the true intent of ancient formulas. Times of inventive
+liberality alternated with times of cautious and captious conservatism.
+Coke could look back to Edward III.&rsquo;s day as to a
+golden age of good pleading. The otherwise miserable time
+which saw the Wars of the Roses produced some famous lawyers,
+and some bold doctrines which broke new ground. It produced
+also Sir Thomas Littleton&rsquo;s (d. 1481) treatise on Tenures, which
+(though it be not, as Coke thought it, the most perfect work that
+ever was written in any human science) is an excellent statement
+of law in exquisitely simple language.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile English law was being scholastically taught. This,
+if we look at the fate of native and national law in Germany,
+or France, or Scotland, appears as a fact of primary
+importance. From beginnings, so small and formless
+<span class="sidenote">Legal education.</span>
+that they still elude research, the Inns of Court had
+grown. The lawyers, like other men, had grouped themselves
+in gilds, or gild-like &ldquo;fellowships.&rdquo; The fellowship acquired
+property; it was not technically incorporate, but made use of
+the thoroughly English machinery of a trust. Behind a hedge
+of trustees it lived an autonomous life, unhampered by charters
+or statutes. There was a hall in which its members dined in
+common; there was the nucleus of a library; there were also
+dormitories or chambers in which during term-time lawyers
+lived celibately, leaving their wives in the country. Something
+of the college thus enters the constitution of these fellowships;
+and then something academical. The craft gild regulated
+apprenticeship; it would protect the public against incompetent
+artificers, and its own members against unfair competition. So
+the fellowship of lawyers. In course of time a lengthy and
+laborious course of education of the medieval sort had been
+devised. He who had pursued it to its end received a call to the
+bar of his inn. This call was in effect a degree. Like the doctor
+or master of a university, the full-blown barrister was competent
+to teach others, and was expected to read lectures to students.
+But further, in a manner that is still very dark, these societies
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span>
+had succeeded in making their degrees the only steps that led
+to practice in the king&rsquo;s courts. At the end of the middle ages
+(<i>c.</i> 1470) Sir John Fortescue rehearsed the praises of the laws
+of England in a book which is one of the earliest efforts of comparative
+politics. Contrasting England with France, he rightly
+connects limited monarchy, public and oral debate in the law
+courts, trial by jury, and the teaching of national law in schools
+that are thronged by wealthy and well-born youths. But nearly
+a century earlier, the assertion that English law affords as subtle
+and civilizing a discipline as any that is to be had from Roman
+law was made by a man no less famous than John Wycliffe.
+The heresiarch naturally loathed the Canon law; but he also
+spoke with reprobation of the &ldquo;paynims&rsquo; law,&rdquo; the &ldquo;heathen
+men&rsquo;s law,&rdquo; the study of which in the two universities was being
+fostered by some of the bishops. That study, after inspiring
+Bracton, had come to little in England, though the canonist was
+compelled to learn something of Justinian, and there was a
+small demand for learned civilians in the court of admiralty,
+and in what we might call the king&rsquo;s diplomatic service. No
+medieval Englishman did anything considerable for Roman
+law. Even the canonists were content to read the books of
+French and Italian masters, though John Acton (<i>c.</i> 1340)
+and William Lyndwood (1430) wrote meritorious glosses. The
+Angevin kings, by appropriating to the temporal forum the whole
+province of ecclesiastical patronage, had robbed the decretists
+of an inexhaustible source of learning and of lucre. The work
+that was done by the legal faculties at Oxford and Cambridge
+is slight when compared with the inestimable services rendered
+to the cause of national continuity by the schools of English
+law which grew within the Inns of Court.</p>
+
+<p>A danger threatened: the danger that a prematurely osseous
+system of common law would be overwhelmed by summary
+justice and royal equity. Even when courts for all
+ordinary causes had been established, a reserve of
+<span class="sidenote">Chancery.</span>
+residuary justice remained with the king. Whatever lawyers
+and even parliaments might say, it was seen to be desirable that
+the king in council should with little regard for form punish
+offenders who could break through the meshes of a tardy procedure
+and should redress wrongs which corrupt and timid
+juries would leave unrighted. Papal edicts against heretics had
+made familiar to all men the notion that a judge should at times
+proceed <i>summarie et de plano et sine strepitu et figura justitiae</i>.
+And so extraordinary justice of a penal kind was done by the
+king&rsquo;s council upon misdemeanants, and extraordinary justice
+of a civil kind was ministered by the king&rsquo;s chancellor (who was
+the specially learned member of the council) to those who &ldquo;for
+the love of God and in the way of charity,&rdquo; craved his powerful
+assistance. It is now well established that the chancellors started
+upon this course, not with any desire to introduce rules of
+&ldquo;equity&rdquo; which should supplement, or perhaps supplant, the
+rules of law, but for the purpose of driving the law through those
+accidental impediments which sometimes unfortunately beset its
+due course. The wrongs that the chancellor redressed were often
+wrongs of the simplest and most brutal kind: assaults, batteries
+and forcible dispossessions. However, he was warned off this
+field of activity by parliament; the danger to law, to lawyers,
+to trial by jury, was evident. But just when this was happening,
+a new field was being opened for him by the growing practice
+of conveying land to trustees. The English trust of land had
+ancient Germanic roots, and of late we have been learning how
+in far-off centuries our Lombard cousins were in effect giving
+themselves a power of testation by putting their lands in trust.
+In England, when the forms of action were crystallizing, this
+practice had not been common enough to obtain the protection
+of a writ; but many causes conspired to make it common in
+the 14th century; and so, with the general approval of lawyers
+and laity, the chancellors began to enforce by summary process
+against the trustee the duty that lay upon his conscience. In
+the next century it was clear that England had come by a new
+civil tribunal. Negatively, its competence was defined by the
+rule that when the common law offered a remedy, the chancellor
+was not to intervene. Positively, his power was conceived as
+that of doing what &ldquo;good conscience&rdquo; required, more especially
+in cases of &ldquo;fraud, accident or breach of confidence.&rdquo; His
+procedure was the summary, the heresy-suppressing (not the
+ordinary and solemn) procedure of an ecclesiastical court; but
+there are few signs that he borrowed any substantive rules from
+legist or decretist, and many proofs that within the new field
+of trust he pursued the ideas of the common law. It was long,
+however, before lawyers made a habit of reporting his decisions.
+He was not supposed to be tightly bound by precedent. Adaptability
+was of the essence of the justice that he did.</p>
+
+<p>A time of strain and trial came with the Tudor kings. It was
+questionable whether the strong &ldquo;governance&rdquo; for which the
+weary nation yearned could work within the limits
+of a parliamentary system, or would be compatible
+<span class="sidenote">The Tudor Age.</span>
+with the preservation of the common law. We see
+new courts appropriating large fields of justice and proceeding
+<i>summarie et de plano</i>; the star chamber, the chancery, the courts
+of requests, of wards, of augmentations, the councils of the
+North and Wales; a little later we see the high commission.
+We see also that judicial torture which Fortescue had called the
+road to hell. The stream of law reports became intermittent
+under Henry VIII.; few judges of his or his son&rsquo;s reign left
+names that are to be remembered. In an age of humanism,
+alphabetically arranged &ldquo;abridgments&rdquo; of medieval cases
+were the best work of English lawyers: one comes to us from
+Anthony Fitzherbert (d. 1538), and another from Robert Broke
+(d. 1558). This was the time when Roman law swept like a
+flood over Germany. The modern historian of Germany will
+speak of &ldquo;the Reception&rdquo; (that is, the reception of Roman law),
+as no less important than the Renaissance and Reformation with
+which it is intimately connected. Very probably he will bestow
+hard words on a movement which disintegrated the nation and
+consolidated the tyranny of the princelings. Now a project
+that Roman law should be &ldquo;received&rdquo; in England occurred to
+Reginald Pole (d. 1558), a humanist, and at one time a reformer,
+who with good fortune might have been either king of England
+or pope of Rome. English law, said the future cardinal and
+archbishop, was barbarous; Roman law was the very voice of
+nature pleading for &ldquo;civility&rdquo; and good princely governance.
+Pole&rsquo;s words were brought to the ears of his majestic cousin, and,
+had the course of events been somewhat other than it was, King
+Henry might well have decreed a reception. The rôle of English
+Justinian would have perfectly suited him, and there are distinct
+traces of the civilian&rsquo;s Byzantinism in the doings of the Church
+of England&rsquo;s supreme head. The academic study of the Canon
+law was prohibited; regius professorships of the civil law were
+founded; civilians were to sit as judges in the ecclesiastical
+courts. A little later, the Protector Somerset was deeply interested
+in the establishment of a great school for civilians at
+Cambridge. Scottish law was the own sister of English law, and
+yet in Scotland we may see a reception of Roman jurisprudence
+which might have been more whole-hearted than it was, but for
+the drift of two British and Protestant kingdoms towards union.
+As it fell out, however, Henry could get what he wanted in church
+and state without any decisive supersession of English by foreign
+law. The omnicompetence of an act of parliament stands out
+the more clearly if it settles the succession to the throne, annuls
+royal marriages, forgives royal debts, defines religious creeds,
+attaints guilty or innocent nobles, or prospectively lends the
+force of statute to the king&rsquo;s proclamations. The courts of
+common law were suffered to work in obscurity, for jurors
+feared fines, and matter of state was reserved for council or
+star chamber. The Inns of Court were spared; their moots and
+readings did no perceptible harm, if little perceptible good.</p>
+
+<p>Yet it is no reception of alien jurisprudence that must be
+chronicled, but a marvellous resuscitation of English medieval
+law. We may see it already in the Commentaries of Edward
+Plowden (d. 1585) who reported cases at length and lovingly.
+Bracton&rsquo;s great book was put in print, and was a key to much
+that had been forgotten or misunderstood. Under Parker&rsquo;s
+patronage, even the Anglo-Saxon dooms were brought to light;
+they seemed to tell of a Church of England that had not yet been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span>
+enslaved by Rome. The new national pride that animated
+Elizabethan England issued in boasts touching the antiquity,
+humanity, enlightenment of English law. Resuming the strain
+of Fortescue, Sir Thomas Smith, himself a civilian, wrote concerning
+the Commonwealth of England a book that claimed the
+attention of foreigners for her law and her polity. There was
+dignified rebuke for the French jurist who had dared to speak
+lightly of Littleton. And then the common law took flesh in
+<span class="sidenote">Coke.</span>
+the person of Edward Coke (1552-1634). With an
+enthusiastic love of English tradition, for the sake
+of which many offences may be forgiven him, he ranged over
+nearly the whole field of law, commenting, reporting, arguing,
+deciding,&mdash;disorderly, pedantic, masterful, an incarnate national
+dogmatism tenacious of continuous life. Imbued with this new
+spirit, the lawyers fought the battle of the constitution against
+James and Charles, and historical research appeared as the
+guardian of national liberties. That the Stuarts united against
+themselves three such men as Edward Coke, John Selden and
+William Prynne, is the measure of their folly and their failure.
+Words that, rightly or wrongly, were ascribed to Bracton rang
+in Charles&rsquo;s ears when he was sent to the scaffold. For the
+modern student of medieval law many of the reported cases of
+the Stuart time are storehouses of valuable material, since the
+lawyers of the 17th century were mighty hunters after records.
+Prynne (d. 1669), the fanatical Puritan, published ancient
+documents with fervid zeal, and made possible a history of
+parliament. Selden (d. 1654) was in all Europe among the very
+first to write legal history as it should be written. His book
+about tithes is to this day a model and a masterpiece. When
+this accomplished scholar had declared that he had laboured
+to make himself worthy to be called a common lawyer, it could
+no longer be said that the common lawyers were <i>indoctissimum
+genus doctissimorum hominum</i>. Even pliant judges, whose
+tenure of office depended on the king&rsquo;s will, were compelled to
+cite and discuss old precedents before they could give judgment
+for their master; and even at their worst moments they would
+not openly break with medieval tradition, or declare in favour
+of that &ldquo;modern police-state&rdquo; which has too often become the
+ideal of foreign publicists trained in Byzantine law.</p>
+
+<p>The current of legal doctrine was by this time so strong and
+voluminous that such events as the Civil War, the Restoration
+and the Revolution hardly deflected the course of
+the stream. In retrospect, Charles II. reigns so soon
+<span class="sidenote">Hale.</span>
+as life has left his father&rsquo;s body, and James II. ends a lawless
+career by a considerate and convenient abdication. The statute
+book of the restored king was enriched by leaves excerpted from
+the acts of a lord protector; and Matthew Hale (d. 1676), who
+was, perhaps, the last of the great record-searching judges,
+sketched a map of English law which Blackstone was to colour.
+Then a time of self-complacency came for the law, which knew
+itself to be the perfection of wisdom, and any proposal for drastic
+legislation would have worn the garb discredited by the tyranny
+of the Puritan Cæsar. The need for the yearly renewal of the
+Mutiny Act secured an annual session of parliament. The
+mass of the statute law made in the 18th century is enormous;
+but, even when we have excluded from view such acts
+as are technically called &ldquo;private,&rdquo; the residuary matter bears
+a wonderfully empirical, partial and minutely particularizing
+character. In this &ldquo;age of reason,&rdquo; as we are wont to think it,
+the British parliament seems rarely to rise to the dignity of
+a general proposition, and in our own day the legal practitioner
+is likely to know less about the statutes of the 18th century
+than he knows about the statutes of Edward I., Henry VIII.
+and Elizabeth. Parliament, it should be remembered, was
+endeavouring directly to govern the nation. There was little
+that resembled the permanent civil service of to-day. The
+choice lay between direct parliamentary government and royal
+&ldquo;prerogative&rdquo;; and lengthy statutes did much of that work
+of detail which would now be done by virtue of the powers that
+are delegated to ministers and governmental boards. Moreover,
+extreme and verbose particularity was required in statutes,
+for judges were loath to admit that the common law was capable
+of amendment. A vague doctrine, inherited from Coke, taught
+that statutes might be so unreasonable as to be null, and any
+political theory that seemed to derive from Hobbes would have
+been regarded with not unjust suspicion. But the doctrine
+in question never took tangible shape, and enough could be done
+to protect the common law by a niggardly exposition of every
+legislating word. It is to be remembered that some main features
+of English public law were attracting the admiration of enlightened
+Europe. When Voltaire and Montesquieu applauded,
+the English lawyer had cause for complacency.</p>
+
+<p>The common law was by no means stagnant. Many rules
+which come to the front in the 18th century are hardly to be
+traced farther. Especially is this the case in the province of
+mercantile law, where the earl of Mansfield&rsquo;s (d. 1793) long
+presidency over the king&rsquo;s bench marked an epoch. It is too
+often forgotten that, until Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign, England was a
+thoroughly rustic kingdom, and that trade with England was
+mainly in the hands of foreigners. Also in medieval fairs, the
+assembled merchants declared their own &ldquo;law merchant,&rdquo;
+which was considered to have a supernational validity. In the
+reports of the common law courts it is late in the day before we
+read of some mercantile usages which can be traced far back
+in the statutes of Italian cities. Even on the basis of the excessively
+elaborated land law&mdash;a basis which Coke&rsquo;s Commentary
+on Littleton seemed to have settled for ever&mdash;a lofty and
+ingenious superstructure could be reared. One after another
+delicate devices were invented for the accommodation of new
+wants within the law; but only by the assurance that the old
+law could not be frankly abolished can we be induced to admire
+the subtlety that was thus displayed. As to procedure, it had
+become a maze of evasive fictions, to which only a few learned
+men held the historical clue. By fiction the courts had stolen
+business from each other, and by fiction a few comparatively
+speedy forms of action were set to tasks for which they were not
+originally framed. Two fictitious persons, John Doe and Richard
+Roe, reigned supreme. On the other hand, that healthy and
+vigorous institution, the Commission of the Peace, with a long
+history behind it, was giving an important share in the administration
+of justice to numerous country gentlemen who were thus
+compelled to learn some law. A like beneficial work was being
+done among jurors, who, having ceased to be regarded as witnesses,
+had become &ldquo;judges of fact.&rdquo; No one doubted that trial
+by jury was the &ldquo;palladium&rdquo; of English liberties, and popularity
+awaited those who would exalt the office of the jurors and
+narrowly limit the powers of the judge.</p>
+
+<p>But during this age the chief addition to English jurisprudence
+was made by the crystallization of the chancellor&rsquo;s equity. In
+the 17th century the chancery had a narrow escape
+of sharing the fate that befell its twin sister the star
+<span class="sidenote">Equity.</span>
+chamber. Its younger sister the court of requests perished under
+the persistent attacks of the common lawyers. Having outlived
+troubles, the chancery took to orderly habits, and administered
+under the name of &ldquo;equity&rdquo; a growing group of rules, which
+in fact were supplemental law. Stages in this process are marked
+by the chancellorships of Nottingham (1673-1675) and Hardwicke
+(1737-1756). Slowly a continuous series of Equity Reports
+began to flow, and still more slowly an &ldquo;equity bar&rdquo; began to
+form itself. The principal outlines of equity were drawn by
+men who were steeped in the common law. By way of ornament
+a Roman maxim might be borrowed from a French or Dutch
+expositor, or a phrase which smacked of that &ldquo;nature-rightly&rdquo;
+school which was dominating continental Europe; but the
+influence exercised by Roman law upon English equity has been
+the subject of gross exaggeration. Parliament and the old
+courts being what they were, perhaps it was only in a new court
+that the requisite new law could be evolved. The result was
+not altogether satisfactory. Freed from contact with the plain
+man in the jury-box, the chancellors were tempted to forget how
+plain and rough good law should be, and to screw up the legal
+standard of reasonable conduct to a height hardly attainable
+except by those whose purses could command the constant
+advice of a family solicitor. A court which started with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span>
+idea of doing summary justice for the poor became a court which
+did a highly refined, but tardy justice, suitable only to the rich.</p>
+
+<p>About the middle of the century William Blackstone, then a
+disappointed barrister, began to give lectures on English law at
+Oxford (1758), and soon afterwards he began to publish
+(1765) his <i>Commentaries</i>. Accurate enough in its
+<span class="sidenote">Blackstone.</span>
+history and doctrine to be an invaluable guide to
+professional students and a useful aid to practitioners, his book
+set before the unprofessional public an artistic picture of the
+laws of England such as had never been drawn of any similar
+system. No nation but the English had so eminently readable
+a law-book, and it must be doubtful whether any other lawyer
+ever did more important work than was done by the first professor
+of English law. Over and over again the <i>Commentaries</i>
+were edited, sometimes by distinguished men, and it is hardly
+too much to say that for nearly a century the English lawyer&rsquo;s
+main ideas of the organization and articulation of the body of
+English law were controlled by Blackstone. This was far from
+all. The Tory lawyer little thought that he was giving law to
+colonies that were on the eve of a great and successful rebellion.
+Yet so it was. Out in America, where books were few and lawyers
+had a mighty task to perform, Blackstone&rsquo;s facile presentment
+of the law of the mother country was of inestimable value. It
+has been said that among American lawyers the <i>Commentaries</i>
+&ldquo;stood for the law of England,&rdquo; and this at a time when the
+American daughter of English law was rapidly growing in stature,
+and was preparing herself for her destined march from the
+Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Excising only what seemed to
+savour of oligarchy, those who had defied King George retained
+with marvellous tenacity the law of their forefathers. Profound
+discussions of English medieval law have been heard in American
+courts; admirable researches into the recesses of the Year-Books
+have been made in American law schools; the names of the
+great American judges are familiar in an England which knows
+little indeed of foreign jurists; and the debt due for the loan
+of Blackstone&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i> is being fast repaid. Lectures on
+the common law delivered by Mr Justice Holmes of the Supreme
+Court of the United States may even have begun to turn the
+scale against the old country. No chapter in Blackstone&rsquo;s book
+nowadays seems more antiquated than that which describes the
+modest territorial limits of that English law which was soon
+to spread throughout Australia and New Zealand and to follow
+the dominant race in India.</p>
+
+<p>Long wars, vast economic changes and the conservatism
+generated by the French Revolution piled up a monstrous arrear
+of work for the English legislature. Meanwhile,
+Jeremy Bentham (d. 1832) had laboured for the overthrow
+<span class="sidenote">Bentham.</span>
+of much that Blackstone had lauded. Bentham&rsquo;s largest
+projects of destruction and reconstruction took but little effect.
+Profoundly convinced of the fungibility and pliability of mankind,
+he was but too ready to draw a code for England or Spain or
+Russia at the shortest notice; and, scornful as he was of the past
+and its historic deposit, a code drawn by Bentham would have
+been a sorry failure. On the other hand, as a critic and derider
+of the system which Blackstone had complacently expounded
+he did excellent service. Reform, and radical reform, was indeed
+sadly needed throughout a system which was encumbered by
+noxious rubbish, the useless leavings of the middle ages: trial
+by battle and compurgation, deodands and benefit of clergy,
+John Doe and Richard Roe. It is perhaps the main fault of
+&ldquo;judge-made law&rdquo; (to use Bentham&rsquo;s phrase) that its destructive
+work can never be cleanly done. Of all vitality, and therefore
+of all patent harmfulness, the old rule can be deprived, but the
+moribund husk must remain in the system doing latent mischief.
+English law was full of decaying husks when Bentham attacked
+it, and his persistent demand for reasons could not be answered.
+At length a general interest in &ldquo;law reform&rdquo; was excited;
+Romilly and Brougham were inspired by Bentham, and the
+great changes in constitutional law which cluster round the
+Reform Act of 1832 were accompanied by many measures which
+purged the private, procedural and criminal law of much, though
+hardly enough, of the medieval dross. Some credit for rousing
+an interest in law, in definitions of legal terms, and in schemes
+of codification, is due to John Austin (d. 1859) who was regarded
+as the jurist of the reforming and utilitarian group. But, though
+he was at times an acute dissector of confused thought, he was
+too ignorant of the English, the Roman and every other system
+of law to make any considerable addition to the sum of knowledge;
+and when Savigny, the herald of evolution, was already in the
+field, the day for a &ldquo;Nature-Right&rdquo;&mdash;and Austin&rsquo;s projected
+&ldquo;general jurisprudence&rdquo; would have been a Nature-Right&mdash;was
+past beyond recall. The obsolescence of the map of law
+which Blackstone had inherited from Hale, and in which many
+outlines were drawn by medieval formulas, left intelligent
+English lawyers without a guide, and they were willing to listen
+for a while to what in their insularity they thought to be the
+voice of cosmopolitan science. Little came of it all. The
+revived study of Germanic law in Germany, which was just
+beginning in Austin&rsquo;s day, seems to be showing that the scheme
+of Roman jurisprudence is not the scheme into which English
+law will run without distortion.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter half of the 19th century some great and wise
+changes were made by the legislature. Notably in 1875 the old
+courts were merged in a new Supreme Court of Judicature,
+and a concurrent administration of law and
+<span class="sidenote">Recent changes.</span>
+equity was introduced. Successful endeavours have
+been made also to reduce the bulk of old statute law, and to
+improve the form of acts of parliament; but the emergence of
+new forces whose nature may be suggested by some such names
+as &ldquo;socialism&rdquo; and &ldquo;imperialism&rdquo; has distracted the attention
+of the British parliament from the commonplace law of the
+land, and the development of obstructive tactics has caused
+the issue of too many statutes whose brevity was purchased by
+disgraceful obscurity. By way of &ldquo;partial codification&rdquo; some
+branches of the common law (bills of exchange, sale of goods,
+partnership) have been skilfully stated in statutes, but a draft
+criminal code, upon which much expert labour was expended,
+lies pigeon-holed and almost forgotten. British India has been
+the scene of some large legislative exploits, and in America a
+few big experiments have been made in the way of code-making,
+but have given little satisfaction to the bulk of those who are
+competent to appreciate their results. In England there are
+large portions of the law which, in their present condition, no
+one would think of codifying: notably the law of real property,
+in which may still be found numerous hurtful relics of bygone
+centuries. So omnipresent are statutes throughout the whole
+field of jurisprudence that the opportunity of doing any great
+feat in the development of law can come but seldom to a modern
+court. More and more, therefore, the fate of English law depends
+on the will of parliament, or rather of the ministry. The quality
+of legal text-books has steadily improved; some of them are
+models of clear statement and good arrangement; but no one
+has with any success aspired to be the Blackstone of a new age.</p>
+
+<p>The Council of Law Reporting was formed in the year 1863.
+The council now consists of three <i>ex-officio</i> members&mdash;the
+attorney-general, the solicitor-general and the president
+of the Incorporated Law Society, and ten members
+<span class="sidenote">Law reporting.</span>
+appointed by the three Inns of Court, the Incorporated
+Law Society and the council itself on the nomination of the
+general council of the bar. The practitioner and the student
+now get for a subscription of four guineas a year the reports in
+all the superior courts and the House of Lords, and the judicial
+committee of the privy council issued in monthly parts a king&rsquo;s
+printer&rsquo;s copy of the statutes, and weekly notes, containing
+short notes of current decisions and announcements of all new
+rules made under the Judicature Acts and other acts of parliament,
+and other legal information. In addition the subscriber
+receives the chronological index of the statutes published from
+time to time by the Stationery Office, and last, but not least, the
+Digests of decided cases published by the council from time to
+time. In 1892 a Digest was published containing the cases and
+statutes for twenty-five years, from 1865 to 1890, and this was
+supplemented by one for the succeeding ten years, from 1891
+to 1900. The digesting is now carried on continuously by means
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span>
+of &ldquo;Current Indexes,&rdquo; which are published monthly and annually,
+and consolidated into a digest at stated intervals (say) of five
+years. The Indian appeals series, which is not required by the
+general practitioner, is supplied separately at one guinea a year.</p>
+
+<p>In the 16th and 17th centuries the corporate life of the Inns
+of Court in London became less and less active. The general
+decay of the organization of crafts and gilds showed
+itself among lawyers as among other craftsmen.
+<span class="sidenote">Legal education.</span>
+Successful barristers, sharing in the general prosperity
+of the country, became less and less able and willing to devote
+their time to the welfare of their profession as a whole. The Inns
+of Chancery, though some of their buildings still remain&mdash;picturesque
+survivals in their &ldquo;suburbs&rdquo;&mdash;ceased to be used
+as places for the education of students. The benchers of the
+Inns of Court, until the revival towards the middle of the
+19th century, had wholly ceased to concern themselves with the
+systematic teaching of law. The modern system of legal education
+may be said to date from the establishment, in 1852, of the
+council of legal education, a body of twenty judges and barristers
+appointed by the four Inns of Court to control the legal education
+of students preparing to be called to the bar. The most important
+feature is the examination which a student must pass
+before he can be called. The examination (which by degrees
+has been made &ldquo;stiffer&rdquo;) serves the double purpose of fixing
+the compulsory standard which all must reach, and of guiding
+the reading of students who may desire, sooner or later, to carry
+their studies beyond this standard. The subjects in which the
+examination is held are divided into Roman law; Constitutional
+law and legal history; Evidence, Procedure and Criminal law;
+Real and Personal Property; Equity; and Common law.
+The council of legal education also appoint a body of readers
+and assistant readers, practising barristers, who deliver lectures
+and hold classes.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the custom remains by which a student reads for
+a year or more as a pupil in the chambers of some practising
+barrister. In the 18th century it first became usual for students
+to read with a solicitor or attorney, and after a short time the
+modern practice grew up of reading in the chambers of a conveyancer,
+equity draftsman or special pleader, or, in more
+recent times, in the chambers of a junior barrister. Before the
+modern examination system, a student required to have a
+certificate from the barrister in whose chambers he had been a
+pupil before he could be &ldquo;called,&rdquo; but the only relic of the old
+system now is the necessity of &ldquo;eating dinners,&rdquo; six (three for
+university men) in each of the four terms for three years, at one
+of the Inns of Court.</p>
+
+<p>The education of solicitors suffered from the absence of any
+professional organization until the Incorporated Law Society
+was established in 1825 and the following years. So far as any
+professional education is provided for solicitors or required from
+them, this is due to the efforts of the Law Society. As early as
+1729 it was required by statute that any person applying for
+admission as attorney or solicitor should submit to examination
+by one of the judges, who was to test his fitness and capacity
+in consideration of a fee of one shilling. At the same time
+regular preliminary service under articles was required, that
+is to say, under a contract by which the clerk was bound to serve
+for five years. The examination soon became, perhaps always
+was, an empty form. The Law Society, however, soon showed
+zeal for the education of future solicitors. In 1833 lectures were
+instituted. In 1836 the first regular examinations were established,
+and in 1860 the present system of examinations&mdash;preliminary,
+intermediate and final&mdash;came into effect. Of these
+only the last two are devoted to law, and both are of a strictly
+professional character. The final examination is a fairly severe
+test of practical acquaintance with all branches of modern
+English law. The Law Society makes some provision for the
+teaching of students, but this teaching is designed solely to assist
+in preparation for the examinations.</p>
+
+<p>At the universities of Oxford and Cambridge there has, since
+1850, been an attempt to promote the study of law. The
+curriculum of legal subjects in which lectures are given and
+examinations held is calculated to give a student a sound fundamental
+knowledge of general principles, as well as an elementary
+acquaintance with the rules of modern English law. Jurisprudence,
+Roman law, Constitutional law and International
+law are taught, as well as the law of Real and Personal Property,
+the Law of Contract and Tort, Criminal law, Procedure and
+Evidence. But the law tripos and the law schools suffer from
+remoteness from the law courts, and from the exclusively
+academical character of the teaching. Law is also taught,
+though not on a very large scale, at Manchester and at Liverpool.
+London University has encouraged the study of law by its
+examinations for law degrees, at which a comparatively high
+standard of knowledge is required; and at University College,
+London, and King&rsquo;s College, London, teaching is given in law
+and jurisprudence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;F. Liebermann, <i>Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen</i>
+(1898); K.E. Digby, <i>History of the Law of Real Property</i>; Sir W.
+Dugdale, <i>Origines juridicales</i> (1671); O.W. Holmes, <i>The Common
+Law</i> (Boston, 1881); H. Hallam, <i>Constitutional History</i>; W.S.
+Holdsworth, <i>History of English Law</i>, 3 vols. (1903-9); J. Reeves,
+<i>History of English Law</i>, ed. W.F. Finlason (1869); T. Madox,
+<i>History and Antiquities of the Exchequer</i> (1769); C. de Franqueville,
+<i>Le Système judiciaire de la Grande-Bretagne</i> (Paris, 1893); Sir F.
+Pollock and F.W. Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i> (2 vols., 1898);
+H. Brunner, <i>The Sources of the Law of England</i>, trans. by W.
+Hastie (1888); Sir R.K. Wilson, <i>History of Modern English Law</i>
+(1875); A.V. Dicey, <i>Law and Public Opinion in England</i> (1905);
+Sir J.F. Stephen, <i>History of the Criminal Law of England</i>
+(3 vols., 1883); W. Stubbs, <i>Select Charters, Constitutional History</i>;
+the Publications of the Selden Society and the Year Books in the
+Rolls Series.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. W. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENGLISH LITERATURE.<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> The following discussion of the
+evolution of English literature, <i>i.e.</i> of the contribution to
+literature made in the course of ages by the writers of England,
+is planned so as to give a comprehensive view, the details as to
+particular authors and their work, and special consideration of
+the greater writers, being given in the separate articles devoted
+to them. It is divided into the following sections: (1) Earliest
+times to Chaucer; (2) Chaucer to the end of the middle ages;
+(3) Elizabethan times; (4) the Restoration period; (5) the
+Eighteenth century; (6) the Nineteenth century. The object
+of these sections is to form connecting links among the successive
+literary ages, leaving the separate articles on individual great
+writers to deal with their special interest; attention being paid in
+the main to the gradually developing characteristics of the product,
+quâ literary. The precise delimitation of what may narrowly be
+called &ldquo;English&rdquo; literature, <i>i.e.</i> in the English language, is
+perhaps impossible, and separate articles are devoted to American
+literature (<i>q.v.</i>), and to the vernacular literatures of Scotland
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scotland</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>), Ireland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>:
+<i>Literature</i>), and Wales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canada</a></span>:
+<i>Literature</i>. Reference may also be made to such general articles
+on particular forms as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Novel</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Romance</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Verse</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Earliest Times to Chaucer</p>
+
+<p>English literature, in the etymological sense of the word, had,
+so far as we know, no existence until Christian times. There is
+no evidence either that the heathen English had adopted the
+Roman alphabet, or that they had learned to employ their native
+monumental script (the runes) on materials suitable for the
+writing of continuous compositions of considerable length.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, certain that in the pre-literary period at least
+one species of poetic art had attained a high degree of development,
+and that an extensive body of poetry was handed down&mdash;not,
+indeed, with absolute fixity of form or substance&mdash;from
+generation to generation. This unwritten poetry was the work
+of minstrels who found their audiences in the halls of kings and
+nobles. Its themes were the exploits of heroes belonging to the
+royal houses of Germanic Europe, with which its listeners claimed
+kinship. Its metre was the alliterative long line, the lax rhythm
+of which shows that it was intended, not to be sung to regular
+melodies, but to be recited&mdash;probably with some kind of instrumental
+accompaniment. Of its beauty and power we may judge
+from the best passages in <i>Beowulf</i> (<i>q.v.</i>); for there can be little
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span>
+doubt that this poem gained nothing and lost much in the process
+of literary redaction.</p>
+
+<p>The conversion of the people to Christianity necessarily
+involved the decline of the minstrelsy that celebrated the glories
+of heathen times. Yet the descendants of Woden, even when
+they were devout Christians, would not easily lose all interest
+in the achievements of their kindred of former days. Chaucer&rsquo;s
+knowledge of &ldquo;the song of Wade&rdquo; is one proof among others
+that even so late as the 14th century the deeds of Germanic
+heroes had not ceased to be recited in minstrel verse. The
+paucity of the extant remains of Old English heroic poetry is no
+argument to the contrary. The wonder is that any of it has
+survived at all. We may well believe that the professional
+reciter would, as a rule, be jealous of any attempt to commit
+to writing the poems which he had received by tradition or had
+himself composed. The clergy, to whom we owe the writing
+and the preservation of the Old English MSS., would only in rare
+instances be keenly interested in secular poetry. We possess,
+in fact, portions of four narrative poems, treating of heroic
+legend&mdash;<i>Beowulf</i>, <i>Widsith</i>, <i>Finnesburh</i> and <i>Waldere</i>. The second
+of these has no poetical merit, but great archaeological interest.
+It is an enumeration of the famous kings known to German
+tradition, put into the mouth of a minstrel (named Widsith,
+&ldquo;far-travelled&rdquo;), who claims to have been at many of their
+courts and to have been rewarded by them for his song. The list
+includes historical persons such as Ermanaric and Alboin, who
+really lived centuries apart, but (with the usual chronological
+vagueness of tradition) are treated as contemporaries. The
+extant fragment of <i>Finnesburh</i> (50 lines) is a brilliant battle
+piece, belonging to a story of which another part is introduced
+episodically in <i>Beowulf</i>. <i>Waldere</i>, of which we have two fragments
+(together 68 lines) is concerned with Frankish and Burgundian
+traditions based on events of the 5th century; the hero
+is the &ldquo;Waltharius&rdquo; of Ekkehart&rsquo;s famous Latin epic. The
+English poem may possibly be rather a literary composition
+than a genuine example of minstrel poetry, but the portions that
+have survived are hardly inferior to the best passages of <i>Beowulf</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It may reasonably be assumed that the same minstrels who
+entertained the English kings and nobles with the recital of
+ancient heroic traditions would also celebrate in verse the martial
+deeds of their own patrons and their immediate ancestors.
+Probably there may have existed an abundance of poetry
+commemorative of events in the conquest of Britain and the
+struggle with the Danes. Two examples only have survived,
+both belonging to the 10th century: The <i>Battle of Brunanburh</i>,
+which has been greatly over-praised by critics who were unaware
+that its striking phrases and compounds are mere traditional
+echoes; and the <i>Battle of Maldon</i>, the work of a truly great poet,
+of which unhappily only a fragment has been preserved.</p>
+
+<p>One of the marvels of history is the rapidity and thoroughness
+with which Christian civilization was adopted by the English.
+Augustine landed in 597; forty years later was born an Englishman,
+Aldhelm, who in the judgment of his contemporaries
+throughout the Christian world was the most accomplished
+scholar and the finest Latin writer of his time. In the next
+generation England produced in Bede (Bæda) a man who in
+solidity and variety of knowledge, and in literary power, had
+for centuries no rival in Europe. Aldhelm and Bede are known
+to us only from their Latin writings, though the former is recorded
+to have written vernacular poetry of great merit. The extant
+Old English literature is almost entirely Christian, for the poems
+that belong to an earlier period have been expurgated and
+interpolated in a Christian sense. From the writings that have
+survived, it would seem as if men strove to forget that England
+had ever been heathen. The four deities whose names are
+attached to the days of the week are hardly mentioned at all.
+The names Thunor and Tiw are sometimes used to translate the
+Latin Jupiter and Mars; Woden has his place (but not as a
+god) in the genealogies of the kings, and his name occurs once
+in a magical poem, but that is all. Bede, as a historian, is obliged
+to tell the story of the conversion; but the only native divinities
+he mentions are the goddesses Hr&#275;th and Eostre, and all we
+learn about them is that they gave their names to Hr&#275;them&#333;nath
+(March) and Easter. That superstitious practices of heathen
+origin long survived among the people is shown by the acts of
+church councils and by a few poems of a magical nature that
+have been preserved; but, so far as can be discovered, the
+definite worship of the ancient gods quickly died out. English
+heathenism perished without leaving a record.</p>
+
+<p>The Old English religious poetry was written, probably without
+exception, in the cloister, and by men who were familiar with
+the Bible and with Latin devotional literature. Setting aside
+the wonderful <i>Dream of the Rood</i>, it gives little evidence of high
+poetic genius, though much of it is marked by a degree of culture
+and refinement that we should hardly have expected. Its
+material and thought are mainly derived from Latin sources;
+its expression is imitated from the native heroic poetry. Considering
+that a great deal of Latin verse was written by Englishmen
+in the 7th and succeeding centuries, and that in one or two
+poems the line is actually composed of an English and a Latin
+hemistich rhyming together, it seems strange that the Latin
+influence on Old English versification should have been so small.
+The alliterative long line is throughout the only metre employed,
+and although the laws of alliteration and rhythm were less
+rigorously obeyed in the later than in the earlier poetry, there
+is no trace of approximation to the structure of Latin verse. It is
+true that, owing to imitation of the Latin hymns of the church,
+rhyme came gradually to be more and more frequently used as
+an ornament of Old English verse; but it remained an ornament
+only, and never became an essential feature. The only poem
+in which rhyme is employed throughout is one in which sense
+is so completely sacrificed to sound that a translation would
+hardly be possible. It was not only in metrical respects that
+the Old English religious poetry remained faithful to its native
+models. The imagery and the diction are mainly those of the
+old heroic poetry, and in some of the poems Christ and the saints
+are presented, often very incongruously, under the aspect of
+Germanic warriors. Nearly all the religious poetry that has any
+considerable religious value seems to have been written in
+Northumbria during the 8th century. The remarkably vigorous
+poem of <i>Judith</i>, however, is certainly much later; and the
+<i>Exodus</i>, though early, seems to be of southern origin. For a
+detailed account of the Old English sacred poetry, the reader
+is referred to the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cædmon</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cynewulf</a></span>, to one
+or other of whom nearly every one of the poems, except those
+of obviously late date, has at some time been attributed.</p>
+
+<p>The Riddles (<i>q.v.</i>) of the Exeter Book resemble the religious
+poetry in being the work of scholars, but they bear much more
+decidedly the impress of the native English character. Some of
+them rank among the most artistic and pleasing productions of
+Old English poetry. The Exeter Book contains also several
+pieces of a gnomic character, conveying proverbial instruction
+in morality and worldly wisdom. Their morality is Christian,
+but it is not unlikely that some of the wise sayings they contain
+may have come down by tradition from heathen times. The
+very curious <i>Dialogue of Solomon and Saturn</i> may be regarded
+as belonging to the same class.</p>
+
+<p>The most original and interesting portion of the Old English
+literary poetry is the group of dramatic monologues&mdash;<i>The
+Banished Wife&rsquo;s Complaint</i>, <i>The Husband&rsquo;s Message</i>, <i>The
+Wanderer</i>, <i>The Seafarer</i>, <i>Deor</i> and <i>Wulf and Eadwacer</i>. The
+date of these compositions is uncertain, though their occurrence
+in the Exeter Book shows that they cannot be later than the
+10th century. That they are all of one period is at least unlikely,
+but they are all marked by the same peculiar tone of pathos.
+The monodramatic form renders it difficult to obtain a clear
+idea of the situation of the supposed speakers. It is not improbable
+that most of these poems may relate to incidents of heroic
+legend, with which the original readers were presumed to be
+acquainted. This, however, can be definitely affirmed only in the
+case of the two short pieces&mdash;<i>Deor</i> and <i>Wulf and Eadwacer</i>&mdash;which
+have something of a lyric character, being the only
+examples in Old English of strophic structure and the use of the
+refrain. <i>Wulf and Eadwacer</i>, indeed, exhibits a still further
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span>
+development in the same direction, the monotony of the long
+line metre being varied by the admission of short lines formed
+by the suppression of the second hemistich. The highly
+developed art displayed in this remarkable poem gives reason
+for believing that the existing remains of Old English poetry
+very inadequately represent its extent and variety.</p>
+
+<p>While the origins of English poetry go back to heathen times,
+English prose may be said to have had its effective beginning
+in the reign of Alfred. It is of course true that vernacular prose
+of some kind was written much earlier. The English laws of
+Æthelberht of Kent, though it is perhaps unlikely that they
+were written down, as is commonly supposed, in the lifetime
+of Augustine (died <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 604), or even in that of the king (d. 616),
+were well known to Bede; and even in the 12th-century
+transcript that has come down to us, their crude and elliptical
+style gives evidence of their high antiquity. Later kings of
+Kent and of Wessex followed the example of publishing their
+laws in the native tongue. Bede is known to have translated
+the beginning of the gospel of John (down to vi. 9). The early
+part of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (<i>q.v.</i>) is probably founded
+partly on prose annals of pre-Alfredian date. But although the
+amount of English prose written between the beginning of the
+7th and the middle of the 9th century may have been considerable,
+Latin continued to be regarded as the appropriate vehicle
+for works of any literary pretension. If the English clergy had
+retained the scholarship which they possessed in the days of
+Aldhelm and Bede, the creation of a vernacular prose literature
+would probably have been longer delayed; for while Alfred
+certainly was not indifferent to the need of the laity for instruction,
+the evil that he was chiefly concerned to combat was the
+ignorance of their spiritual guides.</p>
+
+<p>Of the works translated by him and the scholars whom he
+employed, <i>St Gregory&rsquo;s Pastoral Care</i> and his <i>Dialogues</i> (the
+latter rendered by Bishop Werferth) are expressly addressed to
+the priesthood; if the other translations were intended for a
+wider circle of readers, they are all (not excepting the secular
+<i>History of Orosius</i>) essentially religious in purpose and spirit.
+In the interesting preface to the <i>Pastoral Care</i>, in the important
+accounts of Northern lands and peoples inserted in the <i>Orosius</i>,
+and in the free rendering and amplification of the <i>Consolation</i>
+of Boethius and of the <i>Soliloquies</i> of Augustine, Alfred appears
+as an original writer. Other fruits of his activity are his Laws
+(preceded by a collection of those of his 7th-century predecessor,
+Ine of Wessex), and the beginnings of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
+The Old English prose after Alfred is entirely of clerical authorship;
+even the Laws, so far as their literary form is concerned,
+are hardly to be regarded as an exception. Apart from the
+Chronicle (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></span>), the bulk of this
+literature consists of translations from Latin and of homilies
+and saints&rsquo; lives, the substance of which is derived from sources
+mostly accessible to us in their original form; it has therefore
+for us little importance except from the philological point of
+view. This remark may be applied, in the main, even to the
+writings of Ælfric, notwithstanding the great interest which
+attaches to his brilliant achievement in the development of the
+capacities of the native language for literary expression. The
+translation of the gospels, though executed in Ælfric&rsquo;s time
+(about 1000), is by other hands. The sermons of his younger
+contemporary, Archbishop Wulfstan, are marked by earnestness
+and eloquence, and contain some passages of historical value.</p>
+
+<p>From the early years of the 11th century we possess an
+encyclopaedic manual of the science of the time&mdash;chronology,
+astronomy, arithmetic, metre, rhetoric and ethics&mdash;by the monk
+Byrhtferth, a pupil of Abbo of Fleury. It is a compilation, but
+executed with intelligence. The numerous works on medicine,
+the properties of herbs, and the like, are in the main composed
+of selections from Latin treatises; so far as they are original, they
+illustrate the history of superstition rather than that of science.
+It is interesting to observe that they contain one or two formulas
+of incantations in Irish.</p>
+
+<p>Two famous works of fiction, the romance of <i>Apollonius of
+Tyre</i> and the <i>Letter of Alexander</i>, which in their Latin form had
+much influence on the later literature of Europe, were Englished
+in the 11th century with considerable skill. To the same period
+belongs the curious tract on <i>The Wonders of the East</i>. In these
+works, and some minor productions of the time, we see that
+the minds of Englishmen were beginning to find interest in other
+than religious subjects.</p>
+
+<p>The crowding of the English monasteries by foreigners, which
+was one of the results of the Norman Conquest, brought about a
+rapid arrest of the development of the vernacular literature.
+It was not long before the boys trained in the monastic schools
+ceased to learn to read and write their native tongue, and
+learned instead to read and write French. The effects of this
+change are visible in the rapid alteration of the literary language.
+The artificial tradition of grammatical correctness lost its hold;
+the archaic literary vocabulary fell into disuse; and those who
+wrote English at all wrote as they spoke, using more and more
+an extemporized phonetic spelling based largely on French
+analogies. The 12th century is a brilliant period in the history
+of Anglo-Latin literature, and many works of merit were written
+in French (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anglo-Norman</a></span>). But vernacular literature is
+scanty and of little originality. The <i>Peterborough Chronicle</i>,
+it is true, was continued till 1154, and its later portions, while
+markedly exemplifying the changes in the language, contain
+some really admirable writing. But it is substantially correct to
+say that from this point until the age of Chaucer vernacular
+prose served no other purpose than that of popular religious
+edification. For light on the intellectual life of the nation during
+this period we must look mainly to the works written in Latin.
+The homilies of the 12th century are partly modernized transcripts
+from Ælfric and other older writers, partly translations
+from French and Latin; the remainder is mostly commonplace
+in substance and clumsy in expression. At the beginning of the
+13th century the <i>Ancren Riwle</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), a book of counsel for nuns,
+shows true literary genius, and is singularly interesting in its
+substance and spirit; but notwithstanding the author&rsquo;s remarkable
+mastery of English expression, his culture was evidently
+French rather than English. Some minor religious prose works
+of the same period are not without merit. But these examples
+had no literary following. In the early 14th century the writings
+of Richard Rolle and his school attained great popularity. The
+profound influence which they exercised on later religious
+thought, and on the development of prose style, has seldom
+been adequately recognized. The <i>Ayenbite of Inwyt</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Michel,
+Dan</a></span>), a wretchedly unintelligent translation (finished in 1340)
+from Frère Lorens&rsquo;s <i>Somme des vices et des vertus</i>, is valuable
+to the student of language, but otherwise worthless.</p>
+
+<p>The break in the continuity of literary tradition, induced by
+the Conquest, was no less complete with regard to poetry than
+with regard to prose. The poetry of the 13th and the latter part
+of the 12th century was uninfluenced by the written works of
+Old English poets, whose archaic diction had to a great extent
+become unintelligible. But there is no ground to suppose that
+the succession of popular singers and reciters was ever interrupted.
+In the north-west, indeed, the old recitative metre
+seems to have survived in oral tradition, with little more alteration
+than was rendered necessary by the changes in the language,
+until the middle of the 14th century, when it was again adopted
+by literary versifiers. In the south this metre had greatly
+degenerated in strictness before the Conquest, but, with gradually
+increasing laxity in the laws of alliteration and rhythm, it
+continued long in use. It is commonly believed, with great
+intrinsic probability but with scanty actual evidence, that in
+the Old English period there existed, beside the alliterative long
+line, other forms of verse adapted not for recitation but for singing,
+used in popular lyrics and ballads that were deemed too
+trivial for written record. The influence of native popular
+poetic tradition, whether in the form of recited or of sung verse,
+is clearly discernible in the earliest Middle English poems that
+have been preserved. But the authors of these poems were
+familiar with Latin, and probably spoke French as easily as their
+mother tongue; and there was no longer any literary convention
+to restrain them from adopting foreign metrical forms. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span>
+artless verses of the hermit Godric, who died in 1170, exhibit
+in their metre the combined influence of native rhythm and of
+that of Latin hymnology. The <i>Proverbs of Alfred</i>, written about
+1200, is (like the later <i>Proverbs of Hendyng</i>) in style and substance
+a gnomic poem of the ancient Germanic type, containing maxims
+some of which may be of immemorial antiquity; and its rhythm
+is mainly of native origin. On the other hand, the solemn and
+touching meditation known as the <i>Moral Ode</i>, which is somewhat
+earlier in date, is in a metre derived from contemporary Latin
+verse&mdash;a line of seven accents, broken by a caesura, and with
+feminine end-rhymes. In the <i>Ormulum</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orm</a></span>) this metre
+(known as the septenarius) appears without rhyme, and with a
+syllabic regularity previously without example in English verse,
+the line (or distich, as it may be called with almost equal propriety)
+having invariably fifteen syllables. In various modified
+forms, the septenarius was a favourite measure throughout
+the Middle English period. In the poetry of the 13th century
+the influence of French models is conspicuous. The many
+devotional lyrics, some of which, as the <i>Luve Ron</i> of Thomas of
+Hales, have great beauty, show this influence not only in their
+varied metrical form, but also in their peculiar mystical tenderness
+and fervour. The <i>Story of Genesis and Exodus</i>, the substance
+of which is taken from the Bible and Latin commentators,
+derives its metre chiefly from French. Its poetical merit is very
+small. The secular poetry also received a new impulse from
+France. The brilliant and sprightly dialogue of the <i>Owl and
+Nightingale</i>, which can hardly be dated later than about 1230,
+is a &ldquo;contention&rdquo; of the type familiar in French and Provençal
+literature. The &ldquo;Gallic&rdquo; type of humour may be seen in various
+other writings of this period, notably in the <i>Land of Cockaigne</i>,
+a vivacious satire on monastic self-indulgence, and in the fabliau
+of <i>Dame Siviz</i>, a story of Eastern origin, told with almost
+Chaucerian skill. Predominantly, though not exclusively French
+in metrical structure, are the charming love poems collected
+in a MS. (Harl. 2253) written about 1320 in Herefordshire, some
+of which (edited in T. Wright&rsquo;s <i>Specimens of Lyric Poetry</i>) find
+a place in modern popular anthologies. It is noteworthy that
+they are accompanied by some French lyrics very similar in
+style. The same MS. contains, besides some religious poetry,
+a number of political songs of the time of Edward II. They
+are not quite the earliest examples of their kind; in the time
+of the Barons&rsquo; War the popular cause had had its singers in
+English as well as in French. Later, the victories of Edward III.
+down to the taking of Guisnes in 1352, were celebrated by the
+Yorkshireman Laurence Minot in alliterative verse with strophic
+arrangement and rhyme.</p>
+
+<p>At the very beginning of the 13th century a new species of
+composition, the metrical chronicle, was introduced into English
+literature. The huge work of Layamon, a history (mainly
+legendary) of Britain from the time of the mythical Brutus till
+after the mission of Augustine, is a free rendering of the Norman-French
+<i>Brut</i> of Wace, with extensive additions from traditional
+sources. Its metre seems to be a degenerate survival of the Old
+English alliterative line, gradually modified in the course of the
+work by assimilation to the regular syllabic measure of the
+French original. Unquestionable evidence of the knowledge
+of the poem on the part of later writers is scarce, but distinct
+echoes of its diction appear in the chronicle ascribed to Robert
+of Gloucester, written in rhymed septenary measures about 1300.
+This work, founded in its earlier part on the Latin historians
+of the 12th century, is an independent historical source of some
+value for the events of the writer&rsquo;s own times. The succession
+of versified histories of England was continued by Thomas Bek
+of Castleford in Yorkshire (whose work still awaits an editor),
+and by Robert Mannyng of Brunne (Bourne, Lincolnshire).
+Mannyng&rsquo;s chronicle, finished in 1338, is a translation, in its
+earlier part from Wace&rsquo;s <i>Brut</i>, and in its later part from an
+Anglo-French chronicle (still extant) written by Peter Langtoft,
+canon of Bridlington.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from the year 1300 (for the most part probably earlier
+rather than later) a vast mass of hagiological and homiletic verse
+was produced in divers parts of England. To Gloucester belongs
+an extensive series of Lives of Saints, metrically and linguistically
+closely resembling Robert of Gloucester&rsquo;s Chronicle, and perhaps
+wholly or in part of the same authorship. A similar collection
+was written in the north of England, as well as a large body of
+homilies showing considerable poetic skill, and abounding in
+exempla or illustrative stories. Of <i>exempla</i> several prose collections
+had already been made in Anglo-French, and William of
+Wadington&rsquo;s poem <i>Manuel des péchés</i>, which contains a great
+number of them, was translated in 1303 by Robert Mannyng
+already mentioned, with some enlargement of the anecdotic
+element, and frequent omissions of didactic passages. The
+great rhyming chronicle of Scripture history entitled <i>Cursor
+Mundi</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) was written in the north about this time. It was
+extensively read and transcribed, and exercised a powerful
+influence on later writers down to the end of the 14th century.
+The remaining homiletic verse of this period is too abundant
+to be referred to in detail; it will be enough to mention the
+sermons of William of Shoreham, written in strophic form, but
+showing little either of metrical skill or poetic feeling. To the
+next generation belongs the <i>Pricke of Conscience</i> by Richard
+Rolle, the influence of which was not less powerful than that of
+the author&rsquo;s prose writings.</p>
+
+<p>Romantic poetry, which in French had been extensively
+cultivated, both on the continent and in England from the early
+years of the 12th century, did not assume a vernacular form till
+about 1250. In the next hundred years its development was
+marvellously rapid. Of the vast mass of metrical romances produced
+during this period no detailed account need here be attempted
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Romance</a></span>, and articles, &amp;c. referred to; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthurian
+Romance</a></span>). Native English traditions form the basis of <i>King
+Horn</i>, <i>Guy of Warwick</i>, <i>Bevis of Hamtoun</i> and <i>Havelok</i>, though
+the stories were first put into literary form by Anglo-Norman
+poets. The popularity of these home-grown tales (with which
+may be classed the wildly fictitious <i>Coer de Lion</i>) was soon rivalled
+by that of importations from France. The English rendering
+of <i>Floris and Blancheflur</i> (a love-romance of Greek origin) is
+found in the same MS. that contains the earliest copy of <i>King
+Horn</i>. Before the end of the century, the French &ldquo;matter of
+Britain&rdquo; was represented in English by the Southern <i>Arthur
+and Merlin</i> and the Northern <i>Tristram</i> and <i>Yvaine and Gawin</i>,
+the &ldquo;matter of France&rdquo; by <i>Roland and Vernagu</i> and <i>Otuel</i>;
+the <i>Alexander</i> was also translated, but in this instance the
+immediate original was an Anglo-French and not a continental
+poem. The tale of Troy did not come into English till long
+afterwards. The Auchinleck MS., written about 1330, contains
+no fewer than 14 poetical romances; there were many others
+in circulation, and the number continued to grow. About the
+middle of the 14th century, the Old English alliterative long line,
+which for centuries had been used only in unwritten minstrel
+poetry, emerges again in literature. One of the earliest poems
+in this revived measure, <i>Wynnere and Wastour</i>, written in 1352,
+is by a professional reciter-poet, who complains bitterly that
+original minstrel poetry no longer finds a welcome in the halls of
+great nobles, who prefer to listen to those who recite verses not
+of their own making. About the same date the metre began to
+be employed by men of letters for the translation of romance&mdash;<i>William
+of Palerne</i> and <i>Joseph of Arimathea</i> from the French,
+<i>Alexander</i> from Latin prose. The later development of alliterative
+poetry belongs mainly to the age of Chaucer.</p>
+
+<p>The extent and character of the literature produced during
+the first half of the 14th century indicate that the literary use
+of the native tongue was no longer, as in the preceding age, a
+mere condescension to the needs of the common people. The
+rapid disuse of French as the ordinary medium of intercourse
+among the middle and higher ranks of society, and the consequent
+substitution of English for French as the vehicle of school
+instruction, created a widespread demand for vernacular reading.
+The literature which arose in answer to this demand, though it
+consisted mainly of translations or adaptations of foreign works,
+yet served to develop the appreciation of poetic beauty, and to
+prepare an audience in the near future for a poetry in which the
+genuine thought and feeling of the nation were to find expression.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Only general works need be mentioned here.
+Those cited contain lists of books for more detailed information.
+(1) For the literature from the beginnings to Chaucer:&mdash;B. ten
+Brink, <i>Geschichte der englischen Litteratur</i>, vol. i. 2nd ed., by A.
+Brandl (Strassburg, 1899) (English translation from the 1st ed. of
+1877, by H.M. Kennedy, London, 1883); <i>The Cambridge History
+of English Literature</i>, vol. i. (1907). (2) For the Old English period:&mdash;R.
+Wülker, <i>Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsachsischen Litteratur</i>
+(Leipzig, 1885); Stopford A. Brooke, <i>English Literature from the
+Beginning to the Norman Conquest</i> (London, 1898); A. Brandl,
+&ldquo;Altenglische Litteratur,&rdquo; in H. Paul&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss der germanischen
+Philologie</i>, vol. ii. (2nd ed., Strassburg, 1908). (3) For the early
+Middle English Period:&mdash;H. Morley, <i>English Writers</i>, vol. iii.
+(London, 1888; vols. i. and ii., dealing with the Old English period,
+cannot be recommended); A. Brandl, &ldquo;Mittelenglische Litteratur,&rdquo;
+in H. Paul&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss der germanischen Philologie</i>, vol. ii. (1st ed.,
+Strassburg, 1893); W.H. Schofield, <i>English Literature from the
+Norman Conquest to Chaucer</i> (London, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Br.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Chaucer to the Renaissance</p>
+
+<p>The age of Chaucer is of peculiar interest to the student of
+literature, not only because of its brilliance and productiveness
+but also because of its apparent promise for the future. In this,
+as in other aspects, Chaucer (<i>c.</i> 1340-1400) is its most notable
+literary figure. Beginning as a student and imitator of the best
+French poetry of his day, he was for a time, like most of his
+French contemporaries, little more than a skilful maker of
+elegant verses, dealing with conventional material in a conventional
+way, arranging in new figures the same flowers and
+bowers, sunsets and song-birds, and companies of fair women
+and their lovers, that had been arranged and rearranged by every
+poet of the court circle for a hundred years, and celebrated in
+sweet phrases of almost unvarying sameness. Even at this time,
+to be sure, he was not without close and loving observation of
+the living creatures of the real world, and his verses often bring
+us flowers dewy and fragrant and fresh of colour as they grew in
+the fields and gardens about London, and birds that had learned
+their music in the woods; but his poetry was still not easily
+distinguishable from that of Machault, Froissart, Deschamps,
+Transoun and the other &ldquo;courtly makers&rdquo; of France. But
+while he was still striving to master perfectly the technique of
+this pretty art of trifling, he became acquainted with the new
+literature of Italy, both poetry and prose. Much of the new
+poetry moved, like that of France, among the conventionalities
+and artificialities of an unreal world of romance, but it was of
+wider range, of fuller tone, of far greater emotional intensity,
+and, at its best, was the fabric, not of elegant ingenuity, but of
+creative human passion,&mdash;in Dante, indeed, a wonderful visionary
+structure in which love and hate, and pity and terror, and the
+forms and countenances of men were more vivid and real than
+in the world of real men and real passions. The new prose&mdash;which
+Chaucer knew in several of the writings of Boccaccio&mdash;was
+vastly different from any that he had ever read in a modern
+tongue. Here were no mere brief anecdotes like those <i>exempla</i>
+which in the middle ages illustrated vernacular as well as Latin
+sermons, no cumbrous, slow-moving treatises on the Seven
+Deadly Sins, no half-articulate, pious meditations, but rapid,
+vivid, well-constructed narratives ranging from the sentimental
+beauty of stories like Griselda and the Franklin&rsquo;s Tale to coarse
+mirth and malodorous vulgarity equal to those of the tales told
+later by Chaucer&rsquo;s Miller and Reeve and Summoner. All these
+things he studied and some he imitated. There is scarcely a
+feature of the verse that has not left some trace in his own;
+the prose he did not imitate as prose, but there can be little
+doubt that the subject matter of Boccaccio&rsquo;s tales and novels,
+as well as his poems, affected the direction of Chaucer&rsquo;s literary
+development, and quickened his habit of observing and utilizing
+human life, and that the narrative art of the prose was influential
+in the transformation of his methods of narration.</p>
+
+<p>This transformation was effected not so much through the
+mere superiority of the Italian models to the French as through
+the stimulus which the differences between the two gave to his
+reflections upon the processes and technique of composition,
+for Chaucer was not a careless, happy-go-lucky poet of divine
+endowment, but a conscious, reflective artist, seeking not merely
+for fine words and fine sentiments, but for the proper arrangement
+of events, the significant exponent of character, the right tone,
+and even the appropriate background and atmosphere,&mdash;as
+may be seen, for example, in the transformations he wrought in
+the <i>Pardoner&rsquo;s Tale</i>. It is therefore in the latest and most
+original of the <i>Canterbury Tales</i> that his art is most admirable,
+most distinguished by technical excellences. In these we find
+so many admirable qualities that we almost forget that he
+had any defects. His diction is a model of picturesqueness, of
+simplicity, of dignity, and of perfect adaptation to his theme;
+his versification is not only correct but musical and varied, and
+shows a progressive tendency towards freer and more complex
+melodies; his best tales are not mere repetitions of the ancient
+stories they retell, but new creations, transformed by his own
+imaginative realization of them, full of figures having the dimensions
+and the vivacity of real life, acting on adequate motives,
+and moving in an atmosphere and against a background appropriate
+to their characters and their actions. In the tales of the
+Pardoner, the Franklin, the Summoner, the Squire, he is no less
+notable as a consummate artist than as a poet.</p>
+
+<p>Chaucer, however, was not the only writer of his day remarkable
+for mastery of technique. Gower, indeed, though a man of
+much learning and intelligence, was neither a poet of the first
+rank nor an artist. Despite the admirable qualities of clearness,
+order and occasional picturesqueness which distinguish his work,
+he lacked the ability which great poets have of making their
+words mean more than they say, and of stirring the emotions
+even beyond the bounds of this enhanced meaning; and there
+is not, perhaps, in all his voluminous work in English, French
+and Latin, any indication that he regarded composition as an art
+requiring consideration or any care beyond that of conforming
+to the chosen rhythm and finding suitable rhymes.</p>
+
+<p>There were others more richly endowed as poets and more
+finely developed as artists. There was the beginner of the <i>Piers
+Plowman</i> cycle<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a>, the author of the Prologue and first eight
+passus of the A-text, a man of clear and profound observation,
+a poet whose imagination brought before him with distinctness
+and reality visual images of the motley individuals and masses of
+men of whom he wrote, an artist who knew how to organize
+and direct the figures of his dream-world, the movement of his
+ever-unfolding vision. There was the remarkable successor of
+this man, the author of the B-text, an almost prophetic figure,
+a great poetic idealist, and, helpless though he often was in
+the direction of his thought, an absolute master of images and
+words that seize upon the heart and haunt the memory. Besides
+these, an unknown writer far in the north-west had, in <i>Gawayne
+and the Grene Knight</i>, transformed the medieval romance into a
+thing of speed and colour, of vitality and mystery, no less
+remarkable for its fluent definiteness of form than for the delights
+of hall-feast and hunt, the graceful comedy of temptation,
+and the lonely ride of the doomed Gawayne through the silence
+of the forest and the deep snow. In the same region, by its
+author&rsquo;s power of visual imagination, the Biblical paraphrase,
+so often a mere humdrum narrative, had been transformed, in
+<i>Patience</i>, into a narrative so detailed and vivid that the reader
+is almost ready to believe that the author himself, rather than
+Jonah, went down into the sea in the belly of the great fish,
+and sat humbled and rebuked beside the withered gourd-vine.
+And there also, by some strange chance, blossomed, with perhaps
+only a local and temporary fragrance until its rediscovery in
+the 19th century, that delicate flower of loneliness and aspiration,
+<i>Pearl</i>, a wonder of elaborate art as well as of touching sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>All these writings are great, not only relatively, but absolutely.
+There is not one of them which would not, if written in our own
+time, immediately mark its author as a man of very unusual
+ability. But the point of special concern to us at the present
+moment is not so much that they show remarkable poetic power,
+as that they possess technical merits of a very high order. And
+we are accustomed to believe that, although genius is a purely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span>
+personal and incommunicable element, technical gains are a
+common possession; that after Marlowe had developed the
+technique of blank verse, this technique was available for all;
+that after Pope had mastered the heroic couplet and Gray the
+ode, and Poe the short story, all men could write couplets and
+odes and short stories of technical correctness; that, as Tennyson
+puts it,</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;All can grow the flower now,</p>
+<p class="i05">For all have got the seed.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">But this was singularly untrue of the technical gains made
+by Chaucer and his great contemporaries. <i>Pearl</i> and <i>Patience</i>
+were apparently unknown to the 15th century, but <i>Gawayne</i>
+and <i>Piers Plowman</i> and Chaucer&rsquo;s works were known and were
+influential in one way or another throughout the century.
+<i>Gawayne</i> called into existence a large number of romances
+dealing with the same hero or with somewhat similar situations,
+some of them written in verse suggested by the remarkable verse
+of their model, but the resemblance, even in versification, is
+only superficial. <i>Piers Plowman</i> gave rise to satirical allegories
+written in the alliterative long line and furnished the figures
+and the machinery for many satires in other metres, but the
+technical excellence of the first <i>Piers Plowman</i> poem was soon
+buried for centuries under the tremendous social significance
+of itself and its successors. And Chaucer, in spite of the fact
+that he was praised and imitated by many writers and definitely
+claimed as master by more than one, not only transmitted to
+them scarcely any of the technical conquests he had made,
+but seems also to have been almost without success in creating
+any change in the taste of the public that read his poems so
+eagerly, any demand for better literature than had been written
+by his predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>Wide and lasting Chaucer&rsquo;s influence undoubtedly was. Not
+only was all the court-poetry, all the poetry of writers who
+pretended to cultivation and refinement, throughout the century,
+in England and Scotland, either directly or indirectly imitative
+of his work, but even the humblest productions of unpretentious
+writers show at times traces of his influence. Scotland was
+fortunate in having writers of greater ability than England had
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scotland</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>). In England the three chief followers
+of Chaucer known to us by name are Lydgate, Hoccleve (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Occleve</a></span>) and Hawes. Because of their praise of Chaucer and
+their supposed personal relations to him, Lydgate and Hoccleve
+are almost inseparable in modern discussions, but 15th century
+readers and writers appear not to have associated them very
+closely. Indeed, Hoccleve is rarely mentioned, while Lydgate
+is not only mentioned continually, but continually praised as
+Chaucer&rsquo;s equal or even superior. Hoccleve was not, to be sure,
+as prolific as Lydgate, but it is difficult to understand why his
+work, which compares favourably in quality with Lydgate&rsquo;s,
+attracted so much less attention. The title of his greatest poem,
+<i>De regimine principum</i>, may have repelled readers who were
+not princely born, though they would have found the work full
+of the moral and prudential maxims and illustrative anecdotes
+so dear to them; but his attack upon Sir John Oldcastle as a
+heretic ought to have been decidedly to the taste of the orthodox
+upper classes, while his lamentations over his misspent youth,
+his tales and some of his minor poems might have interested
+any one. Of a less vigorous spirit than Lydgate, he was, in his
+mild way, more humorous and more original. Also despite his
+sense of personal loss in Chaucer&rsquo;s death and his care to transmit
+to posterity the likeness of his beloved master, he seems to have
+been less slavish than Lydgate in imitating him. His memory
+is full of Chaucer&rsquo;s phrases, he writes in verse-forms hallowed by
+the master&rsquo;s use, and he tries to give to his lines the movement
+of Chaucer&rsquo;s decasyllables, but he is comparatively free from
+the influence of those early allegorical works of the Master which
+produced in the 15th century so dreary a flock of imitations.</p>
+
+<p>Lydgate&rsquo;s productivity was enormous,&mdash;how great no man
+can say, for, as was the case with Chaucer also, his fame caused
+many masterless poems to be ascribed to him, but, after making
+all necessary deductions, the amount of verse that has come
+down to us from him is astonishing. Here it may suffice to say
+that his translations are predominantly epic (140,000 lines),
+and his original compositions predominantly allegorical love
+poems or didactic poems. If there is anything duller than a dull
+epic it is a dull allegory, and Lydgate has achieved both. This
+is not to deny the existence of good passages in his epics and
+ingenuity in his allegories, but there is no pervading, persistent
+life in either. His epics, like almost all the narrative verse of
+the time, whether epic, legend, versified chronicle or metrical
+romance, seem designed merely to satisfy the desire of 15th
+century readers for information, the craving for facts&mdash;true or
+fictitious&mdash;the same craving that made possible the poems on
+alchemy, on hunting, on manners and morals, on the duties of
+parish priests, on the seven liberal arts. His allegories, like
+most allegories of the age, are ingenious rearrangements of old
+figures and old machinery, they are full of what had once been
+imagination but had become merely memory assisted by cleverness.
+The great fault of all his work, as of nearly all the literature
+of the age, is that it is merely a more or less skilful manipulation
+of what the author had somewhere read or heard, and not a
+faithful transcript of the author&rsquo;s own peculiar sense or conception
+of what he had seen or heard or read. The fault is not that
+the old is repeated, that a twice-told tale is retold, but that it is
+retold without being re-imagined by the teller of the tale, without
+taking on from his personality something that was not in it
+before. Style, to be sure, was a thing that Lydgate and his
+fellows tried to supply, and some of them supplied it abundantly
+according to their lights. But style meant to them external
+decoration, classical allusions, personifications, an inverted or
+even dislocated order of words, and that famous &ldquo;ornate
+diction,&rdquo; those &ldquo;aureate terms,&rdquo; with which they strove to
+surpass the melody, picturesqueness and dignity which, for all
+its simplicity, they somehow dimly discerned in the diction of
+Chaucer.</p>
+
+<p>Stephen Hawes, with his allegorical treatise on the seven liberal
+sciences, came later than these men, only to write worse. He was
+a disciple of Lydgate rather than of Chaucer, and is not only
+lacking in the vigour and sensitiveness which Lydgate sometimes
+displays, but exaggerates the defects of his master. If it be a
+merit to have conceived the pursuit of knowledge under the form
+of the efforts of a knight to win the hand of his lady, it is almost
+the sole merit to which Hawes can lay claim. Two or three
+good situations, an episode of low comedy, and the epitaph of
+the Knight with its famous final couplet, exhaust the list of his
+credits. The efforts that have been made to trace through Hawes
+the line of Spenser&rsquo;s spiritual ancestry seem not well advised.
+The resemblances that have been pointed out are such as arise
+inevitably from the allegories and from the traditional material
+with which both worked. There is no reason to believe that
+Spenser owed his general conception to Hawes, or that the
+<i>Faëry Queene</i> would have differed in even the slightest detail
+from its present form if the <i>Pastime of Pleasure</i> had never been
+written. The machinery of chivalric romance had already been
+applied to spiritual and moral themes in Spain without the aid
+of Hawes.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the fundamental lack of all these men was
+imaginative power, poetic ability. This is a sufficient reason for
+failure to write good poetry. But why did not men of better
+ability devote themselves to literature in this age? Was it
+because of the perturbed conditions arising from the prevalence
+of foreign and civil wars? Perhaps not, though it is clear that
+if Sir Thomas Malory had perished in one of the many fights
+through which he lived, the chivalric and literary impulses
+which he perhaps received from the &ldquo;Fadre of Curteisy,&rdquo;
+Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, would have gone for
+nothing and we should lack the <i>Morte Darthur</i>. But it may very
+well be that the wars and the tremendous industrial growth
+of England fixed the attention of the strongest and most original
+spirits among the younger men and so withdrew them from the
+possible attractions of literature. But, after all, whatever
+general truth may lie in such speculations, the way of a young
+man with his own life is as incalculable as any of the four things
+which Agur son of Jakeh declared to be past finding out; local
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span>
+and special accidents rather than general communal influences
+are apt to shape the choice of boys of exceptional character, and
+we have many instances of great talents turning to literature
+or art when war or commerce or science was the dominant
+attraction of social life.</p>
+
+<p>But even recognizing that the followers of Chaucer were not
+men of genius, it seems strange that their imitation of Chaucer
+was what it was. They not only entirely failed to see what his
+merits as an artist were and how greatly superior his mature
+work is to his earlier in point of technique; they even preferred
+the earlier and imitated it almost exclusively. Furthermore,
+his mastery of verse seemed to them to consist solely in writing
+verses of approximately four or five stresses and arranging them
+in couplets or in stanzas of seven or eight lines. Their preference
+for the early allegorical work can be explained by their lack of
+taste and critical discernment and by the great vogue of
+allegorical writing in England and France. Men who are just
+beginning to think about the distinction between literature and
+ordinary writing usually feel that it consists in making literary
+expression differ as widely as possible from simple direct speech.
+For this reason some sort of artificial diction is developed and
+some artificial word order devised. Allegory is used as an
+elegant method of avoiding unpoetical plainness, and is an easy
+means of substituting logic for imagination. The failure to
+reproduce in some degree at least the melody and smoothness
+of Chaucer&rsquo;s decasyllabic verse, and the particular form which
+that failure took in Lydgate, are to be explained by the fact
+that Lydgate and his fellows never knew how Chaucer&rsquo;s verse
+sounded when properly read. It is a mistake to suppose that
+the disappearance of final unaccented <i>e</i> from many words or
+its instability in many others made it difficult for Lydgate and
+his fellows to write melodious verse. Melodious verse has been
+written since the disappearance of all these sounds, and the
+possibility of a choice between a form with final <i>e</i> and one without
+it is not a hindrance but an advantage to a poet, as Goethe,
+Schiller, Heine and innumerable German poets have shown by
+their practice. The real difficulty with these men was that they
+pronounced Chaucer&rsquo;s verse as if it were written in the English
+of their own day. As a matter of fact all the types of verse
+discovered by scholars in Lydgate&rsquo;s poems can be discovered
+in Chaucer&rsquo;s also if they be read with Lydgate&rsquo;s pronunciation.
+Chaucer did not write archaic English, as some have supposed,&mdash;that
+is, English of an earlier age than his own,&mdash;it would have
+been impossible for him to do so with the unfailing accuracy
+he shows; he did, however, write a conservative, perhaps an
+old-fashioned, English, such as was spoken by the conservative
+members of the class of society to which he was attached and
+for which he wrote. An English with fewer final <i>e</i>&rsquo;s was already
+in existence among the less conservative classes, and this rapidly
+became standard English in consequence of the social changes
+which occurred during his own life. We know that a misunderstanding
+of Chaucer&rsquo;s verse existed from the 16th century
+to the time of Thomas Tyrwhitt; it seems clear that it began
+even earlier, in Chaucer&rsquo;s own lifetime.</p>
+
+<p>There are several poems of the 15th century which were long
+ascribed to Chaucer. Among them are:&mdash;the <i>Complaint of the
+Black Knight</i>, or <i>Complaint of a Lover&rsquo;s Life</i>, now known to be
+Lydgate&rsquo;s; the <i>Mother of God</i>, now ascribed to Hoccleve; the
+<i>Cuckoo and the Nightingale</i>, by Clanvowe; <i>La Belle Dame sans
+merci</i>, a translation from the French of Alain Chartier by
+Richard Ros; <i>Chaucer&rsquo;s Dream, or the Isle of Ladies</i>; the
+<i>Assembly of Ladies</i>; the <i>Flower and the Leaf</i>; and the <i>Court of
+Love</i>. The two poems of Lydgate and Hoccleve are as good as
+Chaucer&rsquo;s poorest work. The <i>Assembly of Ladies</i> and the <i>Flower
+and the Leaf</i> are perhaps better than the <i>Book of the Duchess</i>,
+but not so good as the <i>Parliament of Fowls</i>. The <i>Flower and the
+Leaf</i>, it will be remembered, was very dear to John Keats, who,
+like all his contemporaries, regarded it as Chaucer&rsquo;s. An additional
+interest attaches to both it and the <i>Assembly of Ladies</i>,
+from the fact that the author may have been a woman; Professor
+Skeat is, indeed, confident that he knows who the woman was
+and when she wrote. These poems, like the <i>Court of Love</i>, are
+thoroughly conventional in material, all the figures and poetical
+machinery may be found in dozens of other poems in England
+and France, as Professor Neilson has shown for the <i>Court of Love</i>
+and Mr Marsh for the <i>Flower and the Leaf</i>; but there are a freshness
+of spirit and a love of beauty in them that are not common;
+the conventional birds and flowers are there, but they seem,
+like those of Chaucer&rsquo;s <i>Legend</i>, to have some touch of life, and
+the conventional companies of ladies and gentlemen ride and talk
+and walk with natural grace and ease. The <i>Court of Love</i> is
+usually ascribed to a very late date, as late even as the middle
+of the 16th century. If this is correct, it is a notable instance
+of the persistence of a Chaucerian influence. An effort has been
+made, to be sure, to show that it was written by Scogan and that
+the writing of it constituted the offence mentioned by Chaucer
+in his <i>Envoy to Scogan</i>, but it has been clearly shown that this
+is impossible, both because the language is later than Scogan&rsquo;s
+time and because nothing in the poem resembles the offence
+clearly described by Chaucer.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be true of the authorship of the <i>Assembly of
+Ladies</i> and the <i>Flower and the Leaf</i>, there were women writers
+in England in the middle ages. Juliana of Norwich wrote her
+<i>Revelations of Divine Love</i> before 1400. The much discussed
+Dame Juliana Berners, the supposed compiler of the treatise
+on hunting in the <i>Book of St Albans</i>, may be mythical, though
+there is no reason why a woman should not have written such
+a book; and a shadowy figure that disappears entirely in the
+sunlight is the supposed authoress of the <i>Nut Brown Maid</i>,
+for if language is capable of definite meaning, the last stanza
+declares unequivocally that the poem is the work of a man.
+But there is a poem warning young women against entering a
+nunnery which may be by a woman, and there is an interesting
+entry among the records of New Romney for 1463-1464, &ldquo;Paid
+to Agnes Forde for the play of the Interlude of our Lord&rsquo;s
+Passion, 6s. 8d.,&rdquo; which is apparently the earliest mention of a
+woman dramatist in England. Finally, Margaret, countess of
+Richmond, the mother of Henry VII., not only aided scholars
+and encouraged writers, but herself translated the (spurious)
+fourth book of St Thomas à Kempis&rsquo;s <i>Imitatio Christi</i>. Another
+Margaret, the duchess of Burgundy, it will be remembered,
+encouraged Caxton in his translation and printing. Women
+seem, indeed, to have been especially lovers of books and patrons
+of writers, and Skelton, if we may believe his <i>Garland of Laurel</i>,
+was surrounded by a bevy of ladies comparable to a modern
+literary club; Erasmus&rsquo;s Suffragette Convention may correspond
+to no reality, but the Learned Lady arguing against the Monk
+for the usefulness and pleasure derived from books was not an
+unknown type. Women were capable of many things in the
+middle ages. English records show them to have been physicians,
+churchwardens, justices of the peace and sheriffs, and,
+according to a satirist, they were also priests.</p>
+
+<p>The most original and powerful poetry of the 15th century
+was composed in popular forms for the ear of the common
+people and was apparently written without conscious artistic
+purpose. Three classes of productions deserve special attention,&mdash;songs
+and carols, popular ballads and certain dramatic compositions.
+The songs and carols belong to a species which may
+have existed in England before the Norman Conquest, but which
+certainly was greatly modified by the musical and lyric forms of
+France. The best of them are the direct and simple if not
+entirely artless expressions of personal emotion, and even when
+they contain, as they sometimes do, the description of a person,
+a situation, or an event, they deal with these things so subjectively,
+confine themselves so closely to the rendering of the
+emotional effect upon the singer, that they lose none of their
+directness or simplicity. Some of them deal with secular subjects,
+some with religious, and some are curious and delightful
+blendings of religious worship and aspiration with earthly tenderness
+for the embodiments of helpless infancy and protecting
+motherhood which gave Christianity so much of its power over
+the affections and imagination of the middle ages. Even those
+which begin as mere expressions of joy in the Yule-tide eating
+and drinking and merriment catch at moments hints of higher
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span>
+joys, of finer emotions, and lift singer and hearer above the noise
+and stir of earth. Hundreds of songs written and sung in the
+15th century must have perished; many, no doubt, lived only a
+single season and were never even written down; but chance
+has preserved enough of them to make us wonder at the age
+which could produce such masterpieces of tantalizing simplicity.</p>
+
+<p>The lyrics which describe a situation form a logical, if not a
+real transition to those which narrate an episode or an event.
+The most famous of the latter, the <i>Nut Brown Maid</i>, has often
+been called a ballad, and &ldquo;lyrical ballad&rdquo; it is in the sense
+established by Coleridge and Wordsworth, but its affinities are
+rather with the song or carol than with the folk-ballad, and, like
+Henryson&rsquo;s charming <i>Robin and Malkin</i>, it is certainly the
+work of a man of culture and of conscious artistic purpose and
+methods. Unaccompanied, as it is, by any other work of the
+same author, this poem, with its remarkable technical merits,
+is an even more astonishing literary phenomenon than the famous
+single sonnet of Blanco White. It can hardly be doubted that
+the author learned his technique from the songs and carols.</p>
+
+<p>The folk-ballad, like the song or carol, belongs in some form
+to immemorial antiquity. It is doubtless a mistake to suppose
+that any ballad has been preserved to us that is a purely communal
+product, a confection of the common knowledge, traditions
+and emotions of the community wrought by subconscious
+processes into a song that finds chance but inevitable utterance
+through one or more individuals as the whole commune moves
+in its molecular dance. But it is equally a mistake to argue that
+ballads are essentially metrical romances in a state of decay. Both
+the matter and the manner of most of the best ballads forbid
+such a supposition, and it can hardly be doubted that in some of
+the folk-ballads of the 15th century are preserved not only
+traditions of dateless antiquity, but formal elements and technical
+processes that actually are derived from communal song and
+dance. By the 15th century, however, communal habits and
+processes of composition had ceased, and the traditional elements,
+formulae and technique had become merely conventional
+aids and guides for the individual singer. Ancient as they were,
+conventional as, in a sense, they also were, they exercised none
+of the deadening, benumbing influence of ordinary conventions.
+They furnished, one may say, a vibrant framework of emotional
+expression, each tone of which moved the hearers all the more
+powerfully because it had sung to them so many old, unhappy,
+far-off things, so many battles and treacheries and sudden griefs;
+a framework which the individual singer needed only to fill
+out with the simplest statement of the event which had stirred
+his own imagination and passions to produce, not a work of
+art, but a song of universal appeal. Not a work of art, because
+there are scarcely half a dozen ballads that are really works of
+art, and the greatest ballads are not among these. There is
+scarcely one that is free from excrescences, from dulness, from
+trivialities, from additions that would spoil their greatest
+situations and their greatest lines, were it not that we resolutely
+shut our ears and our eyes, as we should, to all but their greatest
+moments. But at their best moments the best ballads have an
+almost incomparable power, and to a people sick, as we are, of
+the ordinary, the usual, the very trivialities and impertinences
+of the ballads only help to define and emphasize these best
+moments. In histories of English literature the ballads have
+been so commonly discussed in connexion with their rediscovery
+in the 18th century, that we are apt to forget that some of the
+very best were demonstrably composed in the 15th and that
+many others of uncertain date probably belong to the same time.</p>
+
+<p>Along with the genuine ballads dealing with a recent event or
+a traditional theme there were ballads in which earlier romances
+are retold in ballad style. This was doubtless inevitable in
+view of the increasing epic tendency of the ballad and the interest
+still felt in metrical romances, but it should not mislead us into
+regarding the genuine folk-ballad as an out-growth of the
+metrical romance.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the ordinary epic or narrative ballad, the 15th century
+produced ballads in dramatic form, or, perhaps it were better
+to say, dramatized some of its epic ballads. How commonly
+this was done we do not know, but the scanty records of the
+period indicate that it was a widespread custom, though only
+three plays of this character (all concerning Robin Hood) have
+come down to us. These plays had, however, no further independent
+development, but merely furnished elements of incident
+and atmosphere to later plays of a more highly organized type.
+With these ballad plays may also be mentioned the Christmas
+plays (usually of St George) and the sword-dance plays, which
+also flourished in the 15th century, but survive for us only as
+obscure elements in the masques and plays of Ben Jonson and in
+such modern rustic performances as Thomas Hardy has so
+charmingly described in <i>The Return of the Native</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The additions which the 15th century made to the ancient
+cycles of Scripture plays, the so-called Mysteries, are another
+instance of a literary effort which spent itself in vain (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drama</a></span>). The most notable of these are, of course, the world
+renowned comic scenes in the <i>Towneley</i> (or <i>Wakefield</i>) <i>Plays</i>, in
+the pageants of Cain, of Noah and of the Shepherds. In none
+of these is the 15th century writer responsible for the original
+comic intention; in the pageants of Cain and of the Shepherds
+fragments of the work of a 14th century writer still remain to
+prove the earlier existence of the comic conception, and that it
+was traditional in the Noah pageant we know from the testimony
+of Chaucer&rsquo;s Miller; but none the less the 15th century writer
+was a comic dramatist of original power and of a skill in the
+development of both character and situation previously unexampled
+in England. The inability of Lydgate to develop a
+comic conception is strikingly displayed if one compares his
+<i>Pageant for Presentation before the King at Hereford</i> with the
+work of this unknown artist. But in our admiration for this
+man and his famous episode of Mak and the fictitious infant, we
+are apt to forget the equally fine, though very different qualities
+shown in some of the later pageants of the <i>York Plays</i>. Such,
+for example, is the final pageant, that of the <i>Last Judgment</i>, a
+drama of slow and majestic movement, to be sure, but with a
+large and fine conception of the great situation, and a noble and
+dignified elocution not inadequate to the theme.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Abraham and Isaac</i> play of the Brome MS., extant as a
+separate play and perhaps so performed, which has been so
+greatly admired for its cumulative pathos, also belongs demonstrably
+to this century. It is not, as has been supposed,
+an intermediate stage between French plays and the Chester
+<i>Abraham and Isaac</i>, but is derived directly from the latter by
+processes which comparison of the two easily reveals. Scripture
+plays of a type entirely different from the well-known cyclic
+mysteries, apparently confined to the Passion and Resurrection
+and the related events, become known to us for the first time in
+the records of this century. Such plays seem to have been
+confined to the towns of the south, and, as both their location
+and their structure suggest, may have been borrowed from
+France. In any event, the records show that they flourished
+greatly and that new versions were made from time to time.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of the medieval drama, the Morality Play, had
+its origin in the 15th century,&mdash;or else very late in the 14th.
+The earliest known examples of it in England date from about
+1420. These are the <i>Castle of Perseverance</i> and the <i>Pride of Life</i>.
+Others belonging to the century are <i>Mind, Will and Understanding</i>,
+<i>Mankind</i> and Medwall&rsquo;s <i>Nature</i>. There are also parts of
+two pageants in the <i>Ludus Coventriae</i> (<i>c.</i> 1460) that are commonly
+classed as Moralities, and these, together with the existence of a
+few personified abstractions in other plays, have led some critics
+to suppose that the Morality was derived from the Mystery by
+the gradual introduction of personified abstractions in the place
+of real persons. But the two kinds of plays are fundamentally
+different, different in subject and in technique; and no replacement
+of real persons by personifications can change a Mystery
+into a Morality. Moreover, the Morality features in Mysteries
+are later than the origin of the Morality itself and are due to the
+influence of the latter. The Morality Play is merely a dramatized
+allegory, and derives its characters and its peculiar technique
+from the application of the dramatic method to the allegory,
+the favourite literary form of the middle ages. None of the 15th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span>
+century Moralities is literature of the first rank, though both the
+<i>Castle of Perseverance</i> and <i>Pride of Life</i> contain passages ringing
+with a passionate sincerity that communicates itself to the
+hearer or reader. But it was not until the beginning of the
+16th century that a Morality of permanent human interest
+appeared in <i>Everyman</i>, which, after all, is a translation from
+the Dutch, as is clearly proved by the fact that in the two prayers
+near the end of the play the Dutch has complicated but regular
+stanzas, whereas the English has only irregularly rhymed
+passages.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Mysteries and Moralities, the 15th century had also
+Miracle Plays, properly so called, dealing with the lives, martyrdoms
+and miracles of saints. As we know these only from
+records of their performance or their mere existence&mdash;no texts
+have been preserved to us, except the very curious <i>Play of the
+Sacrament</i>&mdash;it is impossible to speak of their literary or dramatic
+qualities. The Miracle Play as a form was, of course, not confined
+to the 15th century. Notwithstanding the assertions of historians
+of literature that it died out in England soon after its introduction
+at the beginning of the 12th century, its existence can be demonstrated
+from <i>c.</i> 1110 to the time of Shakespeare. But records
+seem to indicate that it flourished especially during this period
+of supposed barrenness.</p>
+
+<p>What was the nature of the &ldquo;Komedy of Troylous and
+Pandor&rdquo; performed before Henry VIII. on the 6th of January
+1516 we have no means of knowing. It is very early indeed
+to assume the influence of either classical or Italian drama,
+and although we have no records of similar plays from the 15th
+century, it must be remembered that our records are scanty,
+that the middle ages applied the dramatic method to all sorts of
+material, and that it is therefore not impossible that secular
+plays like this were performed at court at a much earlier date.
+The record at any rate does not indicate that it was a new type
+of play, and the Griselda story had been dramatized in France,
+Italy and the Netherlands before 1500.</p>
+
+<p>That not much good prose was written in the 15th century is
+less surprising than that so little good verse was written. The
+technique of verse composition had been studied and mastered
+in the preceding age, as we have seen, but the technique of prose
+had apparently received no serious consideration. Indeed, it is
+doubtful if any one thought of prose as a possible medium of
+artistic expression. Chaucer apparently did not, in spite of the
+comparative excellence of his Preface to the <i>Astrolabe</i> and his
+occasional noteworthy successes with the difficulties of the
+philosophy of Boethius; Wycliffe is usually clumsy; and the
+translators of Mandeville, though they often give us passages
+of great charm, obviously were plain men who merely translated
+as best they could. There was, however, a comparatively large
+amount of prose written in the 15th century, mainly for religious
+or educational purposes, dealing with the same sorts of subjects
+that were dealt with in verse, and in some cases not distinguishable
+from the verse by any feature but the absence of rhyme.
+The vast body of this we must neglect; only five writers need
+be named: John Capgrave, Reginald Pecock, Sir John Fortescue,
+Caxton and Malory. Capgrave, the compiler of the first chronicle
+in English prose since the Conquest, wrote by preference in
+Latin; his English is a condescension to those who could not
+read Latin and has the qualities which belong to the talk of an
+earnest and sincere man of commonplace ability. Pecock and
+Fortescue are more important. Pecock (<i>c.</i> 1395-<i>c.</i> 1460) was
+a man of singularly acute and logical mind. He prided himself
+upon his dialectic skill and his faculty for discovering arguments
+that had been overlooked by others. His writings, therefore&mdash;or
+at least the <i>Repressor</i>&mdash;are excellent in general structure and
+arrangement, his ideas are presented clearly and simply, with
+few digressions or excrescences, and his sentences, though
+sometimes too long, are more like modern prose than any others
+before the age of Elizabeth. His style is lightened by frequent
+figures of speech, mostly illustrative, and really illustrative, of
+his ideas, while his intellectual ingenuity cannot fail to interest
+even those whom his prejudices and preconceptions repel.
+Fortescue, like Capgrave, wrote by preference in Latin, and, like
+Pecock, was philosophical and controversial. But his principal
+English work, the <i>Difference between an Absolute and a Limited
+Monarchy</i>, differs from Pecock&rsquo;s in being rather a pleading than
+a logical argument, and the geniality and glowing patriotism
+of its author give it a far greater human interest.</p>
+
+<p>No new era in literary composition was marked by the activity
+of William Caxton as translator and publisher, though the printing-press
+has, of course, changed fundamentally the problem
+of the dissemination and preservation of culture, and thereby
+ultimately affected literary production profoundly. But neither
+Caxton nor the writers whose works he printed produced anything
+new in form or spirit. His publications range over the whole
+field of 15th century literature, and no doubt he tried, as his
+quaint prefaces indicate, to direct the public taste to what was
+best among the works of the past, as when he printed and reprinted
+the <i>Canterbury Tales</i>, but among all his numerous
+publications not one is the herald of a new era. The only book of
+permanent interest as literature which he introduced to the
+world was the <i>Morte Darthur</i> of Sir Thomas Malory, and this is a
+compilation from older romances (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthurian Legend</a></span>).
+It is, to be sure, the one book of permanent literary significance
+produced in England in the 15th century; it glows with the
+warmth and beauty of the old knight&rsquo;s conception of chivalry
+and his love for the great deeds and great men of the visionary
+past, and it continually allures the reader by its fresh and vivid
+diction and by a syntax which, though sometimes faulty, has
+almost always a certain naïve charm; &ldquo;thystorye (<i>i.e.</i> the
+history) of the sayd Arthur,&rdquo; as Caxton long ago declared, &ldquo;is
+so gloryous and shynyng, that he is stalled in the first place
+of the moost noble, beste and worthyest of the Crysten men&rdquo;;
+it is not, however, as the first of a new species, but as the final
+flower of an old that this glorious and shining book retains its
+place in English literature.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may have been the effect of the wars and the growth
+of industrial life in England in withdrawing men of the best
+abilities from the pursuit of literature, neither these causes
+nor any other interfered with the activity of writers of lesser
+powers. The amount of writing is really astonishing, as is also
+its range. More than three hundred separate works (exclusive
+of the large number still ascribed to Lydgate and of the seventy
+printed by Caxton) have been made accessible by the Early
+English Text Society and other public or private presses, and
+it seems probable that an equal number remains as yet unpublished.
+No list of these writings can be given here, but it
+may not be unprofitable to indicate the range of interests by
+noting the classes of writing represented. The classification is
+necessarily rough, as some writings belong to more than one
+type. We may note, first, love poems, allegorical and unallegorical,
+narrative, didactic, lyrical and quasi-lyrical; poems
+autobiographical and exculpatory; poems of eulogy and appeal
+for aid; tales of entertainment or instruction, in prose and in
+verse; histories ancient and modern, and brief accounts of
+recent historical events, in prose and in verse; prose romances
+and metrical romances; legends and lives of saints, in prose and
+in verse; poems and prose works of religious meditation,
+devotion and controversy; treatises of religious instruction, in
+prose and in verse; ethical and philosophical treatises, and
+ethical and prudential treatises; treatises of government, of
+political economy, of foreign travel, of hygiene, of surgery, of
+alchemy, of heraldry, of hunting and hawking and fishing, of
+farming, of good manners, and of cooking and carving. Prosaic
+and intended merely to serve practical uses as many of these
+were, verse is the medium of expression as often as prose. Besides
+this large amount and variety of English compositions, it must
+be remembered that much was also written in Latin, and that
+Latin and French works of this and other centuries were read by
+the educated classes.</p>
+
+<p>Although the intellectual and spiritual movement which we
+call the Italian Renaissance was not unknown in England in the
+14th and 15th centuries, it is not strange that it exercised no
+perceptible influence upon English literature, except in the case
+of Chaucer. Chaucer was the only English man of letters before
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span>
+the 16th century who knew Italian literature. The Italians who
+visited England and the Englishmen who visited Italy were
+interested, not in literature, but in scholarship. Such studies
+as were pursued by Free, Grey, Flemming, Tilly, Gunthorpe
+and others who went to Italy, made them better grammarians
+and rhetoricians, and no doubt gave them a freer, wider outlook,
+but upon their return to England they were immediately absorbed
+in administrative cares, which left them little leisure for literary
+composition, even if they had had any inclination to write.
+They prepared the way, however, for the leaders of the great
+intellectual awakening which began in England with Linacre,
+Colet, More and their fellows, and which finally culminated in
+the age of Spenser, Bacon, Shakespeare, Jonson, Gilbert, Harvey
+and Harriott.</p>
+
+<p>When the middle ages ceased in England it is impossible to
+say definitely. Long after the new learning and culture of the
+Renaissance had been introduced there, long after classical and
+Italian models were eagerly chosen and followed, the epic and
+lyric models of the middle ages were admired and imitated,
+and the ancient forms of the drama lived side by side with the
+new until the time of Shakespeare himself. John Skelton,
+although according to Erasmus &ldquo;unum Britannicarum literarum
+lumen ac decus,&rdquo; and although possessing great originality and
+vigour both in diction and in versification when attacking his
+enemies or indulging in playful rhyming, was not only a great
+admirer of Lydgate, but equalled even the worst of his predecessors
+in aureate pedantries of diction, in complicated impossibilities
+of syntax, and in meaningless inversions of word-order
+whenever he wished to write elegant and dignified literature.
+And not a little of the absurd diction of the middle of the
+16th century is merely a continuation of the bad ideals and
+practices of the refined writers of the 15th.</p>
+
+<p>In fine, the 15th century has, aside from its vigorous, though
+sometimes coarse, popular productions, little that can interest
+the lover of literature. It offers, however, in richest profusion
+problems for the literary antiquarian and the student of the
+relations between social conditions and literary productivity,&mdash;problems
+which have usually been attacked only with the light
+weapons of irresponsible speculation, but which may perhaps
+be solved by a careful comparative study of many literatures
+and many periods. Moreover, although in the quality of its
+literary output it is decidedly inferior to the 14th century, the
+amount and the wide range of its productions indicate the gradual
+extension of the habit of reading to classes of society that were
+previously unlettered; and this was of great importance for the
+future of English literature, just as the innumerable dramatic
+performances throughout England were important in developing
+audiences for Marlowe and Shakespeare and Beaumont and
+Fletcher.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For bibliography see vol. ii. of the <i>Cambridge History of Literature</i>
+(1909); and Brandl&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der mittelenglischen Literatur</i> (reprinted
+from Paul&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss der germanischen Philologie</i>). Interesting
+general discussions may be found in the larger histories of
+English Literature, such as Ten Brink&rsquo;s, Jusserand&rsquo;s, and (a little
+more antiquated) Courthope&rsquo;s and Morley&rsquo;s.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. M. Ma.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">III. Elizabethan Times</p>
+
+<p><i>General Influences, and Prologue to 1579.</i>&mdash;The history of
+letters in England from More&rsquo;s <i>Utopia</i> (1516), the first Platonic
+vision, to Milton&rsquo;s <i>Samson Agonistes</i> (1671), the latest classic
+tragedy, is one and continuous. That is the period of the English
+Renaissance, in the wider sense, and it covers all and more of
+the literature loosely called &ldquo;Elizabethan.&rdquo; With all its complexity
+and subdivisions, it has as real a unity as the age of
+Pericles, or that of Petrarch and Boccaccio, or the period in
+Germany that includes both Lessing and Heine. It is peculiar
+in length of span, in variety of power, and in wealth of production,
+though its master-works on the greater scale are relatively few.
+It is distinct, while never quite cut off, from the middle age
+preceding, and also from the classical or &ldquo;Augustan&rdquo; age that
+followed. The coming of Dryden denoted a new phase; but it
+was still a phase of the Renaissance; and the break that declared
+itself about 1660 counts as nothing beside the break with the
+middle ages; for this implied the whole change in art, thought
+and temper, which re-created the European mind. It is true
+that many filaments unite Renaissance and middle ages, not
+only in the religious and purely intellectual region, but in that of
+art. The matter of Geoffrey of Monmouth, the tales of Arthur
+and of Troilus, the old fairy folklore of the South, the topic of
+the <i>Falls of Princes</i>, lived on; and so did the characteristic
+medieval form, allegory and many of the old metres of the 14th
+century. But then these things were transformed, often out of
+knowledge. Shakespeare&rsquo;s use of the histories of Macbeth,
+Lear and Troilus, and Spenser&rsquo;s of the allegoric romance, are
+examples. And when the gifts of the middle ages are not transformed,
+as in the <i>Mirror for Magistrates</i>, they strike us as survivals
+from a lost world.</p>
+
+<p>So vital a change took long in the working. The English
+Renaissance of letters only came into full flower during the last
+twenty years of the 16th century, later than in any Southern
+land; but it was all the richer for delay, and would have missed
+many a life-giving element could it have been driven forward
+sooner. If the actual process of genius is beyond analysis, we
+can still notice the subjects which genius receives, or chooses,
+to work upon, and also the vesture which it chooses for them;
+and we can watch some of the forces that long retard but in
+the end fertilize these workings of genius.</p>
+
+<p>What, then, in England, were these forces? Two of them
+lie outside letters, namely, the political settlement, culminating
+in the later reign of Elizabeth, and the religious
+settlement, whereby the Anglican Church grew out of
+<span class="sidenote">General forces.</span>
+the English Reformation. A third force lay within
+the sphere of the Renaissance itself, in the narrower meaning of
+the term. It was culture&mdash;the prefatory work of culture and
+education, which at once prepared and put off the flowering of
+pure genius. &ldquo;Elizabethan&rdquo; literature took its complexion
+from the circumstance that all these three forces were in operation
+at once. The Church began to be fully articulate, just when the
+national feeling was at its highest, and the tides of classical and
+immigrant culture were strongest. Spenser&rsquo;s <i>Faerie Queene</i>,
+Hooker&rsquo;s <i>Ecclesiastical Polity</i> and Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Henry V.</i>
+came in the same decade (1590-1600). But these three forces,
+political, religious and educational, were of very different
+duration and value. The enthusiasm of 1590-1600 was already
+dying down in the years 1600-1610, when the great tragedies
+were written; and soon a wholly new set of political forces
+began to tell on art. The religious inspiration was mainly
+confined to certain important channels; and literature as a
+whole, from first to last, was far more secular than religious.
+But Renaissance culture, in its ramifications and consequences,
+tells all the time and over the whole field, from 1500 to 1660.
+It is this culture which really binds together the long and varied
+chronicle. Before passing to narrative, a short review of each
+of these elements is required.</p>
+
+<p>Down to 1579 the Tudor rule was hardly a direct inspiration
+to authors. The reign of Henry VII. was first duly told by Bacon,
+and that of Henry VIII. staged by Shakespeare and
+Fletcher, in the time of James I. Sir Thomas More
+<span class="sidenote">Politics.</span>
+found in Roper, and Wolsey in Cavendish, sound biographers, who
+are nearly the earliest in the language. The later years of Henry
+VIII. were full of episodes too tragically picturesque for safe
+handling in the lifetime of his children. The next two reigns
+were engrossed with the religious war; and the first twenty years
+of Elizabeth, if they laid the bases of an age of peace, well-being,
+and national self-confidence that was to prove a teeming soil
+for letters, were themselves poor in themes for patriotic art.
+The abortive treason of the northern earls was echoed only in a
+ringing ballad. But the voyagers, freebooters, and explorers
+reported their experiences, as a duty, not for fame; and these,
+though not till the golden age, were edited by Hakluyt, and
+fledged the poetic fancies that took wing from the &ldquo;Indian
+Peru&rdquo; to the &ldquo;still-vext Bermoothes.&rdquo; Yet, in default of any
+true historian, the queen&rsquo;s wise delays and diplomacies that
+upheld the English power, and her refusal to launch on a Protestant
+or a national war until occasion compelled and the country
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span>
+was ready, were subjects as uninspiring to poets as the burning
+questions of the royal marriage or the royal title. But by 1580
+the nation was filled with the sense of Elizabeth&rsquo;s success and
+greatness and of its own prosperity. No shorter struggle and
+no less achievement could have nursed the insolent, jubilant
+patriotism of the years that followed; a feeling that for good
+reasons was peculiar to England among the nations, and created
+the peculiar forms of the chronicle play and poem. These were
+borrowed neither from antiquity nor from abroad, and were
+never afterwards revived. The same exultation found its way
+into the current forms of ode and pastoral, of masque and
+allegory, and into many a dedication and interlude of prose.
+It was so strong as to outlive the age that gave it warrant. The
+passion for England, the passion of England for herself, animates
+the bulk of Drayton&rsquo;s <i>Poly-Olbion</i>, which was finished so late
+as 1622. But the public issues were then changing, the temper
+was darker; and the civil struggle was to speak less in poetry
+than in the prose of political theory and ecclesiastical argument,
+until its after-explosion came in the verse of Milton.</p>
+
+<p>The English Reformation, so long political rather than
+doctrinal or imaginative, cost much writing on all sides; but
+no book like Calvin&rsquo;s <i>Institution</i> is its trophy, at once
+defining the religious change for millions of later men
+<span class="sidenote">Religious change.</span>
+and marking a term of departure in the national prose.
+Still, the debating weapons, the axes and billhooks, of vernacular
+English were sharpened&mdash;somewhat jaggedly&mdash;in the pamphlet
+battles that dwarfed the original energies of Sir Thomas More
+and evoked those of Tyndale and his friends. The powers of the
+same style were proved for descriptive economy by Starkey&rsquo;s
+Dialogue between Pole and Lupset, and for religious appeal
+by the blunt sound rhetoric and forthright jests in the sermons
+of Latimer (died 1555). Foxe&rsquo;s reports of the martyrs are the
+type of early Protestant English (1563); but the reforming
+divines seldom became real men of letters even when their
+Puritanism, or discontent with the final Anglican settlement
+and its temper, began to announce itself. Their spirit, however,
+comes out in many a corner of poetry, in Gascoigne&rsquo;s <i>Steel Glass</i>
+as in Spenser&rsquo;s <i>Shepherd&rsquo;s Calendar</i>; and the English Reformation
+lived partly on its pre-natal memories of Langland as well
+as of Wycliffe. The fruit of the struggle, though retarded, was
+ample. Carrying on the work of Fisher and Cranmer, the new
+church became the nursing mother of English prose, and trained
+it more than any single influence,&mdash;trained it so well, for the
+purposes of sacred learning, translation and oratory, and also
+as a medium of poetic feeling, that in these activities England
+came to rival France. How late any religious writer of true rank
+arose may be seen by the lapse of over half a century between
+Henry VIII.&rsquo;s Act of Supremacy and Hooker&rsquo;s treatise. But
+after Hooker the chain of eloquent divines was unbroken for a
+hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>Renaissance culture had many stages and was fed from many
+streams. At the outset of the century, in the wake of Erasmus,
+under the teaching of Colet and his friends, there
+spread a sounder knowledge of the Greek and Latin
+<span class="sidenote">Classical culture.</span>
+tongues, of the classic texts, and so of the ancient life
+and mind. This period of humanism in the stricter sense was far
+less brilliant than in Italy and France. No very great scholar or
+savant arose in Britain for a long time; but neo-Latin literature,
+the satellite of scholarship, shone brightly in George Buchanan.
+But scholarship was created and secured; and in at least one,
+rather solitary, work of power, the <i>Utopia</i> (which remained in
+Latin till 1551), the fundamental process was begun which
+appropriates the Greek mind, not only for purposes of schooling,
+but as a source of new and independent thinking. In and after
+the middle of the century the classics were again put forward
+by Cheke, by Wilson in his <i>Art of Rhetoric</i> (1553), and by Ascham
+in his letters and in his <i>Schoolmaster</i> (1570), as the true staple
+of humane education, and the pattern for a simple yet lettered
+English. The literature of translations from the classics, in
+prose and verse, increased; and these works, at first plain,
+business-like, and uninspired, slowly rose in style and power,
+and at last, like the translations from modern tongues, were
+written by a series of masters of English, who thus introduced
+Plutarch and Tacitus to poets and historians. This labour of
+mediation was encouraged by the rapid expansion and reform
+of the two universities, of which almost every great master except
+Shakespeare was a member; and even Shakespeare had ample
+Latin for his purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The direct impact of the classics on &ldquo;Elizabethan&rdquo; literature,
+whether through such translations or the originals, would take
+long to describe. But their indirect impact is far
+stronger, though in result the two are hard to discern.
+<span class="sidenote">Italy and France.</span>
+This is another point that distinguishes the English
+Renaissance from the Italian or the French, and makes
+it more complex. The knowledge of the thought, art and
+enthusiasms of Rome and Athens constantly came round through
+Italy or France, tinted and charged in the passage with something
+characteristic of those countries. The early playwrights read
+Seneca in Latin and English, but also the foreign Senecan
+tragedies. Spenser, when starting on his pastorals, studied the
+Sicilians, but also Sannazaro and Marot. Shakespeare saw
+heroic antiquity through Plutarch, but also, surely, through
+Montaigne&rsquo;s reading of antiquity. Few of the poets can have
+distinguished the original fountain of Plato from the canalized
+supply of the Italian Neoplatonists. The influence, however,
+of Cicero on the Anglican pulpit was immediate as well as
+constant; and so was that of the conciser Roman masters,
+Sallust and Tacitus, on Ben Jonson and on Bacon. Such
+scattered examples only intimate the existence of two great
+chapters of English literary history,&mdash;the effects of the classics
+and the effects of Italy. The bibliography of 16th-century
+translations from the Italian in the fields of political and moral
+speculation, poetry, fiction and the drama, is so large as itself
+to tell part of the story. The genius of Italy served the genius
+of England in three distinctive ways. It inspired the recovery,
+with new modulations, of a lost music and a lost prosody. It
+modelled many of the chief poetic forms, which soon were
+developed out of recognition; such were tragedy, allegory, song,
+pastoral and sonnet. Thirdly, it disclosed some of the master-thoughts
+upon government and conduct formed both by the old
+and the new Mediterranean world. Machiavelli, the student
+of ancient Rome and modern Italy, riveted the creed of Bacon.
+It might be said that never has any modern people so influenced
+another in an equal space of time&mdash;and letters, here as ever,
+are only the voice, the symbol, of a whole life and culture&mdash;if
+we forgot the sway of French in the later 17th and 18th centuries.
+And the power of French was alive also in the 16th. The
+track of Marot, of Ronsard and the Pleiad and Desportes, of
+Rabelais and Calvin and Montaigne, is found in England.
+Journeymen like Boisteau and Belleforest handed on immortal
+tales. The influence is noteworthy of Spanish mannerists,
+above all of Guevara upon sententious prose, and of the novelists
+and humorists, headed by Cervantes, upon the drama. German
+legend is found not only in Marlowe&rsquo;s <i>Faustus</i>, but in the by-ways
+of play and story. It will be long before the rich and
+coloured tangle of these threads has been completely unravelled
+with due tact and science. The presence of one strand may
+here be mentioned, which appears in unexpected spots.</p>
+
+<p>As in Greece, and as in the day of Coleridge and Shelley, the
+fabric of poetry and prose is shot through with philosophical
+ideas; a further distinction from other literatures
+like the Spanish of the golden age or the French
+<span class="sidenote">Philosophy.</span>
+of 1830. But these were not so much the ideas of
+the new physical science and of Bacon as of the ethical and
+metaphysical ferment. The wave of free talk in the circles
+of Marlowe, Greville and Raleigh ripples through their writings.
+Though the direct influence of Giordano Bruno on English
+writers is probably limited to a reminiscence in the <i>Faerie
+Queene</i> (Book vii.), he was well acquainted with Sidney and
+Greville, argued for the Copernican theory at Greville&rsquo;s house,
+lectured on the soul at Oxford, and published his epoch-marking
+Italian dialogues during his two years&rsquo; stay (1583-1585)
+in London. The debates in the earlier schools of
+Italy on the nature and tenure of the soul are heard in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span>
+<i>Nosce Teipsum</i> (1599) of Sir John Davies; a stoicism, &ldquo;of the
+schools&rdquo; as well as &ldquo;of the blood,&rdquo; animates Cassius and also
+the French heroes of Chapman; and if the earlier drama is sown
+with Seneca&rsquo;s old maxims on sin and destiny, the later drama,
+at least in Shakespeare, is penetrated with the freer reading of
+life and conduct suggested by Montaigne. Platonism&mdash;with its
+<i>vox angelica</i> sometimes a little hoarse&mdash;is present from the
+youthful <i>Hymns</i> of Spenser to the last followers of Donne;
+sometimes drawn from Plato, it is oftener the Christianized
+doctrine codified by Ficino or Pico. It must be noted that
+this play of philosophic thought only becomes marked after 1580,
+when the preparatory tunings of English literature are over.</p>
+
+<p>We may now quickly review the period down to 1580, in the
+departments of prose, verse and drama. It was a time which
+left few memorials of form.</p>
+
+<p>Early modern English prose, as a medium of art, was of slow
+growth. For long there was alternate strife and union (ending
+in marriage) between the Latin, or more rhetorical,
+and the ancestral elements of the language, and this
+<span class="sidenote">Prose to 1580.</span>
+was true both of diction and of construction. We need
+to begin with the talk of actual life, as we find it in the hands
+of the more naïf writers, in its idiom and gusto and unshapen
+power, to see how style gradually declared itself. In state
+letters and reports, in the recorded words of Elizabeth and
+Mary of Scotland and public men, in travels and memoirs, in
+Latimer, in the rude early versions of Cicero and Boëthius,
+in the more unstudied speech of Ascham or Leland, the material
+lies. At the other extreme there are the English liturgy (1549,
+1552, 1559, with the final fusion of Anglican and Puritan eloquence),
+and the sermons of Fisher and Cranmer,&mdash;nearly the
+first examples of a sinuous, musical and Ciceronian cadence.
+A noble pattern for saga-narrative and lyrical prose was achieved
+in the successive versions (1526-1540-1568) of the Hebrew and
+Greek Scriptures, where a native simple diction of short and
+melodious clauses are prescribed by the matter itself. Prose, in
+fact, down to Shakespeare&rsquo;s time, was largely the work of the
+churchmen and translators, aided by the chroniclers. About the
+mid-century the stories, as well as the books of conduct and
+maxim, drawn from Italy and France, begin to thicken. Perverted
+symmetry of style is found in euphuistic hacks like Pettie.
+Painter&rsquo;s <i>Palace of Pleasure</i> (1566) provided the plots of Bandello
+and others for the dramatists. Hoby&rsquo;s version (1561) of Castiglione&rsquo;s
+<i>Courtier</i>, with its command of elate and subtle English,
+is the most notable imported book between Berners&rsquo;s <i>Froissart</i>
+(1523-1525) and North&rsquo;s <i>Plutarch</i> (1579). Ascham&rsquo;s <i>Schoolmaster</i>
+is the most typical English book of Renaissance culture,
+in its narrower sense, since <i>Utopia</i>. Holinshed&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle</i>
+(1577-1587) and the work of Halle, if pre-critical, were all the
+fitter to minister to Shakespeare.</p>
+
+<p>The lyric impulse was fledged anew at the court of Henry
+VIII. The short lines and harping burdens of Sir Thomas
+Wyatt&rsquo;s songs show the revival, not only of a love-poetry
+more plangent than anything in English since
+<span class="sidenote">Verse to 1580.</span>
+Chaucer, but also of the long-deadened sense of metre.
+In Wyatt&rsquo;s sonnets, octaves, terzines and other Italian measures,
+we can watch the painful triumphant struggles of this noble old
+master out of the slough of formlessness in which verse had been
+left by Skelton. Wyatt&rsquo;s primary deed was his gradual rediscovery
+of the iambic decasyllabic line duly accented&mdash;the
+line that had been first discovered by Chaucer for England;
+and next came its building into sonnet and stanza. Wyatt
+(d. 1542) ended with perfect formal accuracy; he has the honours
+of victory; and Henry Howard, earl of Surrey (d. 1547), a
+younger-hearted and more gracious but a lighter poet, carried
+on his labour, and caught some of Chaucer&rsquo;s as well as the Italian
+tunes. The blank verse of his two translated <i>Aeneids</i>, like all
+that written previous to Peele, gave little inkling of the latencies
+of the measure which was to become the cardinal one of English
+poetry. It was already the vogue in Italy for translations from
+the classics; and we may think of Surrey importing it like an
+uncut jewel and barely conscious of its value. His original
+poems, like those of Wyatt, waited for print till the eve of
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign, when they appeared, with those of followers
+like Grimoald, in Tottel&rsquo;s <i>Miscellany</i> (1557), the first of many
+such garlands, and the outward proof of the poetical revival
+dating twenty years earlier. But this was a false dawn. Only
+one poem of authentic power, Sackville&rsquo;s <i>Induction</i> (1563) to
+that dreary patriotic venture, <i>A Mirror for Magistrates</i>, was
+published for twenty years. In spirit medieval, this picture of
+the gates of hell and of the kings in bale achieves a new melody
+and a new intensity, and makes the coming of Spenser far less
+incredible. But poetry was long starved by the very ideal that
+nursed it&mdash;that of the all-sided, all-accomplished &ldquo;courtier&rdquo;
+or cavalier, to whom verse-making was but one of all the accomplishments
+that he must perfect, like fencing, or courting,
+or equestrian skill. Wyatt and Surrey, Sackville and Sidney
+(and we may add Hamlet, a true Elizabethan) are of this type.
+One of the first competent professional writers was George
+Gascoigne, whose remarks on metric, and whose blank verse
+satire, <i>The Steel Glass</i> (1576), save the years between Sackville
+and Spenser. Otherwise the gap is filled by painful rhymesters
+with rare flashes, such as Googe, Churchyard and Turberville.</p>
+
+<p>The English Renaissance drama, both comic and tragic,
+illustrates on the largest scale the characteristic power of the
+antique at this period&mdash;at first to reproduce itself in
+imitation, and then to generate something utterly
+<span class="sidenote">Drama to 1580.</span>
+different from itself, something that throws the antique
+to the winds. Out of the Morality, a sermon upon the certainty
+of death or the temptations of the soul, acted by personified
+qualities and supernatural creatures, had grown up, in the reign
+of Henry VII., the Interlude, a dialogue spoken by representative
+types or trades, who faintly recalled those in Chaucer&rsquo;s <i>Prologue</i>.
+These forms, which may be termed medieval, continued long and
+blended; sometimes heated, as in <i>Respublica</i>, with doctrine,
+and usually lightened by the comic play of a &ldquo;Vice&rdquo; or incarnation
+of sinister roguery. John Heywood was the chief
+maker of the pure interludes, and Bishop Bale of the Protestant
+medleys; his <i>King Johan</i>, a reformer&rsquo;s partisan tract in verse,
+contains the germs of the chronicle play. In the drama down to
+1580 the native talent is sparse enough, but the historical interest
+is high. Out of a seeming welter of forms, the structure, the
+metres and the species that Kyd and Marlowe found slowly
+emerged. Comedy was first delivered from the interlude, and
+fashioned in essence as we know it, by the schoolmasters. Drawing
+on Plautus, they constructed duly-knitted plots, divided
+into acts and scenes and full of homely native fun, for their
+pupils to present. In <i>Thersites</i> (written 1537), the oldest of
+these pieces, and in Udall&rsquo;s <i>Ralph Roister Doister</i> (1552 at latest),
+the best known of them, the characters are lively, and indeed
+are almost individuals. In others, like <i>Misogonus</i> (written 1560),
+the abstract element and improving purpose remain, and the
+source is partly neo-Latin comedy, native or foreign. Romance
+crept in: serious comedy, with its brilliant future, the comedy
+of high sentiment and averted dangers mingled still with farce,
+was shadowed forth in <i>Damon and Pithias</i> and in the curious
+play <i>Common Conditions</i>; while the domestic comedy of intrigue
+dawned in Gascoigne&rsquo;s <i>Supposes</i>, adapted from Ariosto.
+Thus were displaced the ranker rustic fun of <i>Gammer Gurton&rsquo;s
+Needle</i> (written <i>c.</i> 1559) and other labours of &ldquo;rhyming mother-wits.&rdquo;
+But there was no style, no talk, no satisfactory metre.
+The verse of comedy waited for Greene, and its prose for Lyly.
+Structure, without style, was also the main achievement of the
+early tragedies. The Latin plays of Buchanan, sometimes
+biblical in topic, rest, as to their form, upon Euripides. But
+early English tragedy was shapen after the Senecan plays of Italy
+and after Seneca himself, all of whose dramas were translated by
+1581. <i>Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex</i>, acted about 1561, and
+written by Sackville and Norton, and Hughes&rsquo; <i>Misfortunes of
+Arthur</i> (acted 1588), are not so much plays as wraiths of plays,
+with their chain of slaughters and revenges, their two-dimensional
+personages, and their lifeless maxims which fail to sweeten the
+bloodshot atmosphere. The Senecan form was not barren in
+itself, as its sequel in France was to show: it was only barren
+for England. After Marlowe it was driven to the study, and was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span>
+still written (possibly under the impulse of Mary countess of
+Pembroke), by Daniel and Greville, with much reminiscence
+of the French Senecans. But it left its trail on the real drama.
+It set the pattern of a high tragical action, often motived by
+revenge, swayed by large ideas of fate and retribution, and told
+in blank metre; and it bequeathed, besides many moral sentences,
+such minor points of mechanism as the Ghost, the Chorus
+and the inserted play. There were many hybrid forms like
+<i>Gismond of Salern</i>, based on foreign story, alloyed with the
+mere personifications of the Morality, and yet contriving, as
+in the case of <i>Promos and Cassandra</i> (the foundation of <i>Measure
+for Measure</i>), to interest Shakespeare. Thus the drama by 1580
+had some of its carpentry, though not yet a true style or versification.
+These were only to be won by escape from the classic
+tutelage. The ruder chronicle play also began, and the reigns of
+John and Henry V. amongst others were put upon the stage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Verse from Spenser to Donne</i>.&mdash;Sir Philip Sidney almost
+shares with Edmund Spenser the honours of announcing the
+new verse, for part of his <i>Astrophel and Stella</i> was
+written, if not known in unpublished form, about
+1580-1581, and contains ten times the passion and poetry of
+<span class="sidenote">Spenser.</span>
+<i>The Shepherd&rsquo;s Calendar</i> (1579). This work, of which only a
+few passages have the seal of Spenser&rsquo;s coming power, was justly
+acclaimed for its novelty of experiment in many styles, pastoral,
+satiric and triumphal, and in many measures: though it was
+criticized for its &ldquo;rustic&rdquo; and archaic diction&mdash;a &ldquo;no language&rdquo;
+that was to have more influence upon poetry than any of the
+real dialects of England. Spenser&rsquo;s desire to write high tragedy,
+avowed in his <i>October</i>, was not to be granted; his nine comedies
+are lost; and he became the chief non-dramatic poet of his time
+and country. Both the plaintive pessimism of Petrarch and
+du Bellay, with their favourite method of emblem, and the
+Platonic theory of the spiritual love and its heavenly begetting
+sank into him; and the <i>Hymns To Love</i> and <i>To Beauty</i> are
+possibly his earliest verses of sustained perfection and exaltation.
+These two strains of feeling Spenser never lost and never
+harmonized; the first of them recurs in his <i>Complaints</i> of 1591,
+above all in <i>The Ruins of Time</i>, the second in his <i>Amoretti</i> (1595)
+and <i>Colin Clout</i> and <i>Epithalamion</i>, which are autobiographical.
+These and a hundred other threads are woven into <i>The Faerie
+Queene</i>, an unfinished allegorical epic in honour of moral goodness,
+of which three books came out in 1590 and three more in 1596,
+while the fragment <i>Of Constancy</i> (so-called) is first found in the
+posthumous folio of 1609. This poem is the fullest reflex, outside
+the drama, of the soul and aspirations of the time. For its
+scenery and mechanism the <i>Orlando Furioso</i> of Ariosto furnishes
+the framework. In both poems tales of knightly adventure
+intertwine unconfused; in both the slaying of monsters, the
+capture of strong places, and the release of the innocent, hindered
+by wizard and sorcerer, or aided by magic sword and horn and
+mirror, constitute the quest; and in both warriors, ladies,
+dwarfs, dragons and figures from old mythology jostle dreamily
+together. To all this pomp Spenser strove to give a moral and
+often also a political meaning. Ariosto was not a <i>vates sacer</i>;
+and so Spenser took Tasso&rsquo;s theme of the holy war waged for the
+Sepulchre, and expanded it into a war between good and evil,
+as he saw them in the world; between chastity and lust, loyalty
+and detraction, England and Spain, England and Rome, Elizabeth
+and usurpers, Irish governor and Irish rebel, right and
+wrong. The title-virtues of his six extant books he affects to
+take from Aristotle; but Holiness, Temperance, Chastity,
+Justice, Friendship and Courtesy form a medley of medieval,
+puritanical and Greek ideals.</p>
+
+<p>Spenser&rsquo;s moral sentiments, often ethereally noble, might well
+be contrasted, and that not always to their credit, with those
+more secular and naturalistic ones that rule in Shakespeare
+or in Bernardino Telesio and Giordano Bruno. But <i>The Faerie
+Queene</i> lives by its poetry; and its poetry lives independently
+of its creed. The idealized figures of Elizabeth, who is the Faerie
+Queene, and of the &ldquo;magnificent&rdquo; Prince Arthur, fail to bind
+the adventures together, and after two books the poem breaks
+down in structure. And indeed all through it relies on episode
+and pageant, on its prevailing and insuppressible loveliness of
+scene and tint, of phrasing and of melody, beside which the inner
+meaning is often an interruption. Spenser is not to be tired;
+in and out of his tapestry, with its &ldquo;glooming light much like
+a shade,&rdquo; pace his figures on horseback, or in durance, with their
+clear and pictorial allegoric trappings; and they go either singly,
+or in his favourite masques or pageants, suggested by emblematical
+painting or civic procession. He is often duly praised for
+his lingering and liquid melodies and his gracious images, or
+blamed for their langour; but his ground-tone is a sombre
+melancholy&mdash;unlike that of Jaques&mdash;and his deepest quality
+as a writer is perhaps his angry power. Few of his forty and
+more thousand lines are unpoetical; in certainty of style
+amongst English poets who have written profusely, he has no
+equals but Chaucer, Milton and Shelley. His &ldquo;artificial&rdquo; diction,
+drawn from middle English, from dialect or from false analogy,
+has always the intention and nearly always the effect of beauty;
+we soon feel that its absence would be unnatural, and it has taken
+its rank among the habitual and exquisite implements of English
+poetry. This equality of noble form is Spenser&rsquo;s strength, as
+dilution and diffusion of phrase, and a certain monotonous slowness
+of <i>tempo</i>, are beyond doubt his weaknesses. His chief technical
+invention, the nine-line stanza (<i>ababbcbcC</i>) was developed
+not from the Italian octave (<i>abababcc</i>), but by adding an alexandrine
+to the eight-line stave (<i>ababbcbc</i>) of Chaucer&rsquo;s <i>Monk&rsquo;s Tale</i>.
+It is naturally articulated twice&mdash;at the fifth line, where the turn
+of repeated rhyme inevitably charms, and at the ninth, which
+runs now to a crashing climax, now to a pensive and sighing
+close. In rhyming, Spenser, if not always accurate, is one of the
+most natural and resourceful of poets. His power over the heroic
+couplet or quatrain is shown in his fable, <i>Mother Hubbard&rsquo;s Tale</i>,
+and in his curious verse memoir, <i>Colin Clout</i>; both of which
+are medleys of satire and flattery. With formal tasks so various
+and so hard, it is wonderful how effortless the style of Spenser
+remains. His <i>Muiopotmos</i> is the lightest-handed of mock-heroics.
+No writer of his day except Marlowe was so faithful
+to the law of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The mantle of Spenser fell, somewhat in shreds, upon poets
+of many schools until the Restoration. As though in thanks to
+his master Tasso, he lent to Edward Fairfax, the best
+translator of the <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i> (<i>Godfrey of
+Bulloigne</i>, 1600), some of his own ease and intricate
+<span class="sidenote">Spenserians.</span>
+melody. Harington, the witty translator of Ariosto (1591) and
+spoilt child of the court, owed less to Spenser. The allegorical
+colouring was nobly caught, if sometimes barbarized, in the
+<i>Christ&rsquo;s Victory and Triumph</i> of the younger Giles Fletcher
+(1610), and Spenser&rsquo;s emblematic style was strained, even
+cracked, by Phineas Fletcher in <i>The Purple Island</i> (1633), an
+aspiring fable, gorgeous in places, of the human body and
+faculties. Both of these brethren clipped and marred the stanza,
+but they form a link between Spenser and their student Milton.
+The allegoric form, long-winded and broken-backed, survived
+late in Henry More&rsquo;s and Joseph Beaumont&rsquo;s verse disquisitions
+on the soul. Spenser&rsquo;s pastoral and allusive manner was allowed
+by Drayton in his <i>Shepherd&rsquo;s Garland</i> (1593), and differently by
+William Browne in <i>Britannia&rsquo;s Pastorals</i> (1613-1616), and by
+William Basse; while his more honeyed descriptions took on a
+mawkish taste in the anonymous <i>Britain&rsquo;s Ida</i> and similar poems.
+His golden Platonic style was buoyantly echoed in <i>Orchestra</i>
+(1596), Sir John Davies&rsquo; poem on the dancing spheres. He is
+continually traceable in 17th-century verse, blending with the
+alien currents of Ben Jonson and of Donne. He was edited and
+imitated in the age of Thomson, in the age of William Morris,
+and constantly between.</p>
+
+<p>The typical Elizabethan poet is Michael Drayton; who
+followed Spenser in pastoral, Daniel, Sidney, Spenser and
+Shakespeare in sonnet, Daniel again in chronicle and
+legend, and Marlowe in mythological story, and who
+<span class="sidenote">Drayton and Daniel.</span>
+yet remained himself. His <i>Endimion and Phoebe</i>
+in passages stands near <i>Hero and Leander</i>; his
+<i>England&rsquo;s Heroical Epistles</i> (1597) are in ringing rhetorical
+couplets; his <i>Odes</i> (1606), like the <i>Ballad of Agincourt</i> and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span>
+<i>Virginian Voyage</i>, forestall and equal Cowper&rsquo;s or Campbell&rsquo;s;
+his <i>Nymphidia</i> (1627) was the most popular of burlesque fairy
+poems; and his pastorals are full of graces and felicities. The
+work of Drayton that is least read and most often mentioned
+is his <i>Poly-Olbion</i> (1612-1622), a vast and pious effort, now and
+then nobly repaid, to versify the scenery, legend, customs and
+particularities of every English county. The more recluse and
+pensive habit of Samuel Daniel chills his long chronicle poems;
+but with Chapman he is the clearest voice of Stoicism in Elizabethan
+letters; and his harmonious nature is perfectly expressed
+in a style of happy, even excellence, free alike from &ldquo;fine madness&rdquo;
+and from strain. Sonnet and epistle are his favoured
+forms, and in his <i>Musophilus</i> (1599) as well as in his admirable
+prose <i>Defence of Rhyme</i> (1602), he truly prophesies the hopes
+and glories of that <i>illustre vulgare</i>, the literary speech of England.
+All this patriotic and historic verse, like the earlier and ruder
+<i>Albion&rsquo;s England</i> (1586) of William Warner, or Fitzgeoffrey&rsquo;s
+poem upon Drake, or the outbursts of Spenser, was written during
+or inspired by the last twenty years of the queen&rsquo;s reign; and
+the same is true of Shakespeare&rsquo;s and most of the other history
+plays, which duly eclipsed the formal, rusty-gray chronicle poem
+of the type of the <i>Mirror for Magistrates</i>, though editions (1559-1610)
+of the latter were long repeated. Patriotic verse outside
+the theatre, however, full of zeal, started at a disadvantage
+compared with love-sonnet, song, or mythic narrative, because it
+had no models before it in other lands, and remained therefore
+the more shapeless.</p>
+
+<p>The English love-sonnet, brought in by Wyatt and rifest
+between 1590 and 1600, was revived as a purely studious imitation
+by Watson in his <i>Hekatompathia</i> (1582), a string of
+translations in one of the exceptional measures that
+<span class="sidenote">Sonnets.</span>
+were freely entitled &ldquo;sonnets.&rdquo; But from the first, in the hands
+of Sidney, whose <i>Astrophel and Stella</i> (1591) was written, as
+remarked above, about 1581, the sonnet was ever ready to
+pulse into feeling, and to flash into unborrowed beauty, embodying
+sometimes dramatic fancy and often living experience. These
+three fibres of imitation, imagination and confession are intertwisted
+beyond severance in many of the cycles, and now one,
+now another is uppermost. Incaution might read a personal
+diary into Thomas Lodge&rsquo;s <i>Phillis</i> (1593), which is often a
+translation from Ronsard. Literal judges have announced that
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Sonnets</i> are but his mode of taking exercise.
+But there is poetry in &ldquo;God&rsquo;s plenty&rdquo; almost everywhere; and
+few of the series fail of lovely lines or phrasing or even of perfect
+sonnets. This holds of Henry Constable&rsquo;s <i>Diana</i> (1592), of the
+<i>Parthenophil and Parthenophe</i> of Barnabe Barnes (1593), inebriate
+with poetry, and of the stray minor groups, <i>Alcilia, Licia, Caelia</i>;
+while the <i>Caelica</i> of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, in irregular
+form, is full of metaphysical passion struggling to be delivered.
+<i>Astrophel and Stella</i>, Drayton&rsquo;s <i>Idea</i> (1594-1619), Spenser&rsquo;s
+<i>Amoretti</i> and Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Sonnets</i> (printed 1609) are addressed
+to definite and probably to known persons, and are charged with
+true poetic rage, ecstatic or plaintive, desperate or solemn, if they
+are also intermingled with the mere word-play that mocks or
+beguiles the ebb of feeling, or with the purely plastic work that is
+done for solace. In most of these series, as in Daniel&rsquo;s paler but
+exquisitely-wrought <i>Delia</i> (1591-1592), the form is that of the
+three separate quatrains with the closing couplet for emotional
+and melodic climax; a scheme slowly but defiantly evolved,
+through traceable gradations, from that stricter one of Italy,
+which Drummond and Milton revived, and where the crisis
+properly coincides with the change from octave to sestet.</p>
+
+<p>The amorous mythologic tale in verse derives immediately
+from contemporary Italy, but in the beginning from Ovid,
+whose <i>Metamorphoses</i>, familiar in Golding&rsquo;s old version
+(1555-1557), furnished descriptions, decorations and
+<span class="sidenote">Mythic poems.</span>
+many tales, while his <i>Heroides</i> gave Chaucer and
+Boccaccio a model for the self-anatomy of tragic or plaintive
+sentiment. Within ten years, between 1588 and 1598, during
+the early sonnet-vogue, appeared Lodge&rsquo;s <i>Scillaes Metamorphosis</i>,
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Venus and Adonis</i> and <i>Rape of Lucrece</i>, Marlowe&rsquo;s
+<i>Hero and Leander</i> and Drayton&rsquo;s <i>Endimion and Phoebe</i>. Shakespeare
+owed something to Lodge, and Drayton to Marlowe.
+All these points describe a love-situation at length, and save
+in one instance they describe it from without. The exception
+is Marlowe, who achieves a more than Sicilian perfection; he
+says everything, and is equal to everything that he has to say.
+In <i>Venus and Adonis</i> the poet is enamoured less of love than of the
+tones and poses of lovers and of the beauty and gallant motion
+of animals, while in The <i>Rape of Lucrece</i> he is intent on the
+gradations of lust, shame and indignation, in which he has a
+spectator&rsquo;s interest. Virtuosity, or the delight of the executant
+in his own brilliant cunning, is the mark of most of these pieces.</p>
+
+<p>If we go to the lyrics, the versified mythic tales and the
+sonnets of Elizabethan times for the kind of feeling that Molière&rsquo;s
+Alceste loved and that Burns and Shelley poured into
+song, we shall often come away disappointed, and think
+<span class="sidenote">Lyric.</span>
+the old poetry heartless. But it is not heartless, any more
+than it is always impassioned or personal; it is decorative.
+The feeling is often that of the craftsman; it is not of the singer
+who spends his vital essence in song and commands an answering
+thrill so long as his native language is alive or understood.
+The arts that deal with ivories or enamelling or silver suggest
+themselves while we watch the delighted tinting and chasing,
+the sense for gesture and grouping (in <i>Venus and Adonis</i>), or the
+delicate beating out of rhyme in a madrigal, or the designing of
+a single motive, or two contrasted motives, within the panel of
+the sonnet. And soon it is evident how passion and emotion
+readily become plastic matter too, whether they be drawn from
+books or observation or self-scrutiny. This is above all the
+case in the sonnet; but it is found in the lyric as well. The
+result is a wonderful fertility of lyrical pattern, a wonderfully
+diffused power of lyrical execution, never to recur at any later
+time of English literature. Wyatt had to recover the very form
+of such verse from oblivion, and this he did in the school of translation
+and adaptation. Not only the decasyllabic, but the lyric,
+in short lines had almost died out of memory, and Wyatt brought
+it back. From his day to Spenser&rsquo;s there is not much lyric
+that is noteworthy, though in Gascoigne and others the impulse
+is seen. The introduction of Italian music, with its favourite
+metrical schemes, such as the madrigal, powerfully schooled and
+coloured lyric: in especial, the caressing double ending, regular
+in Italian but heavier in English, became common. The Italian
+poems were often translated in their own measure, line by line,
+and the musical setting retained. Their tunes, or other tunes,
+were then coupled with new and original poems; and both
+appeared together in the song-books of Dowland the lutanist,
+of Jones and Byrd (1588), and in chief (1601-1619) of Thomas
+Campion. The words of Campion&rsquo;s songs are not only supremely
+musical in the wider sense, but are chosen for their singing
+quality. Misled awhile by the heresy that rhyme was wrong,
+he was yet a master of lovely rhyming, as well as of a lyrical style
+of great range, gaily or gravely happy. But, as with most of his
+fellows, singing is rather his calling than his consolation. The
+lyrics that are sprinkled in plays and romances are the finest
+of this period, and perhaps, in their kind, of any period. Shakespeare
+is the greatest in this province also; but the power of
+infallible and unforgettable song is often granted to slighter,
+gentler playwrights like Greene and Dekker, while it is denied
+to men of weightier build and sterner purpose like Chapman and
+Jonson. The songs of Jonson are indeed at their best of absolute
+and antique finish; but the irrevocable dew of night or dawn
+seldom lies upon them as it lies on the songs of Webster or of
+Fletcher. The best lyrics in the plays are dramatic; they must
+be read in their own setting. While the action stops, they seize
+and dally with the dominant emotion of the scene, and yet relieve
+it. The songs of Lodge and Breton, of Drayton and Daniel,
+of Oxford and Raleigh, and the fervid brief flights of the Jesuit
+Southwell, show the omnipresence of the vital gift, whether
+among professional writers of the journalistic type, or among
+poets whose gift was not primarily song, or among men of action
+and quality or men of religion, who only wrote when they were
+stirred. Lullaby and valentine and compliment, and love-plaint
+ranging from gallantry to desperation, are all there:
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span>
+and the Fortunate Hour, which visits commonly only a few men
+in a generation, and those but now and then in their lives, is
+never far off. But the master of melody, Spenser, left no songs,
+apart from his two insuperable wedding odes. And religious
+lyric is rarer before the reign of James. Much of the best lyric
+is saved for us by the various Miscellanies, <i>A Handful of Pleasant
+Delights</i> (1584), the <i>Phoenix Nest</i> (1593) and Davison&rsquo;s <i>Poetical
+Rhapsody</i> (1602); while other such collections, like <i>England&rsquo;s
+Helicon</i> (1600), were chiefly garlands of verse that was already in
+print.</p>
+
+<p>There is plenty of satiric anger and raillery in the spirit of the
+time, but the most genuine part of it is drawn off into drama.
+Except for stray passages in Spenser, Drayton and others,
+formal satire, though profuse, was a literary unreal thing, a pose
+in the manner of Persius or Juvenal, and tiresome in expression.
+In this kind only Donne triumphed. The attempts of Lodge and
+Hall and Marston and John Davies of Hereford and Guilpin and
+Wither are for the most part simply weariful in different ways,
+and satire waited for Dryden and his age. The attempt, however,
+persisted throughout. Wyatt was the first and last who succeeded
+in the genial, natural Horatian style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Verse from Donne to Milton</i>.&mdash;As the age of Elizabeth receded,
+some changes came slowly over non-dramatic verse. In Jonson,
+as in John Donne (1573-1631), one of the greater poets
+of the nation, and in many writers after Donne, may
+<span class="sidenote">Metaphysical or fantastic schools.</span>
+be traced a kind of Counter-Renaissance, or revulsion
+against the natural man and his claims to pleasure&mdash;a
+revulsion from which regret for pleasure lost is seldom far.
+Poetry becomes more ascetic and mystical, and this feeling takes
+shelter alike in the Anglican and in the Roman faith. George
+Herbert (<i>The Temple</i>, 1633), the most popular, quaint and
+pious of the school, but the least poetical; Crashaw, with his one
+ecstatic vision (<i>The Flaming Heart</i>) and occasional golden stanzas;
+Henry Vaughan, who wrote from 1646 to 1678, with his mystical
+landscape and magical cadences; and Thomas Traherne, his
+fellow-dreamer, are the best known of the religious Fantastics.
+But, earlier than most of these are Lord Herbert of Cherbury,
+and Habington with his <i>Castara</i> (1634), who show the same
+temper, if a fitful power and felicity. Such writers form the
+devouter section of the famous &ldquo;metaphysical&rdquo; or &ldquo;fantastic&rdquo;
+school, which includes, besides Donne its founder, pure amorists
+like Carew (whose touch on certain rhythms has no fellow),
+young academic followers like Cartwright and Cleveland (in
+whom survives the vein of satire that also marks the school),
+and Abraham Cowley, who wrote from 1633 to 1678, and was
+perhaps the most acceptable living poet about the middle of the
+century. In his <i>Life of Cowley</i> Johnson tramples on the &ldquo;metaphysical&rdquo;
+poets and their vices, and he is generally right in
+detail. The shock of cold quaintness, which every one of them
+continually administers, is fatal. Johnson only erred in ignoring
+all their virtues and all their historical importance.</p>
+
+<p>In Donne poetry became deeply intellectualized, and in temper
+disquisitive and introspective. The poet&rsquo;s emotion is played
+with in a cat-and-mouse fashion, and he torments it subtly.
+Donne&rsquo;s passion is so real, if so unheard-of, and his brain so
+finely-dividing, that he can make almost any image, even the
+remotest, even the commonest, poetical. His satires, his <i>Valentine</i>,
+his <i>Litany</i>, and his lyric or odic pieces in general, have
+an insolent and sudden daring which is warranted by deep-seated
+power and is only equalled by a few of those tragedians
+who are his nearest of kin. The recurring contrast of &ldquo;wit&rdquo; or
+intelligence, and &ldquo;will&rdquo; or desire, their struggle, their mutual
+illumination, their fusion as into some third and undiscovered
+element of human nature, are but one idiosyncrasy of Donne&rsquo;s
+intricate soul, whose general progress, so far as his dateless
+poems permit of its discovery, seems to have been from a paganism
+that is unashamed but crossed with gusts of compunction,
+to a mystical and otherwordly temper alloyed with covetous
+regrets. The <i>Anatomy of the World</i> and other ambitious pieces
+have the same quality amid their outrageous strangeness.
+In Donne and his successors the merely ingenious and ransacking
+intellect often came to overbalance truth and passion; and hence
+arose conceits and abstract verbiage, and the difficulty of finding
+a perfect poem, however brief, despite the omnipresence of the
+poetic gift. The &ldquo;fantastic&rdquo; school, if it contains some of the
+rarest sallies and passages in English, is one of the least satisfactory.
+Its faults only exaggerate those of Sidney, Greville
+and Shakespeare, who often misuse homely or technical metaphor;
+and English verse shared, by coincidence not by borrowing,
+and with variations of its own, in the general strain and
+torture of style that was besetting so many poets of the Latin
+countries. Yet these poets well earn the name of metaphysical,
+not for their philosophic phrasing, but for the shuttle-flight of
+their fancy to and fro between the things of earth and the realities
+of spirit that lie beyond the screen of the flesh.</p>
+
+<p>Between Spenser and Milton many measures of lyrical and
+other poetry were modified. Donne&rsquo;s frequent use of roughly-accentual,
+almost tuneless lines is unexplained and
+was not often followed. Rhythm in general came to
+<span class="sidenote">Rhythm.</span>
+be studied more for its own sake, and the study was rewarded.
+The lovely cordial music of Carew&rsquo;s amorous iambics, or of
+Wither&rsquo;s trochees, or of Crashaw&rsquo;s odes, or of Marvell&rsquo;s octo-syllables,
+has never been regained. The formal ode set in,
+sometimes regularly &ldquo;Pindaric&rdquo; in strophe-grouping, sometimes
+irregularly &ldquo;Pindaric&rdquo; as in Cowley&rsquo;s experiments. Above all,
+the heroic couplet, of the isolated, balanced, rhetorical order,
+such as Spenser, Drayton, Fairfax and Sylvester, the translator
+(1590-1606) of Du Bartas, had often used, began to be a regular
+instrument of verse, and that for special purposes which soon
+became lastingly associated with it. The flatteries of Edmund
+Waller and the Ovidian translations of Sandys dispute the priority
+for smoothness and finish, though the fame was Waller&rsquo;s for
+two generations; but Denham&rsquo;s overestimated <i>Cooper&rsquo;s Hill</i>
+(1642), Cowley&rsquo;s <i>Davideis</i> (1656), and even Ogilby&rsquo;s <i>Aeneid</i>
+made the path plainer for Dryden, the first sovereign of the
+rhetorical couplet which throve as blank verse declined. Sonnet
+and madrigal were the favoured measures of William Drummond
+of Hawthornden, a real and exquisite poet of the studio, who
+shows the general drift of verse towards sequestered and religious
+feeling. Drummond&rsquo;s <i>Poems</i> of 1616 and <i>Flowers of Zion</i> (1623)
+are full of Petrarch and Plato as well as of Christian resignation,
+and he kept alive the artistry of phrasing and versification in a
+time of indiscipline and conflicting forms. William Browne has
+been named as a Spenserian, but his <i>Britannia&rsquo;s</i> Pastorals
+(1613-1616), with their slowly-rippling and overflowing couplets
+which influenced Keats, were a medley of a novel kind. George
+Wither may equally rank among the lighter followers of Spenser,
+the easy masters of lyrical narrative, and the devotional poets.
+But his <i>Shepherd&rsquo;s Hunting</i> and other pieces in his volume of
+1622 contain lovely landscapes, partly English and partly
+artificial, and stand far above his pious works, and still further
+above the dreary satires which he lived to continue after the
+Restoration.</p>
+
+<p>Of poets yet unmentioned, Robert Herrick is the chief, with
+his two thousand lyrics and epigrams, gathered in <i>Hesperides</i>
+and <i>Noble Numbers</i> (1648). His power of song and
+sureness of cadence are not excelled within his range of
+<span class="sidenote">Herrick.</span>
+topic, which includes flowers and maidens&mdash;whom he treats
+as creatures of the same race&mdash;and the swift decay of both
+their beauties, and secular regret over this decay and his own
+mortality and the transience of amorous pleasure, and the virtues
+of his friends, and country sports and lore, and religious compunction
+for his own paganism. The <i>Hesperides</i> are pure Renaissance
+work, in natural sympathy with the Roman elegiac
+writings and with the Pseudo-Anacreon. Cowley is best where he
+is nearest Herrick, and his posy of short lyrics outlives his &ldquo;epic
+and Pindaric art.&rdquo; There are many writers who last by virtue
+of one or two poems; Suckling by his adept playfulness, Lovelace
+and Montrose by a few gallant stanzas, and many a nameless
+<span class="sidenote">The long poem.</span>
+poet by many a consummate cadence. It is the age
+of sudden flights and brief perfections. All the farther
+out of reach, yet never wholly despaired of or unattempted
+in England, was the &ldquo;long poem,&rdquo; heroical and noble,
+the &ldquo;phantom epic,&rdquo; that shadow of the ancient masterpieces,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span>
+which had striven to life in Italy and France. Davenant&rsquo;s
+<i>Gondibert</i> (1651), Cowley&rsquo;s <i>Davideis</i> and Chamberlayne&rsquo;s <i>Pharonnida</i>
+(1659) attest the effort which Milton in 1658 resumed with
+triumph. These works have between them all the vices possible
+to epic verse, dulness and flatness, faintness and quaintness and
+incoherence. But there is some poetry in each of them, and in
+<i>Pharonnida</i> there is far more than enough poetry to save it.</p>
+
+<p>Few writers have found a flawless style of their own so early
+in life as John Milton (1608-1674). His youthful pieces show
+some signs of Spenser and the Caroline fantastics;
+but soon his vast poetical reading ran clear and lay at
+<span class="sidenote">Milton.</span>
+the service of his talent. His vision and phrasing of natural
+things were already original in the <i>Nativity Ode</i>, written when he
+was twenty; and, there also, his versification was already that
+of a master, of a renovator. The pensive and figured beauty of
+<i>L&rsquo;Allegro</i> and <i>Il Penseroso</i>, two contrasted emblematic panels,
+the high innocent Platonism and golden blank verse of the
+<i>Comus</i> (1634); the birth of long-sleeping power in the <i>Lycidas</i>
+(1637), with its unapproached contrivance both in evolution
+and detail, where the precious essences of earlier myth and
+pastoral seem to be distilled for an offering in honour of the
+tombless friend;&mdash;the newness, the promise, the sureness of
+it all amid the current schools! The historian finds in these
+poems, with their echoes of Plato and Sannazzaro, of Geoffrey
+of Monmouth and St John, the richest and most perfect instance
+of the studious, decorative Renaissance style, and is not surprised
+to find Milton&rsquo;s scholars a century later in the age of Gray.
+The critic, while feeling that the strictly lyrical, spontaneous
+element is absent, is all the more baffled by the skill and enduring
+charm. The sonnets were written before or during Milton&rsquo;s
+long immersion (1637-1658) in prose and warfare, and show the
+same gifts. They are not cast in the traditional form of love-cycle,
+but are occasional poems; in metre they revert, not always
+strictly but once or twice in full perfection, to the Italian scheme;
+and they recall not Petrarch but the spiritual elegies or patriot
+exaltations of Dante or Guidiccioni.</p>
+
+<p>Milton also had a medieval side to his brain, as the <i>History of
+Britain</i> shows. The heroic theme, which he had resolved from
+his youth up to celebrate, at last, after many hesitations, proved
+to be the fall of man. This, for one of his creed and for the
+audience he desired, was the greatest theme of all. Its scene
+was the Ptolemaic universe with the Christian heaven and hell
+inserted. The time, indicated by retrospect and prophecy,
+was the whole of that portion of eternity, from the creation of
+Christ to the doomsday, of which the history was sacredly
+revealed. The subject and the general span of the action went
+back to the popular mystery play; and Milton at first planned
+out <i>Paradise Lost</i> as such a play, with certain elements of classic
+tragedy embodied. But according to the current theory the epic,
+not the drama, was the noblest form of verse; and, feeling
+where his power lay, he adopted the epic. The subject, therefore,
+was partly medieval, partly Protestant,&mdash;for Milton was a true
+Protestant in having a variant of doctrine shared by no other
+mortal. But the ordering and presentment, with their overture,
+their interpolated episodes or narratives, their journeys between
+Olympus, Earth and hell, invocations, set similes, battles and
+divine thunderbolts, are those of the classical epic. Had Milton
+shared the free thought as well as the scholarship of the Renaissance,
+the poem could never have existed. With all his range
+of soul and skill, he had a narrower speculative brain than any
+poet of equal gift; and this was well for his great and peculiar
+task. But whatever Milton may fail to be, his heroic writing
+is the permanent and absolute expression of something that in
+the English stock is inveterate&mdash;the Promethean self-possession
+of the mind in defeat, its right to solitude there, its claim to
+judge and deny the victor. This is the spirit of his devils, beside
+whom his divinities, his unfallen angels (Abdiel excepted), and
+even his human couple with their radiance and beauty of line,
+all seem shadowy. The discord between Milton&rsquo;s doctrine and
+his sympathies in <i>Paradise Lost</i> (1667) has never escaped notice.
+The discord between his doctrine and his culture comes out
+in <i>Paradise Regained</i> (1671), when he has at once to reprobate
+and glorify Athens, the &ldquo;mother of arts.&rdquo; In this afterthought
+to the earlier epic the action is slight, the Enemy has lost spirit,
+and the Christ is something of a pedagogue. But there is a new
+charm in its even, grey desert tint, sprinkled with illuminations
+of gold and luxury. In <i>Samson Agonistes</i> (1671) the ethical
+treatment as well as the machinery is Sophoclean, and the theology
+not wholly Christian. But the fault of Samson is forgotten
+in his suffering, which is Milton&rsquo;s own; and thus a cross-current
+of sympathy is set up, which may not be much in keeping with
+the story, but revives the somewhat exhausted interest and
+heightens a few passages into a bare and inaccessible grandeur.</p>
+
+<p>The essential solitude of Milton&rsquo;s energies is best seen in his
+later style and versification. When he resumed poetry about
+1658, he had nothing around him to help him as an artist in
+heroic language. The most recent memories of the drama
+were also the worst; the forms of Cowley and Davenant, the
+would-be epic poets, were impossible. Spenser&rsquo;s manner was
+too even and fluid as a rule for such a purpose, and his power
+was of an alien kind. Thus Milton went back, doubtless full of
+Greek and Latin memories, to Marlowe, Shakespeare and others
+among the greater dramatists (including John Ford); and their
+tragic diction and measure are the half-hidden bases of his own.
+The product, however, is unlike anything except the imitations
+of itself. The incongruous elements of the <i>Paradise Lost</i> and
+its divided sympathies are cemented, at least superficially, by
+its style, perhaps the surest for dignity, character and beauty
+that any Germanic language has yet developed. If dull and
+pedantic over certain stretches, it is usually infallible. It is
+many styles in one, and Time has laid no hand on it. In these
+three later poems its variety can be seen. It is perfect in personal
+invocation and appeal; in the complex but unfigured rhetoric
+of the speeches; in narrative of all kinds; for the inlaying work
+of simile or scenery or pageant, where the quick, pure impressions
+of Milton&rsquo;s youth and prime&mdash;possibly kept fresher by his
+blindness&mdash;are felt through the sometimes conventional setting;
+and for soliloquy and choric speech of a might unapproachable
+since Dante. To these calls his blank verse responds at every
+point. It is the seal of Milton&rsquo;s artistry, as of his self-confidence,
+for it greatly extends, for the epical purpose, all the known
+powers and liberties of the metre; and yet, as has often been
+shown, it does so not spasmodically but within fixed technical
+laws or rather habits. Latterly, the underlying metrical <i>ictus</i> is
+at times hard to detect. But Milton remains by far the surest
+and greatest instrumentalist, outside the drama, on the English
+unrhymed line. He would, however, have scorned to be judged
+on his form alone. His soul and temper are not merely
+unique in force. Their historic and representative character
+ensure attention, so long as the oppositions of soul and temper
+in the England of Milton&rsquo;s time remain, as they still are, the
+deepest in the national life. He is sometimes said to harmonize
+the Renaissance and the Puritan spirit; but he does not do this,
+for nothing can do it. The Puritan spirit is the deep thing in
+Milton; all his culture only gives immortal form to its expression.
+The critics have instinctively felt that this is true; and that
+is why their political and religious prepossessions have nearly
+always coloured, and perhaps must colour, every judgment
+passed upon him. Not otherwise can he be taken seriously,
+until historians are without public passions and convictions,
+or the strife between the hierarch and the Protestant is quenched
+in English civilization.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drama, 1580-1642</i>.&mdash;We must now go back to the drama,
+which lies behind Milton, and is the most individual product of
+all English Literature. The nascent drama of genius
+can be found in the &ldquo;University wits,&rdquo; who flourished
+<span class="sidenote">Drama.</span>
+between 1580 and 1595, and the chief of whom are Lyly,
+Kyd, Peele, Greene and Marlowe. John Lyly is the first practitioner
+in prose&mdash;of shapely comic plot and pointed talk&mdash;the
+artificial but actual talk of courtly masquers who rally one
+another with a bright and barren finish that is second nature.
+<i>Campaspe</i>, <i>Sapho and Phao</i>, <i>Midas</i>, and Lyly&rsquo;s other comedies,
+mostly written from 1580 to 1591, are frail vessels, often filled
+with compliment, mythological allegory, or topical satire, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span>
+enamelled with pastoral interlude and flower-like song. The
+work of Thomas Kyd, especially <i>The Spanish Tragedy</i> (written
+<i>c.</i> 1585), was the most violent effort to put new wine into the
+old Senecan bottles, and he probably wrote the lost pre-Shakespearian
+<i>Hamlet</i>. He transmitted to the later drama that
+subject of pious but ruinous revenge, which is used by Chapman,
+Marston, Webster and many others; and his chief play was
+translated and long acted in Germany. Kyd&rsquo;s want of modulation
+is complete, but he commands a substantial skill of dramatic
+mechanism, and he has more than the feeling for power, just as
+Peele and Greene have more than the feeling for luxury or grace.
+To the expression of luxury Peele&rsquo;s often stately blank verse is
+well fitted, and it is by far the most correct and musical before
+Marlowe&rsquo;s, as his <i>Arraignment of Paris</i> (1584) and his <i>David and
+Bethsabe</i> attest. Greene did something to create the blank verse
+of gentle comedy, and to introduce the tone of idyll and chivalry,
+in his <i>Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay</i> (1594). Otherwise these
+writers, with Nashe and Lodge, fall into the wake of Marlowe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tamburlaine</i>, in two parts (part i. <i>c.</i> 1587), <i>The Life and
+Death of Doctor Faustus</i>, <i>The Jew of Malta</i>, <i>Edward II.</i> (the first
+chronicle play of genius), and the incomplete poem
+<i>Hero and Leander</i> are Christopher Marlowe&rsquo;s title-deeds
+<span class="sidenote">Marlowe.</span>
+(1564-1593). He established tragedy, and inspired its
+master, and created for it an adequate diction and versification.
+His command of vibrant and heroic recitative should not obscure
+his power, in his greater passages, describing the descent of
+Helen, the passing of Mortimer, and the union of Hero and
+Leander, to attain a kind of Greek transparency and perfection.
+The thirst for ideal beauty, for endless empire, and for prohibited
+knowledge, no poet has better expressed, and in this respect
+Giordano Bruno is nearest him in his own time. This thirst is
+his own; his great cartoon-figures, gigantic rather than heroic,
+proclaim it for him: their type recurs through the drama, from
+Richard III. to Dryden&rsquo;s orotund heroes; but in <i>Faustus</i> and in
+<i>Edward II.</i> they become real, almost human beings. His constructive
+gift is less developed in proportion, though Goethe
+praised the planning-out of <i>Faustus</i>. The glory and influence
+of Marlowe on the side of form rest largely on his meteoric blank
+lines, which are varied not a little, and nobly harmonized into
+periods, and resonant with names to the point of splendid extravagance;
+and their sound is heard in Milton, whom he taught
+how to express the grief and despair of demons dissatisfied with
+their kingdom. Shakespeare did not excel Marlowe in Marlowe&rsquo;s
+own excellences, though he humanized Marlowe&rsquo;s Jew, launched
+his own blank verse on the tide of Marlowe&rsquo;s oratory, and
+modulated, in <i>Richard II.</i>, his master&rsquo;s type of chronicle
+tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>As the middle ages receded, the known life of man upon this
+earth became of sovereign interest, and of this interest the
+drama is the freest artistic expression. If Marlowe
+is the voice of the impulse to explore, the plays of
+<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare.</span>
+Shakespeare are the amplest freight brought home
+by any voyager. Shakespeare is not only the greatest but the
+earliest English dramatist who took humanity for his province.
+But this he did not do from the beginning. He was at first
+subdued to what he worked in; and though the dry pedantic
+tragedy was shattered and could not touch him, the gore and
+rant, the impure though genuine force of Kyd do not seem at
+first to have repelled him; if, as is likely, he had a hand in
+<i>Titus Andronicus</i>. He probably served with Marlowe and others
+of the school at various stages in the composition of the three
+chronicle dramas finally entitled <i>Henry VI</i>. But besides the
+high-superlative style that is common to them all, there runs
+through them the rhymed rhetoric with which Shakespeare
+dallied for some time, as well as the softer flute-notes and deeper
+undersong that foretell his later blank verse. In <i>Richard III.</i>,
+though it is built on the scheme and charged with the style of
+Marlowe, Shakespeare first showed the intensity of his original
+power. But after a few years he swept out of Marlowe&rsquo;s orbit
+into his own vaster and unreturning curve. In <i>King John</i> the
+lyrical, epical, satirical and pathetic chords are all present, if
+they are scarcely harmonized. Meantime, Lyly and Greene
+having displaced the uncouther comedy, Shakespeare learned
+all they had to teach, and shaped the comedy of poetic, chivalrous
+fancy and good-tempered high spirits, which showed him the
+way of escape from his own rhetoric, and enabled him to perfect
+his youthful, noble and gentle blank verse. This attained its
+utmost fineness in <i>Richard II.</i>, and its full cordiality and beauty
+<span class="sidenote">1590-1595.</span>
+in the other plays that consummate this period&mdash;<i>A
+Midsummer Night&rsquo;s Dream</i>, <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>,
+and one romantic tragedy, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>. Behind
+them lay the earlier and fainter romances, with their chivalry
+and gaiety, <i>The Comedy of Errors</i>, <i>Love&rsquo;s Labour&rsquo;s Lost</i> and
+<i>The Two Gentlemen of Verona</i>. Throughout these years blank
+verse contended with rhyme, which Shakespeare after a while
+abandoned save for special purposes, as though he had exhausted
+its honey. The Italian Renaissance is felt in the scenery and
+setting of these plays. The <i>novella</i> furnishes the story, which
+passes in a city of the Southern type, with its absolute ruler,
+its fantastic by-laws on which the plot nominally turns, and
+its mixture of real life and marvel. The personages, at first
+fainter of feature and symmetrically paired, soon assume sharper
+outline: Richard II. and Shylock, Portia and Juliet, and Juliet&rsquo;s
+Nurse and Bottom are created. The <i>novella</i> has left the earth and
+taken wings: the spirit is now that of youth and Fancy (or love
+brooding among the shallows) with interludes of &ldquo;fierce vexation,&rdquo;
+or of tragedy, or of kindly farce. And there is a visionary
+element, felt in the musings of Theseus upon the nature of poetry
+of the dream-faculty itself; an element which is new, like the
+use made of fairy folklore, in the poetry of England.</p>
+
+<p>Tragedy is absent in the succeeding histories (1597-1599),
+and the comedies of wit and romance (1599-1600), in which
+Shakespeare perfected his style for stately, pensive
+or boisterous themes. Falstaff, the most popular as
+<span class="sidenote">1596-1600.</span>
+he is the wittiest of all imaginable comic persons,
+dominates, as to their prose or lower world, the two parts of
+<i>Henry IV.</i>, and its interlude or offshoot, <i>The Merry Wives of
+Windsor</i>. The play that celebrates Henry V. is less a drama
+than a pageant, diversified with mighty orations and cheerful
+humours, and filled with the love of Shakespeare for England.
+Here the most indigenous form of art invented by the English
+Renaissance reaches its climax. The Histories are peopled
+chiefly by men and warriors, of whom Hotspur, &ldquo;dying in his
+excellence and flower,&rdquo; is perhaps more attractive than Henry
+of Agincourt. But in the &ldquo;middle comedies,&rdquo; <i>As You Like It</i>,
+<i>Much Ado</i>, and <i>Twelfth Night</i>, the warriors are home at court,
+where women rule the scene and deserve to rule it; for their
+wit now gives the note; and Shakespeare&rsquo;s prose, the medium
+of their talk, has a finer grace and humour than ever before,
+euphuism lying well in subjection behind it.</p>
+
+<p>Mankind and this world have never been so sharply sifted
+or so sternly consoled, since Lucretius, as in Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+tragedies. The energy which created them evades,
+like that of the sun, our estimate. But they were not
+<span class="sidenote">1601-1608.</span>
+out of relation to their time, the first few years of the
+reign of James, with its conspiracies, its Somerset and Overbury
+horrors, its enigmatic and sombre figures like Raleigh, and its
+revulsion from Elizabethan buoyancy. In the same decade were
+written the chief tragedies of Jonson, Chapman, Dekker, Marston,
+Tourneur; and <i>The White Devil</i>, and <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i>,
+and <i>The Maid&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>, and <i>A Woman Killed with Kindness</i>.
+But, in spite of Shakespeare&rsquo;s affinities with these authors at
+many points, <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Macbeth</i>, <i>Lear</i>, <i>Othello</i>, with the three
+Roman plays (written at intervals and not together), and the
+two quasi-antique plays <i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, and <i>Timon of
+Athens</i>, form a body of drama apart from anything else in the
+world. They reveal a new tragic philosophy, a new poetic style,
+a new dramatic technique and a new world of characters. In
+one way above all Shakespeare stands apart; he not only
+appropriates the ancient pattern of heroism, of right living and
+right dying, revealed by North&rsquo;s Plutarch; others did this also;
+but the intellectual movement of the time, though by no means
+fully reflected, is reflected in his tragedies far more than elsewhere.
+The new and troublous thoughts on man and conduct
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span>
+that were penetrating the general mind, the freedom and play
+of vision that Montaigne above all had stimulated, here find
+their fullest scope; and Florio&rsquo;s translation (1603) of Montaigne&rsquo;s
+Essays, coming out between the first and the second versions
+of Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Hamlet</i>, counted probably for more than any
+other book. The <i>Sonnets</i> (published 1609) are also full of far-wandering
+thoughts on truth and beauty and on good and evil.
+The story they reveal may be ranked with the situations of the
+stranger dramas like <i>Troilus</i> and <i>Measure for Measure</i>. But
+whether or no it is a true story, and the Sonnets in the main a
+confession, they would be at the very worst a perfect dramatic
+record of a great poet&rsquo;s suffering and friendship.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare&rsquo;s last period, that of his tragi-comedies, begins
+about 1608 with his contributions to <i>Pericles, Prince of Tyre</i>.
+For unknown reasons he was moved, about the time
+of his retirement home, to record, as though in justice
+<span class="sidenote">Last period.</span>
+to the world, the happy turns by which tragic disaster
+is at times averted. <i>Pericles</i>, <i>The Winter&rsquo;s Tale</i>, <i>Cymbeline</i>,
+and <i>The Tempest</i> all move, after a series of crimes, calumnies,
+or estrangements, to some final scene of enthralling beauty,
+where the lost reappear and love is recovered; as though after
+all the faint and desperate last partings&mdash;of Lear and Cordelia,
+of Hamlet and Horatio&mdash;which Shakespeare had imagined, he
+must make retrieval with the picture of young and happy
+creatures whose life renews hope even in the experienced. To
+this end he chose the loose action and free atmosphere of the
+<i>roman d&rsquo;aventure</i>, which had already been adapted by Beaumont
+and Fletcher, who may herein have furnished Shakespeare with
+novel and successful theatrical effects, and who certainly in turn
+studied his handiwork. In <i>The Tempest</i> this tragi-comic scheme
+is fitted to the tales brought by explorers of far isles, wild men,
+strange gods and airy music. Even if it be true that in
+Prospero&rsquo;s words the poet bids farewell to his magic, he took
+part later nevertheless in the composition of <i>Henry VIII.</i>;
+and not improbably also in <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>. His share
+in two early pieces, <i>Arden of Feversham</i> (1592) and <i>Edward III.</i>,
+has been urged, never established, and of many other dramas
+he was once idly accused.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare&rsquo;s throne rests on the foundation of three equal
+and master faculties. One is that of expression and versification;
+the next is the invention and presentation of human character
+in action; the third is the theatrical faculty. The writing of
+Dante may seem to us more steadily great and perfect, when we
+remember Shakespeare&rsquo;s conceits, his experiments, his haste
+and impatience in his long wrestle with tragic language, his not
+infrequent sheer infelicities. But Dante is always himself, he
+had not to find words for hundreds of imaginary persons. Balzac,
+again, may have created and exhibited as many types of mankind,
+but except in soul he is not a poet. Shakespeare is a
+supreme if not infallible poet; his verse, often of an antique
+simplicity or of a rich, harmonious, romantic perfection, is at
+other times strained and shattered with what it tries to express,
+and attains beauty only through discord. He is also many
+persons in one; in his <i>Sonnets</i> he is even, it may be thought,
+himself. But he had furthermore to study a personality not
+of his own fancying&mdash;with something in it of Caliban, of Dogberry
+and of Cleopatra&mdash;that of the audience in a playhouse. He
+belongs distinctly to the poets like Jonson and Massinger who
+are true to their art as practical dramatists, not to the poets like
+Chapman whose works chance to be in the form of plays. Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+mastery of this art is approved now by every nation.
+But apart from the skill that makes him eternally actable&mdash;the
+skill of raising, straining and relieving the suspense, and bringing
+it to such an ending as the theatre will tolerate&mdash;he played upon
+every chord in his own hearers. He frankly enlisted Jew-hatred,
+Pope-hatred and France-hatred; he flattered the queen, and
+celebrated the Union, and stormed the house with his <i>fanfare</i>
+over the national soldier, Henry of Agincourt, and glorified
+England, as in <i>Cymbeline</i>, to the last. But in deeper ways he is
+the chief of playwrights. Unlike another master, Ibsen, he
+nearly always tells us, without emphasis, by the words and
+behaviour of his characters, which of them we are to love and
+hate, and when we are to love and when to hate those whom we
+can neither love nor hate wholly. Yet he is not to be bribed,
+and deals to his characters something of the same injustice or
+rough justice that is found in real life. His loyalty to life, as
+well as to the stage, puts the crown on his felicity and his fertility,
+and raises him to his solitude of dramatic greatness.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare&rsquo;s method could not be imparted, and despite
+reverberations in Beaumont, Fletcher, Webster and others he
+left no school. But his friend Ben Jonson, his nearest
+equal in vigour of brain, though not in poetical intuition,
+<span class="sidenote">Jonson.</span>
+was the greatest of dramatic influences down to the
+shutting of the theatres in 1642, and his comedies found fresh
+disciples even after 1660. He had &ldquo;the devouring eye and the
+portraying hand&rdquo;; he could master and order the contents of a
+mighty if somewhat burdensome memory into an organic drama,
+whether the matter lay in Roman historians or before his eyes
+in the London streets. He had an armoury of doctrine, drawn
+from the <i>Poetics</i> and Horace, which moulded his creative
+practice. This was also partly founded on a revulsion against
+the plays around him, with their loose build and moral improbabilities.
+But in spite of his photographic and constructive
+power, his vision is too seldom free and genial; it is that of the
+satirist who thinks that his office is to improve mankind by
+derisively representing it. And he does this by beginning with
+the &ldquo;humour,&rdquo; or abstract idiosyncrasy or quality, and clothing
+it with accurately minute costume and gesture, so that it may
+pass for a man; and indeed the result is as real as many a man,
+and in his best-tempered and youthful comedy, <i>Every Man in
+his Humour</i> (acted 1598), it is very like life. In Jonson&rsquo;s monumental
+pieces, <i>Volpone or the Fox</i> (acted 1605) and <i>The Alchemist</i>
+(acted 1610), our laughter is arrested by the lowering and
+portentous atmosphere, or is loud and hard, startled by the
+enormous skill and energy displayed. Nor are the joy and relief
+of poetical comedy given for an instant by <i>The Silent Woman</i>,
+<i>Bartholomew Fair</i> (acted 1614), or <i>The Staple of News</i>, still less
+by topical plays like <i>Cynthia&rsquo;s Revels</i>, though their unfailing
+farce and rampant fun are less charged with contempt. The
+erudite tragedies, <i>Sejanus</i> (acted 1603) and <i>Catiline</i>, chiefly
+live by passages of high forensic power. Jonson&rsquo;s finer elegies,
+eulogies and lyrics, which are many, and his fragmentary <i>Sad
+Shepherd</i>, show that he also had a free and lovely talent, often
+smothered by doctrine and temper; and his verse, usually strong
+but full of knots and snags, becomes flowing and graciously
+finished. His prose is of the best, especially in his <i>Discoveries</i>,
+a series of ethical essays and critical maxims; its prevalently
+brief and emphatic rhythms suggesting those of Hobbes, and
+even, though less easy and civil and various, those of Dryden.
+The &ldquo;sons&rdquo; of Jonson, Randolph and Browne, Shadwell and
+Wilson, were heirs rather to his riot of &ldquo;humours,&rdquo; his learned
+method and satiric aim, than to his larger style, his architectural
+power, or his relieving graces.</p>
+
+<p>As a whole, the romantic drama (so to entitle the remaining
+bulk of plays down to 1642) is a vast stifled jungle, full of wild
+life and song, with strange growths and heady perfumes,
+with glades of sunshine and recesses of poisoned
+<span class="sidenote">Romantic drama.</span>
+darkness; it is not a cleared forest, where single and
+splendid trees grow to shapely perfection. It has &ldquo;poetry
+enough for anything&rdquo;; passionate situations, and their eloquence;
+and a number, doubtless small considering its mass, of
+living and memorable personages. Moral keeping and constructive
+mastery are rarer still; and too seldom through a whole
+drama do we see human life and hear its voices, arranged and
+orchestrated by the artist. But it can be truly said in defence
+that while structure without poetry is void (as it tended at
+times to be in Ben Jonson), poetry without structure is still
+poetry, and that the romantic drama is like nothing else in this
+world for variety of accent and unexpectedness of beauty.
+We must read it through, as Charles Lamb did, to do it justice.
+The diffusion of its characteristic excellences is surprising. Of
+its extant plays it is hardly safe to leave one unopened, if we are
+searchers for whatsoever is lovely or admirable. The reasons
+for the lack of steadfast power and artistic conscience lay partly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span>
+in the conditions of the stage. Playwrights usually wrote
+rapidly for bread, and sold their rights. The performances of
+each play were few. There was no authors&rsquo; copyright, and
+dramas were made to be seen and heard, not to be read. There
+was no articulate dramatic criticism, except such as we find
+casually in Shakespeare, and in the practice and theory of Jonson,
+who was deaf or hostile to some of the chief virtues of the romantic
+playwrights.</p>
+
+<p>The wealth of dramatic production is so great that only a
+broad classification is here offered. George Chapman stands
+apart, nearest to the greatest in high austerity of
+sentiment and in the gracious gravity of his romantic
+<span class="sidenote">Chapman.</span>
+love-comedies. But the crude melodrama of his tragedies is
+void of true theatrical skill. His quasi-historical French tragedies
+on Bussy d&rsquo;Ambois and Biron and Chabot best show his gift
+and also his insufferable interrupting quaintness. His versions
+of Homer (1598-1624), honoured alike by Jonson and by Keats,
+are the greatest verse translations of the time, and the real work
+of Chapman&rsquo;s life. Their virtues are only partially Homer&rsquo;s,
+but the general epic nobility and the majesty of single lines,
+which in length are the near equivalent of the hexameter,
+redeem the want of Homer&rsquo;s limpidity and continuity and the
+translator&rsquo;s imperfect knowledge of Greek. A vein of satiric
+ruggedness unites Jonson and Chapman with Marston and Hall,
+the professors of an artificial and disgusting invective; and the
+same strain spoils Marston&rsquo;s plays, and obscures his genuine
+command of the language of feverish and bitter sentiment.
+With these writers satire and contempt of the world lie at the
+root both of their comedy and tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>It is otherwise with most of the romantic dramatists, who may
+be provisionally grouped as follows. (<i>a</i>) Thomas Dekker and
+Thomas Heywood are writers-of-all-work, the former
+profuse of tracts and pamphlets, the latter of treatises
+<span class="sidenote">Dekker and Heywood.</span>
+and compilations. They are both unrhetorical and
+void of pose, and divide themselves between the artless
+comedy of bustling, lively, English humours and pathetic,
+unheroic tragedy. But Dekker has splendid and poetical dreams,
+in <i>Old Fortunatus</i> (1600) and <i>The Honest Whore</i>, both of luxury
+and of tenderness; while Heywood, as in his <i>English Traveller</i>
+and <i>Woman killed with Kindness</i> (acted 1603), excels in pictures
+of actual, chivalrous English gentlemen and their generosities.
+The fertility and volubility of these writers, and their modest
+carelessness of fame, account for many of their imperfections.
+With them may be named the large crowd of professional
+journeymen, who did not want for power, but wrote usually in
+partnership together, like Munday, Chettle and Drayton, or
+supplied, like William Rowley, underplots of rough, lively
+comedy or tragedy. (<i>b</i>) Amongst dramatists of primarily tragic
+and sombre temper, who in their best scenes recall the creator
+<span class="sidenote">Middleton and Webster.</span>
+of Angelo, Iago and Timon, must be named Thomas
+Middleton (1570?-1627), John Webster, and Cyril
+Tourneur. Middleton has great but scattered force,
+and his verse has the grip and ring of the best period
+without a sign of the decadence. He is strong in high comedy,
+like <i>The Old Law</i>, that turns on some exquisite point of honour&mdash;&ldquo;the
+moral sense of our ancestors&rdquo;; in comedy that is merely
+graphic and vigorous; and in detached sketches of lowering
+wickedness and lust, like those in <i>The Changeling</i> and <i>Women
+beware Women</i>. He and Webster each created one unforgettable
+desperado, de Flores in <i>The Changeling</i> and Bosola in <i>The
+Duchess of Malfi</i> (whose &ldquo;pity,&rdquo; when it came, was &ldquo;nothing
+akin to him&rdquo;). In Webster&rsquo;s other principal play, <i>Vittoria
+Corombona, or the White Devil</i> (produced about 1616), the title-character
+is not less magnificent in defiant crime than Goneril
+or Lady Macbeth. The style of Webster, for all his mechanical
+horrors, distils the essences of pity and terror, of wrath and
+scorn, and is profoundly poetical; and his point of view seems
+to be blank fatalism, without Shakespeare&rsquo;s ever-arching rainbow
+of moral sympathy. Cyril Tourneur, in <i>The Revenger&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>,
+is even more of a poet than Webster; he can find the phrase for
+half-insane wrath and nightmare brooding, but his chaos of
+impieties revolts the artistic judgment. These specialists,
+when all is said, are great men in their dark province, (<i>c</i>) The
+playwrights who may be broadly called romantic, of whom
+Beaumont, Fletcher and Massinger are the chief, while they
+share in the same sombre vein, have a wider range and move
+more in the daylight. The three just named left a very large body
+of drama, tragic, comic and tragi-comic, in which their several
+shares can partly be discerned by metrical or other tests. Beaumont
+(d. 1616) is nearest the prime, with his vein of Cervantesque
+<span class="sidenote">Beaumont and Fletcher.</span>
+mockery and his pure, beautifully-broken and cadenced
+verse, which is seen in his contributions to Philaster
+and <i>The Maid&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>. Fletcher (d. 1625) brings us
+closest to the actual gaieties and humours of Jacobean
+life; he has a profuse comic gift and the rare instinct for natural
+dialogue. His verse, with its flood of vehement and expansive
+rhetoric, heard at its best in plays like <i>Bonduca</i>, cannot cheat
+us into the illusion that it is truly dramatic; but it overflows
+with beauty, like his silvery but monotonous versification with
+its endecasyllabics arrested at the end. In Fletcher the decadence
+of form and feeling palpably begins. His personages often face
+about at critical instants and bely their natures by sudden
+revulsions. Wanton and cheap characters invite not only
+dramatic but personal sympathy, as though the author knew no
+better. There is too much fine writing about a chastity which is
+complacent rather than instinctive, and satisfied with its formal
+resistances and technical escapes; so that we are far from
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s heroines. These faults are present also in Philip
+<span class="sidenote">Massinger.</span>
+Massinger (d. 1640), who offers in substantial recompense,
+not like Beaumont and Fletcher treasures of
+incessant vivacious episode and poetry and lyric interlude,
+but an often splendid and usually solid constructive skill,
+and a steady eloquence which is like a high table-land without
+summits. <i>A New Way to Pay Old Debts</i> (1632) is the most
+enduring popular comedy of the time outside Shakespeare&rsquo;s,
+and one of the best. Massinger&rsquo;s interweaving of impersonal or
+political conceptions, as in <i>The Bondman</i> and <i>The Roman Actor</i>,
+is often a triumph of arrangement; and though he wrote in the
+reign of Charles, he is saved by many noble qualities from being
+merely an artist of the decline, (<i>d</i>) A mass of plays, of which the
+authorship is unknown, uncertain or attached to a mere name,
+<span class="sidenote">The Many.</span>
+baffle classification. There are domestic tragedies,
+such as <i>Arden of Feversham</i>; scions of the vindictive
+drama, like <i>The Second Maiden&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>; historic or half-historic
+tragedies like <i>Nero</i>. There are chronicle histories, of
+which the last and one of the best is Ford&rsquo;s <i>Perkin Warbeck</i>,
+and melodramas of adventure such as Thomas Heywood poured
+forth. There are realistic citizen comedies akin to <i>The Merry
+Wives</i>, like Porter&rsquo;s refreshing <i>Two Angry Women of Abingdon</i>;
+there are Jonsonian comedies, vernacular farces, light intrigue-pieces
+like Field&rsquo;s and many more. Few of these, regarded as
+wholes, come near to perfection; few fail of some sally or scene
+that proves once more the unmatched diffusion of the dramatic
+or poetic instinct. (<i>e</i>) Outside the regular drama there are many
+varieties: academic plays, like <i>The Return from Parnassus</i> and
+<i>Lingua</i>, which are still mirthful; many pastoral plays or entertainments
+in the Italian style, like <i>The Faithful Shepherdess</i>;
+versified character-sketches, of which Day&rsquo;s <i>Parliament of Bees</i>,
+with its Theocritean grace and point, is the happiest; many
+masques and shows, often lyrically and scenically lovely, of
+which kind Jonson is the master, and Milton, in his <i>Comus</i>, the
+transfigurer; Senecan dramas made only to be read, like Daniel&rsquo;s
+and Fulke Greville&rsquo;s; and Latin comedies, like <i>Ignoramus</i>.
+All these species are only now being fully grouped, sifted and
+edited by scholars, but a number of the six or seven hundred
+dramas of the time remain unreprinted.</p>
+
+<p>There remain two writers, John Ford and James Shirley,
+who kept the higher tradition alive till the Puritan ordinance
+crushed the theatre in 1642. Ford is another specialist,
+of grave, sinister and concentrated power (reflected
+<span class="sidenote">Ford and Shirley.</span>
+in his verse and diction), to whom no topic, the
+incest of Annabella in <i>&rsquo;Tis Pity She&rsquo;s a Whore</i>, or the high
+crazed heroism of Calantha in <i>The Broken Heart</i>, is beyond
+the pale, if only he can dominate it; as indeed he does, without
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span>
+complicity, standing above his subject. Shirley, a fertile writer,
+has the general characteristic gifts, in a somewhat dilute but
+noble form, of the more romantic playwrights, and claims honour
+as the last of them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prose from 1579 to 1660.</i>&mdash;With all the unevenness of poetry,
+the sense of style, of a standard, is everywhere; felicity is never
+far off. Prose also is full of genius, but it is more disfigured
+than verse by aberration and wasted power. A central, classic,
+durable, adaptive prose had been attained by Machiavelli,
+and by Amyot and Calvin, before 1550. In England it was only
+to become distinct after 1660. Vocabulary, sentence-structure,
+paragraph, idiom and rhythm were in a state of unchartered
+freedom, and the history of their crystallization is not yet written.
+But in more than compensation there is a company of prose
+masters, from Florio and Hooker to Milton and Clarendon, not
+one of whom clearly or fully anticipates the modern style, and
+who claim all the closer study that their special virtues have been
+for ever lost. They seem farther away from us than the poets
+around them. The verse of Shakespeare is near to us, for its
+tradition has persisted; his prose, the most natural and noble
+of his age, is far away, for its tradition has not persisted. One
+reason of this difference is that English prose tried to do more
+work than that of France and Italy; it tried the work of poetry;
+and it often did that better than it did the normal work of prose.
+This overflow of the imaginative spirit gave power and elasticity
+to prose, but made its task of finding equilibrium the harder.
+Moreover, prose in England was for long a natural growth, never
+much affected by critical or academic canons as in France;
+and when it did submit to canons, the result was often merely
+manner. The tendons and sinews of the language, still in its
+adolescent power and bewilderment, were long unset; that is,
+the parts of speech&mdash;noun and verb, epithet and adverb&mdash;were in
+freer interchange than at any period afterwards. The build,
+length and cadence of a complex sentence were habitually
+elaborate; and yet they were disorganized, so that only the ear
+of a master could regulate them. The law of taste and measure,
+perhaps through some national disability, was long unperceived.
+Prose, in fact, could never be sure of doing the day&rsquo;s work in the
+right fashion. The cross-currents of pedantry in the midst of
+simplicity, the distrust of clear plain brevity, which was apt to be
+affected when it came, the mimicries of foreign fashions, and the
+quaintness and cumbrousness of so much average writing,
+make it easier to classify Renaissance prose by its interests than
+by its styles.</p>
+
+<p>The Elizabethan novel was always unhappily mannered, and
+is therefore dead. It fed the drama, which devoured it. The
+tales of Boccaccio, Bandello, Cinthio, Margaret of
+<span class="sidenote">The novel.</span>
+Navarre, and others were purveyed, as remarked
+above, in the forgotten treasuries of Painter, Pettie, Fenton
+and Whetstone, and many of these works or their originals
+filled a shelf in the playwrights&rsquo; libraries. The first of famous
+English novels, Lyly&rsquo;s <i>Euphues</i> (1578), and its sequel
+<i>Euphues and his England</i>, are documents of form.
+<span class="sidenote">Lyly and euphuism.</span>
+They are commended by a certain dapper shrewdness
+of observation and an almost witty priggery, not by any
+real beauty or deep feeling. Euphuism, of which Lyly was
+only the patentee, not the inventor, strikes partly back to the
+Spaniard Guevara, and was a model for some years to many
+followers like Lodge and Greene. It did not merely provide
+Falstaff with a pattern for mock-moral diction and vegetable
+similes. It genuinely helped to organize the English sentence,
+complex or co-ordinate, and the talk of Portia and Rosalind
+shows what could be made of it. By the arch-euphuists, clauses
+and clusters of clauses were paired for parallel or contrast, with
+the beat of emphatic alliteration on the corresponding parts of
+speech in each constituent clause. This was a useful discipline
+for prose in its period of groping. Sidney&rsquo;s incomposite and
+unfinished <i>Arcadia</i>, written 1580-1581, despite its painful forced
+antitheses, is sprinkled with lovely rhythms, with pleasing
+formal landscapes, and even with impassioned sentiment and
+situation, through which the writer&rsquo;s eager and fretted spirit
+shines. Both these stories, like those of Greene and Lodge,
+show by their somewhat affected, edited delineation of life and
+their courtly tone that they were meant in chief for the eyes of
+ladies, who were excluded alike from the stage and from its
+audience. Nashe&rsquo;s drastic and photographic tale of masculine life,
+<i>Jack Wilton, or The Unfortunate Traveller</i>, stands almost alone,
+but some of the gap is filled by the contemporary pamphlets,
+sometimes vivid, often full of fierce or maudlin declamation, of
+Nashe himself&mdash;by far the most powerful of the group&mdash;and of
+Greene, Dekker and Nicholas Breton. Thus the English novel
+was a minor passing form; the leisurely and amorous romance
+went on in the next century, owing largely to French influence
+and example.</p>
+
+<p>In criticism, England may almost be counted with the minor
+Latin countries. Sidney, in his <i>Defence of Poesy</i> (1595, written
+about 1580), and Jonson, in his <i>Discoveries</i>, offer a
+well-inspired and lofty restatement of the current
+<span class="sidenote">Criticism.</span>
+answers to the current questions, but could give no account
+of the actual creative writing of the time. To defend the
+&ldquo;truth&rdquo; of poetry&mdash;which was identified with all inventive
+writing and not only with verse&mdash;poetry was saddled with the
+work of science and instruction. To defend its character it
+was treated as a delightful but deliberate bait to good behaviour,
+a theory at best only true of allegory and didactic verse. The
+real relation of tragedy to spiritual things, which is admittedly
+shown, however hard its definition, in Shakespeare&rsquo;s plays, no
+critic for centuries tried to fathom. One of the chief quarrels
+turned on metric. A few lines that Sidney and Campion wrote
+on what they thought the system of Latin quantity are really
+musical. This theory, already raised by Ascham, made a stir,
+at first in the group of Harvey, Sidney, Dyer and Spenser, called
+the &ldquo;Areopagus,&rdquo; an informal attempt to copy the Italian
+academies; and it was revived on the brink of the reign of James.
+But Daniel&rsquo;s firm and eloquent <i>Defence of Rhyming</i> (1602) was
+not needed to persuade the poets to continue rhyming in syllabic
+verse. The stricter view of the nature and classification of poetry,
+and of the dramatic unity of action, is concisely given, partly
+by Jonson, partly by Bacon in his <i>Advancement of Learning</i> and
+<i>De Augmentis</i>; and Jonson, besides passing his famed judgments
+on Shakespeare and Bacon, enriched our critical vocabulary
+from the Roman rhetoricians. Scholastic and sensible manuals,
+like Webbe&rsquo;s <i>Discourse of Poetry</i> and the <i>Art of English Poesy</i>
+(1589) ascribed to Puttenham, come in the rear.</p>
+
+<p>The translators count for more than the critics; the line of
+their great achievements from Berners&rsquo; <i>Froissart</i> (1523-1525)
+to Urquhart&rsquo;s <i>Rabelais</i> (1653) is never broken long;
+and though their lives are often obscure, their number
+<span class="sidenote">Translators.</span>
+witnesses to that far-spread diffusion of the talent
+for English prose, which the wealth of English poetry is apt to
+hide. The typical craftsman in this field, Philemon Holland,
+translated Livy, Pliny, Suetonius, Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Morals</i> and
+Camden&rsquo;s <i>Britannia</i>, and his fount of English is of the amplest
+and purest. North, in his translation, made from Amyot&rsquo;s
+classic French, of Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Lives</i> (1579), disclosed one of the
+master-works of old example; Florio, in Montaigne&rsquo;s <i>Essays</i>
+(1603), the charter of the new freedom of mental exploration;
+and Shelton, in <i>Don Quixote</i> (1612), the chief tragi-comic
+creation of continental prose. These versions, if by no means
+accurate in the letter, were adequate in point of soul and style
+to their great originals; and the English dress of Tacitus (1591),
+Apuleius, Heliodorus, Commines, <i>Celestina</i> and many others,
+is so good and often so sumptuous a fabric, that no single class
+of prose authors, from the time of More to that of Dryden,
+excels the prose translators, unless it be the Anglican preachers.
+Their matter is given to them, and with it a certain standard
+of form, so that their natural strength and richness of phrase
+are controlled without being deadened. But the want of such
+control is seen in the many pamphleteers, who are the journalists
+of the time, and are often also playwrights or tale-tellers, divines
+or politicians. The writings, for instance, of the hectic, satiric
+and graphic Thomas Nashe, run at one extreme into fiction, and
+at the other into the virulent rag-sheets of the Marprelate
+controversy, which is of historical and social but not of artistic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span>
+note, being only a fragment of that vast mass of disputatious
+literature, which now seems grotesque, excitable or dull.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Hooker&rsquo;s <i>Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity</i> (1594-1597),
+an accepted defence of the Anglican position against Geneva
+and Rome, is the first theological work of note in the
+English tongue, and the first of note since Wycliffe
+<span class="sidenote">Hooker.</span>
+written by an Englishman. It is a plea for reason as one of the
+safe and lawful guides to the faith; but it also speaks with admirable
+temper and large feeling to the ceremonial and aesthetic
+sense. The First Book, the scaffolding of the treatise, discusses
+the nature of law at large; but Hooker hardly has pure speculative
+power, and the language had not yet learnt to move
+easily in abstract trains of thought. In its elaboration of clause
+and period, in its delicate resonant eloquence, Hooker&rsquo;s style
+is Ciceronian; but his inversions and mazes of subordinate
+sentence somewhat rack the genius of English. Later divines
+like Jeremy Taylor had to disintegrate, since they could not
+wield, this admirable but over-complex eloquence. The sermons
+(1621-1631) of Donne have the mingled strangeness and intimacy
+of his verse, and their subtle flame, imaginative tenacity,
+and hold upon the springs of awe make them unique. Though
+without artificial symmetry, their sentences are intricately
+harmonized, in strong contrast to such pellet-like clauses as those
+of the learned Lancelot Andrewes, who was Donne&rsquo;s younger
+contemporary and the subject of Milton&rsquo;s Latin epitaph.</p>
+
+<p>With Francis Bacon (1561-1626) English philosophy began
+its unbroken course and took its long-delayed rank in Europe.
+His prose, of which he is the first high and various
+master in English, was shaped and coloured by his
+<span class="sidenote">Bacon.</span>
+bent as orator and pleader, by his immixture in affairs, by his
+speculative brain, and by his use and estimate of Latin. In his
+conscious craftsmanship, his intellectual confidence and curiosity,
+his divining faith in the future of science, and his resolve to follow
+the leadings of nature and experience unswervingly; in his habit
+of storing and using up his experience, and in his wide wordly
+insight, crystallized in maxim, he suggests a kind of Goethe,
+without the poetic hand or the capacity for love and lofty
+suffering. He saw all nature in a map, and wished to understand
+and control her by outwitting the &ldquo;idols,&rdquo; or inherent paralysing
+frailties of the human judgment. He planned but could not
+finish a great cycle of books in order to realize this conception.
+The <i>De Augmentis Scientiarum</i> (1623) expanded from the English
+<i>Advancement of Knowledge</i> (1605) draws the map; the <i>Novum
+Organum</i> (1620) sets out the errors of scholasticism and the
+methods of inductive logic; the <i>New Atlantis</i> sketches an ideally
+equipped and moralized scientific community. Bacon shared
+with the great minds of his century the notion that Latin would
+outlast any vernacular tongue, and committed his chief scientific
+writings to a Latin which is alive and splendid and his own, and
+which also disciplined and ennobled his English. The <i>Essays</i>
+(1597, 1612, 1625) are his lifelong, gradually accumulated
+diary of his opinions on human life and business. These famous
+compositions are often sadly mechanical. They are chippings
+and basketings of maxims and quotations, and of anecdotes,
+often classical, put together inductively, or rather by &ldquo;simple
+enumeration&rdquo; of the pros and cons. Still they are the honest
+notes of a practical observer and statesman, disenchanted&mdash;why
+not?&mdash;with mankind, concerned with cause and effect
+rather than with right and wrong, wanting the finer faith and
+insight into men and women, but full of reality, touched with
+melancholy, and redeeming some arid, small and pretentious
+counsels by many that are large and wise. Though sometimes
+betraying the workshop, Bacon&rsquo;s style, at its best, is infallibly
+expressive; like Milton&rsquo;s angels, it is &ldquo;dilated or condensed&rdquo;
+according to its purposes. In youth and age alike, Bacon
+commanded the most opposite patterns and extremes of prose&mdash;the
+curt maxim, balanced in antithesis or triplet, or standing
+solitary; the sumptuous, satisfying and brocaded period; the
+movements of exposition, oratory, pleading and narrative.
+The <i>History of Henry VII.</i> (1622), written after his fall from
+office, is in form as well as insight and mastery of material the
+one historical classic in English before Clarendon. Bacon&rsquo;s
+musical sense for the value and placing of splendid words and
+proper names resembles Marlowe&rsquo;s. But the master of mid-Renaissance
+prose is Shakespeare; with him it becomes the
+voice of finer and more impassioned spirits than Bacon&rsquo;s&mdash;the
+voice of Rosalind and Hamlet. And the eulogist of both men,
+Ben Jonson, must be named in their company for his senatorial
+weight and dignity of ethical counsel and critical maxim.</p>
+
+<p>As the Stuart rule declined and fell, prose became enriched from
+five chief sources: from philosophy, whether formal or unmethodical;
+from theology and preaching and political dispute;
+from the poetical contemplation of death; from the observation
+of men and manners; and from antiquarian scholarship and
+history. As in France, where the first three of these kinds of
+writings flourished, it was a time rather of individual great
+writers than of any admitted pattern or common ideal of prose
+form, although in France this pattern was always clearlier
+defined. The mental energy, meditative depth, and throbbing
+brilliant colour of the English drama passed with its decay over
+into prose. But Latin was still often the supplanter: the treatise
+of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, <i>De Veritate</i>, of note in the early
+history of Deism, and much of the writing of the ambidextrous
+<span class="sidenote">Hobbes.</span>
+Thomas Hobbes, are in Latin. In this way Latin
+disciplined English once more, though it often tempted
+men of genius away from English. <i>The Leviathan</i> (1651) with its
+companion books on <i>Human Nature</i> and <i>Liberty</i>, and Hobbes&rsquo;
+explosive dialogue on the civil wars, <i>Behemoth</i> (1679), have the
+bitter concision of Tacitus and the clearness of a half-relief in
+bronze. Hobbes&rsquo; speculations on the human animal, the social
+contract, the absolute power of the sovereign, and the subservience
+owed to the sovereign by the Church or &ldquo;Kingdom of
+Darkness,&rdquo; enraged all parties, and left their track on the thought
+and controversial literature of the century. With Ben Jonson
+and the jurist Selden (whose English can be judged from his
+<i>Table Talk</i>), Hobbes anticipates the brief and clear sentence-structure
+of the next age, though not its social ease and amenity
+of form. But his grandeur is not that of a poet, and the poetical
+<span class="sidenote">Funereal prose.</span>
+prose is the most distinctive kind of this period. It is
+eloquent above all on death and the vanity of human
+affairs; its solemn tenor prolongs the reflections of
+Claudio, of Fletcher&rsquo;s Philaster, or of Spenser&rsquo;s Despair. It is
+exemplified in Bacon&rsquo;s Essay <i>Of Death</i>, in the anonymous descant
+on the same subject wrongly once ascribed to him, in Donne&rsquo;s
+plea for suicide, in Raleigh&rsquo;s <i>History of the World</i>, in Drummond&rsquo;s
+<i>Cypress Grove</i> (1623), in Jeremy Taylor&rsquo;s sermons and <i>Holy
+Dying</i> (1651), and in Sir Thomas Browne&rsquo;s <i>Urn-Burial</i> (1658) and
+<i>Letter to a Friend</i>. Its usual vesture is a long purple period,
+freely Latinized, though Browne equally commands the form of
+solemn and monumental epigram. He is also free from the
+dejection that wraps round the other writers on the subject,
+and a holy quaintness and gusto relieve his ruminations. The
+<i>Religio Medici</i> (1642), quintessentially learned, wise and splendid,
+is the fullest memorial of his power. Amongst modern prose
+writers, De Quincey is his only true rival in musical sensibility
+to words.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremy Taylor, the last great English casuist and schoolman,
+and one of the first pleaders for religious tolerance (in his <i>Liberty
+of Prophesying</i>, 1647), is above all a preacher; tender,
+intricate, copious, inexhaustible in image and
+<span class="sidenote">Jeremy Taylor.</span>
+picturesque quotation. From the classics, from the
+East, from the animal world, from the life of men and children,
+his illustrations flow, without end or measure. He is a master of
+the lingering cadence, which soars upward and onward on its
+coupled clauses, as on balanced iridescent wings, and is found
+long after in his scholar Ruskin. Imaginative force of another
+kind pervades Robert Burton&rsquo;s <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>
+<span class="sidenote">Burton.</span>
+(1621), where the humorous medium refracts and
+colours every ray of the recluse&rsquo;s far-travelled spirit. The mass
+of Latin citation, woven, not quilted, into Burton&rsquo;s style, is
+another proof of the vitality of the cosmopolitan language.
+Burton and Browne owe much to the pre-critical learning of
+their time, which yields up such precious savours to their fancy,
+that we may be thankful for the delay of more precise science and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span>
+scholarship. Fancy, too, of a suddener and wittier sort, preserves
+some of the ample labours of Thomas Fuller, which are
+scattered over the years 1631-1662; and the <i>Lives</i> and <i>Compleat
+Angler</i> (1653) of Izaak Walton are unspoilt, happy or pious pieces
+of idyllic prose. No adequate note on the secular or sacred
+learning of the time can here be given; on Camden, with his vast
+erudition, historical, antiquarian and comparatively critical
+(<i>Britannia</i>, in Latin, 1586); or on Ussher, with his patristic and
+chronological learning, one of the many <i>savants</i> of the Anglican
+church. Other divines of the same camp pleaded, in a plainer
+style than Taylor, for freedom of personal judgment and against
+the multiplying of &ldquo;vitals in religion&rdquo;; the chief were Chillingworth,
+one of the closest of English apologists, in his <i>Religion of
+Protestants</i> (1638), and John Hales of Eton. The Platonists, or
+rather Plotinists, of Cambridge, who form a curious digression in
+the history of modern philosophy, produced two writers, John
+Smith and Henry More, of an exalted and esoteric prose, more
+directly inspired by Greece than any other of the time; and their
+champion of erudition, Cudworth, in his <i>True Intellectual System</i>,
+gave some form to their doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>Above the vast body of pamphlets and disputatious writing
+that form the historian&rsquo;s material stands Edward Hyde, Earl of
+Clarendon&rsquo;s <i>History of the Rebellion</i>, printed in 1702-1704,
+thirty years after his death. Historical writing
+<span class="sidenote">Clarendon.</span>
+hitherto, but for Bacon&rsquo;s <i>Henry VII.</i>, had been tentative though
+profuse. Raleigh&rsquo;s vast disquisition upon all things, <i>The History
+of the World</i> (1614), survives by passages and poetic splendours;
+gallantly written second-hand works like Knolles&rsquo;s <i>History of the
+Turks</i>, and the rhetorical <i>History of the Long Parliament</i> by
+May, had failed to give England rank with France and Italy.
+Clarendon&rsquo;s book, one of the greatest of memoirs and most vivid
+of portrait-galleries, spiritually unappreciative of the other side,
+but full of a subtle discrimination of character and political
+motive, brings its author into line with Retz and Saint-Simon,
+the watchers and recorders and sometimes the makers of contemporary
+history. Clarendon&rsquo;s <i>Life</i>, above all the picture of
+Falkland and his friends, is a personal record of the delightful
+sort in which England was thus far infertile. He is the last old
+master of prose, using and sustaining the long, sinuous sentence,
+unworkable in weaker hands. He is the last, for Milton&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Milton&rsquo;s prose.</span>
+polemic prose, hurled from the opposite camp, was
+written between 1643 and 1660. Whether reviling
+bishops or royal privilege or indissoluble monogamy,
+or recalling his own youth and aims; or claiming liberty for
+print in <i>Areopagitica</i> (1644); in his demonic defiances, or
+angelic calls to arms, or his animal eruptions of spite and hatred,
+Milton leaves us with a sense of the motive energies that were to
+be transformed into <i>Paradise Lost</i> and <i>Samson</i>. His sentences
+are ungainly and often inharmonious, but often irresistible; he
+rigidly withstood the tendencies of form, in prose as in verse, that
+Dryden was to represent, and thus was true to his own literary
+dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>A special outlying position belongs to the Authorized Version
+(1611) of the Bible, the late fruit of the long toil that had begun
+with Tyndale&rsquo;s, and, on the side of style, with the
+Wycliffite translations. More scholarly than all the
+<span class="sidenote">The Authorized Version.</span>
+preceding versions which it utilized, it won its incomparable
+form, not so much because of the
+&ldquo;grand style that was in the air,&rdquo; which would have been
+the worst of models, as because the style had been already
+tested and ennobled by generations of translators. Its effect
+on poetry and letters was for some time far smaller than its
+effect on the national life at large, but it was the greatest
+translation&mdash;being of a whole literature, or rather of two
+literatures&mdash;in an age of great translations.</p>
+
+<p>Some other kinds of writing soften the transition to Restoration
+prose. The vast catalogue of Characters numbers hundreds of
+titles. Deriving from Theophrastus, who was edited by Casaubon
+in 1592, they are yet another Renaissance form that England
+shared with France. But in English hands, failing a La Bruyère&mdash;in
+Hall&rsquo;s, in Overbury&rsquo;s, even in those of the gay and skilful
+Earle (<i>Microcosmographie</i>, 1628)&mdash;the Character is a mere list
+of the attributes and oddities of a type or calling. It is to the
+Jonsonian drama of humours what the Pensée, or detached
+remark, practised by Bishop Hall and later by Butler and
+Halifax, is to the Essay. These works tended long to be commonplace
+or didactic, as the popular <i>Resolves</i> of Owen Feltham shows.
+Cowley was the first essayist to come down from the desk and
+talk as to his equals in easy phrases of middle length. A time of
+dissension was not the best for this kind of peaceful, detached
+writing. The letters of James Howell, the autobiography of
+Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and the memoirs of Kenelm Digby
+belong rather to the older and more mannered than to the more
+modern form, though Howell&rsquo;s English is in the plainer and
+quicker movement.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">IV. Restoration Period</p>
+
+<p><i>Literature from 1660 to 1700.</i>&mdash;The Renaissance of letters in
+England entered on a fresh and peculiar phase in the third
+quarter of the century. The balance of intellectual and artistic
+power in Europe had completely shifted since 1580. Inspiration
+had died down in Italy, and its older classics were no longer a
+stimulus. The Spanish drama had flourished, but its influence
+though real was scattered and indirect. The Germanic countries
+were slowly emerging into literature; England they scarcely
+touched. But the literary empire of France began to declare
+itself both in Northern and Southern lands, and within half a
+century was assured. Under this empire the English genius
+partly fell, though it soon asserted its own equality, and by 1720
+had so reacted upon France as more than to repay the debt.
+Thus between 1660 and 1700 is prepared a temporary dual control
+<span class="sidenote">French influence.</span>
+of European letters. But in the age of Dryden France
+gave England more than it received; it gave more
+than it had ever given since the age of Chaucer. During
+Charles II.&rsquo;s days Racine, Molière, La Fontaine and Bossuet
+ran the best of their course. Cavalier exiles like Waller, Cowley
+and Hobbes had come back from the winter of their discontent
+in Paris, and Saint-Evremond, the typical <i>bel esprit</i> and critic,
+settled long in England. A vast body of translations from the
+French is recounted, including latterly the works of the Protestant
+refugees printed in the free Low Countries or in England. Naturally
+this influence told most strongly on the social forms of verse
+and prose&mdash;upon comedy and satire, upon criticism and maxim
+and epigram, while it also affected theology and thought. And
+this meant the Renaissance once more, still unexhausted, only
+working less immediately and in fresh if narrower channels.
+Greek literature, Plato and Homer and the dramatists, became
+dimmer; the secondary forms of Latin poetry came to the fore,
+especially those of Juvenal and the satirists, and the <i>pedestris
+sermo</i>, epistolary and critical, of Horace. These had some direct
+influence, as Dryden&rsquo;s translation of them, accompanying his
+Virgil and Lucretius, may show. But they came commended
+by Boileau, their chief modernizer, and in their train was the
+fashion of gallant, epigrammatic and social verse. The tragedy
+of Corneille and Racine, developed originally from the Senecan
+drama, contended with the traditions of Shakespeare and
+Fletcher, and was reinforced by that of the correcter Jonson, in
+shaping the new theatre of England. The French codifiers,
+who were often also the distorters, of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Poetics</i> and
+Horace&rsquo;s <i>Ars poëtica</i>, furnished a canonical body of criticism
+on the epic and the drama, to which Dryden is half a disciple
+and half a rebel. All this implied at once a loss of the larger and
+fuller inspirations of poetry, a decadence in its great and primary
+forms, epic, lyric and tragic, and a disposition, in default of such
+creative power, to turn and take stock of past production. In
+England, therefore, it is the age of secondary verse and of nascent,
+often searching criticism.</p>
+
+<p>The same critical spirit was also whetted in the fields of science
+and speculation, which the war and the Puritan rule had not
+encouraged. The activities of the newly-founded
+Royal Society told directly upon literature, and
+<span class="sidenote">Science and Letters.</span>
+counted powerfully in the organization of a clear,
+uniform prose&mdash;the &ldquo;close, naked, natural way of
+speaking,&rdquo; which the historian of the Society, Sprat, cites as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span>
+part of its programme. And the style of Sprat, as of scientific
+masters like Newton and Ray the botanist, itself attests the
+change. A time of profound and peaceful and fruitful scientific
+labour began; the whole of Newton&rsquo;s <i>Principia</i> appeared in
+1687; the dream of Bacon came nearer, and England was less
+isolated from the international work of knowledge. The spirit
+of method and observation and induction spread over the whole
+field of thought and was typified in John Locke, whose <i>Essay
+concerning Human Understanding</i> came out in English in 1690,
+and who applied the same deeply sagacious and cautious calculus
+to education and religion and the &ldquo;conduct of the understanding.&rdquo;
+But his works, though their often mellow and dignified
+style has been ignorantly underrated, also show the change in
+philosophic writing since Hobbes. The old grandeur and
+pugnacity are gone; the imaginative play of science, or quasi-science,
+on the literature of reflection is gone; the eccentrics,
+the fantasts, the dreamers are gone, or only survive in curious
+transitional writers like Joseph Glanvil (<i>Scepsis scientifica</i>, 1665)
+or Thomas Burnet (<i>Sacred Theory of the Earth</i>, 1684). This
+change was in part a conscious and an angry change, as is clear
+from the attacks made in Samuel Butler&rsquo;s <i>Hudibras</i> (1663-1668)
+upon scholastic verbiage, astrology, fanatical sects and their
+disputes, poetic and &ldquo;heroic&rdquo; enthusiasm and intellectual
+whim.</p>
+
+<p>Before the Restoration men of letters, with signal exceptions
+like Milton and Marvell, had been Cavalier, courtly and Anglican
+in their sympathies. The Civil War had scattered them
+away from the capital, which, despite Milton&rsquo;s dream
+<span class="sidenote">Courtly and social influence.</span>
+in <i>Areopagitica</i> of its humming and surging energies,
+had ceased to be, what it now again became, the natural
+haunt and Rialto of authors. The taste of the new king and
+court served to rally them. Charles II. relished <i>Hudibras</i>, used
+and pensioned Dryden, sat under Barrow and South and heard
+them with appreciation, countenanced science, visited comedies,
+and held his own in talk by mother-wit. Letters became the
+pastime, and therefore one of the more serious pursuits, of men
+of quality, who soon excelled in song and light scarifying verse
+and comedy, and took their own tragedies and criticisms gravely.
+Poetry under such auspices became gallant and social, and also
+personal and partisan; and satire was soon its most vital form,
+with the accessories of compliment, rhymed popular argumentation
+and elegy. The social and conversational instinct was the
+master-influence in prose. It produced a subtle but fundamental
+change in the attitude of author to reader. Prose came nearer
+to living speech, it became more civil and natural and persuasive,
+and this not least in the pulpit. The sense of ennui, or boredom,
+which seemed as unknown in the earlier part of the century as
+it is to the modern German, became strongly developed, and
+prose was much improved by the fear of provoking it. In all
+these ways the Restoration accompanied and quickened a
+speedier and greater change in letters than any political event in
+English history since the reign of Alfred, when prose itself was
+created.</p>
+
+<p>The formal change in prose can thus be assigned to no one
+writer, for the good reason that it presupposes a change of
+spoken style lying deeper than any personal influence.
+If we begin with the writing that is nearest living
+<span class="sidenote">Prose and criticism.</span>
+talk&mdash;the letters of Otway or Lady Rachel Russell,
+or the diary of Pepys (1659-1669)&mdash;that supreme disclosure
+of our mother-earth&mdash;or the evidence in a state trial, or the
+dialogue in the more natural comedies; if we then work upwards
+through some of the plainer kinds of authorship, like the less
+slangy of L&rsquo;Estrange&rsquo;s pamphlets, or Burnet&rsquo;s <i>History of My
+Own Time</i>, a solid Whig memoir of historical value, until we reach
+really admirable or lasting prose like Dryden&rsquo;s <i>Preface</i> to his
+<i>Fables</i> (1700), or the maxims of Halifax;&mdash;if we do this, we are
+aware, amid all varieties, survivals and reversions, of a strong
+and rapid drift towards the style that we call modern. And one
+sign of this movement is the revulsion against any over-saturating
+of the working, daily language, and even of the language of appeal
+and eloquence, with the Latin element. In Barrow and Glanvil,
+descendants of Taylor and Browne, many Latinized words remain,
+which were soon expelled from style like foreign bodies from an
+organism. As in the mid-sixteenth and the mid-eighteenth
+century, the process is visible by which the Latin vocabulary
+and Latin complication of sentence first gathers strength, and
+then, though not without leaving its traces, is forced to ebb.
+The instinct of the best writers secured this result, and secured
+it for good and all. In Dryden&rsquo;s diction there is a nearly perfect
+balance and harmony of learned and native constituents, and a
+sensitive tact in Gallicizing; in his build of sentence there is the
+same balance between curtness or bareness and complexity or
+ungainly lengthiness. For ceremony and compliment he keeps
+a rolling period, for invective a short sharp stroke without the
+gloves. And he not only uses in general a sentence of moderate
+scale, inclining to brevity, but he finds out its harmonies; he is
+a seeming-careless but an absolute master of rhythm. In delusive
+ease he is unexcelled; and we only regret that he could not have
+written prose oftener instead of plays. We should thus, however,
+have lost their prefaces, in which the bulk and the best of
+Dryden&rsquo;s criticisms appear. From the <i>Essay of Dramatic Poesy</i>
+(1668) down to the <i>Preface to Fables</i> (1700) runs a series of essays:
+<i>On the Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy</i>, <i>On Heroic Plays</i>, <i>On
+Translated Verse</i>, <i>On Satire</i> and many more; which form the
+first connected body of criticisms in the language, and are nobly
+written always. Dryden&rsquo;s prose is literature as it stands, and
+yet is talk, and yet again is mysteriously better than talk.
+The critical writings of John Dennis are but a sincere application
+of the rules and canons that were now becoming conventional;
+Rymer, though not so despicable as Macaulay said, is still
+more depressing than Dennis; and for any critic at once so
+free, so generous and so sure as Dryden we wait in vain for a
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Three or four names are usually associated with Dryden&rsquo;s
+in the work of reforming or modifying prose: Sprat, Tillotson,
+Sir William Temple, and George Savile, marquis of
+Halifax; but the honours rest with Halifax. Sprat,
+<span class="sidenote">Contributors to the new prose.</span>
+though clear and easy, has little range; Tillotson, though
+lucid, orderly, and a very popular preacher, has little
+distinction; Temple, the elegant essayist, has a kind of barren
+gloss and fine literary manners, but very little to say. The
+political tracts, essays and maxims of Halifax (died 1695) are
+the most typically modern prose between Dryden and Swift,
+and are nearer than anything else to the best French writing of
+the same order, in their finality of epigram, their neatness and
+mannerliness and sharpness. The <i>Character of a Trimmer</i> and
+<i>Advice to a Daughter</i> are the best examples.</p>
+
+<p>Religious literature, Anglican and Puritan, is the chief remaining
+department to be named. The strong, eloquent and coloured
+preaching of Isaac Barrow the mathematician, who
+died in 1677, is a survival of the larger and older
+<span class="sidenote">Preachers.</span>
+manner of the Church. In its balance of logic, learning and
+emotion, in its command alike of Latin splendour and native
+force, it deserves a recognition it has lost. Another athlete of
+the pulpit, Robert South, who is so often praised for his wit
+that his force is forgotten, continues the lineage, while Tillotson
+and the elder Sherlock show the tendency to the smoother and
+more level prose. But the revulsion against strangeness and
+fancy and magnificence went too far; it made for a temporary
+bareness and meanness and disharmony, which had to be checked
+by Addison, Bolingbroke and Berkeley. From what Addison
+saved our daily written English, may be seen in the vigorous
+slangy hackwork of Roger L&rsquo;Estrange, the translator and
+pamphleteer, in the news-sheets of Dunton, and in the satires of
+Tom Brown. These writers were debasing the coinage with
+their street journalism.</p>
+
+<p>Another and far nobler variety of vernacular prose is found
+in the Puritans. Baxter and Howe, Fox and Bunyan, had the
+English Bible behind them, which gave them the best
+of their inspiration, though the first two of them were
+<span class="sidenote">Puritan prose.</span>
+also erudite men. Richard Baxter, an immensely
+fertile writer, is best remembered by those of his own fold for
+his <i>Saint&rsquo;s Everlasting Rest</i> (1650) and his autobiography, John
+Howe for his evangelical apologia <i>The Living Temple of God</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span>
+(1675), Fox for his <i>Journal</i> and its mixture of quaintness and
+rapturous mysticism. John Bunyan, the least instructed of
+them all, is their only born artist. His creed and point
+<span class="sidenote">Bunyan.</span>
+of view were those of half the nation&mdash;the half that
+was usually inarticulate in literature, or spoke without style or
+genius. His reading, consisting not only of the Bible, but of the
+popular allegories of giants, pilgrims and adventure, was also
+that of his class. <i>The Pilgrim&rsquo;s Progress</i>, of which the first part
+appeared in 1678, the second in 1684, is the happy flowering
+sport amidst a growth of barren plants of the same tribe. The
+<i>Progress</i> is a dream, more vivid to its author than most men&rsquo;s
+waking memories to themselves; the emblem and the thing
+signified are merged at every point, so that Christian&rsquo;s journey
+is not so much an allegory with a key as a spiritual vision of this
+earth and our neighbours. <i>Grace Abounding</i>, Bunyan&rsquo;s diary
+of his own voyage to salvation, <i>The Holy War</i>, an overloaded
+fable of the fall and recovery of mankind, and <i>The Life and
+Death of Mr Badman</i>, a novel telling of the triumphal earthly
+progress of a scoundrelly tradesman, are among Bunyan&rsquo;s other
+contributions to literature. His union of spiritual intensity,
+sharp humorous vision, and power of simple speech consummately
+chosen, mark his work off alike from his own inarticulate
+public and from all other literary performance of his time.</p>
+
+<p>The transition from the older to the newer poetry was not
+abrupt. Old themes and tunes were slowly disused, others
+previously of lesser mark rose into favour, and a few
+quite fresh ones were introduced. The poems of John
+<span class="sidenote">Transitional verse.</span>
+Oldham and Andrew Marvell belong to both periods.
+Both of them begin with fantasy and elegy, and end
+with satires, which indeed are rather documents than works of
+art. The monody of Oldham on his friend Morwent is poorly
+exchanged for the <i>Satires on the Jesuits</i> (1681), and the lovely
+metaphysical verses of Marvell on gardens and orchards and the
+spiritual love sadly give place to his <i>Last Instructions to a
+Painter</i> (1669). In his <i>Horatian Ode</i> Marvell had nobly and
+impartially applied his earlier style to national affairs; but the
+time proved too strong for this delightful poet. Another and a
+<span class="sidenote">Hudibras.</span>
+stranger satire had soon greeted the Restoration, the
+<i>Hudibras</i> (1663-1678) of Samuel Butler, with its
+companion pieces. The returned wanderers delighted in this
+horribly agile, boisterous and fierce attack on the popular party
+and its religions, and its wrangles and its manners. Profoundly
+eccentric and tiresomely allusive in his form, and working in
+the short rhyming couplets thenceforth called &ldquo;Hudibrastics,&rdquo;
+Butler founded a small and peculiar but long-lived school of
+satire. The other verse of the time is largely satire of a different
+tone and metre; but the earlier kind of finished and gallant
+lyric persisted through the reign of Charles II. The songs of
+John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, are usually malicious, sometimes
+<span class="sidenote">Songsters.</span>
+passionate; they have a music and a splendid
+self-abandonment such as we never meet again till
+Burns. Sedley and Dorset and Aphra Behn and Dryden are
+the rightful heirs of Carew and Lovelace, those infallible masters
+of short rhythms; and this secret also was lost for a century
+afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>In poetry, in prose, and to some extent in drama, John Dryden,
+the creature of his time, is the master of its expression. He
+began with panegyric verse, first on Cromwell and then
+on Charles, which is full of fine things and false writing.
+<span class="sidenote">Dryden.</span>
+The <i>Annus Mirabilis</i> (1667) is the chief example, celebrating
+the Plague, the Fire and the naval victory, in the quatrains for
+which Davenant&rsquo;s pompous <i>Gondibert</i> had shown the way. The
+<i>Essay on Dramatic Poesy</i> (1668), a dialogue on the rivalries of
+blank verse with rhyme, and of the Elizabethan drama with the
+French, is perfect modern prose; and to this perfection Dryden
+attained at a bound, while he attained his poetical style more
+gradually. He practised his couplet in panegyric, in heroic
+tragedy, and in dramatic prologue and epilogue for twenty
+years before it was consummate. Till 1680 he supported himself
+chiefly by his plays, which have not lived so long as their critical
+prefaces, already mentioned. His diction and versification came
+to their full power in his satires, rhymed arguments, dedications
+and translations. <i>Absalom and Achitophel</i> (part i., 1681; part
+ii., with Nahum Tate, 1682), as well as <i>The Medal</i> and <i>Mac
+Flecknoe</i>, marked a new birth of English satire, placing it at
+once on a level with that of any ancient or modern country.
+The mixture of deadly good temper, Olympian unfairness, and
+rhetorical and metrical skill in each of these poems has never
+been repeated. The presentment of Achitophel, earl of Shaftesbury,
+in his relations with Absalom Walters and Charles the
+minstrel-king of Judah, as well as the portraits of Shimei and
+Barzillai and Jotham, the eminent Whigs and Tories, and of the
+poets Og and Doeg, are things whose vividness age has never
+discoloured. Dryden&rsquo;s Protestant arguings in <i>Religio Laici</i>
+(1682) and his equally sincere Papistical arguings in <i>The Hind
+and the Panther</i> (1687) are just as skilful. His translations of
+Virgil and parts of Lucretius, of Chaucer and Boccaccio (<i>Fables</i>,
+1700), set the seal on his command of his favourite couplet for the
+higher kinds of appeal and oratory. His <i>Ode</i> on Anne Killigrew,
+and his popular but coarser <i>Alexander&rsquo;s Feast</i>, have a more lyric
+harmony; and his songs, inserted in his plays, reflect the change
+of fashion by their metrical adeptness and often thorough-going
+wantonness. The epithet of &ldquo;glorious,&rdquo; in its older sense of a
+certain conscious and warranted pride of place, not in that of
+boastful or pretentious, suits Dryden well. Not only did he
+leave a model and a point of departure for Pope, but his influence
+recurs in Churchill, in Gray, in Johnson and in Crabbe, where he
+is seen counteracting, with his large, wholesome and sincere
+bluntness, the acidity of Pope. Dryden was counted near
+Shakespeare and Milton until the romantic revival renewed
+the sense of proportion; but the same sense now demands his
+acknowledgment as the English poet who is nearest to their
+frontiers of all those who are exiled from their kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Restoration and Revolution tragedy is nearly all abortive;
+it is now hard to read it for pleasure. But it has noble flights,
+and its historic interest is high. Two of its species,
+the rhymed heroic play and the rehandling of Shakespeare
+<span class="sidenote">Tragedy.</span>
+in blank verse, were also brought to their utmost by
+Dryden, though in both he had many companions. The heroic
+tragedies were a hybrid offspring of the heroic romance and
+French tragedy; and though <i>The Conquest of Granada</i> (1669-1670)
+and <i>Tyrannic Love</i> would be very open to satire in Dryden&rsquo;s
+own vein, they are at least generously absurd. Their intention
+is never ignoble, if often impossible. After a time Dryden went
+back to Shakespeare, after a fashion already set by Sir William
+Davenant, the connecting link with the older tragedy and the
+inaugurator of the new. They &ldquo;revived&rdquo; Shakespeare; they
+vamped him in a style that did not wholly perish till after the
+time of Garrick. <i>The Tempest</i>, <i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, and
+<i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> were thus handled by Dryden; and the
+last of these, as converted by him into <i>All for Love</i> (1678), is
+loftier and stronger than any of his original plays, its blank verse
+renewing the ties of Restoration poetry with the great age. The
+heroic plays, written in one or other metre, lived long, and
+expired in the burlesques of Fielding and Sheridan. <i>The Rehearsal</i>
+(1671), a gracious piece of fooling partially aimed at
+Dryden by Buckingham and his friends, did not suffice to kill
+its victims. Thomas Otway and Nathaniel Lee, both of whom
+generally used blank verse, are the other tragic writers of note,
+children indeed of the extreme old age of the drama. Otway&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Otway.</span>
+long-acted <i>Venice Preserved</i> (1682) has an almost
+Shakespearian skill in melodrama, a wonderful tide of
+passionate language, and a blunt and bold delineation of character;
+but Otway&rsquo;s inferior style and verse could only be admired
+in an age like his own. Lee is far more of a poet, though less of a
+dramatist, and he wasted a certain talent in noise and fury.</p>
+
+<p>Restoration comedy at first followed Jonson, whom it was
+easy to try and imitate; Shadwell and Wilson, whose works
+are a museum for the social antiquary, photographed
+the humours of the town. Dryden&rsquo;s many comedies
+<span class="sidenote">Comedy.</span>
+often show his more boisterous and blatant, rarely his finer
+qualities. Like all playwrights of the time he pillages from the
+French, and vulgarizes Molière without stint or shame. A truer
+light comedy began with Sir George Etherege, who mirrored in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span>
+his fops the gaiety and insolence of the world he knew. The
+society depicted by William Wycherley, the one comic dramatist
+of power between Massinger and Congreve, at first
+<span class="sidenote">Wycherley.</span>
+seems hardly human; but his energy is skilful and
+faithful as well as brutal; he excels in the graphic
+reckless exhibition of outward humours and bustle; he scavenges
+in the most callous good spirits and with careful cynicism. <i>The
+Plain Dealer</i> (1677), a skilful transplantation, as well as a depravation
+of Molière&rsquo;s <i>Le Misanthrope</i>, is his best piece: he
+writes in prose, and his prose is excellent, modern and lifelike.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;General Histories: Hallam, <i>Introduction to the
+Lit. of Europe</i> (1838-1839); G. Saintsbury, <i>Elizabethan Literature</i>
+(1890), and <i>History of Literary Criticism</i>, vol. ii. (1902); W.J.
+Courthorpe, <i>History of English Poetry</i>, vols. i.-v. (1895-1905);
+J.J. Jusserand, <i>Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais</i>, vol. ii. (1904);
+T. Seccombe and J.W. Allen, <i>The Age of Shakespeare</i> (2 vols., 1903);
+D. Hannay, <i>The Later Renaissance</i> (1898); H.J.C. Grierson, <i>First
+Half of 17th Century</i>; O. Elton, <i>The Augustan Ages</i> (1899); Masson,
+<i>Life of Milton</i> (6 vols., London, 1881-1894); R. Garnett, <i>The Age
+of Dryden</i> (1901); W. Raleigh, <i>The English Novel</i> (1894); J.J.
+Jusserand, <i>Le Roman anglais au temps de Shakespeare</i> (1887, Eng.
+tr., 1901); G. Gregory Smith, <i>Elizabethan Critical Essays</i> (2 vols.,
+1904, reprints and introd.). Classical and Foreign Influences.&mdash;Mary
+A. Scott, <i>Elizabethan Translations from the Italian</i> (bibliography),
+(Baltimore, 1895); E. Koeppel, <i>Studien zur Gesch. der ital.
+Novelle i. d. eng. Litteratur des 16ten Jahrh.</i> (Strasb., 1892); L. Einstein
+<i>The Italian Renaissance in England</i> (New York, 1902); J. Erskine,
+<i>The Elizabethan Lyric</i> (New York, 1903); J.S. Harrison, <i>Platonism
+in Eliz. Poetry of the 16th and 17th Centuries</i> (New York, 1903);
+S. Lee, <i>Elizabethan Sonnets</i> (2 vols., 1904); C.H. Herford, <i>Literary
+Relations of England and Germany in 16th Century</i>; J.G. Underhill,
+<i>Spanish Lit. in the England of the Tudors</i> (New York, 1899); J.E.
+Spingarn, <i>Hist. of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance</i> (New York,
+1899). Many articles in <i>Englische Studien</i>, <i>Anglia</i>, &amp;c., on influences,
+texts and sources. See too arts. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drama</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sonnet</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Renaissance</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(O. E.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">V. The 18th Century</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Anne (1702-1714) the social changes which
+had commenced with the Restoration of 1660 began to make
+themselves definitely felt. Books began to penetrate
+among all classes of society. The period is consequently
+<span class="sidenote">Social changes.</span>
+one of differentiation and expansion. As the practice of
+reading becomes more and more universal, English writers lose
+much of their old idiosyncrasy, intensity and obscurity. As in
+politics and religion, so in letters, there is a great development
+of nationality. Commercial considerations too for the first
+time become important. We hear relatively far less of religious
+controversy, of the bickering between episcopalians and nonconformists
+and of university squabbles. Specialization and
+cumbrous pedantry fall into profound disfavour. Provincial
+feeling exercises a diminishing sway, and literature becomes
+increasingly metropolitan or suburban. With the multiplication
+of moulds, the refinement of prose polish, and the development
+of breadth, variety and ease, it was natural enough, having regard
+to the place that the country played in the world&rsquo;s affairs, that
+English literature should make its début in western Europe.
+The strong national savour seemed to stimulate the foreign
+appetite, and as represented by Swift, Pope, Defoe, Young,
+Goldsmith, Richardson, Sterne and Ossian, if we exclude Byron
+and Scott, the 18th century may be deemed the cosmopolitan
+age, <i>par excellence</i>, of English Letters. The charms of 18th-century
+English literature, as it happens, are essentially of the
+rational, social and translatable kind: in intensity, exquisiteness
+and eccentricity of the choicer kinds it is proportionately deficient.
+It is pre-eminently an age of prose, and although verbal expression
+is seldom represented at its highest power, we shall find nearly
+every variety of English prose brilliantly illustrated during this
+period: the aristocratic style of Bolingbroke, Addison and
+Berkeley; the gentlemanly style of Fielding; the keen and
+logical controversy of Butler, Middleton, Smith and Bentham;
+the rhythmic and balanced if occasionally involved style of
+Johnson and his admirers; the limpid and flowing manner of
+Hume and Mackintosh; the light, easy and witty flow of Walpole;
+the divine chit-chat of Cowper; the colour of Gray and Berkeley;
+the organ roll of Burke; the detective journalism of Swift and
+Defoe; the sly familiarity of Sterne; the dance music and wax
+candles of Sheridan; the pomposity of Gibbon; the air and
+ripple of Goldsmith; the peeping preciosity of Boswell,&mdash;these
+and other characteristics can be illustrated in 18th-century prose
+as probably nowhere else.</p>
+
+<p>But more important to the historian of literature even than
+the development of qualities is the evolution of types. And in
+this respect the 18th century is a veritable index-museum of
+English prose. Essentially, no doubt, it is true that in form
+the prose and verse of the 18th century is mainly an extension
+of Dryden, just as in content it is a reflection of the increased
+variety of the city life which came into existence as English
+trade rapidly increased in all directions. But the taste of the day
+was rapidly changing. People began to read in vastly increasing
+numbers. The folio was making place on the shelves for the
+octavo. The bookseller began to transcend the mere tradesman.
+Along with newspapers the advertizing of books came into
+fashion, and the market was regulated no longer by what learned
+men wanted to write, but what an increasing multitude wanted
+to read. The arrival of the octavo is said to have marked the
+enrolment of man as a reader, that of the novel the attachment
+of woman. Hence, among other causes, the rapid decay of
+lyrical verse and printed drama, of theology and epic, in ponderous
+tomes. The fashionable types of which the new century was to
+witness the fixation are accordingly the essay and the satire
+as represented respectively by Addison and Steele, Swift and
+Goldsmith, and by Pope and Churchill. Pope, soon to be
+followed by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, was the first Englishman
+who treated letter-writing as an art upon a considerable
+scale. Personalities and memoirs prepare the way for history,
+in which as a department of literature English letters hitherto
+had been almost scandalously deficient. Similarly the new
+growth of fancy essay (Addison) and plain biography (Defoe)
+prepared the way for the English novel, the most important
+by far of all new literary combinations. Finally, without going
+into unnecessary detail, we have a significant development of
+topography, journalism and criticism. In the course of time,
+too, we shall perceive how the pressure of town life and the logic
+of a capital city engender, first a fondness for landscape gardening
+and a somewhat artificial Arcadianism, and then, by degrees,
+an intensifying love of the country, of the open air, and of the
+rare, exotic and remote in literature.</p>
+
+<p>At the outset of the new century the two chief architects of
+public opinion were undoubtedly John Locke and Joseph
+Addison. When he died at High Laver in October
+1704 at the mature age of seventy-two, Locke had,
+<span class="sidenote">Locke; Addison.</span>
+perhaps, done more than any man of the previous
+century to prepare the way for the new era. Social duty and
+social responsibility were his two watchwords. The key to both
+he discerned in the <i>Human Understanding</i>&mdash;&ldquo;no province of
+knowledge can be regarded as independent of reason.&rdquo; But the
+great modernist of the time was undoubtedly Joseph Addison
+(1672-1719). He first left the 17th century, with its stiff
+euphuisms, its formal obsequiousness, its ponderous scholasticism
+and its metaphorical antitheses, definitely behind. He did for
+English culture what Rambouillet did for that of France, and it
+is hardly an exaggeration to call the half-century before the great
+fame of the English novel, the half century of the <i>Spectator</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Addison&rsquo;s mind was fertilized by intercourse with the greater
+and more original genius of Swift and with the more inventive
+and more genial mind of Steele. It was Richard
+Steele (1672-1729) in the <i>Tatler</i> of 1709-1710 who
+<span class="sidenote">Steele.</span>
+first realized that the specific which that urbane age both needed
+and desired was no longer copious preaching and rigorous
+declamation, but homoeopathic doses of good sense, good taste
+and good-humoured morality, disguised beneath an easy and
+fashionable style. Nothing could have suited Addison better
+than the opportunity afforded him of contributing an occasional
+essay or roundabout paper in praise of virtue or dispraise of
+stupidity and bad form to his friend&rsquo;s periodical. When the
+<i>Spectator</i> succeeded the <i>Tatler</i> in March 1711, Addison took a
+more active share in shaping the chief characters (with the
+immortal baronet, Sir Roger, at their head) who were to make
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span>
+up the &ldquo;Spectator Club&rdquo;; and, better even than before, he saw
+his way, perhaps, to reinforcing his copious friend with his own
+more frugal but more refined endowment. Such a privileged
+talent came into play at precisely the right moment to circulate
+through the coffee houses and to convey a large measure of French
+courtly ease and elegance into the more humdrum texture of
+English prose. Steele became rather disreputable in his later
+years, Swift was banished and went mad, but Addison became
+a personage of the utmost consideration, and the essay as he
+left it became an almost indispensable accomplishment to the
+complete gentlemen of that age. As an architect of opinion
+from 1717 to 1775 Addison may well rank with Locke.</p>
+
+<p>The other side, both in life and politics, was taken by Jonathan
+Swift (1667-1745), who preferred to represent man on his unsocial
+side. He sneered at most things, but not at his own
+order, and he came to defend the church and the country
+<span class="sidenote">Swift.</span>
+squirearchy against the conventicle and Capel court. To undermine
+the complacent entrenchments of the Whig capitalists at
+war with France no sap proved so effectual as his pen. Literary
+influence was then exercised in politics mainly by pamphlets,
+and Swift was the greatest of pamphleteers. In the <i>Journal to
+Stella</i> he has left us a most wonderful portrait of himself in turn
+currying favour, spoiled, petted and humiliated by the party
+leaders of the Tories from 1710-1713. He had always been
+savage, and when the Hanoverians came in and he was treated
+as a suspect, his hate widened to embrace all mankind (<i>Gulliver&rsquo;s
+Travels</i>, 1726) and he bit like a mad dog. Would that he could
+have bitten more, for the infection of English stylists! In wit,
+logic, energy, pith, resourcefulness and Saxon simplicity, his
+prose has never been equalled. The choicest English then, it is
+<span class="sidenote">Arbuthnot.</span>
+the choicest English still. Dr John Arbuthnot (1667-1735)
+may be described as an understudy of Swift
+on the whimsical side only, whose malignity, in a nature
+otherwise most kindly, was circumscribed strictly by the limits
+of political persiflage. Bernard Mandeville (1670-1733), unorthodox
+as he was in every respect, discovered a little of Swift&rsquo;s
+choice pessimism in his assault (in <i>The Fable of the Bees</i> of 1723)
+against the genteel optimism of the <i>Characteristics</i> of Lord
+Shaftesbury. Neither the matter nor the manner of the brilliant
+<span class="sidenote">Bolingbroke.</span>
+Tory chieftain Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke
+(1678-1751), appears to us now as being of the highest
+significance; but, although Bolingbroke&rsquo;s ideas were
+second-hand, his work has an historical importance; his dignified,
+balanced and decorated style was the cynosure of 18th-century
+statesmen. His essays on &ldquo;History&rdquo; and on &ldquo;a Patriot King&rdquo;
+both disturb a soil well prepared, and set up a reaction against
+such evil tendencies as a narrowing conception of history and a
+primarily factious and partisan conception of politics. It may
+be noted here how the fall of Bolingbroke and the Tories in 1714
+precipitated the decay of the Renaissance ideal of literary
+patronage. The dependence of the press upon the House of
+Lords was already an anomaly, and the practical toleration
+achieved in 1695 removed another obstacle from the path of
+liberation. The government no longer sought to strangle the
+press. It could generally be tuned satisfactorily and at the
+worst could always be temporarily muzzled. The pensions
+hitherto devoted to men of genius were diverted under Walpole
+to spies and journalists. Yet one of the most unscrupulous of
+all the fabricators of intelligence, looked down upon as a huckster
+of the meanest and most inconsiderable literary wares, established
+his fame by a masterpiece of which literary genius had scarcely
+even cognizance.</p>
+
+<p>The new trade of writing was represented most perfectly by
+Daniel Defoe (1660-1731), who represents, too, what few writers
+possess, a competent knowledge of work and wages,
+buying and selling, the squalor and roguery of the
+<span class="sidenote">Defoe.</span>
+very hungry and the very mean. From reporting sensations and
+chronicling <i>faits divers</i>, Defoe worked his way almost insensibly
+to the Spanish tale of the old Mendoza or picaresque pattern.
+<i>Robinson Crusoe</i> was a true story expanded on these lines, and
+written down under stress of circumstance when its author
+was just upon sixty. Resembling that of Bunyan and, later,
+Smollett in the skilful use made of places, facts and figures,
+Defoe&rsquo;s style is the mirror of man in his shirt sleeves. What he
+excelled in was plain, straightforward story-telling, in understanding
+and appraising the curiosity of the man in the street,
+and in possessing just the knowledge and just the patience, and
+just the literary stroke that would enable him most effectually
+to satisfy it. He was the first and cleverest of all descriptive
+reporters, for he knew better than any successor how and where
+to throw in those irrelevant details, tricks of speech and circumlocution,
+which tend to give an air of verisimilitude to a bald
+and unconvincing narrative&mdash;the funny little splutterings and
+naïvetés as of a plain man who is not telling a tale for effect, but
+striving after his own manner to give the plain unvarnished
+truth. Defoe contributes story, Addison character, Fielding the
+life-atmosphere, Richardson and Sterne the sentiment, and we
+have the 18th-century novel complete&mdash;the greatest literary
+birth of modern time. Addison, Steele, Swift and Defoe, as
+master-builders of prose fiction, are consequently of more
+importance than the &ldquo;Augustan poets,&rdquo; as Pope and his school
+are sometimes called, for the most that they can be said to have
+done is to have perfected a more or less transient mode of poetry.</p>
+
+<p>To the passion, imagination or musical quality essential to
+the most inspired kinds of poetry Alexander Pope (1688-1744)
+can lay small claim. His best work is contained in
+the <i>Satires</i> and <i>Epistles</i>, which are largely of the
+<span class="sidenote">Pope.</span>
+proverb-in-rhyme order. Yet in lucid, terse and pungent
+phrases he has rarely if ever been surpassed. His classical fancy,
+his elegant turn for periphrasis and his venomous sting alike
+made him the idol of that urbane age. Voltaire in 1726 had
+called him the best poet living, and at his death his style
+was paramount throughout the civilized world. It was the
+apotheosis of wit, point, lucidity and technical correctness.
+Pope was the first Englishman to make poetry pay (apart from
+patronage). He was flattered by imitation to an extent which
+threatened to throw the school of poetry which he represented
+into permanent discredit. Prior, Gay, Parnell, Akenside,
+Pomfret, Garth, Young, Johnson, Goldsmith, Falconer, Glover,
+Grainger, Darwin, Rogers, Hayley and indeed a host of others&mdash;the
+once famous mob of gentlemen who wrote with ease&mdash;worshipped
+Pope as their poetic founder. The second-rate wore his
+badge. But although the cult of Pope was the established
+religion of poetic taste from 1714 to 1798, there were always
+nonconformists. The poetic revolt, indeed, was far more
+versatile than the religious revival of the century. The <i>Winter</i>
+<span class="sidenote">Thomson.</span>
+(1726) of James Thomson may be regarded as inaugurating
+a new era in English poetry. Lady
+Winchilsea, John Philips, author of <i>Cyder</i>, and John Dyer, whose
+<i>Grongar Hill</i> was published a few months before <i>Winter</i>, had
+pleaded by their work for a truthful and unaffected, and at the
+same time a romantic treatment of nature in poetry; but the
+ideal of artificiality and of a frigid poetic diction by which English
+poetry was dominated since the days of Waller and Cowley was
+first effectively challenged by Thomson. At the time when
+the Popean couplet was at the height of its vogue he deliberately
+put it aside in favour of the higher poetic power of blank verse.
+And he it was who transmitted the sentiment of natural beauty
+not merely to imitators such as Savage, Armstrong, Somerville,
+<span class="sidenote">Collins. Gray.</span>
+Langhorne, Mickle and Shenstone, but also to his
+elegist, William Collins, to Gray and to Cowper, and
+so indirectly to the lyrical bards of 1798. By the same
+hands and those of Shenstone experiments were being made in
+the stanza of <i>The Faerie Queene</i>; a little later, owing to the
+virtuosity of Bishop Percy, the cultivation of the old English and
+Scottish ballad literature was beginning to take a serious turn.
+Dissatisfaction with the limitations of &ldquo;Augustan&rdquo; poetry was
+similarly responsible for the revived interest in Shakespeare and
+Chaucer. Gray stood not only for a far more intimate worship
+of wild external nature, but also for an awakened curiosity in
+Scandinavian, Celtic and Icelandic poetry.</p>
+
+<p>To pretend then that the poetic heart of the 18th century was
+Popean to the core is nothing short of extravagance. There
+were a number of true poets in the second and third quarters of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span>
+the century to whom all credit is due as pioneers and precentors
+of the romantic movement under the depressing conditions to
+which innovators in poetry are commonly subject. They may
+strike us as rather an anaemic band after the great Elizabethan
+poets. Four of them were mentally deranged (Collins, Smart,
+Cowper, Blake), while Gray was a hermit, and Shenstone and
+Thomson the most indolent of recluses. The most adventurous,
+one might say the most virile of the group, was a boy who died
+at the age of seventeen. Single men all (save for Blake), a more
+despondent group of artists as a whole it would not perhaps be
+easy to discover. Catacombs and cypresses were the forms of
+imagery that came to them most naturally. Elegies and funeral
+odes were the types of expression in which they were happiest.
+Yet they strove in the main to follow the gleam in poetry, to
+reinstate imagination upon its throne, and to substitute the singing
+voice for the rhetorical recitative of the heroic couplet. Within
+two years of the death of Pope, in 1746, William Collins was
+content to <i>sing</i> (not say) what he had in him without a glimpse
+of wit or a flash of eloquence&mdash;and in him many have discerned
+the germ of that romantic <i>éclosion</i> which blossomed in <i>Christabel</i>.
+A more important if less original factor in that movement was
+Collins&rsquo;s severe critic Thomas Gray, a man of the widest curiosities
+of his time, in whom every attribute of the poet to which scholarship,
+taste and refinement are contributory may be found to the
+full, but in whom the strong creative energy is fatally lacking&mdash;despite
+the fact that he wrote a string of &ldquo;divine truisms&rdquo; in
+his <i>Elegy</i>, which has given to multitudes more of the exquisite
+pleasure of poetry than any other single piece in the English
+language. Shenstone and Percy, Capell, the Wartons and
+eventually Chatterton, continued to mine in the shafts which
+Gray had been the first to sink. Their laborious work of discovery
+resembled that which was commencing in regard to the
+Gothic architecture which the age of Pope had come to regard
+as rude and barbaric. The Augustans had come seriously to
+regard all pre-Drydenic poetry as grossly barbarian. One of
+the greatest achievements of the mid-eighteenth century was
+concerned with the disintegration of this obstinate delusion.
+The process was manifold; and it led, among other things, to
+a realization of the importance of the study of comparative
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>The literary grouping of the 18th century is, perhaps, the
+biggest thing on the whole that English art has to show; but
+among all its groups the most famous, and probably
+the most original, is that of its proto-novelists
+<span class="sidenote">The novel.</span>
+Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and Sterne. All nations have
+had their novels, which are as old at least as Greek vases. The
+various types have generally had collective appellations such as
+Milesian Tales, Alexandrian Romances, Romances of Chivalry,
+Acta Sanctorum, Gesta Romanorum, Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles,
+Romances of Roguery, Arabian Nights; but owing to the
+rivalry of other more popular or more respectable or at least
+more eclectic literary forms, they seldom managed to attain a
+permanent lodgment in the library. The taste in prose fiction
+changes, perhaps, more rapidly than that in any other kind of
+literature. In Britain alone several forms had passed their
+prime since the days of Caxton and his Arthurian prose romance
+of <i>Morte d&rsquo;Arthur</i>. Such were the wearisome Arcadian romance
+or pastoral heroic; the new centos of tales of chivalry like
+the <i>Seven Champions of Christendom</i>; the utopian, political and
+philosophical romances (<i>Oceana</i>, <i>The Man in the Moone</i>); the
+grotesque and facetious stories of rogues retailed from the
+Spanish or French in dwarf volumes; the prolix romance of
+modernized classic heroism (<i>The Grand Cyrus</i>); the religious
+allegory (Bunyan&rsquo;s <i>Life and Death of Mr Badman</i>); the novels
+of outspoken French or Italian gallantry, represented by Aphra
+Behn; the imaginary voyages so notably adapted to satire by
+Dr Swift; and last, but not least, the minutely prosaic chronicle-novels
+of Daniel Defoe. The prospect of the novel was changing
+rapidly. The development of the individual and of a large
+well-to-do urban middle class, which was rapidly multiplying
+its area of leisure, involved a curious and self-conscious society,
+hungry for pleasure and new sensations, anxious to be told about
+themselves, willing in some cases even to learn civilization from
+their betters. The disrepute into which the drama had fallen
+since Jeremy Collier&rsquo;s attack on it directed this society by an
+almost inevitable course into the flowery paths of fiction. The
+novel, it is true, had a reputation which was for the time being
+almost as unsavoury as that of the drama, but the novel was
+not a confirmed ill-doer, and it only needed a touch of genius to
+create for it a vast congregation of enthusiastic votaries. In
+the <i>Tatler</i> and <i>Spectator</i> were already found the methods and
+subjects of the modern novel. The De Coverley papers in the
+<i>Spectator</i>, in fact, want nothing but a love-thread to convert
+them into a serial novel of a high order. The supreme importance
+of the sentimental interest had already been discovered and
+exemplified to good purpose in France by Madame de la Fayette,
+the Marquise de Tencin, Marivaux and the Abbé Prevost.
+<span class="sidenote">Richardson.</span>
+Samuel Richardson (1689-1762), therefore, when he
+produced the first two modern novels of European
+fame in <i>Pamela</i> (1740) and <i>Clarissa</i> (1748), inherited
+far more than he invented. There had been Richardsonians
+before Richardson. <i>Clarissa</i> is nevertheless a pioneer work,
+and we have it on the high authority of M. Jusserand that the
+English have contributed more than any other people to the
+formation of the contemporary novel. Of the long-winded,
+typical and rather chaotic English novel of love analysis and
+moral sentiment (as opposed to the romance of adventure)
+Richardson is the first successful charioteer.</p>
+
+<p>The novel in England gained prodigiously by the shock of
+opposition between the ideals of Richardson and Henry Fielding
+(1707-1754), his rival and parodist. Fielding&rsquo;s brutal
+toleration is a fine corrective to the slightly rancid
+<span class="sidenote">Fielding.</span>
+morality of Richardson, with its frank insistence upon the
+cash-value of chastity and virtue. Fielding is, to be brief,
+the succinct antithesis of Richardson, and represents the opposite
+pole of English character. He is the Cavalier, Richardson the
+Roundhead; he is the gentleman, Richardson the tradesman;
+he represents church and county, Richardson chapel and borough.
+Richardson had much of the patient insight and intensity of
+genius, but he lacked the humour and literary accomplishment
+which Fielding had in rich abundance. Fielding combined
+breadth and keenness, classical culture and a delicate Gallic
+irony to an extent rare among English writers. He lacked the
+delicate intuition of Richardson in the analysis of women, nor
+<span class="sidenote">Smollett.</span>
+could he compass the broad farcical humour of Smollett
+or the sombre colouring by which Smollett produces
+at times such poignant effects of contrast. There was no poetry
+in Fielding; but there was practically every other ingredient
+of a great prose writer&mdash;taste, culture, order, vivacity, humour,
+penetrating irony and vivid, pervading common sense, and it is
+Fielding&rsquo;s chef-d&rsquo;&oelig;uvre <i>Tom Jones</i> (1749) that we must regard
+if not as the fundament at least as the head of the corner in
+English prose fiction. Before <i>Tom Jones</i> appeared, the success
+of the novel had drawn a new competitor into the field in Tobias
+Smollett, the descendant of a good western lowland family who
+had knocked about the world and seen more of its hurlyburly
+than Fielding himself. In <i>Roderick Random</i> (1748) Smollett
+represents a rougher and more uncivilized world even than that
+depicted in <i>Joseph Andrews</i>. The savagery and horse-play
+peculiar to these two novelists derives in part from the rogue
+romance of Spain (as then recently revived by Lesage), and has
+a counterpart to some extent in the graphic art of Hogarth and
+Rowlandson; yet one cannot altogether ignore an element of
+exaggeration which has greatly injured both these writers in
+the estimation (and still more in the affection) of posterity. The
+genius which struggles through novels such as <i>Roderick Random</i>
+and <i>Ferdinand Count Fathom</i> was nearly submerged under
+the hard conditions of a general writer during the third quarter
+of the 18th century, and it speaks volumes for Smollett&rsquo;s
+powers of recuperation that he survived to write two such
+masterpieces of sardonic and humorous observation as his <i>Travels</i>
+and <i>Humphry Clinker</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth proto-master of the English novel was the antiquarian
+humorist Lawrence Sterne. Though they owed a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span>
+good deal to <i>Don Quixote</i> and the French novelists, Fielding
+and Smollett were essentially observers of life in the quick.
+<span class="sidenote">Sterne.</span>
+Sterne brought a far-fetched style, a bookish apparatus
+and a deliberate eccentricity into fiction. <i>Tristram
+Shandy</i>, produced successively in nine small volumes between
+1760 and 1764, is the pretended history of a personage who is
+not born (before the fourth volume) and hardly ever appears,
+carried on in an eccentric rigmarole of old and new, original
+and borrowed humour, arranged in a style well known to students
+of the later Valois humorists as <i>fatrasie</i>. Far more than Molière,
+Sterne took his literary <i>bien</i> wherever he found it. But he
+invented a kind of tremolo style of his own, with the aid of
+which, in conjunction with the most unblushingly indecent
+innuendoes, and with a conspicuous genius for humorous portraiture,
+trembling upon the verge of the pathetic, he succeeded
+in winning a new domain for the art of fiction.</p>
+
+<p>These four great writers then, Richardson, Fielding, Smollett
+and Sterne&mdash;all of them great pessimists in comparison with the
+benignant philosophers of a later fiction&mdash;first thoroughly fertilized
+this important field. Richardson obtained a European
+fame during his lifetime. Sterne, as a pioneer impressionist,
+gave all subsequent stylists a new handle. Fielding and Smollett
+grasped the new instrument more vigorously, and fashioned
+with it models which, after serving as patterns to Scott, Marryat,
+Cooper, Ainsworth, Dickens, Lever, Stevenson, Merriman,
+Weyman and other romancists of the 19th century, have
+still retained a fair measure of their original popularity unimpaired.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the novelists, the middle period of the 18th century
+is strong in prose writers: these include Dr Johnson, Oliver
+Goldsmith, Lord Chesterfield and Horace Walpole.
+The last three were all influenced by the sovereign
+<span class="sidenote">Johnson.</span>
+lucidity of the best French style of the day. Chesterfield and
+Walpole were both writers of aristocratic experience and of
+European knowledge and sentiment. Johnson alone was a
+distinctively English thinker and stylist. His knowledge of
+the world, outside England, was derived from books, he was a
+good deal of a scholar, an earnest moralist, and something of a
+divine; his style, at any rate, reaches back to Taylor, Barrow
+and South, and has a good deal of the complex structure, the
+cadence, and the balance of English and Latinistic words proper
+to the 17th century, though the later influence of Addison and
+Bolingbroke is also apparent; Johnson himself was fond of the
+essay, the satire in verse, and the moral tale (<i>Rasselas</i>); but he
+lacked the creative imagination indispensable for such work
+and excelled chiefly as biographer and critic. For a critic even,
+it must be admitted that he was singly deficient in original ideas.
+He upholds authority. He judges by what he regards as the
+accepted rules, derived by Dryden, Rapin, Boileau, Le Bossu,
+Rymer, Dennis, Pope and such &ldquo;estimable critics&rdquo; from the
+ancients, whose decisions on such matters he regards as paramount.
+He tries to carry out a systematic, motived criticism;
+but he asserts rather than persuades or convinces. We go to his
+critical works (<i>Lives of the Poets</i> and <i>Essay on Shakespeare</i>) not
+for their conclusions, but for their shrewd comments on life, and
+for an application to literary problems of a caustic common
+sense. Johnson&rsquo;s character and conversation, his knowledge and
+memory were far more remarkable than his ideas or his writings,
+admirable though the best of these were; the exceptional
+traits which met in his person and made that age regard him
+as a nonpareil have found in James Boswell a delineator unrivalled
+in patience, dexterity and dramatic insight. The
+result has been a portrait of a man of letters more alive at the
+present time than that which any other age or nation has bequeathed
+to us. In most of his ideas Johnson was a generation
+behind the typical academic critics of his date, Joseph and
+Thomas Warton, who championed against his authority what
+the doctor regarded as the finicking notions of Gray. Both of
+the Wartons were enthusiastic for Spenser and the older poetry;
+they were saturated with Milton whom they placed far above
+the correct Mr Pope, they wrote sonnets (thereby provoking
+Johnson&rsquo;s ire) and attempted to revive medieval and Celtic lore
+in every direction. Johnson&rsquo;s one attempt at a novel or tale
+was <i>Rasselas</i>, a long &ldquo;Rambler&rdquo; essay upon the vanity of human
+hope and ambition, something after the manner of the Oriental
+tales of which Voltaire had caught the idea from Swift and
+Montesquieu; but <i>Rasselas</i> is quite unenlivened by humour,
+personality or any other charm.</p>
+
+<p>This one quality that Johnson so completely lacked was
+possessed in its fullest perfection by Oliver Goldsmith, whose
+style is the supreme expression of 18th-century clearness,
+simplicity and easy graceful fluency. Much of
+<span class="sidenote">Goldsmith.</span>
+Goldsmith&rsquo;s material, whether as playwright, story
+writer or essayist, is trite and commonplace&mdash;his material
+worked up by any other hand would be worthless. But, whenever
+Goldsmith writes about human life, he seems to pay it a
+compliment, a relief of fun and good fellowship accompanies his
+slightest description, his playful and delicate touch could transform
+every thought that he handled into something radiant with
+sunlight and fragrant with the perfume of youth. Goldsmith&rsquo;s
+plots are Irish, his critical theories are French with a light top
+dressing of Johnson and Reynolds or Burke, while his prose
+style is an idealization of Addison. His versatility was great,
+and, in this and in other respects, he and Johnson are constantly
+reminding us that they were hardened professionals,
+writing against time for money.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the best prose work of this period, from 1740 to 1780,
+was done under very different conditions. The increase of travel,
+of intercourse between the nobility of Europe, and of a sense of
+solidarity, self-consciousness, leisure and connoisseurship among
+that section of English society known as the governing class, or,
+since Disraeli, as &ldquo;the Venetian oligarchy,&rdquo; could hardly fail to
+produce an increasing crop of those elaborate collections of
+letters and memoirs which had already attained their apogee
+in France with Mme de Sévigné and the duc de Saint-Simon.
+England was not to remain far behind, for in 1718 commence
+the <i>Letters</i> of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu; ten years more
+saw the commencement of Lord Hervey&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of the Reign
+of George II.</i>; and Lord Chesterfield and Lord Orford
+<span class="sidenote">Chesterfield and Walpole.</span>
+(better known as Horace Walpole) both began their
+inimitable series of <i>Letters</i> about 1740. These writings,
+none of them written ostensibly for the press, serve to
+show the enormous strides that English prose was making as a
+medium of vivacious description. The letters are all the recreation
+of extensive knowledge and cosmopolitan acquirements;
+they are not strong on the poetic or imaginative side of things,
+but they have an intense appreciation of the actual and mundane
+side of fallible humanity. Lord Chesterfield&rsquo;s <i>Letters</i> to his son
+and to his godson are far more, for they introduce a Ciceronian
+polish and a Gallic irony and wit into the hitherto uncultivated
+garden of the literary graces in English prose. Chesterfield,
+whose theme is manners and social amenity, deliberately seeks
+a form of expression appropriate to his text&mdash;the perfection of
+tact, neatness, good order and <i>savoir faire</i>. After his grandfather,
+the marquess of Halifax, Lord Chesterfield, the synonym in
+the vulgar world for a heartless exquisite, is in reality the first
+fine gentleman and epicurean in the best sense in English polite
+literature. Both Chesterfield and Walpole were conspicuous as
+raconteurs in an age of witty talkers, of whose talk R.B. Sheridan,
+in <i>The School for Scandal</i> (1777), served up a <i>suprême</i>. Some of
+it may be tinsel, but it looks wonderfully well under the lights.
+The star comedy of the century represents the sparkle of this
+brilliant crowd: it reveals no hearts, but it shows us every trick
+of phrase, every eccentricity of manner and every foible of
+thought. But the most mundane of the letter writers, the most
+frivolous, and also the most pungent, is Horace Walpole, whose
+writings are an epitome of the history and biography of the
+Georgian era. &ldquo;Fiddles sing all through them, wax lights, fine
+dresses, fine jokes, fine plate, fine equipages glitter and sparkle;
+never was such a brilliant, smirking Vanity Fair as that through
+which he leads us.&rdquo; Yet, in some ways, he was a corrective to
+the self-complacency of his generation, a vast dilettante, lover of
+&ldquo;Gothic,&rdquo; of curios and antiques, of costly printing, of old
+illuminations and stained glass. In his short miracle-novel,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span>
+called <i>The Castle of Otranto</i>, he set a fashion for mystery
+and terror in fiction, for medieval legend, diablerie, mystery,
+horror, antique furniture and Gothic jargon, which led directly
+by the route of Anne Radcliffe, Maturin, <i>Vathek</i>, <i>St Leon</i> and
+<i>Frankenstein</i>, to <i>Queenhoo Hall</i>, to <i>Waverley</i> and even to Hugo
+and Poe.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the area of the Memoir was widening rapidly in
+the hands of Fanny, the sly daughter of the wordly-wise and
+fashionable musician, Dr Burney, author of a novel
+(<i>Evelina</i>) most satirical and facete, written ere she was
+<span class="sidenote">Fanny Burney. Boswell.</span>
+well out of her teens; not too kind a satirist of her
+former patroness, Mrs Thrale (afterwards Piozzi), the
+least tiresome of the new group of scribbling sibyls, blue stockings,
+lady dilettanti and Della Cruscans. Both, as portraitists and
+purveyors of <i>Johnsoniana</i>, were surpassed by the inimitable
+James Boswell, first and most fatuous of all interviewers, in
+brief a biographical genius, with a new recipe, distinct from
+Sterne&rsquo;s, for disclosing personality, and a deliberate, artificial
+method of revealing himself to us, as it were, unawares.</p>
+
+<p>From all these and many other experiments, a far more flexible
+prose was developing in England, adapted for those critical
+reviews, magazines and journals which were multiplying rapidly
+to exploit the new masculine interest, apart from the schools,
+in history, topography, natural philosophy and the picturesque,
+just as circulating libraries were springing up to exploit the new
+feminine passion for fiction, which together with memoirs and
+fashionable poetry contributed to give the booksellers bigger
+and bigger ideas.</p>
+
+<p>It is surprising how many types of literary productions with
+which we are now familiar were first moulded into definite and
+classical form during the Johnsonian period. In
+addition to the novel one need only mention the
+<span class="sidenote">The progress of authorship.</span>
+economic treatise, as exemplified for the first time in
+the admirable symmetry of <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>,
+the diary of a faithful observer of nature such as Gilbert
+White, the <i>Fifteen Discourses</i> (1769-1791) in which Sir Joshua
+Reynolds endeavours for the first time to expound for England
+a philosophy of Art, the historico-philosophical tableau as
+exemplified by Robertson and Gibbon, the light political parody
+of which the poetry of <i>The Rolliad</i> and <i>Anti-Jacobin</i> afford so
+many excellent models; and, going to the other extreme, the
+ponderous archaeological or topographical monograph, as
+exemplified in Stuart and Revett&rsquo;s <i>Antiquities of Athens</i>, in
+Robert Wood&rsquo;s colossal <i>Ruins of Palmyra</i> (1753), or the monumental
+<i>History of Leicestershire</i> by John Nichols. Such works
+as this last might well seem the outcome of Horace Walpole&rsquo;s
+maxim: In this scribbling age &ldquo;let those who can&rsquo;t write, glean.&rdquo;
+In short, the literary landscape in Johnson&rsquo;s day was slowly
+but surely assuming the general outlines to which we are all
+accustomed. The literary conditions of the period dated from
+the time of Pope in their main features, and it is quite possible
+that they were more considerably modified in Johnson&rsquo;s own
+lifetime than they have been since. The booksellers, or, as they
+would now be called, publishers, were steadily superseding the
+old ties of patronage, and basing their relations with authors
+upon a commercial footing. A stage in their progress is marked
+by the success of Johnson&rsquo;s friend and Hume&rsquo;s correspondent,
+William Strahan, who kept a coach, &ldquo;a credit to literature.&rdquo;
+The evolution of a normal status for the author was aided by the
+definition of copyright and gradual extinction of piracy.</p>
+
+<p>Histories of their own time by Clarendon and Burnet have been
+in much request from their own day to this, and the first, at least,
+is a fine monument of English prose; Bolingbroke
+again, in 1735, dwelt memorably upon the ethical,
+<span class="sidenote">Historians.</span>
+political and philosophical value of history. But it was not until
+the third quarter of the 18th century that English literature freed
+itself from the imputation of lagging hopelessly behind France,
+Italy and Germany in the serious work of historical reconstruction.
+Hume published the first volume of his <i>History of England</i>
+in 1754. Robertson&rsquo;s <i>History of Scotland</i> saw the light in 1759 and
+his <i>Charles V.</i> in 1769; Gibbon&rsquo;s <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman
+Empire</i> came in 1776. Hume was, perhaps, the first modernist
+in history; he attempted to give his work a modern interest and,
+Scot though he was, a modern style&mdash;it could not fail, as he knew,
+to derive piquancy from its derision of the Whiggish assumption
+which regarded 1688 as a political millennium. Wm. Robertson
+was, perhaps, the first man to adapt the polished periphrases of
+the pulpit to historical generalization. The gifts of compromise
+which he had learned as Moderator of the General Assembly he
+brought to bear upon his historical studies, and a language so
+unfamiliar to his lips as academic English he wrote with so much
+the more care that the greatest connoisseurs of the day were
+enthusiastic about &ldquo;Robertson&rsquo;s wonderful style.&rdquo; Even more
+portentous in its superhuman dignity was the style of Edward
+Gibbon, who <span class="correction" title="amended from conbined">combined</span> with the unspiritual optimism of Hume
+and Robertson a far more concentrated devotion to his subject,
+an industry more monumental, a greater co-ordinative vigour,
+and a malice which, even in the 18th century, rendered him the
+least credulous man of his age. Of all histories, therefore, based
+upon the transmitted evidence of other ages rather than on the
+personal observation of the writer&rsquo;s own, Gibbon&rsquo;s <i>Decline and
+Fall</i> has hitherto maintained its reputation best. Hume, even
+before he was superseded, fell a prey to continuations and abridgements,
+while Robertson was supplanted systematically by the
+ornate pages of W.H. Prescott.</p>
+
+<p>The increasing transparency of texture in the working English
+prose during this period is shown in the writings of theologians
+such as Butler and Paley, and of thinkers such as Berkeley and
+Hume, who, by prolonging and extending Berkeley&rsquo;s contention
+that matter was an abstraction, had shown that mind would have
+to be considered an abstraction too, thereby signalling a school of
+reaction to common sense or &ldquo;external reality&rdquo; represented by
+Thomas Reid, and with modifications by David Hartley, Abraham
+Tucker and others. Butler and Paley are merely two of the
+biggest and most characteristic apologists of that day, both
+great stylists, though it must be allowed that their very lucidity
+and good sense excites almost more doubt than it stills, and both
+very successful in repelling the enemy in controversy, though
+their very success accentuates the faults of that unspiritual age
+in which churchmen were so far more concerned about the title
+deeds than about the living portion of the church&rsquo;s estate.
+Free thought was already beginning to sap their defences in
+various directions, and in Tom Paine, Priestley, Price, Godwin
+and Mackintosh they found more formidable adversaries than in
+the earlier deists. The greatest champion, however, of continuity
+and conservation both in church and state, against the new
+schools of latitudinarians and radicals, the great eulogist of the
+unwritten constitution, and the most perfect master of emotional
+prose in this period, prose in which the harmony of sense and
+sound is attained to an extent hardly ever seen outside supreme
+poetry, was Edmund Burke, one of the most commanding
+intellects in the whole range of political letters&mdash;a striking contrast
+in this respect to Junius, whose mechanical and journalistic
+talent for invective has a quite ephemeral value.</p>
+
+<p>From 1660 to 1760 the English mind was still much occupied in
+shaking off the last traces of feudality. The crown, the parliament,
+the manor and the old penal code were left,
+it is true: but the old tenures and gild-brotherhoods,
+<span class="sidenote">Return to nature.</span>
+the old social habits, miracles, arts, faith, religion and
+letters were irrevocably gone. The attempt of the young
+Chevalier in 1745 was a complete anachronism, and no sooner
+was this generally felt to be so than men began to regret that it
+should so be. Men began to describe as &ldquo;grand&rdquo; and &ldquo;picturesque&rdquo;
+scenery hitherto summarized as &ldquo;barren mountains
+covered in mist&rdquo;; while Voltaire and Pope were at their height,
+the world began to realize that the Augustan age, in its zeal for
+rationality, civism and trim parterres, had neglected the wild
+freshness of an age when literature was a wild flower that
+grew on the common. Rousseau laid the axe to the root of
+this over-sophistication of life; Goldsmith, half understanding,
+echoed some of his ideas in &ldquo;The Deserted Village.&rdquo; Back from
+books to men was now the prescription&mdash;from the crowded town
+to the spacious country. From plains and valleys to peaks and
+pinewoods. From cities, where men were rich and corrupt,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span>
+to the earlier and more primitive moods of earth. The breath
+had scarcely left the body of the Grand Monarque before an
+intrigue was set on foot to dispute the provisions of his will.
+So with the critical testament of Pope. Within a few years of his
+death we find Gray, Warton, Hurd and other disciples of the new
+age denying to Pope the highest kind of poetic excellence, and
+exalting imagination and fancy into a sphere far above the
+Augustan qualities of correct taste and good judgment. Decentralization
+and revolt were the new watchwords in literature.
+We must eschew France and Italy and go rather to Iceland or the
+Hebrides for fresh poetic emotions: we must shun academies
+and classic coffee-houses and go into the street-corners or the
+hedge-lanes in search of Volkspoesie. An old muniment chest
+<span class="sidenote">Change in poetic spirit.</span>
+and a roll of yellow parchment were the finest incentives
+to the new spirit of the picturesque. How else
+are we to explain the enthusiasm that welcomed the
+sham Ossianic poems of James Macpherson in 1760;
+Percy&rsquo;s patched-up ballads of 1765 (<i>Reliques of Ancient Poetry</i>);
+the new enthusiasm for Chaucer; the &ldquo;black letter&rdquo; school of
+Ritson, Tyrrwhitt, George Ellis, Steevens, Ireland and Malone;
+above all, the spurious 15th-century poems poured forth in 1768-1769
+with such a wild gusto of archaic imagination by a prodigy
+not quite seventeen years of age? Chatterton&rsquo;s precocious
+fantasy cast a wonderful spell upon the romantic imagination
+of other times. It does not prepare us for the change that was
+coming over the poetic spirit of the last two decades of the
+century, but it does at least help us to explain it. The great
+masters of verse in Britain during this period were the three
+very disparate figures of William Cowper, William Blake and
+Robert Burns. Cowper was not a poet of vivid and rapturous
+visions. There is always something of the rusticating city-scholar
+about his humour. The ungovernable impulse and
+imaginative passion of the great masters of poesy were not his
+to claim. His motives to express himself in verse came very
+largely from the outside. The greater part, nearly all his best
+poetry is of the occasional order. To touch and retouch, he
+says, in one of his letters&mdash;among the most delightful in English&mdash;is
+the secret of almost all good writing, especially verse. Whatever
+is short should be nervous, masculine and compact. In all
+<span class="sidenote">Cowper. Blake. Burns.</span>
+the arts that raise the best occasional poetry to the
+level of greatness Cowper is supreme. In phrase-moulding,
+verbal gymnastic and prosodical marquetry
+he has scarcely a rival, and the fruits of his poetic
+industry are enshrined in the filigree of a most delicate fancy
+and a highly cultivated intelligence, purified and thrice refined
+in the fire of mental affliction. His work expresses the rapid
+civilization of his time, its humanitarian feeling and growing
+sensitiveness to natural beauty, home comfort, the claims of
+animals and the charms of light literature. In many of his short
+poems, such as &ldquo;The Royal George,&rdquo; artistic simplicity is
+indistinguishable from the stern reticence of genius. William
+Blake had no immediate literary descendants, for he worked
+alone, and Lamb was practically alone in recognizing what he
+wrote as poetry. But he was by far the most original of the
+reactionaries who preceded the Romantic Revival, and he caught
+far more of the Elizabethan air in his lyric verse than any one
+else before Coleridge. The <i>Songs of Innocence</i> and <i>Songs of
+Experience</i>, in 1789 and 1794, sing themselves, and have a bird-like
+spontaneity that has been the despair of all song-writers
+from that day to this. After 1800 he winged his flight farther and
+farther into strange and unknown regions. In the finest of these
+earlier lyrics, which owe so little to his contemporaries, the ripple
+of the stream of romance that began to gush forth in 1798 is
+distinctly heard. But the first poetic genius of the century was
+unmistakably Robert Burns. In song and satire alike Burns is
+racy, in the highest degree, of the poets of North Britain, who
+since Robert Sempill, Willy Hamilton of Gilbertfield, douce
+Allan Ramsay, the Edinburgh periwig-maker and miscellanist,
+and Robert Fergusson, &ldquo;the writer-chiel, a deathless name,&rdquo; had
+kept alive the old native poetic tradition, had provided the
+strolling fiddlers with merry and wanton staves, and had perpetuated
+the daintiest shreds of national music, the broadest colloquialisms,
+and the warmest hues of patriotic or local sentiment.
+Burns immortalizes these old staves by means of his keener
+vision, his more fiery spirit, his stronger passion and his richer
+volume of sound. Burns&rsquo;s fate was a pathetic one. Brief,
+broken glimpses of a genius that could never show itself complete,
+his poems wanted all things for completeness: culture, leisure,
+sustained effort, length of life. Yet occasional, fragmentary,
+extemporary as most of them are, they bear the guinea stamp
+of true genius. His eye is unerring, his humour of the ripest,
+his wit both fine and abundant. His ear is less subtle, except
+when dialect is concerned. There he is infallible. Landscape
+he understands in subordination to life. For abstract ideas about
+Liberty and 1789 he cares little. But he is a patriot and an
+insurgent, a hater of social distinction and of the rich. Of the
+divine right or eternal merit of the system under which the poor
+man sweats to put money into the rich man&rsquo;s pocket and fights
+to keep it there, and is despised in proportion to the amount of his
+perspiration, he had a low opinion. His work has inspired the
+meek, has made the poor feel themselves less of ciphers in the
+world and given courage to the down-trodden. His love of
+women has inspired some of the most ardently beautiful lyrics
+in the world. Among modern folk-poets such as Jókai and
+Mistral, the position of Burns in the hearts of his own people is
+the best assured.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliographical Note.</span>&mdash;The dearth of literary history in England
+makes it rather difficult to obtain a good general view of letters in
+Britain during the 18th century. Much may be gleaned, however,
+from chapters of Lecky&rsquo;s <i>History of England during the 18th Century</i>,
+from Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Lectures on English Literature and Society in the 18th
+Century</i> (1904), from Taine&rsquo;s <i>History of English Literature</i> (van Laun&rsquo;s
+translation), from vols. v. and vi. of Prof. Courthope&rsquo;s <i>History of
+English Poetry</i>, and from the second volume of Chambers&rsquo;s <i>Cyclopaedia
+of English Literature</i> (1902). The two vols. dealing respectively
+with the <i>Age of Pope</i> and the <i>Age of Johnson</i> in Bell&rsquo;s Handbooks
+of English Literature will be found useful, and suggestive
+chapters will be found in Saintsbury&rsquo;s <i>Short History</i> and in A.H.
+Thompson&rsquo;s <i>Student&rsquo;s History of English Literature</i> (1901). The
+same may, perhaps, be said of books v. and vi. in the <i>Bookman
+Illustrated History of English Literature</i> (1906), by the present writer.
+Sidelights of value are to be found in Walter Raleigh&rsquo;s little book
+on the <i>English Novel</i>, in Beljame&rsquo;s <i>Le Publique et les hommes de
+lettres en Angleterre au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, in H.A. Beers&rsquo; <i>History of
+English Romanticism in the 18th Century</i> (1899), and above all in Sir
+Leslie Stephen&rsquo;s <i>History of English Thought during the 18th Century</i>;
+Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Hours in a Library</i>, the monographs dealing with the
+period in the English Men of Letters series, the Vignettes and
+Portraits of Austin Dobson and George Paston, Elwin&rsquo;s <i>Eighteenth
+Century Men of Letters</i>, and Thomas Wright&rsquo;s <i>Caricature History of
+the Georges</i>, must also be kept in mind.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. Se.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">VI. The 19th Century</p>
+
+<p>We have seen how great was the reverence which the 18th
+century paid to poetry, and how many different kinds of poetic
+experiment were going on, mostly by the imitative efforts of
+revivalists (Spenserians, Miltonians, Shakespeareans, Ballad-mongers,
+Scandinavian, Celtic, Gothic scholars and the like),
+but also in the direction of nature study and landscape description,
+while the more formal type of Augustan poetry, satire and
+description, in the direct succession of Pope, was by no means
+neglected.</p>
+
+<p>The most original vein in the 19th century was supplied by the
+Wordsworth group, the first manifesto of which appeared in the
+<i>Lyrical Ballads</i> of 1798. William Wordsworth himself
+represents, in the first place, a revolutionary movement
+<span class="sidenote">Wordsworth.</span>
+against the poetic diction of study-poets since the first
+acceptance of the Miltonic model by Addison. His ideal, imperfectly
+carried out, was a reversion to popular language of the
+utmost simplicity and directness. He added to this the idea of
+the enlargement of man by Nature, after Rousseau, and went
+further than this in the utterance of an essentially pantheistic
+desire to become part of its loveliness, to partake in a mystical
+sense of the loneliness of the mountain, the sound of falling water,
+the upper horizon of the clouds and the wind. To the growing
+multitude of educated people who were being pent in huge cities
+these ideas were far sweeter than the formalities of the old
+pastoral. Wordsworth&rsquo;s great discovery, perhaps, was that
+popular poetry need not be imitative, artificial or condescending,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span>
+but that a simple story truthfully told of the passion, affliction or
+devotion of simple folk, and appealing to the primal emotion, is
+worthy of the highest effort of the poetic artist, and may achieve
+a poetic value far in advance of conventional descriptions of
+strikingly grouped incidents picturesquely magnified or rhetorically
+exaggerated. But Wordsworth&rsquo;s theories might have ended
+very much where they began, had it not been for their impregnation
+by the complementary genius of Coleridge.</p>
+
+<p>Coleridge at his best was inspired by the supreme poetic gifts of
+passion, imagination, simplicity and mystery, combining form
+and colour, sound and sense, novelty and antiquity,
+realism and romanticism, scholarly ode and popular
+<span class="sidenote">Coleridge.</span>
+ballad. His three fragmentary poems <i>The Rime of the Ancient
+Mariner</i>, <i>Christabel</i> and <i>Kubla Khan</i> are the three spells and
+touchstones, constituting what is often regarded by the best
+judges as the high-standard of modern English poetry. Their
+subtleties and beauties irradiated the homelier artistic conceptions
+of Wordsworth, and the effect on him was permanent. Coleridge&rsquo;s
+inspiration, on the other hand, was irrecoverable; a
+physical element was due, no doubt, to the first exaltation
+indirectly due to the opium habit, but the moral influence
+was contributed by the Wordsworths. The steady will of the
+Dalesman seems to have constrained Coleridge&rsquo;s imagination
+from aimless wandering; his lofty and unwavering self-confidence
+inspired his friend with a similar energy. Away from Wordsworth
+after 1798, Coleridge lost himself in visions of work that
+always remained to be &ldquo;transcribed,&rdquo; by one who had every
+poetic gift&mdash;save the rudimentary will for sustained and concentrated
+effort.</p>
+
+<p>Coleridge&rsquo;s more delicate sensibility to the older notes of that
+more musical era in English poetry which preceded the age of
+Dryden and Pope was due in no small measure to the
+luminous yet subtle intuitions of his friend Charles
+<span class="sidenote">Lamb.</span>
+Lamb. Lamb&rsquo;s appreciation of the imaginative beauty inhumed
+in old English literature amounted to positive genius, and the
+persistence with which he brought his perception of the supreme
+importance of imagination and music in poetry to bear upon some
+of the finest creative minds of 1800, in talk, letters, selections and
+essays, brought about a gradual revolution in the aesthetic
+morality of the day. He paid little heed to the old rhetoric
+and the <i>ars poetica</i> of classical comparison. His aim was rather
+to discover the mystery, the folk-seed and the old-world element,
+latent in so much of the finer ancient poetry and implicit in so
+much of the new. The <i>Essays of Elia</i> (1820-1825) are the
+binnacle of Lamb&rsquo;s vessel of exploration. Lamb and his great
+<span class="sidenote">Hazlitt.</span>
+rival, William Hazlitt, both maintained that criticism
+was not so much an affair of learning, or an exercise
+of comparative and expository judgment, as an act of imagination
+in itself. Hazlitt became one of the master essayists, a fine
+critical analyst and declaimer, denouncing all insipidity and
+affectation, stirring the soul with metaphor, soaring easily and
+acquiring a momentum in his prose which often approximates
+to the impassioned utterance of Burke. Like Lamb, he wanted
+to measure his contemporaries by the Elizabethans, or still older
+masters, and he was deeply impressed by <i>Lyrical Ballads</i>.
+The new critics gradually found responsible auxiliaries, notably
+<span class="sidenote">Leigh Hunt. De Quincey.</span>
+Leigh Hunt, De Quincey and Wilson of <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s</i>.
+Leigh Hunt, not very important in himself, was a
+cause of great authorship in others. He increased
+both the depth and area of modern literary sensibility.
+The world of books was to him an enchanted forest, in which
+every leaf had its own secret. He was the most catholic of
+critics, but he knew what was poor&mdash;at least in other people.
+As an essayist he is a feminine diminutive of Lamb, excellent in
+fancy and literary illustration, but far inferior in decisive insight
+or penetrative masculine wit. The Miltonic quality of impassioned
+pyramidal prose is best seen in Thomas De Quincey,
+of all the essayists of this age, or any age, the most diffuse,
+unequal and irreducible to rule, and which yet at times trembles
+upon the brink of a rhythmical sonority which seems almost to
+rival that of the greatest poetry. Leigh Hunt supplies a valuable
+link between Lamb, the sole external moderator of the Lake
+school, Byron, Shelley, and the junior branch of imaginative
+Aesthetic, represented by Keats.</p>
+
+<p>John Keats (1795-1821), three years younger than Shelley,
+was the greatest poetic artist of his time, and would probably
+have surpassed all, but for his collapse of health at
+twenty-five. His vocation was as unmistakable as
+<span class="sidenote">Keats.</span>
+that of Chatterton, with whose youthful ardour his own had
+points of likeness. The two contemporary conceptions of him
+as a fatuous Cockney Bunthorne or as &ldquo;a tadpole of the lakes&rdquo;
+were equally erroneous. But Keats was in a sense the first of
+the virtuoso or aesthetic school (caricatured later by the formula
+of &ldquo;Art for Art&rsquo;s sake&rdquo;); artistic beauty was to him a kind of
+religion, his expression was more technical, less personal than
+that of his contemporaries, he was a conscious &ldquo;romantic,&rdquo;
+and he travelled in the realms of gold with less impedimenta
+than any of his fellows. Byron had always himself to talk about,
+Wordsworth saw the universe too much through the medium
+of his own self-importance, Coleridge was a metaphysician,
+Shelley hymned Intellectual Beauty; Keats treats of his subject,
+&ldquo;A Greek Urn,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Nightingale,&rdquo; the season of &ldquo;Autumn,&rdquo;
+in such a way that our thought centres not upon the poet but
+upon the enchantment of that which he sings. In his three
+great medievalising poems, &ldquo;The Pot of Basil,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Eve of St
+Agnes&rdquo; and &ldquo;La Belle Dame Sans Merci,&rdquo; even more than
+in his Odes, Keats is the forerunner of Tennyson, the greatest
+of the word-painters. But apart from his perfection of loveliness,
+he has a natural magic and a glow of humanity surpassing that
+of any other known poet. His poetry, immature as it was, gave
+a new beauty to the language. His loss was the greatest English
+Literature has sustained.</p>
+
+<p>Before Tennyson, Rossetti and Morris, Keats&rsquo;s best disciples
+in the aesthetic school were Thomas Lovell Beddoes, George
+Dailey and Thomas Hood, the failure of whose
+&ldquo;Midsummer Fairies&rdquo; and &ldquo;Fair Inez&rdquo; drove him
+<span class="sidenote">Landor.</span>
+into that almost mortific vein of verbal humour which threw
+up here and there a masterpiece such as &ldquo;The Song of a Shirt.&rdquo;
+The master virtuoso of English poetry in another department
+(the classical) during this and the following age was Walter Savage
+Landor, who threw off a few fragments of verse worthy of the
+Greek Anthology, but in his Dialogues or &ldquo;Imaginary Conversations&rdquo;
+evolved a kind of violent monologizing upon the commonplace
+which descends into the most dismal caverns of egotism.
+Carlyle furiously questioned his competence. Mr Shaw allows
+his classical amateurship and respectable strenuosity of character,
+but denounces his work, with a substratum of truth,
+as that of a &ldquo;blathering, unreadable pedant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Among those, however, who found early nutriment in Landor&rsquo;s
+Miltonic <i>Gebir</i> (1798) must be reckoned the most poetical of our
+poets. P.B. Shelley was a spirit apart, who fits into
+no group, the associate of Byron, but spiritually as
+<span class="sidenote">Shelley.</span>
+remote from him as possible, hated by the rationalists of his age,
+and regarded by the poets with more pity than jealousy. He
+wrote only for poets, and had no public during his lifetime among
+general readers, by whom, however, he is now regarded as <i>the
+poet</i> par excellence. In his conduct it must be admitted that
+he was in a sense, like Coleridge, irresponsible, but on the other
+hand his poetic energy was irresistible and all his work is technically
+of the highest order of excellence. In ideal beauties it is
+supreme; its great lack is its want of humanity; in this he
+is the opposite of Wordsworth who reads human nature into
+everything. Shelley, on the other hand, dehumanises things
+and makes them unearthly. He hangs a poem, like a cobweb
+or a silver cloud, on a horn of the crescent moon, and leaves it
+to dangle there in a current of ether. His quest was continuous
+for figures of beauty, figures, however, more ethereal and less
+sensuous than those in Keats; having obtained such an idea
+he passed it again and again through the prism of his mind, in
+talk, letters, prefaces, poems. The deep sense of the mystery
+of words and their lightest variations in the skein of poetry,
+half forgotten since Milton&rsquo;s time, had been recovered in a great
+measure by Coleridge and Wordsworth since 1798; Lamb, too,
+and Hazlitt, and, perhaps, Hogg were in the secret, while Keats
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span>
+had its open sesame on his lips ere he died. The union of poetic
+emotion with verbal music of the greatest perfection was the aim
+of all, but none of these masters made words breathe and sing
+with quite the same spontaneous ease and fervour that Shelley
+attained in some of the lyrics written between twenty-four and
+thirty, such as &ldquo;The Cloud,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Skylark,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Ode of the
+West Wind,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Sensitive Plant,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Indian Serenade.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The path of the new romantic school had been thoroughly
+prepared during the age of Gray, Cowper and Burns, and it won
+its triumphs with little resistance and no serious convulsions.
+The opposition was noisy, but its representative character has
+been exaggerated. In the meantime, however, the old-fashioned
+school and the Popean couplet, the Johnsonian dignity of reflection
+and the Goldsmithian ideal of generalized description,
+were well maintained by George Crabbe (1754-1832), &ldquo;though
+Nature&rsquo;s sternest painter yet the best,&rdquo; a worsted-stockinged
+Pope and austere delineator of village misdoing and penurious
+age, and Samuel Rogers (1763-1855), the banker poet, liberal
+in sentiment, extreme Tory in form, and dilettante delineator
+of Italy to the music of the heroic couplet. Robert Southey,
+Thomas Campbell and Thomas Moore were a dozen years
+younger and divided their allegiance between two schools.
+In the main, however, they were still poeticisers of the orthodox
+old pattern, though all wrote a few songs of exceptional merit,
+and Campbell especially by defying the old anathemas.</p>
+
+<p>The great champion of the Augustan masters was himself
+the architect of revolution. First the idol and then the outcast
+of respectable society, Lord Byron sought relief in
+new cadences and new themes for his poetic talent.
+<span class="sidenote">Byron.</span>
+He was, however, essentially a history painter or a satirist in
+verse. He had none of the sensitive aesthetic taste of a Keats,
+none of the spiritual ardour of a Shelley, or of the elemental
+beauty or artistry of Wordsworth or Coleridge. He manages
+the pen (said Scott) with the careless and negligent ease of a
+man of quality. The &ldquo;Lake Poets&rdquo; sought to create an impression
+deep, calm and profound, Byron to start a theme which
+should enable him to pose, travel, astonish, bewilder and confound
+as lover of daring, freedom, passion and revolt. For the subtler
+symphonic music&mdash;that music of the spheres to which the ears
+of poets alone are attuned&mdash;Byron had an imperfect sympathy.
+The delicate ear is often revolted in his poetry by the vices
+of impromptu work. He steadily refused to polish, to file or to
+furbish&mdash;the damning, inevitable sign of a man born to wear
+a golden tassel. &ldquo;I am like the tiger. If I miss the first spring
+I go growling back to the jungle.&rdquo; Subtlety is sacrificed to
+freshness and vigour. The exultation, the breadth, the sweeping
+magnificence of his effects are consequently most appreciated
+abroad, where the ineradicable flaws of his style have no power
+to annoy.</p>
+
+<p>The European fame of Byron was from the first something
+quite unique. At Missolonghi people ran through the streets
+crying &ldquo;The great man is dead&mdash;he is gone.&rdquo; His corpse was
+refused entrance at Westminster; but the poet was taken to
+the inmost heart of Russia, Poland, Spain, Italy, France, Germany,
+Scandinavia, and among the Slavonic nations generally.
+In Italy his influence is plainly seen in Berchet, Leopardi,
+Giusti, and even Carducci. In Spain the Myrtle Society was
+founded in Byron&rsquo;s honour. Hugo in his <i>Orientales</i> traversed
+Greece. Chateaubriand joined the Greek Committee. Delavigne
+dedicated his verse to Byron; Lamartine wrote another canto
+to <i>Childe Harold</i>; Mérimée is interpenetrated by Byronesque
+feeling which also animates the best work of Heine, Pushkin,
+Lermontov, and Mickievicz, and even De Musset.</p>
+
+<p>Like Scott, Byron was a man of two eras, and not too much
+ahead of his time to hold the Press-Dragon in fee. His supremacy
+and that of his satellites Moore and Campbell were
+championed by the old papers and by the two new
+<span class="sidenote">Criticism.</span>
+blatant Quarterlies, whose sails were filled not with the light
+airs of the future but by the Augustan &ldquo;gales&rdquo; of the classical
+past. The distinction of this new phalanx of old-fashioned
+critics who wanted to confer literature by university degree
+was that they wrote as gentlemen for gentlemen: they first
+gave criticism in England a respectable shakedown. Francis
+Jeffrey, a man of extraordinary ability and editor of <i>The Edinburgh
+Review</i> from 1803 to 1829 (with the mercurial Sydney
+Smith, the first of English conversationists, as his aide-de-camp),
+exercised a powerful influence as a standardizer of the second
+rate. He was one of the first of the critics to grasp firmly the
+main idea of literary evolution&mdash;the importance of time, environment,
+race and historical development upon the literary landscape;
+but he was vigorously aristocratic in his preferences,
+a hater of mystery, symbolism or allegory, an instinctive individualist
+of intolerant pattern. His chief weapons against the
+new ideas were social superiority and omniscience, and he used
+both unsparingly. The strident political partisanship of the
+<i>Edinburgh</i> raised up within six years a serious rival in the
+<i>Quarterly</i>, which was edited in turn by the good-natured pedagogue
+William Gifford and by Scott&rsquo;s extremely able son-in-law
+John Gibson Lockhart, the &ldquo;scorpion&rdquo; of the infant <i>Blackwood</i>.
+With the aid of the remnant of the old anti-Jacobins, Canning,
+Ellis, Barrow, Southey, Croker, Hayward, Apperley and others,
+the theory of <i>Quarterly</i> infallibility was carried to its highest
+point of development about 1845.</p>
+
+<p>The historical and critical work of the <i>Quarterly</i> era, as might
+be expected, was appropriate to this gentlemanly censorship.
+The thinkers of the day were economic or juristic&mdash;Bentham,
+the great codifier; Malthus, whose theory of population gave
+Darwin his main impulse to theorise; and Mackintosh, whose
+liberal opposition to Burke deserved a better fate than it has
+ever perhaps received. The historians were mainly of the second
+class&mdash;the judicial Hallam, the ornate Roscoe, the plodding
+Lingard, the accomplished Milman, the curious Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli,
+the academic Bishop Thirlwall. Mitford and Grote may be
+considered in the light of Tory and Radical historical pamphleteers,
+but Grote&rsquo;s work has the much larger measure of permanent
+value. As the historian of British India, James Mill&rsquo;s
+industry led him beyond his thesis of Benthamism in practice.
+Sir William Napier&rsquo;s heroic picture of the Peninsular War is
+strongly tinged by bias against the Tory administration of
+1808-1813; but it conserves some imperishable scenes of war.
+Some of the most magnetic prose of the Regency Period was
+contained in the copious and insincere but profoundly emotionalising
+pamphlets of the self-taught Surrey labourer William
+Cobbett, in whom Diderot&rsquo;s paradox of a comedian is astonishingly
+illustrated. Lockhart&rsquo;s Lives of Burns and of Sir Walter
+Scott&mdash;the last perhaps the most memorable prose monument
+of its epoch&mdash;appeared in 1828 and 1838, and both formed the
+subjects of Thomas Carlyle in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, where, under
+the unwelcome discipline of Jeffrey, the new prophet worked
+nobly though in harness.</p>
+
+<p>Great as the triumph of the Romantic masters and the new
+ideas was, it is in the ranks of the Old School after all that we have
+to look for the greatest single figure in the literature
+of this age. Except in the imitative vein of ballad
+<span class="sidenote">Scott.</span>
+or folk-song, the poetry of Sir Walter Scott is never quite first-rate.
+It is poetry for repetition rather than for close meditation or
+contemplation, and resembles a military band more than a full
+orchestra. Nor will his prose bear careful analysis. It is a good
+servant, no more. When we consider, however, not the intensity
+but the vast extent, range and versatility of Scott&rsquo;s powers, we
+are constrained to assign him the first place in his own age, if not
+that in the next seat to Shakespeare in the whole of the English
+literary Pantheon. Like Shakespeare, he made humour and a
+knowledge of human nature his first instruments in depicting
+the past. Unlike Shakespeare, he was a born antiquary, and he
+had a great (perhaps excessive) belief in <i>mise en scène</i>, costume,
+patois and scenic properties generally. His portraiture, however,
+is Shakespearean in its wisdom and maturity, and, although he
+wrote very rapidly, it must be remembered that his mind had
+been prepared by strenuous work for twenty years as a storehouse
+of material in which nothing was handled until it had been
+carefully mounted by the imagination, classified in the memory,
+and tested by experimental use. Once he has got the imagination
+of the reader well grounded to earth, there is nothing he loves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span>
+better than telling a good story. Of detail he is often careless.
+But he trusted to a full wallet, and rightly, for mainly by his
+abundance he raised the literature of the novel to its highest
+point of influence, breathing into it a new spirit, giving it a fulness
+and universality of life, a romantic charm, a dignity and elevation,
+and thereby a coherence, a power and predominance which it
+never had before.</p>
+
+<p>In Scott the various lines of 18th-century conservatism and
+19th-century romantic revival most wonderfully converge.
+His intense feeling for Long Ago made him a romantic almost
+from his cradle. The master faculties of history and humour
+made a strong conservative of him; but his Toryism was of
+a very different spring from that of Coleridge or Wordsworth.
+It was not a reaction from disappointment in the sequel of 1789,
+nor was it the result of reasoned conviction. It was indwelling,
+rooted deeply in the fibres of the soil, to which Scott&rsquo;s attachment
+was passionate, and nourished as from a source by ancestral
+sentiment and &ldquo;heather&rdquo; tradition. This sentiment made
+Scott a victorious pioneer of the Romantic movement all over
+Europe. At the same time we must remember that, with all his
+fondness for medievalism, he was fundamentally a thorough
+18th-century Scotsman and successor of Bailie Nicol Jarvie: a
+worshipper of good sense, toleration, modern and expert governmental
+ideas, who valued the past chiefly by way of picturesque
+relief, and was thoroughly alive to the benefit of peaceful and
+orderly rule, and deeply convinced that we are much better off
+as we are than we could have been in the days of King Richard
+or good Queen Bess. Scott had the mind of an enlightened
+18th-century administrator and statesmen who had made a
+fierce hobby of armour and old ballads. To expect him to treat
+of intense passion or romantic medievalism as Charlotte Brontë
+or Dante Gabriel Rossetti would have treated them is as absurd as
+to expect to find the sentiments of a Mrs Browning blossoming
+amidst the horse-play of <i>Tom Jones</i> or <i>Harry Lorrequer</i>. Scott
+has few niceties or secrets: he was never subtle, morbid or
+fantastic. His handling is ever broad, vigorous, easy, careless,
+healthy and free. Yet nobly simple and straightforward as
+man and writer were, there is something very complex about his
+literary legacy, which has gone into all lands and created bigoted
+enemies (Carlyle, Borrow) as well as unexpected friends (Hazlitt,
+Newman, Jowett); and we can seldom be sure whether his
+influence is reactionary or the reverse. There has always been
+something semi-feudal about it. The &ldquo;shirra&rdquo; has a demesne in
+letters as broad as a countryside, a band of mesne vassals and a
+host of Eildon hillsmen, Tweedside cottiers, minor feudatories
+and forest retainers attached to the &ldquo;Abbotsford Hunt.&rdquo; Scott&rsquo;s
+humour, humanity and insistence upon the continuity of history
+transformed English literature profoundly.</p>
+
+<p>Scott set himself to coin a quarter of a million sterling out of
+the new continent of which he felt himself the Columbus. He
+failed (quite narrowly), but he made the Novel the
+paymaster of literature for at least a hundred years.
+<span class="sidenote">Transition fiction.</span>
+His immediate contemporaries and successors were not
+particularly great. John Galt (1779-1839), Susan Ferrier (1782-1854)
+and D.M. Moir (1798-1851) all attempted the delineation
+of Scottish scenes with a good deal of shrewdness of insight and
+humour. The main bridge from Scott to the great novelists of
+the &rsquo;forties and &rsquo;fifties was supplied by sporting, military, naval
+and political novels, represented in turn by Surtees, Smith, Hook,
+Maxwell, Lever, Marryat, Cooper, Morier, Ainsworth, Bulwer
+Lytton and Disraeli. Surtees gave all-important hints to <i>Pickwick</i>,
+Marryat developed grotesque character-drawing, Ainsworth
+and Bulwer attempted new effects in criminology and contemporary
+glitter. Disraeli in the &rsquo;thirties was one of the foremost
+romantic wits who had yet attempted the novel. Early
+in the &rsquo;forties he received the laying-on of hands from the Young
+England party, and attempted to propagandize the good tidings
+of his mission in <i>Coningsby</i> and <i>Sybil</i>, novels full of <i>entraînement</i>
+and promise, if not of actual genius. Unhappily the author was
+enmeshed in the fatal drolleries of the English party system,
+and <i>Lothair</i> is virtually a confession of abandoned ideals. He
+completes the forward party in fiction; Jane Austen (1775-1815)
+stands to this as Crabbe and Rogers to Coleridge and
+Shelley. She represents the fine flower of the expiring 18th
+century. Scott could do the trumpet notes on the organ. She
+fingers the fine ivory flutes. She combines self-knowledge and
+artistic reticence with a complete tact and an absolute lucidity
+of vision within the area prescribed. Within the limits of a park
+wall in a country parish, absolutely oblivious of Europe and the
+universe, her art is among the finest and most finished that our
+literature has to offer. In irony she had no rival at that period.
+But the trimness of her plots and the delicacy of her miniature
+work have affinities in Maria Edgeworth, Harriet Martineau
+and Mary Russell Mitford, three excellent writers of pure English
+prose. There is a finer aroma of style in the contemporary
+&ldquo;novels&rdquo; of Thomas Love Peacock (1785-1866). These, however,
+are rather tournaments of talk than novels proper, releasing
+a flood of satiric portraiture upon the idealism of the day&mdash;difficult
+to be apprehended in perfection save by professed
+students. Peacock&rsquo;s style had an appreciable influence upon
+his son-in-law George Meredith (1828-1909). His philosophy is
+for the most part Tory irritability exploding in ridicule; but
+Peacock was one of the most lettered men of his age, and his
+flouts and jeers smack of good reading, old wine and respectable
+prejudices. In these his greatest successor was George Borrow
+(1803-1881), who used three volumes of half-imaginary autobiography
+and road-faring in strange lands as a sounding-board
+for a kind of romantic revolt against the century of comfort,
+toleration, manufactures, mechanical inventions, cheap travel
+and commercial expansion, unaccompanied (as he maintains)
+by any commensurate growth of human wisdom, happiness,
+security or dignity.</p>
+
+<p>In the year of Queen Victoria&rsquo;s accession most of the great
+writers of the early part of the century, whom we may denominate
+as &ldquo;late Georgian,&rdquo; were silent. Scott, Byron, Shelley,
+Keats, Coleridge, Lamb, Sheridan, Hazlitt, Mackintosh,
+<span class="sidenote">The Victorian era.</span>
+Crabbe and Cobbett were gone. Wordsworth, Southey,
+Campbell, Moore, Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, De Quincey,
+Miss Edgeworth, Miss Mitford, Leigh Hunt, Brougham, Samuel
+Rogers were still living, but the vital portion of their work was
+already done. The principal authors who belong equally to
+the Georgian and Victorian eras are Landor, Bulwer, Marryat,
+Hallam, Milman and Disraeli; none of whom, with the exception
+of the last, approaches the first rank in either. The significant
+work of Tennyson, the Brownings, Carlyle, Dickens, Thackeray,
+the Brontës, George Eliot, Mrs Gaskell, Trollope, the Kingsleys,
+Spencer, Mill, Darwin, Ruskin, Grote, Macaulay, Freeman,
+Froude, Lecky, Buckle, Green, Maine, Borrow, FitzGerald,
+Arnold, Rossetti, Swinburne, Meredith, Hardy, Stevenson,
+Morris, Newman, Pater, Jefferies&mdash;the work of these writers
+may be termed conclusively Victorian; it gives the era a stamp
+of its own and distinguishes it as the most varied in intellectual
+riches in the whole course of our literature. Circumstances have
+seldom in the world been more favourable to a great outburst of
+literary energy. The nation was secure and prosperous to an
+unexampled degree, conscious of the will and the power to
+expand still further. The canons of taste were still aristocratic.
+Books were made and unmade according to a regular standard.
+Literature was the one form of art which the English understood,
+in which they had always excelled since 1579, and in which their
+originality was supreme. To the native genius for poetry was
+now added the advantage of materials for a prose which in
+lucidity and versatility should surpass even that of Goldsmith
+and Hazlitt. The diversity of form and content of this great
+literature was commensurate with the development of human
+knowledge and power which marked its age. In this and some
+other respects it resembles the extraordinary contemporary
+development in French literature which began under the reign
+of Louis Philippe. The one signally disconcerting thing about
+the great Victorian writers is their amazing prolixity. Not
+content with two or three long books, they write whole literatures.
+A score of volumes, each as long as the Bible or Shakespeare,
+barely represents the output of such authors as Carlyle, Ruskin,
+Froude, Dickens, Thackeray, Newman, Spencer or Trollope.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span>
+They obtained vast quantities of new readers, for the middle
+class was beginning to read with avidity; but the quality of
+brevity, the knowledge when to stop, and with it the older classic
+conciseness and the nobler Hellenic idea of a perfect measure&mdash;these
+things were as though they had not been. Meanwhile,
+the old schools were broken up and the foolscap addressed to the
+old masters. Singers, entertainers, critics and historians abound.
+Every man may say what is in him in the phrases that he likes
+best, and the sole motto that compels is &ldquo;every style is permissible
+except the style that is tiresome.&rdquo; The old models
+are strangely discredited, and the only conventions which hold
+are those concerning the subjects which English delicacy held
+to be tabooed. These conventions were inordinately strict,
+and were held to include all the unrestrained, illicit impulses of
+love and all the more violent aberrations from the Christian code
+of faith and ethics. Infidel speculation and the liaisons of
+lawless love (which had begun to form the staple of the new
+French fiction&mdash;hence regarded by respectable English critics
+of the time as profoundly vitiated and scandalous) had no
+recognized existence and were totally ignored in literature
+designed for general reading. The second or Goody-two-Shoes
+convention remained strictly in force until the penultimate
+decade of the 19th century, and was acquiesced in or at least
+submitted to by practically all the greatest writers of the Victorian
+age. The great poets and novelists of that day easily
+out-topped their fellows. Society had no difficulty in responding
+to the summons of its literary leaders. Nor was their fame
+partial, social or sectional. The great novelists of early Victorian
+days were aristocratic and democratic at once. Their popularity
+was universal within the limits of the language and beyond it.
+The greatest of men were men of imagination rather than men
+of ideas, but such sociological and moral ideas as they derived
+from their environment were poured helter-skelter into their
+novels, which took the form of huge pantechnicon magazines.
+Another distinctive feature of the Victorian novel is the position
+it enabled women to attain in literature, a position attained by
+them in creative work neither before nor since.</p>
+
+<p>The novelists to a certain extent created their own method
+like the great dramatists, but such rigid prejudices or conventions
+as they found already in possession they respected
+without demur. Both Dickens and Thackeray write
+<span class="sidenote">Dickens.</span>
+as if they were almost entirely innocent of the existence of sexual
+vice. As artists and thinkers they were both formless. But the
+enormous self-complacency of the England of their time, assisted
+alike by the part played by the nation from 1793 to 1815,
+evangelicalism, free trade (which was originally a system of
+super-nationalism) and later, evolution, generated in them a
+great benignity and a strong determination towards a liberal
+and humanitarian philosophy. Despite, however, the diffuseness
+of the envelope and the limitations of horizon referred to, the
+unbookish and almost unlettered genius of Charles Dickens
+(1812-1870), the son of a poor lower middle-class clerk, almost
+entirely self-educated, has asserted for itself the foremost place
+in the literary history of the period. Dickens broke every rule,
+rioted in absurdity and bathed in extravagance. But everything
+he wrote was received with an almost frantic joy by those who
+recognized his creations as deifications of themselves, his scenery
+as drawn by one of the quickest and intensest observers that
+ever lived, and his drollery as an accumulated dividend from the
+treasury of human laughter. Dickens&rsquo;s mannerisms were severe,
+but his geniality as a writer broke down every obstruction,
+reduced Jeffrey to tears and Sydney Smith to helpless laughter.</p>
+
+<p>The novel in France was soon to diverge and adopt the form
+of an anecdote illustrating the traits of a very small group of
+persons, but the English novel, owing mainly to the
+predilection of Dickens for those Gargantuan entertainers
+<span class="sidenote">Thackeray.</span>
+of his youth, Fielding and Smollett, was to remain
+anchored to the history. William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863)
+was even more historical than Dickens, and most of his
+leading characters are provided with a detailed genealogy.
+Dickens&rsquo;s great works, excepting <i>David Copperfield</i> and <i>Great
+Expectations</i>, had all appeared when Thackeray made his
+mark in 1848 with <i>Vanity Fair</i>, and Thackeray follows most of
+his predecessor&rsquo;s conventions, including his conventional religion,
+ethics and politics, but he avoids his worse faults of theatricality.
+He never forces the note or lashes himself into fury or sentimentality;
+he limits himself in satire to the polite sphere which
+he understands, he is a great master of style and possesses every
+one of its fairy gifts except brevity. He creates characters and
+scenes worthy of Dickens, but within a smaller range and
+without the same abundance. He is a traveller and a cosmopolitan,
+while Dickens is irredeemably Cockney. He is often
+content to criticize or annotate or to preach upon some congenial
+theme, while Dickens would be in the flush of humorous creation.
+His range, it must be remembered, is wide, in most respects a
+good deal wider than his great contemporary&rsquo;s, for he is at once
+novelist, pamphleteer, essayist, historian, critic, and the writer
+of some of the most delicate and sentimental <i>vers d&rsquo;occasion</i>
+in the language.</p>
+
+<p>The absorption of England in itself is shown with exceptional
+force in the case of Thackeray, who was by nature a
+cosmopolitan, yet whose work is so absorbed with the
+structure of English society as to be almost unintelligible
+<span class="sidenote">Charlotte Brontë.</span>
+to foreigners. The exploration of the human heart
+and conscience in relation to the new problems of the time had
+been almost abandoned by the novel since Richardson&rsquo;s time.
+It was for woman to attempt to resolve these questions, and with
+the aid of powerful imagination to propound very different
+conclusions. The conviction of Charlotte Brontë (1816-1855)
+was that the mutual passionate love of one man and one woman
+is sacred and creates a centre of highest life, energy and joy in
+the world. George Eliot (1819-1880), on the other
+<span class="sidenote">George Eliot.</span>
+hand, detected a blind and cruel egoism in all such
+ecstasy of individual passion. It was in the autumn
+of 1847 that <i>Jane Eyre</i> shocked the primness of the coteries by
+the unconcealed ardour of its love passages. Twelve years later
+<i>Adam Bede</i> astonished the world by the intensity of its ethical
+light and shade. The introspective novel was now very gradually
+to establish a supremacy over the historical. The romance of the
+Brontës&rsquo; forlorn life colours <i>Jane Eyre</i>, colours <i>Wuthering
+Heights</i> and colours <i>Villette</i>; their work is inseparable from their
+story to an extent that we perhaps hardly realize. George
+Eliot did not receive this adventitious aid from romance, and
+her work was, perhaps, unduly burdened by ethical diatribe,
+scientific disquisition and moral and philosophical asides. It
+is more than redeemed, however, by her sovereign humour, by
+the actual truth in the portrayal of that absolutely self-centred
+Midland society of the &rsquo;thirties and &rsquo;forties, and by the moral
+significance which she extracts from the smaller actions and
+more ordinary characters of life by means of sympathy, imagination
+and a deep human compassion. Her novels are generally
+admitted to have obtained twin summits in <i>Adam Bede</i> (1859)
+and <i>Middlemarch</i> (1872). An even nicer delineator of the most
+delicate shades of the curiously remote provincial society of
+that day was Mrs Gaskell (1810-1865), whose <i>Cranford</i> and
+<i>Wives and Daughters</i> attain to the perfection of easy, natural
+and unaffected English narrative. Enthusiasm and a picturesque
+boyish ardour and partisanship are the chief features of <i>Westward
+Ho!</i> and the other vivid and stirring novels of Charles Kingsley
+(1819-1875), to which a subtler gift in the discrimination of
+character must be added in the case of his brother Henry Kingsley
+<span class="sidenote">Kingsley. Trollope. Reade. Meredith. Hardy.</span>
+(1830-1876). Charles, however, was probably more
+accomplished as a poet than in the to him too exciting
+operation of taking sides in a romance. The novels
+of Trollope, Reade and Wilkie Collins are, generally
+speaking, a secondary product of the literary forces
+which produced the great fiction of the &rsquo;fifties. The two last
+were great at structure and sensation: Trollope dogs the prose
+of every-day life with a certainty and a clearness that border
+upon inspiration. The great novels of George Meredith range
+between 1859 and 1880, stories of characters deeply interesting
+who reveal themselves to us by flashes and trust to our inspiration
+to do the rest. The wit, the sparkle, the entrain and the horizon
+of these books, from <i>Richard Feverel</i> to the master analysis of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span>
+<i>The Egoist</i>, have converted the study of Meredith into an exact
+science. Thomas Hardy occupies a place scarcely inferior to
+Meredith&rsquo;s as a stylist, a discoverer of new elements of the plaintive
+and the wistful in the vanishing of past ideals, as a depicter of
+the old southern rustic life of England and its tragi-comedy, in
+a series of novels which take rank with the greatest.</p>
+
+<p>If Victorian literature had something more than a paragon
+in Dickens, it had its paragon too in the poet Tennyson. The
+son of a Lincolnshire parson of squirearchal descent,
+Alfred Tennyson consecrated himself to the vocation
+<span class="sidenote">Tennyson.</span>
+of poesy with the same unalterable conviction that had characterized
+Milton, Pope, Thomson, Wordsworth and Keats, and that
+was yet to signalize Rossetti and Swinburne, and he became
+easily the greatest virtuoso of his time in his art. To lyrics and
+idylls of a luxurious and exotic picturesqueness he gave a perfection
+of technique which criticism has chastened only to perfect
+in such miracles of description as &ldquo;The Lotus Eaters,&rdquo; &ldquo;The
+Dream of Fair Women,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Morte d&rsquo;Arthur.&rdquo; He received
+as vapour the sense of uneasiness as to the problems of the
+future which pervaded his generation, and in the elegies and
+lyrics of <i>In Memoriam</i>, in <i>The Princess</i> and in <i>Maud</i> he gave
+them back to his contemporaries in a running stream, which
+still sparkles and radiates amid the gloom. After the lyrical
+monodrama of <i>Maud</i> in 1855 he devoted his flawless technique
+of design, harmony and rhythm to works primarily of decoration
+and design (<i>The Idylls of the King</i>), and to experiments in metrical
+drama for which the time was not ripe; but his main occupation
+was varied almost to the last by lyrical blossoms such as &ldquo;Frater
+Ave,&rdquo; &ldquo;Roman Virgil,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Crossing the Bar,&rdquo; which, like
+&ldquo;Tears, Idle Tears&rdquo; and &ldquo;O that &rsquo;twere possible,&rdquo; embody the
+aspirations of Flaubert towards a perfected art of language
+shaping as no other verse probably can.</p>
+
+<p>Few, perhaps, would go now to <i>In Memoriam</i> as to an oracle
+for illumination and guidance as many of Queen Victoria&rsquo;s contemporaries
+did, from the Queen herself downwards.
+And yet it will take very long ere its fascination
+<span class="sidenote">Browning.</span>
+fades. In language most musical it rearticulates the gospel
+of Sorrow and Love, and it remains still a pathetic expression
+of emotions, sentiments and truths which, as long as human
+nature remains the same, and as long as calamity, sorrow and
+death are busy in the world, must be always repeating themselves.
+Its power, perhaps, we may feel of this poem and indeed of
+most of Tennyson&rsquo;s poetry, is not quite equal to its charm.
+And if we feel this strongly, we shall regard Robert Browning
+as the typical poet of the Victorian era. His thought has been
+compared to a galvanic battery for the use of spiritual paralytics.
+The grave defect of Browning is that his ideas, however excellent,
+are so seldom completely won; they are left in a twilight, or
+even a darkness more Cimmerian than that to which the worst
+of the virtuosi dedicate their ideas. Similarly, even in his
+&ldquo;Dramatic Romances and Lyrics&rdquo; (1845) or his &ldquo;Men and
+Women&rdquo; (1855) he rarely depicts action, seldom goes further
+than interpreting the mind of man as he approaches action.
+If Dickens may be described as the eye of Victorian literature,
+Tennyson the ear attuned to the subtlest melodies, Swinburne
+the reed to which everything blew to music, Thackeray the velvet
+pulpit-cushion, Eliot the impending brow, and Meredith the
+cerebral dome, then Browning might well be described as the
+active brain itself eternally expounding some point of view
+remote in time and place from its own. Tennyson was ostensibly
+and always a poet in his life and his art, in his blue cloak and
+sombrero, his mind and study alike stored with intaglios of the
+thought of all ages, always sounding and remodelling his verses
+so that they shall attain the maximum of sweetness and symmetry.
+He was a recluse. Browning on the other hand dissembled
+his poethood, successfully disguised his muse under the
+semblance of a stock merchant, was civil to his fellowmen, and
+though nervous with bores, encountered every one he met as if he
+were going to receive more than he could impart. In Tennyson&rsquo;s
+poetry we are always discovering new beauties. In Browning&rsquo;s
+we are finding new blemishes. Why he chose rhythm and metre
+for seven-eighths of his purpose is somewhat of a mystery.
+His protest against the materialistic view of life is, perhaps, a
+more valid one than Tennyson&rsquo;s; he is at pains to show us the
+noble elements valuable in spite of failure to achieve tangible
+success. He realizes that the greater the man, the greater is
+the failure, yet protests unfailingly against the despondent or
+materialist view of life. His nimble appreciation of character
+and motive attracts the attentive curiosity of highly intellectual
+people; but the question recurs with some persistence as to
+whether poetry, after all, was the right medium for the expression
+of these views.</p>
+
+<p>Many of Browning&rsquo;s ideas and fertilizations will, perhaps,
+owing to the difficulty and uncertainty which attaches to their
+form, penetrate the future indirectly as the stimulant
+of other men&rsquo;s work. This is especially the case with
+<span class="sidenote">Ruskin. Morris. Symonds. Pater.</span>
+those remarkable writers who have for the first time
+given the fine arts a considerable place in English
+literature, notably John Ruskin (<i>Modern Painters</i>, 1842, <i>Seven
+Lamps</i>, 1849, <i>Stones of Venice</i>, 1853), William Morris, John
+Addington Symonds and Walter Pater. Browning, it is true,
+shared the discipleship of the first two with Kingsley and Carlyle.
+But Ruskin outlived all discipleships and transcended almost
+all the prose writers of his period in a style the elements of
+emotional power in which still preserve their secret.</p>
+
+<p>More a poet of doubt than either Tennyson or the college
+friend, A.H. Clough, whose loss he lamented in one of the finest
+pastoral elegies of all ages, Matthew Arnold takes
+rank with Tennyson, Browning and Swinburne alone
+<span class="sidenote">Arnold.</span>
+among the Dii Majores of Victorian poetry. He is perhaps a
+disciple of Wordsworth even more than of Goethe, and he finds
+in Nature, described in rarefied though at times intensely beautiful
+phrase, the balm for the unrest of man&rsquo;s unsatisfied yearnings,
+the divorce between soul and intellect, and the sense of contrast
+between the barren toil of man and the magic operancy of nature.
+His most delicate and intimate strains are tinged with melancholy.
+The infinite desire of what might have been, the <i>lacrimae
+rerum</i>, inspires &ldquo;Resignation,&rdquo; one of the finest pieces in his
+volume of 1849 (<i>The Strayed Reveller</i>). In the deeply-sighed
+lines of &ldquo;Dover Beach&rdquo; in 1867 it is associated with his sense
+of the decay of faith. The dreaming garden trees, the full
+moon and the white evening star of the beautiful English-coloured
+<i>Thyrsis</i> evoke the same mood, and render Arnold one of the
+supreme among elegiac poets. But his poetry is the most
+individual in the circle and admits the popular heart never
+for an instant. As a popularizer of Renan and of the view of
+the Bible, not as a talisman but as a literature, and, again, as a
+chastener of his contemporaries by means of the iteration of a
+few telling phrases about philistines, barbarians, sweetness and
+light, sweet reasonableness, high seriousness, Hebraism and
+Hellenism, &ldquo;young lions of the <i>Daily Telegraph</i>,&rdquo; and &ldquo;the
+note of provinciality,&rdquo; Arnold far eclipsed his fame as a poet
+during his lifetime. His crusade of banter against the bad
+civilization of his own class was one of the most audaciously
+successful things of the kind ever accomplished. But all his
+prose theorizing was excessively superficial. In poetry he
+sounded a note which the prose Arnold seemed hopelessly
+unable ever to fathom.</p>
+
+<p>It is easier to speak of the virtuoso group who derived their
+first incitement to poetry from Chatterton, Keats and the early
+exotic ballads of Tennyson, far though these yet were
+from attaining the perfection in which they now
+<span class="sidenote">Rossetti.</span>
+appear after half a century of assiduous correction. The chief
+of them were Dante Gabriel Rossetti, his sister Christina, William
+Morris and Algernon Charles Swinburne. The founders of this
+school, which took and acquired the name Pre-Raphaelite, were
+profoundly impressed by the Dante revival and by the study
+of the early Florentine masters. Rossetti himself was an accomplished
+translator from Dante and from Villon. He preferred
+Keats to Shelley because (like himself) he had no philosophy.
+The 18th century was to him as if it had never been, he dislikes
+Greek lucidity and the open air, and prefers lean medieval saints,
+spectral images and mystic loves. The passion of these students
+was retrospective; they wanted to revive the literature of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span>
+forgotten past, Italian, Scandinavian, French, above all, medieval.
+To do this is a question of enthusiastic experiment and adventure.
+Rossetti leads the way with his sonnets and ballads. Christina
+follows with <i>Goblin Market</i>, though she subsequently, with a
+perfected technique, writes poetry more and more confined to the
+religious emotions. William Morris publishes in 1858 his <i>Defence
+of Guenevere</i>, followed in ten years by <i>The Earthly Paradise</i>,
+a collection of metrical tales, which hang in the sunshine like
+tapestries woven of golden thread, where we should naturally
+expect the ordinary paperhanging of prose romance.</p>
+
+<p>From the verdurous gloom of the studio with its mysterious
+and occult properties in which Rossetti compounded his colours,
+Morris went forth shortly to chant and then to narrate
+Socialist songs and parables. Algernon Charles
+<span class="sidenote">Swinburne.</span>
+Swinburne set forth to scandalize the critics of 1866
+with the roses and lilies of vice and white death in <i>Poems and
+Ballads</i>, which was greeted with howls and hisses, and reproach
+against a &ldquo;fleshly school of modern poetry.&rdquo; Scandalous
+verses these were, rioting on the crests of some of these billows
+of song. More discerning persons perceived the harmless impersonal
+unreality and mischievous youthful extravagance
+of all these Cyprian outbursts, that the poems were the outpourings
+of a young singer up to the chin in the Pierian flood,
+and possessed by a poetic energy so urgent that it could not
+wait to apply the touchstones of reality or the chastening
+planes of experience. Swinburne far surpassed the promoters
+of this exotic school in technical excellence, and in <i>Atalanta in
+Calydon</i> and its successors may be said to have widened the
+bounds of English song, to have created a new music and liberated
+a new harmonic scale in his verse. Of the two elements which,
+superadded to a consummate technique, compose the great poet,
+intensity of imagination and intensity of passion, the latter
+in Swinburne much predominated. The result was a great
+abundance of heat and glow and not perhaps quite enough
+defining light. Hence the tendency to be incomprehensible,
+so fatal in its fascination for the poets of the last century, which
+would almost justify the title of the triumvirs of twilight to three
+of the greatest. It is this incomprehensibility which alienates
+the poet from the popular understanding and confines his
+audience to poets, students and scholars. Poetry is often
+comparable to a mountain range with its points and aiguilles,
+its peaks and crags, its domes and its summits. But Swinburne&rsquo;s
+poetry, filled with the sound and movement of great waters,
+is as incommunicable as the sea. Trackless and almost boundless,
+it has no points, no definite summits. The poet never seems to
+know precisely when he is going to stop. His metrical flow is
+wave-like, beautiful and rather monotonous, inseparable from
+the general effect. His endings seem due to an exhaustion of
+rhythm rather than to an exhaustion of sense. A cessation of
+meaning is less perceptible than a cessation of magnificent sound.</p>
+
+<p>Akin in some sense to the attempt made to get behind the veil
+and to recapture the old charms and spells of the middle ages,
+to discover the open sesame of the <i>Morte D&rsquo;Arthur</i>
+and the <i>Mabinogion</i> and to reveal the old Celtic and
+<span class="sidenote">Newman and the Church.</span>
+monastic life which once filled and dominated our
+islands, was the attempt to overthrow the twin gods
+of the &rsquo;forties and &rsquo;fifties, state-Protestantism and the sanctity
+of trade. The curiously assorted Saint Georges who fought these
+monsters were John Henry Newman and Thomas Carlyle. The
+first cause of the movement was, of course, the anomalous
+position of the Anglican Church, which had become a province
+of the oligarchy officered by younger sons. It stood apart from
+foreign Protestantism; its ignorance of Rome, and consequently
+of what it protested against, was colossal; it was conscious of
+itself only as an establishment&mdash;it had produced some very
+great men since the days of the non-jurors, when it had mislaid
+its historical conscience, but these had either been great scholars
+in their studies, such as Berkeley, Butler, Warburton, Thomas
+Scott, or revivalists, evangelicals and missionaries, such as
+Wilson, Wesley, Newton, Romaine, Cecil, Venn, Martyn, who
+were essentially Congregationalists rather than historical
+Churchmen.  A new spiritual beacon was to be raised; an
+attempt was to be made to realize the historical and cosmic
+aspects of the English Church, to examine its connexions, its
+descent and its title-deeds. In this attempt Newman was to
+spend the best years of his life.</p>
+
+<p>The growth of liberal opinions and the denudation of the
+English Church of spiritual and historical ideas, leaving &ldquo;only
+pulpit orators at Clapham and Islington and two-bottle orthodox&rdquo;
+to defend it, seemed to involve the continued existence of
+Anglicanism in any form in considerable doubt. Swift had said
+at the commencement of the 18th century that if an act was
+passed for the extirpation of the gospel, bank stock might decline
+1%; but a century later it is doubtful whether the passing of
+such a bill would have left any trace, however evanescent,
+upon the stability of the money market. The Anglican <i>via
+media</i> had enemies not only in the philosophical radicals, but
+also in the new caste of men of science. Perhaps, as J.A. Froude
+suggests, these combined enemies, <i>The Edinburgh Review</i>,
+Brougham, Mackintosh, the Reform Ministry, Low Church
+philosophy and the London University were not so very terrible
+after all. The Church was a vested interest which had a greater
+stake in the country and was harder to eradicate than they
+imagined. But it had nothing to give to the historian and the
+idealist. They were right to fight for what their souls craved
+after and found in the Church of Andrewes, Herbert, Ken and
+Waterland. Belief in the divine mission of the Church lingered
+on in the minds of such men as Alexander Knox or his disciple
+Bishop Jebb; but few were prepared to answer the question&mdash;&ldquo;What
+is the Church as spoken of in England? Is it the
+Church of Christ?&rdquo;&mdash;and the answers were various. Hooker
+had said it was &ldquo;the nation&rdquo;; and in entirely altered circumstances,
+with some qualifications, Dr Arnold said the same.
+It was &ldquo;the Establishment&rdquo; according to the lawyers and
+politicians, both Whig and Tory. It was an invisible and
+mystical body, said the Evangelicals. It was the aggregate of
+separate congregations, said the Nonconformists. It was the
+parliamentary creation of the Reformation, said the Erastians.
+The true Church was the communion of the Pope; the pretended
+Church was a legalized schism, said the Roman Catholics. All
+these ideas were floating about, loose and vague, among people
+who talked much about the Church.</p>
+
+<p>One thing was persistently obvious, namely, that the nationalist
+church had become opportunist in every fibre, and that it had
+thrown off almost every semblance of ecclesiastical discipline.
+The view was circulated that the Church owed its continued
+existence to the good sense of the individuals who officered it,
+and to the esteem which possession and good sense combined
+invariably engendered in the reigning oligarchy. But since
+Christianity was true&mdash;and Newman was the one man of modern
+times who seems never to have doubted this, never to have
+overlooked the unmistakable threat of eternal punishment
+to the wicked and unbelieving&mdash;modern England, with its
+march of intellect and its chatter about progress, was advancing
+with a light heart to the verge of a bottomless abyss. By a
+diametrically opposite chain of reasoning Newman reached
+much the same conclusion as Carlyle. Newman sought a haven
+of security in a rapprochement with the Catholic Church. The
+medieval influences already at work in Oxford began to fan the
+flame which kindled to a blaze in the ninetieth of the celebrated
+<i>Tracts for the Times</i>. It proved the turning of the ways leading
+Keble and Pusey to Anglican ritual and Newman to Rome.
+This anti-liberal campaign was poison to the state-churchmen
+and Protestants, and became perhaps the chief intellectual
+storm centre of the century. Charles Kingsley in 1864 sought to
+illustrate by recent events that veracity could not be considered
+a Roman virtue.</p>
+
+<p>After some preliminary ironic sparring Newman was stung
+into writing what he deliberately called <i>Apologia pro vita sua</i>.
+In this, apart from the masterly dialectic and exposition
+in which he had already shown himself an adept, a
+<span class="sidenote">Scientific cross-currents.</span>
+volume of autobiography is made a chapter of general
+history, unsurpassed in its kind since the <i>Confessions</i>
+of St Augustine, combined with a perfection of form, a precision
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span>
+of phrasing and a charm of style peculiar to the genius of the
+author, rendering it one of the masterpieces of English prose.
+But while Newman was thus sounding a retreat, louder and
+more urgent voices were signalling the advance in a totally
+opposite direction. The <i>Apologia</i> fell in point of time between
+<i>The Origin of Species</i> and <i>Descent of Man</i>, in which Charles Darwin
+was laying the corner stones of the new science of which Thomas
+Huxley and Alfred Russel Wallace were to be among the first
+apostles, and almost coincided with the <i>First Principles</i> of a
+synthetic philosophy, in which Herbert Spencer was formulating
+a set of probabilities wholly destructive to the acceptance of
+positive truth in any one religion. The typical historian of the
+<span class="sidenote">Macaulay.</span>
+&rsquo;fifties, Thomas Babington Macaulay, and the seminal
+thinker of the &rsquo;sixties, John Stuart Mill, had as determinedly
+averted their faces from the old conception of revealed
+religion. Nourished in the school of the great Whig pamphleteer
+historians, George Grote and Henry Hallam, Macaulay combined
+gifts of memory, enthusiastic conviction, portraiture and literary
+expression, which gave to his historical writing a resonance
+unequalled (even by Michelet) in modern literature. In spite of
+faults of taste and fairness, Macaulay&rsquo;s resplendent gifts enabled
+him to achieve for the period from Charles II. to the peace of
+Ryswick what Thucydides had done for the Peloponnesian War.
+The pictures that he drew with such exultant force are stamped
+ineffaceably upon the popular mind. His chief faults are not of
+detail, but rather a lack of subtlety as regards characterization
+and motive, a disposition to envisage history too exclusively
+as a politician, and the sequence of historical events as a kind of
+ordered progress towards the material ideals of universal trade
+and Whig optimism as revealed in the Great Exhibition of 1851.</p>
+
+<p>Macaulay&rsquo;s tendency to disparage the past brought his whole
+vision of the Cosmos into sharp collision with that of his rival
+appellant to the historical conscience, Thomas Carlyle,
+a man whose despair of the present easily exceeded
+<span class="sidenote">Carlyle.</span>
+Newman&rsquo;s. But Carlyle&rsquo;s despondency was totally irrespective
+of the attitude preserved by England towards the Holy Father,
+whom he seldom referred to save as &ldquo;the three-hatted Papa&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;servant of the devil.&rdquo; It may be in fact almost regarded
+as the reverse or complement to the excess of self-complacency
+in Macaulay. We may correct the excess of one by the opposite
+excess of the other. Macaulay was an optimist in ecstasy with
+the material advance of his time in knowledge and power; the
+growth of national wealth, machinery and means of lighting and
+locomotion caused him to glow with satisfaction. Carlyle, the
+pessimist, regards all such symptoms of mechanical development
+as contemptible. Far from panegyrizing his own time, he criticizes
+it without mercy. Macaulay had great faith in rules and regulations,
+reform bills and parliamentary machinery. Carlyle
+regards them as wiles of the devil. Frederick William of Prussia,
+according to Macaulay, was the most execrable of fiends, a
+cross between Moloch and Puck, his palace was hell, and Oliver
+Twist and Smike were petted children compared with his son
+the crown prince. In the same bluff and honest father Carlyle
+recognized the realized ideal of his fancy and hugged the just
+man made perfect to his heart of hearts. Such men as Bentham
+and Cobden, Mill and Macaulay, had in Carlyle&rsquo;s opinion spared
+themselves no mistaken exertion to exalt the prosperity and
+happiness of their own day. The time had come to react at all
+hazards against the prevalent surfeit of civilization. Henceforth
+his literary activity was to take two main directions. First,
+tracts for the times against modern tendencies, especially against
+the demoralizing modern talk about progress by means of money
+and machinery which emanated like a miasma from the writings
+of such men as Mill, Macaulay, Brougham, Buckle and from the
+Quarterlies. Secondly, a cyclopean exhibition of Caesarism,
+discipline, the regimentation of workers, and the convertibility
+of the Big Stick and the Bible, with a preference to the Big Stick
+as a panacea. The snowball was to grow rapidly among such
+writers as Kingsley, Ruskin, George Borrow, unencumbered by
+reasoning or deductive processes which they despised. Carlyle
+himself felt that the condition of England was one for anger
+rather than discussion. He detested the rationalism and symmetry
+of such methodists of thought as Mill, Buckle, Darwin,
+Spencer, Lecky, Ricardo and other demonstrations of the dismal
+science&mdash;mere chatter he called it. The palliative philanthropy
+of the day had become his aversion even more than the inroads
+of Rome under cover of the Oxford movement which Froude,
+Borrow and Kingsley set themselves to correct. As an historian
+of a formal order Carlyle&rsquo;s historical portraits cannot bear a
+strict comparison with the published work of Gibbon and
+Macaulay, or even of Maine and Froude in this period, but as a
+biographer and autobiographer Carlyle&rsquo;s caustic insight has
+enabled him to produce much which is of the very stuff of human
+nature. Surrounded by philomaths and savants who wrote
+smoothly about the perfectibility of man and his institutions,
+Carlyle almost alone refused to distil his angry eloquence and
+went on railing against the passive growth of civilization at the
+heart of which he declared that he had discovered a cancer.
+This uncouth Titan worship and prostration before brute force,
+this constant ranting about jarls and vikings trembles often on
+the verge of cant and comedy, and his fiddling on the one string
+of human pretension and bankruptcy became discordant almost
+to the point of chaos. Instinctively destructive, he resents the
+apostleship of teachers like Mill, or the pioneer discoveries of
+men like Herbert Spencer and Darwin. He remains, nevertheless,
+a great incalculable figure, the cross grandfather of a school of
+thought which is largely unconscious of its debt and which so
+far as it recognizes it takes Carlyle in a manner wholly different
+from that of his contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>The deaths of Carlyle and George Eliot (and also of George
+Borrow) in 1881 make a starting-point for the new schools of
+historians, novelists, critics and biographers, and
+<span class="sidenote">New schools.</span>
+those new nature students who claim to cure those
+evil effects of civilization which Carlyle and his
+disciples had discovered. History in the hands of Macaulay,
+Buckle and Carlyle had been occupied mainly with the bias and
+tendency of change, the results obtained by those who consulted
+the oracle being more often than not diametrically opposite.
+With Froude still on the one hand as the champion of
+<span class="sidenote">History.</span>
+Protestantism, and with E.A. Freeman and J.R.
+Green on the other as nationalist historians, the school of applied
+history was fully represented in the next generation, but as the
+records grew and multiplied in print in accordance with the wise
+provisions made in 1857 by the commencement of the Rolls
+Series of medieval historians, and the Calendars of State Papers,
+to be followed shortly by the rapidly growing volumes of Calendars
+of Historical Manuscripts, historians began to concentrate their
+attention more upon the process of change as their right subject
+matter and to rely more and more upon documents, statistics
+and other impersonal and disinterested forms of material. Such
+historical writers as Lecky, Lord Acton, Creighton, Morley and
+Bryce contributed to the process of transition mainly as essayists,
+but the new doctrines were tested and to a certain extent put
+into action by such writers as Thorold Rogers, Stubbs, Gardiner
+and Maitland. The theory that History is a science, no less and
+no more, was propounded in so many words by Professor Bury
+in his inaugural lecture at Cambridge in 1903, and this view and
+the corresponding divergence of history from the traditional
+pathway of Belles Lettres has become steadily more dominant
+in the world of historical research and historical writing since
+1881. The bulk of quite modern historical writing can certainly
+be justified from no other point of view.</p>
+
+<p>The novel since 1881 has pursued a course curiously analogous
+to that of historical writing. Supported as it was by masters
+of the old régime such as Meredith and Hardy, and by
+those who then ranked even higher in popular esteem
+<span class="sidenote">The novel.</span>
+such as Wilkie Collins, Anthony Trollope, Besant and Rice,
+Blackmore, William Black and a monstrous rising regiment of
+lady novelists&mdash;Mrs Lynn Linton, Rhoda Broughton, Mrs Henry
+Wood, Miss Braddon, Mrs Humphry Ward, the type seemed
+securely anchored to the old formulas and the old ways. In
+reality, however, many of these popular workers were already
+moribund and the novel was being honeycombed by French
+influence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span></p>
+
+<p>This is perceptible in Hardy, but may be traced with greater
+distinctness in the best work of George Gissing, George Moore,
+Mark Rutherford, and later on of H.G. Wells, Arnold Bennett
+and John Galsworthy. The old novelists had left behind them
+a giant&rsquo;s robe. Intellectually giants, Dickens and Thackeray
+were equally gigantic spendthrifts. They worked in a state of
+fervent heat above a glowing furnace, into which they flung
+lavish masses of unshaped metal, caring little for immediate effect
+or minute dexterity of stroke, but knowing full well that the
+emotional energy of their temperaments was capable of fusing
+the most intractable material, and that in the end they would
+produce their great downright effect. Their spirits rose and fell,
+but the case was desperate; copy had to be despatched at once
+or the current serial would collapse. Good and bad had to make
+up the tale against time, and revelling in the very exuberance
+and excess of their humour, the novelists invariably triumphed.
+It was incumbent on the new school of novelists to economize
+their work with more skill, to relieve their composition of
+irrelevancies, to keep the writing in one key, and to direct it
+consistently to one end&mdash;in brief, to unify the novel as a work
+of art and to simplify its ordonnance.</p>
+
+<p>The novel, thus lightened and sharpened, was conquering new
+fields. The novel of the &rsquo;sixties remained not, perhaps, to win
+many new triumphs, but a very popular instrument in the hands
+of those who performed variations on the old masters, and much
+later in the hands of Mr William de Morgan, showing a new
+force and quiet power of its own. The novel, however, was
+ramifying in other directions in a way full of promise for the
+future. A young Edinburgh student, Robert Louis Stevenson,
+had inherited much of the spirit of the Pre-Raphaelitic virtuosos,
+and combined with their passion for the romance of the historic
+past a curiosity fully as strong about the secrets of romantic
+technique. A coterie which he formed with W.E. Henley and his
+cousin R.A.M. Stevenson studied words as a young art student
+studies paints, and made studies for portraits of buccaneers with
+the same minute drudgery that Rossetti had studied a wall or
+Morris a piece of figured tapestry. While thus forming a new
+romantic school whose work when wrought by his methods should
+be fit to be grafted upon the picturesque historic fiction of Scott
+and Dumas, Stevenson was also naturalizing the short story of
+the modern French type upon English ground. In this particular
+field he was eclipsed by Rudyard Kipling, who, though less
+original as a man of letters, had a technical vocabulary and
+descriptive power far in advance of Stevenson&rsquo;s, and was able in
+addition to give his writing an exotic quality derived from
+Oriental colouring. This regional type of writing has since been
+widely imitated, and the novel has simultaneously developed in
+many other ways, of which perhaps the most significant is the
+psychological study as manipulated severally by Shorthouse,
+Mallock and Henry James.</p>
+
+<p>The expansion of criticism in the same thirty years was not a
+whit less marked than the vast divagation of the novel. In
+the early &rsquo;eighties it was still tongue-bound by the
+hypnotic influence of one or two copy-book formulae&mdash;Arnold&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Criticism.</span>
+&ldquo;criticism of life&rdquo; as a definition of poetry, and Walter
+Pater&rsquo;s implied doctrine of art for art&rsquo;s sake. That two dicta
+so manifestly absurd should have cast such an augur-like spell
+upon the free expression of opinion, though it may of course,
+like all such instances, be easily exaggerated, is nevertheless a
+curious example of the enslavement of ideas by a confident claptrap.
+A few representatives of the old schools of motived or
+scientific criticism, deduced from the literatures of past time,
+survived the new century in Leslie Stephen, Saintsbury, Stopford
+Brooke, Austin Dobson, Courthope, Sidney Colvin, Watts-Dunton;
+but their agreement is certainly not greater than among
+the large class of emancipated who endeavour to concentrate the
+attention of others without further ado upon those branches of
+literature which they find most nutritive. Among the finest
+appreciators of this period have been Pattison and Jebb, Myers,
+Hutton, Dowden, A.C. Bradley, William Archer, Richard
+Garnett, E. Gosse and Andrew Lang. Birrell, Walkley and Max
+Beerbohm have followed rather in the wake of the Stephens and
+Bagehot, who have criticized the sufficiency of the titles made
+out by the more enthusiastic and lyrical eulogists. In Arthur
+Symons, Walter Raleigh and G.K. Chesterton the new age
+possessed critics of great originality and power, the work of
+the last two of whom is concentrated upon the application of
+ideas about life at large to the conceptions of literature. In
+exposing palpable nonsense as such, no one perhaps did better
+service in criticism than the veteran Frederic Harrison.</p>
+
+<p>In the cognate work of memoir and essay, the way for which
+has been greatly smoothed by co-operative lexicographical
+efforts such as the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, the <i>New
+English Dictionary</i>, the <i>Victoria County History</i> and the like,
+some of the most dexterous and permeating work of the transition
+from the old century to the new was done by H.D. Traill, Gosse,
+Lang, Mackail, E.V. Lucas, Lowes Dickinson, Richard le
+Gallienne, A.C. Benson, Hilaire Belloc, while the open-air
+relief work for dwellers pent in great cities, pioneered by Gilbert
+White, has been expanded with all the zest and charm that a
+novel pursuit can endow by such writers as Richard Jefferies,
+an open-air and nature mystic of extraordinary power at his best,
+Selous, Seton Thompson, W.H. Hudson.</p>
+
+<p>The age has not been particularly well attuned to the efforts
+of the newer poets since Coventry Patmore in the <i>Angel in the
+House</i> achieved embroidery, often extremely beautiful,
+upon the Tennysonian pattern, and since Edward
+<span class="sidenote">Poetry.</span>
+FitzGerald, the first of all letter-writing commentators on life
+and letters since Lamb, gave a new cult to the decadent century
+in his version of the Persian centoist Omar Khayyam. The
+prizes which in Moore&rsquo;s day were all for verse have now been
+transferred to the prose novel and the play, and the poets themselves
+have played into the hands of the Philistines by disdaining
+popularity in a fond preference for virtuosity and obscurity.
+Most kinds of the older verse, however, have been well represented,
+descriptive and elegiac poetry in particular by Robert
+Bridges and William Watson; the music of the waters of the
+western sea and its isles by W.B. Yeats, Synge, Moira O&rsquo;Neill,
+&ldquo;Fiona Macleod&rdquo; and an increasing group of Celtic bards; the
+highly wrought verse of the 17th-century lyrists by Francis
+Thompson, Lionel Johnson, Ernest Dowson; the simplicity of a
+more popular strain by W.H. Davies, of a brilliant rhetoric by
+John Davidson, and of a more intimate romance by Sturge
+Moore and Walter de la Mare. Light verse has never, perhaps,
+been represented more effectively since Praed and Calverley
+and Lewis Carroll than by Austin Dobson, Locker Lampson,
+W.S. Gilbert and Owen Seaman. The names of C.M. Doughty,
+Alfred Noyes, Herbert Trench and Laurence Binyon were also
+becoming prominent at the opening of the 20th century. For
+originality in form and substance the palm rests in all probability
+with A.E. Housman, whose <i>Shropshire Lad</i> opens new avenues
+and issues, and with W.E. Henley, whose town and hospital
+poems had a poignant as well as an ennobling strain. The work
+of Henry Newbolt, Mrs. Meynell and Stephen Phillips showed
+a real poetic gift. Above all these, however, in the esteem of
+many reign the verses of George Meredith and of Thomas Hardy,
+whose <i>Dynasts</i> was widely regarded by the best judges as the
+most remarkable literary production of the new century.</p>
+
+<p>The new printed and acted drama dates almost entirely from
+the late &rsquo;eighties. Tom Robertson in the &rsquo;seventies printed
+nothing, and his plays were at most a timid recognition
+of the claims of the drama to represent reality and
+<span class="sidenote">Drama.</span>
+truth. The enormous superiority of the French drama as
+represented by Augier, Dumas <i>fils</i> and Sardou began to dawn
+slowly upon the English consciousness. Then in the &rsquo;eighties
+came Ibsen, whose daring in handling actuality was only equalled
+by his intrepid stage-craft. Oscar Wilde and A.W. Pinero were
+the first to discover how the spirit of these new discoveries might
+be adapted to the English stage. Gilbert Murray, with his
+fascinating and tantalizing versions from Euripides, gave a new
+flexibility to the expansion that was going on in English dramatic
+ideas. Bernard Shaw and his disciples, conspicuous among them
+Granville Barker, gave a new seasoning of wit to the absolute
+novelties of subject, treatment and application with which they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span>
+transfixed the public which had so long abandoned thought
+upon entering the theatre. This new adventure enjoyed a
+<i>succès de stupeur</i>, the precise range of which can hardly be
+estimated, and the force of which is clearly by no means spent.</p>
+
+<p>English literature in the 20th century still preserves some of
+the old arrangements and some of the consecrated phrases of
+patronage and aristocracy; but the circumstances
+of its production were profoundly changed during the
+<span class="sidenote">20th-century changes.</span>
+19th century. By 1895 English literature had become
+a subject of regular instruction for a special degree at
+most of the universities, both in England and America. This
+has begun to lead to research embodied in investigations which
+show that what were regarded as facts in connexion with the
+earlier literature can be regarded so no longer. It has also brought
+comparative and historical treatment of a closer kind and on
+a larger scale to bear upon the evolution of literary types. On
+the other hand it has concentrated an excessive attention perhaps
+upon the grammar and prosody and etymology of literature, it
+has stereotyped the admiration of lifeless and obsolete forms, and
+has substituted antiquarian notes and ready-made commentary
+for that live enjoyment, which is essentially individual and which
+tends insensibly to evaporate from all literature as soon as the
+circumstance of it changes. It is prone, moreover, to force upon
+the immature mind a rapt admiration for the mirror before ever
+it has scanned the face of the original. A result due rather to
+the general educational agencies of the time is that, while in the
+middle of the 19th century one man could be found to write
+competently on a given subject, in 1910 there were fifty. Books
+and apparatus for reading have multiplied in proportion. The
+fact of a book having been done quite well in a certain way is
+no longer any bar whatever to its being done again without
+hesitation in the same way. This continual pouring of ink from
+one bottle into another is calculated gradually to raise the
+standard of all subaltern writing and compiling, and to leave
+fewer and fewer books securely rooted in a universal recognition
+of their intrinsic excellence, power and idiosyncrasy or personal
+charm. Even then, of what we consider first-rate in the 19th
+century, for instance, but a very small residuum can possibly
+survive. The one characteristic that seems likely to cling and
+to differentiate this voluble century is its curious reticence, of
+which the 20th century has already made uncommonly short
+work. The new playwrights have untaught England a shyness
+which came in about the time of Southey, Wordsworth and Sir
+Walter Scott. That the best literature has survived hitherto
+is at best a pious opinion. As the area of experience grows it is
+more and more difficult to circumscribe or even to describe the
+supreme best, and such attempts have always been responsible
+for base superstition. It is clear that some limitation of the
+literary stock-in-trade will become increasingly urgent as time
+goes on, and the question may well occur as to whether we are
+insuring the right baggage. The enormous apparatus of literature
+at the present time is suitable only to a peculiar phasis and manner
+of existence. Some hold to the innate and essential aristocracy
+of literature; others that it is bound to develop on the popular
+and communistic side, for that at present, like machinery and
+other deceptive benefits, it is a luxury almost exclusively
+advantageous to the rich. But to predict the direction of change
+in literature is even more futile than to predict the direction of
+change in human history, for of all factors of history, literature,
+if one of the most permanent, is also one of the least calculable.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliographical Note.</span>&mdash;<i>The Age of Wordsworth</i> and <i>The Age
+of Tennyson</i> in Bell&rsquo;s &ldquo;Handbooks of English Literature&rdquo; are of
+special value for this period. Prof. Dowden&rsquo;s and Prof. Saintsbury&rsquo;s
+19th-century studies fill in interstices; and of the &ldquo;Periods of
+European Literature,&rdquo; the <i>Romantic Revolt</i> and <i>Romantic Triumph</i>
+are pertinent, as are the literary chapters in vols. x. and xi. of the
+<i>Cambridge Modern History</i>. Of more specific books George Brandes&rsquo;s
+<i>Literary Currents of the Nineteenth Century</i>, Stedman&rsquo;s <i>Victorian
+Poets</i>, Holman Hunt&rsquo;s <i>Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood</i>, R.H. Hutton&rsquo;s
+<i>Contemporary Thought</i> (and companion volumes), Sir Leslie Stephen&rsquo;s
+<i>The Utilitarians</i>, Buxton Forman&rsquo;s <i>Our Living Poets</i>, Dawson&rsquo;s
+<i>Victorian Novelists</i>, Thureau-Dangin&rsquo;s <i>Renaissance des idées catholiques
+en Angleterre</i>, A. Chevrillon&rsquo;s <i>Sydney Smith et la renaissance
+des idées libérales en Angleterre</i>, A.W. Benn&rsquo;s <i>History of English
+Thought in the Nineteenth Century</i>, the publishing histories of Murray,
+Blackwood, Macvey Napier, Lockhart, &amp;c., J.M. Robertson&rsquo;s
+<i>Modern Humanists</i>, and the critical miscellanies of Lord Morley,
+Frederic Harrison, W. Bagehot, A. Birrell, Andrew Lang and E.
+Gosse, will be found, in their several degrees, illuminating. The chief
+literary lives are those of Scott by Lockhart, Carlyle by Froude,
+Macaulay by Trevelyan, Dickens by Forster and Charlotte Brontë
+by Mrs Gaskell.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. Se.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Piers Plowman</i> has been so long attributed as a whole to Langland
+(<i>q.v.</i>), that in spite of modern analytical criticism it is most
+conveniently discussed under that name.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENGLISHRY<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (<i>Englescherie</i>), a legal name given, in the reign
+of William the Conqueror, to the presentment of the fact that
+a person slain was an Englishman. If an unknown man was
+found slain, he was presumed to be a Norman, and the hundred
+was fined accordingly, unless it could be proved that he was
+English. Englishry, if established, excused the hundred. Dr
+W. Stubbs (<i>Constitutional History</i>, i. 196) says that possibly
+similar measures were taken by King Canute. Englishry was
+abolished in 1340.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Select Cases from the Coroners&rsquo; Rolls, 1265-1413</i>, ed. C. Gross,
+Selden Society (London, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENGRAVING,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> the process or result of the action implied by
+the verb &ldquo;to engrave&rdquo; or mark by incision, the marks (whether
+for inscriptive, pictorial or decorative purposes) being produced,
+not by simply staining or discolouring the material (as with paint,
+pen or pencil), but by cutting into or otherwise removing a portion
+of the substance. In the case of pictures, the engraved surface is
+reproduced by printing; but this is only one restricted sense
+of &ldquo;engraving,&rdquo; since the term includes seal-engraving (where
+a cast is taken), and also the chased ornamentation of plate or
+gems, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The word itself is derived from an O. Fr. <i>engraver</i> (not to be
+confused with the same modern French word used for the running
+of a boat&rsquo;s keel into the beach, or for the sticking of a cart&rsquo;s
+wheels in the mud,&mdash;from <i>grève</i>, Provençal <i>grava</i>, sands of the
+sea or river shore; cf. Eng. &ldquo;gravel&rdquo;); it was at one time
+supposed that the Gr. <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to write, was etymologically
+connected, but this view is not now accepted, and (together
+with &ldquo;grave,&rdquo; meaning either to engrave, or the place where
+the dead are buried) the derivation is referred to a common
+Teutonic form signifying &ldquo;to dig&rdquo; (O. Eng. <i>grafan</i>, Ger. <i>graben</i>).
+The modern French <i>graver</i>, to engrave, is a later adoption. The
+idea of a furrow, by digging or cutting, is thus historically
+associated with an engraving, which may properly include the
+rudest marks cut into any substance. In old English literature
+it included carving and sculpture, from which it has become
+convenient to differentiate the terminology; and the ancients
+who chiselled their writing on slabs of stone were really &ldquo;engraving.&rdquo;
+The word is not applicable, therefore, either strictly
+to lithography (<i>q.v.</i>), nor to any of the photographic processes
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Process</a></span>), except those in which the surface of the plate is
+actually eaten into or lowered. In the latter case, too, it is
+convenient to mark a distinction and to ignore the strict analogy.
+In modern times the term is, therefore, practically restricted&mdash;outside
+the spheres of gem-engraving and seal-engraving (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gem</a></span>), or the inscribing or ornamenting of stone, plate, glass,
+&amp;c.&mdash;to the art of making original pictures (<i>i.e.</i> by the
+draughtsman himself, whether copies of an original painting
+or not), either by incised lines on metal plates (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Line-Engraving</a></span>),
+or by the corrosion of the lines with acid (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Etching</a></span>), or by the roughening of a metal surface without
+actual lines (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mezzotint</a></span>), or by cutting a wood surface away
+so as to leave lines in relief (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wood-Engraving</a></span>); the result
+in each case may be called generically an engraving, and in
+common parlance the term is applied, though incorrectly, to
+the printed reproduction or &ldquo;print.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Of these four varieties of engraving&mdash;line-engraving, etching,
+mezzotint or wood-engraving&mdash;the woodcut is historically the
+earliest. Line-engraving is now practically obsolete, while
+etching and mezzotint have recently come more and more to
+the front. To the draughtsman the difference in technical
+handling in each case has in most cases some relation to his own
+artistic impulse, and to his own feeling for beauty. A line
+engraver, as P.G. Hamerton said, will not see or think like an
+etcher, nor an etcher like an engraver in mezzotint. Each kind,
+with its own sub-varieties, has its peculiar effect and attraction.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span>
+A real knowledge of engraving can only be attained by a careful
+study and comparison of the prints themselves, or of accurate
+facsimiles, so that books are of little use except as guides to
+prints when the reader happens to be unaware of their existence,
+or else for their explanation of technical processes. The value
+of the prints varies not only according to the artist, but also
+according to the fineness of the impression, and the &ldquo;state&rdquo;
+(or stage) in the making of the plate, which may be altered from
+time to time. &ldquo;Proofs&rdquo; may also be taken from the plate, and
+even touched up by the artist, in various stages and various
+degrees of fineness of impression.</p>
+
+<p>The department of art-literature which classifies prints is
+called <i>Iconography</i>, and the classifications adopted by iconographers
+are of the most various kinds. For example, if a complete
+book were written on Shakespearian iconography it would
+contain full information about all prints illustrating the life and
+works of Shakespeare, and in the same way there may be the
+iconography of a locality or of a single event.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The history of engraving is a part of iconography, and various
+histories of the art exist in different languages. In England W.Y.
+Ottley wrote an <i>Early History of Engraving</i>, published in two volumes
+4to (1816), and began what was intended to be a series of notices
+on engravers and their works. The facilities for the reproduction of
+engravings by the photographic processes have of late years given
+an impetus to iconography. One of the best modern writers on the
+subject was Georges Duplessis, the keeper of prints in the national
+library of France. He wrote a <i>History of Engraving in France</i> (1888),
+and published many notices of engravers to accompany the reproductions
+by M. Amand Durand. He is also the author of a useful
+little manual entitled <i>Les Merveilles de la gravure</i> (1871). Jansen&rsquo;s
+work on the origin of wood and plate engraving, and on the knowledge
+of prints of the 15th and 16th centuries, was published at Paris
+in two volumes 8vo in 1808. Among general works see Adam
+Bartsch, <i>Le Peintre-graveur</i> (1803-1843); J.D. Passavant, <i>Le
+Peintre-graveur</i> (1860-1864); P.G. Hamerton, <i>Graphic Arts</i> (1882);
+William Gilpin, <i>Essay on Prints</i> (1781); J. Maberly, <i>The Print
+Collector</i> (1844); W.H. Wiltshire, <i>Introduction to the Study and
+Collection of Ancient Prints</i> (1874); F. Wedmore, <i>Fine Prints</i>
+(1897). See also the lists of works given under the separate headings
+for <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Line-engraving</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Etching</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mezzotint</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wood-engraving</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENGROSSING<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>, a term used in two legal senses: (1) the
+writing or copying of a legal or other document in a fair large
+hand (<i>en gros</i>), and (2) the buying up of goods wholesale in order
+to sell at a higher price so as to establish a monopoly. The
+word &ldquo;engross&rdquo; has come into English ultimately from the
+Late Lat. <i>grossus</i>, thick, stout, large, through the A. Fr. <i>engrosser</i>,
+Med. Lat. <i>ingrossare</i>, to write in a large hand, and the
+French phrase <i>en gros</i>, in gross, wholesale. Engrossing and the
+kindred practices of forestalling and regrating were early regarded
+as serious offences in restraint of trade, and were punishable
+both at common law and by statute. They were of more
+particular importance in relation to the distribution of corn
+supplies. The statute of 1552 defines engrossing as &ldquo;buying
+corn growing, or any other corn, grain, butter, cheese, fish
+or other dead victual, with <i>intent to sell the same again</i>.&rdquo; The
+law forbade all dealing in corn as an article of ordinary merchandise,
+apart from questions of foreign import or export. The
+theory was that when corn was plentiful in any district it should
+be consumed at what it would bring, without much respect
+to whether the next harvest might be equally abundant, or to
+what the immediate wants of an adjoining province of the same
+country might be. The first statute on the subject appears to
+have been passed in the reign of Henry III., though the general
+policy had prevailed before that time both in popular prejudice
+and in the feudal custom. The statute of Edward VI. (1552)
+was the most important, and in it the offences were elaborately
+defined; by this statute any one who bought corn to sell it
+again was made liable to two months&rsquo; imprisonment with
+forfeit of the corn. A second offence was punished by six
+months&rsquo; imprisonment and forfeit of double the value of the corn,
+and a third by the pillory and utter ruin. Severe as this statute
+was, liberty was given by it to transport corn from one part of
+the country under licence to men of approved probity, which
+implied that there was to be some buying of corn to sell it again
+and elsewhere. Practically &ldquo;engrossing&rdquo; came to be considered
+buying wholesale to sell again wholesale. &ldquo;Forestalling&rdquo;
+was different, and the statutes were directed against a class of
+dealers who went forward and bought or contracted for corn and
+other provisions, and spread false rumours in derogation of the
+public and open markets appointed by law, to which our ancestors
+appear to have attached much importance, and probably in these
+times not without reason. The statute of Edward VI. was
+modified by many subsequent enactments, particularly by the
+statute of 1663, by which it was declared that there could be no
+&ldquo;engrossing&rdquo; of corn when the price did not exceed 48s. per
+quarter, and which Adam Smith recognized, though it adhered
+to the variable and unsatisfactory element of price, as having
+contributed more to the progress of agriculture than any previous
+law in the statute book. In 1773 these injurious statutes were
+abolished, but the penal character of &ldquo;engrossing&rdquo; and &ldquo;forestalling&rdquo;
+had a root in the common law of England, as well as
+in the popular prejudice, which kept the evil alive to a later
+period. As the public enlightenment increased the judges were
+at no loss to give interpretations of the common law consistent
+with public policy. Subsequent to the act of 1773, for example,
+there was a case of conviction and punishment for engrossing
+hops, <i>R.</i> v. <i>Waddington</i>, 1800, 1 East, 143, but though this was
+deemed a sound and proper judgment at the time, yet it was
+soon afterwards overthrown in other cases, on the ground that
+buying wholesale to sell wholesale was not in &ldquo;restraint of
+trade&rdquo; as the former judges had assumed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1800, one John Rusby was indicted for having bought
+ninety quarters of oats at 41s. per quarter and selling thirty of
+them at 43s. the same day. Lord Kenyon, the presiding judge,
+animadverted strongly against the repealing act of 1773, and
+addressed the jury strongly against the accused. Rusby was
+heavily fined, but, on appeal, the court was equally divided as to
+whether engrossing, forestalling and regrating were still offences
+at common law. In 1844, all the statutes, English, Irish and
+Scottish, defining the offences, were repealed and with them
+the supposed common law foundation. In the United States
+there have been strong endeavours by the government to suppress
+trusts and combinations for engrossing. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trusts</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monopoly</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;D. Macpherson, <i>Annals of Commerce</i> (1805);
+J.S. Girdler, <i>Observations on Forestalling, Regrating and Ingrossing</i>
+(1800); W. Cunningham, <i>Growth of English Industry and Commerce</i>;
+W.J. Ashley, <i>Economic History</i>; Sir J. Stephen, <i>History of Criminal
+Law</i>; Murray, <i>New English Dictionary</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENGYON,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> an ancient town of the interior of Sicily, a Cretan
+colony, according to legend, and famous for an ancient temple
+of the Matres which aroused the greed of Verres. Its site is
+uncertain; some topographers have identified it with Gangi,
+a town 20 m. S.S.E. of Cefalu, but only on the ground of the
+similarity of the two names.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, v. 2568.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENID,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Garfield county, Oklahoma,
+U.S.A., about 55 m. N.W. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900) 3444; (1907)
+10,087 (355 of negro descent); (1910) 13,799. Enid is served by
+the St Louis &amp; San Francisco, the Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé,
+and the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific railways, and by several
+branch lines, and is an important railway centre. It is the seat
+of the Oklahoma Christian University (1907; co-educational).
+Enid is situated in a flourishing agricultural and stock-raising
+region, of which it is the commercial centre, and has various
+manufactures, including lumber, brick, tile and flour. Natural
+gas was discovered near the city in 1907. Enid was founded in
+1893 and was chartered as a city in the same year.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENIGMA<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="ainigma">&#945;&#7988;&#957;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#945;</span>), a riddle or puzzle, especially a form
+of verse or prose composition in which the answer is concealed
+by means of metaphors. Such were the famous riddle of the
+Sphinx and the riddling answers of the ancient oracles. The
+composition of enigmas was a favourite amusement in Greece
+and prizes were often given at banquets for the best solution of
+them (Athen. x. 457). In France during the 17th century
+enigma-making became fashionable. Boileau, Charles Rivière
+Dufresny and J.J. Rousseau did not consider it beneath their
+literary dignity. In 1646 the abbé Charles Cotier (1604-1682)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span>
+published a <i>Recueil des énigmes de ce temps</i>. The word is applied
+figuratively to anything inexplicable or difficult of understanding.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENKHUIZEN,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a seaport of Holland in the province of North
+Holland, on the Zuider Zee, and a railway terminus, 11½ m. N.E.
+by E. of Hoorn, with which it is also connected by steam tramway.
+In conjunction with the railway service there is a steamboat
+ferry to Stavoren in Friesland. Pop. (1900) 6865. Enkhuizen,
+like its neighbour Hoorn, exhibits many interesting examples
+of domestic architecture dating from the 16th and 17th centuries,
+when it was an important and flourishing city. The façades of
+the houses are usually built in courses of brick and stone, and
+adorned with carvings, sculptures and inscriptions. Some
+ruined gateways belonging to the old city walls are still standing;
+among them being the tower-gateway called the Dromedary
+(1540), which overlooks the harbour. The tower contains several
+rooms, one of which was formerly used as a prison. Among the
+churches mention must be made of the Zuiderkerk, or South
+church, with a conspicuous tower (1450-1525); and the Westerkerk,
+or West church, which possesses a beautifully carved
+Renaissance screen and pulpit of the middle of the 16th century,
+and a quaint wooden bell-house (1519) built for use before the
+completion of the bell-tower. There are also a Roman Catholic
+church and a synagogue. The picturesque town hall (1688)
+contains some finely decorated rooms with paintings by Johan
+van Neck, a collection of local antiquities and the archives.
+Other interesting buildings are the orphanage (1616), containing
+some 17th and 18th century portraits and ancient leather
+hangings; the weigh-house (1559), the upper story of which
+was once used by the Surgeons&rsquo; Gild, several of the window-panes
+(dating chiefly from about 1640), being decorated with
+the arms of various members; the former mint (1611); and the
+ancient assembly-house of the dike-reeves of Holland and West
+Friesland. Enkhuizen possesses a considerable fishing fleet and
+has some shipbuilding and rope-making, as well as market
+traffic.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENNEKING, JOHN JOSEPH<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), American landscape
+painter, was born, of German ancestry, in Minster, Ohio, on the
+4th of October 1841. He was educated at Mount St Mary&rsquo;s
+College, Cincinnati, served in the American Civil War in 1861-1862,
+studied art in New York and Boston, and gave it up
+because his eyes were weak, only to return to it after failing in
+the manufacture of tinware. In 1873-1876 he studied in Munich
+under Schleich and Leier, and in Paris under Daubigny and
+Bonnat; and in 1878-1879 he studied in Paris again and sketched
+in Holland. Enneking is a &ldquo;plein-airist,&rdquo; and his favourite
+subject is the &ldquo;November twilight&rdquo; of New England, and more
+generally the half lights of early spring, late autumn, and winter
+dawn and evening.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENNIS<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (Gaelic, <i>Innis</i>, an island; Irish, <i>Ennis</i> and <i>Inish</i>), the
+county town of Co. Clare, Ireland, in the east parliamentary
+division, on the river Fergus, 25 m. W.N.W. from Limerick by
+the Great Southern &amp; Western railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 5093. It is the junction for the West Clare line. Ennis
+has breweries, distilleries and extensive flour-mills; and in the
+neighbourhood limestone is quarried. The principal buildings
+are the Roman Catholic church, which is the pro-cathedral
+of the diocese of Killaloe; the parish church formed out of the
+ruins of the Franciscan Abbey, founded in 1240 by Donough
+Carbrac O&rsquo;Brien; a school on the foundation of Erasmus Smith,
+and various county buildings. The abbey, though greatly
+mutilated, is full of interesting details, and includes a lofty
+tower, a marble screen, a chapter-house, a notable east window,
+several fine tombs and an altar of St Francis. On the site of the
+old court-house a colossal statue in white limestone of Daniel
+O&rsquo;Connell was erected in 1865. The interesting ruins of Clare
+Abbey, founded in 1194 by Donnell O&rsquo;Brien, king of Munster,
+are half-way between Ennis and the village of Clare Castle.
+O&rsquo;Brien also founded Killone Abbey, beautifully situated on the
+lough of the same name, 3 m. S. of the town, possessing the
+unusual feature of a crypt and a holy well. Five miles N.W.
+of Ennis is Dysert O&rsquo;Dea, with interesting ecclesiastical remains,
+a cross, a round tower and a castle. Ennis was incorporated in
+1612, and returned two members to the Irish parliament until
+the Union, and thereafter one to the Imperial parliament until
+1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENNISCORTHY,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a market town of Co. Wexford, Ireland,
+in the north parliamentary division, on the side of a steep hill
+above the Slaney, which here becomes navigable for barges of
+large size. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5458. It is 77½ m.
+S. by W. from Dublin by the Dublin &amp; South-Eastern railway.
+There are breweries and flour-mills; tanning, distilling and
+woollen manufactures are also prosecuted to some extent, and
+the town is the centre of the agricultural trade for the district,
+which is aided by the water communication with Wexford.
+There are important fowl markets and horse-fairs. Enniscorthy
+was taken by Cromwell in 1649, and in 1798 was stormed and
+burned by the rebels, whose main forces encamped on an eminence
+called Vinegar Hill, which overlooks the town from the
+east. The old castle of Enniscorthy, a massive square pile with
+a round tower at each corner, is one of the earliest military
+structures of the Anglo-Norman invaders, founded by Raymond
+le Gros (1176). Ferns, the next station to Enniscorthy on the
+railway towards Dublin, was the seat of a former bishopric,
+and the modernized cathedral, and ruins of a church, an Augustinian
+monastery founded by Dermod Mac-Morrough about
+1160, and a castle of the Norman period, are still to be seen.
+Enniscorthy was incorporated by James I., and sent two members
+to the Irish parliament until the Union.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENNISKILLEN, WILLIAM WILLOUGHBY COLE,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd Earl
+of</span> (1807-1886), British palaeontologist, was born on the 25th
+of January 1807, and educated at Harrow and Christ Church,
+Oxford. As Lord Cole he early began to devote his leisure to
+the study and collection of fossil fishes, with his friend Sir Philip
+de M.G. Egerton, and he amassed a fine collection at Florence
+Court, Enniskillen&mdash;including many specimens that were
+described and figured by Agassiz and Egerton. This collection
+was subsequently acquired by the British Museum. He died on
+the 21st of November 1886, being succeeded by his son (b. 1845)
+as 4th earl.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the Coles (an old Devonshire and Cornwall family)
+to settle in Ireland was Sir William Cole (d. 1653), who was
+&ldquo;undertaker&rdquo; of the northern plantation and received a grant
+of a large property in Fermanagh in 1611, and became provost
+and later governor of Enniskillen. In 1760 his descendant John
+Cole (d. 1767) was created Baron Mountflorence, and the latter&rsquo;s
+son, William Willoughby Cole (1736-1803), was in 1776 created
+Viscount Enniskillen and in 1789 earl. The 1st earl&rsquo;s second son,
+Sir Galbraith Lowry Cole (1772-1842), was a prominent general
+in the Peninsular War, and colonel of the 27th Inniskillings,
+the Irish regiment with whose name the family was associated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENNISKILLEN<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Inniskilling</span>], a market town and the county
+town of county Fermanagh, Ireland, in the north parliamentary
+division, picturesquely situated on an island in the river connecting
+the upper and lower loughs Erne, 116 m. N.W. from Dublin
+by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
+5412. The town occupies the whole island, and is connected
+with two suburbs on the mainland on each side by two bridges.
+It has a brewery, tanneries and a small manufactory of cutlery,
+and a considerable trade in corn, pork and flax. In 1689 Enniskillen
+defeated a superior force sent against it by James II. at
+the battle of Crom; and part of the defenders of the town were
+subsequently formed into a regiment of cavalry, which still
+retains the name of the Inniskilling Dragoons. The town was
+incorporated by James I., and returned two members to the Irish
+parliament until the Union; thereafter it returned one to the
+Imperial parliament until 1885. There are wide communications
+by water by the river and the upper and lower loughs Erne,
+and by the Ulster canal to Belfast. The loughs contain trout,
+large pike and other coarse fish. Two miles from Enniskillen
+in the lower lough is Devenish Island, with its celebrated monastic
+remains. The abbey of St Mary here was founded by St Molaise
+(Laserian) in the 6th century; here too are a fine round tower
+85 ft. high, remains of domestic buildings, a holed stone and a
+tall well-preserved cross. The whole is carefully preserved by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span>
+the commissioners of public works under the Irish Church Act
+of 1869. Steamers ply between Enniskillen and Belleek on the
+lower lake, and between Enniskillen and Knockninny on the
+upper lake.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENNIUS, QUINTUS<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (239-170 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), ancient Latin poet, was
+born at Rudiae in Calabria. Familiar with Greek as the language
+in common use among the cultivated classes of his district, and
+with Oscan, the prevailing dialect of lower Italy, he further
+acquired a knowledge of Latin; to use his own expression
+(Gellius xvii. 17), he had three &ldquo;hearts&rdquo; (<i>corda</i>), the Latin
+word being used to signify the seat of intelligence. He is said
+(Servius on <i>Aen.</i> vii. 691) to have claimed descent from one of the
+legendary kings of his native district, Messapus the eponymous
+hero of Messapia, and this consciousness of ancient lineage is in
+accordance with the high self-confident tone of his mind, with his
+sympathy with the dominant genius of the Roman republic,
+and with his personal relations to the members of her great
+families. Of his early years nothing is directly known, and we
+first hear of him in middle life as serving during the Second
+Punic War, with the rank of centurion, in Sardinia, in the year
+204, where he attracted the attention of Cato the elder, and was
+taken by him to Rome in the same year. Here he taught Greek
+and adapted Greek plays for a livelihood, and by his poetical
+compositions gained the friendship of the greatest men in Rome.
+Amongst these were the elder Scipio and Fulvius Nobilior,
+whom he accompanied on his Aetolian campaign (189). Through
+the influence of Nobilior&rsquo;s son, Ennius subsequently obtained the
+privilege of Roman citizenship (Cicero, <i>Brutus</i>, 20. 79). He lived
+plainly and simply on the Aventine with the poet Caecilius
+Statius. He died at the age of 70, immediately after producing
+his tragedy <i>Thyestes</i>. In the last book of his epic poem, in
+which he seems to have given various details of his personal
+history, he mentions that he was in his 67th year at the date of
+its composition. He compared himself, in contemplation of
+the close of the great work of his life, to a gallant horse which,
+after having often won the prize at the Olympic games, obtained
+his rest when weary with age. A similar feeling of pride at the
+completion of a great career is expressed in the memorial lines
+which he composed to be placed under his bust after death,&mdash;&ldquo;Let
+no one weep for me, or celebrate my funeral with mourning;
+for I still live, as I pass to and fro through the mouths of
+men.&rdquo; From the impression stamped on his remains, and from
+the testimony of his countrymen, we think of him as a man of a
+robust, sagacious and cheerful nature (Hor. <i>Epp.</i> ii. 1. 50;
+Cic. <i>De sen.</i> 5); of great industry and versatility; combining
+imaginative enthusiasm and a vein of religious mysticism with a
+sceptical indifference to popular beliefs and a scorn of religious
+imposture; and tempering the grave seriousness of a Roman
+with a genial capacity for enjoyment (Hor. <i>Epp.</i> i. 19. 7).</p>
+
+<p>Till the appearance of Ennius, Roman literature, although it
+had produced the epic poem of Naevius and some adaptations
+of Greek tragedy, had been most successful in comedy. Naevius
+and Plautus were men of thoroughly popular fibre. Naevius
+suffered for his attacks on members of the aristocracy, and,
+although Plautus carefully avoids any direct notice of public
+matters, yet the bias of his sympathies is indicated in several
+passages of his extant plays. Ennius, on the other hand, was
+by temperament in thorough sympathy with the dominant
+aristocratic element in Roman life and institutions. Under his
+influence literature became less suited to the popular taste,
+more especially addressed to a limited and cultivated class,
+but at the same time more truly expressive of what was greatest
+and most worthy to endure in the national sentiment and
+traditions. He was a man of many-sided activity. He devoted
+attention to questions of Latin orthography, and is said to have
+been the first to introduce shorthand writing in Latin. He
+attempted comedy, but with so little success that in the canon
+of Volcacius Sedigitus he is mentioned, solely as a mark of respect
+&ldquo;for his antiquity,&rdquo; tenth and last in the list of comic poets.
+He may be regarded also as the inventor of Roman satire, in its
+original sense of a &ldquo;medley&rdquo; or &ldquo;miscellany,&rdquo; although it was
+by Lucilius that the character of aggressive and censorious
+criticism of men and manners was first imparted to that form of
+literature. The word <i>satura</i> was originally applied to a rude
+scenic and musical performance, exhibited at Rome before the
+introduction of the regular drama. The <i>saturae</i> of Ennius were
+collections of writings on various subjects, written in various
+metres and contained in four (or six) books. Among these were
+included metrical versions of the physical speculations of Epicharmus,
+of the gastronomic researches of Archestratus of Gela
+(<i>Hedyphagetica</i>), and, probably, of the rationalistic doctrines of
+Euhemerus. It may be noticed that all these writers whose
+works were thus introduced to the Romans were Sicilian Greeks.
+Original compositions were also contained in these <i>saturae</i>, and
+among them the panegyric on Scipio, unless this was a drama.
+The satire of Ennius seems to have resembled the more artistic
+satire of Horace in its record of personal experiences, in the
+occasional introduction of dialogue, in the use made of fables
+with a moral application, and in the didactic office which it
+assumed.</p>
+
+<p>But the chief distinction of Ennius was gained in tragic and
+narrative poetry. He was the first to impart to the Roman
+adaptations of Greek tragedy the masculine dignity, pathos and
+oratorical fervour which continued to animate them in the hands
+of Pacuvius and Accius, and, when set off by the acting of
+Aesopus, called forth vehement applause in the age of Cicero.
+The titles of about twenty-five of his tragedies are known to us,
+and a considerable number of fragments, varying in length from
+a few words to about fifteen lines, have been preserved. These
+tragedies were for the most part adaptations and, in some cases,
+translations from Euripides. One or two were original dramas,
+of the class called <i>praetextae</i>, <i>i.e.</i> dramas founded on Roman
+history or legend; thus, the <i>Ambracia</i> treated of the capture of
+that city by his patron Nobilior, the <i>Sabinae</i> of the rape of the
+Sabine women. The heroes and heroines of the Trojan cycle,
+such as Achilles, Ajax, Telamon, Cassandra, Andromache,
+were prominent figures in some of the dramas adapted from the
+Greek. Several of the more important fragments are found in
+Cicero, who expresses a great admiration for their manly fortitude
+and dignified pathos. In these remains of the tragedies of Ennius
+we can trace indications of strong sympathy with the nobler and
+bolder elements of character, of vivid realization of impassioned
+situations, and of sagacious observation of life. The frank
+bearing, fortitude and self-sacrificing heroism of the best type of
+the soldierly character find expression in the persons of Achilles,
+Telamon and Eurypylus; and a dignified and passionate tenderness
+of feeling makes itself heard in the lyrical utterances of
+Cassandra and Andromache. The language is generally nervous
+and vigorous, occasionally vivified with imaginative energy.
+But it flows less smoothly and easily than that of the dialogue
+of Latin comedy. It shows the same tendency to aim at effect
+by alliterations, assonances and plays on words. The rudeness
+of early art is most apparent in the inequality of the metres in
+which both the dialogue and the &ldquo;recitative&rdquo; are composed.</p>
+
+<p>But the work which gained him his reputation as the Homer of
+Rome, and which called forth the admiration of Cicero and
+Lucretius and frequent imitation from Virgil, was the <i>Annales</i>,
+a long narrative poem in eighteen books, containing the record
+of the national story from mythical times to his own. Although
+the whole conception of the work implies that confusion of
+the provinces of poetry and history which was perpetuated by
+later writers, and especially by Lucan and Silius Italicus, yet
+it was a true instinct of genius to discern in the idea of the
+national destiny the only possible motive of a Roman epic.
+The execution of the poem (to judge from the fragments, amounting
+to about six hundred lines), although rough, unequal and
+often prosaic, seems to have combined the realistic fidelity and
+freshness of feeling of a contemporary chronicle with the vivifying
+and idealizing power of genius. Ennius prided himself especially
+on being the first to form the strong speech of Latium into the
+mould of the Homeric hexameter in place of the old Saturnian
+metre. And although it took several generations of poets to
+beat their music out to the perfection of the Virgilian cadences,
+yet in the rude adaptation of Ennius the secret of what ultimately
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span>
+became one of the grandest organs of literary expression was
+first discovered and revealed. The inspiring idea of the poem
+was accepted, purified of all alien material, and realized in artistic
+shape by Virgil in his national epic. He deliberately imparted
+to that poem the charm of antique associations by incorporating
+with it much of the phraseology and sentiment of Ennius.
+The occasional references to Roman history in Lucretius are
+evidently reminiscences of the <i>Annales</i>. He as well as Cicero
+speaks of him with pride and affection as &ldquo;Ennius noster.&rdquo;
+Of the great Roman writers Horace had least sympathy with
+him; yet he testifies to the high esteem in which he was held
+during the Augustan age. Ovid expresses the grounds of that
+esteem when he characterizes him as</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Ingenio maximus, arte rudis.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">A sentence of Quintilian expresses the feeling of reverence for
+his genius and character, mixed with distaste for his rude
+workmanship, with which the Romans of the early empire regarded
+him: &ldquo;Let us revere Ennius as we revere the sacred
+groves, hallowed by antiquity, whose massive and venerable
+oak trees are not so remarkable for beauty as for the religious
+awe which they inspire&rdquo; (<i>Inst. or.</i> x. 1. 88).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions of the fragments by L. Müller (1884), L. Valmaggi
+(1900, with notes), J. Vahlen (1903); monographs by L. Müller
+(1884 and 1893), C. Pascal, <i>Studi sugli scrittori Latini</i> (1900); see
+also Mommsen, <i>History of Rome</i>, bk. iii. ch. 14. On Virgil&rsquo;s indebtedness
+to Ennius see V. Crivellari, <i>Quae praecipue hausit Vergilius
+ex Naevio et Ennio</i> (1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 474-521), bishop of Pavia,
+Latin rhetorician and poet. He was born at Arelate (Arles) and
+belonged to a distinguished but impecunious family. Having
+lost his parents at an early age, he was brought up by an aunt
+at Ticinum (Pavia); according to some, at Mediolanum (Milan).
+After her death he was received into the family of a pious and
+wealthy young lady, to whom he was betrothed. It is not certain
+whether he actually married this lady; she seems to have lost
+her money and retired to a convent, whereupon Ennodius
+entered the Church, and was ordained deacon (about 493) by
+Epiphanius, bishop of Pavia. From Pavia he went to Milan,
+where he continued to reside until his elevation to the see of
+Pavia about 515. During his stay at Milan he visited Rome
+and other places, where he gained a reputation as a teacher of
+rhetoric. As bishop of Pavia he played a considerable part in
+ecclesiastical affairs. On two occasions (in 515 and 517) he was
+sent to Constantinople by Theodoric on an embassy to the
+emperor Anastasius, to endeavour to bring about a reconciliation
+between the Eastern and Western churches. He died on the
+17th of July 521; his epitaph still exists in the basilica of St
+Michael at Pavia (<i>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, v. pt. ii.
+No. 6464).</p>
+
+<p>Ennodius is one of the best representatives of the twofold
+(pagan and Christian) tendency of 5th-century literature, and
+of the Gallo-Roman clergy who upheld the cause of civilization
+and classical literature against the inroads of barbarism. But
+his anxiety not to fall behind his classical models&mdash;the chief of
+whom was Virgil&mdash;his striving after elegance and grammatical
+correctness, and a desire to avoid the commonplace have produced
+a turgid and affected style, which, aggravated by rhetorical
+exaggerations and popular barbarisms, makes his works difficult
+to understand. It has been remarked that his poetry is less
+unintelligible than his prose.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The numerous writings of this versatile ecclesiastic may be divided
+into (1) letters, (2) miscellanies, (3) discourses, (4) poems. The letters
+on a variety of subjects, addressed to high church and state officials,
+are valuable for the religious and political history of the period. Of
+the miscellanies, the most important are: <i>The Panegyric of Theodoric</i>,
+written to thank the Arian prince for his tolerance of Catholicism
+and support of Pope Symmachus (probably delivered before the king
+on the occasion of his entry into Ravenna or Milan); like all similar
+works, it is full of flattery and exaggeration, but if used with caution
+is a valuable authority; <i>The Life of St Epiphanius</i>, bishop of Pavia,
+the best written and perhaps the most important of all his writings,
+an interesting picture of the political activity and influence of the
+church; <i>Eucharisticon de Vita Sua</i>, a sort of &ldquo;confessions,&rdquo; after
+the manner of St Augustine; the description of the enfranchisement
+of a slave with religious formalities in the presence of a bishop;
+<i>Paraenesis didascalica</i>, an educational guide, in which the claims of
+grammar as a preparation for the study of rhetoric, the mother of all
+the sciences, are strongly insisted on. The discourses (<i>Dictiones</i>) are
+sacred, scholastic, controversial and ethical. The discourse on the
+anniversary of Laurentius, bishop of Milan, is the chief authority
+for the life of that prelate; the scholastic discourses, rhetorical
+exercises for the schools, contain eulogies of classical learning, distinguished
+professors and pupils; the controversial deal with
+imaginary charges, the subjects being chiefly borrowed from the
+<i>Controversiae</i> of the elder Seneca; the ethical harangues are put
+into the mouth of mythological personages (<i>e.g.</i> the speech of Thetis
+over the body of Achilles). Amongst the poems mention may be
+made of two <i>Itineraria</i>, descriptions of a journey from Milan to
+Brigantium (Briançon) and of a trip on the Po; an apology for the
+study of profane literature; an epithalamium, in which Love is
+introduced as execrating Christianity; a dozen hymns, after the
+manner of St Ambrose, probably intended for church use; epigrams
+on various subjects, some being epigrams proper&mdash;inscriptions for
+tombs, basilicas, baptisteries&mdash;others imitations of Martial, satiric
+pieces and descriptions of scenery.</p>
+
+<p>There are two excellent editions of Ennodius by G. Hartel (vol. vi.
+of <i>Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum</i>, Vienna, 1882)
+and F. Vogel (vol. vii. of <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, 1885,
+with exhaustive prolegomena). On Ennodius generally consult
+M. Fertig, <i>Ennodius und seine Zeit</i> (1855-1860); A. Dubois, <i>La
+Latinité d&rsquo;Ennodius</i> (1903); F. Magani, <i>Ennodio</i> (Pavia, 1886);
+A. Ebert, <i>Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters im Abendlande</i>,
+i. (1889); M. Manitius, Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen
+Poesie (1891); Teuffel, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i>, § 479 (Eng. tr.,
+1892). French translation by the abbé S. Léglise (Paris, 1906 foll.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENNS,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a town of Austria, in upper Austria, 11 m. by rail S.E.
+of Linz. Pop. (1900) 4371. It is situated on the Enns near its
+confluence with the Danube and possesses a 15th-century castle,
+an old Gothic church, and a town hall erected in 1565. Three
+miles to the S.W. lies the Augustinian monastery of St Florian,
+one of the oldest and largest religious houses of Austria. Founded
+in the 7th century, it was occupied by the Benedictines till the
+middle of the 11th century. It was established on a firm basis
+in 1071, when it passed into the hands of the Augustinians.
+The actual buildings, which are among the most magnificent in
+Austria, were constructed between 1686 and 1745. Its library,
+with over 70,000 volumes, contains valuable manuscripts and
+also a fine collection of coins. Enns is one of the oldest towns in
+Austria, and stands near the site of the Roman <i>Laureacum</i>.
+The nucleus of the actual town was formed by a castle, called
+Anasiburg or Anesburg, erected in 900 by the Bavarians as a post
+against the incursions of the Hungarians. It soon attained
+commercial prosperity, and by a charter of 1212 was made a
+free town. In 1275 it passed into the hands of Rudolph of
+Habsburg. An encounter between the French and the Austrian
+troops took place here on the 5th of November 1805.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENOCH<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (<span title="hanockh, hanockh">&#1495;&#1504;&#1493;&#1498;, &#1495;&#1504;&#1498;</span>, &#7716;&#259;n&#333;kh, Teaching or Dedication). (1)
+In Gen. iv. 17, 18 (J), the eldest son of Cain, born while
+Cain was building a city, which he named after Enoch; nothing
+is known of the city. (2) In Gen. v. 24, &amp;c. (P), <i>seventh</i> in descent
+from Adam in the line of Seth; he &ldquo;walked with God,&rdquo; and after
+365 years &ldquo;was not for God took him.&rdquo; [(1) and (2) are often
+regarded as both corruptions of the <i>seventh</i> primitive king
+Evedorachos (Enmeduranki in cuneiform inscriptions), the two
+genealogies, Gen. iv. 16-24, v. 12-17, being variant forms of the
+Babylonian list of primitive kings. Enmeduranki is the favourite
+of the sun-god, cf. Enoch&rsquo;s 365 years.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a>] Heb. xi. 5 says Enoch
+&ldquo;was not found, because God <i>translated</i> him.&rdquo; Later Jewish
+legends represented him as receiving revelations on astronomy,
+&amp;c., and as the first author; apparently following the Babylonian
+account which makes Enmeduranki receive instruction in all
+wisdom from the sun-god.<a href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Two apocryphal works written in
+the name of Enoch are extant, the <i>Book of Enoch</i>, compiled from
+documents written 200-50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, quoted as the work of Enoch,
+Jude 14 and 15; and the <i>Book of the Secrets of Enoch</i>, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1-50.
+Cf. 1 Chron. i. 3; Luke iii. 37; Wisdom iv. 7-14; Ecclus. xliv. 16,
+xlix. 14. (3) Son, <i>i.e.</i> clan, of Midian, in Gen. xxv. 4; 1 Chron.
+i. 33. (4) Son, <i>i.e.</i> clan, of Reuben, E.V. <i>Hanoch</i>, <i>Henoch</i>, in Gen.
+xlvi. 9; Exod. vi. 14; Num. xxvi. 5; 1 Chron. v. 3. There may
+have been some historical connexion between these two clans
+with identical names.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Eberhard Schrader, <i>Die Keilinschriften und das A.T.</i>, 3rd ed.,
+pp. 540 f.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">ENOCH, BOOK OF.<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> The <i>Book of Enoch</i>, or, as it is sometimes
+called, the <i>Ethiopic Book of Enoch</i>, in contradistinction to the
+<i>Slavonic Book of Enoch</i> (see later), is perhaps the most important
+of all the apocryphal or pseudapocryphal Biblical writings for
+the history of religious thought. It is not the work of a single
+author, but rather a conglomerate of literary fragments which
+once circulated under the names of Enoch, Noah and possibly
+Methuselah. In the <i>Book of the Secrets of Enoch</i> we have additional
+portions of this literature. As the former work is derived
+from a variety of Pharisaic writers in Palestine, so the latter in
+its present form was written for the most part by Hellenistic
+Jews in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Book of Enoch</i> was written in the second and first centuries
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was well known to many of the writers of the New Testament,
+and in many instances influenced their thought and diction.
+Thus it is quoted by name as a genuine production of Enoch
+in the Epistle of Jude, 14 sq., and it lies at the base of Matt.
+xix. 28 and John v. 22, 27, and many other passages. It had also
+a vast indirect influence on the Palestinian literature of the 1st
+century of our era. Like the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the
+Megilloth, the Pirke Aboth, this work was divided into five parts,
+with the critical discussion of which we shall deal below. With
+the earlier Fathers and Apologists it had all the weight of a
+canonical book, but towards the close of the 3rd and the beginning
+of the 4th century it began to be discredited, and finally fell
+under the ban of the Church. Almost the latest reference to it
+in the early church is made by George Syncellus in his Chronography
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800. The book was then lost sight of till
+1773, when Bruce discovered the Ethiopic version in Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Original Language.</i>&mdash;That the <i>Book of Enoch</i> was written in
+Semitic is now accepted on all hands, but scholars are divided
+as to whether the Semitic language in question was Hebrew or
+Aramaic. Only one valuable contribution on this question has
+been made, and that by Halévy in the <i>Journal Asiatique</i>, Avril-Mai
+1867, pp. 352-395. This scholar is of opinion that the entire
+work was written in Hebrew. Since this publication, however,
+fresh evidence bearing on the question has been discovered in the
+Greek fragment (i.-xxxii.) found in Egypt. Since this fragment
+contains three Aramaic words transliterated in the Greek,
+some scholars, and among them Schürer, Lévi and N. Schmidt,
+have concluded that not only are chapters i.-xxxvi. derived
+from an Aramaic original, but also the remainder of the book.
+In support of the latter statement no evidence has yet been
+offered by these or any other scholars, nor yet has there been any
+attempt to meet the positive arguments of Halévy for a Hebrew
+original of xxxvii.-civ., whose Hebrew reconstructions of the
+text have been and must be adopted in many cases by every
+editor and translator of the book. A prolonged study of the
+text, which has brought to light a multitude of fresh passages
+the majority of which can be explained by retranslation into
+Hebrew, has convinced the present writer<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> that, whilst the
+evidence on the whole is in favour of an Aramaic original of
+vi.-xxxvi., it is just as conclusive on behalf of the Hebrew original
+of the greater part of the rest of the book.</p>
+
+<p><i>Versions&mdash;Greek, Latin and Ethiopic.</i>&mdash;The Semitic original
+was translated into Greek. It is not improbable that there were
+two distinct Greek versions. Of the one, several fragments have
+been preserved in Syncellus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800), vi.-x. 14, viii. 4-ix. 4,
+xv. 8-xvi. 1; of the other, i.-xxxii. in the Giza Greek fragment
+discovered in Egypt and published by Bouriant (<i>Fragments grecs
+du livre d&rsquo;Enoch</i>); in 1892, and subsequently by Lods, Dillmann,
+Charles (<i>Book of Enoch</i>, 318 sqq.), Swete, and finally by Radermacher
+and Charles (<i>Ethiopic Text</i>, 3-75). In addition to these
+fragments there is that of lxxxix. 42-49 (see Gildemeister in the
+<i>ZDMG</i>, 1855, pp. 621-624, and Charles, <i>Ethiopic Text</i>, pp. 175-177).
+Of the Latin version only i. 9 survives, being preserved in
+the Pseudo-Cyprian&rsquo;s <i>Ad Novatianum</i>, and cvi. 1-18 discovered
+by James in an 8th-century MS. of the British Museum (see
+James, <i>Apoc. anecdota</i>, 146-150; Charles, <i>op. cit.</i> 219-222).
+This version is made from the Greek.</p>
+
+<p>The Ethiopic version, which alone preserves the entire text, is
+a very faithful translation of the Greek. Twenty-eight MSS.
+of this version are in the different libraries of Europe, of which
+fifteen are to be found in England. This version was made from
+an ancestor of the Greek fragment discovered at Giza. Some
+of the utterly unintelligible passages in this fragment are literally
+reproduced in the Ethiopic. The same wrong order of the text
+in vii.-viii. is common to both. In order to recover the original
+text, it is from time to time necessary to retranslate the Ethiopic
+into Greek, and the latter in turn into Aramaic or Hebrew. By
+this means we are able to detect dittographies in the Greek and
+variants in the original Semitic. The original was written to a
+large extent in verse. The discovery of this fact is most helpful
+in the criticism of the text. This version was first edited by
+Laurence in 1838 from one MS., in 1851 by Dillmann from five,
+in 1902 by Flemming from fifteen MSS., and in 1906 by the
+present writer from twenty-three.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Translations and Commentaries.</i>&mdash;Laurence, <i>The Book of Enoch</i>
+(Oxford, 1821); Dillmann, <i>Das Buch Henoch</i> (1853); Schodde, <i>The
+Book of Enoch</i> (1882); Charles, <i>The Book of Enoch</i> (1893); Beer,
+&ldquo;Das Buch Henoch,&rdquo; in Kautzsch&rsquo;s <i>Apok. u. Pseud. des A.T.</i> (1900),
+ii. 217-310; Flemming and Radermacher, <i>Das Buch Henoch</i> (1901);
+Martin, <i>Le Livre d&rsquo;Henoch</i> (1906). <i>Critical Inquiries.</i>&mdash;The bibliography
+will be found in Schürer, <i>Gesch. d. jüdischen Volkes</i>³, iii.
+207-209, and a short critical account of the most important of these
+in Charles, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 9-21.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The different Elements in the Book, with their respective Characteristics
+and Dates.</i>&mdash;We have remarked above that the <i>Book
+of Enoch</i> is divided into five parts&mdash;i.-xxxvi., xxxvii.-lxxi., lxxii.-lxxxii.,
+lxxxiii.-xc., xci-cviii. Some of these parts constituted
+originally separate treatises. In the course of their reduction
+and incorporation into a single work they suffered much mutilation
+and loss. From an early date the compositeness of this
+work was recognized. Scholars have varied greatly in their
+critical analyses of the work (see Charles, <i>op. cit.</i> 6-21, 309-311).
+The analysis which gained most acceptation was that of Dillmann
+(Herzog&rsquo;s <i>Realencyk.</i>² xii. 350-352), according to whom the
+present books consist of&mdash;(1) the groundwork, <i>i.e.</i> i.-xxxvi.,
+lxxii.-cv., written in the time of John Hyrcanus; (2) xxxvii.-lxxi.,
+xvii.-xix., before 64 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; (3) the Noachic fragments, vi. 3-8,
+viii. 1-3, ix. 7, x. 1, 11, xx., xxxix. 1, 2<i>a</i>, liv. 7-lv. 2, lx., lxv.-lxix.
+25, cvi.-cvii.; and (4) cviii., from a later hand. With much of
+this analysis there is no reason to disagree. The similitudes are
+undoubtedly of different authorship from the rest of the book,
+and certain portions of the book are derived from the <i>Book of
+Noah</i>. On the other hand, the so-called groundwork has no
+existence unless in the minds of earlier critics and some of their
+belated followers in the present. It springs from at least four
+hands, and may be roughly divided into four parts, corresponding
+to the present actual divisions of the book.</p>
+
+<p>A new critical analysis of the book based on this view was
+given by Charles (<i>op. cit.</i> pp. 24-33), and further developed
+by Clemen and Beer. The analysis of the latter (see Herzog,
+<i>Realencyk.</i>³ xiv. 240) is very complex. The book, according to this
+scholar, is composed of the following separate elements from the
+Enoch tradition:&mdash;(1) Ch. i.-v.; (2) xii-xvi.; (3) xvii.-xix.;
+(4) xx.-xxxvi.; (5) xxxvii.-lxix. (from diverse sources); (6)
+lxx.-lxxi.; (7) lxxii.-lxxxii.; (8) lxxxiii.-lxxxiv.; (9) lxxxv.-xc.;
+(10) xciii., cxi. 12-17; (11) xci. 1-11, 18, 19, xcii., xciv.-cv.;
+(12) cviii., and from the Noah tradition; (13) vi.-xi.; (14)
+xxxix. 1-2<i>a</i>, liv. 7-lv. 2, lx., lxv.-lxix. 25; (15) cvi.-cvii. Thus
+while Clemen finds eleven separate sources, Beer finds fifteen.
+A fresh study from the hand of Appel (<i>Die Composition des
+äthiopischen Henochbuchs</i>, 1906) seeks to reach a final analysis
+of our book. But though it evinces considerable insight, it
+cannot escape the charge of extravagance. The original book
+or ground-work of Enoch consisted of i.-xvi., xx.-xxxvi. This
+work called forth a host of imitators, and a number of their
+writings, together with the groundwork, were edited as a Book
+of Methuselah, <i>i.e.</i> lxxii.-cv. Then came the final redactor, who
+interpolated the groundwork and the Methuselah sections, adding
+two others from his own pen. The Similitudes he worked up
+from a series of later sources, and gave them the second place
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span>
+in the final work authenticating them with the name of Noah.
+The date of the publication of the entire work Appel assigns to
+the years immediately following the death of Herod.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>We shall now give an analysis of the book, with the dates of the
+various sections where possible. Of these we shall deal with the
+easiest first. <i>Chap. lxxii.-lxxxii.</i> constitutes a work in itself, the writer
+of which had very different objects before him from the writers of
+the rest of the book. His sole aim is to give the law of the heavenly
+bodies. His work has suffered disarrangements and interpolations
+at the hands of the editor of the whole work. Thus lxxvi.-lxxvii.,
+which are concerned with the winds, the quarters of the heaven, and
+certain geographical matters, and lxxxi., which is concerned wholly
+with ethical matters, are foreign to a work which professes in its
+title (lxxii. 1) to deal only with the luminaries of the heaven and their
+laws. Finally, lxxxii. should stand before lxxix.; for the opening
+words of the latter suppose it to be already read. The date of this
+section can be partially established, for it was known to the author
+of Jubilees, and was therefore written before the last third of the
+2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Chaps. lxxxiii.-xc.</i>&mdash;This section was written before 161 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, for
+&ldquo;the great horn,&rdquo; who is Judas the Maccabee, was still warring when
+the author was writing. (Dillmann, Schürer and others take the
+great horn to be John Hyrcanus, but this interpretation does
+violence to the text.) These chapters recount three visions: the first
+two deal with the first-world judgment; the third with the entire
+history of the world till the final judgment. An eternal Messianic
+kingdom at the close of the judgment is to be established under the
+Messiah, with its centre in the New Jerusalem set up by God Himself.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chaps. xci.-civ.</i>&mdash;In the preceding section the Maccabees were the
+religious champions of the nation and the friends of the Hasidim.
+Here they are leagued with the Sadducees, and are the declared foes of
+the Pharisaic party. This section was written therefore after 134 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+when the breach between John Hyrcanus and the Pharisees took
+place and before the savage massacres of the latter by Jannaeus
+(95 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); for it is not likely that in a book dealing with the sufferings
+of the Pharisees such a reference would be omitted. These chapters
+indicate a revolution in the religious hopes of the nation. An eternal
+Messianic kingdom is no longer anticipated, but only a temporary
+one, at the close of which the final judgment will ensue. The
+righteous dead rise not to this kingdom but to spiritual blessedness
+in heaven itself&mdash;to an immortality of the soul. This section also
+has suffered at the hands of the final editor. Thus xci. 12-17, which
+describe the last three weeks of the Ten-Weeks Apocalypse, should
+be read immediately after xciii. 1-10, which recount the first seven
+weeks of the same apocalypse. But, furthermore, the section
+obviously begins with xcii. &ldquo;Written by Enoch the scribe,&rdquo; &amp;c.
+Then comes xci. 1-10 as a natural sequel. The Ten-Weeks Apocalypse,
+xciii. 1-10, xci. 12-17, if it came from the same hand, followed,
+and then xciv. The attempt (by Clemen and Beer) to place the Ten-Weeks
+Apocalypse before 167, because it makes no reference to the
+Maccabees, is not successful; for where the history of mankind from
+Adam to the final judgment is despatched in sixteen verses, such an
+omission need cause little embarrassment, and still less if the author
+is the determined foe of the Maccabees, whom he would probably
+have stigmatized as apostates, if he had mentioned them at all, just
+as he similarly brands all the Sadducean priesthood that preceded
+them to the time of the captivity. This Ten-Weeks Apocalypse,
+therefore, we take to be the work of the writer of the rest of xci.-civ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chaps. i.-xxxvi.</i>&mdash;This is the most difficult section of the book.
+It is very composite. Chaps. vi.-xi. is apparently an independent
+fragment of the Enoch Saga. It is itself compounded of the Semjaza
+and Azazel myths, and in its present composite form is already presupposed
+by lxxxviii.-lxxxix. 1; hence its present form is earlier
+than 166 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It represents a primitive and very sensuous view of the
+eternal Messianic kingdom on earth, seeing that the righteous beget
+1000 children before they die. These chapters appear to be from
+the Book of Noah; for they never refer to Enoch but to Noah only
+(x. 1). Moreover, when the author of Jubilees is clearly drawing on
+the Book of Noah, his subject-matter (vii. 21-25) agrees most closely
+with that of these chapters in Enoch (see Charles&rsquo; edition of
+Jubilees, pp. lxxi. sq. 264). xii.-xvi., on the other hand, belong to
+the Book of Enoch. These represent for the most part what Enoch
+saw in a vision. Now whereas vi.-xvi. deal with the fall of the
+angels, their destruction of mankind, and the condemnation of the
+fallen angels, the subject-matter now suddenly changes and xvii.-xxxvi.
+treat of Enoch&rsquo;s journeyings through earth and heaven
+escorted by angels. Here undoubtedly we have a series of doublets;
+for xvii.-xix. stand in this relation to xx.-xxxvi., since both sections
+deal with the same subjects. Thus xvii. 4 = xxiii.; xvii. 6 = xxii.;
+xviii. 1 = xxxiv.-xxxvi.; xviii. 6-9 = xxiv.-xxv., xxxii. 1-2; xviii.
+11, xix. = xxi. 7-10; xviii. 12-16 = xxi. 1-6. They belong to the
+same cycle of tradition and cannot be independent of each other.
+Chap. xx. appears to show that xx.-xxxvi. is fragmentary, since only
+four of the seven angels mentioned in xx. have anything to do in
+xxi.-xxxvi. Finally, i.-v. seems to be of a different date and authorship
+from the rest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chaps. xxxvii.-lxxi.</i>&mdash;These constitute the well-known Similitudes.
+They were written before 64 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, for Rome was not yet known to the
+writer, and after 95 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, for the slaying of the righteous, of which
+the writer complains, was not perpetrated by the Maccabean princes
+before that date. This section consists of three similitudes&mdash;xxxviii.-xliv.,
+xlv.-lvii., lviii.-lxix. These are introduced and concluded
+by xxxvii. and lxx. There are many interpolations&mdash;lx.,
+lxv.-lxix. 25 confessedly from the Book of Noah; most probably
+also liv. 7-lv. 2. Whence others, such as xxxix. 1, 2<i>a</i>, xli. 3-8, xliii.
+sq., spring is doubtful. Chaps. 1, lvi. 5-lvii. 3<i>a</i> are likewise insertions.</p>
+
+<p>In R.H. Charles&rsquo;s edition of Enoch, lxxi. was bracketed as an
+interpolation. The writer now sees that it belongs to the text of the
+Similitudes though it is dislocated from its original context. It
+presents two visits of Enoch to heaven in lxxi. 1-4 and lxxi. 5-17.
+The extraordinary statement in lxxi. 14, according to which Enoch
+is addressed as &ldquo;the Son of Man,&rdquo; is seen, as Appel points out, on
+examination of the context to have arisen from the loss of a portion
+of the text after verse 13, in which Enoch saw a heavenly being with
+the Head of Days and asked the angel who accompanied him who
+this being was. Then comes ver. 14, which, owing to the loss of this
+passage, has assumed the form of an address to Enoch: &ldquo;Thou art
+the Son of Man,&rdquo; but which stood originally as the angel&rsquo;s reply to
+Enoch: &ldquo;This is the Son of Man,&rdquo; &amp;c. Ver. 15, then, gives the
+message sent to Enoch by the Son of Man. In the next verse the
+second person should be changed into the third. Thus we recover the
+original text of this difficult chapter. The Messianic doctrine and
+eschatology of this section is unique. The Messiah is here for the first
+time described as the pre-existent Son of Man (xlviii. 2), who sits on
+the throne of God (xlv. 3; xlvii. 3), possesses universal dominion
+(lxii. 6), and is the Judge of all mankind (lxix. 27). After the judgment
+there will be a new heaven and a new earth, which will be the
+abode of the blessed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">The Book of the Secrets or Enoch</span>, or <i>Slavonic Enoch</i>.
+This new fragment of the Enochic literature has only recently
+come to light through five MSS. discovered in Russia and Servia.
+Since about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500 it has been lost sight of. It is cited without
+acknowledgment in the <i>Book of Adam and Eve</i>, the <i>Apocalypses
+of Moses and Paul</i>, the <i>Sibylline Oracles</i>, the <i>Ascension of Isaiah</i>,
+the <i>Epistle of Barnabas</i>, and referred to by Origen and Irenaeus
+(see <i>Charles, The Book of the Secrets of Enoch</i>, 1895, pp. xvii-xxiv).
+For Charles&rsquo;s <i>editio princeps</i> of this work, in 1895, Professor
+Morfill translated two of the best MSS., as well as Sokolov&rsquo;s text,
+which is founded on these and other MSS. In 1896 Bonwetsch
+issued his <i>Das slavische Henochbuch</i>, in which a German translation
+of the above two MSS. is given side by side, preceded by a
+short introduction.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Analysis.</i>&mdash;Chaps. i.-ii. Introduction: life of Enoch: his dream,
+in which he is told that he will be taken up to heaven: his admonitions
+to his sons. iii.-xxxvi. What Enoch saw in heaven. iii.-vi.
+The first heaven: the rulers of the stars: the great sea and the
+treasures of snow, &amp;c. vii. The second heaven: the fallen angels.
+viii.-x. The third heaven: Paradise and place of punishment.
+xi.-xvii. The fourth heaven: courses of the sun and moon: phoenixes.
+xviii. The fifth heaven: the watchers mourning for their
+fallen brethren. xix. The sixth heaven: seven bands of angels
+arrange and study the courses of the stars, &amp;c.: others set over the
+years, the fruits of the earth, the souls of men. xx.-xxxvi. The
+seventh heaven. The Lord sitting on His throne with the ten chief
+orders of angels. Enoch is clothed by Michael in the raiment of
+God&rsquo;s glory and instructed in the secrets of nature and of man,
+which he wrote down in 366 books. God reveals to Enoch the
+history of the creation of the earth and the seven planets and circles
+of the heaven and of man, the story of the fallen angels, the duration
+of the world through 7000 years, and its millennium of rest. xxxviii.-lxvi.
+Enoch returns to earth, admonishes his sons: instructs them
+on what he had seen in the heavens, gives them his books. Bids
+them not to swear at all nor to expect any intercession of the departed
+saints for sinners. lvi.-lxiii. Methuselah asks Enoch&rsquo;s
+blessing before he departs, and to all his sons and their families
+Enoch gives fresh instruction. lxiv.-lxvi. Enoch addressed the
+assembled people at Achuszan. lxvii.-lxviii. Enoch&rsquo;s translation.
+Rejoicings of the people on behalf of the revelation given them
+through Enoch.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Language and Place of Writing.</i>&mdash;A large part of this book was
+written for the first time in Greek. This may be inferred from
+such statements as (1) xxx. 13, &ldquo;And I gave him a name (<i>i.e.</i>
+Adam) from the four substances: the East, the West, the North
+and the South.&rdquo; Thus Adam&rsquo;s name is here derived from the
+initial letters of the four quarters: <span class="grk" title="anatolê, dusis, arktos,
+mesêmbria">&#7936;&#957;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#955;&#942;, &#948;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#962;, &#7940;&#961;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#962;, &#956;&#949;&#963;&#951;&#956;&#946;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>. This derivation is impossible in Semitic. This
+context is found elsewhere in the Sibyllines iii. 24 sqq. and other
+Greek writings. (2) Again our author uses the chronology of the
+Septuagint and in 1, 4 follows the Septuagint text of Deuteronomy
+xxxii. 35 against the Hebrew. On the other hand, some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span>
+sections may wholly or in part go back to Hebrew originals.
+There is a Hebrew Book of Enoch attributed to R. Ishmael ben
+Elisha who lived at the close of the 1st century and the beginning
+of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This book is very closely related to the
+Book of the Secrets of Enoch, or rather, to a large extent dependent
+upon it. Did Ishmael ben Elisha use the Book of the
+Secrets of Enoch in its Greek form, or did he find portions of it
+in Hebrew? At all events, extensive quotations from a Book
+of Enoch are found in the rabbinical literature of the middle ages,
+and the provenance of these has not yet been determined. See
+<i>Jewish Encyc.</i> i. 676 seq.</p>
+
+<p>But there is a stronger argument for a Hebrew original of
+certain sections to be found in the fact that the Testaments
+of the XII. Patriarchs appears to quote xxxiv. 2, 3 of our author
+in T. Napth. iv. 1, T. Benj. ix.</p>
+
+<p>The book in its present form was written in Egypt. This may
+be inferred (1) from the variety of speculations which it holds in
+common with Philo and writings of a Hellenistic character that
+circulated mainly in Egypt. (2) The Phoenixes are Chalkydries
+(ch. xii.)&mdash;monstrous serpents with the heads of crocodiles&mdash;are
+natural products of the Egyptian imagination. (3) The syncretistic
+character of the creation account (xxv.-xxvi.) betrays
+Egyptian elements.</p>
+
+<p><i>Relation to Jewish and Christian Literature.</i>&mdash;The existence of a
+kindred literature in Neo-Hebrew has been already pointed out.
+We might note besides that it is quoted in the Book of Adam and
+Eve, the Apocalypse of Moses, the Apocalypse of Paul, the
+anonymous work <i>De montibus Sina et Sion</i>, the Sibylline Oracles
+ii. 75, Origen, <i>De princip.</i> i. 3, 2. The authors of the Ascension
+of Isaiah, the Apoc. of Baruch and the Epistle of Barnabas were
+probably acquainted with it. In the New Testament the similarity
+of matter and diction is sufficiently strong to establish
+a close connexion, if not a literary dependence. Thus with
+Matt. v. 9, &ldquo;Blessed are the peacemakers,&rdquo; cf. lii. 11, &ldquo;Blessed
+is he who establishes peace&rdquo;: with Matt. v. 34, 35, 37, &ldquo;Swear
+not at all,&rdquo; cf. xlix. 1, &ldquo;I will not swear by a single oath,
+neither by heaven, nor by earth, nor by any other creature
+which God made&mdash;if there is no truth in man, let them swear
+by a word yea, yea, or nay, nay.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Date and Authorship.</i>&mdash;The book was probably written
+between 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70. It was written after 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, for it
+makes use of Sirach, the (Ethiopic) Book of Enoch and the Book
+of Wisdom. It was written before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70; for the temple is
+still standing: see lix. 2.</p>
+
+<p>The author was an orthodox Hellenistic Jew who lived in
+Egypt. He believed in the value of sacrifices (xlii. 6; lix. 1,
+2, &amp;c), but is careful to enforce enlightened views regarding
+them (xlv. 3, 4; lxi. 4, 5.) in the law, lii. 8, 9; in a blessed immortality,
+I. 2; lxv. 6, 8-10, in which the righteous should be
+clothed in &ldquo;the raiment of God&rsquo;s glory,&rdquo; xxii. 8. In questions
+relating to cosmology, sin, death, &amp;c, he is an eclectic, and allows
+himself the most unrestricted freedom, and readily incorporates
+Platonic (xxx. 16), Egyptian (xxv. 2) and Zend (lviii. 4-6) elements
+into his system of thought.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthropological Views.</i>&mdash;All the souls of men were created
+before the foundation of the world (xxiii. 5) and likewise their
+future abodes in heaven or hell (xlix. 2, lviii. 5). Man&rsquo;s name
+was derived, as we have already seen, from the four quarters
+of the world, and his body was compounded from seven substances
+(xxx. 8). He was created originally good: freewill was
+bestowed upon him with instruction in the two ways of light and
+darkness, and then he was left to mould his own destiny (xxx.
+15). But his preferences through the bias of the flesh took an
+evil direction, and death followed as the wages of sin (xxx. 16).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;Morfill and Charles, <i>The Book of the Secrets of
+Enoch</i> (Oxford, 1896); Bonwetsch, &ldquo;Das slavische Henochbuch,&rdquo;
+in the <i>Abhandlungen der königlichen gelehrten Gesellschaft zu Göttingen</i>
+(1896). See also Schürer <i>in loc.</i> and the Bible Dictionaries.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. H. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The evidence is given at length in R.H. Charles&rsquo; <i>Ethiopic Text
+of Enoch</i>, pp. xxvii-xxxiii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENOMOTO, BUYO<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (1839-1909), Japanese vice-admiral,
+was born in Tokyo. He was the first officer sent by the
+Tokugawa government to study naval science in Europe, and
+after going through a course of instruction in Holland he returned
+in command of the frigate &ldquo;Kaiy&#333; Maru,&rdquo; built at Amsterdam
+to order of the Yedo administration. The salient episode of his
+career was an attempt to establish a republic at Hakodate.
+Finding himself in command of a squadron which represented
+practically the whole of Japan&rsquo;s naval forces, he refused to
+acquiesce in the deposition of the Sh&#333;gun, his liege lord, and,
+steaming off to Yezo (1867), proclaimed a republic and fortified
+Hakodate. But he was soon compelled to surrender. The newly
+organized government of the empire, however, instead of inflicting
+the death penalty on him and his principal followers, as
+would have been the inevitable sequel of such a drama in previous
+times, punished them with imprisonment only, and four years
+after the Hakodate episode, Enomoto received an important
+post in Hokkaido, the very scene of his wild attempt. Subsequently
+(1874), as his country&rsquo;s representative in St Petersburg,
+he concluded the treaty by which Japan exchanged the southern
+half of Saghalien for the Kuriles. He received the title of
+viscount in 1885, and afterwards held the portfolios of communications,
+education and foreign affairs. He died at Tokyo
+in 1909.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENOS<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (anc. <i>Aenos</i>), a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet
+of Adrianople; on the southern shore of the river Maritza,
+where its estuary broadens to meet the Aegean Sea in the Gulf
+of Enos. Pop. (1905) about 8000. Enos occupies a ridge of rock
+surrounded by broad marshes. It is the seat of a Greek bishop,
+and the population is mainly Greek. It long possessed a valuable
+export trade, owing to its position at the mouth of the Maritza,
+the great natural waterway from Adrianople to the sea. But its
+commerce has declined, owing to the unhealthiness of its climate,
+to the accumulation of sandbanks in its harbour, which now only
+admits small coasters and fishing-vessels, and to the rivalry of
+Dédéagatch, a neighbouring seaport connected with Adrianople
+by rail.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENRIQUEZ GOMEZ, ANTONIO<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1601-<i>c.</i> 1661), Spanish
+dramatist, poet and novelist of Portuguese-Jewish origin, was
+known in the early part of his career as Enrique Enriquez de
+Paz. Born at Segovia, he entered the army, obtained a captaincy,
+was suspected of heresy, fled to France about 1636,
+assumed the name of Antonio Enriquez Gomez, and became
+majordomo to Louis XIII., to whom he dedicated <i>Luis dado de
+Dios á Anna</i> (Paris, 1645). Some twelve years later he removed
+to Amsterdam, avowed his conversion to Judaism, and was
+burned in effigy at Seville on the 14th of April 1660. He is
+supposed to have returned to France, and to have died there
+in the following year. Three of his plays, <i>El Gran Cardenal de
+España</i>, <i>don Gil de Albornoz</i>, and the two parts of <i>Fernan Mendez
+Pinto</i> were received with great applause at Madrid about 1629;
+in 1635 he contributed a sonnet to Montalban&rsquo;s collection of
+posthumous panegyrics on Lope de Vega, to whose dramatic
+school Enriquez Gomez belonged. The <i>Academias morales de
+las Musas</i>, consisting of four plays (including <i>A lo que obliga el
+honor</i>, which recalls Calderon&rsquo;s <i>Médico de su honra</i>), was published
+at Bordeaux in 1642; <i>La Torre de Babilonia</i>, containing the
+two parts of <i>Fernan Mendez Pinto</i>, appeared at Rouen in 1647;
+and in the preface to his poem, <i>El Samson Nazareno</i> (Rouen,
+1656), Enriquez Gomez gives the titles of sixteen other plays
+issued, as he alleges, at Seville. There is no foundation for the
+theory that he wrote the plays ascribed to Fernando de Zárate.
+His dramatic works, though effective on the stage, are disfigured
+by extravagant incidents and preciosity of diction. The latter
+defect is likewise observable in the mingled prose and verse of
+<i>La Culpa del primer peregrino</i> (Rouen, 1644) and the dialogues
+entitled <i>Politica Angélica</i> (Rouen, 1647). Enriquez Gomez is
+best represented by <i>El Siglo Pitagórico y Vida de don Gregorio
+Guadaña</i> (Rouen, 1644), a striking picaresque novel in prose and
+verse which is still reprinted.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENSCHEDE<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span>, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland,
+near the Prussian frontier, and a junction station 5 m. by rail
+S.E. of Hengelo. Pop. (1900) 23,141. It is important as the
+centre of the flourishing cotton-spinning and weaving industries
+of the Twente district; while by the railway via Gronau and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span>
+Koesfeld to Dortmund it is in direct communication with the
+Westphalian coalfields. Enschede possesses several churches,
+an industrial trade school, and a large park intended for the
+benefit of the working classes. About two-thirds of the town
+was burnt down in 1862.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENSENADA, CENON DE SOMODEVILLA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marques de la</span>
+(1702-1781), Spanish statesman, was born at Alesanco near
+Logroño on the 2nd of June 1702. When he had risen to high
+office it was said that his pedigree was distinguished, but nothing
+is known of his parents&mdash;Francisco de Somodevilla and his wife
+Francisca de Bengoechea,&mdash;nor is anything known of his own
+life before he entered the civil administration of the Spanish
+navy as a clerk in 1720. He served in administrative capacities
+at the relief of Ceuta in that year and in the reoccupation of
+Oran in 1731. His ability was recognized by Don Jose Patiños,
+the chief minister of King Philip V. Somodevilla was much
+employed during the various expeditions undertaken by the
+Spanish government to put the king&rsquo;s sons by his second marriage
+with Elizabeth Farnese, Charles and Philip, on the thrones of
+Naples and Parma. In 1736 Charles, afterwards King Charles
+III. of Spain, conferred on him the Neapolitan title of Marques
+de la Ensenada. The name can be resolved into the three
+Spanish words &ldquo;en se nada,&rdquo; meaning &ldquo;in himself nothing.&rdquo;
+The courtly flattery of the time, and the envy of the nobles who
+disliked the rise of men of Ensenada&rsquo;s class, seized upon this poor
+play on words; an <i>Ensenada</i> is, however, a roadstead or small
+bay. In 1742 he became secretary of state and war to Philip,
+duke of Parma. In the following year (11th of April 1743),
+on the death of Patiños&rsquo;s successor Campillo, he was chosen by
+Philip V. as minister of finance, war, the navy and the Indies
+(<i>i.e.</i> the Colonies). Ensenada met the nomination with a becoming
+<i>nolo episcopari</i>, professing that he was incapable of filling
+the four posts at once. His reluctance was overborne by the
+king, and he became in fact prime minister at the age of forty-one.
+During the remainder of the king&rsquo;s reign, which lasted till the
+11th of July 1746, and under his successor Ferdinand VI. until
+1754, Ensenada was the effective prime minister. His administration
+is notable in Spanish history for the vigour of his
+policy of internal reform. The reports on the finances and general
+condition of the country, which he drew up for the new king
+on his accession, and again after peace was made with England
+at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 18th of October 1748, are very able and
+clear-sighted. Under his direction the despotism of the Bourbon
+kings became paternal. Public works were undertaken, shipping
+was encouraged, trade was fostered, numbers of young Spaniards
+were sent abroad for education. Many of them abused their
+opportunity, but on the whole the prosperity of the country
+revived, and the way was cleared for the more sweeping innovations
+of the following reign. Ensenada was a strong partizan
+of a French alliance and of a policy hostile to England. Sir B.
+Keene, the English minister, supported the Spanish court party
+opposed to him, and succeeded in preventing him from adding
+the foreign office to others which he held. Ensenada would
+probably have fallen sooner but for the support he received from
+the Portuguese queen, Barbara. In 1754 he offended her by
+opposing an exchange of Spanish and Portuguese colonial
+possessions in America which she favoured. On the 20th of
+July of that year he was arrested by the king&rsquo;s order, and sent
+into mild confinement at Granada, which he was afterwards
+allowed to exchange for Puerto de Santa Maria. On the accession
+of Charles III. in 1759, he was released from arrest and allowed
+to return to Madrid. The new king named him as member of a
+commission appointed to reform the system of taxation. Ensenada
+could not renounce the hope of again becoming minister,
+and entered into intrigues which offended the king. On the
+18th of April 1766 he was again exiled from court, and ordered
+to go to Medina del Campo. He had no further share in public
+life, and died on the 2nd of December 1781. Ensenada acquired
+wealth in office, but he was never accused of corruption. Though,
+like most of his countrymen, he suffered from the mania for
+grandeur, and was too fond of imposing schemes out of all proportion
+with the resources of the state, he was undoubtedly
+an able and patriotic man, whose administration was beneficial
+to Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For his administration see W. Coxe, <i>Memoirs of the Kings of Spain
+of the House of Bourbon</i> (London, 1815), but the only complete
+account of Ensenada is by Don Antonio Rodriguez Villa, <i>Don Cenon
+de Somodevilla, Marques de la Ensenada</i> (Madrid, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENSIGN<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (through the Fr. <i>enseigne</i> from the Latin plural
+<i>insignia</i>), a distinguishing token, emblem or badge such as
+symbols of office, or in heraldry, the ornament or sign, such as
+the crown, coronet or mitre borne above the charge or arms.
+The word is more particularly used of a military or naval standard
+or banner. In the British navy, ensign has a specific meaning,
+and is the name of a flag having a red, white or blue ground,
+with the Union Jack in the upper corner next the staff. The
+white ensign (which is sometimes further distinguished by having
+the St George&rsquo;s Cross quartered upon it) is only used in the
+royal navy and the royal yacht squadron, while the blue and
+red ensigns are the badges of the naval reserve, some privileged
+companies, and the merchant service respectively (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flag</a></span>).
+Until 1871 the lowest grade of commissioned officers in infantry
+regiments of the British army had the title of ensign (now
+replaced by that of second lieutenant). It is the duty of the
+officers of this rank to carry the colours of the regiment (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Colours, Military</a></span>). In the 16th century ensign was corrupted
+into &ldquo;ancient,&rdquo; and was used in the two senses of a banner
+and the bearer of the banner. In the United States navy, the
+title ensign superseded in 1862 that of <i>passed midshipman</i>. It
+designates an officer ranking with second lieutenant in the army.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENSILAGE<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span>, the process of preserving green food for cattle
+in an undried condition in a silo (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="siros">&#963;&#953;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, Lat. <i>sirus</i>,
+a pit for holding grain), <i>i.e.</i> a pit, an erection above ground, or
+stack, from which air has been as far as possible excluded.
+The fodder which is the result of the process is called silage.
+In various parts of Germany a method of preserving green fodder
+precisely similar to that used in the case of <i>Sauerkraut</i> has prevailed
+for upwards of a century. Special attention was first
+directed to the practice of ensilage by a French agriculturist,
+Auguste Goffart of the district of Sologne, near Orleans, who in
+1877 published a work (<i>Manuel de la culture et de l&rsquo;ensilage des
+maïs et autres fourrages verts</i>) detailing the experiences of many
+years in preserving green crops in silos. An English translation
+of Goffart&rsquo;s book by J.B. Brown was published in New York in
+1879, and, as various experiments had been previously made
+in the United States in the way of preserving green crops in pits,
+Goffart&rsquo;s experience attracted considerable attention. The
+conditions of American dairy farming proved eminently suitable
+for the ensiling of green maize fodder; and the success of the
+method was soon indisputably demonstrated among the New
+England farmers. The favourable results obtained in America
+led to much discussion and to the introduction of the system
+in the United Kingdom, where, with different conditions, success
+has been more qualified.</p>
+
+<p>It has been abundantly proved that ensilage forms a wholesome
+and nutritious food for cattle. It can be substituted for root
+crops with advantage, because it is succulent and digestible;
+milk resulting from it is good in quality and taste; it can be
+secured largely irrespective of weather; it carries over grass
+from the period of great abundance and waste to times when
+none would otherwise be available; and a larger number of
+cattle can be supported on a given area by the use of ensilage
+than is possible by the use of green crops.</p>
+
+<p>Early silos were made of stone or concrete either above or
+below ground, but it is recognized that air may be sufficiently
+excluded in a tightly pressed stack, though in this case a few
+inches of the fodder round the sides is generally useless owing to
+mildew. In America round erections made of wood and 35 or
+40 ft. in depth are most commonly used. The crops suitable for
+ensilage are the ordinary grasses, clovers, lucerne, vetches, oats,
+rye and maize, the latter being the most important silage crop
+in America; various weeds may also be stored in silos with good
+results, notably spurrey (<i>Spergula arvensis</i>), a most troublesome
+plant in poor light soils. As a rule the crop should be mown
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span>
+when in full flower, and deposited in the silo on the day of its
+cutting. Maize is cut a few days before it is ripe and is shredded
+before being elevated into the silo. Fair, dry weather is not
+essential; but it is found that when moisture, natural and
+extraneous, exceeds 75% of the whole, good results are not
+obtained. The material is spread in uniform layers over the
+floor of the silo, and closely packed and trodden down. If
+possible, not more than a foot or two should be added daily,
+so as to allow the mass to settle down closely, and to heat uniformly
+throughout. When the silo is filled or the stack built,
+a layer of straw or some other dry porous substance may be
+spread over the surface. In the silo the pressure of the material,
+when chaffed, excludes air from all but the top layer; in the
+case of the stack extra pressure is applied by means of planks
+or other weighty objects in order to prevent excessive heating.</p>
+
+<p>The closeness with which the fodder is packed determines the
+nature of the resulting silage by regulating the chemical changes
+which occur in the stack. When closely packed, the supply of
+oxygen is limited; and the attendant acid fermentation brings
+about the decomposition of the carbohydrates present into
+acetic, butyric and lactic acids. This product is named &ldquo;sour
+silage.&rdquo; If, on the other hand, the fodder be unchaffed and
+loosely packed, or the silo be built gradually, oxidation proceeds
+more rapidly and the temperature rises; if the mass be compressed
+when the temperature is 140°-160° F., the action ceases
+and &ldquo;sweet silage&rdquo; results. The nitrogenous ingredients of the
+fodder also suffer change: in making sour silage as much as
+one-third of the albuminoids may be converted into amino and
+ammonium compounds; while in making &ldquo;sweet silage&rdquo; a
+less proportion is changed, but they become less digestible.
+In extreme cases, sour silage acquires a most disagreeable odour.
+On the other hand it keeps better than sweet silage when removed
+from the silo.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENSTATITE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the group of
+orthorhombic pyroxenes. It is a magnesium metasilicate,
+MgSiO<span class="su">3</span>, often with a little iron replacing the magnesium: as
+the iron increases in amount there is a transition to bronzite
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and with still more iron to hypersthene (<i>q.v.</i>). Bronzite
+and hypersthene were known long before enstatite, which was
+first described by G.A. Kenngott in 1855, and named from
+<span class="grk" title="enstatês">&#7952;&#957;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;an opponent,&rdquo; because the mineral is almost infusible
+before the blowpipe: the material he described consisted
+of imperfect prismatic crystals, previously thought to be scapolite,
+from the serpentine of Mount Zdjar near Schönberg in Moravia.
+Crystals suitable for goniometric measurement were later found
+in the meteorite which fell at Breitenbach in the Erzgebirge,
+Bohemia. Large crystals, a foot in length and mostly altered to
+steatite, were found in 1874 in the apatite veins traversing
+mica-schist and hornblende-schist at the apatite mine of Kjörrestad,
+near Brevig in southern Norway. Isolated crystals are
+of rare occurrence, the mineral being usually found as an essential
+constituent of igneous rocks; either as irregular masses in
+plutonic rocks (norite, peridotite, pyroxenite, &amp;c.) and the
+serpentines which have resulted by their alteration, or as small
+idiormorphic crystals in volcanic rocks (trachyte, andesite). It
+is also a common constituent of meteoric stones, forming with
+olivine the bulk of the material: here it often forms small
+spherical masses, or chondrules, with an internal radiated
+structure.</p>
+
+<p>Enstatite and the other orthorhombic pyroxenes are distinguished
+from those of the monoclinic series by their optical
+characters, viz. straight extinction, much weaker double refraction
+and stronger pleochroism: they have prismatic cleavages
+(with an angle of 88° 16&prime;) as well as planes of parting parallel
+to the planes of symmetry in the prism-zone. Enstatite is
+white, greenish or brown in colour; its hardness is 5½, and sp.
+gr. 3.2-3.3.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTABLATURE<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (Lat. <i>in</i>, and <i>tabula</i>, a tablet), the architectural
+term for the superstructure carried by the columns
+in the classic orders (<i>q.v.</i>). It usually consists of three members,
+the architrave (the supporting member carried from column to
+column, pier or wall); the frieze (the decorative member); and
+the cornice (the projecting and protective member). Sometimes
+the frieze is omitted, as in the entablature of the portico of the
+caryatides of the Erechtheum. There is every reason to believe
+that the frieze did not exist in the archaic temple of Diana at
+Ephesus; and it is not found in the Lycian tombs, which are
+reproductions in the rock of timber structures based on early
+Ionian work.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTADA,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> in botany, a woody climber belonging to the family
+<i>Leguminosae</i> and common throughout the tropics. The best-known
+species is <i>Entada scandens</i>, the sword-bean, so called
+from its large woody pod, 2 to 4 ft. in length and 3 to 4 in.
+broad, which contains large flat hard polished chestnut-coloured
+seeds or &ldquo;beans.&rdquo; The seeds are often made into snuff-boxes or
+match-boxes, and a preparation from the kernel is used as a drug
+by the natives in India. The seeds will float for a long time in
+water, and are often thrown up on the north-western coasts of
+Europe, having been carried by the Gulf-stream from the West
+Indies; they retain their vitality, and under favourable conditions
+will germinate. Linnaeus records the germination of a
+seed on the coast of Norway.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTAIL<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>tailler</i>, to cut; the old derivation from
+<i>tales haeredes</i> is now abandoned), in law, a limited form of
+succession (<i>q.v.</i>). In architecture, the term &ldquo;entail&rdquo; denotes an
+ornamental device sunk in the ground of stone or brass, and
+subsequently filled in with marble, mosaic or enamel.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTASIS<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="enteinein">&#7952;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to stretch a line or bend a bow),
+in architecture, the increment given to the column (<i>q.v.</i>), to
+correct the optical illusion which produces an apparent hollowness
+in an extended straight line. It was referred to by Vitruvius
+(iii. 3), and was first noticed in the columns of the Doric orders
+in Greek temples by Allason in 1814, and afterwards measured
+and verified by Penrose. It varies in different temples, and is not
+found in some: it is most pronounced in the temple of Jupiter
+Olympius, most delicate in the Erechtheum. The entasis is
+almost invariably introduced in the spires of English churches.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTERITIS<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="enteron">&#7956;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, intestine), a general medical term for
+inflammation of the bowels. According to the anatomical part
+specially attacked, it is subdivided into duodenitis, jejunitis,
+ileitis, typhlitis, appendicitis, colitis, proctitis. The chief
+<span class="correction" title="amended from sympton">symptom</span> is diarrhoea. The term &ldquo;enteric fever&rdquo; has recently
+come into use instead of &ldquo;typhoid&rdquo; for the latter disease; but
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Typhoid Fever</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTHUSIASM<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span>, a word originally meaning inspiration by a
+divine afflatus or by the presence of a god. The Gr. <span class="grk" title="enthousiasmos">&#7952;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;&#945;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>,
+from which the word is adapted, is formed from the verb
+<span class="grk" title="enthousiazein">&#7952;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;&#940;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to be <span class="grk" title="entheos">&#7956;&#957;&#952;&#949;&#959;&#962;</span>, possessed by a god <span class="grk" title="théos">&#952;&#941;&#959;&#962;</span>. Applied
+by the Greeks to manifestations of divine &ldquo;possession,&rdquo; by
+Apollo, as in the case of the Pythia, or by Dionysus, as in the
+case of the Bacchantes and Maenads, it was also used in a transferred
+or figurative sense; thus Socrates speaks of the inspiration
+of poets as a form of enthusiasm (Plato, <i>Apol. Soc.</i> 22 C). Its
+uses, in a religious sense, are confined to an exaggerated or
+wrongful belief in religious inspiration, or to intense religious
+fervour or emotion. Thus a Syrian sect of the 4th century was
+known as &ldquo;the Enthusiasts&rdquo;; they believed that by perpetual
+prayer, ascetic practices and contemplation, man could become
+inspired by the Holy Spirit, in spite of the ruling evil spirit,
+which the fall had given to him. From their belief in the efficacy
+of prayer <span class="grk" title="euchê">&#949;&#8016;&#967;&#942;</span>, they were also known as Euchites. In ordinary
+usage, &ldquo;enthusiasm&rdquo; has lost its peculiar religious significance,
+and means a whole-hearted devotion to an ideal, cause, study or
+pursuit; sometimes, in a depreciatory sense, it implies a devotion
+which is partisan and is blind to difficulties and objections.
+(See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inspiration</a></span>, for a comparison of the religious
+meanings of &ldquo;enthusiasm,&rdquo; &ldquo;ecstasy&rdquo; and &ldquo;fanaticism.&rdquo;)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTHYMEME<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="en, thymos">&#7952;&#957;, &#952;&#965;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>), in formal logic, the technical
+name of a syllogistic argument which is incompletely stated.
+Any one of the premises may be omitted, but in general it is
+that one which is most obvious or most naturally present to the
+mind. In point of fact the full formal statement of a syllogism
+is rare, especially in rhetorical language, when the deliberate
+omission of one of the premises has a dramatic effect. Thus the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span>
+suppression of the conclusion may have the effect of emphasizing
+the idea which necessarily follows from the premises. Far
+commoner is the omission of one of the premises which is either
+too clear to need statement or of a character which makes its
+omission desirable. A famous instance quoted in the <i>Port Royal
+Logic</i>, pt. iii. ch. xiv., is Medea&rsquo;s remark to Jason in Ovid&rsquo;s
+<i>Medea</i>, &ldquo;Servare potui, perdere an possim rogas?&rdquo; where the
+major premise &ldquo;Qui servare, perdere possunt&rdquo; is understood.
+This use of the word enthymeme differs from Aristotle&rsquo;s original
+application of it to a syllogism based on probabilities or signs
+(<span class="grk" title="ex eikotôn ê sêmeiôn">&#7952;&#958; &#949;&#7984;&#954;&#972;&#964;&#969;&#957; &#7972; &#963;&#951;&#956;&#949;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span>), <i>i.e.</i> on propositions which are generally
+valid (<span class="grk" title="eikota">&#949;&#7984;&#954;&#972;&#964;&#945;</span>) or on particular facts which may be held to justify
+a general principle or another particular fact (<i>Anal. prior.</i>
+&beta; xxvii. 70 a 10).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See beside text-books on logic, Sir W. Hamilton&rsquo;s <i>Discussions</i>
+(1547); Mansel&rsquo;s ed. of Aldrich, Appendix F; H.W.B. Joseph,
+<i>Introd. to Logic</i>, chap. xvi.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTOMOLOGY<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="entoma,">&#7956;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#945;</span> insects, and <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, a discourse),
+the science that treats of insects, <i>i.e.</i> of the animals included in
+the class Hexapoda of the great phylum (or sub-phylum) Arthropoda.
+The term, however, is somewhat elastic in its current use,
+and students of centipedes and spiders are often reckoned among
+the entomologists. As the number of species of insects is believed
+to exceed that of all other animals taken together, it is no
+wonder that their study should form a special division of zoology
+with a distinctive name.</p>
+
+<p>Beetles (Scarabaei) are the subjects of some of the oldest
+sculptured works of the Egyptians, and references to locusts,
+bees and ants are familiar to all readers of the Hebrew scriptures.
+The interest of insects to the eastern races was, however, economic,
+religious or moral. The science of insects began with Aristotle,
+who included in a class &ldquo;Entoma&rdquo; the true insects, the arachnids
+and the myriapods, the Crustacea forming another class
+(&ldquo;Malacostraca&rdquo;) of the &ldquo;Anaema&rdquo; or &ldquo;bloodless animals.&rdquo;
+For nearly 2000 years the few writers who dealt with zoological
+subjects followed Aristotle&rsquo;s leading.</p>
+
+<p>In the history of the science, various lines of progress have to
+be traced. While some observers have studied in detail the
+structure and life-history of a few selected types (insect anatomy
+and development), others have made a more superficial examination
+of large series of insects to classify them and determine
+their relationships (systematic entomology), while others again
+have investigated the habits and life-relations of insects (insect
+bionomics). During recent years the study of fossil insects
+(palaeoëntomology) has attracted much attention.</p>
+
+<p>The foundations of modern entomology were laid by a series of
+wonderful memoirs on anatomy and development published in
+the 17th and 18th centuries. Of these the most famous are
+M. Malpighi&rsquo;s treatise on the silkworm (1669) and J. Swammerdam&rsquo;s
+<i>Biblia naturae</i>, issued in 1737, fifty years after its author&rsquo;s
+death, and containing observations on the structure and life-history
+of a series of insect types. Aristotle and Harvey (<i>De
+generatione animalium</i>, 1651) had considered the insect larva
+as a prematurely hatched embryo and the pupa as a second egg.
+Swammerdam, however, showed the presence under the larval
+cuticle of the pupal structures. His only unfortunate contribution
+to entomology&mdash;indeed to zoology generally&mdash;was his theory
+of pre-formation, which taught the presence within the egg of a
+perfectly formed but miniature adult. A year before Malpighi&rsquo;s
+great work appeared, another Italian naturalist, F. Redi, had
+disproved by experiment the spontaneous generation of maggots
+from putrid flesh, and had shown that they can only develop
+from the eggs of flies.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the English naturalist, John Ray, was studying the
+classification of animals; he published, in 1705, his <i>Methodus
+insectorum</i>, in which the nature of the metamorphosis received
+due weight. Ray&rsquo;s &ldquo;Insects&rdquo; comprised the Arachnids, Crustacea,
+Myriapoda and Annelida, in addition to the Hexapods.
+Ray was the first to formulate that definite conception of the
+species which was adopted by Linnaeus and emphasized by his
+binominal nomenclature. In 1735 appeared the first edition of
+the <i>Systema naturae</i> of Linnaeus, in which the &ldquo;Insecta&rdquo; form
+a group equivalent to the Arthropoda of modern zoologists,
+and are divided into seven orders, whose names&mdash;Coleoptera,
+Diptera, Lepidoptera, &amp;c., founded on the nature of the wings&mdash;have
+become firmly established. The fascinating subjects of
+insect bionomics and life-history were dealt with in the classical
+memoirs (1734-1742) of the Frenchman R.A.F. de Réaumur,
+and (1752-1778) of the Swede C. de Geer. The freshness, the
+air of leisure, the enthusiasm of discovery that mark the work of
+these old writers have lessons for the modern professional
+zoologist, who at times feels burdened with the accumulated
+knowledge of a century and a half. From the end of the 18th
+century until the present day, it is only possible to enumerate
+the outstanding features in the progress of entomology. In the
+realm of classification, the work of Linnaeus was continued in
+Denmark by J.C. Fabricius (<i>Systema entomologica</i>, 1775), and
+extended in France by G.P.B. Lamarck (<i>Animaux sans vertèbres</i>,
+1801) and G. Cuvier (<i>Leçons d&rsquo;anatomie comparée</i>, 1800-1805),
+and in England by W.E. Leach (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> xi., 1815).
+These three authors definitely separated the Arachnida, Crustacea
+and Myriapoda as classes distinct from the Insecta (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span>). The work of J.O. Westwood (<i>Modern Classification
+of Insects</i>, 1839-1840) connects these older writers with their
+successors of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>In the anatomical field the work of Malpighi and Swammerdam
+was at first continued most energetically by French students.
+P. Lyonnet had published in 1760 his elaborate monograph on
+the goat-moth caterpillar, and H.E. Strauss-Dürckheim in 1828
+issued his great treatise on the cockchafer. But the name of
+J.C.L. de Savigny, who (<i>Mém. sur les animaux sans vertèbres</i>,
+1816) established the homology of the jaws of all insects whether
+biting or sucking, deserves especial honour. Many anatomical
+and developmental details were carefully worked out by L.
+Dufour (in a long series of memoirs from 1811 to 1860) in France,
+by G. Newport (&ldquo;Insecta&rdquo; in <i>Encyc. Anat. and Physiol.</i>, 1839)
+in England, and by H. Burmeister (<i>Handbuch der Entomologie</i>,
+1832) in Germany. Through the 19th century, as knowledge
+increased, the work of investigation became necessarily more and
+more specialized. Anatomists like F. Leydig, F. Müller, B.T.
+Lowne and V. Graber turned their attention to the detailed
+investigation of some one species or to special points in the
+structure of some particular organs, using for the elucidation
+of their subject the ever-improving microscopical methods of
+research.</p>
+
+<p>Societies for the discussion and publication of papers on
+entomology were naturally established as the number of students
+increased. The Société Entomologique de France was founded
+in 1832, the Entomological Society of London in 1834. Few
+branches of zoology have been more valuable as a meeting-ground
+for professional and amateur naturalists than entomology,
+and not seldom has the amateur&mdash;as in the case of Westwood&mdash;developed
+into a professor. During the pre-Linnaean period,
+the beauty of insects&mdash;especially the Lepidoptera&mdash;had attracted
+a number of collectors; and these &ldquo;Aurelians&rdquo;&mdash;regarded as
+harmless lunatics by most of their friends&mdash;were the forerunners
+of the systematic students of later times. While the insect
+fauna of European countries was investigated by local naturalists,
+the spread of geographical exploration brought ever-increasing
+stores of exotic material to the great museums, and specialization&mdash;either
+in the fauna of a small district or in the world-wide study
+of an order or a group of families&mdash;became constantly more
+marked in systematic work. As examples may be instanced
+the studies of A.H. Haliday and H. Loew on the European
+Diptera, of John Curtis on British insects, of H.T. Stainton
+and O. Staudinger on the European Lepidoptera, of R. M&rsquo;Lachlan
+on the European and of H.A. Hagen on the North American
+Neuroptera, of D. Sharp on the <i>Dyticidae</i> and other families of
+Coleoptera of the whole world.</p>
+
+<p>The embryology of insects is entirely a study of the last
+century. C. Bonnet indeed observed in 1745 the virgin-reproduction
+of Aphids, but it was not until 1842 that R.A. von
+Kölliker described the formation of the blastoderm in the egg
+of the midge <i>Chironomus</i>. Later A. Weismann (1863-1864)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span>
+traced details of the growth of embryo and of pupa among the
+Diptera, and A. Kovalevsky in 1871 first described the formation
+of the germinal layers in insects. Most of the recent work on
+the embryology of insects has been done in Germany or the United
+States, and among numerous students V. Graber, K. Heider,
+W.M. Wheeler and R. Heymons may be especially mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The work of de Réaumur and de Geer on the bionomics and
+life-history of insects has been continued by numerous observers,
+among whom may be especially mentioned in France J.H. Fabre
+and C. Janet, in England W. Kirby and W. Spence, J. Lubbock
+(Lord Avebury) and L.C. Miall, and in the United States C.V.
+Riley. The last-named may be considered the founder of the
+strong company of entomological workers now labouring in
+America. Though Riley was especially interested in the bearings
+of insect life on agriculture and industry&mdash;economic entomology
+(<i>q.v.</i>)&mdash;he and his followers have laid the science generally under
+a deep obligation by their researches.</p>
+
+<p>After the publication of C. Darwin&rsquo;s <i>Origin of Species</i> (1859)
+a fresh impetus was given to entomology as to all branches of
+zoology, and it became generally recognized that insects form a
+group convenient and hopeful for the elucidation of certain
+problems of animal evolution. The writings of Darwin himself
+and of A.R. Wallace (both at one time active entomological
+collectors) contain much evidence drawn from insects in favour
+of descent with modification. The phylogeny of insects has since
+been discussed by F. Brauer, A.S. Packard and many others;
+mimicry and allied problems by H.W. Bates, F. Müller, E.B.
+Poulton and M.C. Piepers; the bearing of insect habits on
+theories of selection and use-inheritance by A. Weismann, G.W.
+and E. Peckham, G.H.T. Eimer and Herbert Spencer; variation
+by W. Bateson and M. Standfuss.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;References to the works of the above authors,
+and to many others, will be found under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span> and the special
+articles on various insect orders. Valuable summaries of the labours
+of Malpighi, Swammerdam and other early entomologists are given
+in L.C. Miall and A. Denny&rsquo;s <i>Cockroach</i> (London, 1886), and L.
+Henneguy&rsquo;s <i>Les Insectes</i> (Paris, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTOMOSTRACA.<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> This zoological term, as now restricted,
+includes the Branchiopoda, Ostracoda and Copepoda. The
+Ostracoda have the body enclosed in a bivalve shell-covering,
+and normally unsegmented. The Branchiopoda have a very
+variable number of body-segments, with or without a shield,
+simple or bivalved, and some of the postoral appendages normally
+branchial. The Copepoda have normally a segmented body, not
+enclosed in a bivalved shell-covering, the segments not exceeding
+eleven, the limbs not branchial.</p>
+
+<p>Under the heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crustacea</a></span> the Entomostraca have already
+been distinguished not only from the Thyrostraca or Cirripedes,
+but also from the Malacostraca, and an intermediate group of
+which the true position is still disputed. The choice is open to
+maintain the last as an independent subclass, and to follow Claus
+in calling it the Leptostraca, or to introduce it among the
+Malacostraca as the Nebaliacea, or with Packard and Sars to
+make it an entomostracan subdivision under the title Phyllocarida.
+At present it comprises the single family <i>Nebaliidae</i>.
+The bivalved carapace has a jointed rostrum, and covers only the
+front part of the body, to which it is only attached quite in
+front, the valve-like sides being under control of an adductor
+muscle. The eyes are stalked and movable. The first antennae
+have a lamellar appendage at the end of the peduncle, a decidedly
+non-entomostracan feature. The second antennae, mandibles
+and two pairs of maxillae may also be claimed as of malacostracan
+type. To these succeed eight pairs of foliaceous branchial
+appendages on the front division of the body, followed on the
+hind division by four pairs of powerful bifurcate swimming feet
+and two rudimentary pairs, the number, though not the nature,
+of these appendages being malacostracan. On the other hand,
+the two limbless segments that precede the caudal furca are
+decidedly non-malacostracan. The family was long limited to
+the single genus <i>Nebalia</i> (Leach), and the single species <i>N. bipes</i>
+(O. Fabricius). Recently Sars has added a Norwegian species,
+<i>N. typhlops</i>, not blind but weak-eyed. There are also now two
+more genera, <i>Paranebalia</i> (Claus, 1880), in which the branchial
+feet are much longer than in <i>Nebalia</i>, and <i>Nebaliopsis</i> (Sars,
+1887), in which they are much shorter. All the species are
+marine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Branchiopoda.</span>&mdash;In this order, exclusion of the Phyllocarida
+will leave three suborders of very unequal extent, the Phyllopoda,
+Cladocera, Branchiura. The constituents of the last have often
+been classed as Copepoda, and among the Branchiopods must be
+regarded as aberrant, since the &ldquo;branchial tail&rdquo; implied in the
+name has no feet, and the actual feet are by no means obviously
+branchial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phyllopoda.</i>&mdash;This &ldquo;leaf-footed&rdquo; suborder has the appendages
+which follow the second maxillae variable in number, but all
+foliaceous and branchial. The development begins with a free
+nauplius stage. In the outward appearance of the adults there
+is great want of uniformity, one set having their limbs sheltered
+by no carapace, another having a broad shield over most of
+them, and a third having a bivalved shell-cover within which the
+whole body can be enclosed. In accord with these differences
+the sections may be named Gymnophylla, Notophylla, Conchophylla.
+The equivalent terms applied by Sars are Anostraca,
+Notostraca, Conchostraca, involving a termination already
+appropriated to higher divisions of the Crustacean class, for
+which it ought to be reserved.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. Gymnophylla.&mdash;These singular crustaceans have long soft
+flexible bodies, the eyes stalked and movable, the first antennae
+small and filiform, the second lamellar in the female, in the male
+prehensile; this last character gives rise to some very fanciful
+developments. There are three families, two of which form companies
+rather severely limited. Thus the <i>Polyartemiidae</i>, which
+compensate themselves for their stumpy little tails by having nineteen
+instead of the normal eleven pairs of branchial feet, consist
+exclusively of <i>Polyartemia forcipata</i> (Fischer, 1851). This species
+from the high north of Europe and Asia carries green eggs, and above
+them a bright pattern in ultramarine (Sars, 1896, 1897). The
+<i>Thamnocephalidae</i> have likewise but a single species, <i>Thamnocephalus
+platyurus</i> (Packard, 1877), which justifies its title &ldquo;bushy-head of
+the broad tail&rdquo; by a singularity at each end. Forward from the
+head extends a long ramified appendage described as the &ldquo;frontal
+shrub,&rdquo; backward from the fourth abdominal segment of the male
+spreads a fin-like expansion which is unique. In the ravines of
+Kansas, pools supplied by torrential rains give birth to these and
+many other phyllopods, and in turn &ldquo;millions of them perish by the
+drying up of the pools in July&rdquo; (Packard). The remaining family,
+the <i>Branchipodidae</i>, includes eight genera. In the long familiar
+<i>Branchipus</i>, <i>Chirocephalus</i> and <i>Streptocephalus</i> the males have frontal
+appendages, but these are wanting in the &ldquo;brine-shrimp&rdquo; <i>Artemia</i>,
+and the same want helps to distinguish <i>Branchinecta</i> (Verrill, 1869)
+from the old genus <i>Branchipus</i>. Of <i>Branchiopsyllus</i> (Sars, 1897) the
+male is not yet known, but in his genera of the same date, the Siberian
+<i>Artemiopsis</i> and the South African <i>Branchipodopsis</i> (1898), there
+is no such appendage. Of the last genus the type species <i>B. hodgsoni</i>
+belongs to Cape Colony, but the specimens described were born and
+bred and observed in Norway. For the study of fresh-water Entomostraca
+large possibilities are now opened to the naturalist. A
+parcel of dried mud, coming for example from Palestine or Queensland,
+and after an indefinite interval of time put into water in
+England or elsewhere, may yield him living forms, both new and old,
+in the most agreeable variety. Some caution should be used against
+confounding accidentally introduced indigenous species with those
+reared from the imported eggs. Those, too, who send or bring the
+foreign soil should exercise a little thought in the choice of it, since
+dry earth that has never had any Entomostraca near it at home will
+not become fertile in them by the mere fact of exportation.</p>
+
+<p>2. Notophylla.&mdash;In this division the body is partly covered by a
+broad shield, united in front with the head; the eyes are sessile,
+the first antennae are small, the second rudimentary or wanting; of
+the numerous feet, sometimes sixty-three pairs, exceeding the
+number of segments to which they are attached, the first pair are
+more or less unlike the rest, and in the female the eleventh have
+the epipod and exopod (flabellum and sub-apical lobe of Lankester)
+modified to form an ovisac. Development begins with a nauplius
+stage. Males are very rare. The single family <i>Apodidae</i> contains
+only two genera, <i>Apus</i> and its very near neighbour <i>Lepidurus</i>.
+<i>Apus australiensis</i> (Spencer and Hall, 1896) may rank as the largest
+of the Entomostraca, reaching in the male, from front of shield to end
+of telson, a length of 70 mm., in the female of 64 mm. In a few days,
+or at most a fortnight, after a rainfall numberless specimens of these
+sizes were found swimming about, &ldquo;and as not a single one was to
+be found in the water-pools prior to the rain, these must have been
+developed from the egg.&rdquo; Similarly, in Northern India <i>Apus himalayanus</i>
+was &ldquo;collected from a stagnant pool in a jungle four days
+after a shower of rain had fallen,&rdquo; following a drought of four months
+(Packard).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span></p>
+
+<p>3. Conchophylla.&mdash;Though concealed within the bivalved shell-cover,
+the mouth-parts are nearly as in the Gymnophylla, but the
+flexing of the caudal part is in contrast, and the biramous second
+antennae correspond with what is only a larval character in the
+other phyllopods. In the male the first one or two pairs of feet
+are modified into grasping organs. The small ova are crowded
+beneath the dorsal part of the valves. The development usually
+begins with a nauplius stage (Sars, 1896, 1900). There are four
+families: (<i>a</i>) The <i>Limnadiidae</i>, with feet from 18 to 32 pairs, comprise
+four (or five) genera. Of these <i>Limnadella</i> (Girard, 1855) has
+a single eye. It remains rather obscure, though the type species
+originally &ldquo;was discovered in great abundance in a roadside puddle
+subject to desiccation.&rdquo; <i>Limnadia</i> (Brongniart, 1820) is supposed
+to consist of species exclusively parthenogenetic. But when asked
+to believe that males never occur among these amazons, one cannot
+but remember how hard it is to prove a negative. (<i>b</i>) The <i>Lynceidae</i>,
+with not more than twelve pairs of feet. This family is limited to the
+species, widely distributed, of the single genus <i>Lynceus</i>, established
+by O.F. Müller in 1776 and 1781, and first restricted by Leach in
+1816 in the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> (art. &ldquo;Annulosa,&rdquo; of that
+edition). Leach there assigns to it the single species <i>L. brachyurus</i>
+(Müller), and as this is included in the genus <i>Limnetis</i> (Lovén, 1846),
+that genus must be a synonym of <i>Lynceus</i> as restricted. (<i>c</i>) <i>Leptestheriidae</i>.
+<i>Estheria</i> (Rüppell, 1837) was instituted for the species
+<i>dahalacensis</i>, which Sars includes in his genus <i>Leptestheria</i> (1898);
+but <i>Estheria</i> was already appropriated, and of its synonyms <i>Cyzicus</i>
+(Audouin, 1837) is lost for vagueness, while <i>Isaura</i> (Joly, 1842) is
+also appropriated, so that <i>Leptestheria</i> becomes the name of the
+typical genus, and determines the name of the family. (<i>d</i>) <i>Cyclestheriidae</i>.
+This family consists of the single species <i>Cyclestheria
+hislopi</i> (Baird), reported from India, Ceylon, Celebes, Australia, East
+Africa and Brazil. Sars (1887) having had the opportunity of raising
+it from dried Australian mud, found that, unlike other phyllopods,
+but like the Cladocera, the parent keeps its brood within the shell
+until their full development.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Cladocera.</i>&mdash;In this suborder the head is more or less distinct,
+the rest of the body being in general laterally compressed and
+covered by a bivalved test. The title &ldquo;branching horns&rdquo;
+alludes to the second antennae, which are two-branched except
+in the females of <i>Holopedium</i>, with each branch setiferous,
+composed of only two to four joints. The mandibles are without
+palp. The pairs of feet are four to six. The eye is single, and in
+addition to the eye there is often an &ldquo;eye-spot,&rdquo; <i>Monospilus</i>
+being unique in having the eye-spot alone and no eye, while
+<i>Leydigiopsis</i> (Sars, 1901) has an eye with an eye-spot equal to it
+or larger. The heart has a pair of venous ostia, often blending
+into one, and an anterior arterial aorta. Respiration is conducted
+by the general surface, by the branchial lamina (external branch)
+of the feet, and the vesicular appendage (when present) at the
+base of this branch. The &ldquo;abdomen,&rdquo; behind the limbs, is
+usually very short, occasionally very long. The &ldquo;postabdomen,&rdquo;
+marked off by the two postabdominal setae, usually has teeth or
+spines, and ends in two denticulate or ciliate claws, or it may be
+rudimentary, as in <i>Polyphemus</i>. Many species have a special
+glandular organ at the back of the head, which <i>Sida crystallina</i>
+uses for attaching itself to various objects. The Leydigian or
+nuchal organ is supposed to be auditory and to contain an otolith.
+The female lays two kinds of eggs&mdash;&ldquo;summer-eggs,&rdquo; which
+develop without fertilization, and &ldquo;winter-eggs&rdquo; or resting eggs,
+which require to be fertilized. The latter in the <i>Daphniidae</i> are
+enclosed in a modified part of the mother&rsquo;s shell, called the
+ephippium from its resemblance to a saddle in shape and position.
+In other families a less elaborate case has been observed, for
+which Scourfield has proposed the term protoephippium. In
+<i>Leydigia</i> he has recently found a structure almost as complex
+as that of the <i>Daphniidae</i>. In some families the resting eggs
+escape into the water without special covering. Only the
+embryos of <i>Leptodora</i> are known to hatch out in the nauplius
+stage. <i>Penilia</i> (Dana, 1849) is perhaps the only exclusively
+marine genus. The great majority of the Cladocera belong to
+fresh water, but their adaptability is large, since <i>Moina rectirostris</i>
+(O.F. Müller) can equally enjoy a pond at Blackheath, and near
+Odessa live in water twice as salt as that of the ocean. In point
+of size a Cladoceran of 5 mm. is spoken of as colossal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Dr Jules Richard in his revision (1895) retains the sections proposed
+by Sars in 1865, Calyptomera and Gymnomera. The former,
+with the feet for the most part concealed by the carapace, is subdivided
+into two tribes, the Ctenopoda, or &ldquo;comb-feet,&rdquo; in which the
+six pairs of similar feet, all branchial and nonprehensile, are furnished
+with setae arranged like the teeth of a comb, and the Anomopoda, or
+&ldquo;variety-feet,&rdquo; in which the front feet differ from the rest by being
+more or less prehensile, without branchial laminae.</p>
+
+<p>The Ctenopoda comprise two families: (<i>a</i>) the <i>Holopediidae</i>,
+with a solitary species, <i>Holopedium gibberum</i> (Zaddach), queerly
+clothed in a large gelatinous involucre, and found in mountain
+tarns all over Europe, in large lakes of N. America, and also in
+shallow ponds and waters at sea-level; (<i>b</i>) the <i>Sididae</i>, with no such
+involucre, but with seven genera, and rather more than twice as
+many species. Of <i>Diaphanosoma modiglianii</i> Richard says that at
+different points of Lake Toba in Sumatra millions of specimens
+were obtained, among which he had not met with a single male.</p>
+
+<p>The Anomopoda are arranged in four families, all but one very
+extensive. (<i>a</i>) <i>Daphniidae</i>. Of the seven genera, the cosmopolitan
+<i>Daphnia</i> contains about 100 species and varieties, of which Thomas
+Scott (1899) observes that &ldquo;scarcely any of the several characters
+that have at one time or another been selected as affording a means
+for discriminating between the different forms can be relied on as
+satisfactory.&rdquo; Though this may dishearten the systematist, Scourfield
+(1900) reminds us that &ldquo;It was in a water-flea that Metschnikoff
+first saw the leucocytes (or phagocytes) trying to get rid of
+disease germs by swallowing them, and was so led to his epoch-making
+discovery of the part played by these minute amoeboid
+corpuscles in the animal body.&rdquo; For <i>Scapholeberis mucronata</i>
+(O.F. Müller), Scourfield has shown how it is adapted for movement
+back downwards in the water along the underside of the surface
+film, which to many small crustaceans is a dangerously disabling
+trap. (<i>b</i>) <i>Bosminidae</i>. To <i>Bosmina</i> (Baird, 1845) Richard added
+<i>Bosminopsis</i> in 1895. (<i>c</i>) <i>Macrotrichidae.</i> In this family <i>Macrothrix</i>
+(Baird, 1843) is the earliest genus, among the latest being <i>Grimaldina</i>
+(Richard, 1892) and <i>Jheringula</i> (Sars, 1900). Dried mud and vegetable
+débris from S. Paulo in Brazil supplied Sars with representatives
+of all the three in his Norwegian aquaria, in some of which the little
+<i>Macrothrix elegans</i> &ldquo;multiplied to such an extraordinary extent as
+at last to fill up the water with immense shoals of individuals.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The appearance of male specimens was always contemporary with
+the first ephippial formation in the females.&rdquo; For <i>Streblocerus
+pygmaeus</i>, grown under the same conditions, Sars observes: &ldquo;This
+is perhaps the smallest of the Cladocera known, and is hardly more
+than visible to the naked eye,&rdquo; the adult female scarcely exceeding
+0.25 mm. Yet in the next family <i>Alonella nana</i> (Baird) disputes
+the palm and claims to be the smallest of all known Arthropoda.
+(<i>d</i>) <i>Chydoridae.</i> This family, so commonly called <i>Lynceidae</i>, contains
+a large number of genera, among which one may usually search in
+vain, and rightly so, for the genus <i>Lynceus</i>. The key to the riddle
+is to be found in the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> for 1816. There, as
+above explained, Leach began the subdivision of Müller&rsquo;s too comprehensive
+genus, the result being that <i>Lynceus</i> belongs to the Phyllopoda,
+and <i>Chydorus</i> (Leach, 1816) properly gives its name to the
+present family, in which the doubly convoluted intestine is so remarkable.
+Of its many genera, <i>Leydigia</i>, <i>Leydigiopsis</i>, <i>Monospilus</i>
+have been already mentioned. <i>Dadaya macrops</i> (Sars, 1901), from
+South America and Ceylon, has a very large eye and an eye-spot fully
+as large, but it is a very small creature, odd in its behaviour, moving
+by jumps at the very surface of the water. &ldquo;To the naked eye it
+looked like a little black atom darting about in a most wonderful
+manner.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:226px; height:304px" src="images/img657.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;<i>Dolops ranarum</i>
+(Stuhlmann).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Gymnomera, with a carapace too small to cover the feet,
+which are all prehensile, are divided also into two tribes, the Onychopoda,
+in which the four pairs of feet have a toothed maxillary
+process at the base, and the Haplopoda, in which there are six pairs
+of feet, without such a process. To the <i>Polyphemidae</i>, the well-known
+family of the former tribe,
+Sars in 1897 added two remarkable
+genera, <i>Cercopagis</i>, meaning &ldquo;tail
+with a sling,&rdquo; and <i>Apagis</i>, &ldquo;without
+a sling,&rdquo; for seven species from the
+Sea of Azov. The Haplopoda likewise
+have but a single family, the
+<i>Leptodoridae</i>, and this has but the
+single genus <i>Leptodora</i> (Lilljeborg,
+1861). Dr Richard (1895, 1896) gives
+a Cladoceran bibliography of 601
+references.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Branchiura.</i>&mdash;This term was introduced
+by Thorell in 1864 for the
+<i>Argulidae</i>, a family which had been
+transferred to the Branchiopoda
+by Zenker in 1854, though sometimes
+before and since united with
+the parasitic Copepoda. Though
+the animals have an oral siphon,
+they do not carry ovisacs like the siphonostomous copepods,
+but glue their eggs in rows to extraneous objects. Their
+lateral, compound, feebly movable eyes agree with those
+of the Phyllopoda. The family are described by Claus as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span>
+&ldquo;intermittent parasites,&rdquo; because when gorged they leave their
+hosts, fishes or frogs, and swim about in freedom for a considerable
+period. The long-known <i>Argulus</i> (O.F. Müller) has
+the second maxillae transformed into suckers, but in <i>Dolops</i>
+(Audouin, 1837) (fig. 1), the name of which supersedes the more
+familiar <i>Gyropeltis</i> (Heller, 1857), these effect attachment by
+ending in strong hooks (Bouvier, 1897). A third genus, <i>Chonopeltis</i>
+(Thiele, 1900), has suckers, but has lost its first antennae,
+at least in the female.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Ostracoda</span>.&mdash;The body, seldom in any way segmented, is
+wholly encased in a bivalved shell, the caudal part strongly
+inflexed, and almost always ending in a furca. The limbs,
+including antennae and mouth organs, never exceed seven
+definite pairs. The first antennae never have more than eight
+joints. The young usually pass through several stages of
+development after leaving the egg, and this commonly after,
+even long after, the egg has left the maternal shell. Parthenogenesis
+is frequent.</p>
+
+<p>The four tribes instituted by Sars in 1865 were reduced to
+two by G.W. Müller in 1894, the Myodocopa, which almost
+always have a heart, and the Podocopa, which have none.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Myodocopa.</i>&mdash;These have the furcal branches broad, lamellar,
+with at least three pairs of strong spines or ungues. Almost always
+the shell has a rostral sinus. Müller divides the tribe into three
+families, <i>Cypridinidae, Halocypridae</i>, and the heartless <i>Polycopidae</i>,
+which constituted the tribe Cladocopa of Sars. From the first of
+these Brady and Norman distinguish the Asteropidae (fig. 3), remarkable
+for seven pairs of long branchial leaves which fold over the
+hinder extremity of the animal, and the <i>Sarsiellidae</i>, still somewhat
+obscure, besides adding the <i>Rutidermatidae</i>, knowledge of which
+is based on skilful maceration of minute and long-dried specimens.
+The <i>Halocypridae</i> are destitute of compound lateral eyes, and have
+the sexual orifice unsymmetrically placed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Podocopa.</i>&mdash;In these the furcal branches are linear or rudimentary,
+the shell is without rostral sinus, and, besides distinguishing characters
+of the second antennae, they have always a branchial plate
+well developed on the first maxillae, which is inconstant in the other
+tribe. There are five families: (<i>a</i>) <i>Cyprididae</i> (? including <i>Cypridopsidae</i>
+of Brady and Norman). In some of the genera parthenogenetic
+propagation is carried to such an extent that of the familiar
+<i>Cypris</i> it is said, &ldquo;until quite lately males in this genus were unknown;
+and up to the present time no male has been found in the
+British Islands&rdquo; (Brady and Norman, 1896). On the other hand,
+the ejaculatory duct with its verticillate sac in the male of <i>Cypris</i>
+and other genera is a feature scarcely less remarkable. (<i>b</i>) <i>Bairdiidae</i>,
+which have the valves smooth, with the hinge untoothed. (<i>c</i>)
+<i>Cytheridae</i> (? including <i>Paradoxostomatidae</i> of Brady and Norman),
+in which the valves are usually sculptured, with toothed hinge.
+Of this family the members are almost exclusively marine, but
+<i>Limnicythere</i> is found in fresh water, and <i>Xestoleberis bromeliarum</i>
+(Fritz Müller) lives in the water that collects among the leaves of
+Bromelias, plants allied to the pine-apples. (<i>d</i>) <i>Darwinulidae</i>, including
+the single species <i>Darwinula stevensoni</i>, Brady and Robertson,
+described as &ldquo;perhaps the most characteristic Entomostracan of
+the East Anglian Fen District.&rdquo; (<i>e</i>) <i>Cytherellidae</i>, which, unlike the
+Ostracoda in general, have the hinder part of the body segmented,
+at least ten segments being distinguishable in the female. They
+have the valves broad at both ends, and were placed by Sars in a
+separate tribe, called Platycopa.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The range in time of the Ostracoda is so extended that, in
+G.W. Müller&rsquo;s opinion, their separation into the families now
+living may have already taken place in the Cambrian period.
+Their range in space, including carriage by birds, may be coextensive
+with the distribution of water, but it is not known
+what height of temperature or how much chemical adulteration
+of the water they can sustain, how far they can penetrate
+underground, nor what are the limits of their activity between the
+floor and the surface of aquatic expanses, fresh or saline. In
+individual size they have never been important, and of living
+forms the largest is one of recent discovery, <i>Crossophorus africanus</i>,
+a Cypridinid about three-fifths of an inch (15.5 mm.) long;
+but a length of one or two millimetres is more common, and it
+may descend to the seventy-fifth of an inch. By multitude they
+have been, and still are, extremely important.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:292px; height:150px" src="images/img658a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;<i>Cythereis ornata</i> (G.W.
+Müller). One eye-space is shown
+above on the left.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:230px; height:274px" src="images/img658b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;<i>Asterope arthuri</i>.
+Left valve removed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>M,      End of adductor muscle.</p>
+<p>OC,     Eye.</p>
+<p>AI,     Second antenna.</p>
+<p>MX. 1,  First maxilla.</p>
+<p>MX. 2,  Second maxilla.</p>
+<p>P. 1,   First foot.</p>
+<p>V.O,   Vermiform organ.</p>
+<p>BR,     Seven branchial leaves.</p>
+<p>F,      Projecting ungues of the furca.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Though the exterior is more uniform than in most groups of
+Crustacea, the bivalved shell or carapace may be strongly calcified
+and diversely sculptured (fig. 2), or membranaceous and polished,
+hairy or smooth, oval or round or bean-shaped, or of some less
+simple pattern; the valves may fit neatly, or one overlap the other,
+their hinge may have teeth or be edentulous, and their front part
+may be excavated for the protrusion of the antennae or have no
+such &ldquo;rostral sinus.&rdquo; By various modifications of their valves
+and appendages the creatures have become adapted for swimming,
+creeping, burrowing, or climbing, some of them combining two or
+more of these activities, for which their structure seems at the
+first glance little adapted. Considering the imprisonment of the
+ostracod body within the valves, it is more surprising that the
+<i>Asteropidae</i> and <i>Cypridinidae</i>
+should have a pair of compound
+and sometimes large
+eyes, in addition to the
+median organ at the base of
+the &ldquo;frontal tentacle,&rdquo; than
+that other members of the
+group should be limited to
+that median organ of sight,
+or have no eyes at all. The
+median eye when present
+may have or not have a
+lens, and its three pigment-cups
+may be close together or
+wide apart and the middle one rudimentary. As might be expected,
+in thickened and highly embossed valves thin spaces occur over
+the visual organ. The frontal organ varies in form and apparently
+in function, and is sometimes absent. The first antennae, according
+to the family, may assist in walking, swimming, burrowing, climbing,
+grasping, and besides they carry sensory setae, and sometimes
+they have suckers on their setae (see Brady and Norman on <i>Cypridina
+norvegica</i>). The second antennae are usually the chief motor-organs
+for swimming, walking and climbing. The mandibles
+are normally five-jointed, with remnants of an outer branch on
+the second joint, the biting edge varying from strong development
+to evanescence, the terminal joints or &ldquo;palp&rdquo; giving the organ a
+leg-like appearance and function, which disappears in suctorial
+genera such as <i>Paracytherois</i>. The variable first maxillae are
+seldom pediform, their function being concerned chiefly with
+nutrition, sensation and respiration. The variability in form and
+function of the second maxillae is sufficiently shown by the fact
+that G.W. Müller, our leading authority, adopts the confusing
+plan of calling them second maxillae in the <i>Cypridinidae</i> (including
+<i>Asteropidae</i>), maxillipeds in the <i>Halocypridae</i> and <i>Cyprididae</i>, and
+first legs in the <i>Bairdiidae</i>, <i>Cytheridae</i>, <i>Polycopidae</i> and <i>Cytherellidae</i>,
+so that in his fine monograph he uses the term first leg in
+two quite different senses. The first legs, meaning thereby the sixth
+pair of appendages, are generally pediform and locomotive, but
+sometimes unjointed, acting as a kind of brushes to cleanse the furca,
+while in the <i>Polycopidae</i> they are entirely wanting. The second legs
+are sometimes wanting, sometimes pediform and locomotive, sometimes
+strangely metamorphosed into
+the &ldquo;vermiform organ,&rdquo; generally
+long, many-jointed, and distally
+armed with retroverted spines, its
+function being that of an extremely
+mobile cleansing foot, which can insert
+itself among the eggs in the
+brood-space, between the branchial
+leaves of <i>Asterope</i> (fig. 3), and even
+range over the external surface of
+the valves. The &ldquo;brush-formed&rdquo;
+organs of the Podocopa are medially
+placed, and, in spite of their sometimes
+forward situation, Müller believes
+among other possibilities that
+they and the penis in the <i>Cypridinidae</i>
+may be alike remnants of a
+third pair of legs, not homologous
+with the penis of other Ostracoda
+(Podocopa included). The furca is,
+as a rule, a powerful motor-organ,
+and has its laminae edged with strong
+teeth (ungues) or setae or both. The
+young, though born with valves,
+have at first a nauplian body, and
+pass through various stages to
+maturity.</p>
+
+<p>Brady and Norman, in their <i>Monograph
+of the Ostracoda of the North
+Atlantic and North-Western Europe</i>
+(1889), give a bibliography of 125
+titles, and in the second part (1896) they give 55 more. The
+lists are not meant to be exhaustive, any more than G.W. Müller&rsquo;s
+literature list of 125 titles in 1894. They do not refer to Latreille,
+1802, with whom the term Ostracoda originates.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Copepoda</span>.&mdash;The body is not encased in a bivalved shell;
+its articulated segments are at most eleven, those behind the
+genital segment being without trace of limbs, but the last
+almost always carrying a furca. Sexes separate, fertilization by
+spermatophores. Ova in single or double or rarely several
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span>
+packets, attached as ovisacs or egg-strings to the genital openings,
+or enclosed in a dorsal marsupium, or deposited singly or occasionally
+in bundles. The youngest larvae are typical nauplii. The
+next, the copepodid or cyclopid, stage is characterized by a
+cylindrical segmented body, with fore- and hind-body distinct,
+and by having at most six cephalic limbs and two pairs of
+swimming feet.</p>
+
+<p>The order thus defined (see Giesbrecht and Schmeil, <i>Das
+Tierreich</i>, 1898), with far over a thousand species (Hansen,
+1900), embraces forms of extreme diversity, although, when
+species are known in all their phases and both sexes, they
+constantly tend to prove that there are no sharply dividing lines
+between the free-living, the semi-parasitic, and those which in
+adult life are wholly parasitic and then sometimes grotesquely
+unlike the normal standard. Giesbrecht and Hansen have
+shown that the mouth-organs consist of mandibles, first and
+second maxillae and maxillipeds; and Claus himself relinquished
+his long-maintained hypothesis that the last two pairs were
+the separated exopods and endopods of a single pair of appendages.
+Thorell&rsquo;s classification (1859) of Gnathostoma, Poecilostoma,
+Siphonostoma, based on the mouth-organs, was long
+followed, though almost at the outset shown by Claus to depend
+on the erroneous supposition that the Poecilostoma were
+devoid of mandibles. Brady added a new section, Choniostomata,
+in 1894, and another, Leptostomata, in 1900, each for a
+single species. Canu in 1892 proposed two groups, Monoporodelphya
+and Diporodelphya, the copulatory openings of the
+female being paired in the latter, unpaired in the former. It may
+be questioned whether this distinction, however important in
+itself, would lead to a satisfactory grouping of families. In the
+same year Giesbrecht proposed his division of the order into
+Gymnoplea and Podoplea.</p>
+
+<p>In appearance an ordinary Copepod is divided into fore- and
+hind-body, of its eleven segments the composite first being the
+head, the next five constituting the thorax, and the last five the
+abdomen. The coalescence of segments, though frequent, does
+not after a little experience materially confuse the counting.
+But there is this peculiarity, that the middle segment is sometimes
+continuous with the broader fore-body, sometimes with the
+narrower hind-body. In the former case the hind-body, consisting
+only of the abdomen, forms a pleon or tail-part devoid of
+feet, and the species so constructed are Gymnoplea, those of the
+naked or footless pleon. In the latter case the middle segment
+almost always carries with it to the hind-body a pair of rudimentary
+limbs, whence the term Podoplea, meaning species
+that have a pleon with feet. It may be objected that hereby the
+term pleon is used in two different senses, first applying to the
+abdomen alone and then to the abdomen plus the last thoracic
+segment. Even this verbal flaw would be obviated if Giesbrecht
+could prove his tentative hypothesis, that the Gymnoplea may
+have lost a pre-genital segment of the abdomen, and the Podoplea
+may have lost the last segment of the thorax. The classification
+is worked out as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>Gymnoplea</i>.&mdash;First segment of hind-body footless, bearing the
+orifices of the genital organs (in the male unsymmetrically placed);
+last foot of the fore-body in the male a copulatory organ; neither,
+or only one, of the first pair of antennae in the male geniculating;
+cephalic limbs abundantly articulated and provided with many
+plumose setae; heart generally present. Animals usually free-living,
+pelagic (Giesbrecht and Schmeil).</p>
+
+<p>This group, with 65 genera and four or five hundred species, is
+divided by Giesbrecht into tribes: (<i>a</i>) Amphaskandria. In this
+tribe the males have both antennae of the first pair as sensory
+organs. There is but one family, the <i>Calanidae</i>, but this is a very
+large one, with 26 genera and more than 100 species. Among them
+is the cosmopolitan <i>Calanus finmarchicus</i>, the earliest described
+(by Bishop Gunner in 1770) of all the marine free-swimming Copepoda.
+Among them also is the peacock Calanid, <i>Calocalanus pavo</i>
+(Dana), with its highly ornamented antennae and gorgeous tail,
+the most beautiful species of the whole order (fig. 4). (<i>b</i>) Heterarthrandria.
+Here the males have one or the other of the first pair of
+antennae modified into a grasping organ for holding the female.
+There are four families, the <i>Diaptomidae</i> with 27 genera, the <i>Pontellidae</i>
+with 10, the <i>Pseudocyclopidae</i> and <i>Candaciidae</i> each with one
+genus. The first of these families is often called <i>Centropagidae</i>,
+but, as Sars has pointed out, <i>Diaptomus</i> (Westwood, 1836) is the
+oldest genus in it. Of 177 species valid in the family Giesbrecht
+and Schmeil assign 67 to <i>Diaptomus</i>. In regard to one of its species
+Dr Brady says: &ldquo;In one instance, at least (Talkin Tarn, Cumberland)
+I have seen the net come up from a depth of 6 or 8 ft. below the
+surface with a dense mass consisting almost entirely of <i>D. gracilis</i>.&rdquo;
+The length of this net-filling species is about a twentieth of an inch.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:457px; height:253px" src="images/img659.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;<i>Calocalanus pavo</i> (Dana).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>2. <i>Podoplea</i>.&mdash;The first segment of the hind-body almost always
+with rudimentary pair of feet; orifices of the genital organs (symmetrically
+placed in both sexes) in the following segment; neither
+the last foot of the fore-body nor the rudimentary feet just mentioned
+acting as a copulatory organ in the male; both or neither of
+the first pair of antennae in the male geniculating; cephalic limbs
+less abundantly articulated and with fewer plumose setae or none,
+but with hooks and clasping setae. Heart almost always wanting.
+Free-living (rarely pelagic) or parasitic (Giesbrecht and Schmeil).</p>
+
+<p>This group is also divided by Giesbrecht into two tribes, Ampharthrandria
+and Isokerandria. In 1892 he distinguished the former
+as those in which the first antennae of the male have both members
+modified for holding the female, and the genital openings of the
+female have a ventral position, sometimes in close proximity, sometimes
+strongly lateral; the latter as those in which the first antennae
+of the male are similar to those of the female, the function of holding
+her being transferred to the male maxillipeds, while the genital
+openings of the female are dorsal, though at times strongly lateral.
+In 1899, with a view to the many modifications exhibited by parasitic
+and semi-parasitic species, the definitions, stripped of a too hampering
+precision, took a different form: (<i>a</i>) Ampharthrandria. &ldquo;Swimming
+Podoplea with geniculating first antennae in the male sex, and
+descendants of such; first antennae in female and male almost
+always differently articulated.&rdquo; The families occupy fresh water as
+well as the sea. Naturally &ldquo;descendants&rdquo; which have lost the characteristic
+feature of the definition cannot be recognized without
+some further assistance than the definition supplies. Of the
+families comprised, the <i>Mormonillidae</i> consist only of <i>Mormonilla</i>
+(Giesbrecht), and are not mentioned by Giesbrecht in 1899 in the
+grouping of this section. The <i>Thaumatoessidae</i> include <i>Thaumatoessa</i>
+(Kröyer), established earlier than its synonym <i>Thaumaleus</i>
+(Kröyer), or than <i>Monstrilla</i> (Dana, 1849). The species are
+imperfectly known. The defect of mouth-organs probably does not
+apply to the period of youth, which some of them spend parasitically
+in the body-cavity of worms (Giard, 1896). To the <i>Cyclopidae</i> six
+genera are allotted by Giesbrecht in 1900. <i>Cyclops</i> (O.F. Müller,
+1776), though greatly restricted since Müller&rsquo;s time, still has several
+scores of species abundantly peopling inland waters of every kind
+and situation, without one that can be relied on as exclusively marine
+like the species of <i>Oithona</i> (Baird). The <i>Misophriidae</i> are now
+limited to <i>Misophria</i> (Boeck). The presence of a heart in this genus
+helps to make it a link between the Podoplea and Gymnoplea, though
+in various other respects it approaches the next family. The <i>Harpacticidae</i>
+owe their name to the genus <i>Arpacticus</i> (Milne-Edwards,
+1840). Brady in 1880 assigns to this family 33 genera and 81 species.
+Canu (1892) distinguishes eight sub-families, <i>Longipediinae</i>, <i>Peltidiinae</i>,
+<i>Tachidiinae</i>, <i>Amymoninae</i>, <i>Harpacticinae</i>, <i>Idyinae</i>, <i>Canthocamptinae</i>
+(for which <i>Canthocampinae</i> should be read), and <i>Nannopinae</i>,
+adding <i>Stenheliinae</i> (Brady) without distinctive characters
+for it. The <i>Ascidicolidae</i> have variable characters, showing a gradual
+adaptation to parasitic life in Tunicates. Giesbrecht (1900) considers
+Canu quite right in grouping together in this single family
+those parasites of ascidians, simple and compound, which had been
+previously distributed among families with the more or less significant
+names <i>Notodelphyidae</i>, <i>Doropygidae</i>, <i>Buproridae</i>, <i>Schizoproctidae</i>,
+<i>Kossmechtridae</i>, <i>Enterocolidae</i>, <i>Enteropsidae</i>. Further, he includes in
+it his own <i>Enterognathus comatulae</i>, not from an ascidian, but from
+the intestine of the beautiful starfish <i>Antedon rosaceus</i>. The <i>Asterocheridae</i>,
+which have a good swimming capacity, except in the case
+of <i>Cancerilla tubulata</i> (Dalyell), lead a semi-parasitic life on echinoderms,
+sponges, &amp;c., imbibing their food. Giesbrecht, displacing
+the older name <i>Ascomyzontidae</i>, assigns to this family 21 genera
+in five subfamilies, and suggests that the long-known but still puzzling
+<i>Nicothoë</i> from the gills of the lobster might be placed in an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span>
+additional subfamily, or be made the representative of a closely
+related family. The <i>Dichelestiidae</i>, on account of their sometimes
+many-jointed first antennae, are referred also to this tribe by Giesbrecht.
+(<i>b</i>) Isokerandria. &ldquo;Swimming Podoplea without genicullating
+first antennae in the male sex, and descendants of such. First
+antennae of male and female almost always articulated alike.&rdquo; To
+this tribe Giesbrecht assigns the families <i>Clausidiidae</i>, <i>Corycaeidae</i>,
+<i>Oncaeidae</i>, <i>Lichomolgidae</i>, <i>Ergasilidae</i>, <i>Bomolochidae</i>, <i>Clausiidae</i>,
+<i>Nereicolidae</i>. Here also must for the time be placed the <i>Caligidae</i>,
+<i>Philichthyidae</i> (<i>Philichthydae</i> of Vogt, Carus, Claus), <i>Lernaeidae</i>,
+<i>Chondracanthidae</i>, <i>Sphaeronellidae</i> (better known as <i>Choniostomatidae</i>,
+from H.J. Hansen&rsquo;s remarkable study of the group), <i>Lernaeopodidae</i>,
+<i>Herpyllobiidae</i>, <i>Entomolepidae</i>. For the distinguishing marks of all
+these, the number of their genera and species, their habits and transformations
+and dwellings, the reader must be referred to the writings
+of specialists. Sars (1901) proposed seven suborders&mdash;Calanoida,
+Harpacticoida, Cyclopoida, Notodelphoida, Monstrilloida, Caligoida,
+Lernaeoida.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;(The earlier memoirs of importance are cited in
+Giesbrecht&rsquo;s <i>Monograph of Naples</i>, 1892); Canu, &ldquo;Hersiliidae,&rdquo;
+<i>Bull. Sci. France belgique</i>, ser. 3, vol. i. p. 402 (1888); and <i>Les
+Copépodes du Boulonnais</i> (1892); Cuenot, <i>Rev. biol. Nord France</i>,
+vol. v. (1892); Giesbrecht, &ldquo;Pelag. Copepoden.&rdquo; <i>F. u. fl. des Golfes
+von Neapel</i> (Mon. 19, 1892); Hansen, <i>Entomol. Med.</i> vol. iii. pt. 5
+(1892); I.C. Thompson, &ldquo;Copepoda of Liverpool Bay,&rdquo; <i>Trans.
+Liv. Biol. Soc.</i> vol. vii. (1893); Schmeil, &ldquo;Deutschlands Copepoden,&rdquo;
+<i>Bibliotheca zoologica</i> (1892-1897); Brady, <i>Journ. R. Micr. Soc.</i>
+p. 168 (1894); T. Scott, &ldquo;Entomostraca from the Gulf of Guinea,&rdquo;
+<i>Trans. Linn. Soc. London</i>, vol. vi. pt. 1 (1894); Giesbrecht, <i>Mitteil.
+Zool. Stat. Neapel</i>, vol. xi. p. 631; vol. xii. p. 217 (1895); T. and A.
+Scott, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc. London</i>, ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 419 (1896); Hansen
+&ldquo;Choniostomatidae&rdquo; (1897); Sars, <i>Proc. Mus. Zool. St Petersburg</i>,
+&ldquo;Caspian Entomostraca&rdquo; (1897); Giesbrecht and Schmeil, &ldquo;Copepoda
+gymnoplea,&rdquo; <i>Das Tierreich</i> (1898); Giesbrecht, &ldquo;Asterocheriden,&rdquo;
+<i>F. u. fl. Neapel</i> (Mon. 25, 1899); Bassett-Smith,
+&ldquo;Copepoda on Fishes,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. London</i>, p. 438 (1899);
+Brady, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc. London</i>, vol. xv. pt. 2, p. 31 (1899); Sars,
+<i>Arch. Naturv.</i> vol. xxi. No. 2 (1899); Giesbrecht, <i>Mitteil. Zool. Stat.
+Neapel</i>, vol. xiv. p. 39 (1900); Scott, &ldquo;Fish Parasites,&rdquo; <i>Scottish
+Fishery Board</i>, 18th Ann. Rep. p. 144 (1900); Stebbing, <i>Willey&rsquo;s
+Zool. Results</i>, pt. 5, p. 664 (1900); Embleton, <i>Journ. Linn. Soc.
+London</i>, vol. xxviii. p. 211 (1901); Sars, <i>Crustacea of Norway</i>,
+vol. iv. (1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. R. R. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTRAGUES, CATHERINE HENRIETTE DE BALZAC D&rsquo;<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>
+(1579-1633), marquise de Verneuil, mistress of Henry IV., king
+of France, was the daughter of Charles Balzac d&rsquo;Entragues
+and of Marie Touchet, mistress of Charles IX. Ambitious and
+intriguing, she succeeded in inducing Henry IV. to promise to
+marry her after the death of Gabrielle d&rsquo;Estrées, a promise which
+led to bitter scenes at court when shortly afterwards Henry
+married Marie de&rsquo; Medici. She carried her spite so far as to be
+deeply compromised in the conspiracy of Marshal Biron against
+the king in 1606, but escaped with a slight punishment, and in
+1608 Henry actually took her back into favour again. She seems
+then to have been involved in the Spanish intrigues which
+preceded the death of the king in 1610.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. de la Ferrière, <i>Henri IV. le roi, l&rsquo;amoureux</i> (Paris, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTRECASTEAUX, JOSEPH-ANTOINE BRUNI D&rsquo;<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1739-1793),
+French navigator, was born at Aix in 1739. At the age of
+fifteen he entered the navy. In the war of 1778 he commanded
+a frigate of thirty-two guns, and by his clever seamanship was
+successful in convoying a fleet of merchant vessels from Marseilles
+to the Levant, although they were attacked by two pirate
+vessels, each of which was larger than his own ship. In 1785 he
+was appointed to the command of the French fleet in the East
+Indies, and two years later he was named governor of the
+Mauritius and the Isle of Bourbon. While in command of the
+East India fleet he made a voyage to China, an achievement
+which, in 1791, led the French government to select him to
+command an expedition which it was sending out to seek some
+tidings of the unfortunate La Pérouse, of whom nothing had been
+heard since February 1788. Rear-admiral d&rsquo;Entrecasteaux&rsquo;s
+expedition comprised the &ldquo;Recherche&rdquo; and &ldquo;L&rsquo;Esperance,&rdquo;
+with Captain Huon de Kermadec as second in command. No
+tidings were obtained of the missing navigator, but in the
+course of his search Entrecasteaux made important geographical
+discoveries. He traced the outlines of the eastern coast of New
+Caledonia, made extensive surveys round the Tasmanian coast,
+and touched at several places on the south coast of New Holland.
+The two ships entered Storm Bay, Tasmania, on the 21st of
+April 1792, and remained there until the 16th of May, surveying
+and naming the d&rsquo;Entrecasteaux Channel, the entrances to the
+Huon and Derwent rivers, Bruni Island, Recherche Bay, Port
+Esperance and various other localities. Excepting the name of
+the river Derwent (originally called Riviere du Nord by its
+French discoverers), these foregoing appellations have been
+retained. Leaving Tasmania the expedition sailed northward
+for the East Indies, and while coasting near the island of Java,
+Entrecasteaux was attacked by scurvy and died on the 20th of
+July 1793.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTRE MINHO E DOURO<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (popularly called <i>Minho</i>), a former
+province of Northern Portugal; bounded on the N. by Galicia
+in Spain, E. by Traz-os-Montes, S. by Beira and W. by the
+Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,170,361; area 2790 sq. m.
+Though no longer officially recognized, the old provincial name
+remains in common use. The coast-line of Entre Minho e Douro
+is level and unbroken except by the estuaries of the main rivers;
+inland, the elevation gradually increases towards the north and
+east, where several mountain ranges mark the frontier. Of
+these, the most important are the Serra da Peneda (4728 ft.),
+between the rivers Minho and Limia; the Serra do Gerez (4357
+ft.), on the Galician border; the Serra da Cabreira (4021 ft.),
+immediately to the south; and the Serra de Marão (4642 ft.),
+in the extreme south-east. As its name implies, the province is
+bounded by two great rivers, the Douro (<i>q.v.</i>) on the south,
+and the Minho (Spanish <i>Miño</i>) on the north; but a small tract
+of land south of the Douro estuary is included also within the
+provincial boundary. There are three other large rivers which,
+like the Minho, flow west-south-west into the Atlantic. The
+Limia or Antela (Spanish <i>Linia</i>) rises in Galicia, and reaches the
+sea at Vianna do Castello; the Cavado springs from the southern
+foot hills of La Raya Seca, on the northern frontier of Traz-os-Montes,
+and forms, at its mouth, the small harbour of Espozende;
+and the Ave descends from its sources in the Serra da Cabreira
+to Villa do Conde, where it enters the Atlantic. A large right-hand
+tributary of the Douro, the Tamega, rises in Galicia, and
+skirts the western slopes of the Serra de Marão.</p>
+
+<p>The climate is mild, except among the mountains, and such
+plants as heliotrope, fuchsias, palms, and aloes thrive in the
+open throughout the year. Wheat and maize are grown on the
+plains, and other important products are wine, fruit, olives and
+chestnuts. Fish abound along the coast and in the main rivers;
+timber is obtained from the mountain forests, and dairy-farming
+and the breeding of pigs and cattle are carried on in all parts.
+As the province is occupied by a hardy and industrious peasantry,
+and the density of population (419.5 per sq. m.) is more than
+twice that of any other province on the Portuguese mainland,
+the soil is very closely cultivated. The methods and implements
+of the farmers are, however, most primitive, and at the beginning
+of the 20th century <span class="correction" title="amended from is">it</span> was not unusual to see a mule, or even a
+woman, harnessed with the team of oxen to an old-fashioned
+wooden plough. Small quantities of coal, iron, antimony, lead
+and gold are mined; granite and slate are quarried; and there
+are mineral springs at Monção (pop. 2283) on the Minho. The
+Oporto-Corunna railway traverses the western districts and
+crosses the Spanish frontier at Tuy; its branch lines give access
+to Braga, Guimarães and Povoa de Varzim; and the Oporto-Salamanca
+railway passes up the Douro valley. The greater part
+of the north and west can only be reached by road, and even the
+chief highways are ill-kept. In these regions the principal means
+of transport is the springless wooden cart, drawn by one or more
+of the tawny and under-sized but powerful oxen, with immense
+horns and elaborately carved yoke, which are characteristic of
+northern Portugal. For administrative purposes the province is
+divided into three districts: Vianna do Castello in the north,
+Braga in the centre, Oporto in the south. The chief towns are
+separately described; they include Oporto (167,955), one of the
+greatest wine-producing cities in the world; Braga (24,202),
+the seat of an archbishop who is primate of Portugal; the seaports
+of Povoa de Varzim (12,623) and Vianna do Castello
+(9990); and Guimarães (9104), a place of considerable historical
+interest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTREPÔT<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (a French word, from the Lat. <i>interpositum</i>, that
+which is placed between), a storehouse or magazine for the
+temporary storage of goods, provisions, &amp;c.; also a place where
+goods, which are not allowed to pass into a country duty free,
+are stored under the superintendence of the custom house
+authorities till they are re-exported. In a looser sense, any town
+which has a considerable distributive trade is called an <i>entrepôt</i>.
+The word is also used attributively to indicate the kind of trade
+carried on in such towns.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENTRE RIOS<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (Span. &ldquo;between rivers&rdquo;), a province of the
+eastern Argentine Republic, forming the <span class="correction" title="amended from sourthern">southern</span> part of a
+region sometimes described as the Argentine Mesopotamia,
+bounded N. by Corrientes, E. by Uruguay with the Uruguay
+river as the boundary line, S. by Buenos Aires and W. by Santa
+Fé, the Paraná river forming the boundary line with these two
+provinces. Pop. (1895) 292,019; (1905, est.) 376,600. The
+province has an area of 28,784 sq. m., consisting for the most part
+of an undulating, well-watered and partly-wooded plain, terminating
+in a low, swampy district of limited extent in the angle
+between the two great rivers. The great forest of Monteil
+occupies an extensive region in the N., estimated at nearly one-fifth
+the area of the province. Its soil is exceptionally fertile
+and its climate is mild and healthy. The province is sometimes
+called the &ldquo;garden of Argentina,&rdquo; which would probably be
+sufficiently correct had its population devoted as much energy
+to agriculture as they have to political conflict and civil war.
+Its principal industry is that of stock-raising, exporting live
+cattle, horses, hides, jerked beef, tinned and salted meats,
+beef extract, mutton and wool. Its agricultural products are
+also important, including wheat, Indian corn, barley and fruits.
+Lime, gypsum and firewood are also profitable items in its export
+trade. The Paraná and Uruguay rivers provide exceptional
+facilities for the shipment of produce and the Entre Rios railways,
+consisting of a trunk line running E. and W. across the province
+from Paraná to Concepción del Uruguay and several tributary
+branches, afford ample transportation facilities to the ports.
+Another railway line follows the Uruguay from Concordia northward
+into Corrientes. Entre Rios has been one of the most
+turbulent of the Argentine provinces, and has suffered severely
+from political disorder and civil war. Comparative quiet
+reigned from 1842 to 1870 under the autocratic rule of Gen.
+J.J. Urquiza. After his assassination in 1870 these partizan
+conflicts were renewed for two or three years, and then the
+province settled down to a life of comparative peace, followed
+by an extraordinary development in her pastoral and agricultural
+industries. Among these is the slaughtering and packing of
+beef, the exportation of which has reached large proportions.
+The capital is Paraná, though the seat of government was
+originally located at Concepción del Uruguay, and was again
+transferred to that town during Urquiza&rsquo;s domination. Concepción
+del Uruguay, or Concepción (founded 1778), is a flourishing
+town and port on the Uruguay, connected by railway with
+an extensive producing region which gives it an important export
+trade, and is the seat of a national college and normal school.
+Its population was estimated at 9000 in 1905. Other large towns
+are Gualeguay and Gualeguaychú.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENVOY<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (Fr. <i>envoyé</i>, &ldquo;sent&rdquo;), a diplomatic agent of the
+second rank. The word <i>envoyé</i> comes first into general use in
+this connexion in the 17th century, as a translation of the Lat.
+<i>ablegatus</i> or <i>missus</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diplomacy</a></span>). Hence the word envoy is
+commonly used of any one sent on a mission of any sort.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENZIO<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1220-1272), king of Sardinia, was a natural son of
+the emperor Frederick II. His mother was probably a German,
+and his name, Enzio, is a diminutive form of the German <i>Heinrich</i>.
+His father had a great affection for him, and he was
+probably present at the battle of Cortenuova in 1237. In 1238
+he was married, in defiance of the wishes of Pope Gregory IX.,
+to Adelasia, widow of Ubaldo Visconti and heiress of Torres and
+Gallura in Sardinia. Enzio took at once the title of king of
+Torres and Gallura, and in 1243 that of king of Sardinia, but he
+only spent a few months in the island, and his sovereignty
+existed in name alone. In July 1239 he was appointed imperial
+vicegerent in Italy, and sharing in his father&rsquo;s excommunication
+in the same year, took a prominent part in the war which broke
+out between the emperor and the pope. He commenced his
+campaign by subduing the march of Ancona, and in May 1241
+was in command of the forces which defeated the Genoese fleet
+at Meloria, where he seized a large amount of booty and captured
+a number of ecclesiastics who were proceeding to a council
+summoned by Gregory to Rome. Later he fought in Lombardy.
+In 1248 he assisted Frederick in his vain attempt to take
+Parma, but was wounded and taken prisoner by the Bolognese
+at Fossalta on the 26th of May 1249. His captivity was a severe
+blow to the Hohenstaufen cause in Italy, and was soon followed
+by the death of the emperor. He seems to have been well
+treated by the people of Bologna, where he remained a captive
+until his death on the 14th of March 1272. He was apparently
+granted a magnificent funeral, and was buried in the church of
+St Dominic at Bologna. During his imprisonment Enzio is said
+to have been loved by Lucia da Viadagola, a well-born lady of
+Bologna, who shared his captivity and attempted to procure his
+release. Some doubt has, however, been cast upon this story,
+and the same remark applies to another which tells how two
+friends had almost succeeded in freeing him from prison concealed
+in a wine-cask, when he was recognized by a lock of his golden
+hair. His marriage with Adelasia had been declared void by the
+pope in 1243, and he left one legitimate, and probably two
+illegitimate daughters. Enzio forms the subject of a drama by
+E.B.S. Raupach and of an opera by A.F.B. Dulk.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F.W. Grossman, <i>König Enzio</i> (Göttingen, 1883); and
+H. Blasius, <i>König Enzio</i> (Breslau, 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ENZYME<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="enzymos">&#7956;&#957;&#950;&#965;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, leavened, from <span class="grk" title="en">&#7952;&#957;</span>, in, and <span class="grk" title="zymê">&#950;&#973;&#956;&#951;</span>,
+leaven), a term, first suggested by Kühne, for an unorganized
+ferment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fermentation</a></span>), a group of substances, in the
+constitution of plants and animals, which decompose certain
+carbon compounds occurring in association with them. See also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Physiology</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nutrition</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EOCENE<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="êôs">&#7968;&#974;&#962;</span>, dawn, <span class="grk" title="kainos">&#954;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>, recent), in geology, the name
+suggested by Sir C. Lyell in 1833 for the lower subdivision of the
+rocks of the Tertiary Era. The term was intended to convey the
+idea that this was the period which saw the dawn of the recent or
+existing forms of life, because it was estimated that among
+the fossils of this period only 3½% of the species are still living.
+Since Lyell&rsquo;s time much has been learned about the fauna and
+flora of the period, and many palaeontologists doubt if any of
+the Eocene <i>species</i> are still extant, unless it be some of the lowest
+forms of life. Nevertheless the name is a convenient one and is
+in general use. The Eocene as originally defined was not long
+left intact, for E. Beyrich in 1854 proposed the term &ldquo;Oligocene&rdquo;
+for the upper portion, and later, in 1874, K. Schimper suggested
+&ldquo;Paleocene&rdquo; as a separate appellation for the lower portion.
+The Oligocene division has been generally accepted as a distinct
+period, but &ldquo;Paleocene&rdquo; is not so widely used.</p>
+
+<p>In north-western Europe the close of the Cretaceous period
+was marked by an extensive emergence of the land, accompanied,
+in many places, by considerable erosion of the Mesozoic rocks;
+a prolonged interval elapsed before a relative depression of the
+land set in and the first Eocene deposits were formed. The early
+Eocene formations of the London-Paris-Belgian basin were of
+fresh-water and brackish origin; towards the middle of the
+period they had become marine, while later they reverted to the
+original type. In southern and eastern Europe changes of sea-level
+were less pronounced in character; here the late Cretaceous
+seas were followed without much modification by those of the
+Eocene period, so rich in foraminiferal life. In many other
+regions, the great gap which separates the Tertiary from the
+Mesozoic rocks in the neighbourhood of London and Paris does
+not exist, and the boundary line is difficult to draw. Eocene
+strata succeed Cretaceous rocks without serious unconformity
+in the Libyan area, parts of Denmark, S.E. Alps, India, New
+Zealand and central N. America. The unconformity is marked
+in England, parts of Egypt, on the Atlantic coastal plain and
+in the eastern gulf region of N. America, as well as in the marine
+Eocene of western Oregon. The clastic Flysch formation of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span>
+Carpathians and northern Alps appears to be of Eocene age in
+the upper and Cretaceous in the lower part. The Eocene sea
+covered at various times a strip of the Atlantic coast from New
+Jersey southward and sent a great tongue or bay up the Mississippi
+valley; similar epicontinental seas spread over parts of the
+Pacific border, but the plains of the interior with the mountains
+on the west were meanwhile being filled with terrestrial and
+lacustrine deposits which attained an enormous development.
+This great extension of non-marine formations in the Eocene of
+different countries has introduced difficulties in the way of exact
+correlation; it is safer, therefore, in the present state of knowledge,
+to make no attempt to find in the Eocene strata of America
+and India, &amp;c., the precise equivalent of subdivisions that have
+been determined with more or less exactitude in the London-Paris-Belgian
+area.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:519px; height:408px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img662.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">It is possible that in Eocene times there existed a greater
+continuity of the northern land masses than obtains to-day.
+Europe at that time was probably united with N. America
+through Iceland and Greenland; while on the other side, America
+may have joined Asia by the way of Alaska. On the other hand,
+the great central, mediterranean sea which stretched across the
+Eurasian continents sent an arm northward somewhere just east
+of the Ural mountains, and thus divided the northern land mass in
+that region. S. America, Australia and perhaps Africa <i>may</i> have
+been connected more or less directly with the Antarctic continent.</p>
+
+<p>Associated, no doubt, with the crustal movements which
+closed the Cretaceous and inaugurated the Eocene period,
+there were local and intermittent manifestations of volcanic
+activity throughout the period. Diabases, gabbros, serpentines,
+soda-potash granites, &amp;c., are found in the Eocene of the central
+and northern Apennines. Tuffs occur in the Veronese and
+Vicentin Alps&mdash;Ronca and Spelecco schists. Tuffs, basalts
+and other igneous rocks appear also in Montana, Wyoming,
+California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Colorado; also in
+Central America, the Antillean region and S. America.</p>
+
+<p>It has been very generally assumed by geologists, mainly upon
+the evidence of plant remains, that the Eocene period opened
+with a temperate climate in northern latitudes; later, as indicated
+by the London Clay, Alum Bay and Bournemouth beds,
+&amp;c., the temperature appears to have been at least subtropical.
+But it should be observed that the frequent admixture of
+temperate forms with what are now tropical species makes it
+difficult to speak with certainty as to the degree of warmth experienced.
+The occurrence of lignites in the Eocene of the
+Paris basin, Tirol and N. America is worthy of consideration
+in this connexion. On the other hand, the coarse boulder beds
+in the lower Flysch have been regarded as evidence of local
+glaciation; this would not be inconsistent with a period of
+widespread geniality of climate, as is indicated by the large size
+of the nummulites and the dispersion of the marine Mollusca,
+but the evidence for glaciation is not yet conclusive.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Eocene Stratigraphy.</i>&mdash;In Britain, with the exception of the Bovey
+beds (<i>q.v.</i>) and the leaf-bearing beds of Antrim and Mull, Eocene
+rocks are confined to the south-eastern portion of England. They
+lie in the two well-marked synclinal basins of London and Hampshire
+which are conterminous in the western area (Hampshire,
+Berkshire), but are separated towards the east by the denuded
+anticline of the Weald. The strata in these two basins have been
+grouped in the following manner:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc bb1">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc bb1"><i>London Basin.</i></td> <td class="tcc bb1"><i>Hampshire Basin.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl bb1 cl">Upper</td> <td class="tcl bb1">Upper Bagshot Sands.</td> <td class="tcl bb1">Headon Hill and Barton Sands.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Middle</td>
+ <td class="tclm bb1"><p>Middle Bagshot Beds and part of Lower Bagshot Beds.</p></td>
+ <td class="tclm bb1"><p>Bracklesham Beds and leaf beds of Bournemouth and Alum Bay.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Lower</td>
+ <td class="tclm bb1"><p>Part of Lower Bagshot Beds,  London  Clay, Blackheath and Oldhaven
+  Beds, Woolwich and Reading Beds, Thanet Sands.</p></td>
+ <td class="tclm bb1"><p>London Clay and the equivalent Bognor Beds, Woolwich and Reading Beds.</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind pt1">The Thanet sands have not been recognized in the Hampshire
+basin; they are usually pale yellow and greenish sands with streaks
+of clay and at the base; resting on an evenly denuded surface of
+chalk is a very constant layer of green-coated, well-rounded chalk
+flint pebbles. It is a marine formation, but fossils are scarce except
+in E. Kent, where it attains its most complete development. The
+Woolwich and Reading beds (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reading Beds</a></span>) contain both
+marine and estuarine fossils. In western Kent, between the
+Woolwich beds and the London Clay are the Oldhaven beds or
+Blackheath pebbles, 20 to 40 ft., made up almost entirely of well-rounded
+flint pebbles set in sand; the fossils are marine and estuarine.
+The London Clay, 500 ft. thick, is a marine deposit consisting
+of blue or brown clay with sandy layers and septarian nodules; its
+equivalent in the Hampshire area is sometimes called the Bognor
+Clay, well exposed on the coast of Sussex. The Bagshot, Bracklesham
+and Barton beds will be found briefly described under those
+heads.</p>
+
+<p>Crossing the English Channel, we find in northern France and
+Belgium a series of deposits identified in their general characters
+with those of England. The anticlinal ridge of the English Weald
+is prolonged south-eastwards on to the continent, and separates the
+Belgian from the French Eocene areas much as it separates the
+areas of London and Hampshire; and it is clear that at the time of
+deposition all four regions were intimately related and subject to
+similar variations of marine and estuarine conditions. With a series
+of strata so variable from point to point it is natural that many
+purely local phases should have received distinctive names; in the
+Upper Eocene of the Paris basin the more important formations
+are the highly fossiliferous marine sands known as the &ldquo;Sands of
+Beauchamp&rdquo; and the local fresh-water limestone, the &ldquo;Calcaire
+de St Ouen.&rdquo; The Middle Eocene is represented by the well-known
+&ldquo;Calcaire grossier,&rdquo; about 90 ft. thick. The beds in this series vary
+a good deal lithologically, some being sandy, others marly or glauconitic;
+fossils are abundant. The Upper Calcaire grossier or
+&ldquo;Caillasses&rdquo; is a fresh-water formation; the middle division is
+marine; while the lower one is partly marine, partly of fresh-water
+origin. The numerous quarries and mines for building stone in the
+neighbourhood of Paris have made it possible to acquire a very
+precise knowledge of this division, and many of the beds have received
+trade names, such as &ldquo;Rochette,&rdquo; &ldquo;Roche,&rdquo; &ldquo;Banc franc,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Banc vert,&rdquo; &ldquo;Cliquart,&rdquo; &ldquo;Saint Nom;&rdquo; the two last named are
+dolomitic. Below these limestones are the nummulitic sands of Cuise
+and Soissons. The Lower Eocene contains the lignitic plastic clay
+(<i>argile plastique</i>) of Soissons and elsewhere; the limestones of Rilly
+and Sézanne and the greenish glauconitic sands of Bracheux. The
+relative position of the above formations with respect to those of
+Belgium and England will be seen from the table of Eocene strata.
+The Eocene deposits of southern Europe differ in a marked manner
+from those of the Anglo-Parisian basin. The most important feature
+is the great development of nummulitic limestone with thin marls
+and nummulitic sandstones. The sea in which the nummulitic
+limestones were formed occupied the site of an enlarged Mediterranean
+communicating with similar waters right round the world,
+for these rocks are found not only in southern Europe, including all
+the Alpine tracts, Greece and Turkey and southern Russia, but they
+are well developed in northern Africa, Asia Minor, Palestine, and
+they may be followed through Persia, Baluchistan, India, into
+China, Tibet, Japan, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippines. The
+nummulitic limestones are frequently hard and crystalline, especially
+where they have been subjected to elevation and compression as in
+the Alpine region, 10,000 ft. above the sea, or from 16,000, to 20,000
+ft., in the central Asian plateau. Besides being a widespread
+formation the nummulitic limestone is locally several thousand
+feet thick.</p>
+
+<p>While the foraminiferal limestones were being formed over most of
+southern Europe, a series of clastic beds were in course of formation
+in the Carpathians and the northern Alpine region, viz. the Flysch
+and the Vienna sandstone. Some portions of this Alpine Eocene
+are coarsely conglomeratic, and in places there are boulders of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span>
+non-local rocks of enormous dimensions included in the argillaceous
+or sandy matrix. The occurrence of these large boulders together
+with the scarceness of fossils has suggested a glacial origin for the
+formation; but the evidence hitherto collected is not conclusive.
+C.W. von Gümbel has classified the Eocene of the northern Alps
+(Bavaria, &amp;c.) as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Upper Eocene</td> <td class="tclm bb1"><p>Flysch and Vienna sandstone, with younger nummulitic beds and Häring group.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Middle Eocene</td> <td class="tclm bb1"><p>Kressenberg Beds, with older nummulitic beds.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Lower Eocene</td> <td class="tclm bb1"><p>Burberg Beds, Greensands with small nummulites.</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind pt1">The Häring group of northern Tirol contains lignite beds of some
+importance. In the southern and S.E. Alps the following divisions
+are recognized.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Upper Eocene</td> <td class="tclm bb1"><p>Macigno or Tassello&mdash;Vienna Sandstone, conglomerates, marls and shales.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Middle Eocene</td> <td class="tclm bb1"><p>Nummulitic limestones, three subdivisions.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Lower Eocene</td> <td class="tclm bb1"><p>Liburnian stage (or Proteocene), foraminiferal limestones with
+  fresh-water intercalations at the top and bottom, the <i>Cosina</i> beds, fresh-water
+  in the middle of the series.</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind pt1">In the central and northern Apennines the Eocene strata have been
+subdivided by Prof. F. Sacco into an upper Bartonian, a middle
+Parisian and a lower Suessonian series. In the middle member are
+the representatives of the Flysch and the Macigno. These Eocene
+strata are upwards of 5500 ft. thick. In northern Africa the nummulitic
+limestones and sandstones are widely spread; the lower
+portions comprise the Libyan group and the shales of Esneh on the
+Nile (Flandrien), the <i>Alveolina</i> beds of Sokotra and others; the
+Mokattam stage of Egypt is a representative of the later Eocene.
+Much of the N. African Eocene contains phosphatic beds. In India
+strata of Eocene age are extensively developed; in Sind the marine
+Ranikot beds, 1500 to 2000 ft., consisting of clays with gypsum and
+lignite, shales and sandstones; these beds have, side by side with
+Eocene nummulites, a few fossils of Cretaceous affinities. Above
+the Ranikot beds are the massive nummulitic limestones and sandstones
+of the Kirthar group; these are succeeded by the nummulitic
+limestones and shales at the base of the Nari group. In the southern
+Himalayan region the nummulitic phase of Eocene deposit is well
+developed, but there are difficulties in fixing the line of demarcation
+between this and the younger formations. The lower part of the
+Sirmur series of the Simla district may belong to this period; it is
+subdivided into the Kasauli group and the Dagshai group with the
+Subáthu group at the base. Beneath the thick nummulitic Eocene
+limestone of the Salt Range are shales and marls with a few coal
+seams. The marine Eocene rocks of N. America are most extensively
+developed round the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, whence they
+spread into the valley of the Mississippi and, as a comparatively
+narrow strip, along the Atlantic coastal plain to New Jersey.</p>
+
+<p>The series in Alabama, which may be taken as typical of the Gulf
+coast Eocene, is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Upper Jacksonian</td> <td class="tclm bb1">White limestone of Alabama (and Vicksburg?).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Middle Claibornian</td> <td class="tclm bb1">Claiborne series,<br />Buhrstone series.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Lower</td> <td class="tclm bb1">Chickasawan Sands and lignites.<br />Midwayan or Clayton formation, limestones.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind pt1">The above succession is not fully represented in the Atlantic coast
+states.</p>
+
+<p>On the Pacific coast marine formations are found in California
+and Oregon; such are the Tejon series with lignite and oil; the
+Escondido series of S. California (7000 ft.), part of the Pascadero
+series of the Santa Cruz Mountains; the Pulaski, Tyee, Arago and
+Coaledo beds&mdash;with coals&mdash;in Oregon. In the Puget formation of
+Washington we have a great series of sediments, largely of brackish
+water origin, and in parts coal-bearing. The total thickness of this
+formation has been estimated at 20,000 ft. (it may prove to be less
+than this), but it is probable that only the lower portion is of Eocene
+age. The most interesting of the N. American Eocene deposits are
+those of the Rocky Mountains and the adjacent western plains, in
+Wyoming, Nevada, Nebraska, Colorado, &amp;c.; they are of terrestrial,
+lacustrine or aeolian origin, and on this account and because they
+were not strictly synchronous, there is considerable difficulty in
+placing them in their true position in the time-scale. The main
+divisions or groups are generally recognized as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="bb1">&nbsp;</td> <td class="bb1">&nbsp;</td><td class="tccm bb1">Mammalian<br />Zonal Forms.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Upper</td>
+ <td class="tclm bb1"><span class="sp">1</span> Uinta Group, 800 ft. (? = Jacksonian)</td>
+ <td class="tclm bb1"><i>Diplacodon.</i><br /><i>Telmatotherium</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl">Middle</td>
+ <td class="tclm bb1"><span class="sp">2</span> Bridger Group, 2000 ft. (? = Claibornian)</td>
+ <td class="tclm bb1"><i>Uintatherium</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl" rowspan="2">Lower</td>
+ <td class="tclm"><span class="sp">3</span> Wind River Group, 800 ft.</td>
+ <td class="tclm"><i>Bathyopsis</i>.</td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td class="tclm bb1"><span class="sp">4</span> Wasatch Group, 2000 ft. (? = Chickasawan)</td>
+  <td class="tclm bb1"><i>Coryphodon</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1 cl" rowspan="2">Basal</td>
+ <td class="tclm"><span class="sp">5</span> Torrejon Group, 300 ft.</td>
+ <td class="tclm"><i>Pantolambda</i>.</td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td class="tclm bb1"><span class="sp">6</span> Puerco Group, 500 to 1000 ft.</td>
+  <td class="tclm bb1"><i>Polymastodon</i>.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tclm"><span class="sp">1</span> South of the Uinta Mts. in Utah.<br />
+<span class="sp">2</span> Fort Bridger Basin.<br />
+<span class="sp">3</span> Wind river in Wyoming.</td>
+
+<td class="tclm"><span class="sp">4</span> Wasatch Mts. in Utah.<br />
+<span class="sp">5</span> Torrejon in New Mexico.<br />
+<span class="sp">6</span> Puerco river, New Mexico.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The Fort Union beds of Canada and parts of Montana and N. Dakota
+are probably the oldest Eocene strata of the Western Interior;
+they are some 2000 ft. thick and possibly are equivalent to the Midwayan
+group. But in these beds, as in those known as Arapahoe,
+Livingston, Denver, Ohio and Ruby, which are now often classed
+as belonging to the upper Laramie formation, it is safer to regard
+them as a transitional series between the Mesozoic and Tertiary
+systems. There is, however, a marked unconformity between the
+Eocene Telluride or San Miguel and Poison Canyon formations of
+Colorado and the underlying Laramie rocks.</p>
+
+<p>Many local aspects of Eocene rocks have received special names,
+but too little is known about them to enable them to be correctly
+placed in the Eocene series. Such are the Clarno formation (late
+Eocene) of the John Day basin, Oregon, the Pinyon conglomerate
+of Yellowstone Park, the Sphinx conglomerate of Montana, the
+Whitetail conglomerate of Arizona, the Manti shales of Utah, the
+Mojave formation of S. California and the Amyzon formation of
+Nevada.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Eocene of other countries little is known in detail. Strata
+of this age occur in Central and S. America (Patagonia-Megellanian
+series&mdash;Brazil, Chile, Argentina), in S. Australia (and in the Great
+Australian Bight), New Zealand, in Seymour Island near Graham
+Land in the Antarctic Regions, Japan, Java, Borneo, New Guinea,
+Moluccas, Philippines, New Caledonia, also in Greenland, Bear
+Island, Spitzbergen and Siberia.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Organic Life of the Eocene Period.</i>&mdash;As it has been observed
+above, the name Eocene was given to this period on the ground
+that in its fauna only a small percentage of <i>living</i> species were
+present; this estimation was founded upon the assemblage of
+invertebrate remains in which, from the commencement of this
+period until the present day, there has been comparatively little
+change. The real biological interest of the period centres around
+the higher vertebrate types. In the marine mollusca the most
+noteworthy change is the entire absence of ammonoids, the group
+which throughout the Mesozoic era had taken so prominent a
+place, but disappeared completely with the close of the Cretaceous.
+Nautiloids were more abundant than they are at present, but
+as a whole the Cephalopods took a more subordinate part
+than they had done in previous periods. On the other hand,
+Gasteropods and Pelecypods found in the numerous shallow seas
+a very suitable environment and flourished exceedingly, and
+their shells are often preserved in a state of great perfection
+and in enormous numbers. Of the Gasteropod genera <i>Cerithium</i>
+with its estuarine and lagoonal forms <i>Potamides</i>, <i>Potamidopsis</i>,
+&amp;c., is very characteristic; <i>Rostellaria</i>, <i>Voluta</i>, <i>Fusus</i>, <i>Pleurotoma</i>,
+<i>Conus</i>, <i>Typhis</i>, may also be cited. <i>Cardium</i>, <i>Venericardia</i>,
+<i>Crassatella</i>, <i>Corbulomya</i>, <i>Cytherea</i>, <i>Lucina</i>, <i>Anomia</i>, <i>Ostrea</i> are a
+few of the many Pelecypod genera. Echinoderms were represented
+by abundant sea-urchins, <i>Echinolampas</i>, <i>Linthia</i>, <i>Conoclypeus</i>,
+&amp;c. Corals flourished on the numerous reefs and approximated
+to modern forms (<i>Trochosmilia</i>, <i>Dendrophyllia</i>). But
+by far the most abundant marine organisms were the foraminifera
+which flourished in the warm seas in countless myriads.
+Foremost among these are the <i>Nummulites</i>, which by their
+extraordinary numerical development and great size, as well as
+by their wide distribution, demand special recognition. Many
+other genera of almost equal importance as rock builders, lived
+at the same time: <i>Orthophragma</i>, <i>Operculina</i>, <i>Assilina</i>, <i>Orbitolites</i>,
+<i>Miliola</i>, <i>Alveolina</i>. Crustacea were fairly abundant (<i>Xanthopsis</i>,
+<i>Portunus</i>), and most of the orders and many families of modern
+insects were represented.</p>
+
+<p>When we turn to the higher forms of life, the reptiles and
+mammals, we find a remarkable contrast between the fauna
+of the Eocene and those periods which preceded and succeeded
+it. The great group of Saurian reptiles, whose members had
+held dominion on land and sea during most of the Mesozoic
+time, had completely disappeared by the beginning of the
+Eocene; in their place placental mammals made their appearance
+and rapidly became the dominant group. Among the early
+Eocene mammals no trace can be found of the numerous and
+clearly-marked orders with which we are familiar to-day; instead
+we find obscurely differentiated forms, which cannot be fitted
+without violence into any of the modern orders. The early
+placental mammals were generalized types (with certain non-placental
+characters) with potentialities for rapid divergence
+and development in the direction of the more specialized modern
+orders. Thus, the Creodonta foreshadowed the Carnivora, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span>
+Condylarthra presaged the herbivorous groups; but before the
+close of this period, so favourable were the conditions of life
+to a rapid evolution of types, that most of the great <i>orders</i> had
+been clearly defined, though none of the Eocene <i>genera</i> are still
+extant. Among the early carnivores were <i>Arctocyon</i>, <i>Palaeonictis</i>,
+<i>Amblyctonus</i>, <i>Hyaenodon</i>, <i>Cynodon</i>, <i>Provivera</i>, <i>Patriofelis</i>. The
+primitive dog-like forms did not appear until late in the period,
+in Europe; and true cats did not arrive until later, though they
+were represented by <i>Eusmilus</i> in the Upper Eocene of France.
+The primitive ungulates (Condylarths) were generalized forms
+with five effective toes, exemplified in <i>Phenacodus</i>. The gross
+Amblypoda, with five-toed stumpy feet (<i>Coryphodon</i>), were
+prominent in the early Eocene; particularly striking forms
+were the <i>Dinoceratidae</i>, <i>Dinoceras</i>, with three pairs of horns or
+protuberances on its massive skull and a pair of huge canine
+teeth projecting downwards; <i>Tinoceras</i>, <i>Uintatherium</i>, <i>Loxophodon</i>,
+&amp;c.; these elephantine creatures, whose remains are so
+abundant in the Eocene deposits of western America, died out
+before the close of the period. The divergence of the hoofed
+mammals into the two prominent divisions, the odd-toed and
+even-toed, began in this period, but the former did not get beyond
+the three-toed stage. The least differentiated of the odd-toed
+group were the Lophiodonts: tapirs were foreshadowed by
+<i>Systemodon</i> and similar forms (<i>Palaeotherium</i>, <i>Paloplotherium</i>);
+the peccary-like <i>Hyracotherium</i> was a forerunner of the horse,
+<i>Hyrochinus</i> was a primitive rhinoceros. The evolution of the
+horse through such forms as <i>Hyracotherium</i>, <i>Pachynolophus</i>,
+<i>Eohippus</i>, &amp;c., appears to have proceeded along parallel lines
+in Eurasia and America, but the true horse did not arrive until
+later. Ancestral deer were represented by <i>Dichobune</i>, <i>Amphitragulus</i>
+and others, while many small hog-like forms existed
+(<i>Diplopus</i>, <i>Eohyus</i>, <i>Hyopotamus</i>, <i>Homacodon</i>). The primitive
+stock of the camel group developed in N. America in late Eocene
+time and sent branches into S. America and Eurasia. The
+edentates were very generalized forms at this period (Ganodonta);
+the rodents (Tillodontia) attained a large size for
+members of this group, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Tillotherium</i>. The Insectivores had
+Eocene forerunners, and the Lemuroids&mdash;probable ancestors
+of the apes&mdash;were forms of great interest, <i>Anaptomorphus</i>,
+<i>Microsyops</i>, <i>Heterohyus</i>, <i>Microchaerus</i>, <i>Coenopithecus</i>; even the
+Cetaceans were well represented by <i>Zeuglodon</i> and others.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Stages.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Paris Basin.</td> <td class="tccm allb">England.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Belgian Basin.</td>
+  <td class="tccm allb">Mediterranean<br />regions and<br />Great Central<br />sea.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Flysch<br />Phase.</td> <td class="tccm allb">North America.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb" colspan="2">Bartonien.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tclm allb">Limestone of Saint-Ouen.<br />Sands of Mortefontaine.<br />Sands of Beauchamp.<br />Sands of Auvers.</td>
+  <td class="tclm allb">Barton beds.<br /><br />Upper Bagshot sands.</td>
+  <td class="tclm allb">Sands of Lede.</td>
+  <td class="tclm allb" rowspan="5">Nummulitic limestones,<br />&emsp;sandstones and<br />&emsp;shales.</td>
+  <td class="tclm allb" rowspan="5">Upper part of the<br />&emsp;Alpine Flysch and<br />&emsp;Vienna and Carpathian<br />
+     &emsp;sandstones.<br /><br /><br />Macigno of the<br />&emsp;Apennines and<br />&emsp;Maritime Alps.</td>
+  <td class="tcl rb">Unita Group and<br />&emsp;Jacksonian.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" colspan="2">Lutétien.</td>
+  <td class="tclm allb">Calcaire grossier.</td>
+  <td class="tclm allb">Bracklesham and<br />&emsp;Bournemouth beds.<br />Lower Bagshot sands.</td>
+  <td class="tclm allb">Laekenien.<br />Bruxellien.<br />Panisélien.</td>
+  <td class="tclm rb">Bridger Group and<br />&emsp;Claibornian.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb" colspan="2">Yprésien.</td>
+  <td class="tcl rb">Nummulitic sands of<br />&emsp;Soissons and Sands of<br />&emsp;Cuise and Aizy.</td>
+  <td class="tcl rb">Alum Bay leaf beds.</td>
+  <td class="tcl allb">Sands of Mons en<br />&emsp;Pévèle.<br />Flanders Clay.</td>
+  <td class="tcl rb">Wind River Group.<br />Wasatch Group<br />&emsp;and</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Landé-<br />&emsp;nien.</td>
+  <td class="tclm allb">Sparn-<br />&emsp;acien.</td>
+  <td class="tclm rb">Plastic Clay and lignite<br />&emsp;beds.</td>
+  <td class="tclm rb">London Clay.<br />Oldhaven beds.<br /><br />Woolwich and Reading beds.</td>
+  <td class="tclm rb">Upper Landénien<br />&emsp;sands.<br /><br />Sands of Ostricourt.</td>
+  <td class="tclm rb">Chickasawan.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm allb">Thane-<br />&emsp;tien.</td>
+  <td class="tcl allb">Limestones of Rilly and<br />&emsp;Sézanne.<br /><br />Sands of Rilly and<br />&emsp;Bracheux.</td>
+  <td class="tcl allb"><br />Thanet sands.</td>
+  <td class="tcl rb bb"><br /><br />Landénien tuffeau.<br /><br />Marls of Gelinden.</td>
+  <td class="tcl rb bb">Torrejon Group<br />&emsp;and<br />Midwayan.<br /><br />Puerco Group.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The non-placental mammals although abundant were taking a
+secondary place; <i>Didelphys</i>, the primitive opossum, is noteworthy
+on account of its wide geographical range.</p>
+
+<p>Among the birds, the large flightless forms, <i>Eupterornis</i>,
+<i>Gastornis</i>, were prominent, and many others were present, such
+as the ancestral forms of our modern gulls, albatrosses, herons,
+buzzards, eagles, owls, quails, plovers. Reptiles were poorly
+represented, with the exception of crocodilians, tortoises, turtles
+and some large snakes.</p>
+
+<p>The flora of the Eocene period, although full of interest, does
+not convey the impression of newness that is afforded by the
+fauna of the period. The reason for this difference is this:
+the newer flora had been introduced and had developed to a
+considerable extent in the Cretaceous period, and there is no
+sharp break between the flora of the earlier and that of the later
+period; in both we find a mixed assemblage&mdash;what we should
+now regard as tropical palms, growing side by side with mild-temperate
+trees. Early Eocene plants in N. Europe, oaks,
+willows, chestnuts (Castanea), laurels, indicate a more temperate
+climate than existed in Middle Eocene when in the Isle of Wight,
+Hampshire and the adjacent portions of the continent, palms,
+figs, cinnamon flourished along with the cactus, magnolia,
+sequoia, cypress and ferns. The late Eocene flora of Europe
+was very similar to its descendant in modern Australasia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. de Lapparent, <i>Traité de géologie</i>, vol. iii. (5th ed., 1906),
+which contains a good general account of the period, with numerous
+references to original papers. Also R.B. Newton, <i>Systematic List
+of the Frederick E. Edwards Collection of British Oligocene and Eocene
+Mollusca in the British Museum</i> (<i>Natural History</i>) (1891), pp. 299-325;
+G.D. Harris, &ldquo;A Revision of our Lower Eocenes,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Geologists&rsquo;
+Assoc.</i> x., 1887-1888; W.B. Clark, &ldquo;Correlation Papers: Eocene&rdquo;
+(1891), <i>U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. No. 83.</i> For more recent literature
+consult <i>Geological Literature added to the Geological Society&rsquo;s Library</i>,
+published annually by the society.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bartonien</td> <td class="tcc">from</td> <td class="tcl">Barton, England.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lutétien</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Lutetia = Paris.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Yprésien</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Ypres, Flanders.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Landénien</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Landen, Belgium.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Thanetien</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">The Isle of Thanet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sparnacien</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Sparnacum = Épernay.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Laekenien</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Laeken, Belgium.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bruxellien</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Brussels.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Panisélien</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Mont Panisel, near Mons.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Other names that have been applied to subdivisions of the Eocene
+not included in the table are Parisien and Suessonien (Soissons);
+Ludien (Ludes in the Paris basin) and Priabonien (Priabona in the
+Vicentine Alps); Heersien (Heer near Maastricht) and Wemmelien
+(Wemmel, Belgium); very many more might be mentioned.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EON DE BEAUMONT<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Charles Geneviève Louise Auguste
+André Timothée d&rsquo;</span> (1728-1810), commonly known as the
+<span class="sc">Chevalier d&rsquo;Eon</span>, French political adventurer, famous for the
+supposed mystery of his sex, was born near Tonnerre in Burgundy,
+on the 7th of October 1728. He was the son of an advocate
+of good position, and after a distinguished course of study at the
+Collège Mazarin he became a doctor of law by special dispensation
+before the usual age, and adopted his father&rsquo;s profession. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span>
+began literary work as a contributor to Fréron&rsquo;s <i>Année littéraire</i>,
+and attracted notice as a political writer by two works on
+financial and administrative questions, which he published in his
+twenty-fifth year. His reputation increased so rapidly that in
+1755 he was, on the recommendation of Louis François, prince of
+Conti, entrusted by Louis XV. (who had originally started his
+&ldquo;secret&rdquo; foreign policy&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> by undisclosed agents behind the
+backs of his ministers&mdash;in favour of the prince of Conti&rsquo;s ambition
+to be king of Poland) with a secret mission to the court of Russia.
+It was on this occasion that he is said for the first time to have
+assumed the dress of a woman, with the connivance, it is supposed,
+of the French court.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In this disguise he obtained the
+appointment of reader to the empress Elizabeth, and won her over
+entirely to the views of his royal master, with whom he maintained
+a secret correspondence during the whole of his diplomatic
+career. After a year&rsquo;s absence he returned to Paris to be
+immediately charged with a second mission to St Petersburg,
+in which he figured in his true sex, and as brother of the reader
+who had been at the Russian court the year before. He played
+an important part in the negotiations between the courts of
+Russia, Austria and France during the Seven Years&rsquo; War.
+For these diplomatic services he was rewarded with the decoration
+of the grand cross of St Louis. In 1759 he served with the
+French army on the Rhine as aide-de-camp to the marshal de
+Broglie, and was wounded during the campaign. He had held
+for some years previously a commission in a regiment of dragoons,
+and was distinguished for his skill in military exercises, particularly
+in fencing. In 1762, on the return of the duc de Nivernais,
+d&rsquo;Eon, who had been secretary to his embassy, was appointed his
+successor, first as resident agent and then as minister plenipotentiary
+at the court of Great Britain. He had not been long
+in this position when he lost the favour of his sovereign, chiefly,
+according to his own account, through the adverse influence of
+Madame de Pompadour, who was jealous of him as a secret
+correspondent of the king. Superseded by count de Guerchy,
+d&rsquo;Eon showed his irritation by denying the genuineness of the
+letter of appointment, and by raising an action against Guerchy
+for an attempt to poison him. Guerchy, on the other hand,
+had previously commenced an action against d&rsquo;Eon for libel,
+founded on the publication by the latter of certain state documents
+of which he had possession in his official capacity. Both
+parties succeeded in so far as a true bill was found against
+Guerchy for the attempt to murder, though by pleading his
+privilege as ambassador he escaped a trial, and d&rsquo;Eon was found
+guilty of the libel. Failing to come up for judgment when called
+on, he was outlawed. For some years afterwards he lived in
+obscurity, appearing in public chiefly at fencing matches.
+During this period rumours as to the sex of d&rsquo;Eon, originating
+probably in the story of his first residence at St Petersburg as a
+female, began to excite public interest. In 1774 he published at
+Amsterdam a book called <i>Les Loisirs du Chevalier d&rsquo;Eon</i>, which
+stimulated gossip. Bets were frequently laid on the subject,
+and an action raised before Lord Mansfield in 1777 for the recovery
+of one of these bets brought the question to a judicial
+decision, by which d&rsquo;Eon was declared a female. A month after
+the trial he returned to France, having received permission to do
+so as the result of negotiations in which Beaumarchais was employed
+as agent. The conditions were that he was to deliver up
+certain state documents in his possession, and to wear the dress
+of a female. The reason for the latter of these stipulations has
+never been clearly explained, but he complied with it to the
+close of his life. In 1784 he received permission to visit London
+for the purpose of bringing back his library and other property.
+He did not, however, return to France, though after the Revolution
+he sent a letter, using the name of Madame d&rsquo;Eon, in which
+he offered to serve in the republican army. He continued to
+dress as a lady, and took part in fencing matches with success,
+though at last in 1796 he was badly hurt in one. He died in
+London on the 22nd of May 1810. During the closing years of
+his life he is said to have enjoyed a small pension from George III.
+A post-mortem examination of the body conclusively established
+the fact that d&rsquo;Eon was a man.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best modern accounts are in the duc de Broglie&rsquo;s <i>Le Secret
+du roi</i> (1888); Captain J. Buchan Telfer&rsquo;s <i>Strange Career of the
+Chevalier d&rsquo;Eon</i> (1888); Octave Homberg and Fernand Jousselin,
+<i>Le Chevalier d&rsquo;Eon</i> (1904); and A. Lang&rsquo;s <i>Historical Mysteries</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> But see Lang&rsquo;s <i>Historical Mysteries</i>, pp. 241-242, where this traditional
+account is discussed and rejected.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EÖTVÖS, JÓZSEF<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1813-1871), Hungarian writer and
+statesman, the son of Baron Ignacz Eötvös and the baroness
+Lilian, was born at Buda on the 13th of September 1813. After
+an excellent education he entered the civil service as a vice-notary,
+and was early introduced to political life by his father.
+He also spent many years in western Europe, assimilating the
+new ideas both literary and political, and making the acquaintance
+of the leaders of the Romantic school. On his return to
+Hungary he wrote his first political work, <i>Prison Reform</i>; and
+at the diet of 1839-1840 he made a great impression by his
+eloquence and learning. One of his first speeches (published,
+with additional matter, in 1841) warmly advocated Jewish
+emancipation. Subsequently, in the columns of the <i>Pesti Hirlap</i>,
+Eötvös disseminated his progressive ideas farther afield, his
+standpoint being that the necessary reforms could only be
+carried out administratively by a responsible and purely national
+government. The same sentiments pervade his novel <i>The
+Village Notary</i> (1844-1846), one of the classics of the Magyar
+literature, as well as in the less notable romance <i>Hungary in
+1514</i>, and the comedy <i>Long live Equality!</i> In 1842 he married
+Anna Rosty, but his happy domestic life did not interfere with
+his public career. He was now generally regarded as one of the
+leading writers and politicians of Hungary, while the charm
+of his oratory was such that, whenever the archduke palatine
+Joseph desired to have a full attendance in the House of Magnates,
+he called upon Eötvös to address it. The February
+revolution of 1848 was the complete triumph of Eötvös&rsquo; ideas,
+and he held the portfolio of public worship and instruction in the
+first responsible Hungarian ministry. But his influence extended
+far beyond his own department. Eötvös, Deák and Szechényi
+represented the pacific, moderating influence in the council of
+ministers, but when the premier, Batthyány, resigned, Eötvös,
+in despair, retired for a time to Munich. Yet, though withdrawn
+from the tempests of the War of Independence, he continued to
+serve his country with his pen. His <i>Influence of the Ruling Ideas
+of the 19th Century on the State</i> (Pest, 1851-1854, German editions
+at Vienna and Leipzig the same year) profoundly influenced
+literature and public opinion in Hungary. On his return home,
+in 1851, he kept resolutely aloof from all political movements.
+In 1859 he published <i>The Guarantees of the Power and Unity of
+Austria</i> (Ger. ed. Leipzig, same year), in which he tried to arrive
+at a compromise between personal union and ministerial responsibility
+on the one hand and centralization on the other. After the
+Italian war, however, such a halting-place was regarded as inadequate
+by the majority of the nation. In the diet of 1861
+Eötvös was one of the most loyal followers of Deák, and his
+speech in favour of the &ldquo;Address&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deák, Francis</a></span>) made
+a great impression at Vienna. The enforced calm which prevailed
+during the next few years enabled him to devote himself once
+more to literature, and, in 1866, he was elected president of the
+Hungarian academy. In the diets of 1865 and 1867 he fought
+zealously by the side of Deák, with whose policy he now completely
+associated himself. On the formation of the Andrássy
+cabinet (Feb. 1867) he once more accepted the portfolio of public
+worship and education, being the only one of the ministers of
+1848 who thus returned to office. He had now, at last, the
+opportunity of realizing the ideals of a lifetime. That very year
+the diet passed his bill for the emancipation of the Jews; though
+his further efforts in the direction of religious liberty were less
+successful, owing to the opposition of the Catholics. But his
+greatest achievement was the National Schools Act, the most
+complete system of education provided for Hungary since the
+days of Maria Theresa. Good Catholic though he was (in matters
+of religion he had been the friend and was the disciple of Montalembert),
+Eötvös looked with disfavour on the dogma of papal
+infallibility, promulgated in 1870, and when the bishop of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span>
+Fehérvár proclaimed it, Eötvös cited him to appear at the capital
+<i>ad audiendum verbum regium</i>. He was a constant defender of
+the composition with Austria (<i>Ausgleich</i>), and during the absence
+of Andrássy used to preside over the council of ministers; but
+the labours of the last few years were too much for his failing
+health, and he died at Pest on the 2nd of February 1871. On the
+3rd of May 1879 a statue was erected to him at Pest in the square
+which bears his name.</p>
+
+<p>Eötvös occupied as prominent a place in Hungarian literature
+as in Hungarian politics. His peculiarity, both as a politician
+and as a statesman, lies in the fact that he was a true philosopher,
+a philosopher at heart as well as in theory; and in his poems and
+novels he clothed in artistic forms all the great ideas for which
+he contended in social and political life. The best of his verses
+are to be found in his ballads, but his poems are insignificant
+compared with his romances. It was <i>The Carthusians</i>, written
+on the occasion of the floods at Pest in 1838, that first took the
+public by storm. The Magyar novel was then in its infancy,
+being chiefly represented by the historico-epics of Jósiká. Eötvös
+first modernized it, giving prominence in his pages to current
+social problems and political aspirations. The famous <i>Village
+Notary</i> came still nearer to actual life, while <i>Hungary in 1514</i>,
+in which the terrible Dozsa <i>Jacquerie</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dozsa</a></span>) is so vividly
+described, is especially interesting because it rightly attributes
+the great national catastrophe of Mohács to the blind selfishness
+of the Magyar nobility and the intense sufferings of the people.
+Yet, as already stated, all these books are written with a moral
+purpose, and their somewhat involved and difficult style is,
+nowadays at any rate, a trial to those who are acquainted with
+the easy, brilliant and lively novels of Jókai.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of Eötvös&rsquo; collected works is that of 1891, in
+17 vols. Comparatively few of his writings have been translated,
+but there are a good English version (London, 1850) and numerous
+German versions of <i>The Village Notary</i>, while <i>The Emancipation
+of the Jews</i> has been translated into Italian and German (Pest, 1841-1842),
+and a German translation of <i>Hungary in 1514</i>, under the title
+of <i>Der Bauernkrieg in Ungarn</i> was published at Pest in 1850.</p>
+
+<p>See A. Bán, <i>Life and Art of Baron Joseph Eötvös</i> (Hung.) (Budapest,
+1902); Zoltan Ferenczi <i>Baron Joseph Eötvös</i> (Hung.) (Budapest,
+1903) [this is the best biography]; and M. Berkovics,
+<i>Baron Joseph Eotvos and the French Literature</i> (Hung.) (Budapest,
+1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPAMINONDAS<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 418-362), Theban general and statesman,
+born about 418 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> of a noble but impoverished family. For
+his education he was chiefly indebted to Lysis of Tarentum, a
+Pythagorean exile who had found refuge with his father Polymnis.
+He first comes into notice in the attack upon Mantineia in 385,
+when he fought on the Spartan side and saved the life of his future
+colleague Pelopidas. In his youth Epaminondas took little
+part in public affairs; he held aloof from the political assassinations
+which preceded the Theban insurrection of 379. But in the
+following campaigns against Sparta he rendered good service in
+organizing the Theban defence. In 371 he represented Thebes
+at the congress in Sparta, and by his refusal to surrender the
+Boeotian cities under Theban control prevented the conclusion
+of a general peace. In the ensuing campaign he commanded
+the Boeotian army which met the Peloponnesian levy at Leuctra,
+and by a brilliant victory on this site, due mainly to his daring
+innovations in the tactics of the heavy infantry, established at
+once the predominance of Thebes among the land-powers of
+Greece and his own fame as the greatest and most original of
+Greek generals. At the instigation of the Peloponnesian states
+which armed against Sparta in consequence of this battle,
+Epaminondas in 370 led a large host into Laconia; though
+unable to capture Sparta he ravaged its territory and dealt a
+lasting blow at Sparta&rsquo;s predominance in Peloponnesus by liberating
+the Messenians and rebuilding their capital at Messene.
+Accused on his return to Thebes of having exceeded the term of
+his command, he made good his defence and was re-elected
+boeotarch. In 369 he forced the Isthmus lines and secured
+Sicyon for Thebes, but gained no considerable successes. In the
+following year he served as a common soldier in Thessaly, and
+upon being reinstated in command contrived the safe retreat
+of the Theban army from a difficult position. Returning to
+Thessaly next year at the head of an army he procured the
+liberation of Pelopidas from the tyrant Alexander of Pherae
+without striking a blow. In his third expedition (366) to Peloponnesus,
+Epaminondas again eluded the Isthmus garrison and
+won over the Achaeans to the Theban alliance. Turning his
+attention to the growing maritime power of Athens, Epaminondas
+next equipped a fleet of 100 triremes, and during a cruise to the
+Propontis detached several states from the Athenian confederacy.
+When subsequent complications threatened the
+position of Thebes in Peloponnesus he again mustered a large
+army in order to crush the newly formed Spartan league (362).
+After some masterly operations between Sparta and Mantineia,
+by which he nearly captured both these towns, he engaged in a
+decisive battle on the latter site, and by his vigorous shock
+tactics gained a complete victory over his opponents (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mantineia</a></span>). Epaminondas himself received a severe wound
+during the combat, and died soon after the issue was decided.</p>
+
+<p>His title to fame rests mainly on his brilliant qualities both
+as a strategist and as a tactician; his influence on military art
+in Greece was of the greatest. For the purity and uprightness
+of his character he likewise stood in high repute; his culture and
+eloquence equalled the highest Attic standard. In politics his
+chief achievement was the final overthrow of Sparta&rsquo;s predominance
+in the Peloponnese; as a constructive statesman he displayed
+no special talent, and the lofty pan-Hellenic ambitions which are
+imputed to him at any rate never found a practical expression.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Cornelius Nepos, <i>Vita Epaminondae</i>; Diodorus xv. 52-88;
+Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, vii.; L. Pomtow, <i>Das Leben des Epaminondas</i>
+(Berlin, 1870); von Stein, <i>Geschichte der spartanischen und thebanischen
+Hegemonie</i> (Dorpat, 1884), pp. 123 sqq.; H. Swoboda in Pauly-Wissowa,
+<i>Realencyclopädie</i>, v. pt. 2 (Stuttgart, 1905), pp. 2674-2707;
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Army</a></span>: <i>History</i>, § 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPARCH,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> an official, a governor of a province of Roman
+Greece, <span class="grk" title="eparchos">&#7952;&#960;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, whose title was equivalent to, or represented
+that of the Roman <i>praefectus</i>. The area of his administration
+was called an eparchy (<span class="grk" title="eparchia">&#7952;&#960;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#943;&#945;</span>). The term survives as one of
+the administrative units of modern Greece, the country being
+divided into nomarchies, subdivided into eparchies, again subdivided
+into demarchies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>Local Administration</i>).
+&ldquo;Eparch&rdquo; and &ldquo;eparchy&rdquo; are also used in the Russian Orthodox
+Church for a bishop and his diocese respectively.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPAULETTE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (a French word, from <i>épaule</i>, a shoulder),
+properly a shoulder-piece, and so applied to the shoulder-knot of
+ribbon to which a scapulary was attached, worn by members of a
+religious order. The military usage was probably derived from
+the metal plate (<i>épaulière</i>) which protected the shoulder in the
+defensive armour of the 16th century. It was first used merely
+as a shoulder knot to fasten the baldric, and the application of
+it to mark distinctive grades of rank was begun in France at the
+suggestion, it is said, of Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, duc de
+Belle-Isle, in 1759. In modern times it always appears as a
+shoulder ornament for military and naval uniforms. At first it
+consisted merely of a fringe hanging from the end of the shoulder-strap
+or cord over the sleeve, but towards the end of the 18th
+century it became a solid ornament, consisting of a flat shoulder-piece,
+extended beyond the point of the shoulder into an oval
+plate, from the edge of which hangs a thick fringe, in the case of
+officers of gold or silver. The epaulette is worn in the British
+navy by officers above the rank of sub-lieutenant; in the army
+it ceased to be worn about 1855. It is worn by officers in the
+United States navy above the rank of ensign; since 1872 it is
+only worn by general officers in the army. In most other
+countries epaulettes are worn by officers, and in the French
+army by the men also, with a fringe of worsted, various distinctions
+of shape and colour being observed between ranks,
+corps and arms of the service. The &ldquo;scale&rdquo; is similar to the
+epaulette, but has no fringe.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ÉPÉE, CHARLES-MICHEL,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> <span class="sc">Abbé de l&rsquo;</span> (1712-1789), celebrated
+for his labours in behalf of the deaf and dumb, was born at Paris
+on the 25th of November 1712, being the son of the king&rsquo;s architect.
+He studied for the church, but having declined to sign a
+religious formula opposed to the doctrines of the Jansenists, he
+was denied ordination by the bishop of his diocese. He then
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span>
+devoted himself to the study of law; but about the time of his
+admission to the bar of Paris, the bishop of Troyes granted him
+ordination, and offered him a canonry in his cathedral. This
+bishop died soon after, and the abbé, coming to Paris, was, on
+account of his relations with Soanen, the famous Jansenist,
+deprived of his ecclesiastical functions by the archbishop of
+Beaumont. About the same time it happened that he heard
+of two deaf mutes whom a priest lately dead had been endeavouring
+to instruct, and he offered to take his place. The Spaniard
+Pereira was then in Paris, exhibiting the results he had obtained
+in the education of deaf mutes; and it has been affirmed that
+it was from him that Épée obtained his manual alphabet. The
+abbé, however, affirmed that he knew nothing of Pereira&rsquo;s
+method; and whether he did or not, there can be no doubt that
+he attained far greater success than Pereira or any of his predecessors,
+and that the whole system now followed in the instruction
+of deaf mutes virtually owes its origin to his intelligence and
+devotion. In 1755 he founded, for this beneficent purpose, a
+school which he supported at his own expense until his death,
+and which afterwards was succeeded by the &ldquo;Institution
+Nationale des Sourds Muets à Paris,&rdquo; founded by the National
+Assembly in 1791. He died on the 23rd of December 1789.
+In 1838 a bronze monument was erected over his grave in the
+church of Saint Roch. He published various books on his
+method of instruction, but that published in 1784 virtually
+supersedes all others. It is entitled <i>La Véritable Manière d&rsquo;instruire
+les sourds et muets, confirmée par une longue expérience</i>.
+He also began a <i>Dictionnaire général des signes</i>, which was completed
+by his successor, the abbé Sicard.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ÉPÉE-DE-COMBAT,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a weapon still used in France for duelling,
+and there and elsewhere (blunted, of course) for exercise
+and amusement in fencing (<i>q.v.</i>). It has a sharp-pointed blade,
+about 35 in. long, without any cutting edge, and the guard, or
+shell, is bowl-shaped, having its convexity towards the point.
+The <i>épée</i> is the modern representative of the small-sword, and
+both are distinguished from the older rapier, mainly by being
+several inches shorter and much lighter in weight. The small-sword
+(called thus in opposition to the heavy cavalry broadsword),
+was worn by gentlemen in full dress throughout the 18th century,
+and it still survives in the modern English court costume.</p>
+
+<p>Fencing practice was originally carried on without the protection
+of any mask for the face. Wire masks were not invented
+till near 1780 by a famous fencing-master, La Boëssière
+the elder, and did not come into general use until much later.
+Consequently, in order to avoid dangerous accidents to the
+face, and especially the eyes, it was long the rigorous etiquette
+of the fencing-room that the point should always be kept low.</p>
+
+<p>In the 17th century a Scottish nobleman, who had procured
+the assassination of a fencing-master in revenge for having had
+one of his eyes destroyed by the latter at sword-play, pleaded on
+his trial for murder that it was the custom to &ldquo;spare the face.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Rowlandson&rsquo;s well-known drawing of a fencing bout, dated
+1787, shows two accomplished amateurs making a foil assault
+without masks, while in the background a less practised one
+is having a wire mask tied on.</p>
+
+<p>For greater safety the convention was very early arrived at that
+no hits should count in a fencing-bout except those landing on the
+breast. Thus sword-play soon became so unpractical as to lose
+much of its value as a training for war or the duel. For, hits
+with &ldquo;sharps&rdquo; take effect wherever they are made, and many
+an expert fencer of the old school has been seriously wounded, or
+lost his life in a duel, through forgetting that very simple fact.</p>
+
+<p>Strangely enough, when masks began to be generally worn,
+and the <i>fleuret</i> (<i>anglice</i>, &ldquo;foil,&rdquo; a cheap and light substitute for
+the real épée) was invented, fencing practice became gradually
+even more conventional than before. No one seems to have
+understood that with masks all the conventions could be safely
+done away with, root and branch, and sword-practice might
+assume all the semblance of reality. Nevertheless it should be
+clearly recognized that the basis of modern foil-fencing was laid
+with the épée or small-sword alone, in and before the days of
+Angelo, of Danet, and the famous chevalier de St George, who
+were among the first to adopt the fleuret also. All the illustrious
+French professors who came after them, such as La Boëssière the
+younger, Lafaugère, Jean Louis, Cordelois, Grisier, Bertrand and
+Robert, with amateurs like the baron d&rsquo;Ezpeléta, were foil-players
+pure and simple, whose reputations were gained before the
+modern épée play had any recognized status. It was reserved
+for Jacob, a Parisian fencing-master, to establish in the last
+quarter of the 19th century a definite method of the épée,
+which differed essentially from all its forerunners. He was soon
+followed by Baudry, Spinnewyn, Laurent and Ayat. The
+methods of the four first-named, not differing much <i>inter se</i>,
+are based on the perception that in the real sword fight, where
+hits are effective on all parts of the person, the &ldquo;classical&rdquo;
+bent-arm guard, with the foil inclining upwards, is hopelessly
+bad. It offers a tempting mark in the exposed sword-arm itself,
+while the point requires a movement to bring it in line for the
+attack, which involves a fatal loss of time. The épée is really
+in the nature of a short lance held in one hand, and for both
+rapidity and precision of attack, as well as for the defence of the
+sword-arm and the body behind it, a position of guard <i>with the
+arm almost fully extended, and épée in line with the forearm</i>,
+is far the safest. Against this guard the direct lunge at the
+body is impossible, except at the risk of a mutual or double
+hit (<i>le coup des deux veuves</i>). No safe attack at the face or
+body can be made without first binding or beating, opposing or
+evading the adverse blade, and such an attack usually involves
+an initial forward movement. Beats and binds of the blade, with
+retreats of the body, or counter attacks with opposition, replace
+the old foil-parries in most instances, except at close quarters.
+And much of the offensive is reduced to thrusts at the wrist or
+forearm, intended to disable without seriously wounding the
+adversary. The direct lunge (<i>coup-droit</i>) at the body often
+succeeds in tournaments, but usually at the cost of a counter hit,
+which, though later in time, would be fatal with sharp weapons.</p>
+
+<p>Ayat&rsquo;s method, as might be expected from a first-class foil-player,
+is less simple. Indeed for years, too great simplicity
+marked the most successful épée-play, because it usually gained
+its most conspicuous victories over those who attempted a foil
+defence, and whose practice gave them no safe strokes for an
+attack upon the extended blade. But by degrees the épéists
+themselves discovered new ways of attacking with comparative
+safety, and at the present day a complete épée-player is master
+of a large variety of attractive as well as scientific movements,
+both of attack and defence.</p>
+
+<p>It was mainly by amateurs that this development was achieved.
+Perhaps the most conspicuous representative of the new school is
+J. Joseph-Renaud, a consummate swordsman, who has also been
+a champion foil-player. Lucien Gaudin, Alibert and Edmond
+Wallace may be also mentioned as among the most skilful
+amateurs, Albert Ayat and L. Bouché as professors&mdash;all of Paris.
+Belgium, Italy and England have also produced épéists quite of
+the first rank.</p>
+
+<p>The épée lends itself to competition far better than the foil,
+and the revival of the small-sword soon gave rise in France to
+&ldquo;pools&rdquo; and &ldquo;tournaments&rdquo; in which there was the keenest
+rivalry between all comers.</p>
+
+<p>In considering the épée from a British point of view, it may be
+mentioned that it was first introduced publicly in London by
+C. Newton-Robinson at an important assault-at-arms held in the
+Steinway Hall on the 4th May 1900. Professor Spinnewyn was
+the principal demonstrator, with his pupil, the late Willy
+Sulzbacher. The next day was held at the Inns of Court R. V.
+School of Arms, Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, the first English open épée tournament
+for amateurs. It was won by W. Sulzbacher, C. Newton-Robinson
+being second, and Paul Ettlinger, a French resident in
+London, third. This was immediately followed by the institution
+of the Épée Club of London, which, under the successive
+residencies of a veteran swordsman, Sir Edward Jenkinson, and
+of Lord Desborough, subsequently held annual open international
+tournaments. The winners were: in 1901, Willy Sulzbacher;
+1902, Robert Montgomerie; 1903, the marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat;
+1904, J.J. Renaud; 1905, R. Montgomerie. In 1906
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span>
+the Amateur Fencing Association for the first time recognized
+the best-placed Englishman, Edgar Seligman (who was the
+actual winner), as the English épée champion. In 1907
+R. Montgomerie was again the winner, in 1908 C.L. Daniell,
+in 1909 R. Montgomerie.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most active of the English amateurs who were the
+earliest to perceive the wonderful possibilities of épée-play, it
+is right to mention Captain Hutton, Lord Desborough, Sir
+Cosmo Duff-Gordon, Bart., Sir Charles Dilke, Bart., Lord
+Howard de Walden, Egerton Castle, A.S. Cope, R.A., W.H.C.
+Staveley, C.F. Clay, Lord Morpeth, Evan James, Paul
+King, J.B. Cunliffe, John Norbury, Jr., Theodore A. Cook,
+John Jenkinson, R. Montgomerie, S. Martineau, E.B. Milnes,
+H.J. Law, R. Merivale, the Marquis of Dufferin, Hugh Pollock,
+R.W. Doyne, A.G. Ross, the Hon. Ivor Guest and Henry
+Balfour.</p>
+
+<p>Among foreign amateurs who did most to promote the use of
+the épée in England were Messrs P. Ettlinger, Anatole Paroissien,
+J. Joseph-Renaud, W. Sulzbacher, René Lacroix, H.G. Berger
+and the Marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat.</p>
+
+<p>Épée practice became popular among Belgian and Dutch
+fencers about the same time as in England, and this made it
+possible to set on foot international team-contests for amateurs,
+which have done much to promote good feeling and acquaintanceship
+among swordsmen of several countries. In 1903 a series of
+international matches between teams of six was inaugurated in
+Paris. Up to 1909 the French team uniformly won the first place,
+with Belgium or England second.</p>
+
+<p>English fencers who were members of these international
+teams were Lord Desborough, Theodore A. Cook, Bowden,
+Cecil Haig, J. Norbury, Jr., R. Montgomerie, John Jenkinson,
+F. Townsend, W.H.C. Staveley, S. Martineau, C.L.
+Daniell, W. Godden, Captain Haig, M.D.V. Holt, Edgar
+Seligman, C. Newton-Robinson, A.V. Buckland, P.M. Davson,
+E.M. Amphlett and L.V. Fildes. In 1906 a British épée team of
+four, consisting of Lord Desborough, Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon,
+Bart., Edgar Seligman and C. Newton-Robinson, with Lord
+Howard de Walden and Theodore Cook as reserves (the latter
+acting as captain of the team), went to Athens to compete in
+the international match at the Olympic games. After defeating
+the Germans rather easily, the team opposed and worsted the
+Belgians. It thus found itself matched against the French in
+the final, the Greek team having been beaten by the French
+and the Dutch eliminated by the Belgians. After a very close
+fight the result was officially declared a tie. This was the first
+occasion upon which an English fencing team had encountered
+a French one of the first rank upon even terms. In fighting off the
+tie, however, the French were awarded the first prize and the
+Englishmen the second.</p>
+
+<p>In the Olympic games of London, 1908, the Épée International
+Individual Tournament was won by Alibert (France), but
+Montgomerie, Haig and Holt (England) took the 4th, 5th, and
+8th places in the final pool. The result of the International
+Team competition was also very creditable to the English representatives,
+Daniell, Haig, Holt, Montgomerie and Amphlett,
+who by defeating the Dutch, Germans, Danes and Belgians took
+second place to the French. Egerton Castle was captain of the
+English team.</p>
+
+<p>In open International Tournaments on the Continent, English
+épéists have also been coming to the front. None had won such
+a competition up to 1909 outright, but the following had reached
+the final pool: C. Newton-Robinson, Brussels, 1901 (10th),
+Étretat, 1904 (6th); E. Seligman, Copenhagen, 1907 (2nd), and
+Paris, 1909 (12th); R. Montgomerie, Paris, 1909 (5th); and
+E.M. Amphlett, Paris, 1909 (10th).</p>
+
+<p>The method of ascertaining the victor in épée &ldquo;tournaments&rdquo;
+is by dividing the competitors into &ldquo;pools,&rdquo; usually of six or
+eight fencers. Each of these fights an assault for first hit only,
+with every other member of the same pool, and he who is least
+often hit, or not at all, is returned the winner. If the competitors
+are numerous, fresh pools are formed out of the first two, three
+or four in each pool of the preliminary round, and so on, until a
+small number are left in for a final pool, the winner of which is
+the victor of the tournament.</p>
+
+<p>Épée fencing can be, and often is, conducted indoors, but one
+of its attractions consists in its fitness for open-air practice in
+pleasant gardens.</p>
+
+<p>In the use of the épée the most essential points are (1) the
+position of the sword-arm, which, whether fully extended or not,
+should always be so placed as to ensure the protection of the
+wrist, forearm and elbow from direct thrusts, by the intervention
+of the guard or shell; (2) readiness of the legs for <i>instant</i> advance
+or retreat; and (3) the way in which the weapon is held, the best
+position (though hard to acquire and maintain) being that
+adopted by J.J. Renaud with the fingers <i>over</i> the grip, so that
+a downward beat does not easily disarm.</p>
+
+<p>The play of individuals is determined by their respective
+temperaments and physical powers. But every fencer should
+be always ready to deliver a well-aimed, swift, direct thrust at
+any exposed part of the antagonist&rsquo;s arm, his mask or thigh.
+Very tall men, who are usually not particularly quick on their
+legs, should not as a rule attack, otherwise than by direct
+thrusts, when matched against shorter men. For if they merely
+extend their sword-arm in response to a simple attack, their
+longer reach will ward it off with a stop or counter-thrust.
+Short men can only attack them safely by beating, binding,
+grazing, pressing or evading the blade, and the taller fencers
+must be prepared with all the well-known parries and counters
+to such offensive movements, as well as with the stop-thrust
+to be made either with advancing opposition or with a retreat.
+Fencers of small stature must be exceedingly quick on their
+feet, unless they possess the art of parrying to perfection, and
+even then, if slow to shift ground, they will continually be in
+danger. With plenty of room, the quick mover can always
+choose the moment when he will be within distance, for an attack
+which his slower opponent will be always fearing and unable to
+prevent or anticipate.</p>
+
+<p>It is desirable to put on record the modern form of the weapon.
+An average épée weighs, complete, about a pound and a half,
+while a foil weighs approximately one-third less. The épée
+blade is exactly like that of the old small-sword after the abandonment
+of the &ldquo;<i>colichemarde</i>&rdquo; form, in which the &ldquo;<i>forte</i>&rdquo; of the blade
+was greatly thickened. In length from guard or shell to point
+it measures about 35 in., and in width at the shell about <span class="spp">13</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>ths
+of an inch. From this it gradually and regularly tapers to
+the point. There is no cutting edge. The side of the épée
+which is usually held uppermost is slightly concave, the other is
+strengthened with a midrib, nearly equal in thickness and
+similar in shape to either half of the true blade. The material
+is tempered steel. There is a haft or tang about 8 in. long, which
+is pushed through a circular guard or shell (&ldquo;<i>coquille</i>&rdquo;) of convex
+form, the diameter of which is normally 5 in. and the convexity
+1¾ in. The shell is of steel or aluminium, and if of the latter
+metal, sometimes fortified at the centre with a disk of steel the
+size of a crown piece. The insertion of the haft or tang through
+the shell may be either central or excentric to the extent of about
+1 in., for the better protection of the outside of the forearm.</p>
+
+<p>After passing through the shell, the haft of the blade is inserted
+in a grip or handle (&ldquo;<i>poignet</i>&rdquo;), averaging 7 in. in length
+and of quadrangular section, which is made of tough wood
+covered with leather, india-rubber, wound cord or other strong
+material with a rough surface. The grip is somewhat wider than
+its vertical thickness when held in the usual way, and it diminishes
+gradually from shell to pommel for convenience of holding.
+It should have a slight lateral curvature, so that in executing
+circular movements the pommel is kept clear of the wrist. The
+pommel, usually of steel, is roughly spherical or eight-sided,
+and serves as a counterbalance. The end of the haft is riveted
+through it, except in the case of &ldquo;<i>épées démontables</i>,&rdquo; which are
+the most convenient, as a blade may be changed by simply unscrewing
+or unlocking the pommel.</p>
+
+<p>An épée is well balanced and light in hand when, on poising
+the blade across the forefinger, about 1 in. in advance of the shell,
+it is in equilibrium.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span></p>
+
+<p>For practice, the point is blunted to resemble the flat head of a
+nail, and is made still more incapable of penetration by winding
+around it a small ball of waxed thread, such as cobblers use.
+This is called the &ldquo;button.&rdquo; In competitions various forms of
+&ldquo;<i>boutons marqueurs</i>,&rdquo; all of which are unsatisfactory, are
+occasionally used. The &ldquo;<i>pointe d&rsquo;arrêt</i>,&rdquo; like a small tin-tack
+placed head downwards on the flattened point of the épée, and
+fastened on by means of the waxed thread, is, on the contrary,
+most useful, by fixing in the clothes, to show where and when
+a good hit has been made. The point need only protrude
+about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>th of an inch from the button. There are several
+kinds of pointes d&rsquo;arrêt. The best is called, after its inventor,
+the &ldquo;Léon Sazie,&rdquo; and has three blunt points of hardened
+steel each slightly excentric. The single point is sometimes
+prevented by the thickness of the button from scoring a
+good hit.</p>
+
+<p>A mask of wire netting is used to protect the face, and a
+stout glove on the sword hand. It is necessary to wear strong
+clothes and to pad the jacket and trousers at the most exposed
+parts, in case the blade should break unnoticed. A vulnerable
+spot, which ought to be specially padded, is just under the
+sword-arm.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Among the older works on the history and
+practice of the small-sword, or épée, are the following:&mdash;<i>The Scots
+Fencing-Master, or Compleat Small-swordsman</i>, by W.H. Gent
+(Sir William Hope, afterwards baronet) (Edinburgh, 1687), and
+several other works by the same author, of later date, for which see
+<i>Schools and Masters of Fence</i>, by Egerton Castle; <i>Nouveau traité de
+la perfection sur le fait des armes</i>, by P.G.F. Girard (Paris, 1736);
+<i>L&rsquo;École des armes</i>, by M. Angelo (London, 1763); <i>L&rsquo;Art des armes</i>, by
+M. Danet (2 vols., Paris, 1766-1767); <i>Nouveau traité de l&rsquo;art des
+armes</i>, by Nicolas Demeuse (Liège, 1778).</p>
+
+<p>More modern are: <i>Traité de l&rsquo;art des armes</i>, by la Böessière, Jr.
+(Paris, 1818); <i>Les Armes et le duel</i>, by A. Grisier (2nd ed., Paris,
+1847); <i>Les Secrets de l&rsquo;épée</i>, by the baron de Bazancourt (Paris,
+1862); <i>Schools and Masters of Fence</i>, by Egerton Castle (London,
+1885); <i>Le Jeu de l&rsquo;épée</i>, by J. Jacob and Émil André (Paris, 1887);
+<i>L&rsquo;Escrime pratique au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, by Ambroise Baudry (Paris);
+L&rsquo;Escrime a l&rsquo;épée, by A. Spinnewyn and Paul Manonry (Paris, 1898);
+<i>The Sword and the Centuries</i>, by Captain Hutton (London,1901); &ldquo;The
+Revival of the Small-sword,&rdquo; by C. Newton-Robinson, in the <i>Nineteenth
+Century and After</i> (London, January 1905); <i>Nouveau Traité
+de l&rsquo;épée</i>, by Dr Edom, privately published (Paris, 1908); and, most
+important of all, <i>Méthode d&rsquo;escrime à l&rsquo;épée</i>, by J. Joseph-Renaud,
+privately published (Paris, 1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. E. N. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPERJES,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Sáros,
+190 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,098. It is
+situated on the left bank of the river Tarcza, an affluent of the
+Theiss, and has been almost completely rebuilt since a great fire
+in 1887. Eperjes is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, and is
+still partly surrounded by its old walls. It is the seat of a Greek-Catholic
+bishop, and possesses a beautiful cathedral built in the
+18th century in late Gothic style. It possesses manufactures of
+cloth, table-linen and earthenware, and has an active trade in
+wine, linen, cattle and grain. About 2 m. to the south is Sóvár
+with important salt-works.</p>
+
+<p>In the same county, 28 m. by rail N. of Eperjes, is situated the
+old town of <i>Bártfa</i> (pop. 6098), which possesses a Gothic church
+from the 14th century, and an interesting town-hall, dating from
+the 15th century, and containing very valuable archives. In
+its neighbourhood, surrounded by pine forests, are the baths of
+Bártfa, with twelve mineral springs&mdash;iodate, ferruginous and
+alkaline&mdash;used for bathing and drinking.</p>
+
+<p>About 6 m. N.W. of Eperjes is situated the village of Vörösvágás,
+which contains the only opal mine in Europe. The opal
+was mined here 800 years ago, and the largest piece hitherto
+found, weighing 2940 carats and estimated to have a value of
+£175,000, is preserved in the Court Museum at Vienna.</p>
+
+<p>Eperjes was founded about the middle of the 12th century by
+a German colony, and was elevated to the rank of a royal free
+town in 1347 by Louis I. (the Great). It was afterwards fortified
+and received special privileges. The Reformation found many
+early adherents here, and the town played an important part
+during the religious wars of the 17th century. It became famous
+by the so-called &ldquo;butchery of Eperjes,&rdquo; a tribunal instituted
+by the Austrian general Caraffa in 1687, which condemned to
+death and confiscated the property of a great number of citizens
+accused of Protestantism. During the 16th and the 17th
+centuries its German educational establishments enjoyed a
+wide reputation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ÉPERNAY,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Marne, 88 m. E.N.E. of Paris
+on the main line of the Eastern railway to Châlons-sur-Marne.
+Pop. (1906) 20,291. The town is situated on the left bank of the
+Marne at the extremity of the pretty valley of the Cubry, by
+which it is traversed. In the central and oldest quarter the
+streets are narrow and irregular; the surrounding suburbs are
+modern and more spacious, and that of La Folie, on the east,
+contains many handsome villas belonging to rich wine merchants.
+The town has also extended to the right bank of the Marne.
+One of its churches preserves a portal and stained-glass windows
+of the 16th century, but the other public buildings are modern.
+Épernay is best known as the principal <i>entrepôt</i> of the Champagne
+wines, which are bottled and kept in extensive vaults in the
+chalk rock on which the town is built. The manufacture of
+the apparatus and material used in the champagne industry
+occupies many hands, and the Eastern Railway Company has
+important workshops here. Brewing, and the manufacture of
+sugar and of hats and caps, are also carried on. Épernay is the
+seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, and communal colleges for girls and boys.</p>
+
+<p>Épernay (<i>Sparnacum</i>) belonged to the archbishops of Reims
+from the 5th to the 10th century, at which period it came into
+the possession of the counts of Champagne. It suffered severely
+during the Hundred Years&rsquo; War, and was burned by Francis I.
+in 1544. It resisted Henry of Navarre in 1592, and Marshal
+Biron fell in the attack which preceded its capture. In 1642
+it was, along with Château-Thierry, erected into a duchy and
+assigned to the duke of Bouillon.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ÉPERNON,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a town of northern France in the department of
+Eure-et-Loir, at the confluence of the Drouette and the Guesle,
+17 m. N.E. of Chartres by rail. Pop. (1906) 2370. It belonged
+originally to the counts of Montfort, who, in the 11th century,
+built a castle here of which the ruins are still left, and granted
+a charter to the town. In the 13th century it became an independent
+lordship, which remained attached to the crown of
+Navarre till, in the 16th century, it was sold by King Henry
+(afterwards King Henry IV. of France) to Jean Louis de Nogaret,
+for whom it was raised to the rank of a duchy in 1581. The new
+duke of Épernon was one of the favourites of Henry III., who
+were called <i>les Mignons</i>; the king showered favours upon him,
+giving him the posts of colonel-general in the infantry and of
+admiral of France. Under the reign of Henry IV. he made
+himself practically independent in his government of Provence.
+He was instrumental in giving the regency to Marie de&rsquo; Medici in
+1610, and as a result exercised a considerable influence upon the
+government. During his governorship of Guienne in 1622 he
+had some scandalous scenes with the parlement and the archbishop
+of Bordeaux. He died in 1642. His eldest son, Henri de
+Nogaret de la Valette, duke of Candale, served under Richelieu,
+in the armies of Guienne, of Picardy and of Italy. The second
+son of Jean Louis de Nogaret, Bernard, who was born in 1592,
+and died in 1661, was, like his father, duke of Épernon, colonel-general
+in the infantry and governor of Guienne. After his
+death, the title of duke of Épernon was borne by the families of
+Goth and of Pardaillan.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHEBEUM<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="ephêbos">&#7956;&#966;&#951;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span>, a young man), in architecture,
+a large hall in the ancient Palaestra furnished with seats
+(Vitruvius v. 11), the length of which should be a third larger
+than the width. It served for the exercises of youths of from
+sixteen to eighteen years of age.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHEBI<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epi">&#7952;&#960;&#943;</span>, and <span class="grk" title="hêbê">&#7971;&#946;&#951;</span>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;those who have reached
+puberty&rdquo;), a name specially given, in Athens and other Greek
+towns, to a class of young men from eighteen to twenty years of
+age, who formed a sort of college under state control. On the
+completion of his seventeenth year the Athenian youth attained
+his civil majority, and, provided he belonged to the first three
+property classes and passed the scrutiny (<span class="grk" title="dokimasia">&#948;&#959;&#954;&#953;&#956;&#945;&#963;&#943;&#945;</span>) as to age,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span>
+civic descent and physical capability, was enrolled on the register
+of his deme (<span class="grk" title="lêxiarchikon grammateion">&#955;&#951;&#958;&#953;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#947;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>). He thereby at once
+became liable to the military training and duties, which, at least
+in the earliest times, were the main object of the Ephebia.
+In the time of Aristotle the names of the enrolled ephebi were
+engraved on a bronze pillar (formerly on wooden tablets) in
+front of the council-chamber. After admission to the college,
+the ephebus took the oath of allegiance, recorded in Pollux and
+Stobaeus (but not in Aristotle), in the temple of Aglaurus, and
+was sent to Munychia or Acte to form one of the garrison. At
+the end of the first year of training, the ephebi were reviewed,
+and, if their performance was satisfactory, were provided by the
+state with a spear and a shield, which, together with the <i>chlamys</i>
+(cloak) and <i>petasus</i> (broad-brimmed hat), made up their equipment.
+In their second year they were transferred to other
+garrisons in Attica, patrolled the frontiers, and on occasion took
+an active part in war. During these two years they were free
+from taxation, and were not allowed (except in certain cases) to
+appear in the law courts as plaintiffs or defendants. The ephebi
+took part in some of the most important Athenian festivals.
+Thus during the Eleusinia they were told off to fetch the sacred
+objects from Eleusis and to escort the image of Iacchus on the
+sacred way. They also performed police duty at the meetings
+of the ecclesia.</p>
+
+<p>After the end of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the institution underwent
+a radical change. Enrolment ceased to be obligatory, lasted
+only for a year, and the limit of age was dispensed with. Inscriptions
+attest a continually decreasing number of ephebi, and
+with the admission of foreigners the college lost its representative
+national character. This was mainly due to the weakening of
+the military spirit and the progress of intellectual culture. The
+military element was no longer all-important, and the ephebia
+became a sort of university for well-to-do young men of good
+family, whose social position has been compared with that of the
+Athenian &ldquo;knights&rdquo; of earlier times. The institution lasted
+till the end of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the ephebia was in existence in the 5th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and controlled by the Areopagus and strategus
+as its moral and military supervisors. In the 4th century their
+place was taken by ten <i>sophronistae</i> (one for each tribe), who, as
+the name implies, took special interest in the morals of those
+under them, their military training being in the hands of experts,
+of whom the chief were the <i>hoplomachus</i>, the <i>acontistes</i>, the
+<i>toxotes</i> and the <i>aphetes</i> (instructors respectively in the use of
+arms, javelin-throwing, archery and the use of artillery engines).
+Later, the <i>sophronistae</i> were superseded by a single official called
+<i>cosmetes</i>, elected for a year by the people, who appointed the
+instructors. When the ephebia instead of a military college
+became a university, the military instructors were replaced by
+philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians and artists. In Roman
+imperial times several new officials were introduced, one of special
+importance being the director of the Diogeneion, where youths
+under age were trained for the ephebia. At this period the college
+of ephebi was a miniature city; its members called themselves
+&ldquo;citizens,&rdquo; and it possessed an archon, strategus, herald and
+other officials, after the model of ancient Athens.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is an extensive class of inscriptions, ranging from the 3rd
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, containing decrees relating to
+the ephebi, their officers and instructors, and lists of the same, and
+a whole chapter (42) of the Aristotelian <i>Constitution of Athens</i> is
+devoted to the subject. The most important treatises on the
+subject are: W. Dittenberger, <i>De ephebis Atticis</i> (Göttingen, 1863);
+A. Dumont, <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;éphébie attique</i> (1875-1876); L. Grasberger,
+<i>Erziehung und Unterricht im klassichen Altertum</i>, iii. (Würzburg,
+1881); J.P. Mahaffy, <i>Old Greek Education</i> (1881); P. Girard,
+<i>L&rsquo;Éducation athénienne au V</i><span class="sp">e</span> <i>et IV</i><span class="sp">e</span> <i>siècle avant J.-C.</i> (2nd ed., 1891),
+and article in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>
+which contains further bibliographical references; G. Gilbert, <i>The
+Constitutional Antiquities of Athens</i> (Eng. tr., 1895); G. Busolt,
+<i>Die griechischen Staats- und Rechtsaltertümer</i> (1892); T. Thalheim
+and J. Öhler in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie der classischen
+Altertumswissenschaft</i>, v. pt. 2 (1905); W.W. Capes, <i>University Life
+in Ancient Athens</i> (1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHEMERIS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (Greek for a &ldquo;diary&rdquo;), a table giving for stated
+times the apparent position and other numerical particulars
+relating to a heavenly body. The <i>Astronomical Ephemeris</i>,
+familiarly known as the &ldquo;Nautical Almanac,&rdquo; is a national annual
+publication containing ephemerides of the principal or more
+conspicuous heavenly bodies, elements and other data of eclipses,
+and other matter useful to the astronomer and navigator. The
+governments of the United Kingdom, United States, France,
+Germany and Spain publish such annals.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE.<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> This book of the New
+Testament, the most general and least occasional and polemic
+of all the Pauline epistles, a large section of which seems almost
+like the literary elaboration of a theological topic, may best be
+described as a solemn oration, addressed to absent hearers, and
+intended not primarily to clarify their minds but to stir their
+emotions. It is thus a true letter, but in the grand style, verging
+on the nature not of an essay but a poem. <i>Ephesians</i> has been
+called &ldquo;the crown of St Paul&rsquo;s writings,&rdquo; and whether it be
+measured by its theological or its literary interest and importance,
+it can fairly dispute with <i>Romans</i> the claim to be his greatest
+epistle. In the public and private use of Christians some parts
+of <i>Ephesians</i> have been among the most favourite of all New
+Testament passages. Like its sister Epistle to the Colossians, it
+represents, whoever wrote it, deep experience and bold use of
+reflection on the meaning of that experience; if it be from the
+pen of the Apostle Paul, it reveals to us a distinct and important
+phase of his thought.</p>
+
+<p>To the nature of the epistle correspond well the facts of its
+title and address. The title &ldquo;To the Ephesians&rdquo; is found in the
+Muratorian canon, in Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement of
+Alexandria, as well as in all the earliest MSS. and versions.
+Marcion, however (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 150), used and recommended copies
+with the title &ldquo;To the Laodiceans.&rdquo; This would be inexplicable
+if Eph. i. 1 had read in Marcion&rsquo;s copies, as it does in most ancient
+authorities, &ldquo;To the saints which are at Ephesus&rdquo;; but in fact
+the words <span class="grk" title="en Ephesô">&#7952;&#957; &#7960;&#966;&#941;&#963;&#8179;</span> of verse 1 were probably absent. They
+were not contained in the text used by Origen (d. 253); Basil
+(d. 379) says that &ldquo;ancient copies&rdquo; omitted the words; and
+they are actually omitted by Codices B (Vaticanus, 4th century)
+and <span title="alef">&#1488;</span> (Sinaiticus, 4th century), together with Codex 67 (11th
+century). The words &ldquo;in Ephesus&rdquo; were thus probably
+originally lacking in the address, and were inserted from the
+suggestion of the title. Either the address was general (&ldquo;to
+the saints who are also faithful&rdquo;) or else a blank was left. In
+the latter case the name may have been intended to be supplied
+orally, in communicating the letter, or a different name may
+have been written in each of the individual copies. Under any
+of these hypotheses the address would indicate that we have
+a circular letter, written to a group of churches, doubtless in
+Asia Minor. This would account for the general character of the
+epistle, as well as for the entire and striking absence of personal
+greetings and of concrete allusions to existing circumstances
+among the readers. It appears to have drawn its title, &ldquo;To the
+Ephesians,&rdquo; from one of the churches for which it was intended,
+perhaps the one from which a copy was secured when Paul&rsquo;s
+epistles were collected, shortly before or after the year 100.
+That our epistle is the one referred to in Col. iv. 16, which was
+to be had by the Colossians from Laodicea, is not unlikely.
+Such an identification doubtless led Marcion to alter the title
+in his copies.</p>
+
+<p>The structure of <i>Ephesians</i> is epistolary; it opens with the
+usual salutation (i. 1-2) and closes with a brief personal note and
+formal farewell (vi. 21-24). In the intervening body of the epistle
+the writer also follows the regular form of a letter. In an ordinary
+Greek letter (as the papyri show) we should find the salutation
+followed by an expression of gratification over the correspondent&rsquo;s
+good health and of prayer for its continuance. Paul
+habitually expanded and deepened this, and, in this case, that
+paragraph is enormously enlarged, so that it may be regarded
+as including chapters i.-iii., and as carrying the main thought
+of the epistle. Chapters iv.-vi. merely make application of the
+main ideas worked out in chapters i.-iii. Throughout the epistle
+we have a singular combination of the seemingly desultory
+method of a letter, turning aside at a word and straying wherever
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span>
+the mood of the moment leads, with the firm, forward march
+of earnest and mature thought. In this combination resides the
+doubtless unconscious but nevertheless real literary art of the
+composition.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental theme of the epistle is <i>The Unity of Mankind
+in Christ</i>, and hence the Unity and Divinity of the Church of
+Christ. God&rsquo;s purpose from eternity was to unite mankind in
+Christ, and so to bring human history to its goal, the New Man,
+the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ. Those who
+have believed in Christ are the present representatives and result
+of this purpose; and a clear knowledge of the purpose itself,
+the secret of the ages, has now been revealed to men. This theme
+is not formally discussed, as in a theological treatise, but is
+rather, as it were, celebrated in lofty eulogy and application.
+First, in chapters i.-iii., under the mask of a conventional
+congratulatory paragraph, the writer declares at length the
+privileges which this great fact confers upon those who by faith
+receive the gift of God, and he is thus able to touch on the various
+aspects of his subject. Then, in chapters iv.-vi., he turns, with
+a characteristic and impressive &ldquo;therefore,&rdquo; to set forth the
+obligations which correspond to the privileges he has just
+expounded. This author is indeed interested to prosecute
+vigorous and substantial thinking, but the mainspring of his
+interest is the conviction that such thought is significant for
+inner and outer life.</p>
+
+<p>The relationship, both literary and theological, between the
+epistle to the <i>Ephesians</i> and that to the <i>Colossians</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) is very
+close. It is to be seen in many of the prominent ideas of the two
+writings, especially in the developed view of the central position
+of Christ in the whole universe; in the conception of the Church
+as Christ&rsquo;s body, of which He is the head; in the thought of
+the great Mystery, once secret, now revealed. There is further
+resemblance in the formal moral code, arranged by classes of
+persons, and having much the same contents in the two epistles
+(Eph. v. 22-vi. 9; Col. iii. 18-iv. 1). In both, also, Tychicus
+carries the letter, and in almost identical language the readers
+are told that he will by word of mouth give fuller information
+about the apostle&rsquo;s affairs (Eph. vi. 21-22; Col. iv. 7-8). Moreover,
+in a great number of characteristic phrases and even whole
+verses the two are alike. Compare, for instance, Eph. i. 7,
+Col. i. 14; Eph. i. 10, Col. i. 20; Eph. i. 21, Col. i. 16; Eph. i.
+22, 23, Col. i. 18, 19; Eph. ii. 5, Col. ii. 13; Eph. ii. 11, Col.
+ii. 11; Eph: ii. 16, Col. i. 20; Eph. iii. 2, 3, Col. i. 25, 26, and
+many other parallels. Only a comparison in detail will give a
+true impression of the extraordinary degree of resemblance.
+Yet the two epistles do not follow the same course of thought,
+and their contents cannot be successfully exhibited in a common
+synoptical abstract. Each has its independent occasion, purpose,
+character and method; but they draw largely on a common
+store of thought and use common means of expression.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the authorship of <i>Ephesians</i> is less important to
+the student of the history of Christian thought than in the case
+of most of the Pauline epistles, because of the generalness of tone
+and the lack of specific allusion in the work. It purports to be
+by Paul, and was held to be his by Marcion and in the Muratorian
+canon, and by Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement of
+Alexandria, all writing at the end of the 2nd century. No doubt
+of the Pauline authorship was expressed in ancient times; nor
+is there any lack of early use by writers who make no direct
+quotation, to raise doubts as to the genuineness of the epistle.
+The influence of its language is probably to be seen in Ignatius,
+Polycarp and Hermas, less certainly in the epistle of Barnabas.
+Some resemblances of expression in Clement of Rome and in
+Second Clement may have significance. There is here abundant
+proof that the epistle was in existence, and was highly valued
+and influential with leaders of Christian thought, about the
+year 100, when persons who had known Paul well were still
+living.</p>
+
+<p>To the evidence given above may be added the use of <i>Ephesians</i>
+in the First Epistle of Peter. If the latter epistle could be finally
+established as genuine, or its date fixed, it would give important
+evidence with regard to <i>Ephesians</i>; but in the present state
+of discussion we must confine ourselves to pointing out the fact.
+Some of the more striking points of contact are the following:
+Eph. i. 3, 1 Peter i. 3; Eph. i. 20, 21, 1 Peter iii. 22; Eph.
+ii. 2, 3, iv. 17, 1 Peter iv. 3; Eph. ii. 21, 22, 1 Peter ii. 5; Eph.
+v. 22, 1 Peter iii. 1, 2; Eph. v. 25, 1 Peter iii. 7, 8; Eph. vi. 5,
+1 Peter ii. 18, 19. A similar relation exists between <i>Romans</i> and
+<i>1 Peter</i>. In both cases the dependence is clearly on the part of
+<i>1 Peter</i>; for ideas and phrases that in <i>Ephesians</i> and <i>Romans</i>
+have their firm place in closely wrought sequences, are found in
+<i>1 Peter</i> with less profound significance and transformed into
+smooth and pointed maxims and apophthegmatic sentences.</p>
+
+<p>Objections to the genuineness of <i>Ephesians</i> have been urged
+since the early part of the 19th century. The influence of
+Schleiermacher, whose pupil Leonhard Usteri in his <i>Entwickelung
+der paulinischen Lehrbegriffs</i> (1824) expressed strong doubts as
+to <i>Ephesians</i>, carried weight. He held that Tychicus was the
+author. De Wette first (1826) doubted, then (1843) denied
+that the epistle was by Paul. The chief attack came, however,
+from Baur (1845) and his colleagues of the Tübingen school.
+Against the genuineness have appeared Ewald, Renan, Hausrath,
+Hilgenfeld, Ritschl, Pfleiderer, Weizsäcker, Holtzmann, von
+Soden, Schmiedel, von Dobschütz and many others. On the
+other hand, the epistle has been defended by Bleek, Neander,
+Reuss, B. Weiss, Meyer, Sabatier, Lightfoot, Hort, Sanday,
+Bacon, Jülicher, Harnack, Zahn and many others. In recent
+years a tendency has been apparent among critics to accept
+<i>Ephesians</i> as a genuine work of Paul. This has followed the
+somewhat stronger reaction in favour of <i>Colossians</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Before speaking of the more fundamental grounds urged for
+the rejection of <i>Ephesians</i>, we may look at various points of
+detail which are of less significance.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The style has unquestionably a slow and lumbering
+movement, in marked contrast with the quick effectiveness of
+<i>Romans</i> and <i>Galatians</i>. The sentences are much longer and less
+vivacious, as any one can see by a superficial examination.
+But nevertheless there are parts of the earlier epistles where the
+same tendency appears (<i>e.g.</i> Rom. iii. 23-26), and on the whole
+the style shows Paul&rsquo;s familiar traits. (2) The vocabulary is
+said to be peculiar. But it can be shown to be no more so than
+that of <i>Galatians</i> (Zahn, <i>Einleitung</i>, i. pp. 365 ff.). On the
+other hand, some words characteristic of Paul&rsquo;s use appear
+(notably <span class="grk" title="dio">&#948;&#953;&#972;</span>, five times), and the most recent and careful
+investigation of Paul&rsquo;s vocabulary (Nägeli, <i>Wortschatz der
+paulinischen Briefe</i>, 1905) concludes that the evidence speaks
+for Pauline authorship. (3) Certain phrases have aroused
+suspicion, for instance, &ldquo;the devil&rdquo; (vi. 11, instead of Paul&rsquo;s
+usual term &ldquo;Satan&rdquo;); &ldquo;his holy apostles and prophets&rdquo; (iii. 5,
+as smacking of later fulsomeness); &ldquo;I Paul&rdquo; (iii. 1); &ldquo;unto
+me, who am less than the least of all the saints&rdquo; (iii. 8, as exaggerated).
+But these cases, when properly understood and
+calmly viewed, do not carry conviction against the epistle. (4)
+The relation of <i>Ephesians</i> to <i>Colossians</i> would be a serious difficulty
+only if <i>Colossians</i> were held to be not by Paul. Those who
+hold to the genuineness of <i>Colossians</i> find it easier to explain the
+resemblances as the product of the free working of the same
+mind, than as due to a deliberate imitator. Holtzmann&rsquo;s
+elaborate and very ingenious theory (1872) that <i>Colossians</i> has
+been expanded, on the basis of a shorter letter of Paul, by the
+same later hand which had previously written the whole of
+<i>Ephesians</i>, has not met with favour from recent scholars.</p>
+
+<p>But the more serious difficulties which to many minds still
+stand in the way of the acceptance of the epistle have come
+from the developed phase of Pauline theology which it shows,
+and from the general background and atmosphere of the underlying
+system of thought, in which the absence of the well-known
+earlier controversies is remarkable, while some things suggest
+the thought of John and a later age. Among the most important
+points in which the ideas and implications of <i>Ephesians</i> suggest
+an authorship and a period other than that of Paul are the
+following:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The union of Gentiles and Jews in one body is already
+accomplished. (<i>b</i>) The Christology is more advanced, uses
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span>
+Alexandrian terms, and suggests the ideas of the Gospel of John.
+(<i>c</i>) The conception of the Church as the body of Christ is new.
+(<i>d</i>) There is said to be a general softening of Pauline thought in
+the direction of the Christianity of the 2nd century, while very
+many characteristic ideas of the earlier epistles are absent.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the changed state of affairs in the Church, it
+must be said that this can be a conclusive argument only to one
+who holds the view of the Tübingen scholars, that the Apostolic
+Age was all of a piece and was dominated solely by one controversy.
+The change in the situation is surely not greater than
+can be imagined within the lifetime of Paul. That the epistle
+implies as already existent a developed system of Gnostic thought
+such as only came into being in the 2nd century is not true,
+and such a date is excluded by the external evidence. As to
+the other points, the question is, whether the admittedly new
+phase of Paul&rsquo;s theological thought is so different from his earlier
+system as to be incompatible with it. In answering this question
+different minds will differ. But it must remain possible that
+contact with new scenes and persons, and especially such controversial
+necessities as are exemplified in <i>Colossians</i>, stimulated
+Paul to work out more fully, under the influence of Alexandrian
+categories, lines of thought of which the germs and origins must
+be admitted to have been present in earlier epistles. It cannot
+be maintained that the ideas of <i>Ephesians</i> directly contradict
+either in formulation or in tendency the thought of the earlier
+epistles. Moreover, if <i>Colossians</i> be accepted as Pauline (and
+among other strong reasons the unquestionable genuineness
+of the epistle to Philemon renders it extremely difficult not to
+accept it), the chief matters of this more advanced Christian
+thought are fully legitimated for Paul.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the characteristics of the thought in
+<i>Ephesians</i> give some strong evidence confirmatory of the epistle&rsquo;s
+own claim to be by Paul. (<i>a</i>) The writer of Eph. ii. 11-22 was
+a Jew, not less proud of his race than was the writer of Rom.
+ix.-xi. or of Phil. iii. 4 ff. (<i>b</i>) The centre in all the theology of
+the epistle is the idea of redemption. The use of Alexandrian
+categories is wholly governed by this interest. (<i>c</i>) The epistle
+shows the same panoramic, pictorial, dramatic conception of
+Christian truth which is everywhere characteristic of Paul.
+(<i>d</i>) The most fundamental elements in the system of thought do
+not differ from those of the earlier epistles.</p>
+
+<p>The view which denies the Pauline authorship of <i>Ephesians</i>
+has to suppose the existence of a great literary artist and profound
+theologian, able to write an epistle worthy of Paul at his
+best, who, without betraying any recognizable motive, presented
+to the world in the name of Paul an imitation of <i>Colossians</i>,
+incredibly laborious and yet superior to the original in literary
+workmanship and power of thought, and bearing every appearance
+of earnest sincerity. It must further be supposed that the
+name and the very existence of this genius were totally forgotten
+in Christian circles fifty years after he wrote. The balance of
+evidence seems to lie on the side of the genuineness of the Epistle.</p>
+
+<p>If <i>Ephesians</i> was written by Paul, it was during the period
+of his imprisonment, either at Caesarea or at Rome (iii. 1, iv. 1,
+vi. 20). At very nearly the same time he must have written
+<i>Colossians</i> and <i>Philemon</i>; all three were sent by Tychicus.
+There is no strong reason for holding that the three were written
+from Caesarea. For Rome speaks the greater probability of
+the metropolis as the place in which a fugitive slave would try
+to hide himself, the impression given in <i>Colossians</i> of possible
+opportunity for active mission work (Col. iv. 3, 4; cf. Acts xxviii.
+30, 31), the fact that <i>Philippians</i>, which in a measure belongs to
+the same group, was pretty certainly written from Rome. As
+to the Christians addressed, they are evidently converts from
+heathenism (ii. 1, 11-13, 17 f., iii. 1, iv. 17); but they are not
+merely Gentile Christians at large, for Tychicus carries the letter
+to them, Paul has some knowledge of their special circumstances
+(i. 15), and they are explicitly distinguished from &ldquo;all the
+saints&rdquo; (iii. 18, vi. 18). We may most naturally think of them
+as the members of the churches of Asia. The letter is very likely
+referred to in Col. iv. 16, although this theory is not wholly free
+from difficulties.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The best commentaries on <i>Ephesians</i> are by
+C.J. Ellicott (1855, 4th ed. 1868), H.A.W. Meyer (4th ed., 1867),
+(Eng. trans. 1880), T.K. Abbott (1897), J.A. Robinson (1903,
+2nd ed. 1904); in German by H. von Soden (in <i>Hand-Commentar</i>)
+(1891, 2nd ed. 1893), E. Haupt (in Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Kommentar</i>) (8th ed.,
+1902). J.B. Lightfoot&rsquo;s commentary on <i>Colossians</i> (1875, 3rd ed.
+1879) is important for <i>Ephesians</i> also. On the English text see
+H.C.G. Moule (in Cambridge Bible for Schools) (1887). R.W. Dale,
+<i>Epistle to the Ephesians; its Doctrine and Ethics</i> (1882), is a valuable
+series of expository discourses.</p>
+
+<p>Questions of genuineness, purpose, &amp;c., are discussed in the New
+Testament <i>Introductions</i> of H. Holtzmann (1885, 3rd ed. 1892);
+B. Weiss (1886, 3rd ed. 1897, Eng. trans. 1887); G. Salmon (1887,
+8th ed. 1897); A. Jülicher (1894, 5th and 6th ed. 1906, Eng. trans.
+1904); T. Zahn (1897-1899, 2nd ed. 1900); and in the thorough
+investigations of H. Holtzmann, <i>Kritik der Epheser- und Kolosserbriefe</i>
+(1872), and F.J.A. Hort, <i>Prolegomena to St Paul&rsquo;s Epistles
+to the Romans and the Ephesians</i> (1895). See also the works on the
+<i>Apostolic Age</i> of C. Weizsäcker (1886, 2nd ed. 1892, Eng. trans.
+1894-1895); O. Pfleiderer (<i>Das Urchristenthum</i>) (1887, 2nd ed.
+1902, Eng. trans. 1906); and A.C. McGiffert (1897).</p>
+
+<p>On early attestation see A.H. Charteris, <i>Canonicity</i> (1880) and
+the <i>New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers</i> (Oxford, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>The theological ideas of Ephesians are also discussed in some of
+the works on Paul&rsquo;s theology; see especially F.C. Baur, <i>Paulus</i>
+(1845, 2nd ed. 1866-1867, Eng. trans. 1873-1874); O. Pfleiderer,
+<i>Der Paulinismus</i> (1873, 2nd ed. 1890, Eng. trans. 1877); and in
+the works on New Testament theology by B. Weiss (1868, 7th ed.
+1903, Eng. trans. 1882-1883); H. Holtzmann (1897), and G.B.
+Stevens (1899). See also Somerville, <i>St Paul&rsquo;s Conception of Christ</i>
+(1897).</p>
+
+<p>For a guide to other literature see W. Lock, art. &ldquo;Ephesians,
+Epistle to,&rdquo; in Hastings&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>, the various works
+of Holtzmann above referred to, and T.K. Abbott&rsquo;s <i>Commentary</i>,
+pp. 35-40.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. Rs.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHESUS,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> an ancient Ionian city on the west coast of Asia
+Minor. In historic times it was situate on the lower slopes of the
+hills, Coressus and Prion, which rise out of a fertile plain near the
+mouth of the river Caÿster, while the temple and precinct of
+Artemis or Diana, to the fame of which the town owed much of
+its celebrity, were in the plain itself, E.N.E. at a distance of about
+a mile. But there is reason to think both town and shrine had
+different sites in pre-Ionian times, and that both lay farther
+south among the foot-hills of Mt. Solmissus. The situation of
+the city was such as at all times to command a great commerce.
+Of the three great river basins of Ionia and Lydia, those of the
+Hermus, Caÿster and Maeander, it commanded the second, and
+had already access by easy passes to the other two.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest inhabitants assigned to Ephesus by Greek writers
+are the &ldquo;Amazons,&rdquo; with whom we hear of Leleges, Carians
+and Pelasgi. In the 11th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, according to tradition
+(the date is probably too early), Androclus, son of the Athenian
+king Codrus, landed on the spot with his Ionians and a mixed
+body of colonists; and from his conquest dates the history of
+the Greek Ephesus. The deity of the city was Artemis; but
+we must guard against misconception when we use that name,
+remembering that she bore close relation to the primitive Asiatic
+goddess of nature, whose cult existed before the Ionian migration
+at the neighbouring Ortygia, and that she always remained the
+virgin-mother of all life and especially wild life, and an embodiment
+of the fertility and productive power of the earth. The
+well-known monstrous representation of her, as a figure with
+many breasts, swathed below the waist in grave-clothes, was
+probably of late and alien origin. In early Ionian times she
+seems to have been represented as a natural matronly figure,
+sometimes accompanied by a child, and to have been a more
+typically Hellenic goddess than she became in the Hellenistic
+and Roman periods.</p>
+
+<p>Twice in the period 700-500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the city owed its preservation
+to the interference of the goddess; once when the swarms of
+the Cimmerians overran Asia Minor in the 7th century and burnt
+the Artemision itself; and once when Croesus besieged the town
+in the century succeeding, and only retired after it had solemnly
+dedicated itself to Artemis, the sign of such dedication being the
+stretching of a rope from city to sanctuary. Croesus was eager in
+every way to propitiate the goddess, and since about this time
+her temple was being restored on an enlarged scale, he presented
+most of the columns required for the building as well as some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span>
+cows of gold. That is to say, these gifts were probably paid for
+out of the proceeds of the sequestration of the property of a
+rich Lydian merchant, Sadyattes, which Croesus presented to
+Ephesus (Nic. Damasc. fr. 65). To counteract, perhaps, the
+growing Lydian influence, Athens, the mother-city of Ephesus,
+despatched one of her noblest citizens, Aristarchus, to restore
+law on the basis of the Solonian constitution. The labours of
+Aristarchus seem to have borne fruit. It was an Ephesian
+follower of his, Hermodorus, who aided the Decemviri at Rome
+in their compilation of a system of law. And in the same generation
+Heraclitus, probably a descendant of Codrus, quitted his
+hereditary magistracy in order to devote himself to philosophy,
+in which his name became almost as great as that of any Greek.
+Poetry had long flourished at Ephesus. From very early times
+the Homeric poems found a home and admirers there; and to
+Ephesus belong the earliest elegiac poems of Greece, the war
+songs of Callinus, who flourished in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and was
+the model of Tyrtaeus. The city seems to have been more than
+once under tyrannical rule in the early Ionian period; and it fell
+thereafter first to Croesus of Lydia, and then to Cyrus, the
+Persian, and when the Ionian revolt against Persia broke out in
+the year 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> under the lead of Miletus, the city remained
+submissive to Persian rule. When Xerxes returned from the
+march against Greece, he honoured the temple of Artemis,
+although he sacked other Ionian shrines, and even left his
+children behind at Ephesus for safety&rsquo;s sake. We hear again of
+Persian respect for the temple in the time of Tissaphernes (411
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>). After the final Persian defeat at the Eurymedon (466 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+Ephesus for a time paid tribute to Athens, with the other cities
+of the coast, and Lysander first and Agesilaus afterwards made
+it their headquarters. To the latter fact we owe a contemporary
+description of it by Xenophon. In the early part of the 4th
+century it fell again under Persian influence, and was administered
+by an oligarchy.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander was received by the Ephesians in 334, and established
+democratic government. Soon after his death the city
+fell into the hands of Lysimachus, who introduced fresh Greek
+colonists from Lebedus and Colophon and, it is said, by means
+of an artificial inundation compelled those who still dwelt in
+the plain by the temple to migrate to the city on the hills, which
+he surrounded by a solid wall. He renamed the city after his
+wife Arsinoë, but the old name was soon resumed. Ephesus was
+very prosperous during the Hellenistic period, and is conspicuous
+both then and later for the abundance of its coinage, which gives
+us a more complete list of magistrates&rsquo; names than we have for
+any other Ionian city. The Roman coinage is remarkable for
+the great variety and importance of its types. After the defeat
+of Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, by the Romans, Ephesus
+was handed over by the conquerors to Eumenes, king of Pergamum,
+whose successor, Attalus Philadelphus, unintentionally
+worked the city irremediable harm. Thinking that the shallowness
+of the harbour was due to the width of its mouth, he built
+a mole part-way across the latter; the result, however, was
+that the silting up of the harbour proceeded more rapidly than
+before. The third Attalus of Pergamum bequeathed Ephesus
+with the rest of his possessions to the Roman people, and it
+became for a while the chief city, and for longer the first port,
+of the province of Asia, the richest in the empire. Henceforth
+Ephesus remained subject to the Romans, save for a short period,
+when, at the instigation of Mithradates Eupator of Pontus, the
+cities of Asia Minor revolted and massacred their Roman
+residents. The Ephesians even dragged out and slew those
+Romans who had fled to the precinct of Artemis for protection,
+notwithstanding which sacrilege they soon returned from their
+new to their former masters, and even had the effrontery to
+state, in an inscription preserved to this day, that their defection
+to Mithradates was a mere yielding to superior force. Sulla,
+after his victory over Mithradates, brushed away their pretexts,
+and inflicting a very heavy fine told them that the punishment
+fell far short of their deserts. In the civil wars of the 1st century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Ephesians twice supported the unsuccessful party,
+giving shelter to, or being made use of by, first, Brutus and
+Cassius, and afterwards Antony, for which partisanship or weakness
+they paid very heavily in fines.</p>
+
+<p>All this time the city was gradually growing in wealth and in
+devotion to the service of Artemis. The story of St Paul&rsquo;s
+doings there illustrates this fact, and the sequel is very suggestive,&mdash;the
+burning, namely, of books of sorcery of great value.
+Addiction to the practice of occult arts had evidently become
+general in the now semi-orientalized city. The Christian Church
+which Paul planted there was governed by Timothy and John, and
+is famous in Christian tradition as a nurse of saints and martyrs.
+According to local belief, Ephesus was also the last home of the
+Virgin, who was lodged near the city by St John and there died.
+But to judge from the Apocalyptic Letter to this Church (as
+shown by Sir W.M. Ramsay), the latter showed a dangerous
+tendency to lightness and reaction, and later events show that
+the pagan tradition of Artemis continued very strong and
+perhaps never became quite extinct in the Ephesian district.
+It was, indeed, long before the spread of Christianity threatened
+the old local cult. The city was proud to be termed <i>neocorus</i>
+or servant of the goddess. Roman emperors vied with wealthy
+natives in lavish gifts, one Vibius Salutaris among the latter
+presenting a quantity of gold and silver images to be carried
+annually in procession. Ephesus contested stoutly with Smyrna
+and Pergamum the honour of being called the first city of Asia;
+each city appealed to Rome, and we still possess rescripts in
+which the emperors endeavoured to mitigate the bitterness
+of the rivalry. One privilege Ephesus secured; the Roman
+governor of Asia always landed and first assumed office there:
+and it was long the provincial centre of the official cult of the
+emperor, and seat of the Asiarch. The Goths destroyed both
+city and temple in the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 262, and although the city revived
+and the cult of Artemis continued, neither ever recovered its
+former splendour. A general council of the Christian Church
+was held there in 431 in the great double church of St Mary,
+which is still to be seen. On this occasion Nestorius was condemned,
+and the honour of the Virgin established as <i>Theotokus</i>,
+amid great popular rejoicing, due, doubtless, in some measure
+to the hold which the cult of the virgin Artemis still had on the
+city. (On this council see below.) Thereafter Ephesus seems
+to have been gradually deserted owing to its malaria; and life
+transferred itself to another and higher site near the Artemision,
+the name of which, Ayassoluk (written by early Arab geographers
+<i>Ayathulukh</i>), is now known to be a corruption of the title of
+St John <i>Theológos</i>, given to a great cathedral built on a rocky
+hill near the present railway station, in the time of Justinian I.
+This church was visited by Ibn Batuta in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1333; but few
+traces are now visible. The ruins of the Artemision, after serving
+as a quarry to local builders, were finally covered deep with
+mud by the river Caÿster, or one of its left bank tributaries, the
+Selinus, and the true site remained unsuspected until 1869.</p>
+
+<p><i>Excavations.</i>&mdash;The first light thrown on the topography of
+Ephesus was due to the excavations conducted by the architect,
+J.T. Wood, on behalf of the trustees of the British Museum,
+during the years 1863-1874. He first explored the Odeum and
+the Great Theatre situate in the city itself, and in the latter
+place had the good fortune to find an inscription which indicated
+to him in what direction to search for the Artemision; for it
+stated that processions came to the city from the temple by the
+Magnesian gate and returned by the Coressian. These two gates
+were next identified, and following up that road which issued
+from the Magnesian gate, Wood lighted first on a ruin which
+he believed to be the tomb of Androclus, and afterwards on an
+angle of the peribolus wall of the time of Augustus. After
+further tentative explorations, he struck the actual pavement
+of the Artemision on the last day of 1869.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Artemision.</i>&mdash;Wood removed the whole stratum of
+superficial deposit, nearly 20 ft. deep, which overlay the huge
+area of the temple, and exposed to view not only the scanty
+remains of the latest edifice, built after 350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but the platform
+of an earlier temple, now known to be that of the 6th century
+to which Croesus contributed. Below this he did not find any
+remains. He discovered and sent to England parts of several
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span>
+sculptured drums (<i>columnae caelatae</i>) of the latest temple, and
+archaic sculptures from the drums and parapet of the earlier
+building. He also made accurate measurements and a plan
+of the Hellenistic temple, found many inscriptions and a few
+miscellaneous antiquities, and had begun to explore the Precinct,
+when the great expense and other considerations induced the
+trustees of the British Museum to suspend his operations in 1874.
+Wood made two subsequent attempts to resume work, but failed;
+and the site lay desolate till 1904, when the trustees, wishing
+to have further information about the earlier strata and the
+Precinct, sent D.G. Hogarth to re-examine the remains. As a
+result of six months&rsquo; work, Wood&rsquo;s &ldquo;earliest temple&rdquo; was re-cleared
+and planned, remains of three earlier shrines were found
+beneath it, a rich deposit of offerings, &amp;c., belonging to the earliest
+shrine was discovered, and tentative explorations were made
+in the Precinct. This deep digging, however, which reached
+the sand of the original marsh, released much ground water and
+resulted in the permanent flooding of the site.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:352px; height:742px" src="images/img674.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Ground plan of the 6th Century (&ldquo;Croesus&rdquo;)
+Temple at Ephesus, conjecturally restored by
+A.E. Henderson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The history of the Artemision, as far as it can be inferred
+from the remains, is as follows. (1) There was no temple on the
+plain previous to the Ionian occupation, the primeval seat of
+the nature-goddess having been in the southern hills, at Ortygia
+(near mod. <i>Arvalia</i>). Towards the end of the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+a small shrine came into existence on the plain. This was little
+more than a small platform of green schist with a sacred tree
+and an altar, and perhaps later a wooden icon (image), the whole
+enclosed in a <i>temenos</i>: but, as is proved by a great treasure of
+objects in precious and other metals, ivory, bone, crystal, paste,
+glass, terra-cotta and other materials, found in 1904-1905,
+partly within the platform on which the cult-statue stood and
+partly outside, in the lowest stratum of deposit, this early shrine
+was presently enriched by Greeks with many and splendid
+offerings of Hellenic workmanship. A large number of electron
+coins, found among these offerings, and in style the earliest of
+their class known, combine with other evidence to date the whole
+treasure to a period considerably anterior to the reign of Croesus.
+This treasure is now divided between the museums of Constantinople
+and London. (2) Within a short time, perhaps after the
+Cimmerian sack (? 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), this shrine was restored, slightly
+enlarged, and raised in level, but not altered in character. (3)
+About the close of the century, for some reason not known,
+but possibly owing to collapse brought about by the marshy
+nature of the site, this was replaced by a temple of regular
+Hellenic form. The latter was built in relation to the earlier
+central statue-base but at a higher level than either of its predecessors,
+doubtless for dryness&rsquo; sake. Very little but its foundations
+was spared by later builders, and there is now no certain
+evidence of its architectural character; but it is very probable
+that it was the early temple in which the Ionic order is said to
+have been first used, after the colonists had made use of Doric
+in their earlier constructions (<i>e.g.</i> in the <i>Panionion</i>); and that
+it was the work of the Cnossian Chersiphron and his son, Metagenes,
+always regarded afterwards as the first builders of a
+regular Artemision. Their temple is said by Strabo to have been
+made bigger by another architect. (4) The latter&rsquo;s work must
+have been the much larger temple, exposed by Wood, and
+usually known as the Archaic or Croesus temple. This overlies
+the remains of No. 3, at a level higher by about a metre, and the
+area of its <i>cella</i> alone contains the whole of the earlier shrines.
+Its central point, however, was still the primitive statue-base,
+now enlarged and heightened. About half its pavement, parts
+of the <i>cella</i> walls and of three columns of the peristyle, and the
+foundations of nearly all the platform, are still in position. The
+visible work was all of very fine white marble, quarried about
+7 m. N.E., near the modern Kos Bunar. Fragments of relief-sculptures
+belonging to the parapet and columns, and of fluted
+drums and capitals, cornices and other architectural members
+have been recovered, showing that the workmanship and Ionic
+style were of the highest excellence, and that the building
+presented a variety of ornament, rare among Hellenic temples.
+The whole ground-plan covered about 80,000 sq. ft. The height
+of the temple is doubtful, the measurements of columns given
+us by later authority having reference probably to its successor,
+the height of which was considered abnormal and marvellous.
+Judged by the diameter of the drums, the columns of the Croesus
+temple were not two-thirds of the height of those of the Hellenistic
+temple. This fourth temple is, beyond question, that to
+which Croesus contributed, and it was, therefore, in process of
+building about 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Our authorities seem to be referring to
+it when they tell us that the Artemision was raised by common
+contribution of the great cities of Asia, and took 120 years to
+complete. It was dedicated with great ceremony, probably
+between 430 and 420 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the famous Timotheus, son of
+Thersander, carried off the magnificent prize for a lyric ode
+against all comers. Its original architects were, probably,
+Paeonius of Ephesus,
+and Demetrius,
+a <span class="grk" title="hieros">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span> of the shrine
+itself: but it has
+been suggested that
+the latter may have
+been rather the
+actual contracting
+builder than the
+architect. Of this
+temple Herodotus
+speaks as existing
+in his day; and unless
+weight be given
+to an isolated statement
+of Eusebius,
+that it was burned
+about 395 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, we
+must assume that it
+survived until the
+night when one
+Herostratus, desirous
+of acquiring
+eternal fame if only
+by a great crime,
+set it alight. This
+is said to have happened
+in 356 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> on
+the October night
+on which Alexander
+the Great came into
+the world, and, as
+Hegesias said, the
+goddess herself was
+absent, assisting at
+the birth; but the
+exactness of this
+portentous synchronism
+makes the
+date suspect. (5) It
+was succeeded by
+what is called the Hellenistic temple, begun almost immediately
+after the catastrophe, according to plans drawn by
+the famous Dinocrates the architect of Alexandria. The
+platform was once more raised to a higher level, some 7
+ft. above that of the Archaic, by means of huge foundation
+blocks bedded upon the earlier structures; and this increase
+of elevation necessitated a slight expansion of the area all
+round, and ten steps in place of three. The new columns were
+of greater diameter than the old and over 60 ft. high; and
+from its great height the whole structure was regarded as a
+marvel, and accounted one of the wonders of the world. Since,
+however, other Greek temples had colonnades hardly less high,
+and were of equal or greater area, it has been suggested that the
+Ephesian temple had some distinct element of grandiosity, no
+longer known to us&mdash;perhaps a lofty sculptured parapet or
+some imposing form of <i>podium</i>. Bede, in his treatise <i>De sept.
+mir. mundi</i>, describes a stupendous erection of several storeys;
+but his other descriptions are so fantastic that no credence can
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span>
+be attached to this. The fifth temple was once more of Ionic
+order, but the finish and style of its details as attested by existing
+remains were inferior to those of its predecessor. The great
+sculptured drums and pedestals, now in the British Museum,
+belong to the lower part of certain of its columns: but nothing
+of its frieze or pediments (if it had any) has been recovered.
+Begun probably before 350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it was in building when Alexander
+came to Ephesus in 334 and offered to bear the cost of its completion.
+It was probably finished by the end of the century; for
+Pliny the Elder states that its cypress-wood doors had been in
+existence for 400 years up to his time. It stood intact, except
+for very partial restorations, till <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 262 when it was sacked and
+burned by the Goths: but it appears to have been to some
+extent restored afterwards, and its cult no doubt survived till
+the Edict of Theodosius closed the pagan temples. Its material
+was then quarried extensively for the construction of the great
+cathedral of St John Theológos on the neighbouring hill (Ayassoluk),
+and a large Byzantine building (a church?) came into
+existence on the central part of its denuded site, but did not
+last long. Before the Ottoman conquest its remains were already
+buried under several feet of silt.</p>
+
+<p>The organization of the temple hierarchy, and its customs
+and privileges, retained throughout an Asiatic character. The
+priestesses of the goddess were <span class="grk" title="parthenoi">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span> (<i>i.e.</i> unwedded), and
+her priests were compelled to celibacy. The chief among the
+latter, who bore the Persian name of Megabyzus and the Greek
+title Neocorus, was doubtless a power in the state as well as a
+dignitary of religion. His official dress and spadonic appearance
+are probably revealed to us by a small ivory statuette found by
+D.G. Hogarth in 1905. Besides these there was a vast throng
+of dependents who lived by the temple and its services&mdash;<i>theologi</i>,
+who may have expounded sacred legends, <i>hymnodi</i>, who composed
+hymns in honour of the deity, and others, together with a great
+crowd of <i>hieroi</i> who performed more menial offices. The making
+of shrines and images of the goddess occupied many hands. To
+support this greedy mob, offerings flowed in in a constant stream
+from votaries and from visitors, who contributed sometimes
+money, sometimes statues and works of art. These latter so
+accumulated that the temple became a rich museum, among
+the chief treasures of which were the figures of Amazons sculptured
+in competition by Pheidias, Polyclitus, Cresilas and Phradmon,
+and the painting by Apelles of Alexander holding a thunderbolt.
+The temple was also richly endowed with lands, and possessed
+the fishery of the Selinusian lakes, with other large revenues.
+But perhaps the most important of all the privileges possessed
+by the goddess and her priests was that of <i>asylum</i>. Fugitives
+from justice or vengeance who reached her precincts were perfectly
+safe from all pursuit and arrest. The boundaries of the
+space possessing such virtue were from time to time enlarged.
+Mithradates extended them to a bowshot from the temple in all
+directions, and Mark Antony imprudently allowed them to take
+in part of the city, which part thus became free of all law, and a
+haunt of thieves and villains. Augustus, while leaving the right
+of asylum untouched, diminished the space to which the privilege
+belonged, and built round it a wall, which still surrounds the
+ruins of the temple at the distance of about a quarter of a mile,
+bearing an inscription in Greek and Latin, which states that it
+was erected in the proconsulship of Asinius Gallus, out of the
+revenues of the temple. The right of asylum, however, had once
+more to be defended by a deputation sent to the emperor Tiberius.
+Besides being a place of worship, a museum and a sanctuary,
+the Ephesian temple was a great bank. Nowhere in Asia could
+money be more safely bestowed, and both kings and private
+persons placed their treasures under the guardianship of the
+goddess.</p>
+
+<p><i>The City.</i>&mdash;After Wood&rsquo;s superficial explorations, the city
+remained desolate till 1894, when the Austrian Archaeological
+Institute obtained a concession for excavation and began
+systematic work. This has continued regularly ever since, but
+has been carried down no farther than the imperial stratum.
+The main areas of operation have been: (1) The <i>Great Theatre</i>.
+The stage buildings, orchestra and lower parts of the <i>cavea</i> have
+been cleared. In the process considerable additions were made
+to Wood&rsquo;s find of sculptures in marble and bronze, and of inscriptions,
+including missing parts of the Vibius Salutaris texts.
+This theatre has a peculiar interest as the scene of the tumult
+aroused by the mission of St Paul; but the existing remains
+represent a reconstruction carried out after his time. (2) The
+<i>Hellenistic Agora</i>, a huge square, surrounded by porticoes,
+lying S.W. of the theatre and having fine public halls on the S.
+It has yielded to the Austrians fine sculpture in marble and
+bronze and many inscriptions. (3) <i>The Roman Agora</i>, with its
+large halls, lying N.W. of the theatre. Here were found many
+inscriptions of Roman date and some statuary. (4) A street
+running from the S.E. angle of the Hellenic Agora towards the
+Magnesian gate. This was found to be lined with pedestals of
+honorific statues and to have on the west side a remarkable
+building, stated in an inscription to have been a library. The
+tomb of the founder, T. Julius Celsus, is hard by, and some fine
+Roman reliefs, which once decorated it, have been sent to
+Vienna. (5) A street running direct to the port from the theatre.
+This is of great breadth, and had a Horologion half-way down
+and fine porticoes and shops. It was known as the Arcadiane
+after having been restored at a higher level than formerly by the
+emperor Arcadius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 395). It leaves on the right the great
+<i>Thermae</i> of Constantine, of which the Austrians have cleared
+out the south-east part. This huge pile used to be taken for
+the Artemision by early visitors to Ephesus. Part of the quays
+and buildings round the port were exposed, after measures had
+been taken to drain the upper part of the marsh. (6) The
+Double Church of the Virgin &ldquo;Deipara&rdquo; in the N.W. of the city,
+wherein the council of 431 was held. Here interesting inscriptions
+and Byzantine architectural remains were found. Besides these
+excavated monuments, the Stadion; the <i>enceinte</i> of fortifications
+erected by Lysimachus, which runs from the tower called the
+&ldquo;Prison of St Paul&rdquo; and right along the crests of the Bulbul
+(Prion) and Panajir hills; the round monument miscalled the
+&ldquo;Tomb of St Luke&rdquo;; and the Opistholeprian gymnasium near
+the Magnesian gate, are worthy of attention.</p>
+
+<p>The work done by the Austrians enables a good idea to be
+obtained of the appearance presented by a great Graeco-Roman
+city of Asia in the last days of its prosperity. It may be realized
+better there than anywhere how much architectural splendour
+was concentrated in the public quarters. But the restriction
+of the clearance to the upper stratum of deposit has prevented
+the acquisition of much further knowledge. Both the Hellenistic
+and, still more, the original Ionian cities remain for the most part
+unexplored. It should, however, be added that very valuable
+topographical exploration has been carried out in the environs
+of Ephesus by members of the Austrian expedition, and that the
+Ephesian district is now mapped more satisfactorily than any
+other district of ancient interest in Asia Minor.</p>
+
+<p>The Turkish village of Ayassoluk (the modern representative
+of Ephesus), more than a mile N.E. of the ancient city, has
+revived somewhat of recent years owing to the development
+of its fig gardens by the Aidin railway, which passes through the
+upper part of the plain. It is noteworthy for a splendid ruined
+mosque built by the Seljuk, Isa Bey II., of Aidin, in 1375, which
+contains magnificent columns: for a castle, near which lie
+remains of the pendentives from the cupola of the great cathedral
+of St John, now deeply buried in its own ruins: and for an
+aqueduct, Turkish baths and mosque-tombs. There is a fair
+inn managed by the Aidin Railway Company.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;E. Guhl, <i>Ephesiaca</i> (1843); E. Curtius, <i>Ephesos</i>
+(1874); C. Zimmermann, <i>Ephesos im ersten christlichen Jahrhundert</i>
+(1874); J.T. Wood, <i>Discoveries at Ephesus</i> (1877); E.L. Hicks,
+<i>Anc. Greek Inscr. in the Brit. Museum</i>, iii. 2 (1890); B.V. Head,
+&ldquo;Coinage of Ephesus&rdquo; (<i>Numism. Chron.</i>, 1880); J. Menadier, <i>Qua
+condicione Ephesii usi sint</i>, &amp;c. (1880); Sir W.M. Ramsay, <i>Letters
+to the Seven Churches</i> (1904); O. Benndorf, R. Heberdey, &amp;c.,
+<i>Forschungen in Ephesos</i>, vol. i. (1906) (Austrian Arch. Institute);
+D.G. Hogarth, <i>Excavations at Ephesus: the Archaic Artemisia</i> (2
+vols., 1908), with chapters by C.H. Smith, A. Hamilton Smith,
+B.V. Head, and A.E. Henderson.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF.<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> This Church council was convened
+in 431 for the purpose of taking authoritative action concerning
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span>
+the doctrine of the person of Christ. The councils of Nicaea and
+Constantinople had asserted the full divinity and real humanity
+of Christ, without, however, defining the manner of their union.
+The attempt to solve the apparent incongruity of a perfect union
+of two complete and distinct natures in one person produced
+first Apollinarianism, which substituted the divine Logos for
+the human <span class="grk" title="nous">&#957;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="pneuma">&#960;&#957;&#949;&#8166;&#956;&#945;</span> of Jesus, thereby detracting from the
+completeness of his humanity; and then Nestorianism, which
+destroyed the unity of Christ&rsquo;s person by affirming that the divine
+Logos dwelt in the man Jesus as in a temple, and that the union
+of the two was in respect of dignity, and furthermore that,
+inasmuch as the Logos could not have been born, to call Mary
+<span class="grk" title="theotokos">&#952;&#949;&#959;&#964;&#972;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;Godbearer,&rdquo; was absurd and blasphemous. The
+Alexandrians, led by Cyril, stood for the doctrine of the perfect
+union of two complete natures in one person, and made <span class="grk" title="theotokos">&#952;&#949;&#959;&#964;&#972;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>
+the shibboleth of orthodoxy. The theological controversy was
+intensified by the rivalry of the two patriarchates, Alexandria
+and Constantinople, for the primacy of the East. As bishop
+of Constantinople Nestorius naturally looked to the emperor
+for support, while Cyril turned to Rome. A Roman synod in
+430 found Nestorius heretical and decreed his excommunication
+unless he should recant. Shortly afterwards an Alexandrian
+synod condemned his doctrines in twelve anathemas,
+which only provoked counter-anathemas. The emperor now
+intervened and summoned a council, which met at Ephesus
+on the 22nd of June 431. Nestorius was present with an armed
+escort, but refused to attend the council on the ground that the
+patriarch of Antioch (his friend) had not arrived. The council,
+nevertheless, proceeded to declare him excommunicate and
+deposed. When the Roman legates appeared they &ldquo;examined
+and approved&rdquo; the acts of the council, whether as if thereby
+giving them validity, or as if concurring with the council, is a
+question not easy to answer from the records. Cyril, the president,
+apparently regarded the subscription of the legates as the
+acknowledgment of &ldquo;canonical agreement&rdquo; with the synod.</p>
+
+<p>The disturbances that followed the arrival of John, the
+patriarch of Antioch, are sufficiently described in the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nestorius</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor finally interposed to terminate that scandalous
+strife, banished Nestorius and dissolved the council. Ultimately
+he gave decision in favour of the orthodox. The council was
+generally received as ecumenical, even by the Antiochenes, and
+the differences between Cyril and John were adjusted (433) by
+a &ldquo;Union Creed,&rdquo; which, however, did not prevent a recrudescence
+of theological controversy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Mansi iv. pp. 567-1482, v. pp. 1-1023; Hardouin i. pp. 1271-1722;
+Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 141-247 (Eng. trans. iii. pp. 1-114);
+Peltanus, <i>SS. Magni et Ecumen. Conc. Ephesini primi Acta omnia ...</i> (Ingolstadt,
+1576); Wilhelm Kraetz, <i>Koptische Akten zum
+Ephes. Konzil ...</i> (Leipzig, 1904); also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nestorius</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyril</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theodore of Mopsuestia</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The so-called &ldquo;Robber Synod&rdquo; of Ephesus (<i>Latrocinium
+Ephesinum</i>) of 449, although wholly irregular and promptly
+repudiated by the church, may, nevertheless, not improperly
+be treated here. The archimandrite Eutyches (<i>q.v.</i>) having been
+deposed by his bishop, Flavianus of Constantinople, on account
+of his heterodox doctrine of the person of Christ, had appealed
+to Dioscurus, the successor of Cyril in the see of Alexandria, who
+restored him and moved the emperor Theodosius II. to summon
+a council, which should &ldquo;utterly destroy Nestorianism.&rdquo; Rome
+recognizing that she had more to fear from Alexandria, departed
+from her traditional policy and sided with Constantinople. The
+council of 130 bishops, which convened on the 8th of August
+449, was completely dominated by Dioscurus. Eutyches was
+acquitted of heresy and reinstated, Flavianus and other bishops
+deposed, the Roman legates insulted, and all opposition was
+overborne by intimidation or actual violence. The death of
+Flavianus, which soon followed, was attributed to injuries
+received in this synod; but the proof of the charge leaves something
+to be desired.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor confirmed the synod, but the Eastern Church
+was divided upon the question of accepting it, and Leo I. of
+Rome excommunicated Dioscurus, refused to recognize the
+successor of Flavianus and demanded a new and greater council.
+The death of Theodosius II. removed the main support of Dioscurus,
+and cleared the way for the council of Chalcedon (<i>q.v.</i>),
+which deposed the Alexandrian and condemned Eutychianism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Mansi vi. pp. 503 sqq., 606 sqq.; Hardouin ii. 71 sqq.;
+Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 349 sqq. (Eng. trans. iii. pp. 221 sqq.);
+S.G.F. Perry, <i>The Second Synod of Ephesus</i> (Dartford, 1881);
+l&rsquo;Abbé Martin, <i>Actes du brigandage d&rsquo;Éphèse</i> (Amiens, 1874) and
+<i>Le Pseudo-synode connu dans l&rsquo;histoire sous le nom de brigandage
+d&rsquo;Éphèse</i> (Paris, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHOD,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a Hebrew word (<i>&#275;ph&#333;d</i>) of uncertain meaning, retained
+by the translators of the Old Testament. In the post-exilic
+priestly writings (5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and later) the ephod forms
+part of the gorgeous ceremonial dress of the high-priest (see
+Ex. xxix. 5 sq. and especially Ecclus. xlv. 7-13). It was a very
+richly decorated object of coloured threads interwoven with
+gold, worn outside the luxurious mantle or robe; it was kept
+in place by a girdle, and by shoulder-pieces (?), to which were
+attached brooches of onyx (fastened to the robe) and golden
+rings from which hung the &ldquo;breastplate&rdquo; (or rather pouch)
+containing the sacred lots, Urim and Thummim. The somewhat
+involved description in Ex. xxviii. 6 sqq., xxxix. 2 sqq. (see V.
+Ryssel&rsquo;s ed. of Dillmann&rsquo;s commentary on Ex.-Lev.) leaves it
+uncertain whether it covered the back, encircling the body like
+a kind of waistcoat, or only the front; at all events it was not
+a garment in the ordinary sense, and its association with the
+sacred lots indicates that the ephod was used for divination
+(cf. Num. xxvii. 21), and had become the distinguishing feature
+of the leading priestly line (cf. 1 Sam. ii. 28).<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> But from other
+passages it seems that the ephod had been a familiar object
+whose use was by no means so restricted. Like the teraphim
+(<i>q.v.</i>) it was part of the common stock of Hebrew cult; it is borne
+(rather than worn) by persons acting in a priestly character
+(Samuel at Shiloh, priests of Nob, David), it is part of the worship
+of individuals (Gideon at Ophrah), and is found in a private
+shrine with a lay attendant (Micah; Judg. xvii. 5; see, however,
+vv. 10-13).<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Nevertheless, while the prophetical teaching came
+to regard the ephod as contrary to the true worship of Yahweh,
+the priestly doctrine of the post-exilic age (when worship was
+withdrawn from the community at large to the recognized priesthood
+of Jerusalem) has retained it along with other remains of
+earlier usage, legalizing it, as it were, by confining it exclusively
+to the Aaronites.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An intricate historical problem is involved at the outset in the
+famous ephod, which the priest Abiathar brought in his hand when he
+fled to David after the massacre of the priests of Nob. It is evidently
+regarded as the one which had been in Nob (1 Sam. xxi. 9), and the
+presence of the priests at Nob is no less clearly regarded as the sequel
+of the fall of Shiloh. The ostensible intention is to narrate the
+transference of the sacred objects to David (cf. 2 Sam. i. 10), and
+henceforth he regularly inquires of Yahweh in his movements (1 Sam.
+xxiii. 9-12, xxx. 7 sq.; cf. xxiii. 2, 4; 2 Sam. ii. 1, v. 19-23). It is
+possible that the writer (or writers) desired to trace the earlier history
+of the ephod through the line of Eli and Abiathar to the time when
+the Zadokite priests gained the supremacy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>); but elsewhere
+Abiathar is said to have borne the ark (1 Kings ii. 26; cf.
+2 Sam. vii. 6), and this fluctuation is noteworthy by reason of the
+present confusion in the text of 1 Sam. xiv. 3, 18 (see commentaries).</p>
+
+<p>On one view, the ark in Kirjath-jearim was in non-Israelite hands
+(1 Sam. vii. 1 sq.); on the other, Saul&rsquo;s position as king necessitates
+the presumption that his sway extended over Judah and Israel,
+including those cities which otherwise appear to have been in the
+hands of aliens (1 Sam. xiv. 47 sq.; cf. xvii. 54, &amp;c.). There are
+some fundamental divergencies in the representations of the traditions
+of both David and Saul (<i>qq.v.</i>), and there is indirect and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span>
+independent evidence which makes 1 Kings ii. 26 not entirely isolated.
+Here it must suffice to remark that the ark, too, was also an object
+for ascertaining the divine will (especially Judg. xx. 26-28; cf. 18, 23),
+and it is far from certain that the later records of the ark (which
+was too heavy to be borne by one), like those of the ephod, are valid
+for earlier times.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the form of the earlier ephod the classic passage is 2 Sam.
+vi. 14, where David girt in (or with) a linen ephod dances before
+the ark at its entry into Jerusalem and incurs the unqualified
+contempt of his wife Michal, the daughter of Saul. Relying upon
+the known custom of performing certain observances in a
+practically, or even entirely, nude condition, it seems plausible
+to infer that the ephod was a scanty wrapping, perhaps a loin-cloth,
+and this view has found weighty support. On the other
+hand, the idea of contempt at the exposure of the person, to
+whatever extent, may not have been so prominent, especially
+if the custom were not unfamiliar, and it is possible that the
+sequel refers more particularly to grosser practices attending
+outbursts of religious enthusiasm.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The favourite view that the ephod was also an image rests
+partly upon 1 Sam. xxi. 9, where Goliath&rsquo;s sword is wrapped in
+a cloth in the sanctuary of Nob <i>behind the ephod</i>. But it is
+equally natural to suppose that it hung on a nail in the wall, and
+apart from the omission of the significant words in the original
+Septuagint, the possibility that the text read &ldquo;ark&rdquo; cannot be
+wholly ignored (see above; also G.F. Moore, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col.
+1307, n. 2). Again, in the story of Micah&rsquo;s shrine and the removal
+of the sacred objects and the Levite priest by the Danites,
+parallel narratives have been used: the graven and molten
+images of Judg. xvii. 2-4 corresponding to the ephod and
+teraphim of ver. 5. Throughout there is confusion in the use of
+these terms, and the finale refers only to the graven image of
+Dan (xviii. 30 sq., see 1 Kings xii. 28 sq.). But the combination
+of ephod and teraphim (as in Hos. iii. 4) is noteworthy, since
+the fact that the latter were images (1 Sam. xix. 13; Gen. xxxi.
+34) could be urged against the view that the former were of a
+similar character. Finally, according to Judg. viii. 27, Gideon
+made an ephod of gold, about 70 &#8468; in weight, and &ldquo;put&rdquo; it in
+Ophrah. It is regarded as a departure from the worship of
+Yahweh, although the writer of ver. 33 (cf. also ver. 23) hardly
+shared this feeling; it was probably something once harmlessly
+associated with the cult of Yahweh (cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calf, Golden</a></span>), and the
+term &ldquo;ephod&rdquo; may be due to a later hand under the influence
+of the prophetical teaching referred to above. The present
+passage is the only one which appears to prove that the ephod
+was an image, and several writers, including Lotz (<i>Realencyk. f.
+prot. Theol.</i> vol. v., <i>s.v.</i>), T.C. Foote (pp. 13-18) and A. Maecklenburg
+(<i>Zeit. f. wissens. Theol.</i>, 1906, pp. 433 sqq.) find this interpretation
+unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>Archaeological evidence for objects of divination (see, <i>e.g.</i>,
+the interesting details in Ohnefalsch-Richter, <i>Kypros, the Bible
+and Homer</i>, i. 447 sq.), and parallels from the Oriental area, can
+be readily cited in support of any of the explanations of the ephod
+which have been offered, but naturally cannot prove the form
+which it actually took in Palestine. Since images were clothed,
+it could be supposed that the diviner put on the god&rsquo;s apparel
+(cf. <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 1141); but they were also plated, and in
+either case the transference from a covering to the object covered
+is intelligible. If the ephod was a loin-cloth, its use as a receptacle
+and the known evolution of the article find useful analogies
+(Foote, p. 43 sq., and <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 1734 [1]). Finally, if there
+is no decisive evidence for the view that it was an image (Judg.
+viii. 27), or that as a wrapping it formed the sole covering of the
+officiating agent (2 Sam. vi.), all that can safely be said is that
+it was certainly used in divination and presumably did not
+differ radically from the ephod of the post-exilic age.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further, in addition to the monographs already cited, the
+articles in Hastings&rsquo;s <i>Dict. Bible</i> (by S.R. Driver), <i>Ency. Bib.</i>
+(by G.F. Moore), and <i>Jew. Encyc.</i> (L. Ginsburg), and E.
+Sellin, in <i>Oriental. Studien: Theodor Nöldeke</i> (ed. Bezold, 1906),
+pp. 699 sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. the phrase &ldquo;ephod of prophecy&rdquo; (<i>Testament of Levi</i>, viii. 2).
+The priestly apparatus of the post-exilic age retains several traces
+of old mythological symbolism and earlier cult, the meaning of which
+had not altogether been forgotten. With the dress one may perhaps
+compare the apparel of the gods Marduk and Adad, for which see
+A. Jeremias, <i>Das Alte Test. im Lichte des Alten Orients</i>, 2nd ed., figs.
+33, 46, and pp. 162, 449.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The ordinary interpretation &ldquo;<i>linen</i> ephod&rdquo; (1 Sam. ii. 18,
+xxii. 18; 2 Sam. vi. 14) is questioned by T.C. Foote in his useful
+monograph, <i>Journ. Bibl. Lit.</i> xxi., 1902, pp. 3, 47. This writer also
+aptly compares the infant Samuel with the child who drew the lots
+at the temple of Fortuna at Praeneste (Cicero, <i>De divin.</i> ii. 41, 86),
+and with the modern practice of employing innocent instruments of
+chance in lotteries (<i>op. cit.</i> pp. 22, 27).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It is not stated that the linen ephod was David&rsquo;s sole covering,
+and it is difficult to account for the text in the parallel passage
+1 Chron. xv. 27 (where he is clothed with a robe); &ldquo;girt,&rdquo; too, is
+ambiguous, since the verb is even used of a sword. On the question
+of nudity (cf. 1 Sam. xix. 24) see Robertson Smith, <i>Rel. Sem.</i>² pp.
+161, 450 sq.; <i>Ency. Bib.</i> s.vv. &ldquo;girdle,&rdquo; &ldquo;sackcloth&rdquo;; and M.
+Jastrow, <i>Journ. Am. Or. Soc.</i> xx. 144, xxi. 23. The significant terms
+&ldquo;uncover,&rdquo; &ldquo;play&rdquo; (2 Sam. vi. 20 sq.), have other meanings intelligible
+to those acquainted with the excesses practised in Oriental
+cults.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHOR<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="ephoros">&#7956;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>), the title of the highest magistrates of
+the ancient Spartan state. It is uncertain when the office was
+created and what was its original character. That it owed its
+institution to Lycurgus (Herod. i. 65; cf. Xen. <i>Respub. Lacedaem.</i>
+viii. 3) is very improbable, and we may either regard it as an
+immemorial Dorian institution (with C.O. Müller, H. Gabriel,
+H.K. Stein, Ed. Meyer and others), or accept the tradition that
+it was founded during the first Messenian War, which necessitated
+a prolonged absence from Sparta on the part of both kings
+(Plato, <i>Laws</i>, iii. 692 a; Aristotle, <i>Politics</i>, v. 9. 1 = p. 1313 a 26;
+Plut. <i>Cleomenes</i>, 10; so G. Dum, G. Gilbert, A.H.J. Greenidge).
+There is no evidence for the theory that originally the ephors
+were market inspectors; they seem rather to have had from the
+outset judicial or police functions. Gradually they extended
+their powers, aided by the jealousy between the royal houses,
+which made it almost impossible for the two kings to co-operate
+heartily, and from the 5th to the 3rd century they exercised a
+growing despotism which Plato justly calls a <i>tyrannis</i> (<i>Laws</i>, 692).
+Cleomenes III. restored the royal power by murdering four of
+the ephors and abolishing the office, and though it was revived
+by Antigonus Doson after the battle of Sellasia, and existed
+at least down to Hadrian&rsquo;s reign (<i>Sparta Museum Catalogue</i>,
+Introd. p. 10), it never regained its former power.</p>
+
+<p>In historical times the ephors were five in number, the first
+of them giving his name to the year, like the eponymous archon
+at Athens. Where opinions were divided the majority prevailed.
+The ephors were elected annually, originally no doubt by the
+kings, later by the people; their term of office began with the
+new moon after the autumnal equinox, and they had an official
+residence (<span class="grk" title="ephoreion">&#7952;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>) in the Agora. Every full citizen was
+eligible and no property qualification was required.</p>
+
+<p>The ephors summoned and presided over meetings of the
+Gerousia and Apella, and formed the executive committee
+responsible for carrying out decrees. In their dealings with the
+kings they represented the supremacy of the people. There was
+a monthly exchange of oaths, the kings swearing to rule according
+to the laws, the ephors undertaking on this condition to maintain
+the royal authority (Xen. <i>Resp. Laced.</i> 15. 7). They alone
+might remain seated in a king&rsquo;s presence, and had power to try
+and even to imprison a king, who must appear before them at
+the third summons. Two of them accompanied the army in the
+field, not interfering with the king&rsquo;s conduct of the campaign,
+but prepared, if need be, to bring him to trial on his return.
+The ephors, again, exercised a general guardianship of law and
+custom and superintended the training of the young. They
+shared the criminal jurisdiction of the Gerousia and decided
+civil suits. The administration of taxation, the distribution of
+booty, and the regulation of the calendar also devolved upon
+them. They could actually put <i>perioeci</i> to death without trial,
+if we may believe Isocrates (xii. 181), and were responsible
+for protecting the state against the helots, against whom they
+formally declared war on entering office, so as to be able to kill
+any whom they regarded as dangerous without violating religious
+scruples. Finally, the ephors were supreme in questions of
+foreign policy. They enforced, when necessary, the alien acts
+(<span class="grk" title="xenêlasia">&#958;&#949;&#957;&#951;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#943;&#945;</span>), negotiated with foreign ambassadors, instructed
+generals, sent out expeditions and were the guiding spirits of
+the Spartan confederacy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the constitutional histories of G. Gilbert (Eng. trans.), pp. 16,
+52-59; G. Busolt, p. 84 ff., V. Thumser, p. 241 ff., G.F. Schömann
+(Eng. trans.), p. 236 ff., A.H.J. Greenidge, p. 102 ff.; Szanto&rsquo;s
+article &ldquo;Ephoroi&rdquo; in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, v. 2860 ff.;
+Ed. Meyer, <i>Forschungen zur alten Geschichte</i>, i. 244 ff.; C.O. Müller,
+<i>Dorians</i>, bk. iii. ch. vii.; G. Grote, <i>History of Greece</i>, pt. ii. ch. vi.;
+G. Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i.² 555 ff.; B. Niese, <i>Historische
+Zeitschrift</i>, lxii. 58 ff. Of the many monographs dealing with this
+subject the following are specially useful: G. Dum, <i>Entstehung und</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span>
+<i>Entwicklung des spartan</i>. <i>Ephorats</i> (Innsbruck, 1878); H.K. Stein,
+<i>Das spartan</i>. <i>Ephorat bis auf Cheilon</i> (Paderborn, 1870); K.
+Kuchtner, <i>Entstehung und ursprüngliche Bedeutung des spartan</i>.
+<i>Ephorats</i> (Munich, 1897); C. Frick, <i>De ephoris Spartanis</i> (Göttingen,
+1872); A. Schaefer, <i>De ephoris Lacedaemoniis</i> (Greifswald, 1863);
+E. von Stern, <i>Zur Entstehung und ursprünglichen Bedeutung des
+Ephorats in Sparta</i> (Berlin, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHORUS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 400-330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), of Cyme in Aeolis, in Asia Minor,
+Greek historian. Together with the historian Theopompus he
+was a pupil of Isocrates, in whose school he attended two courses
+of rhetoric. But he does not seem to have made much progress
+in the art, and it is said to have been at the suggestion of Isocrates
+himself that he took up literary composition and the study of
+history. The fruit of his labours was his <span class="grk" title="Historiai">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span> in 29 books,
+the first universal history, beginning with the return of the
+Heraclidae to Peloponnesus, as the first well-attested historical
+event. The whole work was edited by his son Demophilus,
+who added a 30th book, containing a summary description of
+the Social War and ending with the taking of Perinthus (340) by
+Philip of Macedon (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi. 14 with xvi. 76). Each
+book was complete in itself, and had a separate title and preface.
+It is clear that Ephorus made critical use of the best authorities,
+and his work, highly praised and much read, was freely drawn
+upon by Diodorus Siculus<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and other compilers. Strabo
+(viii. p. 332) attaches much importance to his geographical
+investigations, and praises him for being the first to separate
+the historical from the merely geographical element. Polybius
+(xii. 25 g) while crediting him with a knowledge of the conditions
+of naval warfare, ridicules his description of the battles of Leuctra
+and Mantineia as showing ignorance of the nature of land operations.
+He was further to be commended for drawing (though
+not always) a sharp line of demarcation between the mythical
+and historical (Strabo ix. p. 423); he even recognized that a
+profusion of detail, though lending corroborative force to accounts
+of recent events, is ground for suspicion in reports of far-distant
+history. His style was high-flown and artificial, as was natural
+considering his early training, and he frequently sacrificed truth
+to rhetoric effect; but, according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
+he and Theopompus were the only historical writers whose
+language was accurate and finished. Other works attributed to
+him were:&mdash;<i>A Treatise on Discoveries; Respecting Good and
+Evil Things; On Remarkable Things in Various Countries</i> (it is
+doubtful whether these were separate works, or merely extracts
+from the <i>Histories</i>); <i>A Treatise on my Country</i>, on the history and
+antiquities of Cyme, and an essay <i>On Style</i>, his only rhetorical
+work, which is occasionally mentioned by the rhetorician Theon.
+Nothing is known of his life, except the statement in Plutarch
+that he declined to visit the court of Alexander the Great.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in C.W. Müller, <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>,
+i., with critical introduction on the life and writings of Ephorus;
+see J.A. Klügmann, <i>De Ephoro historico</i> (1860); C.A. Volquardsen,
+<i>Untersuchungen über die Quellen der griechischen und sicilischen
+Geschichten bei Diodor</i>. <i>xi.-xvi.</i> (1868); and specially J.B. Bury,
+<i>Ancient Greek Historians</i> (1909); E. Schwartz, in Pauly-Wissowa,
+<i>Realencyc.</i> s.v.; and article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History</i>: Ancient Authorities.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is now generally recognized, thanks to Volquardsen and
+others, that Ephorus is the principal authority followed by Diodorus,
+except in the chapters relating to Sicilian history.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHRAEM SYRUS<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (Ephraim the Syrian), a saint who lived
+in Mesopotamia during the first three quarters of the 4th century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> He is perhaps the most influential of all Syriac authors;
+and his fame as a poet, commentator, preacher and defender of
+orthodoxy has spread throughout all branches of the Christian
+Church. This reputation he owes partly to the vast fertility
+of his pen&mdash;according to the historian Sozomen he was credited
+with having written altogether 3,000,000 lines&mdash;partly to the
+elegance of his style and a certain measure of poetic inspiration,
+more perhaps to the strength and consistency of his personal
+character, and his ardour in defence of the creed formulated
+at Nicaea.</p>
+
+<p>An anonymous life of Ephraim was written not long after his
+death in 373. The biography has come down to us in two
+recensions. But in neither form is it free from later interpolation;
+and its untrustworthiness is shown by its conflicting with data
+supplied by his own works, as well as by the manner in which
+it is overloaded with miraculous events. The following is a
+probable outline of the main facts of Ephraim&rsquo;s life. He was
+born in the reign of Constantine (perhaps in 306) at or near
+Nisibis. His father was a pagan, the priest of an idol called
+Abnil or Abizal.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> During his boyhood Ephraim showed a
+repugnance towards heathen worship, and was eventually driven
+by his father from the home. He became a ward and disciple of
+the famous Jacob&mdash;the same who attended the Council of Nicaea
+as bishop of Nisibis, and died in 338. At his hands Ephraim
+seems to have received baptism at the age of 18 or of 28 (the
+two recensions differ on this point), and remained at Nisibis till
+its surrender to the Persians by Jovian in 363. Probably in
+the course of these years he was ordained a deacon, but from his
+humble estimate of his own worth refused advancement to any
+higher degree in the church. He seems to have played an important
+part in guiding the fortunes of the city during the war
+begun by Shapur II. in 337, in the course of which Nisibis was
+thrice unsuccessfully besieged by the Persians (in 338, 346 and
+350). The statements of his biographer to this effect accord
+with the impression we derive from his own poems (<i>Carmina
+Nisibena</i>, 1-21). His intimate relations with Bishop Jacob were
+continued with the three succeeding bishops&mdash;Babu (338-?349),
+Vologaeses (?349-361), and Abraham&mdash;on all of whom he wrote
+encomia. The surrender of the city in 363 to the Persians
+resulted in a general exodus of the Christians, and Ephraim left
+with the rest. After visiting Amid (Diarbekr) he proceeded to
+Edessa, and there settled and spent the last ten years of his life.
+He seems to have lived mainly as a hermit outside the city: his
+time was devoted to study, writing, teaching and the refutation
+of heresies. It is possible that during these years he paid a visit
+to Basil at Caesarea. Near the end of his life he rendered great
+public service by distributing provisions in the city during a
+famine. The best attested date for his death is the 9th of June
+373. It is clear that this chronology leaves no room for the visit
+to Egypt, and the eight years spent there in refuting Arianism,
+which are alleged by his biographer. Perhaps, as has been
+surmised, there may be confusion with another Ephraim. Nor
+can he have written the funeral panegyric on Basil who survived
+him by three months. But with all necessary deductions the
+biography is valuable as witnessing to the immense reputation
+for sanctity and for theological acumen which Ephraim had
+gained in his lifetime, or at least soon after he died. His biographer&rsquo;s
+statement as to his habits and appearance is worth
+quoting, and is probably true:&mdash;&ldquo;From the time he became
+a monk to the end of his life his only food was barley bread and
+sometimes pulse and vegetables: his drink was water. And his
+flesh was dried upon his bones, like a potter&rsquo;s sherd. His
+clothes were of many pieces patched together, the colour of
+dirt. In stature he was little; his countenance was always sad,
+and he never condescended to laughter. And he was bald and
+beardless.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The statement in his Life that Ephraim miraculously learned
+Coptic falls to the ground with the narrative of his Egyptian visit:
+and the story of his suddenly learning to speak Greek through
+the prayer of St Basil is equally unworthy of credence. He
+probably wrote only in Syriac, though he may have possessed
+some knowledge of Greek and possibly of Hebrew. But many of
+his works must have been early translated into other languages;
+and we possess in MSS. versions into Greek, Armenian, Coptic,
+Arabic and Ethiopic. The Greek versions occupy three entire
+volumes of the Roman folio edition, and the extant Armenian
+versions (mainly of N.T. commentaries) were published at
+Venice in four volumes in 1836.</p>
+
+<p>It was primarily as a sacred poet that Ephraim impressed
+himself on his fellow-countrymen. With the exception of his
+commentaries on scripture, nearly all his extant Syriac works
+are composed in metre. In many cases the metrical structure
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span>
+is of the simplest, consisting only in the arrangement of the
+discourse in lines of uniform length&mdash;usually heptasyllabic
+(Ephraim&rsquo;s favourite metre) or pentasyllabic. A more complicated
+arrangement is found in other poems, such as the <i>Carmina
+Nisibena</i>: these are made up of strophes, each consisting of
+lines of different lengths according to a settled scheme, with a
+recurring refrain. T.J. Lamy has estimated that, in this class
+of poems, there are as many as 66 different varieties of metres
+to be found in the works of Ephraim. These strophic poems
+were set to music, and sung by alternating choirs of girls. According
+to Ephraim&rsquo;s biographer, his main motive for providing
+these hymns set to music was his desire to counteract the baneful
+effects produced by the heretical hymns of Bardai&#7779;an and his
+son Harmonius, which had enjoyed popularity and been sung
+among the Edessenes for a century and a half.</p>
+
+<p>The subject-matter of Ephraim&rsquo;s poems covers all departments
+of theology. Thus the Roman edition contains (of metrical
+works) exegetical discourses, hymns on the Nativity of Christ,
+65 hymns against heretics, 85 on the Faith against sceptics, a
+discourse against the Jews, 85 funeral hymns, 4 on freewill,
+76 exhortations to repentance, 12 hymns on paradise, and 12
+on miscellaneous subjects. The edition of Lamy has added
+many other poems, largely connected with church festivals. It
+must be confessed that, judged by Western standards, the poems
+of Ephraim are prolix and wearisome in the extreme, and are
+distinguished by few striking poetic beauties. And so far as
+they are made the vehicle of reasoning, their efficiency is seriously
+hampered by their poetic form. On the other hand, it is fair
+to remember that the taste of Ephraim&rsquo;s countrymen in poetry
+was very different from ours. As Duval remarks: &ldquo;quant à la
+prolixité de saint Éphrem que nous trouvons parfois fastidieuse,
+on ne peut la condamner sans tenir compte du goût des Syriens
+qui aimaient les répétitions et les développements de la même
+pensée, et voyaient des qualités là où nous trouvons des défauts&rdquo;
+(<i>Littér. syriaque</i>, p. 19). He is no worse in these respects than the
+best of the Syriac writers who succeeded him. And he surpasses
+almost all of them in the richness of his diction, and his skill in
+the use of metaphors and illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Of Ephraim as a commentator on Scripture we have only
+imperfect means of judging. His commentaries on the O.T.
+are at present accessible to us only in the form they had assumed
+in the <i>Catena Patrum</i> of Severus (compiled in 861), and to some
+extent in quotations by later Syriac commentators. His commentary
+on the Gospels is of great importance in connexion
+with the textual history of the N.T., for the text on which he
+composed it was that of the Diatessaron. The Syriac original
+is lost: but the ancient Armenian version survives, and was
+published at Venice in 1836 along with Ephraim&rsquo;s commentary
+on the Pauline epistles (also only extant in Armenian) and some
+other works. A Latin version of the Armenian Diatessaron
+commentary has been made by Aucher and Mösinger (Venice,
+1876). Using this version as a clue, J.R. Harris<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> has been able
+to identify a number of Syriac quotations from or references to
+this commentary in the works of Isho&rsquo;dadh, Bar-Kepha (Severus),
+Bar-&#7779;alibi and Barhebraeus. Although, as Harris points out,
+it is unlikely that the original text of the Diatessaron had come
+down unchanged through the two centuries to Ephraim&rsquo;s day,
+the text on which he comments was in the main unaffected by
+the revision which produced the Peshitta. Side by side with this
+conclusion may be placed the result of F.C. Burkitt&rsquo;s<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> careful
+examination of the quotations from the Gospels in the other works
+of Ephraim; he shows conclusively that in all the undoubtedly
+genuine works the quotations are from a pre-Peshitta text.</p>
+
+<p>As a theologian, Ephraim shows himself a stout defender of
+Nicaean orthodoxy, with no leanings in the direction of either
+the Nestorian or the Monophysite heresies which arose after his
+time. He regarded it as his special task to combat the views
+of Marcion, of Bardai&#7779;an and of Mani.</p>
+
+<p>To the modern historian Ephraim&rsquo;s main contribution is in
+the material supplied by the 72 hymns<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> known as <i>Carmina
+Nisibena</i> and published by G. Bickell in 1866. The first 20
+poems were written at Nisibis between 350 and 363 during the
+Persian invasions; the remaining 52 at Edessa between 363
+and 373. The former tell us much of the incidents of the frontier
+war, and particularly enable us to reconstruct in detail the
+history of the third siege of Nisibis in 350.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of the many editions of Ephraim&rsquo;s works a full list is given by
+Nestle in <i>Realenk. f. protest. Theol. und Kirche</i> (3rd ed.). For
+modern students the most important are: (1) the great folio edition
+in 6 volumes (3 of works in Greek and 3 in Syriac), in which the text
+is throughout accompanied by a Latin version (Rome, 1732-1746);
+on the unsatisfactory character of this edition (which includes many
+works that are not Ephraim&rsquo;s) and especially of the Latin version,
+see Burkitt, <i>Ephraim&rsquo;s Quotations</i>, pp. 4 sqq.; (2) <i>Carmina Nisibena</i>,
+edited with a Latin translation by G. Bickell (Leipzig, 1866); (3)
+<i>Hymni et sermones</i>, edited with a Latin translation by T.J. Lamy
+(4 vols., Malines, 1882-1902). Many selected homilies have been
+edited or translated by Overbeck, Zingerle and others (cf. Wright,
+<i>Short History</i>, pp. 35 sqq.); a selection of the <i>Hymns</i> was translated
+by H. Burgess, <i>Select Metrical Hymns of Ephrem Syrus</i> (1853). Of
+the two recensions of Ephraim&rsquo;s biography, one was edited in part
+by J.S. Assemani (B.O. i. 26 sqq.) and in full by S.E. Assemani in
+the Roman edition (iii. pp. xxiii.-lxiii.); the other by Lamy (ii. 5-90)
+and Bedjan (<i>Acta mart. et sanct.</i> iii. 621-665). The long poem on
+the history of Joseph, twice edited by Bedjan (Paris, 1887 and 1891)
+and by him attributed to Ephraim, is more probably the work of
+Balai.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is true that in the <i>Confession</i> attributed to him and printed
+among his Greek works in the first volume of the Roman edition he
+speaks (p. 129) of his parents as having become martyrs for the
+Christian faith. But this document is of very doubtful authenticity.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Fragments of the Commentary of Ephrem Syrus upon the Diatessaron</i>
+(London, 1895).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;Ephraim&rsquo;s Quotations from the Gospel,&rdquo; in <i>Texts and Studies</i>,
+vol. vii. (Cambridge, 1901).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> There were originally 77, but 5 have perished.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHRAIM<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span>, a tribe of Israel, called after the younger son of
+Joseph, who in his benediction exalted Ephraim over the elder
+brother Manasseh (Gen. xlviii.). These two divisions were often
+known as the &ldquo;house of Joseph&rdquo; (Josh. xvii. 14 sqq.; Judg. i. 22;
+2 Sam. xix. 20; 1 Kings xi. 28). The relations between them are
+obscure; conflicts are referred to in Is. ix. 21,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and Ephraim&rsquo;s
+proud and ambitious character is indicated in its demands as
+narrated in Josh. xvii. 14; Judg. viii. 1-3, xii. 1-6. <span class="correction" title="amended from thoughout">throughout</span>,
+Ephraim played a distinctive and prominent part; it probably
+excelled Manasseh in numerical strength, and the name became
+a synonym for the northern kingdom of Israel. Originally the
+name may have been a geographical term for the central portion
+of Palestine. Regarded as a tribe, it lay to the north of Benjamin,
+which traditionally belongs to it; but whether the young
+&ldquo;brother&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Benjamin</a></span>) sprang from it, or grew up separately,
+is uncertain. Northwards, Ephraim lost itself in Manasseh,
+even if it did not actually include it (Judg. i. 27; 1 Chron. vii.
+29); the boundaries between them can hardly be recovered.
+Ephraim&rsquo;s strength lay in the possession of famous sites:
+Shechem, with the tomb of the tribal ancestor, also one of the
+capitals; Shiloh, at one period the home of the ark; Timnath-Serah
+(or Heres), the burial-place of Joshua; and Samaria, whose
+name was afterwards extended to the whole district (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samaria</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Shechem itself was visited by Abraham and Jacob, and the
+latter bought from the sons of Hamor a burial-place (Gen.
+xxxiii. 19). The story of Dinah may imply some early settlement
+of tribes in its vicinity (but see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Simeon</a></span>), and the reference in
+Gen. xlviii. 22 (see R.V. marg.) alludes to its having been forcibly
+captured. But how this part of Palestine came into the hands of
+the Israelites is not definitely related in the story of the invasion
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joshua</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>A careful discussion of the Biblical data referring to Ephraim is
+given by H.W. Hogg, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, s.v. On the characteristic
+narratives which appear to have originated in Ephraim (viz. the
+Ephraimite or Elohist source, E), see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genesis</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>: <i>Old
+Testament Criticism.</i> See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abimelech</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gideon</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manasseh</a></span>;
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Inter-tribal feuds during the period of the monarchy may
+underlie the events mentioned in 1 Kings xvi. 9 sq., 21 sq.; 2 Kings
+xv. 10, 14.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPHTHALITES<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">White Huns</span>. This many-named and
+enigmatical tribe was of considerable importance in the history
+of India and Persia in the 5th and 6th centuries, and was known
+to the Byzantine writers, who call them <span class="grk" title="Ephthalitoi, Euthagitoi,">&#7960;&#966;&#952;&#945;&#955;&#943;&#964;&#959;&#953;, &#917;&#8016;&#952;&#945;&#947;&#943;&#964;&#959;&#953;</span>
+<span class="grk" title="Nephthalitoi">&#925;&#949;&#966;&#952;&#945;&#955;&#943;&#964;&#959;&#953;</span> or <span class="grk" title="Abdeloi">&#7944;&#946;&#948;&#949;&#955;&#959;&#943;</span>. The last of these is an independent
+attempt to render the original name, which was probably
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span>
+something like Aptal or Haptal, but the initial &Nu; of the third is
+believed to be a clerical error. They were also called <span class="grk" title="Leukoi
+Ounnoi">&#923;&#949;&#965;&#954;&#959;&#8054; &#927;&#8020;&#957;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span> or <span class="grk" title="Chounoi">&#935;&#959;&#8166;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span>, White (that is fair-skinned) Huns. In Arabic
+and Persian they are known as Haital and in Armenian as Haithal,
+Idal or Hepthal. The Chinese name Yetha seems an attempt
+to represent the same sound. In India they were called H&#363;nas.
+Ephthalite is the usual orthography, but Hephthalite is perhaps
+more correct.</p>
+
+<p>Our earliest information about the Ephthalites comes from
+the Chinese chronicles, in which it is stated that they were
+originally a tribe of the great Yue-Chi (<i>q.v.</i>), living to the north
+of the Great Wall, and in subjection to the Jwen-Jwen, as were
+also the Turks at one time. Their original name was Hoa or
+Hoa-tun; subsequently they styled themselves Ye-tha-i-li-to
+after the name of their royal family, or more briefly Ye-tha.
+Before the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> they began to move westwards, for
+about 420 we find them in Transoxiana, and for the next 130
+years they were a menace to Persia, which they continually and
+successfully invaded, though they never held it as a conquest.
+The Sassanid king, Bahram V., fought several campaigns with
+them and succeeded in keeping them at bay, but they defeated
+and killed Peroz (Fir&#363;z), <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 484. His son Kavadh I. (Kobad),
+being driven out of Persia, took refuge with the Ephthalites,
+and recovered his throne with the assistance of their khan,
+whose daughter he had married, but subsequently he engaged in
+prolonged hostilities with them. The Persians were not quit
+of the Ephthalites until 557 when Chosroes Anushirwan destroyed
+their power with the assistance of the Turks, who now make their
+first appearance in western Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The Huns who invaded India appear to have belonged to the
+same stock as those who molested Persia. The headquarters
+of the horde were at Bamian and at Balkh, and from these points
+they raided south-east and south-west. Skandagupta repelled
+an invasion in 455, but the defeat of the Persians in 484 probably
+stimulated their activity, and at the end of the 5th century
+their chief Toromana penetrated to Malwa in central India and
+succeeded in holding it for some time. His son Mihiragula
+(<i>c.</i> 510-540) made Sak&#257;la in the Punjab his Indian capital, but
+the cruelty of his rule provoked the Indian princes to form a
+confederation and revolt against him about 528. He was not,
+however, killed, but took refuge in Kashmir, where after a few
+years he seized the throne and then attacked the neighbouring
+kingdom of Gandhara, perpetrating terrible massacres. About
+a year after this he died (<i>c.</i> 540), and shortly afterwards the
+Ephthalites collapsed under the attacks of the Turks. They
+do not appear to have moved on to another sphere, as these
+nomadic tribes often did when defeated, and were probably
+gradually absorbed in the surrounding populations. Their
+political power perhaps continued in the Gurjara empire, which
+at one time extended to Bengal in the east and the Nerbudda
+in the south, and continued in a diminished form until <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1040.
+These Gurjaras appear to have entered India in connexion with
+the Hunnish invasions.</p>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of the Indian H&#363;nas is chiefly derived from
+coins, from a few inscriptions distributed from the Punjab to
+central India, and from the account of the Chinese pilgrim
+Hsùan Tsang, who visited the country just a century after the
+death of Mihiragula. The Greek monk Cosmas Indicopleustes,
+who visited India about 530, describes the ruler of the country,
+whom he calls Gollas, as a White Hun king, who exacted an
+oppressive tribute with the help of a large army of cavalry and
+war elephants. Gollas no doubt represents the last part of the
+name Mihiragula or Mihirakula.</p>
+
+<p>The accounts of the Ephthalites, especially those of the Indian
+H&#363;nas, dwell on their ferocity and cruelty. They are represented
+as delighting in massacres and torture, and it is said that popular
+tradition in India still retains the story that Mihiragula used to
+amuse himself by rolling elephants down a precipice and watching
+their agonies. Their invasions shook Indian society and institutions
+to the foundations, but, unlike the earlier Kushans, they
+do not seem to have introduced new ideas into India or have acted
+as other than a destructive force, although they may perhaps
+have kept up some communication between India and Persia.
+The first part of Mihiragula seems to be the name of the Persian
+deity Mithra, but his patron deity was &#346;iva, and he left behind
+him the reputation of a ferocious persecutor of Buddhism.
+Many of his coins bear the Nandi bull (&#346;iva&rsquo;s emblem), and the
+king&rsquo;s name is preceded by the title <i>&#347;ahi</i> (shah), which had
+previously been used by the Kushan dynasty. Toramana&rsquo;s coins
+are found plentifully in Kashmir, which, therefore, probably
+formed part of the H&#363;na dominions before Mihiragula&rsquo;s time,
+so that when he fled there after his defeat he was taking refuge,
+if not with his own subjects, at least with a kindred clan.</p>
+
+<p>Greek writers give a more flattering account of the Ephthalites,
+which may perhaps be due to the fact that they were useful to
+the East Roman empire as enemies of Persia and also not
+dangerously near. Procopius says that they were far more
+civilized than the Huns of Attila, and the Turkish ambassador
+who was received by Justin is said to have described them as
+<span class="grk" title="astikoi">&#7936;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span>, which may merely mean that they lived in the cities
+which they conquered. The Chinese writers say that their
+customs were like those of the Turks; that they had no cities,
+lived in felt tents, were ignorant of writing and practised
+polyandry. Nothing whatever is known of their language, but
+some scholars explain the names Toramana and Jauvla as
+Turkish.</p>
+
+<p>For the possible connexion between the Ephthalites and the
+European Huns see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Huns</a></span>. The Chinese statement that the
+Hoa or Ye-tha were a section of the great Yue-Chi, and that
+their customs resembled those of the Turks (Tu-Kiue), is probably
+correct, but does not amount to much, for the relationship did
+not prevent them from fighting with the Yue-Chi and Turks, and
+means little more than that they belonged to the warlike and
+energetic section of central Asian nomads, which is in any case
+certain. They appear to have been more ferocious and less
+assimilative than the other conquering tribes. This may, however,
+be due to the fact that their contact with civilization
+was so short; the Yue-Chi and Turks had had some commerce
+with more advanced races before they played any part in political
+history, but the Ephthalites appear as raw barbarians, and were
+annihilated as a nation in little more than a hundred years.
+Like the Yue-Chi they have probably contributed to form some
+of the physical types of the Indian population, and it is noticeable
+that polyandry is a recognized institution among many Himalayan
+tribes, and is also said to be practised secretly by the Jats and
+other races of the plains.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among original authorities may be consulted Procopius, Menander
+Protector, Cosmas Indicopleustes (trans. McCrindle, Hakluyt
+Society, 1897), the Kashmir chronicle <i>Rajataranginî</i> (trans. Stein,
+1900, and Yüan Chwang). See also A. Stein, <i>White Huns and
+Kindred Tribes</i> (1905); O. Franke, <i>Beiträge aus chinesischen Quellen
+zur Kenntnis der Türkvölker und Skythen</i> (1904); Ujfalvy, <i>Mémoire
+sur les Huns Blancs</i> (1898); Drouin, <i>Mémoire sur les Huns Ephthalites</i>
+(1895); and various articles by Vincent Smith, Specht, Drouin,
+and E.H. Parker in the <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, <i>Journal
+asiatique</i>, <i>Revue numismatique</i>, <i>Asiatic Quarterly</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. El.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ÉPI,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> the French architectural term for a light finial, generally
+of metal, but sometimes of terra-cotta, forming the termination
+of a spire or the angle of a roof.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPICENE<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="epikoinos">&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, common), a term in Greek
+and Latin grammar denoting nouns which, possessing but one
+gender, are used to describe animals of either sex. In English
+grammar there are no true epicene nouns, but the term is sometimes
+used instead of <i>common gender</i>. In figurative and literary
+language, epicene is an adjective applied to persons having the
+characteristics of both sexes, and hence is occasionally used as a
+synonym of &ldquo;effeminate.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPICHARMUS<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 540-450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek comic poet, was born
+in the island of Cos. Early in life he went to Megara in Sicily,
+and after its destruction by Gelo (484) removed to Syracuse,
+where he spent the rest of his life at the court of Hiero, and died
+at the age of ninety or (according to a statement in Lucian,
+<i>Macrobii</i>, 25) ninety-seven. A brazen statue was set up in his
+honour by the inhabitants, for which Theocritus composed an
+inscription (<i>Epigr.</i> 17). Epicharmus was the chief representative
+of the Sicilian or Dorian comedy. Of his works 35 titles and a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span>
+few fragments have survived. In the city of tyrants it would
+have been dangerous to present comedies like those of the
+Athenian stage, in which attacks were made upon the authorities.
+Accordingly, the comedies of Epicharmus are of two kinds,
+neither of them calculated to give offence to the ruler. They are
+either mythological travesties (resembling the satyric drama
+of Athens) or character comedies. To the first class belong
+the <i>Busiris</i>, in which Heracles is represented as a voracious
+glutton; the <i>Marriage of Hebe</i>, remarkable for a lengthy list
+of dainties. The second class dealt with different classes of the
+population (the sailor, the prophet, the boor, the parasite).
+Some of the plays seem to have bordered on the political, as
+<i>The Plunderings</i>, describing the devastation of Sicily in the time
+of the poet. A short fragment has been discovered (in the
+Rainer papyri) from the <span class="grk" title="Odysseus automolos">&#8009;&#948;&#965;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#8058;&#962; &#945;&#8016;&#964;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, which told how
+Odysseus got inside Troy in the disguise of a beggar and obtained
+valuable information. Another feature of his works was the large
+number of excellent sentiments expressed in a brief proverbial
+form; the Pythagoreans claimed him as a member of their
+school, who had forsaken the study of philosophy for the
+writing of comedy. Plato (<i>Theaetetus</i>, 152 E) puts him at the head
+of the masters of comedy, coupling his name with Homer and,
+according to a remark in Diogenes Laërtius, Plato was indebted
+to Epicharmus for much of his philosophy. Ennius called his
+didactic poem on natural philosophy <i>Epicharmus</i> after the comic
+poet. The metres employed by Epicharmus were iambic
+trimeter, and especially trochaic and anapaestic tetrameter.
+The plot of the plays was simple, the action lively and rapid;
+hence they were classed among the <i>fabulae motoriae</i> (stirring,
+bustling), as indicated in the well-known line of Horace (<i>Epistles</i>,
+ii. 1. 58):</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Epicharmus is the subject of articles in Suidas and Diogenes
+Laërtius (viii. 3). See A.O. Lorenz, <i>Leben und Schriften des Koers
+E.</i> (with account of the Doric drama and fragments, 1864); J.
+Girard, <i>Études sur la poésie grecque</i> (1884); Kaibel in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyclopädie</i>, according to whom Epicharmus was a
+Siceliot; for the papyrus fragment, Blass in <i>Jahrbücher für Philologie</i>,
+cxxxix., 1889.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIC POETRY<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Epos</span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="epos">&#7956;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, a story, and
+<span class="grk" title="epikos">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, pertaining to a story), the names given to the most
+dignified and elaborate forms of narrative poetry. The word
+<i>epopee</i> is also, but more rarely, employed to designate the same
+thing, <span class="grk" title="epopoios">&#7952;&#960;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#8056;&#962;</span> in Greek being a maker of epic poetry, and
+<span class="grk" title="epopoiia">&#7952;&#960;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#8147;&#945;</span> what he makes.</p>
+
+<p>It is to Greece, where the earliest literary monuments which we
+possess are of an epical character, that we turn for a definition
+of these vast heroic compositions, and we gather that their
+subject-matter was not confined, as Voltaire and the critics of
+the 18th century supposed, to &ldquo;narratives in verse of warlike
+adventures.&rdquo; When we first discover the epos, hexameter verse
+has already been selected for its vehicle. In this form epic poems
+were composed not merely dealing with war and personal
+romance, but carrying out a didactic purpose, or celebrating
+the mysteries of religion. These three divisions, to which are
+severally attached the more or less mythical names of Homer,
+Hesiod and Orpheus seem to have marked the earliest literary
+movement of the Greeks. But, even here, we must be warned
+that what we possess is not primitive; there had been unwritten
+epics, probably in hexameters, long before the composition of
+any now-surviving fragment. The saga of the Greek nation,
+the catalogue of its arts and possessions, the rites and beliefs of
+its priesthood, must have been circulated, by word of mouth,
+long before any historical poet was born. We look upon Homer
+and Hesiod as records of primitive thought, but Professor
+Gilbert Murray reminds us that &ldquo;our <i>Iliad, Odyssey</i>, <i>Erga</i> and
+<i>Theogony</i> are not the first, nor the second, nor the twelfth of
+such embodiments.&rdquo; The early epic poets, Lesches, Linus,
+Orpheus, Arctinus, Eugammon are the veriest shadows, whose
+names often betray their symbolic and fabulous character. It
+is now believed that there was a class of minstrels, the Rhapsodists
+or Homeridae, whose business it was to recite poetry at
+feasts and other solemn occasions. &ldquo;The real bards of early
+Greece were all nameless and impersonal.&rdquo; When our tradition
+begins to be preserved, we find everything of a saga-character
+attributed to Homer, a blind man and an inhabitant of Chios.
+This gradually crystallized until we find Aristotle definitely
+treating Homer as a person, and attributing to him the composition
+of three great poems, the <i>Iliad</i>, the <i>Odyssey</i> and the <i>Margites</i>,
+now lost (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Homer</a></span>). The first two of these have been preserved
+and form for us the type of the ancient epic; when we speak of
+epic poetry, we unconsciously measure it by the example of the
+<i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>. It is quite certain, however, that these
+poems had not merely been preceded by a vast number of
+revisions of the mythical history of the country, but were accompanied
+by innumerable poems of a similar character, now entirely
+lost. That antiquity did not regard these other epics as equal
+in beauty to the <i>Iliad</i> seems to be certain; but such poems as
+<i>Cypria</i>, <i>Iliou Persis</i> (Sack of Ilion) and <i>Aethiopis</i> can hardly but
+have exhibited other sides of the epic tradition. Did we possess
+them, it is almost certain that we could speak with more assurance
+as to the scope of epic poetry in the days of oral tradition, and
+could understand more clearly what sort of ballads in hexameter
+it was which rhapsodes took round from court to court. In the
+4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it seems that people began to write down what
+was not yet forgotten of all this oral poetry. Unfortunately,
+the earliest critic who describes this process is Proclus, a Byzantine
+neo-Platonist, who did not write until some 800 years later,
+when the whole tradition had become hopelessly corrupted.
+When we pass from Homer and Hesiod, about whose actual
+existence critics will be eternally divided, we reach in the 7th
+century a poet, Peisander of Rhodes, who wrote an epic poem,
+the <i>Heracleia</i>, of which fragments remain. Other epic writers,
+who appear to be undoubtedly historic, are Antimachus of
+Colophon, who wrote a <i>Thebais</i>; Panyasis, who, like Peisander,
+celebrated the feats of Heracles; Choerilus of Samos; and
+Anyte, of whom we only know that she was an epic poetess,
+and was called &ldquo;The female Homer.&rdquo; In the 6th and 5th
+centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there was a distinct school of philosophical epic,
+and we distinguish the names of Xenophanes, Parmenides and
+Empedocles as the leaders of it.</p>
+
+<p>From the dawn of Latin literature epic poetry seems to have
+been cultivated in Italy. A Greek exile, named Livius Andronicus,
+translated the <i>Odyssey</i> into Latin during the first Punic War,
+but the earliest original epic of Rome was the lost <i>Bellum
+Punicum</i> of Naevius, a work to which Virgil was indebted. A
+little later, Ennius composed, about 172 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in 18 books, an
+historical epic of the <i>Annales</i>, dealing with the whole chronicle of
+Rome. This was the foremost Latin poem, until the appearance
+of the <i>Aeneid</i>; it was not imitated, remaining, for a hundred
+years, as Mr Mackail has said, &ldquo;not only the unique, but the
+satisfying achievement in this kind of poetry.&rdquo; Virgil began
+the most famous of Roman epics in the year 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and when he
+died, nine years later, he desired that the MS. of the <i>Aeneid</i>
+should be burned, as it required three years&rsquo; work to complete
+it. Nevertheless, it seems to us, and seemed to the ancient world,
+almost perfect, and a priceless monument of art; it is written,
+like the great Greek poems on which it is patently modelled,
+in hexameters. In the next generation, the <i>Pharsalia</i> of Lucan,
+of which Cato, as the type of the republican spirit, is the hero,
+was the principal example of Latin epic. Statius, under the
+Flavian emperors, wrote several epic poems, of which the
+<i>Thebaid</i> survives. In the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Valerius Flaccus
+wrote the <i>Argonautica</i> in 8 books, and Silius Italicus the <i>Punic
+War</i>, in 17 books; these authors show a great decline in taste
+and merit, even in comparison with Statius, and Silius Italicus,
+in particular, is as purely imitative as the worst of the epic
+writers of modern Europe. At the close of the 4th century the
+style revived with Claudian, who produced five or six elaborate
+historical and mythological epics of which the <i>Rape of Proserpine</i>
+was probably the most remarkable; in his interesting poetry
+we have a valuable link between the Silver Age in Rome and the
+Italian Renaissance. With Claudian the history of epic poetry
+among the ancients closes.</p>
+
+<p>In medieval times there existed a large body of narrative
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span>
+poetry to which the general title of Epic has usually been given.
+Three principal schools are recognized, the French, the Teutonic
+and the Icelandic. Teutonic epic poetry deals, as a rule, with
+legends founded on the history of Germany in the 4th, 5th and
+6th centuries, and in particular with such heroes as Ermanaric,
+Attila and Theodoric. But there is also an important group in
+it which deals with English themes, and among these <i>Beowulf</i>,
+<i>Waldere</i>, <i>The Lay of Maldon</i> and <i>Finnesburh</i> are pre-eminent.
+To this group is allied the purely German poem of <i>Hildebrand</i>,
+attributed to <i>c.</i> 800. Among these <i>Beowulf</i> is the only one
+which exists in anything like complete form, and it is of all
+examples of Teutonic epic the most important. With all its
+trivialities and incongruities, which belong to a barbarous age,
+<i>Beowulf</i> is yet a solid and comprehensive example of native epic
+poetry. It is written, like all old Teutonic work of the kind,
+in alliterative unrhymed rhythm. In Iceland, a new heroic
+literature was invented in the middle ages, and to this we owe
+the Sagas, which are, in fact, a reduction to prose of the epics
+of the warlike history of the North. These Sagas took the place
+of a group of archaic Icelandic epics, the series of which seems
+to have closed with the noble poem of <i>Atlamál</i>, the principal
+surviving specimen of epic poetry as it was cultivated in the
+primitive literature of Iceland. The surviving epical fragments
+of Icelandic composition are found thrown together in the
+<i>Codex Regius</i>, under the title of <i>The Elder Edda</i>, a most precious
+MS. discovered in the 17th century. The Icelandic epics seem
+to have been shorter and more episodical in character than the
+lost Teutonic specimens; both kinds were written in alliterative
+verse. It is not probable that either possessed the organic unity
+and vitality of spirit which make the Sagas so delightful. The
+French medieval epics (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chansons de Geste</a></span>) are late in
+comparison with those of England, Germany and Iceland. They
+form a curious transitional link between primitive and modern
+poetry; the literature of civilized Europe may be said to begin
+with them. There is a great increase of simplicity, a great
+broadening of the scene of action. The Teutonic epics were
+obscure and intense, the French <i>chansons de geste</i> are lucid and
+easy. The existing masterpiece of this kind, the magnificent
+<i>Roland</i>, is doubtless the most interesting and pleasing of all the
+epics of medieval Europe. Professor Ker&rsquo;s analysis of its merits
+may be taken as typical of all that is best in the vast body of
+epic which comes between the antique models, which were unknown
+to the medieval poets, and the artificial epics of a later
+time which were founded on vast ideal themes, in imitation of
+the ancients. &ldquo;There is something lyrical in <i>Roland</i>, but the
+poem is not governed by lyrical principles; it requires the
+deliberation and the freedom of epic; it must have room to
+move in before it can come up to the height of its argument.
+The abruptness of its periods is not really an interruption of its
+even flight; it is an abruptness of detail, like a broken sea with
+a larger wave moving under it; it does not impair or disguise
+the grandeur of the movement as a whole.&rdquo; Of the progress and
+decline of the <i>chansons de geste</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) from the ideals of <i>Roland</i>
+a fuller account is given elsewhere. To the <i>Nibelungenlied</i> (<i>q.v.</i>)
+also, detailed attention is given in a separate article.</p>
+
+<p>What may be called the artificial or secondary epics of modern
+Europe, founded upon an imitation of the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Aeneid</i>,
+are more numerous than the ordinary reader supposes, although
+but few of them have preserved much vitality. In Italy the
+<i>Chanson de Roland</i> inspired romantic epics by Luigi Pulci (1432-1487),
+whose <i>Morgante Maggiore</i> appeared in 1481, and is a
+masterpiece of burlesque; by M.M. Boiardo (1434-1494), whose
+<i>Orlando Innamorato</i> was finished in 1486; by Francesco Bello
+(1440?-1495), whose <i>Mambriano</i> was published in 1497; by
+Lodovico Ariosto (<i>q.v.</i>), whose <i>Orlando Furioso</i>, by far the greatest
+of its class, was published in 1516, and by Luigi Dolce (1508-1568),
+as well as by a great number of less illustrious poets.
+G.G. Trissino (1478-1549) wrote a <i>Deliverance of Italy from the
+Goths</i> in 1547, and Bernardo Tasso (1493-1569) an <i>Amadigi</i> in
+1559; Berni remodelled the epic of Boiardo in 1541, and Teofilo
+<span class="correction" title="amended from Folango">Folengo</span> (1491-1544), ridiculed the whole school in an <i>Orlandino</i>
+of 1526. An extraordinary feat of mock-heroic epic was <i>The
+Bucket</i> (1622) of Alessandro Tassoni (1565-1638). The most
+splendid of all the epics of Italy, however, was, and remains,
+the <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i> of Torquato Tasso (<i>q.v.</i>), published
+originally in 1580, and afterwards rewritten as <i>The Conquest of
+Jerusalem</i>, 1593. The fantastic <i>Adone</i> (1623) of G.B. Marini
+(1569-1625) and the long poems of Chiabrera, close the list of
+Italian epics. Early Portuguese literature is rich in epic poetry.
+Luis Pereira Brandão wrote an <i>Elegiada</i> in 18 books, published
+in 1588; Jeronymo Corte-Real (d. 1588) a <i>Shipwreck of Sepulveda</i>
+and two other epics; V.M. Quevedo, in 1601, an <i>Alphonso
+of Africa</i>, in 12 books; Sá de Menezes (d. 1664) a <i>Conquest of
+Malacca</i>, 1634; but all these, and many more, are obscured
+by the glory of Camoens (<i>q.v.</i>), whose magnificent <i>Lusiads</i> had
+been printed in 1572, and forms the summit of Portuguese
+literature. In Spanish poetry, the <i>Poem of the Cid</i> takes the
+first place, as the great national epic of the middle ages; it is
+supposed to have been written between 1135 and 1175. It was
+followed by the <i>Rodrigo</i>, and the medieval school closes with the
+<i>Alphonso XI.</i> of Rodrigo Yañez, probably written at the close of
+the 12th century. The success of the Italian imitative epics of
+the 15th century led to some imitation of their form in Spain.
+Juan de la Cueva (1550?-1606) published a <i>Conquest of Bética</i>
+in 1603; Cristóbal de Virues (1550-1610) a <i>Monserrate</i>, in 1588;
+Luis Barahona de Soto continued Ariosto in a <i>Tears of Angélica</i>;
+Gutiérrez wrote an <i>Austriada</i> in 1584; but perhaps the finest
+modern epic in Spanish verse is the <i>Araucana</i> (1569-1590) of
+Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga (1533-1595), &ldquo;the first literary work
+of merit,&rdquo; as Mr Fitzmaurice-Kelly remarks, &ldquo;composed in
+either American continent.&rdquo; In France, the epic never flourished
+in modern times, and no real success attended the <i>Franciade</i> of
+Ronsard, the <i>Alaric</i> of Scudéry, the <i>Pucelle</i> of Chapelain, the
+<i>Divine Épopée</i> of Soumet, or even the <i>Henriade</i> of Voltaire. In
+English literature <i>The Faery Queen</i> of Spenser has the same
+claim as the Italian poems mentioned above to bear the name
+of epic, and Milton, who stands entirely apart, may be said, by
+his isolated <i>Paradise Lost</i>, to take rank with Homer and Virgil,
+as one of the three types of the mastery of epical composition.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bossu, <i>Traité du poeme épique</i> (1675); Voltaire, <i>Sur la poésie
+épique</i>; Fauviel, <i>L&rsquo;Origine de l&rsquo;épopée chevaleresque</i> (1832); W.P.
+Ker, <i>Epic and Romance</i> (1897), and <i>Essays in Medieval Literature</i>
+(1905); Gilbert Murray, <i>History of Ancient Greek Literature</i> (1897);
+W. von Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur</i> (1879); Gaston
+Paris, <i>La Littérature française au moyen âge</i> (1890); Léon Gautier,
+<i>Les Épopées françaises</i> (1865-1868). For works on the Greek epics
+see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Literature</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cycle</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPICTETUS<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (born <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 60), Greek philosopher, was probably
+a native of Hierapolis in south-west Phrygia. The name Epictetus
+is merely the Greek for &ldquo;acquired&rdquo; (from <span class="grk" title="epiktasthai">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#954;&#964;&#8118;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>); his
+original name is not known. As a boy he was a slave in the house
+of Epaphroditus, a freedman and courtier of the emperor Nero.
+He managed, however, to attend the lectures of the Stoic Musonius
+Rufus, and subsequently became a freedman. He was lame
+and of weakly health. In 90 he was expelled with the other
+philosophers by Domitian, who was irritated by the support
+and encouragement which the opposition to his tyranny found
+amongst the adherents of Stoicism. For the rest of his life he
+settled at Nicopolis, in southern Epirus, not far from the scene
+of the battle of Actium. There for several years he lived, and
+taught by close earnest personal address and conversation.
+According to some authorities he lived into the time of Hadrian;
+he himself mentions the coinage of the emperor Trajan. His
+contemporaries and the next generation held his character and
+teaching in high honour. According to Lucian, the earthenware
+lamp which had belonged to the sage was bought by an antiquarian
+for 3000 drachmas. He was never married. He wrote
+nothing; but much of his teaching was taken down with
+affectionate care by his pupil Flavius Arrianus, the historian
+of Alexander the Great, and is preserved in two treatises, of the
+larger of which, called the <i>Discourses of Epictetus</i> (<span class="grk" title="Epiktêtou
+Diatribai">&#916;&#953;&#945;&#964;&#961;&#953;&#946;&#945;&#943;</span>), four books are still extant. The other treatise is
+a shorter and more popular work, the <i>Encheiridion</i> (&ldquo;Handbook&rdquo;).
+It contains in an aphoristic form the main doctrines
+of the longer work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span></p>
+
+<p>The philosophy of Epictetus is intensely practical, and exhibits
+a high idealistic type of morality. He is an earnest, sometimes
+stern and sometimes pathetic, preacher of righteousness, who
+despises the mere graces of style and the subtleties of an abstruse
+logic. He has no patience with mere antiquarian study of the
+Stoical writers. The problem of how life is to be carried out well
+is the one question which throws all other inquiries into the
+shade. True education lies in learning to wish things to be as
+they actually are; it lies in learning to distinguish what is
+our own from what does not belong to us. But there is only one
+thing which is fully our own,&mdash;that is, our will or purpose. God,
+acting as a good king and a true father, has given us a will which
+cannot be restrained, compelled or thwarted. Nothing external,
+neither death nor exile nor pain nor any such thing, can ever
+force us to act against our will; if we are conquered, it is because
+we have willed to be conquered. And thus, although we are not
+responsible for the ideas that present themselves to our consciousness,
+we are absolutely and without any modification responsible
+for the way in which we use them. Nothing is ours besides our
+will. The divine law which bids us keep fast what is our own
+forbids us to make any claim to what is not ours; and while
+enjoining us to make use of whatever is given to us, it bids us
+not long after what has not been given. &ldquo;Two maxims,&rdquo; he
+says, &ldquo;we must ever bear in mind&mdash;that apart from the will
+there is nothing either good or bad, and that we must not try
+to anticipate or direct events, but merely accept them with
+intelligence.&rdquo; We must, in short, resign ourselves to whatever
+fate and fortune bring to us, believing, as the first article of our
+creed, that there is a god, whose thought directs the universe,
+and that not merely in our acts, but even in our thoughts and
+plans, we cannot escape his eye. In the world the true position
+of man is that of member of a great system, which comprehends
+God and men. Each human being is in the first instance a citizen
+of his own nation or commonwealth; but he is also a member
+of the great city of gods and men, whereof the city political is
+only a copy in miniature. All men are the sons of God, and
+kindred in nature with the divinity. For man, though a member
+in the system of the world, has also within him a principle which
+can guide and understand the movement of all the members; he
+can enter into the method of divine administration, and thus can
+learn&mdash;and it is the acme of his learning&mdash;the will of God, which
+is the will of nature. Man, said the Stoic, is a rational animal;
+and in virtue of that rationality he is neither less nor worse than
+the gods, for the magnitude of reason is estimated not by length
+nor by height but by its judgments. Each man has within him
+a guardian spirit, a god within him, who never sleeps; so that
+even in darkness and solitude we are never alone, because God
+is within, our guardian spirit. The body which accompanies us
+is not strictly speaking ours; it is a poor dead thing, which
+belongs to the things outside us. But by reason we are the masters
+of those ideas and appearances which present themselves from
+without; we can combine them, and systematize, and can set
+up in ourselves an order of ideas corresponding with the order
+of nature.</p>
+
+<p>The natural instinct of animated life, to which man also is
+originally subject, is self-preservation and self-interest. But
+men are so ordered and constituted that the individual cannot
+secure his own interests unless he contribute to the common
+welfare. We are bound up by the law of nature with the whole
+fabric of the world. The aim of the philosopher therefore is to
+reach the position of a mind which embraces the whole world in
+its view,&mdash;to grow into the mind of God and to make the will
+of nature our own. Such a sage agrees in his thought with God;
+he no longer blames either God or man; he fails of nothing
+which he purposes and falls in with no misfortune unprepared;
+he indulges in neither anger nor envy nor jealousy; he is leaving
+manhood for godhead, and in his dead body his thoughts are
+concerned about his fellowship with God.</p>
+
+<p>The historical models to which Epictetus reverts are Diogenes
+and Socrates. But he frequently describes an ideal character
+of a missionary sage, the perfect Stoic&mdash;or, as he calls him, the
+Cynic. This missionary has neither country nor home nor land
+nor slave; his bed is the ground; he is without wife or child;
+his only mansion is the earth and sky and a shabby cloak. He
+must suffer stripes, and must love those who beat him as if he
+were a father or a brother. He must be perfectly unembarrassed
+in the service of God, not bound by the common ties of life, nor
+entangled by relationships, which if he transgresses he will lose
+the character of a man of honour, while if he upholds them he
+will cease to be the messenger, watchman and herald of the gods.
+The perfect man thus described will not be angry with the wrong-doer;
+he will only pity his erring brother; for anger in such a
+case would only betray that he too thought the wrong-doer
+gained a substantial blessing by his wrongful act, instead of
+being, as he is, utterly ruined.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best editions of the works of Epictetus are by J. Schweighäuser
+(6 vols., Leipzig, 1799-1800) and H. Schenkl (Leipzig, 1894,
+1898). English translations by Elizabeth Carter (London, 1758);
+G. Long (London, 1848, ed. 1877, 1892, 1897); T.W. Higginson
+(Boston, 1865, new ed. 1890); of the <i>Encheiridion</i> alone by H. Talbot
+(London, 1881); T.W.H. Rolleston (London, 1881). See A.
+Bonhöffer, <i>Epiktet und die Stoa</i> (Stuttgart, 1890) and <i>Die Ethik des
+Stoikers Epiktet</i> (1894): E.M. Schranka, <i>Der Stoiker Epiktet und
+seine Philosophie</i> (Frankfort, 1885); T. Zahn, <i>Der Stoiker Epiktet
+und sein Verhältnis zum Christentum</i> (2nd ed. Erlangen, 1895).
+See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stoics</a></span> and works quoted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W.; X.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPICURUS<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (342-270 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek philosopher, was born in
+Samos in the end of 342 or the beginning of 341 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, seven years
+after the death of Plato. His father Neocles, a native of Gargettos,
+a small village of Attica, had settled in Samos, not later
+than 352, as one of the cleruchs sent out after the victory of
+Timotheus in 366-365. At the age of eighteen he went to Athens,
+where the Platonic school was flourishing under the lead of
+Xenocrates. A year later, however, Antipater banished some
+12,000 of the poorer citizens, and Epicurus joined his father, who
+was now living at Colophon. It seems possible that he had
+listened to the lectures of Nausiphanes, a Democritean philosopher,
+and Pamphilus the Platonist, but he was probably, like his father,
+merely an ordinary teacher. Stimulated, however, by the perusal
+of some writings of Democritus, he began to formulate a doctrine
+of his own; and at Mitylene, Colophon and Lampsacus, he
+gradually gathered round him several enthusiastic disciples.
+In 307 he returned to Athens, which had just been restored to a
+nominal independence by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and there he
+lived for the rest of his life. The scene of his teaching was a
+garden which he bought for about £300 (80 <i>minae</i>). There he
+passed his days as the loved and venerated head of a remarkable,
+and up to that time unique, society of men and women. Amongst
+the number were Metrodorus (d. 277), his brother Timocrates,
+and his wife Leontion (formerly a hetaera), Polyaenus, Hermarchus,
+who succeeded Epicurus as chief of the school, Leonteus
+and his wife Themista, and Idomeneus, whose wife was a sister
+of Metrodorus. It is possible that the relations between the
+sexes&mdash;in this prototype of Rabelais&rsquo;s Abbey of Thélème&mdash;were
+not entirely what is termed Platonic. But there is on the other
+hand scarcely a doubt that the tales of licentiousness circulated
+by opponents are groundless. The stories of the Stoics, who
+sought to refute the views of Epicurus by an appeal to his alleged
+antecedents and habits, were no doubt in the main, as Diogenes
+Laertius says, the stories of maniacs. The general charges,
+which they endeavoured to substantiate by forged letters, need
+not count for much, and in many cases they only exaggerated
+what, if true, was not so heinous as they suggested. Against
+them trustworthy authorities testified to his general and remarkable
+considerateness, pointing to the statues which the city had
+raised in his honour, and to the numbers of his friends, who were
+many enough to fill whole cities.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of life in his community was plain. The general
+drink was water and the food barley bread; half a pint of wine
+was held an ample allowance. &ldquo;Send me,&rdquo; says Epicurus to a
+correspondent, &ldquo;send me some Cythnian cheese, so that, should
+I choose, I may fare sumptuously.&rdquo; There was no community
+of property, which, as Epicurus said, would imply distrust of
+their own and others&rsquo; good resolutions. The company was held
+in unity by the charms of his personality, and by the free intercourse
+which he inculcated and exemplified. Though he seems
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span>
+to have had a warm affection for his countrymen, it was as human
+beings brought into contact with him, and not as members of a
+political body, that he preferred to regard them. He never
+entered public life. His kindliness extended even to his slaves,
+one of whom, named Mouse, was a brother in philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>Epicurus died of stone in 270 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He left his property,
+consisting of the garden (<span class="grk" title="Kêpoi Epikourou">&#922;&#8134;&#960;&#959;&#953; &#7960;&#960;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#973;&#961;&#959;&#965;</span>), a house in Melite
+(the south-west quarter of Athens), and apparently some funds
+besides, to two trustees on behalf of his society, and for the
+special interest of some youthful members. The garden was set
+apart for the use of the school; the house became the house of
+Hermarchus and his fellow-philosophers during his lifetime.
+The surplus proceeds of the property were further to be applied
+to maintain a yearly offering in commemoration of his departed
+father, mother and brothers, to pay the expenses incurred in
+celebrating his own birthday every year on the 7th of the
+month Gamelion, and for a social gathering of the sect on the
+20th of every month in honour of himself and Metrodorus.
+Besides similar tributes in honour of his brothers and Polyaenus,
+he directed the trustees to be guardians of the son of Polyaenus
+and the son of Metrodorus; whilst the daughter of the last
+mentioned was to be married by the guardians to some member
+of the society who should be approved of by Hermarchus. His
+four slaves, three men and one woman, were left their freedom.
+His books passed to Hermarchus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Philosophy.</i>&mdash;The Epicurean philosophy is traditionally
+divided into the three branches of logic, physics and ethics. It
+is, however, only as a basis of facts and principles for his theory
+of life that logical and physical inquiries find a place at all.
+Epicurus himself had not apparently shared in any large or
+liberal culture, and his influence was certainly thrown on the
+side of those who depreciated purely scientific pursuits as one-sided
+and misleading. &ldquo;Steer clear of all culture&rdquo; was his advice
+to a young disciple. In this aversion to a purely or mainly
+intellectual training may be traced a recoil from the systematic
+metaphysics of Plato and Aristotle, whose tendency was to subordinate
+the practical man to the philosopher. Ethics had been
+based upon logic and metaphysics. But experience showed that
+systematic knowledge of truth is not synonymous with right
+action. Hence, in the second place, Plato and Aristotle had
+assumed a perfect state with laws to guide the individual aright.
+It was thus comparatively easy to show how the individual could
+learn to apprehend and embody the moral law in his own conduct.
+But experience had in the time of Epicurus shown the temporary
+and artificial character of the civic form of social life. It was
+necessary, therefore, for Epicurus to go back to nature to find
+a more enduring and a wider foundation for ethical doctrine,
+to go back from words to realities, to give up reasonings and get
+at feelings, to test conceptions and arguments by a final reference
+to the only touchstone of truth&mdash;to sensation. There, and there
+only, one seems to find a common and a satisfactory ground,
+supposing always that all men&rsquo;s feelings give the same answer.
+Logic must go, but so also must the state, as a specially-privileged
+and eternal order of things, as anything more than a contrivance
+serving certain purposes of general utility.</p>
+
+<p>To the Epicureans the elaborate logic of the Stoics was a
+superfluity. In place of logic we find canonic, the theory of
+the three tests of truth and reality. (1) The only ultimate
+canon of reality is sensation; whatever we feel, whatever we
+perceive by any sense, that we know on the most certain evidence
+we can have to be real, and in proportion as our feeling is clear,
+distinct and vivid, in that proportion are we sure of the reality
+of its object. But in what that vividness (<span class="grk" title="enargeia">&#7952;&#957;&#940;&#961;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#945;</span>) consists is
+a question which Epicurus does not raise, and which he would
+no doubt have deemed superfluous quibbling over a matter
+sufficiently settled by common sense. (2) Besides our sensations,
+we learn truth and reality by our preconceptions or ideas
+(<span class="grk" title="prolêpseis">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#955;&#942;&#968;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>). These are the fainter images produced by repeated
+sensations, the &ldquo;ideas&rdquo; resulting from previous &ldquo;impressions&rdquo;&mdash;sensations
+at second-hand as it were, which are stored up in
+memory, and which a general name serves to recall. These bear
+witness to reality, not because we feel anything now, but because
+we felt it once; they are sensations registered in language, and
+again, if need be, translatable into immediate sensations or groups
+of sensation. (3) Lastly, reality is vouched for by the imaginative
+apprehensions of the mind (<span class="grk" title="phantastikai epibolai">&#966;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7952;&#960;&#953;&#946;&#959;&#955;&#945;&#943;</span>), immediate
+feelings of which the mind is conscious as produced by some action
+of its own. This last canon, however, was of dubious validity.
+Epicureanism generally was content to affirm that whatever
+we effectively feel in consciousness is real; in which sense they
+allow reality to the fancies of the insane, the dreams of a sleeper,
+and those feelings by which we imagine the existence of beings
+of perfect blessedness and endless life. Similarly, just because
+fear, hope and remembrance add to the intensity of consciousness,
+the Epicurean can hold that bodily pain and pleasure is a less
+durable and important thing than pain and pleasure of mind.
+Whatever we feel to affect us does affect us, and is therefore real.
+Error can arise only because we mix up our opinions and suppositions
+with what we actually feel. The Epicurean canon is
+a rejection of logic; it sticks fast to the one point that &ldquo;sensation
+is sensation,&rdquo; and there is no more to be made of it. Sensation,
+it says, is unreasoning (<span class="grk" title="alogos">&#7940;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>); it must be accepted, and not
+criticized. Reasoning can come in only to put sensations together,
+and to point out how they severally contribute to human
+welfare; it does not make them, and cannot alter them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physics.</i>&mdash;In the Epicurean physics there are two parts&mdash;a
+general metaphysic and psychology, and a special explanation
+of particular phenomena of nature. The method of Epicurus
+is the argument of analogy. It is an attempt to make the
+phenomena of nature intelligible to us by regarding them as
+instances on a grand scale of that with which we are already
+familiar on a small scale. This is what Epicurus calls explaining
+what we do not see by what we do see.</p>
+
+<p>In physics Epicurus founded upon Democritus, and his chief
+object was to abolish the dualism between mind and matter
+which is so essential a point in the systems of Plato and Aristotle.
+All that exists, says Epicurus, is corporeal (<span class="grk" title="to pan esti sôma">&#964;&#8056; &#960;&#8118;&#957; &#7952;&#963;&#964;&#953; &#963;&#8182;&#956;&#945;</span>);
+the intangible is non-existent, or empty space. If a thing exists
+it must be felt, and to be felt it must exert resistance. But not
+all things are intangible which our senses are not subtle enough
+to detect. We must indeed accept our feelings; but we must
+also believe much which is not directly testified by sensation,
+if only it serves to explain phenomena and does not contravene
+our sensations. The fundamental postulates of Epicureanism
+are atoms and the void (<span class="grk" title="atoma kai kenon">&#7940;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#945; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#954;&#949;&#957;&#972;&#957;</span>). Space is infinite,
+and there is an illimitable multitude of indestructible, indivisible
+and absolutely compact atoms in perpetual motion in this
+illimitable space. These atoms, differing only in size, figure
+and weight, are perpetually moving with equal velocities, but at
+a rate far surpassing our conceptions; as they move, they are
+for ever giving rise to new worlds; and these worlds are perpetually
+tending towards dissolution, and towards a fresh series
+of creations. This universe of ours is only one section out of the
+innumerable worlds in infinite space; other worlds may present
+systems very different from that of our own. The soul of man
+is only a finer species of body, spread throughout the whole
+aggregation which we term his bodily frame. Like a warm
+breath, it pervades the human structure and works with it; nor
+could it act as it does in perception unless it were corporeal.
+The various processes of sense, notably vision, are explained on
+the principles of materialism. From the surfaces of all objects
+there are continually flowing thin filmy images exactly copying
+the solid body whence they originate; and these images by direct
+impact on the organism produce (we need not care to ask how)
+the phenomena of vision. Epicurus in this way explains vision
+by substituting for the apparent action of a body at a distance
+a direct contact of image and organ. But without following
+the explanation into the details in which it revels, it may be
+enough to say that the whole hypothesis is but an attempt to
+exclude the occult conception of action at a distance, and
+substitute a familiar phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Gods.</i>&mdash;This aspect of the Epicurean physics becomes
+clearer when we look at his mode of rendering particular phenomena
+intelligible. His purpose is to eliminate the common idea of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span>
+divine interference. That there are gods Epicurus never dreams
+of denying. But these gods have not on their shoulders the
+burden of upholding and governing the world. They are themselves
+the products of the order of nature&mdash;a higher species than
+humanity, but not the rulers of man, neither the makers nor the
+upholders of the world. Man should worship them, but his
+worship is the reverence due to the ideals of perfect blessedness;
+it ought not to be inspired either by hope or by fear. To prevent
+all reference of the more potent phenomena of nature to divine
+action Epicurus rationalizes the processes of the cosmos. He
+imagines all possible plans or hypotheses, not actually contradicted
+by our experience of familiar events, which will represent
+in an intelligible way the processes of astronomy and meteorology.
+When two or more modes of accounting for a phenomena are
+equally admissible as not directly contradicted by known
+phenomena, it seems to Epicurus almost a return to the old
+mythological habit of mind when a savant asserts that the real
+cause is one and only one. &ldquo;Thunder,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;may be explained
+in many other ways; only let us have no myths of divine
+action. To assign only a single cause for these phenomena, when
+the facts familiar to us suggest several, is insane, and is just the
+absurd conduct to be expected from people who dabble in the
+vanities of astronomy.&rdquo; We need not be too curious to inquire
+how these celestial phenomena actually do come about; we can
+learn how they might have been produced, and to go further is
+to trench on ground beyond the limits of human knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, if Epicurus objects to the doctrine of mythology, he
+objects no less to the doctrine of an inevitable fate, a necessary
+order of things unchangeable and supreme over the human will.
+The Stoic doctrine of Fatalism seemed to Epicurus no less deadly
+a foe of man&rsquo;s true welfare than popular superstition. Even in
+the movement of the atoms he introduces a sudden change of
+direction, which is supposed to render their aggregation easier,
+and to break the even law of destiny. So, in the sphere of human
+action, Epicurus would allow of no absolutely controlling
+necessity. In fact, it is only when we assume for man this independence
+of the gods and of fatality that the Epicurean
+theory of life becomes possible. It assumes that man can, like
+the gods, withdraw himself out of reach of all external influences,
+and thus, as a sage, &ldquo;live like a god among men, seeing that the
+man is in no wise like a mortal creature who lives in undying
+blessedness.&rdquo; And this present life is the only one. With one
+consent Epicureanism preaches that the death of the body is
+the end of everything for man, and hence the other world has
+lost all its terrors as well as all its hopes.</p>
+
+<p>The attitude of Epicurus in this whole matter is antagonistic
+to science. The idea of a systematic enchainment of phenomena,
+in which each is conditioned by every other, and none can be
+taken in isolation and explained apart from the rest, was foreign
+to his mind. So little was the scientific conception of the solar
+system familiar to Epicurus that he could reproach the
+astronomers, because their account of an eclipse represented
+things otherwise than as they appear to the senses, and could
+declare that the sun and stars were just as large as they seemed
+to us.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ethics.</i>&mdash;The moral philosophy of Epicurus is a qualified
+hedonism, the heir of the Cyrenaic doctrine that pleasure is
+the good thing in life. Neither sect, it may be added, advocated
+sensuality pure and unfeigned&mdash;the Epicurean least of all. By
+pleasure Epicurus meant both more and less than the Cyrenaics.
+To the Cyrenaics pleasure was of moments; to Epicurus it
+extended as a habit of mind through life. To the Cyrenaics
+pleasure was something active and positive; to Epicurus it was
+rather negative&mdash;tranquillity more than vigorous enjoyment.
+The test of true pleasure, according to Epicurus, is the removal
+and absorption of all that gives pain; it implies freedom from
+pain of body and from trouble of mind. The happiness of the
+Epicurean was, it might almost seem, a grave and solemn
+pleasure&mdash;a quiet unobtrusive ease of heart, but not exuberance
+and excitement. The sage of Epicureanism is a rational and
+reflective seeker for happiness, who balances the claims of each
+pleasure against the evils that may possibly ensue, and treads
+the path of enjoyment cautiously. Prudence is, therefore, the
+only real guide to happiness; it is thus the chief excellence, and
+the foundation of all the virtues. It is, in fact, says Epicurus&mdash;in
+language which contrasts strongly with that of Aristotle on the
+same topic&mdash;&ldquo;a more precious power than philosophy.&rdquo; The
+reason or intellect is introduced to balance possible pleasures and
+pains, and to construct a scheme in which pleasures are the
+materials of a happy life. Feeling, which Epicurus declared to
+be the means of determining what is good, is subordinated to a
+reason which adjudicates between competing pleasures with the
+view of securing tranquillity of mind and body. &ldquo;We cannot
+live pleasantly without living wisely and nobly and righteously.&rdquo;
+Virtue is at least a means of happiness, though apart from that
+it is no good in itself, any more than mere sensual enjoyments,
+which are good only because they may sometimes serve to secure
+health of body and tranquillity of mind. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>The Epicurean School.</i>&mdash;Even in the lifetime of Epicurus we
+hear of the vast numbers of his friends, not merely in Greece, but
+in Asia and Egypt. The crowds of Epicureans were a standing
+enigma to the adherents of less popular sects. Cicero pondered
+over the fact; Arcesilaus explained the secession to the Epicurean
+camp, compared with the fact that no Epicurean was ever known
+to have abandoned his school, by saying that, though it was
+possible for a man to be turned into a eunuch, no eunuch could
+ever become a man. But the phenomenon was not obscure.
+The doctrine has many truths, and is attractive to many in virtue
+of its simplicity and its immediate relation to life. The dogmas
+of Epicurus became to his followers a creed embodying the truths
+on which salvation depended; and they passed on from one
+generation to another with scarcely a change or addition. The
+immediate disciples of Epicurus have been already mentioned,
+with the exception of Colotes of Lampsacus, a great favourite
+of Epicurus, who wrote a work arguing &ldquo;that it was impossible
+even to live according to the doctrines of the other philosophers.&rdquo;
+In the 2nd and 1st centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Apollodorus, nicknamed
+<span class="grk" title="kêpotyrannos">&#954;&#951;&#960;&#959;&#964;&#973;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;Lord of the Garden&rdquo;), and Zeno of Sidon (who
+describes Socrates as &ldquo;the Attic buffoon&rdquo;: Cic. <i>De nat. deor.</i>
+i, 21, 33, 34) taught at Athens. About 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Epicureanism
+established itself at Rome. Beginning with C. Amafinius or
+Amafanius (Cic. <i>Acad.</i> i. 2, <i>Tusc.</i> iv. 3), we find the names of
+Phaedrus (who became scholarch at Athens <i>c.</i> 70 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and
+Philodemus (originally of Gadara in Palestine) as distinguished
+Epicureans in the time of Cicero. But the greatest of its Roman
+names was Lucretius, whose <i>De rerum natura</i> embodies the
+main teaching of Epicurus with great exactness, and with a
+beauty which the subject seemed scarcely to allow. Lucretius
+is a proof, if any were needed, that Epicureanism is compatible
+with nobility of soul. In the 1st century of the Christian era,
+the nature of the time, with its active political struggles, naturally
+called Stoicism more into the foreground, yet Seneca, though
+nominally a Stoic, draws nearly all his suavity and much of his
+paternal wisdom from the writings of Epicurus. The position
+of Epicureanism as a recognized school in the 2nd century is
+best seen in the fact that it was one of the four schools (the others
+were the Stoic, Platonist, and Peripatetic) which were placed on
+a footing of equal endowment when Marcus Aurelius founded
+chairs of philosophy at Athens. The evidence of Diogenes
+proves that it still subsisted as a school a century later, but its
+spirit lasted longer than its formal organization as a school. A
+great deal of the best of the Renaissance was founded on Epicureanism,
+and in more recent times a great number of prominent
+thinkers have been Epicureans in a greater or less degree. Among
+these may be mentioned Pierre Gassendi, who revived and
+codified the doctrine in the 17th century; Molière, the comte
+de Gramont, Rousseau, Fontenelle and Voltaire. All those
+whose ethical theory is in any degree hedonistic are to some
+extent the intellectual descendants of Epicurus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hedonism</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Works.</i>&mdash;Epicurus was a voluminous writer (<span class="grk" title="polygraphôtatos">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#965;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#974;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+Diog. Laërt. x. 26)&mdash;the author, it is said, of about 300 works.
+He had a style and vocabulary of his own. His chief aim in
+writing was plainness and intelligibility, but his want of order
+and logical precision thwarted his purpose. He pretended to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span>
+have read little, and to be the original architect of his own system,
+and the claim was no doubt on the whole true. But he had read
+Democritus, and, it is said, Anaxagoras and Archelaus. His
+works, we learn, were full of repetition, and critics speak of
+vulgarities of language and faults of style. None the less his
+writings were committed to memory and remained the text-books
+of Epicureanism to the last. His chief work was a treatise
+on nature (<span class="grk" title="Peri physeôs">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#966;&#973;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>), in thirty-seven books, of which fragments
+from about nine books have been found in the rolls
+discovered at Herculaneum, along with considerable treatises
+by several of his followers, and most notably Philodemus. An
+epitome of his doctrine is contained in three letters preserved
+by Diogenes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The chief ancient accounts of Epicurus are in the
+tenth book of Diogenes Laërtius, in Lucretius, and in several treatises
+of Cicero and Plutarch. Gassendi, in his <i>De vita, moribus, et
+doctrina Epicuri</i> (Lyons, 1647), and his <i>Syntagma philosophiae
+Epicuri</i>, systematized the doctrine. The <i>Volumina Herculanensia</i>
+(1st and 2nd series) contain fragments of treatises by Epicurus
+and members of his school. See also H. Usener, <i>Epicurea</i> (Leipzig,
+1887) and <i>Epicuri recogniti specimen</i> (Bonn, 1880); <i>Epicuri physica
+et meteorologica</i> (ed. J.G. Schneider, Leipzig, 1813); Th. Gomperz
+in his <i>Herkulanische Studien</i>, and in contributions to the Vienna
+Academy (<i>Monatsberichte</i>), has tried to evolve from the fragments
+more approximation to modern empiricism than they seem to contain.
+For criticism see W. Wallace, <i>Epicureanism</i> (London, 1880), and
+<i>Epicurus; A Lecture</i> (London, 1896); G. Trezza, <i>Epicuro e l&rsquo;Epicureismo</i>
+(Florence, 1877; ed. Milan, 1885); E. Zeller, <i>Philosophy
+of the Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics</i> (Eng. trans. O.J. Reichel,
+1870; ed. 1880); Sir James Mackintosh, <i>On the Progress of Ethical
+Philosophy</i> (4th ed.); J. Watson, <i>Hedonistic Theories</i> (Glasgow,
+1895); J. Kreibig, <i>Epicurus</i> (Vienna, 1886); A. Goedeckemeyer,
+<i>Epikurs Verhältnis zu Demokrit in der Naturphil.</i> (Strassburg, 1897);
+Paul von Gizycki, <i>Über das Leben und die Moralphilos. des Epikur
+(Halle, 1879), and Einleitende Bemerkungen zu einer Untersuchung
+über den Werth der Naturphilos. des Epikur</i> (Berlin, 1884); P.
+Cassel, <i>Epikur der Philosoph</i> (Berlin, 1892); M. Guyau, <i>La Morale
+d&rsquo;Épicure et ses rapports avec les doctrines contemporaines</i> (Paris, 1878;
+revised and enlarged, 1881); F. Picavet, <i>De Epicuro novae religionis
+sectatore</i> (Paris, 1889); H. Sidgwick, <i>History of Ethics</i> (5th ed.,
+1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W.; X.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPICYCLE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epi">&#7952;&#960;&#943;</span>, upon, and <span class="grk" title="kyklos">&#954;&#973;&#954;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, circle), in ancient
+astronomy, a small circle the centre of which describes a larger
+one. It was especially used to represent geometrically the
+periodic apparent retrograde motion of the outer planets, Mars,
+Jupiter and Saturn, which we now know to be due to the annual
+revolution of the earth around the sun, but which in the Ptolemaic
+astronomy were taken to be real.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPICYCLOID<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span>, the curve traced out by a point on the circumference
+of a circle rolling externally on another circle. If
+the moving circle rolls internally on the fixed circle, a point on
+the circumference describes a &ldquo;hypocycloid&rdquo; (from <span class="grk" title="hypo">&#8017;&#960;&#972;</span>, under).
+The locus of any other carried point is an &ldquo;epitrochoid&rdquo; when
+the circle rolls externally, and a &ldquo;hypotrochoid&rdquo; when the
+circle rolls internally. The epicycloid was so named by Ole
+Römer in 1674, who also demonstrated that cog-wheels having
+epicycloidal teeth revolved with minimum friction (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>: <i>Applied</i>); this was also proved by Girard
+Desargues, Philippe de la Hire and Charles Stephen Louis
+Camus. Epicycloids also received attention at the hands of
+Edmund Halley, Sir Isaac Newton and others; spherical
+epicycloids, in which the moving circle is inclined at a constant
+angle to the plane of the fixed circle, were studied by the
+Bernoullis, Pierre Louis M. de Maupertuis, François Nicole,
+Alexis Claude Clairault and others.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the annexed figure, there are shown various examples of the
+curves named above, when the radii of the rolling and fixed circles
+are in the ratio of  1 to 3. Since the circumference of a circle is proportional
+to its radius, it follows that if the ratio of the radii be commensurable,
+the curve will consist of a finite number of cusps, and
+ultimately return into itself. In the particular case when the radii
+are in the ratio of 1 to 3 the epicycloid (curve <i>a</i>) will consist of three
+cusps external to the circle and placed at equal distances along
+its circumference. Similarly, the corresponding epitrochoids will
+exhibit three loops or nodes (curve <i>b</i>), or assume the form shown in
+the curve <i>c</i>. It is interesting to compare the forms of these curves
+with the three forms of the cycloid (<i>q.v.</i>). The hypocycloid derived
+from the same circles is shown as curve <i>d</i>, and is seen to consist of
+three cusps arranged internally to the fixed circle; the corresponding
+hypotrochoid consists of a three-foil and is shown in curve <i>e</i>. The
+epicycloid shown is termed the &ldquo;three-cusped epicycloid&rdquo; or the
+&ldquo;epicycloid of Cremona.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:400px; height:396px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img686.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The cartesian equation to the epicycloid assumes the form</p>
+
+<p class="center">x = (a + b) cos&theta; &minus; b cos(<span class="ov">a + b</span>/b)&theta;,
+y = (a + b) sin&theta; &minus; b sin(<span class="ov">a + b</span>/b)&theta;,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">when the centre of the fixed circle is the origin, and the axis of x
+passes through the initial point of the curve (<i>i.e.</i> the original position
+of the moving point on the fixed circle), a and b being the radii of the
+fixed and rolling circles, and &theta; the angle through which the line
+joining the centres of the two circles has passed. It may be shown
+that if the distance of the carried point from the centre of the rolling
+circle be mb, the equation to the epitrochoid is</p>
+
+<p class="center">x = (a + b) cos&theta; &minus; mb cos(<span class="ov">a + b</span>/b)&theta;,
+y = (a + b) sin&theta; &minus; mb sin(<span class="ov">a + b</span>/b)&theta;,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The equations to the hypocycloid and its corresponding trochoidal
+curves are derived from the two preceding equations by changing
+the sign of b. Leonhard Euler (<i>Acta Petrop.</i> 1784) showed that the
+same hypocycloid can be generated by circles having radii of ½(a ± b)
+rolling on a circle of radius a; and also that the hypocycloid formed
+when the radius of the rolling circle is greater than that of the fixed
+circle is the same as the epicycloid formed by the rolling of a circle
+whose radius is the difference of the original radii. These propositions
+may be derived from the formulae given above, or proved
+directly by purely geometrical methods.</p>
+
+<p>The tangential polar equation to the epicycloid, as given
+above, is p = (a + 2b) sin(a/<span class="ov">a + 2b</span>)&psi;, while the intrinsic equation is
+s = 4(b/a)(a + b) cos(a/<span class="ov">a + 2b</span>)&psi; and the pedal equation is
+r² = a² + (4b·<span class="ov">a + b</span>)p²/(a + 2b)². Therefore any epicycloid or hypocycloid may
+be represented by the equations p = A sin B&psi; or p = A cos B&psi;,
+s = A sin B&psi; or s = A cos B&psi;, or r² = A + Bp², the constants A and B
+being readily determined by the above considerations.</p>
+
+<p>If the radius of the rolling circle be one-half of the fixed circle, the
+hypocycloid becomes a diameter of this circle; this may be confirmed
+from the equation to the hypocycloid. If the ratio of the
+radii be as 1 to 4, we obtain the four-cusped hypocycloid, which has
+the simple cartesian equation x<span class="sp">2/3</span> + y<span class="sp">2/3</span> = a<span class="sp">2/3</span>. This curve is the
+envelope of a line of constant length, which moves so that its extremities
+are always on two fixed lines at right angles to each other,
+<i>i.e.</i> of the line x/&alpha; + y/&beta; = 1, with the condition &alpha;² + &beta;² = 1/a, a constant.
+The epicycloid when the radii of the circles are equal is the cardioid
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and the corresponding trochoidal curves are limaçons (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Epicycloids are also examples of certain caustics (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>For the methods of determining the formulae and results stated
+above see J. Edwards, <i>Differential Calculus</i>, and for geometrical
+constructions see T.H. Eagles, <i>Plane Curves</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIDAURUS,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> the name of two ancient cities of southern
+Greece.</p>
+
+<p>1. A maritime city situated on the eastern coast of Argolis,
+sometimes distinguished as <span class="grk" title="hê hiera Epidauros">&#7969; &#7985;&#949;&#961;&#8048; &#7960;&#960;&#943;&#948;&#945;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, or Epidaurus the
+Holy. It stood on a small rocky peninsula with a natural
+harbour on the northern side and an open but serviceable bay
+on the southern; and from this position acquired the epithet
+of <span class="grk" title="distomos">&#948;&#943;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, or the two-mouthed. Its narrow but fertile territory
+consisted of a plain shut in on all sides except towards the sea
+by considerable elevations, among which the most remarkable
+were Mount Arachnaeon and Titthion. The conterminous
+states were Corinth, Argos, Troezen and Hermione. Its
+proximity to Athens and the islands of the Saronic gulf, the
+commercial advantages of its position, and the fame of its temple
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span>
+of Asclepius combined to make Epidaurus a place of no small
+importance. Its origin was ascribed to a Carian colony, whose
+memory was possibly preserved in Epicarus, the earlier name
+of the city; it was afterwards occupied by Ionians, and appears
+to have incorporated a body of Phlegyans from Thessaly. The
+Ionians in turn succumbed to the Dorians of Argos, who, according
+to the legend, were led by Deiphontes; and from that time the
+city continued to preserve its Dorian character. It not only
+colonized the neighbouring islands, and founded the city of Aegina,
+by which it was ultimately outstripped in wealth and power,
+but also took part with the people of Argos and Troezen in their
+settlements in the south of Asia Minor. The monarchical
+government introduced by Deiphontes gave way to an oligarchy,
+and the oligarchy degenerated into a despotism. When Procles
+the tyrant was carried captive by Periander of Corinth, the
+oligarchy was restored, and the people of Epidaurus continued
+ever afterwards close allies of the Spartan power. The governing
+body consisted of 180 members, chosen from certain influential
+families, and the executive was entrusted to a select committee
+of <i>artynae</i> (from <span class="grk" title="artynein">&#7936;&#961;&#964;&#973;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to manage). The rural population,
+who had no share in the affairs of the city, were called <span class="grk" title="konipodes">&#954;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#960;&#959;&#948;&#949;&#962;</span>
+(&ldquo;dusty-feet&rdquo;). Among the objects of interest described by
+Pausanias as extant in Epidaurus are the image of Athena
+Cissaea in the Acropolis, the temple of Dionysus and Artemis, a
+shrine of Aphrodite, statues of Asclepius and his wife Epione,
+and a temple of Hera. The site of the last is identified with the
+chapel of St Nicolas; a few portions of the outer walls of the city
+can be traced; and the name Epidaurus is still preserved by the
+little village of Nea-Epidavros, or Pidhavro.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:849px; height:738px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img687.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The <i>Hieron</i> (sacred precinct) of Asclepius, which lies inland
+about 8 m. from the town of Epidaurus, has been thoroughly
+excavated by the Greek Archaeological Society since the year
+1881, under the direction of M. Kavvadias. In addition to the
+sacred precinct, with its temples and other buildings, the theatre
+and stadium have been cleared; and several other extensive
+buildings, including baths, gymnasia, and a hospital for invalids,
+have also been found. The sacred road from Epidaurus, which
+is flanked by tombs, approaches the precinct through a gateway
+or propylaea. The chief buildings are grouped together, and
+include temples of Asclepius and Artemis, the Tholos, and the
+Abaton, or portico where the patients slept. In addition to
+remains of architecture and sculpture, some of them of high
+merit, there have been found many inscriptions, throwing light
+on the cures attributed to the god. The chief buildings outside
+the sacred precinct are the theatre and the stadium.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of Asclepius, which contained the gold and ivory
+statue by Thrasymedes of Paros, had six columns at the ends and
+eleven at the sides; it was raised on stages and approached by
+a ramp at the eastern front. An inscription has been found
+recording the contracts for building this temple; it dates from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span>
+about 460 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The sculptor Timotheus&mdash;one of those who
+collaborated in the Mausoleum&mdash;is mentioned as undertaking
+to make the acroteria that stood on the ends of the pediments,
+and also models for the sculpture that filled one of them.
+Some of this sculpture has been found; the acroteria are
+Nereids mounted on sea-horses, and one pediment contained
+a battle of Greeks and Amazons. The great altar lay to the south
+of the temple, and a little to the east of it are what appear to be
+the remains of an earlier altar, built into the corner of a large
+square edifice of Roman date, perhaps a house of the priests.
+Just to the south of this are the foundations of a small temple
+of Artemis. The Tholos lay to the south-west of the temple of
+Asclepius; it must, when perfect, have been one of the most
+beautiful buildings in Greece; the exquisite carving of its
+mouldings is only equalled by that of the Erechtheum at Athens.
+It consisted of a circular chamber, surrounded on the outside
+by a Doric colonnade, and on the inside by a Corinthian one.
+The architect was Polyclitus, probably to be identified with the
+younger sculptor of that name. In the inscription recording
+the contracts for its building it is called the Thymele; and this
+name may give the clue to its purpose; it was probably the
+idealized architectural representative of a primitive pit of
+sacrifice, such as may still be seen in the Asclepianum at Athens.
+The foundations now visible present a very curious appearance,
+consisting of a series of concentric walls. Those in the middle
+are thin, having only the pavement of the cella to support, and
+are provided with doors and partitions that make a sort of
+subterranean labyrinth. There is no evidence for the statement
+sometimes made that there was a well or spring below the Tholos.
+North of the Tholos is the long portico described in inscriptions
+as the Abaton; it is on two different levels, and the lower or
+western portion of it had two storeys, of which the upper one
+was on a level with the ground in the eastern portion. Here the
+invalids used to sleep when consulting the god, and the inscriptions
+found here record not only the method of consulting the
+god, but the manner of his cures. Some of the inscriptions
+are contemporary dedications; but those which give us most
+information are long lists of cases, evidently compiled by the
+priests from the dedications in the sanctuary, or from tradition.
+There is no reason to doubt that most of the records have at
+least a basis of fact, for the cases are in accord with well-attested
+phenomena of a similar nature at the present day; but there are
+others, such as the miraculous mending of a broken vase, which
+suggest either invention or trickery.</p>
+
+<p>In early times, though there is considerable variety in the
+cases treated and the methods of cure, there are certain characteristics
+common to the majority of the cases. The patient consulting
+the god sleeps in the Abaton, sees certain visions, and, as a
+result, comes forth cured the next morning. Sometimes there
+seem to be surgical cases, like that of a man who had a spear-head
+extracted from his jaw, and found it laid in his hands when he
+awoke in the morning, and there are many examples resembling
+those known at the present day at Lourdes or Tenos, where
+hysterical or other similar affections are cured by the influence
+of imagination or sudden emotion. It is, however, difficult to
+make any scientific use of the records, owing to the indiscriminate
+manner in which genuine and apocryphal cases are mingled,
+and circumstantial details are added. We learn the practice
+of later times from some dedicated inscriptions. Apparently
+the old faith-healing had lost its efficacy, and the priests substituted
+for it elaborate prescriptions as to diet, baths and
+regimen which must have made Epidaurus and its visitors
+resemble their counterparts in a modern spa. At this time there
+were extensive buildings provided for the accommodation of
+invalids, some of which have been discovered and partially
+cleared; one was built by Antoninus Pius. They were in the
+form of great courtyards surrounded by colonnades and chambers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Between the precinct and the theatre was a large gymnasium,
+which was in later times converted to other purposes, a small odeum
+being built in the middle of it. In a valley just to the south-west of
+the precinct is the stadium, of which the seats and goal are well
+preserved. There is a gutter round the level space of the stadium,
+with basins at intervals for the use of spectators or competitors,
+and a post at every hundred feet of the course, thus dividing it into
+six portions. The goal, which is well preserved at the upper end,
+is similar to that at Olympia; it consists of a sill of stone sunk level
+with the ground, with parallel grooves for the feet of the runners at
+starting, and sockets to hold the posts that separated the spaces assigned
+to the various competitors, and served as guides to them in running.
+For these were substituted later a set of stone columns resembling
+those in the proscenium of a theatre. There was doubtless a similar
+sill at the lower end for the start of the stadium, this upper one being
+intended for the start of the diaulos and longer races.</p>
+
+<p>The theatre still deserves the praise given it by Pausanias as the
+most beautiful in Greece. The auditorium is in remarkable preservation,
+almost every seat being still <i>in situ</i>, except a few where the
+supporting walls have given way on the wings. The whole plan is
+drawn from three centres, the outer portion of the curves being arcs
+of a larger circle than the one used for the central portion; the
+complete circle of the orchestra is marked by a sill of white limestone,
+and greatly enhances the effect of the whole. There are
+benches with backs not only in the bottom row, but also above
+and below the diazoma. The acoustic properties of the theatre are
+extraordinarily good, a speaker in the orchestra being heard throughout
+the auditorium without raising his voice. The stage buildings
+are not preserved much above their foundations, and show signs
+of later repairs; but their general character can be clearly seen.
+They consist of a long rectangular building, with a proscenium or
+column front which almost forms a tangent to the circle of the
+orchestra; at the middle and at either end of this proscenium are
+doors leading into the orchestra, those at the end set in projecting
+wings; the top of the proscenium is approached by a ramp, of which
+the lower part is still preserved, running parallel to the parodi,
+but sloping up as they slope down. The proscenium was originally
+about 14 ft. high and 12 ft. broad; so corresponding approximately
+to the Greek stage as described by Vitruvius. M. Kavvadias,
+who excavated the theatre, believes that the proscenium is contemporary
+with the rest of the theatre, which, like the Tholos, was built
+by Polyclitus (the younger); but Professor W. Dörpfeld maintains
+that it is a later addition. In any case, the theatre at Epidaurus
+ranks as the most typical of Greek theatres, both from the simplicity
+of its plan and the beauty of its proportions.</p>
+
+<p>See Pausanias i. 29; <i>Expédition de la Morée</i>, ii.; Curtius, <i>Peloponnesus</i>,
+ii.; <i>Transactions of Roy. Soc. of Lit.</i>, 2nd series, vol. ii.;
+Weclawski, <i>De rebus Epidauriorum</i> (Posen, 1854).</p>
+
+<p>The excavations at the Hieron have been recorded as they went
+on in the <span class="grk" title="Praktika">&#928;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span> of the Greek Archaeological Society, especially for
+1881-1884 and 1889, and also in the <span class="grk" title="Ephêmeris Archaiologikê">&#7960;&#966;&#951;&#956;&#949;&#961;&#8054;&#962; &#7944;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>, especially
+for 1883 and 1885; see also Kavvadias, Les <i>Fouilles d&rsquo;Épidaure</i> and
+<span class="grk" title="To Hieron tou Asklêpiou en Epidaurô kai hê therapeia tôn asthenôn">
+&#932;&#8056; &#7993;&#949;&#961;&#8056;&#957; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#7944;&#963;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#960;&#953;&#959;&#8166; &#7952;&#957; &#7960;&#960;&#953;&#948;&#945;&#973;&#961;&#8179; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7969; &#952;&#949;&#961;&#940;&#960;&#949;&#953;&#945; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7936;&#963;&#952;&#949;&#957;&#8182;&#957;</span>; Defrasse
+and Lechat, <i>Épidaure</i>. A museum was completed in 1910.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. A city of Peloponnesus on the east coast of Laconia, distinguished
+by the epithet of Limera (either &ldquo;The Well-havened&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;The Hungry&rdquo;). It was founded by the people of Epidaurus
+the Holy, and its principal temples were those of Asclepius
+and Aphrodite. It was abandoned during the middle ages; its
+inhabitants took <span class="correction" title="amended from posession">possession</span> of the promontory of Minoa, turned
+it into an island, and built and fortified thereon the city of
+Monembasia, which became the most flourishing of all the towns
+in the Morea, and gave its name to the well-known Malmsey or
+Malvasia wine. The ruins of Epidaurus are to be seen at the place
+now called Palaea Monemvasia.</p>
+
+<p>A third Epidaurus was situated in Illyricum, on the site of
+the present Ragusa Vecchia; but it is not mentioned till the
+time of the civil wars of Pompey and Caesar, and has no special
+interest.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIDIORITE,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> in petrology, a typical member of a family
+of rocks consisting essentially of hornblende and felspar, often
+with epidote, garnet, sphene, biotite, or quartz, and having
+usually a foliated structure. The term is to some extent
+synonymous with &ldquo;amphibolite&rdquo; and &ldquo;hornblende-schist.&rdquo;
+These rocks are metamorphic, and though having a mineral
+constitution somewhat similar to that of diorite, they have been
+produced really from rocks of more basic character, such as
+diabase, dolerite and gabbro. They occur principally among
+the schists, slates and gneisses of such districts as the Scottish
+Highlands, the north-west of Ireland, Brittany, the Harz, the
+Alps, and the crystalline ranges of eastern N. America. Their
+hornblende in microscopic section is usually dark green, rarely
+brownish; their felspar may be clear and recrystallized, but
+more frequently is converted into a turbid aggregate of epidote,
+zoisite, quartz, sericite and albite. In the less complete stages
+of alteration, ophitic structure may persist, and the original
+augite of the rock may not have been entirely replaced by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span>
+hornblende. Pink or brownish garnets are common and may be
+an inch or two in diameter. The iron oxides, originally ilmenite,
+are usually altered to sphene. Biotite, if present, is brown;
+epidote is yellow or colourless; rutile, apatite and quartz all
+occur with some frequency. The essential minerals, hornblende
+and felspar, rarely show crystalline outlines, and this is generally
+true also of the others. The rocks may be fine grained, so that
+their constituents are hardly visible to the unaided eye; or may
+show crystals of hornblende an inch in length. Their prevalent
+colour is dark green and they weather with brown surfaces. In
+many parts of the world epidiorites and the quartz veins which
+sometimes occur in them have proved to be auriferous. As they
+are tough, hard rocks, when fresh, they are well suited for use
+as road-mending stones.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIDOSITE<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span>, in petrology, a typical member of a family of
+metamorphic rocks composed mainly of epidote and quartz.
+In colour they are pale yellow or greenish yellow, and they are
+hard and somewhat brittle. They may occur in more than one
+way and are derived from several kinds of rock. Some have been
+epidotic grits and sandstones; others are limestones which
+have undergone contact-alteration; probably the majority,
+however, are allied to epidiorite and amphibolite, and are
+local modifications of rocks which were primarily basic intrusions
+or lavas. The sedimentary epidosites occur with mica-schists,
+sheared grits and granulitic gneisses; they often show, on
+minute examination, the remains of clastic structures. The
+epidosites derived from limestones may contain a great variety
+of minerals such as calcite, augite, garnet, scapolite, &amp;c., but
+their source may usually be inferred from their close association
+with calc-silicate rocks in the field. The third group of epidosites
+may form bands, veins, or irregular streaks and nodules in masses
+of epidiorite and hornblende-schist. In microscopic section
+they are often merely a granular mosaic of quartz and epidote
+with some iron oxides and chlorite, but in other cases they retain
+much of the structure of the original rock though there has been
+a complete replacement of the former minerals by new ones.
+Epidosites when streaked and variegated have been cut and
+polished as ornamental stones. They are translucent and hard,
+and hence serve for brooch stones, and the simpler kinds of
+jewelry. These rocks occasionally carry gold in visible yellow
+specks.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:158px; height:125px" src="images/img689.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">EPIDOTE<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span>, a mineral species consisting of basic calcium,
+aluminium and iron orthosilicate, Ca<span class="su">2</span>(AlOH)(Al, Fe)<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>,
+crystallizing in the monoclinic system. Well-developed crystals
+are of frequent occurrence: they are commonly prismatic in
+habit, the direction of elongation being perpendicular to the
+single plane of symmetry. The faces
+lettered <i>M</i>, <i>T</i> and <i>r</i> in the figure are
+often deeply striated in the same direction:
+<i>M</i> is a direction of perfect cleavage,
+and <i>T</i> of imperfect cleavage: crystals
+are often twinned on the face <i>T</i>. Many
+of the characters of the mineral vary
+with the amount of iron present (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, 5-17%), for instance,
+the colour, the optical constants, and the specific gravity
+(3.3-3.5). The hardness is 6½. The colour is green, grey,
+brown or nearly black, but usually a characteristic shade
+of yellowish-green or pistachio-green. The pleochroism is
+strong, the pleochroic colours being usually green, yellow and
+brown. The names thallite (from <span class="grk" title="thallos">&#952;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#972;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;a young shoot&rdquo;)
+and pistacite (from <span class="grk" title="pistakia">&#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#954;&#953;&#945;</span>, &ldquo;pistachio nut&rdquo;) have reference
+to the colour. The name epidote is one of R.J. Haüy&rsquo;s
+crystallographic names, and is derived from <span class="grk" title="epidosis">&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#948;&#959;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;increase,&rdquo;
+because the base of the primitive prism has one side longer
+than the other. Several other names (achmatite, bucklandite,
+escherite, puschkinite, &amp;c.) have been applied to this species.
+Withamite is a carmine-red to straw-yellow, strongly pleochroic
+variety from Glencoe in Scotland. Fouqueite and clinozoisite
+are white or pale rose-red varieties containing very little iron,
+thus having the same chemical composition as the orthorhombic
+mineral zoisite (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Epidote is an abundant rock-forming mineral, but one of
+secondary origin. It occurs in crystalline limestones and schistose
+rocks of metamorphic origin; and is also a product of weathering
+of various minerals (felspars, micas, pyroxenes, amphiboles,
+garnets, &amp;c.) composing igneous rocks. A rock composed of
+quartz and epidote is known as epidosite. Well-developed
+crystals are found at many localities, of which the following
+may be specially mentioned: Knappenwand, near the Gross-Venediger
+in the Untersulzbachthal in Salzburg, as magnificent,
+dark green crystals of long prismatic habit in cavities in epidote-schist,
+with asbestos, adularia, calcite, and apatite; the Ala
+valley and Traversella in Piedmont; Arendal in Norway
+(arendalite); Le Bourg d&rsquo;Oisans in Dauphiné (oisanite and
+delphinite); Haddam in Connecticut; Prince of Wales Island
+in Alaska, here as large, dark green, tabular crystals with copper
+ores in metamorphosed limestone.</p>
+
+<p>The perfectly transparent, dark green crystals from the
+Knappenwand and from Brazil have occasionally been cut as
+gem-stones.</p>
+
+<p>Belonging to the same isomorphous group with epidote are the
+species piedmontite and allanite, which may be described as
+manganese and cerium epidotes respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Piedmontite has the composition Ca<span class="su">2</span>(AlOH)(Fe, Mn)<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>;
+it occurs as small, reddish-black, monoclinic crystals in the
+manganese mines at San Marcel, near Ivrea in Piedmont, and in
+crystalline schists at several places in Japan. The purple colour
+of the Egyptian <i>porfido rosso antico</i> is due to the presence of
+this mineral.</p>
+
+<p>Allanite has the same general formula R<span class="su">2</span>&Prime;(R&Prime;&prime;OH)R<span class="su">2</span>&Prime;&prime;(SiO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>,
+where R&Prime; represents calcium and ferrous iron, and R&Prime;&prime; aluminium,
+ferric iron and metals of the cerium group. In external appearance
+it differs widely from epidote, being black or dark
+brown in colour, pitchy in lustre, and opaque in the mass;
+further, there is little or no cleavage, and well-developed crystals
+are rarely met with. The crystallographic and optical characters
+are similar to those of epidote; the pleochroism is strong with
+reddish-, yellowish-, and greenish-brown colours. Although
+not a common mineral, allanite is of fairly wide distribution as
+a primary accessory constituent of many crystalline rocks, <i>e.g.</i>
+gneiss, granite, syenite, rhyolite, andesite, &amp;c. It was first
+found in the granite of east Greenland and described by Thomas
+Allan in 1808, after whom the species was named. Allanite is a
+mineral readily altered by hydration, becoming optically isotropic
+and amorphous: for this reason several varieties have been
+distinguished, and many different names applied. Orthite,
+from <span class="grk" title="orthos">&#8000;&#961;&#952;&#972;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;straight,&rdquo; was the name given by J.J. Berzelius
+in 1818 to a hydrated form found as slender prismatic
+crystals, sometimes a foot in length, at Finbo, near Falun in
+Sweden.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIGONI<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (&ldquo;descendants&rdquo;), in Greek legend, the sons of the
+seven heroes who fought against Thebes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adrastus</a></span>). Ten
+years later, to avenge their fathers, the Epigoni undertook a
+second expedition, which was completely successful. Thebes
+was forced to surrender and razed to the ground. In early
+times the war of the Epigoni was a favourite subject of epic
+poetry. The term is also applied to the descendants of the
+Diadochi, the successors of Alexander the Great.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIGONION<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epigoneion">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#947;&#972;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>), an ancient stringed instrument
+mentioned in Athenaeus 183 C, probably a psaltery. The
+epigonion was invented, or at least introduced into Greece, by
+Epigonus, a Greek musician of Ambracia in Epirus, who was
+admitted to citizenship at Sicyon as a recognition of his great
+musical ability and of his having been the first to pluck the strings
+with his fingers, instead of using the plectrum.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The instrument,
+which Epigonus named after himself, had forty strings.<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It was
+undoubtedly a kind of harp or psaltery, since in an instrument
+of so many strings some must have been of different lengths, for
+tension and thickness only could hardly have produced forty
+different sounds, or even twenty, supposing that they were
+arranged in pairs of unisons. Strings of varying lengths require
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span>
+a frame like that of the harp, or of the Egyptian cithara which had
+one of the arms supporting the cross bar or zugon shorter than
+the other,<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> or else strings stretched over harp-shaped bridges
+on a sound-board in the case of a psaltery. Juba II., king of
+Mauretania, who reigned from 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, said (ap. Athen. l.c.) that
+Epigonus brought the instrument from Alexandria and played
+upon it with the fingers of both hands, not only using it as an
+accompaniment to the voice, but introducing chromatic passages,
+and a chorus of other stringed instruments, probably citharas, to
+accompany the voice. Epigonus was also a skilled citharist and
+played with his bare hands without plectrum.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Unfortunately we
+have no record of when Epigonus lived. Vincenzo Galilei<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> has
+given us a description of the epigonion accompanied by an illustration,
+representing his conception of the ancient instrument,
+an upright psaltery with the outline of the clavicytherium (but
+no keyboard).</p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Michael Praetorius, <i>Syntagma musicum</i>, tom. 1, c. 13, p. 380:
+Salomon van Til, <i>Sing-Dicht und Spiel-Kunst</i>, p. 95.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Pollux, <i>Onomasticon</i>, lib. iv. cap. 9, 59.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For an illustration, see Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>Orchestral Instruments</i>,
+part ii. &ldquo;Precursors of the Violin Family,&rdquo; fig. 165, p. 219.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Athenaeus, iv. p. 183 d. and xiv. p. 638 a.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Dialogo della musica antica e moderna</i>, ed. 1602, p. 40.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIGRAM<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span>, properly speaking, anything that is inscribed.
+Nothing could be more hopeless, however, than an attempt to
+discover or devise a definition wide enough to include the vast
+multitude of little poems which at one time or other have been
+honoured with the title of epigram, and precise enough to exclude
+all others. Without taking account of its evident misapplications,
+we find that the name has been given&mdash;first, in strict accordance
+with its Greek etymology, to any actual inscription on monument,
+statue or building; secondly, to verses never intended for such
+a purpose, but assuming for artistic reasons the epigraphical
+form; thirdly, to verses expressing with something of the terseness
+of an inscription a striking or beautiful thought; and
+fourthly, by unwarrantable restriction, to a little poem ending
+in a &ldquo;point,&rdquo; especially of the satirical kind. The last of
+these has obtained considerable popularity from the well-known
+lines&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;The qualities rare in a bee that we meet</p>
+   <p class="i1">In an epigram never should fail;</p>
+ <p class="i05">The body should always be little and sweet,</p>
+   <p class="i1">And a sting should be left in its tail&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which represent the older Latin of some unknown writer&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Omne epigramma sit instar apis: sit aculeus illi;</p>
+   <p class="i1">Sint sua mella; sit et corporis exigui.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Attempts not a few of a more elaborate kind have been made
+to state the essential element of the epigram, and to classify
+existing specimens; but, as every lover of epigrams must feel,
+most of them have been attended with very partial success.
+Scaliger, in the third book of his <i>Poetics</i>, gives a fivefold division,
+which displays a certain ingenuity in the nomenclature but is
+very superficial: the first class takes its name from <i>mel</i>, or honey,
+and consists of adulatory specimens; the second from <i>fel</i>, or
+gall; the third from <i>acetum</i>, or vinegar; and the fourth from
+<i>sal</i>, or salt; while the fifth is styled the condensed, or multiplex.
+This classification is adopted by Nicolaus Mercerius in his <i>De
+conscribendo epigrammate</i> (Paris, 1653); but he supplemented it
+by another of much more scientific value, based on the figures
+of the ancient rhetoricians. Lessing, in the preface to his own
+epigrams, gives an interesting treatment of the theory, his
+principal doctrine being practically the same as that of several
+of his less eminent predecessors, that there ought to be two
+parts more or less clearly distinguished,&mdash;the first awakening
+the reader&rsquo;s attention in the same way as an actual monument
+might do, and the other satisfying his curiosity in some unexpected
+manner. An attempt was made by Herder to increase
+the comprehensiveness and precision of the theory; but as he himself
+confesses, his classification is rather vague&mdash;the expository,
+the paradigmatic, the pictorial, the impassioned, the artfully
+turned, the illusory, and the swift. After all, if the arrangement
+according to authorship be rejected, the simplest and most
+satisfactory is according to subjects. The epigram is one of
+the most catholic of literary forms, and lends itself to the
+expression of almost any feeling or thought. It may be an
+elegy, a satire, or a love-poem in miniature, an embodiment
+of the wisdom of the ages, a bon-mot set off with a couple of
+rhymes.</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;I cannot tell thee who lies buried here;</p>
+ <p class="i05">No man that knew him followed by his bier;</p>
+ <p class="i05">The winds and waves conveyed him to this shore,</p>
+ <p class="i05">Then ask the winds and waves to tell thee more.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="i10"><span class="sc">Anonymous.</span></p>
+
+<p class="i05 pt1">&ldquo;Wherefore should I vainly try</p>
+   <p class="i2">To teach thee what my love will be</p>
+ <p class="i1">In after years, when thou and I</p>
+   <p class="i2">Have both grown old in company,</p>
+ <p class="i1">If words are vain to tell thee how,</p>
+ <p class="i1">Mary, I do love thee now?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="i10"><span class="sc">Anonymous.</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt1">&ldquo;O Bruscus, cease our aching ears to vex,</p>
+ <p class="i05">With thy loud railing at the softer sex;</p>
+ <p class="i05">No accusation worse than this could be,</p>
+ <p class="i05">That once a woman did give birth to thee.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="i10"><span class="sc">Acilius.</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt1">&ldquo;Treason doth never prosper. What&rsquo;s the reason?</p>
+ <p class="i05">For if it prospers none dare call it treason.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="i10"><span class="sc">Harrington.</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt1">&ldquo;Ward has no heart they say, but I deny it;</p>
+ <p class="i05">He has a heart, and gets his speeches by it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="i10"><span class="sc">Rogers.</span></p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>From its very brevity there is no small danger of the epigram
+passing into childish triviality: the paltriest pun, a senseless
+anagram, is considered stuff enough and to spare. For proof
+of this there is unfortunately no need to look far; but perhaps
+the reader could not find a better collection ready to his hand
+than the second twenty-five of the <i>Epigrammatum centuriae</i> of
+Samuel Erichius; by the time he reaches No. 11 of the 47th
+century, he will be quite ready to grant the appropriateness of
+the identity maintained between the German <i>Seele</i>, or soul, and
+the German <i>Esel</i>, or ass.</p>
+
+<p>Of the epigram as cultivated by the Greeks an account is given
+in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anthology</a></span>, discussing those wonderful collections
+which bid fair to remain the richest of their kind. The delicacy
+and simplicity of so much of what has been preserved is perhaps
+their most striking feature; and one cannot but be surprised
+at the number of poets proved capable of such work. In Latin
+literature, on the other hand, the epigrammatists whose work
+has been preserved are comparatively few, and though several
+of them, as Catullus and Martial, are men of high literary genius,
+too much of what they have left behind is vitiated by brutality
+and obscenity. On the subsequent history of the epigram,
+indeed, Martial has exercised an influence as baneful as it is
+extensive, and he may fairly be counted the far-off progenitor
+of a host of scurrilous verses. Nearly all the learned Latinists
+of the 16th and 17th centuries may claim admittance into the
+list of epigrammatists,&mdash;Bembo and Scaliger, Buchanan and
+More, Stroza and Sannazaro. Melanchthon, who succeeded in
+combining so much of Pagan culture with his Reformation
+Christianity, has left us some graceful specimens, but his editor,
+Joannes Major Joachimus, has so little idea of what an epigram
+is, that he includes in his collection some translations from the
+Psalms. The Latin epigrams of Étienne Pasquier were among
+the most admirable which the Renaissance produced in France.
+John Owen, or, as he Latinized his name, Johannes Audoenus, a
+Cambro-Briton, attained quite an unusual celebrity in this
+department, and is regularly distinguished as Owen the Epigrammatist.
+The tradition of the Latin epigram has been kept
+alive in England by such men as Porson, Vincent Bourne and
+Walter Savage Landor. Happily there is now little danger of
+any too personal epigrammatist suffering the fate of Niccolo
+Franco, who paid the forfeit of his life for having launched his
+venomous Latin against Pius V., though he may still incur the
+milder penalty of having his name inserted in the <i>Index Expurgatorius</i>,
+and find, like John Owen, that he consequently has
+lost an inheritance.</p>
+
+<p>In English literature proper there is no writer like Martial in
+Latin or Logau in German, whose fame is entirely due to his
+epigrams; but several even of those whose names can perish
+never have not disdained this diminutive form. The designation
+epigram, however, is used by earlier English writers with
+excessive laxity, and given or withheld without apparent reason.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span>
+The epigrams of Robert Crowley (1550) and of Henry Parrot
+(1613) are worthless so far as form goes. John Weever&rsquo;s collection
+(1599) is of interest mainly because of its allusion to Shakespeare.
+Ben Jonson furnishes a number of noble examples in his <i>Underwoods</i>;
+and one or two of Spenser&rsquo;s little poems and a great
+many of Herrick&rsquo;s are properly classed as epigrams. Cowley,
+Waller, Dryden, Prior, Parnell, Swift, Addison, Johnson, Goldsmith
+and Young have all been at times successful in their
+epigrammatical attempts; but perhaps none of them has proved
+himself so much &ldquo;to the manner born&rdquo; as Pope, whose name
+indeed is almost identified with the epigrammatical spirit in
+English literature. Few English modern poets have followed in
+his footsteps, and though nearly all might plead guilty to an
+epigram or two, there is no one who has a distinct reputation
+as an epigrammatist. Such a reputation might certainly have
+been Landor&rsquo;s, had he not chosen to write the best of his minor
+poems in Latin, and thus made his readers nearly as select as
+his language.</p>
+
+<p>The French are undoubtedly the most successful cultivators
+of the &ldquo;salt&rdquo; and the &ldquo;vinegar&rdquo; epigram; and from the 16th
+century downwards many of their principal authors have earned
+no small celebrity in this department. The epigram was introduced
+into French literature by Mellin de St Gelais and Clément
+Marot. It is enough to mention the names of Boileau, J.B.
+Rousseau, Lebrun, Voltaire, Marmontel, Piron, Rulhière, and
+M.J. Chénier. In spite of Rapin&rsquo;s dictum that a man ought to
+be content if he succeeded in writing one really good epigram,
+those of Lebrun alone number upwards of 600, and a very fair
+proportion of them would doubtless pass muster even with
+Rapin himself. If Piron was never anything better, &ldquo;pas même
+académicien,&rdquo; he appears at any rate in Grimm&rsquo;s phrase to have
+been &ldquo;une machine à saillies, à épigrammes, et à bons mots.&rdquo;
+Perhaps more than anywhere else the epigram has been recognized
+in France as a regular weapon in literary and political contests,
+and it might not be altogether a hopeless task to compile an
+epigrammatical history from the Revolution to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>While any fair collection of German epigrams will furnish
+examples that for keenness of wit would be quite in place in a
+French anthology, the Teutonic tendency to the moral and
+didactic has given rise to a class but sparingly represented in
+French. The very name of <i>Sinngedichte</i> bears witness to this
+peculiarity, which is exemplified equally by the rude <i>priameln</i>
+or <i>proeameln</i>, of the 13th and 14th centuries and the polished
+lines of Goethe and Schiller. Logau published his <i>Deutsche
+Sinngetichte Drey Tausend</i> in 1654, and Wernicke no fewer than
+six volumes of <i>Ueberschriften oder Epigrammata</i> in 1697;
+Kästner&rsquo;s <i>Sinngedichte</i> appeared in 1782, and Haug and Weissen&rsquo;s
+<i>Epigrammatische Anthologie</i> in 1804. Kleist, Opitz, Gleim,
+Hagedorn, Klopstock and A.W. Schlegel all possess some
+reputation as epigrammatists; Lessing is <i>facile princeps</i> in the
+satirical style; and Herder has the honour of having enriched
+his language with much of what is best from Oriental and
+classical sources.</p>
+
+<p>It is often by no means easy to trace the history of even a
+single epigram, and the investigator soon learns to be cautious
+of congratulating himself on the attainment of a genuine original.
+The same point, refurbished and fitted anew to its tiny shaft, has
+been shot again and again by laughing cupids or fierce-eyed furies
+in many a frolic and many a fray. During the period when the
+epigram was the favourite form in Germany, Gervinus tells us
+how the works, not only of the Greek and Roman writers, but
+of Neo-Latinists, Spaniards, Dutchmen, Frenchmen, Englishmen
+and Poles were ransacked and plundered; and the same process
+of pillage has gone on in a more or less modified degree in other
+times and countries. Very noticeable often are the modifications
+of tone and expression occasioned by national and individual
+characteristics; the simplicity of the prototype may become
+common-place in the imitation, the sublime be distorted into
+the grotesque, the pathetic degenerate into the absurdly sentimental;
+or on the other hand, an unpromising <i>motif</i> may be
+happily developed into unexpected beauty. A good illustration
+of the variety with which the same epigram may be translated
+and travestied is afforded by a little volume published in Edinburgh
+in 1808, under the title of <i>Lucubrations on the Epigram&mdash;</i></p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p><span class="grk" title="Ei men ên mathein a dei pathein">&#917;&#7984; &#956;&#8050;&#957; &#8086;&#957; &#956;&#945;&#952;&#949;&#8150;&#957; &#7942; &#948;&#949;&#8150; &#960;&#945;&#952;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>,</p>
+<p><span class="grk" title="kai mê pathein, kalon ên to mathein">&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#956;&#8052; &#960;&#945;&#952;&#949;&#8150;&#957;, &#954;&#945;&#955;&#8056;&#957; &#7974;&#957; &#964;&#8056; &#956;&#945;&#952;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span></p>
+<p><span class="grk" title="ei de dei pathein a d&rsquo; ên mathein">&#949;&#7984; &#948;&#8050; &#948;&#949;&#8150; &#960;&#945;&#952;&#949;&#8150;&#957; &#7942; &#948;&#8125; &#8086;&#957; &#956;&#945;&#952;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>,</p>
+<p><span class="grk" title="ti dei mathein; chrê gar pathein">&#964;&#8055; &#948;&#949;&#8150; &#956;&#945;&#952;&#949;&#8150;&#957;; &#967;&#961;&#8052; &#947;&#8048;&#961; &#960;&#945;&#952;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The two collections of epigrams most accessible to the English
+reader are Booth&rsquo;s <i>Epigrams, Ancient and Modern</i> (1863) and Dodd&rsquo;s
+<i>The Epigrammatists</i> (1870). In the appendix to the latter is a pretty
+full bibliography, to which the following list may serve as a supplement:&mdash;Thomas
+Corraeus, <i>De toto eo poëmatis genere quod epigramma
+dicitur</i> (Venice, 1569; Bologna, 1590); Cottunius, <i>De conficiendo
+epigrammate</i> (Bologna, 1632); Vincentius Gallus, <i>Opusculum de
+epigrammate</i> (Milan, 1641); Vavassor, <i>De epigrammate liber</i> (Paris,
+1669); <i>Gedanke von deutschen Epigrammatibus</i> (Leipzig, 1698);
+<i>Doctissimorum nostra aetate Italorum epigrammata; Flaminii Moleae
+Naugerii, Cottae, Lampridii, Sadoleti, et aliorum, cura Jo. Gagnaei</i>
+(Paris, <i>c.</i> 1550); Brugière de Barante, <i>Recueil des plus belles épigrammes
+des poètes français</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1698); Chr. Aug. Heumann,
+<i>Anthologia Latina: hoc est, epigrammata partim a priscis partim
+junioribus a poëtis</i> (Hanover, 1721); Fayolle, <i>Acontologie ou dictionnaire
+d&rsquo;épigrammes</i> (Paris, 1817); Geijsbeck, <i>Epigrammatische
+Anthologie</i>, Sauvage, <i>Les Guêpes gauloises: petit encyclopédie des
+meilleurs épigrammes, &amp;c., depuis Clément Marot jusqu&rsquo;aux poètes
+de nos jours</i> (1859); <i>La Récréation et passe-temps des tristes: recueil
+d&rsquo;épigrammes et de petits contes en vers réimprimé sur l&rsquo;édition de
+Rouen</i> 1595, &amp;c. (Paris, 1863). A large number of epigrams and
+much miscellaneous information in regard to their origin, application
+and translation is scattered through <i>Notes and Queries</i>.</p>
+
+<p>See also an article in <i>The Quarterly Review</i>, No. 233.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIGRAPHY<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epi">&#7952;&#960;&#943;</span>, on, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to write), a term
+used to denote (1) the study of inscriptions collectively, and (2)
+the science connected with the classification and explanation of
+inscriptions. It is sometimes employed, too, in a more contracted
+sense, to denote the palaeography, in inscriptions.
+Generally, it is that part of archaeology which has to do with
+inscriptions engraved on stone, metal or other permanent
+material (not, however, coins, which come under the heading
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inscriptions</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeography.</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPILEPSY<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epi">&#7952;&#960;&#943;</span>, upon, and <span class="grk" title="lambanein">&#955;&#945;&#956;&#946;&#940;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to seize), or <span class="sc">Falling
+Sickness</span>, a term applied generally to a nervous disorder,
+characterized by a fit of sudden loss of consciousness, attended
+with convulsions. There may, however, exist manifestations
+of epilepsy much less marked than this, yet equally characteristic
+of the disease; while, on the other hand, it is to be borne in
+mind that many other attacks of a convulsive nature have the
+term &ldquo;epileptic&rdquo; or &ldquo;epileptiform&rdquo; applied to them.</p>
+
+<p>Epilepsy was well known in ancient times, and was regarded
+as a special infliction of the gods, hence the names <i>morbus sacer</i>,
+<i>morbus divus</i>. It was also termed <i>morbus Herculeus</i>, from
+Hercules having been supposed to have been epileptic, and
+<i>morbus comitialis</i>, from the circumstance that when any member
+of the forum was seized with an epileptic fit the assembly was
+broken up. <i>Morbus caducus</i>, <i>morbus lunaticus astralis</i>, <i>morbus
+demoniacus</i>, <i>morbus major</i>, were all terms employed to designate
+epilepsy.</p>
+
+<p>There are three well-marked varieties of the epileptic seizure;
+to these the terms <i>le grand mal</i>, <i>le petit mal</i> and <i>Jacksonian
+epilepsy</i> are usually applied. Any of these may exist alone, but
+the two former may be found to exist in the same individual.
+The first of these, if not the more common, is at least that which
+attracts the most attention, being what is generally known as an
+<i>epileptic fit</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Although in most instances such an attack comes on suddenly,
+it is in many cases preceded by certain premonitory indications
+or warnings, which may be present for a greater or less time
+previously. These are of very varied character, and may be in
+the form of some temporary change in the disposition, such as
+unusual depression or elevation of spirits, or of some alteration
+in the look. Besides these general symptoms, there are frequently
+peculiar sensations which immediately precede the onset of the
+fit, and to such the name of <i>aura epileptica</i> is applied. In its strict
+sense this term refers to a feeling of a breath of air blowing
+upon some part of the body, and passing upwards towards the
+head. This sensation, however, is not a common one, and the
+term has now come to be applied to any peculiar feeling which the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span>
+patient experiences as a precursor of the attack. The so-called
+<i>aura</i> may be of mental character, in the form of an agonizing
+feeling of momentary duration; of sensorial character, in the
+form of pain in a limb or in some internal organ, such as the
+stomach, or morbid feeling connected with the special senses;
+or, further, of motorial character, in the form of contractions or
+trembling in some of the muscles. When such sensations affect
+a limb, the employment of firm compression by the hand or by a
+ligature occasionally succeeds in warding off an attack. The
+aura may be so distinct and of such duration as to enable the
+patient to lie down, or seek a place of safety before the fit
+comes on.</p>
+
+<p>The seizure is usually preceded by a loud scream or cry, which
+is not to be ascribed, as was at one time supposed, to terror or
+pain, but is due to the convulsive action of the muscles of the
+larynx, and the expulsion of a column of air through the narrowed
+glottis. If the patient is standing he immediately falls, and often
+sustains serious injury. Unconsciousness is complete, and the
+muscles generally are in a state of stiffness or tonic contraction,
+which will usually be found to affect those of one side of the body
+in particular. The head is turned by a series of jerks towards
+one or other shoulder, the breathing is for the moment arrested,
+the countenance first pale then livid, the pupils dilated and the
+pulse rapid. This, the first stage of the fit, generally lasts for
+about half a minute, and is followed by the state of clonic (<i>i.e.</i>
+tumultuous) spasm of the muscles, in which the whole body is
+thrown into violent agitation, occasionally so great that bones
+may be fractured or dislocated. The eyes roll wildly, the teeth
+are gnashed together, and the tongue and cheeks are often
+severely bitten. The breathing is noisy and laborious, and foam
+(often tinged with blood) issues from the mouth, while the contents
+of the bowels and bladder are ejected. The aspect of the
+patient in this condition is shocking to witness, and the sight
+has been known to induce a similar attack in an onlooker. This
+stage lasts for a period varying from a few seconds to several
+minutes, when the convulsive movements gradually subside, and
+relaxation of the muscles takes place, together with partial
+return of consciousness, the patient looking confusedly about him
+and attempting to speak. This, however, is soon followed by
+drowsiness and stupor, which may continue for several hours,
+when he awakes either apparently quite recovered or fatigued
+and depressed, and occasionally in a state of excitement which
+sometimes assumes the form of mania.</p>
+
+<p>Epileptic fits of this sort succeed each other with varying
+degrees of frequency, and occasionally, though not frequently,
+with regular periodicity. In some persons they only occur once
+in a lifetime, or once in the course of many years, while in others
+they return every week or two, or even are of daily occurrence,
+and occasionally there are numerous attacks each day. According
+to Sir J.R. Reynolds, there are four times as many epileptics
+who have their attacks more frequently than once a month as
+there are of those whose attacks recur at longer intervals.
+When the fit returns it is not uncommon for one seizure to be
+followed by another within a few hours or days. Occasionally
+there occurs a constant succession of attacks extending over
+many hours, and with such rapidity that the patient appears as if
+he had never come out of the one fit. The term <i>status epilepticus</i>
+is applied to this condition, which is sometimes followed with
+fatal results. In many epileptics the fits occur during the night
+as well as during the day, but in some instances they are entirely
+nocturnal, and it is well known that in such cases the disease
+may long exist and yet remain unrecognized either by the
+patient or the physician.</p>
+
+<p>The second manifestation of epilepsy, to which the names
+<i>epilepsia mitior</i> or <i>le petit mal</i> are given, differs from that above
+described in the absence of the convulsive spasms. It is also
+termed by some authors <i>epileptic vertigo</i> (giddiness), and consists
+essentially in the sudden arrest of volition and consciousness,
+which is of but short duration, and may be accompanied with
+staggering or some alteration in position or motion, or may
+simply exhibit itself in a look of absence or confusion, and should
+the patient happen to be engaged in conversation, by an abrupt
+termination of the act. In general it lasts but a few seconds, and
+the individual resumes his occupation without perhaps being
+aware of anything having been the matter. In some instances
+there is a degree of spasmodic action in certain muscles which may
+cause the patient to make some unexpected movement, such as
+turning half round, or walking abruptly aside, or may show itself
+by some unusual expression of countenance, such as squinting or
+grinning. There may be some amount of <i>aura</i> preceding such
+attacks, and also of faintness following them. The <i>petit mal</i>
+most commonly co-exists with the <i>grand mal</i>, but has no necessary
+connexion with it, as each may exist alone. According to
+Armand Trousseau, the <i>petit mal</i> in general precedes the manifestation
+of the <i>grand mal</i>, but sometimes the reverse is the case.</p>
+
+<p>The third manifestation&mdash;<i>Jacksonian epilepsy</i> or <i>partial
+epilepsy</i>&mdash;is distinguished by the fact that consciousness is
+retained or lost late. The patient is conscious throughout,
+and is able to watch the march of the spasm. The attacks are
+usually the result of lesions in the motor area of the brain, such
+being caused, in many instances, by depression of the vault of the
+skull, due to trauma.</p>
+
+<p>Epilepsy appears to exert no necessarily injurious effect upon
+the general health, and even where it exists in an aggravated
+form is quite consistent with a high degree of bodily vigour. It
+is very different, however, with regard to its influence upon the
+mind; and the question of the relation of epilepsy to insanity
+is one of great and increasing importance. Allusion has already
+been made to the occasional occurrence of maniacal excitement
+as one of the results of the epileptic seizure. Such attacks, to
+which the name of <i>furor epilepticus</i> is applied, are generally
+accompanied with violent acts on the part of the patient, rendering
+him dangerous, and demanding prompt measures of restraint.
+These attacks are by no means limited to the more severe form
+of epilepsy, but appear to be even more frequently associated
+with the milder form&mdash;the epileptic vertigo&mdash;where they either
+replace altogether or immediately follow the short period of absence
+characteristic of this form of the disease. Numerous cases
+are on record of persons known to be epileptic being suddenly
+seized, either after or without apparent spasmodic attack, with
+some sudden impulse, in which they have used dangerous violence
+to those beside them, irrespective altogether of malevolent
+intention, as appears from their retaining no recollection whatever,
+after the short period of excitement, of anything that had
+occurred; and there is reason to believe that crimes of heinous
+character, for which the perpetrators have suffered punishment,
+have been committed in a state of mind such as that now
+described. The subject is obviously one of the greatest
+medico-legal interest and importance in regard to the question
+of criminal responsibility.</p>
+
+<p>Apart, however, from such marked and comparatively rare
+instances of what is termed epileptic insanity, the general mental
+condition of the epileptic is in a large proportion of cases unfavourably
+affected by the disease. There are doubtless
+examples (and their number according to statistics is estimated
+at less than one-third) where, even among those suffering from
+frequent and severe attacks, no departure from the normal
+condition of mental integrity can be recognized. But in general
+there exists some peculiarity, exhibiting itself either in the form
+of defective memory, or diminishing intelligence, or what is
+perhaps as frequent, in irregularities of temper, the patient
+being irritable or perverse and eccentric. In not a few cases
+there is a steady mental decline, which ends in dementia or
+idiocy. It is stated by some high authorities that epileptic
+women suffer in regard to their mental condition more than men.
+It also appears to be the case that the later in life the disease
+shows itself the more likely is the mind to suffer. Neither the
+frequency nor the severity of the seizures seem to have any
+necessary influence in the matter; and the general opinion
+appears to be that the milder form of the disease is that with
+which mental failure is more apt to be associated. (For a
+consideration of the conditions of the nervous system which
+result in epilepsy, see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The influence of hereditary predisposition in epilepsy is very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span>
+marked. It is necessary, however, to bear in mind the point
+so forcibly insisted on by Trousseau in relation to epilepsy,
+that hereditary transmission may be either direct or indirect,
+that is to say, that what is epilepsy in one generation may be
+some other form of neurosis in the next, and conversely, nervous
+diseases being remarkable for their tendency to transformation
+in their descent in families. Where epilepsy is hereditary, it
+generally manifests itself at an unusually early period of life.
+A singular fact, which also bears to some extent upon the
+pathology of this disease, was brought to light by Dr Brown
+Séquard in his experiments, namely, that the young of animals
+which had been artifically rendered epileptic were liable to similar
+seizures. In connexion with the hereditary transmission of
+epilepsy it must be observed that all authorities concur in the
+opinion that this disease is one among the baneful effects that
+often follow marriages of consanguinity. Further, there is
+reason to believe that intemperance, apart altogether from its
+direct effect in favouring the occurrence of epilepsy, has an evil
+influence in the hereditary transmission of this as of other
+nervous diseases. A want of symmetry in the formation of the
+skull and defective cerebral development are not infrequently
+observed where epilepsy is hereditarily transmitted.</p>
+
+<p>Age is of importance in reference to the production of epilepsy.
+The disease may come on at any period of life, but it appears
+from the statistics of Reynolds and others, that it most frequently
+first manifests itself between the ages of ten and twenty years,
+the period of second dentition and puberty, and again at or about
+the age of forty.</p>
+
+<p>Among other causes which are influential in the development
+of epilepsy may be mentioned sudden fright, prolonged mental
+anxiety, over-work and debauchery. Epileptic fits also occur
+in connexion with a depraved stage of the general health, and
+with irritations in distant organs, as seen in the fits occurring in
+dentition, in kidney disease, and as a result of worms in the
+intestines. The symptoms traceable to these causes are sometimes
+termed <i>sympathetic</i> or <i>eccentric epilepsy</i>; these are but
+rarely <i>epileptic</i> in the strictest sense of the word, but rather
+epileptiform.</p>
+
+<p>Epilepsy is occasionally feigned for the purpose of extortion,
+but an experienced medical practitioner will rarely be deceived;
+and when it is stated that although many of the phenomena of an
+attack, particularly the convulsive movements, can be readily
+simulated, yet that the condition of the pupils, which are dilated
+during the fit, cannot be feigned, and that the impostor seldom
+bites his tongue or injures himself, deception is not likely to
+succeed even with non-medical persons of intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>medical treatment</i> of epilepsy can only be briefly alluded
+to here. During the fit little can be done beyond preventing as far
+as possible the patient from injuring himself while unconsciousness
+continues. Tight clothing should be loosened, and a cork
+or pad inserted between the teeth. When the fit is of long
+continuance, the dashing of cold water on the face and chest,
+or the inhalation of chloroform, or of nitrite of amyl, may be
+useful; in general, however, the fit terminates independently
+of any such measures. When the fit is over the patient should
+be allowed to sleep, and have the head and shoulders well
+raised.</p>
+
+<p>In the intervals of the attack, the general health of the patient
+is one of the most important points to be attended to. The
+strictest hygienic and dietetic rules should be observed, and all
+such causes as have been referred to as favouring the development
+of the disease should, as far as possible, be avoided. In
+the case of children, parents must be made to realize that
+epilepsy is a chronic disease, and that therefore the seizures must
+not be allowed to interfere unnecessarily with the child&rsquo;s training.
+The patient must be treated as such only during the attack;
+between times, though being carefully watched, must be made to
+follow a child&rsquo;s normal pursuits, and no distinction must be made
+from other children. The same applies to adults: it is far better
+for them to have some definite occupation, preferably one that
+keeps them in the open air. If such patients become irritable,
+then they should be placed under supervision. As regards
+those who cannot be looked after at home, colonies on a self-supporting
+basis have been tried, and where the supervision
+has been intelligent the success has been proved, a fairly high
+level of health and happiness being attained.</p>
+
+<p>The various bromides are the only medical drugs that have
+produced any beneficial results. They require to be given in large
+doses which are carefully regulated for every individual patient,
+as the quantities required vary enormously. Children take far
+larger doses in proportion than adults. They are best given in
+a very diluted form, and after meals, to diminish the chances
+of gastric disturbance. Belladonna seems also to have some
+influence on the disease, and forms a useful addition; arsenic
+should also be prescribed at times, both as a tonic, and for the
+sake of the improvement it effects in those patients who develop
+a tendency to <i>acne</i>, which is one of the troublesome results of
+bromism. The administration of the bromides should be
+maintained until three years after the cessation of the fits. The
+occurrence of gastric pain, palpitations and loss of the palate
+reflex are indications to stop, or to decrease the quantity of the
+drug. In very severe cases opium may be required.</p>
+
+<p>Surgical treatment for epilepsy is yet in its infancy, and it is
+too early to judge of its results. This does not apply, however,
+to cases of <i>Jacksonian epilepsy</i>, where a very large number have
+been operated on with marked benefit. Here the lesion of the
+brain is, in a very large percentage of the patients, caused by
+pressure from outside, from the presence of a tumour or a
+depressed fracture; the removal of the one, or the elevation of
+the other is the obvious procedure, and it is usually followed by
+the complete disappearance of the seizures.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPILOGUE.<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> The appendix or supplement to a literary work,
+and in particular to a drama in verse, is called an <i>epilogue</i>,
+from <span class="grk" title="epilogos">&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, the name given by the Greeks to the peroration
+of a speech. As we read in Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Midsummer Night&rsquo;s
+Dream</i>, the epilogue was generally treated as the apology for a
+play; it was a final appeal made to encourage the good-nature of
+the audiences, and to deprecate attack. The epilogue should
+form no part of the work to which it is attached, but should be
+independent of it; it should be treated as a sort of commentary.
+Sometimes it adds further information with regard to what has
+been left imperfectly concluded in the work itself. For instance,
+in the case of a play, the epilogue will occasionally tell us what
+became of the characters after the action closed; but this is
+irregular and unusual, and the epilogue is usually no more than
+a graceful way of dismissing the audience. Among the ancients
+the form was not cultivated, further than that the leader of
+the chorus or the last speaker advanced and said &ldquo;Vos valete,
+et plaudite, cives&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Good-bye, citizens, and we hope you are
+pleased.&rdquo; Sometimes this formula was reduced to the one
+word, &ldquo;Plaudite!&rdquo; The epilogue as a literary species is
+almost entirely confined to England, and it does not occur in the
+earliest English plays. It is rare in Shakespeare, but Ben Jonson
+made it a particular feature of his drama, and may almost be
+said to have invented the tradition of its regular use. He
+employed the epilogue for two purposes, either to assert the
+merit of the play or to deprecate censure of its defects. In the
+former case, as in <i>Cynthia&rsquo;s Revels</i> (1600), the actor went off,
+and immediately came on again saying:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Gentles, be&rsquo;t known to you, since I went in</p>
+ <p class="i05">I am turned rhymer, and do thus begin:&mdash;</p>
+ <p class="i05">The author (jealous how your sense doth take</p>
+ <p class="i05">His travails) hath enjoined me to make</p>
+ <p class="i05">Some short and ceremonious epilogue,&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and then explained to the audience what an <span class="correction" title="amended from exremely">extremely</span> interesting
+play it had been. In the second case, when the author was
+less confident, his epilogue took a humbler form, as in the
+comedy of <i>Volpone</i> (1605), where the actor said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;The seasoning of a play is the applause.</p>
+ <p class="i05">Now, as the Fox be punished by the laws,</p>
+ <p class="i05">He yet doth hope, there is no suffering due</p>
+ <p class="i05">For any fact which he hath done &rsquo;gainst <i>you</i>.</p>
+ <p class="i05">If there be, censure him; here he doubtful stands:</p>
+ <p class="i05">If not, fare jovially and clap your hands.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Beaumont and Fletcher used the epilogue sparingly, but after
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span>
+their day it came more and more into vogue, and the form was
+almost invariably that which Ben Jonson had brought into
+fashion, namely, the short complete piece in heroic couplets.
+The hey-day of the epilogue, however, was the Restoration, and
+from 1660 to the decline of the drama in the reign of Queen Anne
+scarcely a play, serious or comic, was produced on the London
+stage without a prologue and an epilogue. These were almost
+always in verse, even if the play itself was in the roughest prose,
+and they were intended to impart a certain literary finish to the
+piece. These Restoration epilogues were often very elaborate
+essays or satires, and were by no means confined to the subject
+of the preceding play. They dealt with fashions, or politics, or
+criticism. The prologues and epilogues of Dryden are often
+brilliantly finished exercises in literary polemic. It became
+the custom for playwrights to ask their friends to write these
+poems for them, and the publishers would even come to a
+prominent poet and ask him to supply one for a fee. It gives
+us an idea of the seriousness with which the epilogue was treated
+that Dryden originally published his valuable &ldquo;Defence of the
+Epilogue; or An Essay on the Dramatic Poetry of the Last
+Age&rdquo; (1672) as a defence of the epilogue which he had written
+for <i>The Conquest of Granada</i>. In France the custom of reciting
+dramatic epilogues has never prevailed. French criticism gives
+the name to such adieux to the public, at the close of a non-dramatic
+work, as are reserved by La Fontaine for certain
+critical points in the &ldquo;Fables.&rdquo;</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIMENIDES<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span>, poet and prophet of Crete, lived in the 6th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Many fabulous stories are told of him, and even his
+existence is doubted. While tending his father&rsquo;s sheep, he is
+said to have fallen into a deep sleep in the Dictaean cave near
+Cnossus where he lived, from which he did not awake for
+fifty-seven years (Diogenes Laërtius i. 109-115). When the
+Athenians were visited by a pestilence in consequence of
+the murder of Cylon, he was invited by Solon (596) to purify
+the city. The only reward he would accept was a branch of the
+sacred olive, and a promise of perpetual friendship between
+Athens and Cnossus (Plutarch, <i>Solon</i>, 12; Aristotle, <i>Ath. Pol.</i> 1).
+He died in Crete at an advanced age; according to his countrymen,
+who afterwards honoured him as a god, he lived nearly
+three hundred years. According to another story, he was
+taken prisoner in a war between the Spartans and Cnossians,
+and put to death by his captors, because he refused to prophesy
+favourably for them. A collection of oracles, a theogony, an
+epic poem on the Argonautic expedition, prose works on purifications
+and sacrifices, and a cosmogony, were attributed to him.
+Epimenides must be reckoned with Melampus and Onomacritus
+as one of the founders of Orphism. He is supposed to be the
+Cretan prophet alluded to in the epistle to Titus (i. 12).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Schultess, <i>De Epimenide Cretensi</i> (1877); O. Kern, <i>De
+Orphei, Epimenidis ... Theogoniis</i> (1888); G. Barone di Vincenzo,
+<i>E. di Creta e le Credenze religiose de&rsquo; suoi Tempi</i> (1880); H. Demoulin,
+<i>Épiménide de Crète</i> (1901); H. Diels, <i>Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker</i>
+(1903); O. Kern in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ÉPINAL<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span>, a town on the north-eastern frontier of France,
+capital of the department of Vosges, 46 m. S.S.E. of Nancy on the
+Eastern railway between that town and Belfort. Pop. (1906),
+town 21,296, commune (including garrison) 29,058. The town
+proper&mdash;the Grande Ville&mdash;is situated on the right bank of the
+Moselle, which at this point divides into two arms forming an
+island whereon another quarter&mdash;the Petite Ville&mdash;is built. The
+lesser of these two arms, which is canalized, separates the island
+from the suburb of Hospice on its left bank. The right bank of
+the Moselle is bordered for some distance by pleasant promenades,
+and an extensive park surrounds the ruins of an old stronghold
+which dominated the Grande Ville from an eminence on the east.
+Apart from the church of St Goëry (or St Maurice) rebuilt in the
+13th century but preserving a tower of the 12th century, the
+public buildings of Épinal offer little of architectural interest.
+The old hospital on the island-quarter contains a museum with
+interesting collections of paintings, Gallo-Roman antiquities,
+sculpture, &amp;c. Close by stands the library, which possesses many
+valuable MSS.</p>
+
+<p>The fortifications of Épinal are connected to the southward
+with Belfort, Dijon and Besançon, by the fortified line of the
+Moselle, and north of it lies the unfortified zone called the <i>Trouée
+d&rsquo;Épinal</i>, a gap designedly left open to the invaders between
+Épinal and Toul, another great fortress which is itself connected
+by the Meuse <i>forts d&rsquo;arrêt</i> with Verdun and the places of the
+north-east. Épinal therefore is a fortress of the greatest possible
+importance to the defence of France, and its works, all built since
+1870, are formidable permanent fortifications. The Moselle
+runs from S. to N. through the middle of the girdle of forts; the
+fortifications of the right bank, beginning with Fort de la
+Mouche, near the river 3 m. above Épinal, form a chain of detached
+forts and batteries over 6 m. long from S. to N., and the
+northernmost part of this line is immensely strengthened by
+numerous advanced works between the villages of Dognéville
+and Longchamp. On the left bank, a larger area of ground is
+included in the perimeter of defence for the purposes of encampment,
+the most westerly of the forts, Girancourt, being 7 m.
+distant from Épinal; from the lower Moselle to Girancourt the
+works are grouped principally about Uxegney and Sarchey;
+from Girancourt to the upper river and Fort de la Mouche a long
+ridge extends in an arc, and on this south-western section the
+principal defence is Fort Ticha and its annexes. The circle of
+forts, which has a perimeter of nearly 30 m., was in 1895 reinforced
+by the construction of sixteen new works, and the area
+of ground enclosed and otherwise protected by the defences of
+Épinal is sufficiently extensive to accommodate a large army.</p>
+
+<p>Épinal is the seat of a prefect and of a court of assizes and has
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
+a chamber of commerce, training-colleges, a communal
+college and industrial school, and exchange and a branch of
+the Bank of France. The town, which is important as the centre
+of a cotton-spinning region, carries on cotton-spinning, -weaving
+and -printing, brewing and distilling, and the manufacture of
+machinery and iron goods, glucose, embroidery, hats, wall-paper
+and tapioca. An industry peculiar to Épinal is the production
+of cheap images, lithographs and engravings. There is
+also trade in wine, grain, live-stock and starch products made in
+the vicinity. Épinal is an important junction on the Eastern
+railway.</p>
+
+<p>Épinal originated towards the end of the 10th century with
+the founding of a monastery by Theodoric (Dietrich) I., bishop
+of Metz, whose successors ruled the town till 1444, when its
+inhabitants placed themselves under the protection of King
+Charles VII. In 1466 it was transferred to the duchy of Lorraine,
+and in 1766 it was, along with that duchy, incorporated with
+France. It was occupied by the Germans on the 12th of October
+1870 after a short fight, and until the 15th was the headquarters
+of General von Werder.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPINAOS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epi">&#7952;&#960;&#943;</span>, after, and <span class="grk" title="naos">&#957;&#945;&#972;&#962;</span>, a temple), in architecture,
+the open vestibule behind the nave. The term is not found in any
+classic author, but is a modern coinage, originating in Germany,
+to differentiate the feature from &ldquo;opisthodomus,&rdquo; which in the
+Parthenon was an enclosed chamber.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ÉPINAY, LOUISE FLORENCE PÉTRONILLE TARDIEU D&rsquo;ESCLAVELLES D&rsquo;<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span>
+(1726-1783), French writer, was born at
+Valenciennes on the 11th of March 1726. She is well known on
+account of her <i>liaisons</i> with Rousseau and Baron von Grimm,
+and her acquaintanceship with Diderot, D&rsquo;Alembert, D&rsquo;Holbach
+and other French men of letters. Her father, Tardieu
+d&rsquo;Esclavelles, a brigadier of infantry, was killed in battle when
+she was nineteen; and she married her cousin Denis Joseph de
+La Live d&rsquo;Épinay, who was made a collector-general of taxes.
+The marriage was an unhappy one; and Louise d&rsquo;Épinay
+believed that the prodigality, dissipation and infidelities of her
+husband justified her in obtaining a formal separation in 1749.
+She settled in the château of La Chevrette in the valley of
+Montmorency, and there received a number of distinguished
+visitors. Conceiving a strong attachment for J.J. Rousseau,
+she furnished for him in 1756 in the valley of Montmorency a
+cottage which she named the &ldquo;Hermitage,&rdquo; and in this retreat
+he found for a time the quiet and natural rural pleasures he
+praised so highly. Rousseau, in his <i>Confessions</i>, affirmed that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span>
+the inclination was all on her side; but as, after her visit to
+Geneva, Rousseau became her bitter enemy, little weight can be
+given to his statements on this point. Her intimacy with Grimm,
+which began in 1755, marks a turning-point in her life, for under
+his influence she escaped from the somewhat compromising
+conditions of her life at La Chevrette. In 1757-1759 she paid a
+long visit to Geneva, where she was a constant guest of Voltaire.
+In Grimm&rsquo;s absence from France (1775-1776), Madame d&rsquo;Épinay
+continued, under the superintendence of Diderot, the correspondence
+he had begun with various European sovereigns.
+She spent most of her later life at La Briche, a small house near
+La Chevrette, in the society of Grimm and of a small circle of
+men of letters. She died on the 17th of April 1783. Her
+<i>Conversations d&rsquo;Émilie</i> (1774), composed for the education of her
+grand-daughter, Émilie de Belsunce, was crowned by the French
+Academy in 1783. The <i>Mémoires et Correspondance de Mme
+d&rsquo;Épinay, renfermant un grand nombre de lettres inédites de Grimm,
+de Diderot, et de J.-J. Rousseau, ainsi que des détails</i>, &amp;c, was
+published at Paris (1818) from a MS. which she had bequeathed
+to Grimm. The <i>Mémoires</i> are written by herself in the form of a
+sort of autobiographic romance. Madame d&rsquo;Épinay figures in
+it as Madame de Montbrillant, and René is generally recognized
+as Rousseau, Volx as Grimm, Garnier as Diderot. All the
+letters and documents published along with the <i>Mémoires</i> are
+genuine. Many of Madame d&rsquo;Épinay&rsquo;s letters are contained
+in the <i>Correspondance de l&rsquo;abbé Galiani</i> (1818). Two anonymous
+works, <i>Lettres à mon fils</i> (Geneva, 1758) and <i>Mes moments
+heureux</i> (Geneva, 1759), are also by Madame d&rsquo;Épinay.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Confessions</i>; Lucien Perey [Mlle Herpin] and Gaston
+Maugras, <i>La Jeunesse de Mme d&rsquo;Épinay, les dernières années de Mme
+d&rsquo;Épinay</i> (1882-1883); Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. ii.;
+Edmond Scherer, <i>Études sur la littérature contemporaine</i>, vols. iii. and
+vii. There are editions of the <i>Mémoires</i> by L. Énault (1855) and by
+P. Boiteau (1865); and an English translation, with introduction
+and notes (1897), by J.H. Freese.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIPHANIUS, SAINT<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 315-402), a celebrated Church Father,
+born in the beginning of the 4th century at Bezanduca, a village
+of Palestine, near Eleutheropolis. He is said to have been of
+Jewish extraction. In his youth he resided in Egypt, where he
+began an ascetic course of life, and, freeing himself from Gnostic
+influences, invoked episcopal assistance against heretical thinkers,
+eighty of whom were driven from the cities. On his return to
+Palestine he was ordained presbyter by the bishop of Eleutheropolis,
+and became the president of a monastery which he founded
+near his native place. The account of his intimacy with the
+patriarch Hilarion is not trustworthy. In 367 he was nominated
+bishop of Constantia, previously known as Salamis, the metropolis
+of Cyprus&mdash;an office which he held till his death in 402. Zealous
+for the truth, but passionate and bigoted, he devoted himself
+to two great labours, namely, the spread of the recently established
+monasticism, and the confutation of heresy, of which he
+regarded Origen and his followers as the chief representatives.
+The first of the Origenists that he attacked was John, bishop of
+Jerusalem, whom he denounced from his own pulpit at Jerusalem
+(394) in terms so violent that the bishop sent his archdeacon to
+request him to desist; and afterwards, instigated by Theophilus,
+bishop of Alexandria, he proceeded so far as to summon a council
+of Cyprian bishops to condemn the errors of Origen. In his
+closing years he came into conflict with Chrysostom, the patriarch
+of Constantinople, who had given temporary shelter to four Nitrian
+monks whom Theophilus had expelled on the charge of Origenism.
+The monks gained the support of the empress Eudoxia, and when
+she summoned Theophilus to Constantinople that prelate forced
+the aged Epiphanius to go with him. He had some controversy
+with Chrysostom but did not stay to see the result of Theophilus&rsquo;s
+machinations, and died on his way home. The principal work
+of Epiphanius is the <i>Panarion</i>, or treatise on heresies, of which
+he also wrote an abridgment. It is a &ldquo;medicine chest&rdquo; of
+remedies for all kinds of heretical belief, of which he names
+eighty varieties. His accounts of the earlier errors (where he
+has preserved for us large excerpts from the original Greek of
+Irenaeus) are more reliable than those of contemporary heresies.
+In his desire to see the Church safely moored he also wrote the
+<i>Ancoratus</i>, or discourse on the true faith. His encyclopaedic
+learning shows itself in a treatise on Jewish weights and measures,
+and another (incomplete) on ancient gems. These, with two
+epistles to John of Jerusalem and Jerome, are his only genuine
+remains. He wrote a large number of works which are lost. In
+allusion to his knowledge of Hebrew, Syriac, Egyptian, Greek and
+Latin, Jerome styles Epiphanius <span class="grk" title="Pentaglôssos">&#928;&#949;&#957;&#964;&#940;&#947;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span> (Five-tongued);
+but if his knowledge of languages was really so extensive, it is
+certain that he was utterly destitute of critical and logical power.
+His early asceticism seems to have imbued him with a love
+of the marvellous; and his religious zeal served only to increase
+his credulity. His erudition is outweighed by his prejudice, and
+his inability to recognize the responsibilities of authorship makes
+it necessary to assign most value to those portions of his works
+which he simply cites from earlier writers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The primary sources for the life are the church histories of Socrates
+and Sozomen, Palladius&rsquo;s <i>De vita Chrysostomi</i> and Jerome&rsquo;s <i>De vir.
+illust.</i> 114. Petau (Petavius) published an edition of the works in
+2 vols. fol. at Paris in 1622; cf. Migne, <i>Patr. Graec.</i> 41-43. The
+Panarion and other works were edited by F. Oehler (Berlin, 1859-1861).
+For more recent work especially on the fragments see K.
+Bonwetsch&rsquo;s art. in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyk.</i> v. 417.</p>
+
+<p>Other theologians of the same name were: (1) Epiphanius
+Scholasticus, friend and helper of Cassiodorus; (2) Epiphanius,
+bishop of Ticinum (Pavia), <i>c.</i> 438-496; (3) Epiphanius, bishop of
+Constantia and Metropolitan of Cyprus (the Younger), <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 680,
+to whom some critics have ascribed certain of the works supposed
+to have been written by the greater Epiphanius; (4) Epiphanius,
+bishop of Constantia in the 9th century, to whom a similar attribution
+has been made.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIPHANY, FEAST OF.<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> The word epiphany, in Greek,
+signifies an apparition of a divine being. It was used as a
+singular or a plural, both in its Greek and Latin forms, according
+as one epiphany was contemplated or several united in a single
+commemoration. For in the East from an early time were
+associated with the feast of the Baptism of Christ commemorations
+of the physical birth, of the Star of the Magi, of the
+miracles of Cana, and of the feeding of the five thousand. The
+commemoration of the Baptism was also called by the Greek
+fathers of the 4th century the Theophany or Theophanies, and
+the Day of Lights, <i>i.e.</i> of the Illumination of Jesus or of the Light
+which shone in the Jordan. In the Teutonic west it has become
+the Festival of the three kings (<i>i.e.</i> the Magi), or simply Twelfth
+day. Leo the Great called it the Feast of the <i>Declaration</i>; Fulgentius,
+of the <i>Manifestation</i>; others, of the <i>Apparition</i> of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>In the following article it is attempted to ascertain the date
+of institution of the Epiphany feast, its origin, and its significance
+and development.</p>
+
+<p>Clement of Alexandria first mentions it. Writing <i>c.</i> 194 he
+states that the Basilidians feasted the day of the Baptism,
+devoting the whole night which preceded it to lections of the
+scriptures. They fixed it in the 15th year of Tiberius, on the
+15th or 11th of the month Tobi, dates of the Egyptian fixed
+calendar equivalent to January 10th and 6th. When Clement
+wrote the great church had not adopted the feast, but toward
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300 it was widely in vogue. Thus the Acts of Philip the
+Martyr, bishop of Heraclea in Thrace, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 304, mention the
+&ldquo;holy day of the Epiphany.&rdquo; Note the singular. Origen
+seems not to have heard of it as a feast of the Catholic church,
+but Hippolytus (died <i>c.</i> 235) recognized it in a homily which
+may be genuine.</p>
+
+<p>In the age of the Nicene Council, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 325, the primate of
+Alexandria was charged at every Epiphany Feast to announce
+to the churches in a &ldquo;Festal Letter&rdquo; the date of the forthcoming
+Easter. Several such letters written by Athanasius and others
+remain. In the churches so addressed the feast of Jan. 6 must
+have been already current.</p>
+
+<p>In Jerusalem, according to the Epistle of Macarius<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> to the
+Armenians, <i>c.</i> 330, the feast was kept with zeal and splendour, and
+was with Easter and Pentecost a favourite season for Baptism.</p>
+
+<p>We have evidence of the 4th century from Spain that a
+long fast marked the season of Advent, and prepared for the
+feast of Epiphany on the 6th of January. The council of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span>
+Saragossa <i>c.</i> 380 enacted that for 21 days, from the 17th of
+December to the 6th of January, the Epiphany, the faithful should
+not dance or make merry, but steadily frequent the churches.
+The synod of Lerida in 524 went further and forbade marriages
+during Advent. Our earliest Spanish lectionary, the <i>Liber
+comicus</i> of Toledo, edited by Don Morin (<i>Anecd. Maredsol.</i> vol. i.),
+provides lections for five Sundays in Advent, and the gospel
+lections<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> chosen regard the Baptism of Christ, not His Birth,
+of which the feast, like that of the Annunciation, is mentioned,
+but not yet dated, December 25 being assigned to St Stephen.
+It is odd that for &ldquo;the Apparition of the Lord&rdquo; the lection
+Matt. ii. 1-15 is assigned, although the lections for Advent
+belong to a scheme which identified Epiphany with the Baptism.
+This anomaly we account for below. The old editor of the
+Mozarabic Liturgy, Fr. Antonio Lorenzano, notes in his preface
+§ 28 that the Spaniards anciently terminated the Advent
+season with the Epiphany Feast. In Rome also the earliest
+fixed system of the ecclesiastical year, which may go back to 300,
+makes Epiphany the <i>caput festorum</i> or chief of feasts. The
+Sundays of Advent lead up to it, and the first Sundays of
+the year are &ldquo;The Sunday within the octave of Epiphany,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;the first Sunday after,&rdquo; and so forth. December 25 is no
+critical date at all. In Armenia as early as 450 a month of
+fasting prepared for the Advent of the Lord at Epiphany, and
+the fast was interpreted as a reiteration of John the Baptist&rsquo;s
+season of Repentance.</p>
+
+<p>In Antioch as late as about 386 Epiphany and Easter were
+the two great feasts, and the physical Birth of Christ was not
+yet feasted. On the eve of Epiphany after nightfall the springs
+and rivers were blessed, and water was drawn from them and
+stored for the whole year to be used in lustrations and baptisms.
+Such water, says Chrysostom, to whose orations we owe the
+information, kept pure and fresh for one, two and three years,
+and like good wine actually improved the longer it was kept.
+Note that Chrysostom speaks of the Feast of the <i>Epiphanies</i>,
+implying two, one of the Baptism, the other of the Second
+Advent, when Christ will be manifested afresh, and we with
+him in glory. This Second Epiphany inspired, as we saw, the
+choice of Pauline lections in the <i>Liber comicus</i>. But the salient
+event commemorated was the Baptism, and Chrysostom
+almost insists on this as the exclusive significance of the feast:&mdash;&ldquo;It
+was not when he was born that he became manifest to all,
+but when he was baptized.&rdquo; In his commentary on Ezekiel
+Jerome employs the same language <i>absconditus est et non apparuit</i>,
+by way of protest against an interpretation of the Feast as that
+of the Birth of Jesus in Bethlehem, which was essayed as early
+as 375 by Epiphanius in Cyprus, and was being enforced in
+Jerome&rsquo;s day by John, bishop of Jerusalem. Epiphanius
+boldly removed the date of the Baptism to the 8th of November.
+&ldquo;January 6&rdquo; (= Tobi 11), he writes, &ldquo;is the day of Christ&rsquo;s
+Birth, that is, of the Epiphanies.&rdquo; He uses the plural, because
+he adds on January 6 the commemoration of the water miracle
+of Cana. Although in 375 he thus protested that January 6
+was the day &ldquo;of the Birth after the Flesh,&rdquo; he became before the
+end of the century a convert, according to John of Nice, to the
+new opinion that December 25 was the real day of this Birth.
+That as early as about 385, January 6 was kept as the physical
+birthday in Jerusalem, or rather in Bethlehem, we know from a
+contemporary witness of it, the lady pilgrim of Gaul, whose
+<i>peregrinatio</i>, recently discovered by Gamurrini, is confirmed
+by the old Jerusalem Lectionary preserved in Armenian.<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+Ephraem the Syrian father is attested already by Epiphanius
+(<i>c.</i> 375) to have celebrated the physical birth on January 6.
+His genuine Syriac hymns confirm this, but prove that the
+Baptism, the Star of the Magi, and the Marriage at Cana were
+also commemorated on the same day. That the same union
+prevailed in Rome up to the year 354 may be inferred from
+Ambrose. Philastrius (<i>De haer.</i> ch. 140) notes that some
+abolished the Epiphany feast and substituted a Birth feast.
+This was between 370 and 390.</p>
+
+<p>In 385 Pope Siricius<a name="fa4l" id="fa4l" href="#ft4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a> calls January 6 <i>Natalicia</i>, &ldquo;the Birthday
+of Christ or of Apparition,&rdquo; and protests against the Spanish
+custom (at Tarragona) of baptizing on that day&mdash;another proof
+that in Spain in the 4th century it commemorated the Baptism.
+In Gaul at Vienna in 360 Julian the Apostate, out of deference
+to Christian feeling, went to church &ldquo;on the festival which they
+keep in January and call Epiphania.&rdquo; So Ammianus; but
+Zonaras in his Greek account of the event calls it the day of the
+Saviour&rsquo;s Birth.</p>
+
+<p>Why the feast of the Baptism was called the feast or day of
+the Saviour&rsquo;s Birth, and why fathers of that age when they
+call Christmas the birthday constantly qualify and add the
+words &ldquo;in the flesh,&rdquo; we are able to divine from Pope Leo&rsquo;s
+(<i>c.</i> 447) 18th Epistle to the bishops of Sicily. For here we learn
+that in Sicily they held that in His Baptism the Saviour was
+reborn through the Holy Spirit. &ldquo;The Lord,&rdquo; protests Leo,
+&ldquo;needed no remission of sins, no remedy of rebirth.&rdquo; The
+Sicilians also baptized neophytes on January 6, &ldquo;because
+baptism conveyed to Jesus and to them one and the same
+grace.&rdquo; Not so, argues Leo, the Lord sanctioned and hallowed
+the power of regeneration, not when He was baptized, but
+&ldquo;when the blood of redemption and the water of baptism
+flowed forth from his side.&rdquo; Neophytes should therefore be
+baptized at Easter and Pentecost alone, never at Epiphany.</p>
+
+<p>Fortune has preserved to us among the <i>Spuria</i> of several
+Latin fathers, Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome and Maximus of
+Turin, various homilies for Sundays of the Advent fast and for
+Epiphany. The Advent lections of these homilists were much
+the same as those of the Spanish <i>Liber comicus</i>; and they insist
+on Advent being kept as a strict fast, without marriage celebrations.
+Their Epiphany lection is however Matt. iii. 1-17, which
+must therefore have once on a time been assigned in the <i>Liber
+comicus</i> also in harmony with its general scheme. The psalms
+used on the day are, cxiii. (cxiv.) &ldquo;When Israel went forth,&rdquo;
+xxviii. (xxix.) &ldquo;Give unto the Lord,&rdquo; and xxii. (xxiii.) &ldquo;the
+Lord is my Shepherd.&rdquo; The same lection of Matthew and also
+Ps. xxix. are noted for Epiphany in the Greek oration for the
+day ascribed to Hippolytus, which is at least earlier than 300,
+and also in special old Epiphany rites for the Benediction of
+the waters found in Latin, Greek, Armenian, Coptic, Syriac,
+&amp;c. Now by these homilists as by Chrysostom,<a name="fa5l" id="fa5l" href="#ft5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a> the Baptism
+is regarded as the occasion on which &ldquo;the Saviour first <i>appeared</i>
+after the flesh in the world or on earth.&rdquo; These words were
+classical to the homilists, who explain them as best they can.
+The baptism is also declared to have been &ldquo;the consecration of
+Christ,&rdquo; and &ldquo;regeneration of Christ and a strengthening of our
+faith,&rdquo; to have been &ldquo;Christ&rsquo;s second nativity.&rdquo; &ldquo;This <i>second
+birth</i> hath more renown than his first ... for now the God of
+majesty is inscribed (as his father), but then (at his first birth)
+Joseph the Carpenter was assumed to be his father ... he
+hath more honour who cries aloud from Heaven (viz. God the
+Father), than he who labours upon earth&rdquo; (viz. Joseph).<a name="fa6l" id="fa6l" href="#ft6l"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Similarly the old <i>ordo Romanus</i> of the age of Pepin (given
+by Montfaulcon in his preface to the Mozarabic missal in Migne,
+<i>Patr. Latina</i>, 85, col. 46), under the rubric of the Vigil of the
+Theophany, insists that &ldquo;the <i>second birth</i> of Christ (in Baptism)
+being distinguished by so many mysteries (<i>e.g.</i> the miracle of
+Cana) is more honoured than the first&rdquo; (birth from Mary).</p>
+
+<p>These homilies mostly belong to an age (? 300-400) when the
+commemoration of the physical Birth had not yet found its own
+day (Dec. 25), and was therefore added alongside of the Baptism
+on January 6. Thus the two Births, the physical and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span>
+spiritual, of Jesus were celebrated on one and the same day,
+and one homily contains the words: &ldquo;Not yet is the feast of
+his origin fully completed, and already we have to celebrate the
+solemn commemoration of his Baptism. He has hardly been
+born humanwise, and already he is being <i>reborn</i> in sacramental
+wise. For to-day, though after a lapse of many annual cycles,
+he was hallowed (or consecrated) in Jordan. So the Lord
+arranged as to link rite with rite; I mean, in such wise as to be
+brought forth through the Virgin and to be begotten through
+the mystery (<i>i.e.</i> sacrament) in one and the same season.&rdquo;
+Another homily preserved in a MS. of the 7th or 8th
+century and assigned to Maximus of Turin declares that the
+Epiphany was known as the Birthday of Jesus, either because
+He was then born of the Virgin or <i>reborn in baptism</i>. This also
+was the classical defence made by Armenian fathers of their
+custom of keeping the feast of the Birth and Baptism together
+on January 6. They argued from Luke&rsquo;s gospel that the
+Annunciation took place on April 6, and therefore the Birth
+on January 6. The Baptism was on Christ&rsquo;s thirtieth birthday,
+and should therefore be also kept on January 6. Cosmas Indicopleustes
+(<i>c.</i> 550) relates that on the same grounds believers of
+Jerusalem joined the feasts. All such reasoning was of course
+<i>après coup</i>. As late as the 9th century the Armenians had at
+least three discrepant dates for the Annunciation&mdash;January 5,
+January 9, April 6; and of these January 5 and 9 were older
+than April 6, which they perhaps borrowed from Epiphanius&rsquo;s
+commentary on the Gospels. The old Latin homilist, above
+quoted, hits the mark when he declares that the innate logic
+of things required the Baptism (which must, he says, be any how
+called a natal or birth festival) to fall on the same day as Christmas&mdash;<i>Ratio
+enim exigit</i>. Of the argument from the 6th of April
+as the date of the Annunciation he knows nothing. The 12th
+century Armenian Patriarch Nerses, like this homilist, merely
+rests his case against the Greeks, who incessantly reproached
+the Armenians for ignoring their Christmas on December 25,
+on the inherent logic of things, as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Just as he was born after the flesh from the holy virgin, so he
+was <i>born</i> through baptism and from the Jordan, by way of example
+unto us. And since there are here <i>two births</i>, albeit differing one
+from the other in mystic import and in point of time, therefore it
+was appointed that we should feast them together, as the first, so
+also the second birth.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">The Epiphany feast had therefore in its own right acquired
+the name of <i>natalis dies</i> or birthday, as commemorating the
+spiritual rebirth of Jesus in Jordan, before the <i>natalis in carne</i>,
+the Birthday <i>in the flesh</i>, as Jerome and others call it, was associated
+with it. This idea was condemned as Ebionite in the 3rd
+century, yet it influences Christian writers long before and
+long afterwards. So Tertullian says: &ldquo;We little fishes (<i>pisciculi</i>),
+after the example of our great fish (<span class="grk" title="ichthyn">&#7984;&#967;&#952;&#973;&#957;</span>) Jesus Christ the Lord,
+are born (<i>gignimur</i>) in the water, nor except by abiding in the
+water are we in a state of salvation.&rdquo; And Hilary, like the Latin
+homilists cited above, writes of Jesus that &ldquo;he was <i>born again</i>
+through baptism, and then became Son of God,&rdquo; adding that
+the Father cried, when he had gone up out of the water, &ldquo;My
+Son art thou, I have this day begotten thee&rdquo; (Luke iii. 22).
+&ldquo;But this,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;was with the begetting of a man who is
+being reborn; on that occasion too he himself was being reborn
+unto God to be perfect son; as he was son of man, so in baptism,
+he was constituted son of God as well.&rdquo; The idea frequently
+meets us in Hilary; it occurs in the Epiphany hymn of the
+orthodox Greek church, and in the Epiphany hymns and homilies
+of the Armenians.</p>
+
+<p>A letter is preserved by John of Nice of a bishop of Jerusalem
+to the bishop of Rome which attests a temporary union of both
+feasts on January 6 in the holy places. The faithful, it says,
+met before dawn at Bethlehem to celebrate the Birth from the
+Virgin in the cave; but before their hymns and lections were
+finished they had to hurry off to Jordan, 13 m. the other side
+of Jerusalem, to celebrate the Baptism, and by consequence
+neither commemoration could be kept fully and reverently.
+The writer therefore begs the pope to look in the archives of the
+Jews brought to Rome after the destruction of Jerusalem,
+and to ascertain from them the real date of Christ&rsquo;s birth. The
+pope looked in the works of Josephus and found it to be December
+25. The letter&rsquo;s genuineness has been called in question; but
+revealing as it does the Church&rsquo;s ignorance of the date of the
+Birth, the inconvenience and precariousness of its association
+with the Baptism, the recency of its separate institution, it could
+not have been invented. It is too tell-tale a document. Not
+the least significant fact about it is that it views the Baptism
+as an established feast which cannot be altered and set on
+another date. Not it but the physical birth must be removed
+from January 6 to another date. It has been shown above that
+perhaps as early as 380 the difficulty was got over in Jerusalem
+by making the Epiphany wholly and solely a commemoration
+of the miraculous birth, and suppressing the commemoration
+of the Baptism. Therefore this letter must have been written&mdash;or,
+if invented, then invented before that date. Chrysostom
+seems to have known of it, for in his Epiphany homily preached
+at Antioch, <i>c.</i> 392 (op. vol. ii. 354, ed. Montf.), he refers to the
+archives at Rome as the source from which the date December
+25 could be confirmed, and declares that he had obtained it from
+those who dwell there, and who observing it from the beginning
+and by old tradition, had communicated it to the East. The
+question arises why the feast of the Baptism was set on January
+6 by the sect of Basilides? And why the great church adopted
+the date? Now we know what sort of considerations influenced
+this sect in fixing other feasts, so we have a clue. They fixed
+the Birth of Jesus on Pachon 25 (= May 20), the day of the Niloa,
+or feast of the descent of the Nile from heaven. We should thus
+expect January 6 to be equally a Nile festival. And this from
+various sources we know it was. On Tobi 11, says Epiphanius<a name="fa7l" id="fa7l" href="#ft7l"><span class="sp">7</span></a>
+(<i>c.</i> 370), every one draws up water from the river and stores it
+up, not only in Egypt itself, but in many other countries. In
+many places, he adds, springs and rivers turn into wine on this
+day, <i>e.g.</i> at Cibyra in Caria and Gerasa in Arabia. Aristides
+Rhetor (<i>c.</i> 160) also relates how in the winter, which began
+with Tobi, the Nile water was at its purest. Its water, he says,
+if drawn at the right time conquers time, for it does not go bad,
+whether you keep it on the spot or export it. Galleys were
+waiting on a certain night to take it on board and transport it to
+Italy and elsewhere for libations and lustrations in the Temples
+of Isis. &ldquo;Such water,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;remained fresh, long after other
+water supplies had gone bad. The Egyptians filled their pitchers
+with this water, as others did with wine; they stored it in their
+houses for three or four years or more, and recommended it the
+more, the older it grew, just as the Greeks did their wines.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Two centuries later Chrysostom, as we have seen, commends in
+identical terms the water blessed and drawn from the rivers at
+the Baptismal feast. It is therefore probable that the Basilidian
+feast was a Christianized form of the blessing of the Nile, called
+by Chabas in his Coptic calendar <i>Hydreusis</i>. Mas&lsquo;&#363;d&#299; the Arab
+historian of the 10th century, in his <i>Prairies d&rsquo;or</i> (French trans.
+Paris, 1863, ii. 364), enlarges on the splendours of this feast as
+he saw it still celebrated in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Epiphanius also (<i>Haer.</i> 51) relates a curious celebration held
+at Alexandria of the Birth of the Aeon. On January 5 or 6
+the votaries met in the holy compound or Temple of the Maiden
+(Kor&#275;), and sang hymns to the music of the flute till dawn, when
+they went down with torches into a shrine under ground, and
+fetched up a wooden idol on a bier representing Kor&#275;, seated
+and naked, with crosses marked on her brow, her hands and her
+knees. Then with flute-playing, hymns and dances they carried
+the image seven times round the central shrine, before restoring
+it again to its dwelling-place below. He adds: &ldquo;And the
+votaries say that to-day at this hour <i>Kor&#275;</i>, that is, the Virgin,
+gave birth to the Aeon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Epiphanius says this was a heathen rite, but it rather resembles
+some Basilidian or Gnostic commemoration of the spiritual
+birth of the Divine life in Jesus of the Christhood, from the
+older creation the Ecclesia.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest extant Greek text of the Epiphany rite is in a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span>
+Euchologion of about the year 795, now in the Vatican. The
+prayers recite that at His baptism Christ hallowed the waters by
+His presence in Jordan,<a name="fa8l" id="fa8l" href="#ft8l"><span class="sp">8</span></a> and ask that they may now be blessed
+by the Holy Spirit visiting them, by its power and inworking, as
+the streams of Jordan were blessed. So they will be able to
+purify soul and body of all who draw up and partake of them.
+The hymn sung contains such clauses as these:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;To-day the grace of the Holy Spirit hallowing the waters
+appears (<span class="grk" title="epiphainetai">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#966;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>, cf. Epiphany).... To-day the systems of
+waters spread out their backs under the Lord&rsquo;s footsteps. To-day
+the unseen is seen, that he may reveal himself to us. To-day the
+Increate is of his own will ordained (<i>lit.</i> hath hands laid on him) by
+his own creature. To-day the Unbending bends his neck to his own
+servant, in order to free us from servitude. To-day we were liberated
+from darkness and are illumined by light of divine knowledge.
+To-day for us the Lord by means of rebirth (<i>lit.</i> palingenesy) of the
+Image reshapes the Archetype.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This last clause is obscure. In the Armenian hymns the
+ideas of the rebirth not only of believers, but of Jesus, and of
+the latter&rsquo;s ordination by John, are very prominent.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Epiphany feast may be summed up thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>From the Jews the Church took over the feasts of Pascha
+and Pentecost; and Sunday was a weekly commemoration of
+the Resurrection. It was inevitable, however, that believers
+should before long desire to commemorate the Baptism, with
+which the oldest form of evangelical tradition began, and which
+was widely regarded as the occasion when the divine life began
+in Jesus; when the Logos or Holy Spirit appeared and rested
+on Him, conferring upon Him spiritual unction as the promised
+Messiah; when, according to an old reading of Luke iii. 22,
+He was begotten of God. Perhaps the Ebionite Christians of
+Palestine first instituted the feast, and this, if a fact, must underlie
+the statement of John of Nice, a late but well-informed writer
+(<i>c.</i> 950), that it was fixed by the disciples of John the Baptist who
+were present at Jesus&rsquo; Baptism. The Egyptian gnostics anyhow
+had the feast and set it on January 6, a day of the blessing of
+the Nile. It was a feast of Adoptionist complexion, as one
+of its names, viz. the Birthday (Greek <span class="grk" title="genethlia">&#947;&#949;&#957;&#941;&#952;&#955;&#953;&#945;</span>, Latin <i>Natalicia</i>
+or <i>Natalis dies</i>), implies. This explains why in east and west the
+feast of the physical Birth was for a time associated with it;
+and to justify this association it was suggested that Jesus was
+baptized just on His thirtieth birthday. In Jerusalem and
+Syria it was perhaps the Ebionite or Adoptionist, we may add
+also the Gnostic, associations of the Baptism that caused this
+aspect of Epiphany to be relegated to the background, so that
+it became wholly a feast of the miraculous birth. At the same
+time other epiphanies of Christ were superadded, <i>e.g.</i> of Cana
+where Christ began His miracles by turning water into wine and
+<i>manifested</i> forth His glory, and of the Star of the Magi. Hence
+it is often called the Feast of <i>Epiphanies</i> (in the plural). In the
+West the day is commonly called the Feast of the three kings,
+and its early significance as a commemoration of the Baptism
+and season of blessing the waters has been obscured; the
+Eastern churches, however, of Greece, Russia, Georgia, Armenia,
+Egypt, Syria have been more conservative. In the far East it
+is still the season of seasons for baptisms, and in Armenia children
+born long before are baptized at it. Long ago it was a baptismal
+feast in Sicily, Spain, Italy (see Pope Gelasius to the Lucanian
+Bishops), Africa and Ireland. In the Manx prayer-book of
+Bishop Phillips of the year 1610 Epiphany is called the &ldquo;little
+Nativity&rdquo; (<i>La nolicky bigge</i>), and the Sunday which comes
+between December 25 and January 6 is &ldquo;the Sunday between
+<i>the two Nativities</i>,&rdquo; or <i>Jih dúni oedyr &rsquo;a Nolick</i>; Epiphany itself
+is the &ldquo;feast of the water vessel,&rdquo; <i>lail ymmyrt uyskey</i>, or &ldquo;of the
+well of water,&rdquo; <i>Chibbyrt uysky</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Gregory Nazianz., Orat. xli.; Suicer, <i>Thesaurus</i>,
+s.v. <span class="grk" title="epiphaneia">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#966;&#940;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#945;</span>; Cotelerius <i>In constit. Apost.</i> (Antwerp, 1698),
+l<i>ib.</i> v. cap. 13; R. Bingham, <i>Antiquities</i> (London, 1834), bk. xx.;
+Ad. Jacoby, <i>Bericht über die Taufe Jesu</i> (Strassburg, 1902); H.
+Blumenbach, <i>Antiquitates Epiphaniorum</i> (Leipzig, 1737); J.L.
+Schulze, <i>De festo Sanctorum Luminum</i>, ed. J.E. Volbeding (Leipzig,
+1841); and K.A.H. Kellner, <i>Heortologie</i> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906).
+(See also the works enumerated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Christmas</a></span>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. C. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For its text see <i>The Key of Truth</i>, translated by F.C. Conybeare,
+Oxford, and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armenian Church</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> These are Matt. iii. 1-11, xi. 2-15, xxi. 1-9; Mark i. 1-8; Luke
+iii. 1-18. The Pauline lections regard the Epiphany of the Second
+Advent, of the prophetic or Messianic kingdom.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Translated in <i>Rituale Armenorum</i> (Oxford, 1905).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4l" id="ft4l" href="#fa4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Epist. ad Himerium, c. 2.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5l" id="ft5l" href="#fa5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Hom. I. in Pentec. <i>op.</i> tom. ii. 458; &ldquo;With us the Epiphanies is
+the first festival. What is this festival&rsquo;s significance? This, that
+God was seen upon earth and consorted with men.&rdquo; For this idea
+there had soon to be substituted that of the manifestation of Christ
+to the Gentiles.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6l" id="ft6l" href="#fa6l"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See the Paris edition of Augustine (1838), tom. v., Appendix,
+<i>Sermons</i> cxvi., cxxv., cxxxv., cxxxvi., cxxxvii.; cf. tom. vi. <i>dial.
+quaestionum</i>, xlvi.; Maximus of Turin, Homily xxx.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7l" id="ft7l" href="#fa7l"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Perhaps Epiphanius is here, after his wont, transcribing an earlier
+source.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8l" id="ft8l" href="#fa8l"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The same idea is frequent in Epiphany homilies of Chrysostom
+and other 4th-century fathers.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPIRUS<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Epeirus</span>, an ancient district of Northern Greece
+extending along the Ionian Sea from the Acroceraunian
+promontory on the N. to the Ambracian gulf on the S. It was
+conterminous on the landward side with Illyria, Macedonia and
+Thessaly, and thus corresponds to the southern portion of Albania
+(<i>q.v.</i>). The name Epirus (<span class="grk" title="Êpeiros">&#7980;&#960;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>) signified &ldquo;mainland,&rdquo; and
+was originally applied to the whole coast southward to the
+Corinthian Gulf, in contradistinction to the neighbouring islands,
+Corcyra, Leucas, &amp;c. The country is all mountainous, especially
+towards the east, where the great rivers of north-western Greece&mdash;Achelous,
+Arachthus and Aous&mdash;rise in Mt Lacmon, the back-bone
+of the Pindus chain. In ancient times Epirus did not
+produce corn sufficient for the wants of its inhabitants; but it
+was celebrated, as it has been almost to the present day, for its
+cattle and its horses. According to Theopompus (4th cent. <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+the Epirots were divided into fourteen independent tribes,
+of which the principal were the Chaones, the Thesproti and
+the Molossi. The Chaones (perhaps akin to the Chones who
+dwelt in the heel of Italy) inhabited the Acroceraunian shore,
+the Molossians the inland districts round the lake of Pambotis
+(mod. Jannina), and the Thesprotians the region to the north
+of the Ambracian gulf. In spite of its distance from the chief
+centres of Greek thought and action, and the barbarian repute
+of its inhabitants, Epirus was believed to have exerted at an
+early period no small influence on Greece, by means more especially
+of the oracle of Dodona. Aristotle even placed in Epirus the
+original home of the Hellenes. But in historic times its part
+in Greek history is mainly passive. The states of Greece proper
+founded a number of colonies on its coast, which formed stepping-stones
+towards the Adriatic and the West. Of these one of the
+earliest and most flourishing was the Corinthian colony of
+Ambracia, which gives its name to the neighbouring gulf. Elatria,
+Bucheta and Pandosia, in Thesprotia, originated from Elis.
+Among the other towns in the country the following were of some
+importance. In Chaonia: Palaeste and Chimaera, fortified
+posts to which the dwellers in the open country could retire in
+time of war; Onchesmus or Anchiasmus, opposite Corcyra
+(Corfu), now represented by Santi Quarante; Phoenice, still
+so called, the wealthiest of all the native cities of Epirus, and
+after the fall of the Molossian kingdom the centre of an Epirotic
+League; Buthrotum, the modern Butrinto; Phanote, important
+in the Roman campaigns in Epirus; and Adrianopolis,
+founded by the emperor whose name it bore. In Thesprotia:
+Cassope, the chief town of the most powerful of the Thesprotian
+clans; and Ephyra, afterwards Cichyrus, identified by W.M.
+Leake with the monastery of St John 3 or 4 m. from Phanari,
+and by C. Bursian with Kastri at the northern end of the
+Acherusian Lake. In Molossia: Passaron, where the kings
+were wont to take the oath of the constitution and receive their
+people&rsquo;s allegiance; and Tecmon, Phylace and Horreum, all
+of doubtful identification. The Byzantine town of Rogus is
+probably the same as the modern Luro, the Greek Oropus.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The kings, or rather chieftains, of the Molossians,
+who ultimately extended their power over all Epirus, claimed
+to be descended from Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, who, according
+to legend, settled in the country after the sack of Troy, and
+transmitted his kingdom to Molossus, his son by Andromache.
+The early history of the dynasty is very obscure; but Admetus,
+who lived in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, is remembered for his hospitable
+reception of the banished Themistocles, in spite of the fact that
+the great Athenian had persuaded his countrymen to refuse
+the alliance tardily offered by the Molossians when victory
+against the Persians was already secured. Admetus was succeeded,
+about 429 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, by his son or grandson, Tharymbas or
+Arymbas I., who being placed by a decree of the people under
+the guardianship of Sabylinthus, chief of the Atintanes, was
+educated at Athens, and at a later date introduced a higher
+civilization among his subjects. Alcetas, the next king mentioned
+in history, was restored to his throne by Dionysius of Syracuse
+about 385 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His son Arymbas II. (who succeeded by the
+death of his brother Neoptolemus) ruled with prudence and
+equity, and gave encouragement to literature and the arts.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span>
+To him Xenocrates of Chalcedon dedicated his four books on
+the art of governing; and it is specially mentioned that he
+bestowed great care on the education of his brother&rsquo;s children.
+One of them, Troas, he married; Olympias, the other niece,
+was married to Philip II. of Macedon and became the mother of
+Alexander the Great. On the death of Arymbas, Alexander
+the brother of Olympias, was put on the throne by Philip and
+married his daughter Cleopatra. Alexander assumed the new
+title of king of Epirus, and raised the reputation of his country
+abroad. Asked by the Tarentines for aid against the Samnites
+and Lucanians, he made a descent at Paestum in 332 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and
+reduced several cities of the Lucani and Bruttii; but in a second
+attack he was surrounded, defeated and slain near Pandosia
+in Bruttium.</p>
+
+<p>Aeacides, the son of Arymbas II., succeeded Alexander. He
+espoused the cause of Olympias against Cassander, but was
+dethroned by his own soldiers, and had hardly regained his
+position when he fell in battle (313 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) against Philip, brother
+of Cassander. He had, by his wife Phthia, a son, the celebrated
+Pyrrhus, and two daughters, Deidamia and Troas, of whom the
+former married Demetrius Poliorcetes. His brother Alcetas,
+who succeeded him, continued unsuccessfully the war with
+Cassander; he was put to death by his rebellious subjects in
+295 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was succeeded by Pyrrhus (<i>q.v.</i>), who for six years
+fought against the Romans in south Italy and Sicily, and gave to
+Epirus a momentary importance which it never again possessed.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander, his son, who succeeded in 272 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, attempted to
+seize Macedonia, and defeated Antigonus Gonatas, but was
+himself shortly afterwards driven from his kingdom by Demetrius.
+He recovered it, however, and spent the rest of his days
+in peace. Two other insignificant reigns brought the family
+of Pyrrhus to its close, and Epirus was thenceforward governed by
+a magistrate, elected annually in a general assembly of the nation
+held at Passaron. Having imprudently espoused the cause of
+Perseus (<i>q.v.</i>) in his ill-fated war against the Romans, 168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+it was exposed to the fury of the conquerors, who destroyed, it
+is said, seventy towns, and carried into slavery 150,000 of the
+inhabitants. From this blow it never recovered. At the dissolution
+of the Achaean League (<i>q.v.</i>), 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it became part of
+the province of Macedonia, receiving the name Epirus Vetus,
+to distinguish it from Epirus Nova, which lay to the east.</p>
+
+<p>On the division of the empire it fell to the East, and so remained
+until the taking of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204,
+when Michel Angelus Comnenus seized Aetolia and Epirus. On
+the death of Michel in 1216, these countries fell into the hands of
+his brother Theodore. Thomas, the last of the direct line, was
+murdered in 1318 by his nephew Thomas, lord of Zante and
+Cephalonia, and his dominions were dismembered. Not long
+after, Epirus was overrun by the Samians and Albanians, and
+the confusion which had been growing since the division of the
+empire was worse confounded still. Charles II. Tocco, lord of
+Cephalonia and Zante, obtained the recognition of his title of
+Despot of Epirus from the emperor Manuel Comnenus in the
+beginning of the 15th century; but his family was deprived of
+their possession in 1431 by Murad (Amurath) II. In 1443, Scanderbeg,
+king of Albania, made himself master of a considerable
+part of Epirus; but on his death it fell into the power of the
+Venetians. From these it passed again to the Turks, under
+whose dominion it still remains.  For modern history see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albania</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Nauze, &ldquo;Rech. hist. sur les peuples qui s&rsquo;établirent
+en Épire,&rdquo; in <i>Mém. de l&rsquo;Acad. des Inscr.</i> (1729); Pouqueville,
+<i>Voyage en Morée, &amp;c, en Albanie</i> (Paris, 1805); Hobhouse, <i>A Journey
+through Albania, &amp;c.</i> (2 vols., London, 1813); Wolfe, &ldquo;Observations
+on the Gulf of Arta&rdquo; in <i>Journ. Royal Geog. Soc.</i>, 1834; W.M. Leake,
+Travels in Northern Greece (London, 1835): Merleker, Darstellung des
+<i>Landes und der Bewohner von Epeiros</i> (Königsberg, 1841); J.H.
+Skene, &ldquo;Remarkable Localities on the Coast of Epirus,&rdquo; in <i>Journ.
+Roy. Geog. Soc.</i>, 1848; Bowen, <i>Mount Athos, Thessaly and Epirus</i>
+(London, 1852); von Hahn, <i>Albanesische Studien</i> (Jena, 1854);
+Bursian, <i>Geog. von Griechenland</i> (vol. i., Leipzig, 1862); Schäfli,
+&ldquo;Versuch einer Klimatologie des Thales von Jannina,&rdquo; <i>Neue
+Denkschr. d. allgem. schweizer. Ges. f. Naturw.</i> xix. (Zürich, 1862);
+Major R. Stuart, &ldquo;On Phys. Geogr. and Natural Resources of
+Epirus,&rdquo; in <i>Journ. R.G.S.</i>, 1869; Guido Cora, in <i>Cosmos</i>; Dumont,
+&ldquo;Souvenirs de l&rsquo;Adriatique, de l&rsquo;Épire, &amp;c.&rdquo; in <i>Rev. des deux
+mondes</i> (Paris, 1872); de Gubernatis, &ldquo;L&rsquo;Epiro,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Soc. Geogr.
+Ital.</i> viii. (Rome, 1872); Dozon, &ldquo;Excursion en Albanie,&rdquo; <i>Bull.
+Soc. Geogr.</i>, 6th series; Karapanos, <i>Dodone et ses ruines</i> (Paris, 1878);
+von Heldreich, &ldquo;Ein Beitrag zur Flora von Epirus,&rdquo; <i>Verh. Bot.
+Vereins Brandenburg</i> (Berlin, 1880); Kiepert, &ldquo;Zur Ethnographie
+von Epirus,&rdquo; <i>Ges. Erdk.</i> xvii. (Berlin, 1879); Zompolides, &ldquo;Das
+Land und die Bewohner von Epirus,&rdquo; <i>Ausland</i> (Berlin, 1880); A.
+Philippson, <i>Thessalien und Epirus</i> (Berlin, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. L. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPISCOPACY<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (from Late Lat. <i>episcopatus</i>, the office of a
+bishop, <i>episcopus</i>), the general term technically applied to that
+system of church organization in which the chief ecclesiastical
+authority within a defined district, or diocese, is vested in a bishop.
+As such it is distinguished on the one hand from Presbyterianism,
+government by elders, and Congregationalism, in which the
+individual church or community of worshippers is autonomous,
+and on the other from Papalism. The origin and development
+of episcopacy in the Christian Church, and the functions and
+attributes of bishops in the various churches, are dealt with
+elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Church History</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bishop</a></span>). Under the
+present heading it is proposed only to discuss briefly the various
+types of episcopacy actually existing, and the different principles
+that they represent.</p>
+
+<p>The deepest line of cleavage is naturally between the view that
+episcopacy is a divinely ordained institution essential to the
+effective existence of a church as a channel of grace, and the
+view that it is merely a convenient form of church order, evolved
+as the result of a variety of historical causes, and not necessary to
+the proper constitution of a church. The first of these views is
+closely connected with the doctrine of the Apostolical Succession.
+According to this, Christ committed to his apostles certain powers
+of order and jurisdiction in the Church, among others that of
+transmitting these powers to others through &ldquo;the laying on of
+hands&rdquo;; and this power, whatever obscurity may surround the
+practice of the primitive Church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostle</a></span>, <i>ad fin.</i>) was very
+early confined to the order of bishops, who by virtue of a special
+consecration became the successors of the apostles in the function
+of handing on the powers and graces of the ministry.<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A valid
+episcopate, then, is one derived in an unbroken series of &ldquo;layings
+on of hands&rdquo; by bishops from the time of the apostles (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order, Holy</a></span>). This is the Catholic view, common to all the
+ancient Churches whether of the West or East, and it is one that
+necessarily excludes from the union of Christendom all those
+Christian communities which possess no such apostolically
+derived ministry.</p>
+
+<p>Apart altogether, however, from the question of orders,
+episcopacy represents a very special conception of the Christian
+Church. In the fully developed episcopal system the bishop sums
+up in his own person the collective powers of the Church in his
+diocese, not by delegation of these powers from below, but by
+divinely bestowed authority from above. &ldquo;Ecclesia est in
+episcopo,&rdquo; wrote St Cyprian (Cyp. iv. <i>Ep.</i> 9); the bishop, as
+the successor of the apostles, is the centre of unity in his diocese,
+the unity of the Church as a whole is maintained by the intercommunion
+of the bishops, who for this purpose represent their
+dioceses. The bishops, individually and collectively, are thus
+the essential ties of Catholic unity; they alone, as the depositories
+of the apostolic traditions, establish the norm of Catholic
+orthodoxy in the general councils of the Church. This high
+theory of episcopacy which, if certain of the Ignatian letters
+be genuine, has a very early origin, has, of course, fallen upon evil
+days. The power of the collective episcopate to maintain Catholic
+unity was disproved long before it was overshadowed by the
+centralized authority of Rome; before the Reformation, its last
+efforts to assert its supremacy in the Western Church, at the
+councils of Basel and Constance, had broken down; and the
+religious revolution of the 16th century left it largely discredited
+and exposed to a double attack, by the papal monarchy on the
+one hand and the democratic Presbyterian model on the other.
+Within the Roman Catholic Church the high doctrine of episcopacy
+continued to be maintained by the Gallicans and Febronians
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gallicanism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Febronianism</a></span>) as against the claims
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span>
+of the Papacy, and for a while with success; but a system
+which had failed to preserve the unity of the Church even when
+the world was united under the Roman empire could not be
+expected to do so in a world split up into a series of rival states,
+of which many had already reorganized their churches on a
+national basis. &ldquo;Febronius,&rdquo; indeed, was in favour of a frank
+recognition of this national basis of ecclesiastical organization,
+and saw in Episcopacy the best means of reuniting the dissidents
+to the Catholic Church, which was to consist, as it were, of a free
+federation of episcopal churches under the presidency of the
+bishop of Rome. The idea had considerable success; for it
+happened to march with the views of the secular princes. But
+religious people could hardly be expected to see in the worldly
+prince-bishops of the Empire, or the wealthy courtier-prelates of
+France, the trustees of the apostolical tradition. The Revolution
+intervened; and when, during the religious reaction that
+followed, men sought for an ultimate authority, they found it
+in the papal monarch, exalted now by ultramontane zeal into the
+sole depositary of the apostolical tradition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ultramontanism</a></span>).
+At the Vatican Council of 1870 episcopacy made its last
+stand against papalism, and was vanquished (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vatican
+Council</a></span>). The pope still addresses his fellow-bishops as
+&ldquo;venerable brothers&rdquo;; but from the Roman Catholic Church
+the fraternal union of coequal authorities, which is of the essence
+of episcopacy, has vanished; and in its place is set the autocracy
+of one. The modern Roman Catholic Church is episcopal, for
+it preserves the bishops, whose <i>potestas ordinis</i> not even the
+pope can exercise until he has been duly consecrated; but the
+bishops as such are now but subordinate elements in a system
+for which &ldquo;Episcopacy&rdquo; is certainly no longer an appropriate
+term.</p>
+
+<p>The word Episcopacy has, in fact, since the Reformation, been
+more especially associated with those churches which, while
+ceasing to be in communion with Rome, have preserved the
+episcopal model. Of these by far the most important is the
+Church of England, which has preserved its ecclesiastical organization
+essentially unchanged since its foundation by St Augustine,
+and its daughter churches (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">England, Church of</a></span>, and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anglican Communion</a></span>). The Church of England since the
+Reformation has been the chief champion of the principle of
+Episcopacy against the papal pretensions on the one hand and
+Presbyterianism and Congregationalism on the other. As to the
+divine origin of Episcopacy and, consequently, of its universal
+obligation in the Christian Church, Anglican opinion has been,
+and still is, considerably divided.<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The &ldquo;High Church&rdquo; view,
+now predominant, is practically identical with that of the
+Gallicans and Febronians, and is based on Catholic practice in
+those ages of the Church to which, as well as to the Bible, the
+formularies of the Church of England make appeal. So far as
+this view, however, is the outcome of the general Catholic
+movement of the 19th century, it can hardly be taken as typical of
+Anglican tradition in this matter. Certainly, in the 16th and
+17th centuries, the Church of England, while rigorously enforcing
+the episcopal model at home, and even endeavouring to extend it
+to Presbyterian Scotland, did not regard foreign non-episcopal
+Churches otherwise than as sister communions. The whole
+issue had, in fact, become confused with the confusion of functions
+of the Church and State. In the view of the Church of England
+the ultimate governance of the Christian community, in things
+spiritual and temporal, was vested not in the clergy but in the
+&ldquo;Christian prince&rdquo; as the vicegerent of God.<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> It was the
+transference to the territorial sovereigns of modern Europe of
+the theocratic character of the Christian heads of the Roman
+world-empire; with the result that for the reformed Churches
+the unit of church organization was no longer the diocese, or the
+group of dioceses, but the Christian state. Thus in England the
+bishops, while retaining their <i>potestas ordinis</i> in virtue of their
+consecration as successors of the apostles, came to be regarded
+not as representing their dioceses in the state, but the state in
+their dioceses. Forced on their dioceses by the royal <i>Congé
+d&rsquo;élire</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), and enthusiastic apostles of the High Church
+doctrine of non-resistance, the bishops were looked upon as no
+more than lieutenants of the crown;<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and Episcopacy was
+ultimately resisted by Presbyterians and Independents as an
+expression and instrument of arbitrary government, &ldquo;Prelacy&rdquo;
+being confounded with &ldquo;Popery&rdquo; in a common condemnation.
+With the constitutional changes of the 18th and 19th centuries,
+however, a corresponding modification took place in the character
+of the English episcopate; and a still further change resulted from
+the multiplication of colonial and missionary sees having no
+connexion with the state (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anglican Communion</a></span>). The
+consciousness of being in the line of apostolic succession helped
+the English clergy to revert to the principle <i>Ecclesia est in
+episcopo</i>, and the great periodical conferences of Anglican bishops
+from all parts of the world have something of the character,
+though they do not claim the ecumenical authority, of the general
+councils of the early Church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lambeth Conferences</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Of the reformed Churches of the continent of Europe only the
+Lutheran Churches of Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and
+Finland preserve the episcopal system in anything of its historical
+sense; and of these only the two last can lay claim to the
+possession of bishops in the unbroken line of episcopal succession.<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+The superintendents (variously entitled also arch-priests,
+deans, provosts, ephors) of the Evangelical (Lutheran)
+Church, as established in the several states of Germany and in
+Austria, are not bishops in any canonical sense, though their
+jurisdictions are known as dioceses and they exercise many
+episcopal functions. They have no special powers of order, being
+presbyters, and their legal status is admittedly merely that of
+officials of the territorial sovereign in his capacity as head of the
+territorial church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Superintendent</a></span>). The &ldquo;bishops&rdquo;
+of the Lutheran Church in Transylvania are equivalent to the
+superintendents.</p>
+
+<p>Episcopacy in a stricter sense is the system of the Moravian
+Brethren (<i>q.v.</i>) and the Methodist Episcopal Church of America
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Methodism</a></span>). In the case of the former, claim is laid to the
+unbroken episcopal succession through the Waldenses, and the
+question of their eventual intercommunion with the Anglican
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span>
+Church was accordingly mooted at the Lambeth Conference of
+1908. The bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church, on the
+other hand, derive their orders from Thomas Coke, a presbyter
+of the Church of England, who in 1784 was ordained by John
+Wesley, assisted by two other presbyters, &ldquo;superintendent&rdquo;
+of the Methodist Society in America. Methodist episcopacy
+is therefore based on the denial of any special <i>potestas
+ordinis</i> in the degree of bishop, and is fundamentally distinct
+from that of the Catholic Church&mdash;using this term in its
+narrow sense as applied to the ancient churches of the East
+and West.</p>
+
+<p>In all of these ancient churches episcopacy is regarded as of
+divine origin; and in those of them which reject the papal
+supremacy the bishops are still regarded as the guardians of the
+tradition of apostolic orthodoxy and the stewards of the gifts of
+the Holy Ghost to men (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orthodox Eastern Church</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armenian Church</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Copts</a></span>: <i>Coptic Church</i>, &amp;c). In the
+West, Gallican and Febronian Episcopacy are represented by
+two ecclesiastical bodies: the Jansenist Church under the
+archbishop of Utrecht (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jansenism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Utrecht</a></span>), and the
+Old Catholics (<i>q.v.</i>). Of these the latter, who separated from
+the Roman communion after the promulgation of the dogma of
+papal infallibility, represent a pure revolt of the system of Episcopacy
+against that of Papalism.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Bishop C. Gore, <i>The Church and the Ministry</i> (1887).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Neither the Articles nor the authoritative Homilies of the Church
+of England speak of episcopacy as essential to the constitution of a
+church. The latter make &ldquo;the three notes or marks&rdquo; by which a
+true church is known &ldquo;pure and sound doctrine, the sacraments
+administered according to Christ&rsquo;s holy institution, and the right use
+of ecclesiastical discipline.&rdquo; These marks are perhaps ambiguous,
+but they certainly do not depend on the possession of the Apostolic
+Succession; for it is further stated that &ldquo;the bishops of Rome and
+their adherents are not the true Church of Christ&rdquo; (Homily &ldquo;concerning
+the Holy Ghost,&rdquo; ed. Oxford, 1683, p. 292).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;He and his holy apostles likewise, namely Peter and Paul,
+did forbid unto all Ecclesiastical Ministers, dominion over the Church
+of Christ&rdquo; (<i>Homilies appointed to be read in Churches</i>, &ldquo;The V. part
+of the Sermon against Wilful Rebellion,&rdquo; ed. Oxford, 1683, p. 378).
+Princes are &ldquo;God&rsquo;s lieutenants, God&rsquo;s presidents, God&rsquo;s officers,
+God&rsquo;s commissioners, God&rsquo;s judges ... God&rsquo;s vicegerents&rdquo; (&ldquo;The
+II. part of the Sermon of Obedience,&rdquo; <i>ib.</i> p. 64).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Juridically they were, of course, never this in the strict sense in
+which the term could be used of the Lutheran superintendents (see
+below). They were never mere royal officials, but peers of parliament,
+holding their temporalities as baronies under the crown.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> During the crisis of the Reformation all the Swedish sees became
+vacant but two, and the bishops of these two soon left the
+kingdom. The episcopate, however, was preserved by Peter Magnusson,
+who, when residing as warden of the Swedish hospital of
+St Bridget in Rome, had been duly elected bishop of the see of
+Westeraes, and consecrated, <i>c.</i> 1524. No official record of his consecration
+can be discovered, but there is no sufficient reason to doubt
+the fact; and it is certain that during his lifetime he was acknowledged
+as a canonical bishop both by Roman Catholics and by Protestants.
+In 1528 Magnusson consecrated bishops to fill the vacant sees, and,
+assisted by one of these, Magnus Sommar, bishop of Strengness,
+he afterwards consecrated the Reformer, Lawrence Peterson, as
+archbishop of Upsala, Sept. 22, 1531. Some doubt has been raised
+as to the validity of the consecration of Peterson&rsquo;s successor, also
+named Lawrence Peterson, in 1575, from the insufficiency of the
+documentary evidence of the consecration of his consecrator, Paul
+Justin, bishop of Åbo. The integrity of the succession has, however,
+been accepted after searching investigation by men of such learning
+as Grabe and Routh, and has been formally recognized by the convention
+of the American Episcopal Church. The succession to the
+daughter church of Finland, now independent, stands or falls with
+that of Sweden.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPISCOPIUS, SIMON<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1583-1643), the Latin form of the
+name of Simon Bischop, Dutch theologian, was born at Amsterdam
+on the 1st of January 1583. In 1600 he entered the university
+of Leiden, where he studied theology under Jacobus
+Arminius, whose teaching he followed. In 1610, the year in
+which the Arminians presented the famous Remonstrance to the
+states of Holland, he became pastor at Bleyswick, a small village
+near Rotterdam; in the following year he advocated the cause
+of the Remonstrants (<i>q.v.</i>) at the Hague conference. In 1612
+he succeeded Francis Gomarus as professor of theology at
+Leiden, an appointment which awakened the bitter enmity of
+the Calvinists, and, on account of the influence lent by it to the
+spread of Arminian opinions, was doubtless an ultimate cause of
+the meeting of the synod of Dort in 1618. Episcopius was chosen
+as the spokesman of the thirteen representatives of the Remonstrants
+before the synod; but he was refused a hearing, and the
+Remonstrant doctrines were condemned without any explanation
+or defence of them being permitted. At the end of the synod&rsquo;s
+sittings in 1619, Episcopius and the other twelve Arminian
+representatives were deprived of their offices and expelled from
+the country (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dort, Synod of</a></span>). Episcopius retired to
+Antwerp and ultimately to France, where he lived partly at
+Paris, partly at Rouen. He devoted most of his time to writings
+in support of the Arminian cause; but the attempt of Luke Wadding
+(1588-1657) to win him over to the Romish faith involved
+him also in a controversy with that famous Jesuit. After the
+death (1625) of Maurice, prince of Orange, the violence of the
+Arminian controversy began to abate, and Episcopius was
+permitted in 1626 to return to his own country. He was appointed
+preacher at the Remonstrant church in Rotterdam and
+afterwards rector of the Remonstrant college in Amsterdam.
+Here he died in 1643. Episcopius may be regarded as in great part
+the theological founder of Arminianism, since he developed and
+systematized the principles tentatively enunciated by Arminius.
+Besides opposing at all points the peculiar doctrines of Calvinism,
+Episcopius protested against the tendency of Calvinists to lay
+so much stress on abstract dogma, and argued that Christianity
+was practical rather than theoretical&mdash;not so much a system of
+intellectual belief as a moral power&mdash;and that an orthodox
+faith did not necessarily imply the knowledge of and assent to
+a system of doctrine which included the whole range of Christian
+truth, but only the knowledge and acceptance of so much of
+Christianity as was necessary to effect a real change on the heart
+and life.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principal works of Episcopius are his <i>Confessio s. declaratio
+sententiae pastorum qui in foederato Belgio Remonstrantes vocantur
+super praecipuis articulis religionis Christianae</i> (1621), his <i>Apologia
+pro confessione</i> (1629), his <i>Verus theologus remonstrans</i>, and his
+uncompleted work <i>Institutiones theologicae</i>. A life of Episcopius
+was written by Philip Limborch, and one was also prefixed by his
+successor, Étienne de Courcelles (Curcellaeus) (1586-1659), to an
+edition of his collected works published in 2 vols. (1650-1665).
+See also article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPISODE<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span>, an incident occurring in the history of a nation, an
+institution or an individual, especially with the significance of
+being an interruption of an ordered course of events, an irrelevance.
+The word is derived from a word (<span class="grk" title="epeisodos">&#7952;&#960;&#949;&#943;&#963;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>) with a
+technical meaning in the ancient Greek tragedy. It is defined by
+Aristotle (<i>Poetics</i>, 12) as <span class="grk" title="meros holon tragôdias to metaxy
+holôn chorikôn melôn">&#956;&#941;&#961;&#959;&#962; &#8005;&#955;&#959;&#957; &#964;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#8179;&#948;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#964;&#8056; &#956;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#958;&#8058; &#8005;&#955;&#969;&#957; &#967;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#8182;&#957; &#956;&#949;&#955;&#8182;&#957;</span>, all the scenes, that is, which fall between
+the choric songs. <span class="grk" title="eisodos">&#949;&#7988;&#963;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>, or entrance, is generally applied to the
+entrance of the chorus, but the reference may be to that of the
+actors at the close of the choric songs. In the early Greek
+tragedy the parts which were spoken by the actors were considered
+of subsidiary importance to those sung by the chorus,
+and it is from this aspect that the meaning of the word, as something
+which breaks off the course of events, is derived (see A.E.
+Haigh, <i>The Tragic Drama of the Greeks</i>, 1896, at p. 353).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPISTAXIS<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epi">&#7952;&#960;&#943;</span>, upon, and <span class="grk" title="stazein">&#963;&#964;&#940;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to drop), the medical
+term for bleeding from the nose, whether resulting from local
+injury or some constitutional condition. In persistent cases of
+nose-bleeding, various measures are adopted, such as holding the
+arms over the head, the application of ice, or of such astringents
+as zinc or alum, or plugging the nostrils.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPISTEMOLOGY<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epistêmê">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#956;&#951;</span>, knowledge, and <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+theory, account; Germ. <i>Erkenntnistheorie</i>), in philosophy, a
+term applied, probably first by J.F. Ferrier, to that department
+of thought whose subject matter is the nature and origin of
+knowledge. It is thus contrasted with metaphysics, which
+considers the nature of reality, and with psychology, which deals
+with the objective part of cognition, and, as Prof. James Ward
+said, &ldquo;is essentially genetic in its method&rdquo; (<i>Mind</i>, April 1883,
+pp. 166-167). Epistemology is concerned rather with the
+possibility of knowledge in the abstract (<i>sub specie aeternitatis</i>,
+Ward, <i>ibid.</i>). In the evolution of thought epistemological
+inquiry succeeded the speculations of the early thinkers, who
+concerned themselves primarily with attempts to explain
+existence. The differences of opinion which arose on this
+problem naturally led to the inquiry as to whether any universally
+valid statement was possible. The Sophists and the Sceptics,
+Plato and Aristotle, the Stoics and the Epicureans took up the
+question, and from the time of Locke and Kant it has been
+prominent in modern philosophy. It is extremely difficult, if not
+impossible, to draw a hard and fast line between epistemology and
+other branches of philosophy. If, for example, philosophy is
+divided into the theory of knowing and the theory of being, it is
+impossible entirely to separate the latter (Ontology) from the
+analysis of knowledge (Epistemology), so close is the connexion
+between the two. Again, the relation between logic in its widest
+sense and the theory of knowledge is extremely close. Some
+thinkers have identified the two, while others regard Epistemology
+as a subdivision of logic; others demarcate their relative spheres
+by confining logic to the science of the laws of thought, <i>i.e.</i> to
+formal logic. An attempt has been made by some philosophers
+to substitute &ldquo;Gnosiology&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gnôsis">&#947;&#957;&#8182;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>) for &ldquo;Epistemology&rdquo;
+as a special term for that part of Epistemology which is confined
+to &ldquo;systematic analysis of the conceptions employed by
+ordinary and scientific thought in interpreting the world, and
+including an investigation of the art of knowledge, or the nature
+of knowledge as such.&rdquo; &ldquo;Epistemology&rdquo; would thus be reserved
+for the broad questions of &ldquo;the origin, nature and limits of
+knowledge&rdquo; (Baldwin&rsquo;s <i>Dict. of Philos.</i> i. pp. 333 and 414). The
+term Gnosiology has not, however, come into general use. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philosophy</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPISTLE<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span>, in its primary sense any letter addressed to an
+absent person; from the Greek word <span class="grk" title="epistolê">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#955;&#942;</span>, a thing sent on a
+particular occasion. Strictly speaking, any such communication
+is an epistle, but at the present day the term has become archaic,
+and is used only for letters of an ancient time, or for elaborate
+literary productions which take an epistolary form, that is to say,
+are, or affect to be, written to a person at a distance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span></p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Epistles and Letters.</i>&mdash;The student of literary history soon
+discovers that a broad distinction exists between the letter
+and the epistle. The letter is essentially a spontaneous, non-literary
+production, ephemeral, intimate, personal and private,
+a substitute for a spoken conversation. The epistle, on the other
+hand, rather takes the place of a public speech, it is written with
+an audience in view, it is a literary form, a distinctly artistic
+effort aiming at permanence; and it bears much the same relation
+to a letter as a Platonic dialogue does to a private talk
+between two friends. The posthumous value placed on a great
+man&rsquo;s letters would naturally lead to the production of epistles,
+which might be written to set forth the views of a person or a
+school, either genuinely or as forgeries under some eminent name.
+Pseudonymous epistles were especially numerous under the early
+Roman empire, and mainly attached themselves to the names of
+Plato, Demosthenes, Aristotle and Cicero.</p>
+
+<p>Both letters and epistles have come down to us in considerable
+variety and extent from the ancient world. Babylonia and
+Assyria, Egypt, Greece and Rome alike contribute to our inheritance
+of letters. Those of Aristotle are of questionable genuineness,
+but we can rely, at any rate in part, on those of Isocrates and
+Epicurus. Some of the letters of Cicero are rather epistles, since
+they were meant ultimately for the general eye. The papyrus
+discoveries in Egypt have a peculiar interest, for they are mainly
+the letters of people unknown to fame, and having no thought of
+publicity. It is less to be wondered at that we have a large
+collection of ancient epistles, especially in the realm of magic and
+religion, for epistles were meant to live, were published in several
+copies, and were not a difficult form of literary effort. The
+Tell el-Amarna tablets found in Upper Egypt in 1887 are a series
+of despatches in cuneiform script from Babylonian kings and
+Phoenician and Palestinian governors to the Pharaohs (<i>c.</i> 1400
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The epistles of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plutarch,
+Seneca and the Younger Pliny claim mention at this point. In
+the later Roman period and into the middle ages, formal epistles
+were almost a distinct branch of literature. The ten books of
+Symmachus&rsquo; <i>Epistolae</i>, so highly esteemed in the cultured circles
+of the 4th century, may be contrasted with the less elegant but
+more forceful epistles of Jerome.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction between letters and epistles has particular
+interest for the student of early Christian literature. G.A.
+Deissmann (<i>Bible Studies</i>) assigns to the category of letters all the
+Pauline writings as well as 2 and 3 John. The books bearing the
+names of James, Peter and Jude, together with the Pastorals
+(though these may contain fragments of genuine Pauline letters)
+and the Apocalypse, he regards as epistles. The first epistle of
+John he calls less a letter or an epistle than a religious tract. It
+is doubtful, however, whether we can thus reduce all the letters of
+the New Testament to one or other of these categories; and
+W.M. Ramsay (Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dict. Bib.</i> Extra vol. p. 401) has pointed
+out with some force that &ldquo;in the new conditions a new category
+had been developed&mdash;the general letter addressed to a whole
+class of persons or to the entire Church of Christ.&rdquo; Such writings
+have affinities with both the letter and the epistle, and they may
+further be compared with the &ldquo;edicts and rescripts by which
+Roman law grew, documents arising out of special circumstances
+but treating them on general principles.&rdquo; Most of the literature
+of the sub-apostolic age is epistolary, and we have a particularly
+interesting form of epistle in the communications between
+churches (as distinct from individuals) known as the <i>First
+Epistle of Clement</i> (Rome to Corinth), the <i>Martyrdom of Polycarp</i>
+(Smyrna to Philomelium), and the <i>Letters of the Churches of
+Vienne and Lyons</i> (to the congregations of Asia Minor and Phrygia)
+describing the Gallican martyrdoms of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 177. In the following
+centuries we have the valuable epistles of Cyprian, of Gregory
+Nazianzen (to Cledonius on the Apollinarian controversy), of
+Basil (to be classed rather as letters), of Ambrose, Chrysostom,
+Augustine and Jerome. The encyclical letters of the Roman
+Catholic Church are epistles, even more so than bulls, which are
+usually more special in their destination. In the Renaissance one
+of the most common forms of literary production was that
+modelled upon Cicero&rsquo;s letters. From Petrarch to the <i>Epistolae
+obscurorum virorum</i> there is a whole epistolary literature. The
+<i>Epistolae obscurorum virorum</i> have to some extent a counterpart
+in the Epistles of Martin Marprelate. Later satires in an
+epistolary form are Pascal&rsquo;s <i>Provincial Letters</i>, Swift&rsquo;s <i>Drapier
+Letters</i>, and the <i>Letters of Junius</i>. The &ldquo;open letter&rdquo; of modern
+journalism is really an epistle.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. J. G.)</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Epistles in Poetry.</i>&mdash;A branch of poetry bears the name
+of the Epistle, and is modelled on those pieces of Horace which
+are almost essays (<i>sermones</i>) on moral or philosophical subjects,
+and are chiefly distinguished from other poems by being addressed
+to particular patrons or friends. The epistle of Horace to his
+agent (or <i>villicus</i>) is of a more familiar order, and is at once a
+masterpiece and a model of what an epistle should be. Examples
+of the work in this direction of Ovid, Claudian, Ausonius and
+other late Latin poets have been preserved, but it is particularly
+those of Horace which have given this character to the epistles
+in verse which form so very characteristic a section of French
+poetry. The graceful precision and dignified familiarity of the
+epistle are particularly attractive to the temperament of France.
+Clement Marot, in the 16th century, first made the epistle popular
+in France, with his brief and spirited specimens. We pass the
+witty epistles of Scarron and Voiture, to reach those of Boileau,
+whose epistles, twelve in number, are the classic examples of
+this form of verse in French literature; they were composed
+at different dates between 1668 and 1695. In the 18th century
+Voltaire enjoyed a supremacy in this graceful and sparkling
+species of writing; the <i>Épître à Uranie</i> is perhaps the most
+famous of his verse-letters. Gresset, Bernis, Sedaine, Dorat,
+Gentil-Bernard, all excelled in the epistle. The curious
+&ldquo;Épîtres&rdquo; of J.P.G. Viennet (1777-1868) were not easy and
+mundane like their predecessors, but violently polemical.
+Viennet, a hot defender of lost causes, may be considered the
+latest of the epistolary poets of France.</p>
+
+<p>In England the verse-epistle was first prominently employed
+by Samuel Daniel in his &ldquo;Letter from Octavia to Marcus
+Antonius&rdquo; (1599), and later on, more legitimately, in his
+&ldquo;Certain Epistles&rdquo; (1601-1603). His letter, in <i>terza rima</i>, to
+Lucy, Countess of Bristol, is one of the finest examples of this
+form in English literature. It was Daniel&rsquo;s deliberate intention
+to introduce the Epistle into English poetry, &ldquo;after the manner
+of Horace.&rdquo; He was supported by Ben Jonson, who has some
+fine Horatian epistles in his <i>Forests</i> (1616) and his <i>Underwoods</i>.
+<i>Letters to Several Persons of Honour</i> form an important section
+in the poetry of John Donne. Habington&rsquo;s <i>Epistle to a Friend</i>
+is one of his most finished pieces. Henry Vaughan (1622-1695)
+addressed a fine epistle in verse to the French romance-writer
+Gombauld (1570-1666). Such &ldquo;letters&rdquo; were not unfrequent
+down to the Restoration, but they did not create a department
+of literature such as Daniel had proposed. At the close of the
+17th century Dryden greatly excelled in this class of poetry,
+and his epistles to Congreve (1694) and to the duchess of Ormond
+(1700) are among the most graceful and eloquent that we possess.
+During the age of Anne various Augustan poets in whom the
+lyrical faculty was slight, from Congreve and Richard Duke
+down to Ambrose Philips and William Somerville, essayed the
+epistle with more or less success, and it was employed by Gay
+for several exercises in his elegant persiflage. Among the epistles
+of Gay, one rises to an eminence of merit, that called &ldquo;Mr
+Pope&rsquo;s welcome from Greece,&rdquo; written in 1720. But the great
+writer of epistles in English is Pope himself, to whom the glory
+of this kind of verse belongs. His &ldquo;Eloisa to Abelard&rdquo; (1717)
+is carefully modelled on the form of Ovid&rsquo;s &ldquo;Heroides,&rdquo; while
+in his <i>Moral Essays</i> he adopts the Horatian formula for the
+epistle. In either case his success was brilliant and complete.
+The &ldquo;Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot&rdquo; has not been surpassed, if it
+has been equalled, in Latin or French poetry of the same class.
+But Pope excelled, not only in the voluptuous and in the didactic
+epistle, but in that of compliment as well, and there is no more
+graceful example of this in literature than is afforded by the
+letter about the poems of Parnell addressed, in 1721, to Robert,
+earl of Oxford. After the day of Pope the epistle again fell
+into desuetude, or occasional use, in England. It revived in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span>
+the charming naïveté of Cowper&rsquo;s lyrical letters in octosyllabics
+to his friends, such as William Bull and Lady Austin (1782).
+At the close of the century Samuel Rogers endeavoured to
+resuscitate the neglected form in his &ldquo;Epistle to a Friend&rdquo;
+(1798). The formality and conventional grace of the epistle
+were elements with which the leaders of romantic revival were
+out of sympathy, and it was not cultivated to any important
+degree in the 19th century. It is, however, to be noted that
+Shelley&rsquo;s &ldquo;Letter to Maria Gisborne&rdquo; (1820), Keats&rsquo;s &ldquo;Epistle
+to Charles Clarke&rdquo; (1816), and Landor&rsquo;s &ldquo;To Julius Hare&rdquo;
+(1836), in spite of their romantic colouring, are genuine Horatian
+epistles and of the pure Augustan type. This type, in English
+literature, is commonly, though not at all universally, cast in
+heroic verse. But Daniel employs <i>rime royal</i> and <i>terza rima</i>,
+while some modern epistles have been cast in short iambic
+rhymed measures or in blank verse. It is sometimes not
+easy to distinguish the epistle from the elegy and from the
+dedication.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For St Paul&rsquo;s Epistles see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paul</a></span>, for St Peter&rsquo;s see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peter</a></span>, for
+Apocryphal Epistles see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apocryphal Literature</a></span>, for Plato&rsquo;s
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plato</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPISTYLE<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epi">&#7952;&#960;&#943;</span>, upon, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">&#963;&#964;&#8166;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, column), the Greek
+architectural term for architrave, the lower member of the
+entablature of the classic orders (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPISTYLIS<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (C.G. Ehrenberg), in zoology, a genus of peritrichous
+Infusoria with a short oral disc and collar, and a rigid
+stalk, often branching to form a colony.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPITAPH<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epitaphios">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#964;&#940;&#966;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, sc. <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="epi">&#7952;&#960;&#943;</span>, upon, and
+<span class="grk" title="taphos">&#964;&#940;&#966;&#959;&#962;</span>, a tomb), strictly, an inscription upon a tomb, though
+by a natural extension of usage the name is applied to anything
+written ostensibly for that purpose whether actually inscribed
+upon a tomb or not. When the word was introduced into English
+in the 14th century it took the form <i>epitaphy</i>, as well as <i>epitaphe</i>,
+which latter word is used both by Gower and Lydgate. Many
+of the best-known epitaphs, both ancient and modern, are merely
+literary memorials, and find no place on sepulchral monuments.
+Sometimes the intention of the writer to have his production
+placed upon the grave of the person he has commemorated may
+have been frustrated, sometimes it may never have existed;
+what he has written is still entitled to be called an epitaph if it
+be suitable for the purpose, whether the purpose has been carried
+out or not. The most obvious external condition that suitability
+for mural inscription imposes is one of rigid limitation as to
+length. An epitaph cannot in the nature of things extend to
+the proportions that may be required in an elegy.</p>
+
+<p>The desire to perpetuate the memory of the dead being natural
+to man, the practice of placing epitaphs upon their graves has
+been common among all nations and in all ages. And the
+similarity, amounting sometimes almost to identity, of thought
+and expression that often exists between epitaphs written more
+than two thousand years ago and epitaphs written only yesterday
+is as striking an evidence as literature affords of the close kinship
+of human nature under the most varying conditions where the
+same primary elemental feelings are stirred. The grief and hope
+of the Roman mother as expressed in the touching lines&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Lagge fili bene quiescas;</p>
+ <p class="i05">Mater tua rogat te,</p>
+ <p class="i05">Ut me ad te recipias:</p>
+   <p class="i2">Vale!&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">find their echo in similar inscriptions in many a modern cemetery.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the earliest epitaphial inscriptions that have come
+down to us are those of the ancient Egyptians, written, as their
+mode of sepulture necessitated, upon the sarcophagi and coffins.
+Those that have been deciphered are all very much in the same
+form, commencing with a prayer to a deity, generally Osiris or
+Anubis, on behalf of the deceased, whose name, descent and office
+are usually specified. There is, however, no attempt to delineate
+individual character, and the feelings of the survivors are not
+expressed otherwise than in the fact of a prayer being offered.
+Ancient Greek epitaphs, unlike the Egyptian, are of great literary
+interest, deep and often tender in feeling, rich and varied in
+expression, and generally epigrammatic in form. They are
+written usually in elegiac verse, though many of the later
+epitaphs are in prose. Among the gems of the Greek anthology
+familiar to English readers through translations are the epitaphs
+upon those who had fallen in battle. There are several ascribed
+to Simonides on the heroes of Thermopylae, of which the most
+celebrated is the epigram&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by,</p>
+ <p class="i05">That here, obedient to their laws, we lie.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">A hymn of Simonides on the same subject contains some lines
+of great beauty in praise of those who were buried at Thermopylae,
+and these may be regarded as forming a literary epitaph. In
+Sparta epitaphs were inscribed only upon the graves of those who
+had been especially distinguished in war; in Athens they were
+applied more indiscriminately. They generally contained the
+name, the descent, the demise, and some account of the life of
+the person commemorated. It must be remembered, however,
+that many of the so-called Greek epitaphs are merely literary
+memorials not intended for monumental inscription, and that
+in these freer scope is naturally given to general reflections,
+while less attention is paid to biographical details. Many of them,
+even some of the monumental, do not contain any personal
+name, as in the one ascribed to Plato&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;I am a shipwrecked sailor&rsquo;s tomb; a peasant&rsquo;s there doth stand:</p>
+ <p class="i05">Thus the same world of Hades lies beneath both sea and land.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Others again are so entirely of the nature of general reflections
+upon death that they contain no indication of the particular
+case that called them forth. It may be questioned, indeed,
+whether several of this character quoted in ordinary collections
+are epitaphs at all, in the sense of being intended for a particular
+occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Roman epitaphs, in contrast to those of the Greeks, contained, as
+a rule, nothing beyond a record of facts. The inscriptions on the
+urns, of which numerous specimens are to be found in the British
+Museum, present but little variation. The letters D.M. or D.M.S.
+(<i>Diis Manibus</i> or <i>Diis Manibus Sacrum</i>) are followed by the
+name of the person whose ashes are enclosed, his age at death,
+and sometimes one or two other particulars. The inscription
+closes with the name of the person who caused the urn to be made,
+and his relationship to the deceased. It is a curious illustration
+of the survival of traces of an old faith after it has been formally
+discarded to find that the letters D.M. are not uncommon on the
+Christian inscriptions in the catacombs. It has been suggested
+that in this case they mean <i>Deo Maximo</i> and not <i>Diis Manibus</i>,
+but the explanation would be quite untenable, even if there were
+not many other undeniable instances of the survival of pagan
+superstitions in the thought and life of the early Christians. In
+these very catacomb inscriptions there are many illustrations to
+be found, apart from the use of the letters D.M., of the union of
+heathen with Christian sentiment, (see Maitland&rsquo;s <i>Church in the
+Catacombs</i>). The private burial-places for the ashes of the dead
+were usually by the side of the various roads leading into Rome,
+the Via Appia, the Via Flaminia, &amp;c. The traveller to or from
+the city thus passed for miles an almost uninterrupted succession
+of tombstones, whose inscriptions usually began with the
+appropriate words <i>Siste Viator</i> or <i>Aspice Viator</i>, the origin doubtless
+of the &ldquo;Stop Passenger,&rdquo; which still meets the eye in many
+parish churchyards of Britain. Another phrase of very common
+occurrence on ancient Roman tombstones, <i>Sit tibi terra levis</i>
+(&ldquo;Light lie the earth upon thee&rdquo;), has continued in frequent use,
+as conveying an appropriate sentiment, down to modern times.
+A remarkable feature of many of the Roman epitaphs was the
+terrible denunciation they often pronounced upon those who
+violated the sepulchre. Such denunciations were not uncommon
+in later times. A well-known instance is furnished in the lines on
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s tomb at Stratford-on-Avon, said to have been
+written by the poet himself&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Good frend, for Jesus&rsquo; sake forbeare</p>
+ <p class="i05">To digg the dust enclosed heare;</p>
+ <p class="i05">Bleste be y<span class="sp">e</span> man y<span class="sp">t</span> spares thes stones.</p>
+ <p class="i05">And curst be he y<span class="sp">t</span> moves my bones.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The earliest existing British epitaphs belonged to the Roman
+period, and are written in Latin after the Roman form. Specimens
+are to be seen in various antiquarian museums throughout
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span>
+the country; some of the inscriptions are given in Bruce&rsquo;s <i>Roman
+Wall</i>, and the seventh volume of the <i>Corpus Inscriptionum
+Latinarum</i> edited by Hübner, containing the British inscriptions,
+is a valuable repertory for the earlier Roman epitaphs in Britain.
+The earliest, of course, are commemorative of soldiers, belonging
+to the legions of occupation, but the Roman form was afterwards
+adopted for native Britons. Long after the Roman form was
+discarded, the Latin language continued to be used, especially for
+inscriptions of a more public character, as being from its supposed
+permanence the most suitable medium of communication to
+distant ages. It is only, in fact, within recent years that Latin
+has become unusual, and the more natural practice has been
+adopted of writing the epitaphs of distinguished men in the
+language of the country in which they lived. While Latin was the
+chief if not the sole literary language, it was, as a matter of course,
+almost exclusively used for epitaphial inscriptions. The comparatively
+few English epitaphs that remain of the 11th and 12th
+centuries are all in Latin. They are generally confined to a mere
+statement of the name and rank of the deceased following the
+words &ldquo;Hic jacet.&rdquo; Two noteworthy exceptions to this general
+brevity are, however, to be found in most of the collections. One
+is the epitaph to Gundrada, daughter of the Conqueror (d. 1085),
+which still exists at Lewes, though in an imperfect state, two of
+the lines having been lost; another is that to William de Warren,
+earl of Surrey (d. 1089), believed to have been inscribed in the
+abbey of St Pancras, near Lewes, founded by him. Both are
+encomiastic, and describe the character and work of the deceased
+with considerable fulness and beauty of expression. They are
+written in leonine verse. In the 13th century French began to be
+used in writing epitaphs, and most of the inscriptions to celebrated
+historical personages between 1200 and 1400 are in that language.
+Mention may be made of those to Robert, the 3rd earl of
+Oxford (d. 1221), as given in Weever, to Henry III. (d. 1272) at
+Westminster Abbey, and to Edward the Black Prince (d. 1376) at
+Canterbury. In most of the inscriptions of this period the
+deceased addresses the reader in the first person, describes his
+rank and position while alive, and, as in the case of the Black
+Prince, contrasts it with his wasted and loathsome state in the
+grave, and warns the reader to prepare for the same inevitable
+change. The epitaph almost invariably closes with a request,
+sometimes very urgently worded, for the prayers of the reader
+that the soul of the deceased may pass to glory, and an invocation
+of blessing, general or specific, upon all who comply. Epitaphs
+preserved much of the same character after English began to be
+used towards the close of the 14th century. The following, to a
+member of the Savile family at Thornhill, is probably even earlier,
+though its precise date cannot be fixed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Bonys emongg stonys lys ful</p>
+ <p class="i05">steyl gwylste the sawle wan-</p>
+ <p class="i05">deris were that God wylethe&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">that is, Bones among stones lie full still, whilst the soul wanders
+whither God willeth. It may be noted here that the majority of
+the inscriptions, Latin and English, from 1300 to the period
+of the Reformation, that have been preserved, are upon brasses
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brasses, Monumental</a></span>). The very curious epitaph on St
+Bernard, probably written by a monk of Clairvaux, has the
+peculiarity of being a dialogue in Latin verse.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the reign of Elizabeth that epitaphs in English began
+to assume a distinct literary character and value, entitling them
+to rank with those that had hitherto been composed in Latin.
+We learn from Nash that at the close of the 16th century it had
+become a trade to supply epitaphs in English verse. There is one
+on the dowager countess of Pembroke (d. 1621), remarkable for
+its successful use of a somewhat daring hyperbole. It was
+written by William Browne, author of <i>Britannia&rsquo;s Pastorals</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Underneath this sable hearse</p>
+ <p class="i05">Lies the subject of all verse;</p>
+ <p class="i05">Sydney&rsquo;s sister, Pembroke&rsquo;s mother;</p>
+ <p class="i05">Death, ere thou hast slain another</p>
+ <p class="i05">Fair and learn&rsquo;d and good as she,</p>
+ <p class="i05">Time will throw his dart at thee.</p>
+ <p class="i05">Marble piles let no man raise</p>
+ <p class="i05">To her name for after days;</p>
+ <p class="i05">Some kind woman, born as she,</p>
+ <p class="i05">Reading this, like Niobe,</p>
+ <p class="i05">Shall turn marble, and become</p>
+ <p class="i05">Both her mourner and her tomb.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>If there be something of the exaggeration of a conceit in the
+second stanza, it needs scarcely to be pointed out that epitaphs,
+like every other form of composition, necessarily reflect the
+literary characteristics of the age in which they were written.
+The deprecation of marble as unnecessary suggests one of the
+finest literary epitaphs in the English language, that by Milton
+upon Shakespeare.</p>
+
+<p>The epitaphs of Pope are still considered to possess very
+great literary merit, though they were rated higher by Johnson
+and critics of his period than they are now.</p>
+
+<p>Dr Johnson, who thought so highly of Pope&rsquo;s epitaphs, was
+himself a great authority on both the theory and practice of this
+species of composition. His essay on epitaphs is one of the few
+existing monographs on the subject, and his opinion as to the
+use of Latin had great influence. The manner in which he met
+the delicately insinuated request of a number of eminent men
+that English should be employed in the case of Oliver Goldsmith
+was characteristic, and showed the strength of his conviction
+on the subject. His arguments in favour of Latin were chiefly
+drawn from its inherent fitness for epitaphial inscriptions and
+its classical stability. The first of these has a very considerable
+force, it being admitted on all hands that few languages are in
+themselves so suitable for the purpose; the second is outweighed
+by considerations that had considerable force in Dr
+Johnson&rsquo;s time, and have acquired more since. Even to the
+learned Latin is no longer the language of daily thought and
+life as it was at the period of the Reformation, and the great
+body of those who may fairly claim to be called the well-educated
+classes can only read it with difficulty, if at all. It seems, therefore,
+little less than absurd, for the sake of a stability which is
+itself in great part delusive, to write epitaphs in a language
+unintelligible to the vast majority of those for whose information
+presumably they are intended. Though a stickler for Latin,
+Dr Johnson wrote some very beautiful English epitaphs, as, for
+example, the following on Philips, a musician:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Philips, whose touch harmonious could remove</p>
+ <p class="i05">The pangs of guilty power or hapless love;</p>
+ <p class="i05">Rest here, distressed by poverty no more,</p>
+ <p class="i05">Here find that calm thou gav&rsquo;st so oft before;</p>
+ <p class="i05">Sleep undisturbed within this peaceful shrine</p>
+ <p class="i05">Till angels wake thee with a note like thine!&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In classifying epitaphs various principles of division may be
+adopted. Arranged according to nationality they indicate distinctions
+of race less clearly perhaps than any other form of
+literature does,&mdash;and this obviously because when under the
+influence of the deepest feeling men think and speak very much
+in the same way whatever be their country. At the same time
+the influence of nationality may to some extent be traced in
+epitaphs. The characteristics of the French style, its grace,
+clearness, wit and epigrammatic point, are all recognizable in
+French epitaphs. In the 16th century those of Étienne Pasquier
+were universally admired. Instances such as &ldquo;La première au
+rendez-vous,&rdquo; inscribed on the grave of a mother, Piron&rsquo;s epitaph,
+written for himself after his rejection by the French Academy&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Ci-gît Piron, qui ne fut rien,</p>
+ <p class="i05">Pas même académicien&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and one by a relieved husband, to be seen at Père la Chaise&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Ci-gît ma femme. Ah! qu&rsquo;elle est bien</p>
+ <p class="i05">Pour son repos et pour le mien&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">might be multiplied indefinitely. One can hardly look through
+a collection of English epitaphs without being struck with the
+fact that these represent a greater variety of intellectual and
+emotional states than those of any other nation, ranging through
+every style of thought from the sublime to the commonplace,
+every mood of feeling from the most delicate and touching to
+the coarse and even brutal. Few subordinate illustrations of
+the complex nature of the English nationality are more striking.</p>
+
+<p>Epitaphs are sometimes classified according to their authorship
+and sometimes according to their subject, but neither division
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span>
+is so interesting as that which arranges them according to their
+characteristic features. What has just been said of English
+epitaphs is, of course, more true of epitaphs generally. They
+exemplify every variety of sentiment and taste, from lofty
+pathos and dignified eulogy to coarse buffoonery and the vilest
+scurrility. The extent to which the humorous and even the low
+comic element prevails among them is a noteworthy circumstance.
+It is curious that the most solemn of all subjects should have
+been frequently treated, intentionally or unintentionally, in a
+style so ludicrous that a collection of epitaphs is generally one
+of the most amusing books that can be picked up. In this as
+in other cases, too, it is to be observed that the unintended
+humour is generally of a much more entertaining kind than that
+which has been deliberately perpetrated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Weever, <i>Ancient Funerall Monuments</i> (1631, 1661, Tooke&rsquo;s
+edit., 1767); Philippe Labbe, <i>Thesaurus epitaphiorum</i> (Paris, 1666);
+<i>Theatrum funebre extructum a Dodone Richea seu Ottone Aicher</i>
+(1675); Hackett, <i>Select and Remarkable Epitaphs</i> (1757); de
+Laplace, <i>Épitaphes sérieuses, badines, satiriques et burlesques</i> (3 vols.,
+Paris, 1782); Pulleyn, <i>Churchyard Gleanings</i> (<i>c.</i> 1830); L. Lewysohn,
+<i>Sechzig Epitaphien von Grabsteinen d. israelit. Friedhofes zu
+Worms</i> (1855); Pettigrew, <i>Chronicles of the Tombs</i> (1857); S.
+Tissington, <i>Epitaphs</i> (1857); Robinson, <i>Epitaphs from Cemeteries
+in London, Edinburgh, &amp;c.</i> (1859); le Blant, <i>Inscriptions chrétiennes
+de la Gaule antérieures au VIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1856, 1865); Blommaert,
+Galliard, &amp;c, <i>Inscriptions funéraires et monumentales de la prov.
+de Flandre Orient</i> (Ghent, 1857, 1860); <i>Inscriptions fun. et mon. de
+la prov. d&rsquo;Anvers</i> (Antwerp, 1857-1860); Chwolson, <i>Achtzehn
+hebräische Grabschriften aus der Krim</i> (1859); J. Brown, <i>Epitaphs,
+&amp;c, in Greyfriars Churchyard, Edinburgh</i> (1867); H.J. Loaring,
+<i>Quaint, Curious, and Elegant Epitaphs</i> (1872); J.K. Kippax,
+<i>Churchyard Literature, a Choice Collection of American Epitaphs</i>
+(Chicago, 1876); also the poet William Wordsworth&rsquo;s <i>Essay on
+Epitaphs</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPITHALAMIUM<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epi">&#7952;&#960;&#943;</span>, at or upon, and <span class="grk" title="thalamos">&#952;&#940;&#955;&#945;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, a nuptial
+chamber), originally among the Greeks a song in praise of bride
+and bridegroom, which was sung by a number of boys and girls
+at the door of the nuptial chamber. According to the scholiast
+on Theocritus, one form, the <span class="grk" title="katakoimêtikon">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#953;&#956;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span>, was employed at
+night, and another, the <span class="grk" title="diegertikon">&#948;&#953;&#949;&#947;&#949;&#961;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span>, to arouse the bride and
+bridegroom on the following morning. In either case, as was
+natural, the main burden of the song consisted of invocations
+of blessing and predictions of happiness, interrupted from time
+to time by the ancient chorus of <i>Hymen hymenaee</i>. Among the
+Romans a similar custom was in vogue, but the song was sung
+by girls only, after the marriage guests had gone, and it contained
+much more of what modern morality would condemn as obscene.
+In the hands of the poets the epithalamium was developed into
+a special literary form, and received considerable cultivation.
+Sappho, Anacreon, Stesichorus and Pindar are all regarded as
+masters of the species, but the finest example preserved in Greek
+literature is the 18th Idyll of Theocritus, which celebrates the
+marriage of Menelaus and Helen. In Latin, the epithalamium,
+imitated from Fescennine Greek models, was a base form of
+literature, when Catullus redeemed it and gave it dignity by
+modelling his <i>Marriage of Thetis and Peleus</i> on a lost ode of
+Sappho. In later times Statius, Ausonius, Sidonius Apollinaris
+and Claudian are the authors of the best-known epithalamia in
+classical Latin; and they have been imitated by Buchanan,
+Scaliger, Sannazaro, and a whole host of modern Latin poets,
+with whom, indeed, the form was at one time in great favour.
+The names of Ronsard, Malherbe and Scarron are especially
+associated with the species in French literature, and Marini and
+Metastasio in Italian. Perhaps no poem of this class has been
+more universally admired than the <i>Epithalamium</i> of Spenser
+(1595), though he has found no unworthy rivals in Ben Jonson,
+Donne and Quarles. At the close of <i>In Memoriam</i> Tennyson
+has appended a poem, on the nuptials of his sister, which is
+strictly an epithalamium.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPITHELIAL, ENDOTHELIAL<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> and <b>GLANDULAR TISSUES</b>,
+in anatomy. Every surface of the body which may come into
+contact with foreign substances is covered with a
+protecting layer of cells closely bound to one another
+<span class="sidenote">Epithelium.</span>
+to form continuous sheets. These are epithelial cells
+(from <span class="grk" title="thêlê">&#952;&#951;&#955;&#942;</span>, a nipple). By the formation of outgrowths or ingrowths
+from these surfaces further structures, consisting largely
+or entirely of cells directly derived from the surface epithelium,
+may be formed. In this way originate the central nervous
+system, the sensitive surfaces of the special sense organs, the
+glands, and the hairs, nails, &amp;c. The epithelial cells possess
+typical microscopical characters which enable them to be readily
+distinguished from all others. Thus the cell outline is clearly
+marked, the nucleus large and spherical or ellipsoidal. The
+protoplasm of the cell is usually large in amount and often
+contains large numbers of granules.</p>
+
+<p>The individual cells forming an epithelial membrane are
+classified according to their shape. Thus we find <i>flattened</i>, or
+<i>squamous</i>, <i>cubical</i>, <i>columnar</i>, <i>irregular</i>, <i>ciliated</i> or
+<i>flagellated</i> cells. Many of the membranes formed by
+<span class="sidenote">Varieties.</span>
+these cells are only one cell thick, as for instance is the case for
+the major part of the alimentary canal. In other instances the
+epithelial membrane may consist of a number of layers of cells,
+as in the case of the epidermis of the skin. Considering in the
+first place those membranes of which the cells are in a single
+layer we may distinguish the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Columnar Epithelium</i> (figs. 1 and 2).&mdash;This variety covers
+the main part of the intestinal tract, <i>i.e.</i> from the end of the
+oesophagus to the commencement of the rectum. It is also found
+lining the ducts of many glands. In a highly typical form it is
+found covering the villi of the small intestine
+(fig. 1). The external layer of the
+cell is commonly modified to form a thin
+membrane showing a number of very fine
+radially arranged lines, which are probably the expression of
+very minute tubular perforations through the membrane.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:106px; height:179px" src="images/img705a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:116px; height:77px" src="images/img705b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:112px; height:90px" src="images/img705c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Isolated
+Epithelial Cells from the Small Intestine of the Frog.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Columnar
+Epithelial Cells resting upon a Basement Membrane.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Mosaic
+appearance of a Columnar Epithelial Surface as
+seen from above.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The close apposition of these cells to form a closed membrane
+is well seen when a surface covered by them is examined from
+above (fig. 3). The surfaces of the cells are then seen to form a
+mosaic, each cell area having a polyhedral shape.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Cubical Epithelium.</i>&mdash;This differs from the former in that
+the cells are less in height. It is found in many glands and ducts
+(<i>e.g.</i> the kidney), in the middle ear, choroid plexuses of the
+brain, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:191px; height:271px" src="images/img705d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Squamous
+Epithelial Cells from the Mucous Membrane of the Mouth.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>3. <i>Squamous or Flattened Epithelium</i> (fig. 4).&mdash;In this variety
+the cell is flattened, very thin and irregular in outline. It occurs
+as the covering epithelium of the
+alveoli of the lung, of the kidney
+glomerules and capsule, &amp;c. The surface
+epithelial cells of a stratified epithelium
+are also of this type (fig. 4).
+Closely resembling these cells are those
+known as endothelial (see later).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 160px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:109px; height:113px" src="images/img705e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Isolated
+ciliated Epithelial Cells from the Trachea.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>4. <i>Ciliated Epithelium</i> (fig. 5).&mdash;The
+surface cells
+of many epithelial
+membranes are
+often provided
+with a number of
+very fine protoplasmic
+processes
+or <i>cilia</i>. Most commonly
+the cells
+are columnar, but
+other shapes are also found. During life the cilia are always
+in movement, and set up a current tending to drive fluid
+or other material on the surface in one direction along the
+membrane or tube lined by such epithelium. It is found
+lining the trachea, bronchi, parts of the nasal cavities and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span>
+uterus, oviduct, vas deferens, epididymis, a portion of the renal
+tubule, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>In the instance of some cells there may be but a single process
+from the exposed surface of the cell, and then the process is
+usually of large size and length. It is then known as a <i>flagellum</i>.
+Such cells are common among the surface cells of many of the
+simple animal organisms.</p>
+
+<p>When the cells of an epithelial surface are arranged several
+layers deep, we can again distinguish various types:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:156px; height:95px" src="images/img706a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;A Stratified Epithelium
+from a Mucous Membrane.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:158px; height:342px" src="images/img706b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Stratified Epithelium
+from the Skin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>c</i>, Columnar cells resting on</p>
+<p>the fibrous true skin.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, The so-called prickle cells.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Stratum granulosum.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Horny cells.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, Squamous horny cells.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>1. <i>Stratified Epithelium</i> (figs. 6 and 7).&mdash;This is found in the
+epithelium of the skin and of many mucous membranes (mouth,
+oesophagus, rectum, conjunctiva,
+vagina, &amp;c.). Here the surface cells
+are very much flattened (squamous
+epithelium), those of the middle
+layer are polyhedral and those of the
+lowest layer are cubical or columnar.
+This type of epithelium is found
+covering surfaces commonly exposed
+to friction. The surface may be dry
+as in the skin, or moist, <i>e.g.</i> the
+mouth. The surface cells are constantly
+being rubbed off, and are
+then replaced by new cells growing
+up from below. Hence the deepest
+layer, that nearest the blood supply,
+is a formative layer, and in successive
+stages from this we can trace
+the gradual transformation of these
+protoplasmic cells into scaly cells,
+which no longer show any sign of
+being alive. In the moist mucous
+surfaces the number of cells forming
+the epithelial layer is usually
+much smaller than in a dry stratified
+epithelium.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Stratified Ciliated Epithelium.</i>&mdash;In
+this variety the superficial cells
+are ciliated and columnar, between
+the bases of these are found fusiform
+cells and the lowest cells are
+cubical or pyramidal. This epithelium
+is found lining parts of
+the respiratory passages, the vas
+deferens and the epididymis.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:251px; height:132px" src="images/img706c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Transitional Epithelium
+from the Urinary Bladder, showing the outlines of the cells only.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>3. <i>Transitional Epithelium</i> (fig. 8).&mdash;This variety of epithelium
+is found lining the bladder, and the appearance observed depends
+upon the contracted or distended state of the bladder from
+which the preparation was
+made. If the bladder was contracted
+the form seen in fig. 8 is
+obtained. The epithelium is in
+three or more layers, the superficial
+one being very characteristic.
+The cells are cubical and
+fit over the rounded ends of the
+cells of the next layer. These
+are pear-shaped, the points of
+the pear resting on the basement
+membrane. Between the bases of these cells lie those
+of the lowermost layer. These are irregularly columnar. If
+the bladder is distended before the preparation is made, the
+cells are then found stretched out transversely. This is especially
+the case with the surface cells, which may then become very
+flattened.</p>
+
+<p>Considering epithelium from the point of view of function,
+it may be classified as protective, absorptive or secretory. It
+may produce special outgrowths for protective or ornamental
+purposes, such are hairs, nails, horns, &amp;c., and for such purposes
+it may manufacture within itself chemical material best suited
+for that purpose, <i>e.g.</i> keratin; here the whole cell becomes
+modified. In other instances may be seen in the interior of the
+cells many chemical substances which indicate the nature of their
+work, <i>e.g.</i> fat droplets, granules of various kinds, protein, mucin,
+watery granules, glycogen, &amp;c. In a typical absorbing cell
+granules of material being absorbed may be seen. A secreting
+cell of normal type forming specific substances stores these in its
+interior until wanted, <i>e.g.</i> fat as in sebaceous and mammary
+glands, ferment precursors (salivary, gastric glands, &amp;c.), and
+various excretory substances, as in the renal epithelium.</p>
+
+<p>Initially the epithelium cell might have all these functions, but
+later came specialization and therefore to most cells a specific
+work. Some of that work does not require the cell to be at the
+surface, while for other work this is indispensable, and hence
+when the surface becomes limited those of the former category
+are removed from the surface to the deeper parts. This is seen
+typically in secretory and excretory cells, which usually lie
+below the surface on to which they pour their secretions. If the
+secretion required at any one point is considerable, then the
+secreting cells are numerous in proportion and a typical gland is
+formed. The secretion is then conducted to the surface by a duct,
+and this duct is also lined with epithelium.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:87px; height:281px" src="images/img706d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;A Compound
+Tubular Gland. One of the pyloric glands of the stomach of the dog.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Glandular Tissues.</i>&mdash;Every gland is formed by an ingrowth
+from an epithelial surface. This ingrowth may from the beginning
+possess a tubular structure, but in other instances
+may start as a solid column of cells which subsequently
+<span class="sidenote">Glands.</span>
+becomes tubulated. As growth proceeds, the column of cells may
+divide or give off offshoots, in which case a compound gland is
+formed. In many glands the number of
+branches is limited, in others (salivary,
+pancreas) a very large structure is finally
+formed by repeated growth and subdivision.
+As a rule the branches do
+not unite with one another, but in one
+instance, the liver, this does occur when
+a reticulated compound gland is produced.
+In compound glands the more
+typical or secretory epithelium is found
+forming the terminal portion of each
+branch, and the uniting portions form
+ducts and are lined with a less modified
+type of epithelial cell.</p>
+
+<p>Glands are classified according to their
+shape. If the gland retains its shape as
+a tube throughout it is termed a <i>tubular</i>
+gland, simple tubular if there is no division
+(large intestine), <i>compound</i> tubular (fig. 9)
+if branching occurs (pyloric glands of
+stomach). In the simple tubular glands the gland may be coiled
+without losing its tubular form, <i>e.g.</i> in sweat glands. In the
+second main variety of gland the secretory portion is enlarged
+and the lumen variously increased in size.
+These are termed <i>alveolar</i> or <i>saccular</i> glands.
+They are again subdivided into simple or
+compound alveolar glands, as in the case
+of the tubular glands (fig. 10). A further
+complication in the case of the alveolar glands may occur in
+the form of still smaller saccular diverticuli growing out from
+the main sacculi (fig. 11).  These are termed <i>alveoli</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:265px; height:128px" src="images/img706e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:131px; height:223px" src="images/img706f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;A Tubulo-alveolar Gland.
+One of the mucous salivary glands of the
+dog. On the left the alveoli are unfolded
+to show their general arrangement.
+<i>d</i>, Small duct of gland subdividing
+into branches; <i>e</i>, <i>f</i> and <i>g</i>,
+terminal tubular alveoli of gland.</td>
+<td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;A Compound
+Alveolar Gland. One of the terminal
+lobules of the pancreas, showing the spherical
+form of the alveoli.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The typical secretory cells of the glands are found lining the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span>
+terminal portions of the ramifications and extend upwards to
+varying degrees. Thus in a typical acinous gland the cells are
+restricted to the final alveoli. The remaining tubes are to be
+considered mainly as ducts. In tubulo-alveolar glands the
+secreting epithelium lines the alveus as well as the terminal
+tubule.</p>
+
+<p>The gland cells are all placed upon a basement membrane. In
+many instances this membrane is formed of very thin flattened
+cells, in other instances it is apparently a homogeneous membrane,
+and according to some observers is simply a modified part
+of the basal surface of the cell, while according to others it is a
+definite structure distinct from the epithelium.</p>
+
+<p>In the secretory portion of the gland and in the smaller ducts
+the epithelial layer is one cell thick only. In the larger ducts
+there are two layers of cells, but even here the surface cell usually
+extends by a thinned-out stalk down to the basement membrane.</p>
+
+<p>The detailed characters of the epithelium of the different
+glands of the body are given in separate articles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alimentary
+Canal</a></span>, &amp;c.). It will be <span class="correction" title="amended from sufficent">sufficient</span> here to give the more general
+characters possessed by these cells. They are cubical or conical
+cells with distinct oval nuclei and granular protoplasm. Within
+the protoplasm is accumulated a large number of spherical
+granules arranged in diverse manners in different cells. The
+granules vary much in size in different glands, and in chemical
+composition, but in all cases represent a store of material ready
+to be discharged from the cell as its secretion. Hence the general
+appearance of the cell is found to vary according to the previous
+degree of activity of the cell. If it has been at rest for some time
+the cell contains very many granules which swell it out and
+increase its size. The nucleus is then largely hidden by the
+granules. In the opposite condition, <i>i.e.</i> when the cell has been
+actively secreting, the protoplasm is much clearer, the nucleus
+obvious and the cell shrunken in size, all these changes being
+due to the extrusion of the granules.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endothelium and Mesothelium.</i>&mdash;Lining the blood vessels,
+lymph vessels and lymph spaces are found flattened cells apposed
+to one another by their edges to form an extremely
+thin membrane. These cells are developed from the
+<span class="sidenote">Endothelium and mesothelium.</span>
+middle embryonic layer and are termed endothelium.
+A very similar type of cells is also found, formed into
+a very thin continuous sheet, lining the body-cavity, <i>i.e.</i> pleural
+pericardial, and peritoneal cavities. These cells develop from
+that portion of the mesoderm known as the mesothelium, and
+are therefore frequently termed mesothelial, though by many
+they are also included as endothelial cells.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:197px; height:164px" src="images/img707a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Mesothelial
+Cells forming the Peritoneal
+Serous Membrane.
+Three stomata are seen
+surrounded by cubical
+cells. One of these is
+closed. The light band
+marks the position of a
+lymphatic. (After Klein.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A mesothelial cell is very flattened, thus resembling a squamous
+epithelial cell. It possesses a protoplasm with faint granules
+and an oval or round nucleus (fig. 12).
+The outline of the cell is irregularly
+polyhedral, and the borders may be
+finely serrated. The cells are united
+to one another by an intercellular
+cement substance which, however, is
+very scanty in amount, but can be
+made apparent by staining with silver
+nitrate when the appearance reproduced
+in the figure is seen. By being
+thus united together, the cells form
+a continuous layer. This layer is
+pierced by a number of small openings,
+known as stomata, which bring
+the cavity into direct communication
+with lymph spaces or vessels lying
+beneath the membrane. The stomata
+are surrounded by a special layer of cubical and granular cells.
+Through these stomata fluids and other materials present in the
+body-cavity can be removed into the lymph spaces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endothelial</i> membranes (fig. 13) are quite similar in structure
+to mesothelial. They are usually elongated cells of irregular
+outline and serrated borders.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:210px; height:86px" src="images/img707b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Endothelial
+Cells from the Interior of an Artery.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>By means of endothelial or mesothelial membranes the
+surfaces of the parts covered by them are rendered very smooth,
+so that movement over the surface is greatly facilitated. Thus
+the abdominal organs can glide easily over one another within
+the peritoneal cavity; the blood or lymph experiences the least
+amount of friction; or again the friction is reduced to a minimum
+between a tendon and its sheath or
+in the joint cavities. The cells forming
+these membranes also possess
+further physiological properties.
+Thus it is most probable that they
+play an active part in the blood
+capillaries in transmitting substances
+from the blood into the tissue spaces,
+or conversely in preventing the passage of materials from blood
+to tissue space or from tissue space to blood. Hence the fluid
+of the blood and that of the tissue space need not be of the same
+chemical composition.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. G. Br.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPITOME<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epitomê">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#942;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="epitemnein">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#964;&#941;&#956;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to cut short), an
+abridgment, abstract or summary giving the salient points of a
+book, law case, &amp;c., a short and concise account of any particular
+subject or event. By transference <i>epitome</i> is also used to express
+the representation of a larger thing, concrete or abstract, reproduced
+in miniature. Thus St Mark&rsquo;s was called by Ruskin the
+&ldquo;epitome of Venice,&rdquo; as it embraces examples of all the periods
+of architecture from the 10th to the 19th centuries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPOCH<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="epochê">&#7952;&#960;&#959;&#967;&#942;</span>, holding in suspense, a pause, from
+<span class="grk" title="epechein">&#7952;&#960;&#941;&#967;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to hold up, to stop), a term for a stated period of time,
+and so used of a date accepted as the starting-point of an era
+or of a new period in chronology, such as the birth of Christ.
+It is hence transferred to a period which marks a great change,
+whether in the history of a country or a science, such as a great
+discovery or invention. Thus an event may be spoken of as
+&ldquo;epoch-making.&rdquo; The word is also used, synonymously with
+&ldquo;period,&rdquo; for any space of time marked by a distinctive condition
+or by a particular series of events.</p>
+
+<p>In astronomy the word is used for a moment from which time
+is measured, or at which a definite position of a body or a definite
+relation of two bodies occurs. For example, the position of a
+body moving in an orbit cannot be determined unless its position
+at some given time is known. The given time is then the epoch;
+but the term is often applied to the mean longitude of the body
+at the given time.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPODE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span>, in verse, the third part in an ode, which followed the
+strophe and the antistrophe, and completed the movement;
+it was called <span class="grk" title="epôdos periodos">&#7952;&#960;&#8179;&#948;&#8056;&#962; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span> by the Greeks. At a certain
+moment the choirs, which had chanted to right of the altar or
+stage and then to left of it, combined and sang in unison, or
+permitted the coryphaeus to sing for them all, standing in the
+centre. When, with the appearance of Stesichorus and the
+evolution of choral lyric, a learned and artificial kind of poetry
+began to be cultivated in Greece, a new form, the <span class="grk" title="eidos epôdikon">&#949;&#7990;&#948;&#959;&#962; &#7952;&#960;&#8179;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span>,
+or epode-song, came into existence. It consisted of a verse of
+trimeter iambic, followed by a dimeter iambic, and it is reported
+that, although the epode was carried to its highest perfection by
+Stesichorus, an earlier poet, Archilochus, was really the inventor
+of this form. The epode soon took a firm place in choral poetry,
+which it lost when that branch of literature declined. But it
+extended beyond the ode, and in the early dramatists we find
+numerous examples of monologues and dialogues framed on the
+epodical system. In Latin poetry the epode was cultivated, in
+conscious archaism, both as a part of the ode and as an independent
+branch of poetry. Of the former class, the epithalamia
+of Catullus, founded on an imitation of Pindar, present us with
+examples of strophe, antistrophe and epode; and it has been
+observed that the celebrated ode of Horace, beginning <i>Quem
+virum aut heroa lyra vel acri</i>, possesses this triple character.
+But the word is now mainly familiar from an experiment of
+Horace in the second class, for he entitled his fifth book
+of odes <i>Epodon liber</i> or the Book of Epodes. He says in
+the course of these poems, that in composing them he was
+introducing a new form, at least in Latin literature, and that
+he was imitating the effect of the iambic distichs invented by
+Archilochus. Accordingly we find the first ten of these epodes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span>
+composed in alternate verses of iambic trimeter and iambic
+dimeter, thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;At o Deorum quicquid in coelo regit</p>
+   <p class="i2">Terras et humanum genus.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">In the seven remaining epodes Horace has diversified the
+measures, while retaining the general character of the distich.
+This group of poems belongs in the main to the early youth of the
+poet, and displays a truculence and a controversial heat which
+are absent from his more mature writings. As he was imitating
+Archilochus in form, he believed himself justified, no doubt, in
+repeating the sarcastic violence of his fierce model. The curious
+thing is that these particular poems of Horace, which are really
+short lyrical satires, have appropriated almost exclusively the
+name of epodes, although they bear little enough resemblance
+to the genuine epode of early Greek literature.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPONA<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span>, a goddess of horses, asses and mules, worshipped
+by the Romans, though of foreign, probably Gallic, origin. The
+majority of inscriptions and images bearing her name have been
+found in Gaul, Germany and the Danube countries; of the
+few that occur in Rome itself most were exhumed on the site of
+the barracks of the <i>equites singulares</i>, a foreign imperial body-guard
+mainly recruited from the Batavians. Her name does not
+appear in Tertullian&rsquo;s list of the <i>indigetes di</i>, and Juvenal contrasts
+her worship unfavourably with the old Roman Numa
+ritual. Her cult does not appear to have been introduced before
+imperial times, when she is often called Augusta and invoked
+on behalf of the emperor and the imperial house. Her chief
+function, however, was to see that the beasts of burden were
+duly fed, and to protect them against accidents and malicious
+influence. In the countries in which the worship of Epona was
+said to have had its origin it was a common belief that certain
+beings were in the habit of casting a spell over stables during
+the night. The Romans used to place the image of the goddess,
+crowned with flowers on festive occasions, in a sort of shrine in
+the centre of the architrave of the stable. In art she is generally
+represented seated, with her hand on the head of the accompanying
+horse or animal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Tertullian, Apol. 16; Juvenal viii. 157; Prudentius, <i>Apoth.</i>
+197; Apuleius, <i>Metam.</i> iii. 27; articles in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s
+<i>Dict, des antiquités</i> and Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPONYMOUS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span>, that which gives a name to anything (Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="epônymos">&#7952;&#960;&#974;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="onoma">&#8004;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#945;</span>, a name), a term especially applied to the
+mythical or semi-mythical personages, heroes, deities, &amp;c. from
+whom a country or city took its name. Thus Pelops is the giver
+of the name to the Peloponnese. At Athens the chief archon
+of the year was known as the <span class="grk" title="archôn epônymos">&#7940;&#961;&#967;&#969;&#957; &#7952;&#960;&#974;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, as the year was
+known by his name. There was a similar official in ancient
+Assyria. In ancient times, as in historical and modern cases,
+a country or a city has been named after a real personage, but
+in many cases the person has been invented to account for the
+name.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPPING<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span>, a market town in the Epping parliamentary division
+of Essex, England, 17 m. N.N.E. from London by a branch
+of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901),
+3789. The town lies high and picturesquely, at the northern
+outskirts of Epping Forest. The modern church of St John
+the Baptist replaces the old parish church of All Saints in the
+village of Epping Upland 2 m. N.W. This is in part Norman.
+There is considerable trade in butter, cheese and sausages.</p>
+
+<p>Epping Forest forms part of the ancient Waltham Forest,
+which covered the greater part of the county. All the &ldquo;London
+Basin,&rdquo; within which the Forest lies, was densely wooded.
+The Forest became one of the commonable lands of Royal
+Chases or hunting-grounds. It was threatened with total
+disafforestation, when under the Epping Forest Act of 1871 a
+board of commissioners was appointed for the better management
+of the lands. The corporation of the city of London then
+acquired the freehold interest of waste land belonging to the lords
+of the manor, and finally secured 5559½ acres, magnificently
+timbered, to the use of the public for ever, the tract being
+declared open by Queen Victoria in 1882. The Ancient Court
+of Verderers was also revived, consisting of an hereditary lord
+warden together with four verderers elected by freeholders of the
+county. The present forest lies between the valleys of the Roding
+and the Lea, and extends southward from Epping to the vicinity
+of Woodford and Walthamstow, a distance of about 7 m. It is
+readily accessible from the villages on its outskirts, such as
+Woodford, Chingford and Loughton, which are served by branches
+of the Great Eastern railway. These are centres of residential
+districts, and, especially on public holidays in the summer,
+receive large numbers of visitors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPPS<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span>, the name of an English family, well known in commerce
+and medicine. In the second half of the 18th century they had
+been settled near Ashford, Kent, for some generations, claiming
+descent from an equerry of Charles II., but were reduced in
+circumstances, when <span class="sc">John Epps</span> rose to prosperity as a provision
+merchant in London, and restored the family fortunes. He
+had four sons, of whom <span class="sc">John Epps</span> (1805-1869), <span class="sc">George
+Napoleon Epps</span> (1815-1874), and <span class="sc">James Epps</span> (1821-1907)
+were notable men of their day, the two former as prominent
+doctors who were ardent converts to homoeopathy, and James
+as a homoeopathic chemist and the founder of the great cocoa
+business associated with his name. Among Dr G.N. Epps&rsquo;s
+children were Dr Washington Epps, a well-known homoeopathist,
+Lady Alma-Tadema, and Mrs Edmund Gosse.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ÉPRÉMESNIL<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Ésprémesnil</span> or <span class="sc">Épréménil</span>), <b>JEAN JACQUES
+DUVAL D&rsquo;</b> (1745-1794), French magistrate and politician, was
+born in India on the 5th of December 1745 at Pondicherry, his
+father being a colleague of Dupleix. Returning to France in
+1750 he was educated in Paris for the law, and became in 1775
+<i>conseiller</i> in the parlement of Paris, where he soon distinguished
+himself by his zealous defence of its rights against the royal
+prerogative. He showed bitter enmity to Marie Antoinette in
+the matter of the diamond necklace, and on the 19th of November
+1787 he was the spokesman of the parlement in demanding the
+convocation of the states-general. When the court retaliated
+by an edict depriving the parlement of its functions, Éprémesnil
+bribed the printers to supply him with a copy before its promulgation,
+and this he read to the assembled parlement. A
+royal officer was sent to the palais de justice to arrest Éprémesnil
+and his chief supporter Goislard de Montsabert, but the parlement
+(5th of May 1788) declared that they were all Éprémesnils, and
+the arrest was only effected on the next day on the voluntary
+surrender of the two members. After four months&rsquo; imprisonment
+on the island of Ste Marguerite, Éprémesnil found himself a
+popular hero, and was returned to the states-general as deputy
+of the nobility of the outlying districts of Paris. But with the
+rapid advance towards revolution his views changed; in his
+<i>Réflexions impartiales</i> ... (January 1789) he defended the
+monarchy, and he led the party among the nobility that refused
+to meet with the third estate until summoned to do so by royal
+command. In the Constituent Assembly he opposed every
+step towards the destruction of the monarchy. After a narrow
+escape from the fury of the Parisian populace in July 1792 he
+was imprisoned in the Abbaye, but was set at liberty before the
+September massacres. In September 1793, however, he was
+arrested at Le Havre, taken to Paris, and denounced to the
+Convention as an agent of Pitt. He was brought to trial before
+the revolutionary tribunal on the 21st of April 1794, and was
+guillotined the next day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>D&rsquo;Éprémesnil&rsquo;s speeches were collected in a small volume in 1823.
+See also H. Carré, <i>Un Précurseur inconscient de la Révolution</i> (Paris,
+1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPSOM<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span>, a market town in the Epsom parliamentary division
+of Surrey, England, 14 m. S.W. by S. of London Bridge. Pop.
+of urban district (1901), 10,915. It is served by the London &amp;
+South-Western and the London, Brighton &amp; South Coast railways,
+and on the racecourse on the neighbouring Downs there is a
+station (Tattenham Corner) of the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham
+railway. The principal building is the parish church of St
+Martin, a good example of modern Gothic, the interior of which
+contains some fine sculptures by Flaxman and Chantrey. Epsom
+(a contraction of Ebbisham, still the name of the manor) first
+came into notice when mineral springs were discovered there
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span>
+about 1618. For some time after their discovery the town
+enjoyed a wonderful degree of prosperity. After the Restoration
+it was often visited by Charles II., and when Queen Anne came
+to the throne, her husband, Prince George of Denmark, made
+it his frequent resort. Epsom gradually lost its celebrity as a
+spa, but the annual races held on its downs arrested the decay
+of the town. Races appear to have been established here as
+early as James I&rsquo;s residence at Nonsuch, but they did not assume
+a permanent character until 1730. The principal races&mdash;the
+Derby and Oaks&mdash;are named after one of the earls of Derby
+and his seat, the Oaks, which is in the neighbourhood. The
+latter race was established in 1779, and the former in the following
+year. The spring races are held on a Thursday and Friday
+towards the close of April; and the great Epsom meeting takes
+place on the Tuesday and three following days immediately
+before Whitsuntide,&mdash;the Derby on the Wednesday, and the
+Oaks on the Friday (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse-Racing</a></span>). The grand stand
+was erected in 1829, and subsequently enlarged; and there
+are numerous training stables in the vicinity. Close to the town
+are the extensive buildings of the Royal Medical Benevolent
+College, commonly called Epsom College, founded in 1855.
+Scholars on the foundation must be the sons of medical men,
+but in other respects the school is open. In the neighbourhood
+is the Durdans, a seat of the earl of Rosebery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EPSOM SALTS<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span>, heptohydrated magnesium sulphate,
+MgSO<span class="su">4</span>·7H<span class="su">2</span>O, the <i>magnesii sulphas</i> of pharmacy (Ger. <i>Bittersalz</i>).
+It occurs dissolved in sea water and in most mineral
+waters, especially in those at Epsom (from which place it takes its
+name), Seidlitz, Saidschutz and Pullna. It also occurs in nature
+in fibrous excrescences, constituting the mineral epsomite or
+hair-salt; and as compact masses (reichardite), as in the Stassfurt
+mines. It is also found associated with limestone, as in the
+Mammoth Caves, Kentucky, and with gypsum, as at Montmartre.
+Epsom salts crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, being
+isomorphous with the corresponding zinc and nickel sulphates,
+and also with magnesium chromate. Occasionally monoclinic
+crystals are obtained by crystallizing from a strong solution.
+It is used in the arts for weighting cotton fabrics, as a top-dressing
+for clover hay in agriculture, and in dyeing. In medicine
+it is frequently employed as a hydragogue purgative, specially
+valuable in febrile diseases, in congestion of the portal system,
+and in the obstinate constipation of painters&rsquo; colic. In the last
+case it is combined with potassium iodide, the two salts being
+exceedingly effective in causing the elimination of lead from the
+system. It is also very useful as a supplement to mercury,
+which needs a saline aperient to complete its action. The salt
+should be given a few hours after the mercury, <i>e.g.</i> in the early
+morning, the mercury having been given at night. It possesses
+the advantage of exercising but little irritant effect upon the
+bowels. Its nauseous bitter taste may to some extent be concealed
+by acidifying the solution with dilute sulphuric acid,
+and in some cases where full doses have failed the repeated
+administration of small ones has proved effectual.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the manufacture of Epsom salts and for other hydrated
+magnesium sulphates see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magnesium</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 9, Slice 6, by Various
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 9, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 9, Slice 6
+       "English Language" to "Epsom Salts"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 17, 2011 [EBook #35306]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) Small and capital EZH letters are subtituted with [gh] and [Gh]
+      respectively. Thorn is subtituted with th or Th, and eth is
+      subtituted with dh.
+
+(6) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(7) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE ENGLISH LANGUAGE: "The writers of each district wrote in
+      the dialect familiar to them; and between extreme forms the
+      difference was so great as to amount to unintelligibility ..."
+      'familiar' amended from 'familar'.
+
+    ARTICLE ENGLISH LITERATURE: "Even more portentous in its superhuman
+      dignity was the style of Edward Gibbon, who combined with the
+      unspiritual optimism of Hume and Robertson a far more concentrated
+      devotion to his subject ..." 'combined' amended from 'conbined'.
+
+    ARTICLE ENTERITIS: "The chief symptom is diarrhoea. The term
+      "enteric fever" has recently come into use instead of "typhoid" for
+      the latter disease; but see Typhoid Fever." 'symptom' amended from
+      'sympton'.
+
+    ARTICLE ENTRE MINHO E DOURO: "The methods and implements of the
+      farmers are, however, most primitive, and at the beginning of the
+      20th century it was not unusual to see a mule, or even a woman,
+      harnessed with the team of oxen to an old-fashioned wooden plough."
+      'it' amended from 'is'.
+
+    ARTICLE ENTRE RIOS: "... a province of the eastern Argentine
+      Republic, forming the southern part of a region sometimes described
+      as the Argentine Mesopotamia ..." 'southern' amended from
+      'sourthern'.
+
+    ARTICLE EPHRAIM: "... and Ephraim's proud and ambitious character
+      is indicated in its demands as narrated in Josh. xvii. 14; Judg.
+      viii. 1-3, xii. 1-6. throughout, Ephraim played a distinctive and
+      prominent part; it probably excelled Manasseh in numerical strength
+      ..." 'throughout' amended from 'thoughout'.
+
+    ARTICLE EPIC POETRY: "... and Teofilo Folengo (1491-1544),
+      ridiculed the whole school in an Orlandino of 1526." 'Folengo'
+      amended from 'Folango'.
+
+    ARTICLE EPIDAURUS: "It was abandoned during the middle ages; its
+      inhabitants took possession of the promontory of Minoa ..."
+      'possession' amended from 'posession'.
+
+    ARTICLE EPILOGUE: "... and then explained to the audience what an
+      extremely interesting play it had been. In the second case, when
+      the author was less confident ..." 'extremely' amended from
+      'exremely'.
+
+    ARTICLE EPITHELIAL, ENDOTHELIAL: "It will be sufficient here to
+      give the more general characters possessed by these cells."
+      'sufficient' amended from 'sufficent'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME IX, SLICE VI
+
+       English Language to Epsom Salts
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  ENGLISH LANGUAGE                  EPHEBI
+  ENGLISH LAW                       EPHEMERIS
+  ENGLISH LITERATURE                EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE
+  ENGLISHRY                         EPHESUS
+  ENGRAVING                         EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF
+  ENGROSSING                        EPHOD
+  ENGYON                            EPHOR
+  ENID                              EPHORUS
+  ENIGMA                            EPHRAEM SYRUS
+  ENKHUIZEN                         EPHRAIM
+  ENNEKING, JOHN JOSEPH             EPHTHALITES
+  ENNIS                             EPI
+  ENNISCORTHY                       EPICENE
+  ENNISKILLEN, WILLIAM COLE         EPICHARMUS
+  ENNISKILLEN                       EPIC POETRY
+  ENNIUS, QUINTUS                   EPICTETUS
+  ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX            EPICURUS
+  ENNS                              EPICYCLE
+  ENOCH                             EPICYCLOID
+  ENOCH, BOOK OF                    EPIDAURUS
+  ENOMOTO, BUYO                     EPIDIORITE
+  ENOS                              EPIDOSITE
+  ENRIQUEZ GOMEZ, ANTONIO           EPIDOTE
+  ENSCHEDE                          EPIGONI
+  ENSENADA, CENON DE SOMODEVILLA    EPIGONION
+  ENSIGN                            EPIGRAM
+  ENSILAGE                          EPIGRAPHY
+  ENSTATITE                         EPILEPSY
+  ENTABLATURE                       EPILOGUE
+  ENTADA                            EPIMENIDES
+  ENTAIL                            EPINAL
+  ENTASIS                           EPINAOS
+  ENTERITIS                         EPINAY, LOUISE D'ESCLAVELLES D'
+  ENTHUSIASM                        EPIPHANIUS, SAINT
+  ENTHYMEME                         EPIPHANY, FEAST OF
+  ENTOMOLOGY                        EPIRUS
+  ENTOMOSTRACA                      EPISCOPACY
+  ENTRAGUES, CATHERINE DE BALZAC D' EPISCOPIUS, SIMON
+  ENTRECASTEAUX, BRUNI D'           EPISODE
+  ENTRE MINHO E DOURO               EPISTAXIS
+  ENTREPOT                          EPISTEMOLOGY
+  ENTRE RIOS                        EPISTLE
+  ENVOY                             EPISTYLE
+  ENZIO                             EPISTYLIS
+  ENZYME                            EPITAPH
+  EOCENE                            EPITHALAMIUM
+  EON DE BEAUMONT                   EPITHELIAL and GLANDULAR TISSUES
+  EOTVOS, JOZSEF                    EPITOME
+  EPAMINONDAS                       EPOCH
+  EPARCH                            EPODE
+  EPAULETTE                         EPONA
+  EPEE, CHARLES-MICHEL              EPONYMOUS
+  EPEE-DE-COMBAT                    EPPING
+  EPERJES                           EPPS
+  EPERNAY                           EPREMESNIL, JEAN JACQUES DUVAL D'
+  EPERNON                           EPSOM
+  EPHEBEUM                          EPSOM SALTS
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH LANGUAGE. In its historical sense, the name _English_ is now
+conveniently used to comprehend the language of the English people from
+their settlement in Britain to the present day, the various stages
+through which it has passed being distinguished as Old, Middle, and New
+or Modern English. In works yet recent, and even in some still current,
+the term is confined to the third, or at most extended to the second and
+third of these stages, since the language assumed in the main the
+vocabulary and grammatical forms which it now presents, the oldest or
+inflected stage being treated as a separate language, under the title of
+_Anglo-Saxon_, while the transition period which connects the two has
+been called _Semi-Saxon_. This view had the justification that, looked
+upon by themselves, either as vehicles of thought or as objects of study
+and analysis, Old English or Anglo-Saxon and Modern English are, for all
+practical ends, distinct languages,--as much so, for example, as Latin
+and Spanish. No amount of familiarity with Modern English, including its
+local dialects, would enable the student to read Anglo-Saxon,
+three-fourths of the vocabulary of which have perished and been
+reconstructed within 900 years;[1] nor would a knowledge even of these
+lost words give him the power, since the grammatical system, alike in
+accidence and syntax, would be entirely strange to him. Indeed, it is
+probable that a modern Englishman would acquire the power of reading and
+writing French in less time than it would cost him to attain to the same
+proficiency in Old English; so that if the test of distinct languages be
+their degree of practical difference from each other, it cannot be
+denied that "Anglo-Saxon" is a distinct language from Modern English.
+But when we view the subject historically, recognizing the fact that
+living speech is subject to continuous change in certain definite
+directions, determined by the constitution and circumstances of mankind,
+as an evolution or development of which we can trace the steps, and
+that, owing to the abundance of written materials, this evolution
+appears so gradual in English that we can nowhere draw distinct lines
+separating its successive stages, we recognize these stages as merely
+temporary phases of an individual whole, and speak of the English
+language as used alike by Cynewulf, by Chaucer, by Shakespeare and by
+Tennyson.[2] It must not be forgotten, however, that in this wide sense
+the English language includes, not only the literary or courtly forms of
+speech used at successive periods, but also the popular and, it may be,
+altogether unwritten dialects that exist by their side. Only on this
+basis, indeed, can we speak of Old, Middle and Modern English as the
+same _language_, since in actual fact the precise _dialect_ which is now
+the cultivated language, or "Standard English," is not the descendant of
+that dialect which was the cultivated language or "Englisc" of Alfred,
+but of a sister dialect then sunk in comparative obscurity,--even as the
+direct descendant of Alfred's Englisc is now to be found in the
+non-literary rustic speech of Wiltshire and Somersetshire. Causes which,
+linguistically considered, are external and accidental, have shifted
+the political and intellectual centre of England, and along with it
+transferred literary and official patronage from one form of English to
+another; if the centre of influence had happened to be fixed at York or
+on the banks of the Forth, both would probably have been neglected for a
+third.
+
+The English language, thus defined, is not "native" to Britain, that is,
+it was not found there at the dawn of history, but was introduced by
+foreign immigrants at a date many centuries later. At the Roman Conquest
+of the island the languages spoken by the natives belonged all (so far
+as is known) to the Celtic branch of the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic
+family, modern forms of which still survive in Wales, Ireland, the
+Scottish Highlands, Isle of Man and Brittany, while one has at no
+distant date become extinct in Cornwall (see CELT: Language). Brythonic
+dialects, allied to Welsh and Cornish, were apparently spoken over the
+greater part of Britain, as far north as the firths of Forth and Clyde;
+beyond these estuaries and in the isles to the west, including Ireland
+and Man, Goidelic dialects, akin to Irish and Scottish Gaelic,
+prevailed. The long occupation of south Britain by the Romans (A.D.
+43-409)--a period, it must not be forgotten, equal to that from the
+Reformation to the present day, or nearly as long as the whole duration
+of modern English--familiarized the provincial inhabitants with Latin,
+which was probably the ordinary speech of the towns. Gildas, writing
+nearly a century and a half after the renunciation of Honorius in 410,
+addressed the British princes in that language;[3] and the linguistic
+history of Britain might have been not different from that of Gaul,
+Spain and the other provinces of the Western Empire, in which a local
+type of Latin, giving birth to a neo-Latinic language, finally
+superseded the native tongue except in remote and mountainous
+districts,[4] had not the course of events been entirely changed by the
+Teutonic conquests of the 5th and 6th centuries.
+
+The Angles, Saxons, and their allies came of the Teutonic stock, and
+spoke a tongue belonging to the Teutonic or Germanic branch of the
+Indo-Germanic (Indo-European) family, the same race and form of speech
+being represented in modern times by the people and languages of
+Holland, Germany, Denmark, the Scandinavian peninsula and Iceland, as
+well as by those of England and her colonies. Of the original home of
+the so-called primitive Aryan race (q.v.), whose language was the parent
+Indo-European, nothing is certainly known, though the subject has called
+forth many conjectures; the present tendency is to seek it in Europe
+itself. The tribe can hardly have occupied an extensive area at first,
+but its language came by degrees to be diffused over the greater part of
+Europe and some portion of Asia. Among those whose Aryan descent is
+generally recognized as beyond dispute are the Teutons, to whom the
+Angles and Saxons belonged.
+
+The Teutonic or Germanic people, after dwelling together in a body,
+appear to have scattered in various directions, their language gradually
+breaking up into three main groups, which can be already clearly
+distinguished in the 4th century A.D., North Germanic or Scandinavian,
+West Germanic or Low and High German, and East Germanic, of which the
+only important representative is Gothic. Gothic, often called
+Moeso-Gothic, was the language of a people of the Teutonic stock, who,
+passing down the Danube, invaded the borders of the Empire, and obtained
+settlements in the province of Moesia, where their language was
+committed to writing in the 4th century; its literary remains are of
+peculiar value as the oldest specimens, by several centuries, of
+Germanic speech. The dialects of the invaders of Britain belonged to the
+West Germanic branch, and within this to the Low German group,
+represented at the present day by Dutch, Frisian, and the various
+"Platt-Deutsch" dialects of North Germany. At the dawn of history the
+forefathers of the English appear to have been dwelling between and
+about the estuaries and lower courses of the Rhine and the Weser, and
+the adjacent coasts and isles; at the present day the most English or
+Angli-form dialects of the European continent are held to be those of
+the North Frisian islands of Amrum and Sylt, on the west coast of
+Schleswig. It is well known that the greater part of the ancient
+Friesland has been swept away by the encroachments of the North Sea, and
+the _disjecta membra_ of the Frisian race, pressed by the sea in front
+and more powerful nationalities behind, are found only in isolated
+fragments from the Zuider Zee to the coasts of Denmark. Many Frisians
+accompanied the Angles and Saxons to Britain, and Old English was in
+many respects more closely connected with Old Frisian than with any
+other Low German dialect. Of the Geatas, Eotas or "Jutes," who,
+according to Bede, occupied Kent and the Isle of Wight, and formed a
+third tribe along with the Angles and Saxons, it is difficult to speak
+linguistically. The speech of Kent certainly formed a distinct dialect
+in both the Old English and the Middle English periods, but it has
+tended to be assimilated more and more to neighbouring southern
+dialects, and is at the present day identical with that of Sussex, one
+of the old Saxon kingdoms. Whether the speech of the Isle of Wight ever
+showed the same characteristic differences as that of Kent cannot now be
+ascertained, but its modern dialect differs in no respect from that of
+Hampshire, and shows no special connexion with that of Kent. It is at
+least entirely doubtful whether Bede's Geatas came from Jutland; on
+linguistic grounds we should expect that they occupied a district lying
+not to the north of the Angles, but between these and the old Saxons.
+
+The earliest specimens of the language of the Germanic invaders of
+Britain that exist point to three well-marked dialect groups: the
+Anglian (in which a further distinction may be made between the
+Northumbrian and the Mercian, or South-Humbrian); the Saxon, generally
+called West-Saxon from the almost total lack of sources outside the
+West-Saxon domain; and the Kentish. The Kentish and West-Saxon are
+sometimes, especially in later times, grouped together as southern
+dialects as opposed to midland and northern. These three groups were
+distinguished from each other by characteristic points of phonology and
+inflection. Speaking generally, the Anglian dialects may be
+distinguished by the absence of certain normal West-Saxon vowel-changes,
+and the presence of others not found in West-Saxon, and also by a strong
+tendency to confuse and simplify inflections, in all which points,
+moreover, Northumbrian tended to deviate more widely than Mercian.
+Kentish, on the other hand, occupied a position intermediate between
+Anglian and West-Saxon, early Kentish approaching more nearly to
+Mercian, owing perhaps to early historical connexion between the two,
+and late Kentish tending to conform to West-Saxon characteristics, while
+retaining several points in common with Anglian. Though we cannot be
+certain that these dialectal divergences date from a period previous to
+the occupation of Britain, such evidence as can be deduced points to the
+existence of differences already on the continent, the three dialects
+corresponding in all likelihood to Bede's three tribes, the Angles,
+Saxons and Geatas.
+
+As it was amongst the _Engle_ or Angles of Northumbria that literary
+culture first appeared, and as an Angle or _Englisc_ dialect was the
+first to be used for vernacular literature, _Englisc_ came eventually to
+be a general name for all forms of the vernacular as opposed to Latin,
+&c.; and even when the West-Saxon of Alfred became in its turn the
+literary or classical form of speech, it was still called Englisc or
+_English_. The origin of the name _Angul-Seaxan_ (Anglo-Saxons) has been
+disputed, some maintaining that it means a union of Angles and Saxons,
+others (with better foundation) that it meant _English Saxons_, or
+Saxons of England or of the Angel-cynn as distinguished from Saxons of
+the Continent (see _New English Dictionary_, s.v.). Its modern use is
+mainly due to the little band of scholars who in the 16th and 17th
+centuries turned their attention to the long-forgotten language of
+Alfred and Aelfric, which, as it differed so greatly from the English of
+their own day, they found it convenient to distinguish by a name which
+was applied to themselves by those who spoke it.[5] To these scholars
+"Anglo-Saxon" and "English" were separated by a gulf which it was
+reserved for later scholarship to bridge across, and show the historical
+continuity of the English of all ages.
+
+As already hinted, the English language, in the wide sense, presents
+three main stages of development--Old, Middle and Modern--distinguished
+by their inflectional characteristics. The latter can be best summarized
+in the words of Dr Henry Sweet in his _History of English Sounds_:[6]
+"Old English is the period of _full_ inflections (_nama_, _gifan_,
+_caru_), Middle English of _levelled_ inflections (_naame_, _given_,
+_caare_), and Modern English of _lost_ inflections (_name_, _give_,
+_care_ = _nam_, _giv_, _car_). We have besides two periods of
+transition, one in which _nama_ and _name_ exist side by side, and
+another in which final e [with other endings] is beginning to drop." By
+_lost_ inflections it is meant that only very few remain, and those
+mostly non-syllabic, as the _-s_ in stones and loves, the _-ed_ in
+loved, the _-r_ in their, as contrasted with the Old English stan_-as_,
+lufadh, luf_-od-e_ and luf_-od-on_, tha_-ra_. Each of these periods may
+also be divided into two or three; but from the want of materials it is
+difficult to make any such division for all dialects alike in the first.
+
+As to the chronology of the successive stages, it is of course
+impossible to lay down any exclusive series of dates, since the
+linguistic changes were inevitably gradual, and also made themselves
+felt in some parts of the country much earlier than in others, the north
+being always in advance of the midland, and the south much later in its
+changes. It is easy to point to periods at which Old, Middle and Modern
+English were fully developed, but much less easy to draw lines
+separating these stages; and even if we recognize between each part a
+"transition" period or stage, the determination of the beginning and end
+of this will to a certain extent be a matter of opinion. But bearing
+these considerations in mind, and having special reference to the
+midland dialect from which literary English is mainly descended, the
+following may be given as approximate dates, which if they do not
+demarcate the successive stages, at least include them:--
+
+  Old English or Anglo-Saxon                   to 1100
+  Transition Old English ("Semi-Saxon")   1100 to 1150
+  Early Middle English                    1150 to 1250
+  (Normal) Middle English                 1250 to 1400
+  Late and Transition Middle English      1400 to 1485
+  Early Modern or Tudor English           1485 to 1611
+  Seventeenth century transition          1611 to 1688
+  Modern or current English               1689 onward
+
+Dr Sweet has reckoned Transition Old English (Old Transition) from 1050
+to 1150, Middle English thence to 1450, and Late or Transition Middle
+English (Middle Transition) 1450 to 1500. As to the Old Transition see
+further below.
+
+The OLD ENGLISH or Anglo-Saxon tongue, as introduced into Britain, was
+highly inflectional, though its inflections at the date when it becomes
+known to us were not so full as those of the earlier Gothic, and
+considerably less so than those of Greek and Latin during their
+classical periods. They corresponded more closely to those of modern
+literary German, though both in nouns and verbs the forms were more
+numerous and distinct; for example, the German _guten_ answers to
+_three_ Old English forms,--_godne_, _godum_, _godan_; _guter_ to
+_two_--_godre_, _godra_; _liebten_ to _two_,--_lufodon_ and _lufeden_.
+Nouns had four cases. _Nominative_, _Accusative_ (only sometimes
+distinct), _Genitive_, _Dative_, the latter used also with prepositions
+to express locative, instrumental, and most ablative relations; of a
+distinct _instrumental_ case only vestiges occur. There were several
+declensions of nouns, the main division being that known in Germanic
+languages generally as strong and weak,--a distinction also extending to
+adjectives in such wise that every adjective assumed either the strong
+or the weak inflection as determined by associated grammatical forms.
+The first and second personal pronouns possessed a dual number = _we
+two_, _ye two_; the third person had a complete declension of the stem
+he, instead of being made up as now of the three stems seen in _he_,
+_she_, _they_. The verb distinguished the subjunctive from the
+indicative mood, but had only two inflected tenses, present and past
+(more accurately, that of incomplete and that of completed or "perfect"
+action)--the former also used for the future, the latter for all the
+shades of past time. The order of the sentence corresponded generally to
+that of German. Thus from King Alfred's additions to his translation of
+Orosius: "Donne thy ylcan daege hi hine to thaem ade beran wylladh
+thonne todaeladh hi his feoh thaet thaer to lafe bidh aefter thaem
+gedrynce and thaem plegan, on fif odhdhe syx, hwilum on ma, swa swa
+thaes feos andefn bidh" ("Then on the same day [that] they him to the
+pile bear will, then divide they his property that there to remainder
+shall be after the drinking and the sports, into five or six, at times
+into more, according as the property's value is").
+
+The poetry was distinguished by alliteration, and the abundant use of
+figurative and metaphorical expressions, of bold compounds and archaic
+words never found in prose. Thus in the following lines from Beowulf
+(ed. Thorpe, l. 645, Zupitza 320):--
+
+  Straet waes stan-fah, stig wisode
+  Gumum aetgaedere. gudh-byrne scan
+  Heard hond-locen. hring-iren scir
+  Song in searwum, tha hie to sele furdhum
+  In hyra gry're geatwum gangan cwomon.
+
+Trans.:--
+
+  The street was stone-variegated, the path guided
+  (The) men together; the war-mailcoat shone,
+  Hard hand-locked. Ring-iron sheer (bright ring-mail)
+  Sang in (their) cunning-trappings, as they to hall forth
+  In their horror-accoutrements going came.
+
+The Old English was a homogeneous language, having very few foreign
+elements in it, and forming its compounds and derivatives entirely from
+its own resources. A few Latin appellatives learned from the Romans in
+the German wars had been adopted into the common West Germanic tongue,
+and are found in English as in the allied dialects. Such were _straete_
+(street, _via strata_), _camp_ (battle), _casere_ (Caesar), _mil_ (mile),
+_pin_ (punishment), _mynet_ (money), _pund_ (pound), _win_ (wine);
+probably also _cyrice_ (church), _biscop_ (bishop), _laeden_ (Latin
+language), _cese_ (cheese), _butor_ (butter), _pipor_ (pepper), _olfend_
+(camel, elephantus), _ynce_ (inch, uncia), and a few others. The
+relations of the first invaders to the Britons were to a great extent
+those of destroyers; and with the exception of the proper names of
+places and prominent natural features, which as is usual were retained
+by the new population, few British words found their way into the Old
+English. Among these are named _broc_ (a badger), _brec_ (breeches),
+_clut_ (clout), _pul_ (pool), and a few words relating to the employment
+of field or household menials. Still fewer words seem to have been
+adopted from the provincial Latin, almost the only certain ones being
+castra, applied to the Roman towns, which appeared in English as
+_caestre_, _ceaster_, now found in composition as -_caster_, -_chester_,
+-_cester_, and _culina_ (kitchen), which gave _cylen_ (kiln). The
+introduction and gradual adoption of Christianity, brought a new series
+of Latin words connected with the offices of the church, the
+accompaniments of higher civilization, the foreign productions either
+actually made known, or mentioned in the Scriptures and devotional
+books. Such were _mynster_ (monasterium), _munuc_ (monk), _nunne_ (nun),
+_maesse_ (mass), _schol_ (school), _oelmesse_ (eleemosyna), _candel_
+(candela), _turtle_ (turtur), _fic_ (ficus), _cedar_ (cedrus). These
+words, whose number increased from the 7th to the 10th century, are
+commonly called _Latin of the second period_, the Latin of the first
+period including the Latin words brought by the English from the
+continent, as well as those picked up in Britain either from the Roman
+provincials or the Welsh. The Danish invasions of the 8th and 10th
+centuries resulted in the establishment of extensive Danish and
+Norwegian populations, about the basin of the Humber and its
+tributaries, and above Morecambe Bay. Although these Scandinavian
+settlers must have greatly affected the language of their own
+localities, but few traces of their influence are to be found in the
+literature of the Old English period. As with the greater part of the
+words adopted from the Celtic, it was not until after the dominion of
+the Norman had overlaid all preceding conquests, and the new English
+began to emerge from the ruins of the old, that Danish words in any
+number made their appearance in books, as equally "native" with the
+Anglo-Saxon.
+
+The earliest specimens we have of English date to the end of the 7th
+century, and belong to the Anglian dialect, and particularly to
+Northumbrian, which, under the political eminence of the early
+Northumbrian kings from Edwin to Ecgfridh, aided perhaps by the learning
+of the scholars of Ireland and Iona, first attained to literary
+distinction. Of this literature in its original form mere fragments
+exist, one of the most interesting of which consists of the verses
+uttered by Bede on his deathbed, and preserved in a nearly contemporary
+MS.:--
+
+  Fore there neid faerae . naenig uuiurthit
+  thonc snotturra . than him tharf sie,
+  to ymb-hycggannae . aer his hin-iongae,
+  huaet his gastae . godaes aeththa yflaes,
+  aefter deoth-daege . doemid uueorthae.
+
+Trans.:--
+
+  Before the inevitable journey becomes not any
+  Thought more wise than (that) it is needful for him,
+  To consider, ere his hence-going,
+  What, to his ghost, of good or ill,
+  After death-day, doomed may be.
+
+But our chief acquaintance with Old English is in its West-Saxon form,
+the earliest literary remains of which date to the 9th century, when
+under the political supremacy of Wessex and the scholarship of King
+Alfred it became the literary language of the English nation, the
+classical "Anglo-Saxon." If our materials were more extensive, it would
+probably be necessary to divide the Old English into several periods; as
+it is, considerable differences have been shown to exist between the
+"early West-Saxon" of King Alfred and the later language of the 11th
+century, the earlier language having numerous phonetic and inflectional
+distinctions which are "levelled" in the later, the inflectional changes
+showing that the tendency to pass from the synthetical to the analytical
+stage existed quite independently of the Norman Conquest. The northern
+dialect, whose literary career had been cut short in the 8th century by
+the Danish invasions, reappears in the 10th in the form of glosses to
+the Latin gospels and a service-book, often called the _Ritual of
+Durham_, where we find that, owing to the confusion which had so long
+reigned in the north, and to special Northumbrian tendencies, e.g. the
+dropping of the inflectional n in both verbs and nouns, this dialect had
+advanced in the process of inflection-levelling far beyond the sister
+dialects of Mercian and the south, so as already to anticipate the forms
+of Early Middle English.
+
+Among the literary remains of the Old English may be mentioned the epic
+poem of Beowulf, the original nucleus of which has been supposed to date
+to heathen and even continental times, though we now possess it only in
+a later form; the poetical works of Cynewulf; those formerly ascribed to
+Caedmon; several works of Alfred, two of which, his translation of
+Orosius and of _The Pastoral Care_ of St Gregory, are contemporary
+specimens of his language; the Old English or Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; the
+theological works of Aelfric (including translations of the Pentateuch
+and the gospels) and of Wulfstan; and many works both in prose and
+verse, of which the authors are unknown.
+
+The earliest specimens, the inscriptions on the Ruthwell and Bewcastle
+crosses, are in a Runic character; but the letters used in the
+manuscripts generally are a British variety of the Roman alphabet which
+the Anglo-Saxons found in the island, and which was also used by the
+Welsh and Irish.[7] Several of the Roman letters had in Britain
+developed forms, and retained or acquired values, unlike those used on
+the continent, in particular [glyphs] (d f g r s t). The letters _q_
+and _z_ were not used, _q_ being represented by _cw_, and _k_ was a rare
+alternative to _c_; _u_ or _v_ was only a vowel, the consonantal power
+of _v_ being represented as in Welsh by _f_. The Runes called _thorn_
+and _wen_, having the consonantal values now expressed by _th_ and _w_,
+for which the Roman alphabet had no character, were at first expressed
+by _th_, dh (a contraction for [g][g] or [g]h), and _v_ or _u_; but at a
+later period the characters th and [p] were revived from the old Runic
+alphabet. Contrary to Continental usage, the letters _c_ and [g] (_g_)
+had originally only their hard or guttural powers, as in the
+neighbouring Celtic languages; so that words which, when the Continental
+Roman alphabet came to be used for Germanic languages, had to be written
+with _k_, were in Old English written with _c_, as _cene_ = keen,
+_cynd_ = kind.[8] The key to the values of the letters, and thus to the
+pronunciation of Old English, is also to be found in the Celtic tongues
+whence the letters were taken.
+
+The Old English period is usually considered as terminating 1120, with
+the death of the generation who saw the Norman Conquest. The Conquest
+established in England a foreign court, a foreign aristocracy and a
+foreign hierarchy.[9] The French language, in its Norman dialect, became
+the only polite medium of intercourse. The native tongue, despised not
+only as unknown but as the language of a subject race, was left to the
+use of boors and serfs, and except in a few stray cases ceased to be
+written at all. The natural results followed.[10] When the educated
+generation that saw the arrival of the Norman died out, the language,
+ceasing to be read and written, lost all its literary words. The words
+of ordinary life whose preservation is independent of books lived on as
+vigorously as ever, but the literary terms, those that related to
+science, art and higher culture, the bold artistic compounds, the
+figurative terms of poetry, were speedily forgotten. The practical
+vocabulary shrank to a fraction of its former extent. And when,
+generations later, English began to be used for general literature, the
+only terms at hand to express ideas above those of every-day life were
+to be found in the French of the privileged classes, of whom alone art,
+science, law and theology had been for generations the inheritance.
+Hence each successive literary effort of the reviving English tongue
+showed a larger adoption of French words to supply the place of the
+forgotten native ones, till by the days of Chaucer they constituted a
+notable part of the vocabulary. Nor was it for the time being only that
+the French words affected the English vocabulary. The Norman French
+words introduced by the Conquest, as well as the Central or Parisian
+French words which followed under the early Plantagenets, were mainly
+Latin words which had lived on among the people of Gaul, and, modified
+in the mouths of succeeding generations, had reached forms more or less
+remote from their originals. In being now adopted as English, they
+supplied precedents in accordance with which other Latin words might be
+converted into English ones, whenever required; and long before the
+Renascence of classical learning, though in much greater numbers after
+that epoch, these precedents were freely followed.
+
+While the eventual though distant result of the Norman Conquest was thus
+a large reconstruction of the English vocabulary, the grammar of the
+language was not directly affected by it. There was no reason why it
+should--we might almost add, no way by which it could. While the English
+used their own _words_, they could not forget their own _way_ of using
+them, the inflections and constructions by which alone the words
+expressed ideas--in other words, their grammar; when one by one French
+words were introduced into the sentence they became English by the very
+act of admission, and were at once subjected to all the duties and
+liabilities of English words in the same position. This is of course
+precisely what happens at the present day: _telegraph_ and _telegram_
+make participle _telegraphing_ and plural _telegrams_, and _naive_ the
+adverb _naively_, precisely as if they had been in the language for
+ages.
+
+But indirectly the grammar was affected very quickly. In languages in
+the inflected or synthetic stage the terminations must be pronounced
+with marked distinctness, as these contain the correlation of ideas; it
+is all-important to hear whether a word is _bonus_ or _bonis_ or _bonas_
+or _bonos_. This implies a measured and distinct pronunciation, against
+which the effort for ease and rapidity of utterance is continually
+struggling, while indolence and carelessness continually compromise it.
+In the Germanic languages, as a whole, the main stress-accent falls on
+the radical syllable, or on the prefix of a nominal compound, and thus
+at or near the beginning of the word; and the result of this in English
+has been a growing tendency to suffer the concluding syllables to fall
+into obscurity. We are familiar with the cockney _winder_, _sofer_,
+_holler_, _Sarer_, _Sunder_, _would yer_, for wind_ow_, sof_a_, holl_a_,
+Sar_ah_, Sund_ay_, would y_ou_, the various final vowels sinking into an
+obscure neutral one now conventionally spelt _er_, but formerly
+represented by final _e_. Already before the Conquest, forms originally
+_hatu_, _sello_, _tunga_, appeared as _hate_, _selle_, _tunge_, with the
+terminations levelled to obscure e; but during the illiterate period of
+the language after the Conquest this careless obscuring of terminal
+vowels became universal, all unaccented vowels in the final syllable
+(except _i_) sinking into e. During the 12th century, while this change
+was going on, we see a great confusion of grammatical forms, the full
+inflections of Old English standing side by side in the same sentence
+with the levelled ones of Middle English. It is to this state of the
+language that the names _Transition_ and _Period of Confusion_ (Dr
+Abbott's appellation) point; its appearance, as that of Anglo-Saxon
+broken down in its endings, had previously given to it the suggestive if
+not logical appellation of Semi-Saxon.
+
+Although the written remains of the transition stage are few, sufficient
+exist to enable us to trace the course of linguistic change in some of
+the dialects. Within three generations after the Conquest, faithful pens
+were at work transliterating the old homilies of Aelfric, and other
+lights of the Anglo-Saxon Church, into the current idiom of their
+posterity.[11] Twice during the period, in the reigns of Stephen and
+Henry II., Aelfric's gospels were similarly modernized so as to be
+"understanded of the people."[12] Homilies and other religious works of
+the end of the 12th century[13] show us the change still further
+advanced, and the language passing into Early Middle English in its
+southern form. While these southern remains carry on in unbroken
+sequence the history of the Old English of Alfred and Aelfric, the
+history of the northern English is an entire blank from the 11th to the
+13th century. The stubborn resistance of the north, and the terrible
+retaliation inflicted by William, apparently effaced northern English
+culture for centuries. If anything was written in the vernacular in the
+kingdom of Scotland during the same period, it probably perished during
+the calamities to which that country was subjected during the
+half-century of struggle for independence. In reality, however, the
+northern English had entered upon its transition stage two centuries
+earlier; the glosses of the 10th century show that the Danish inroads
+had there anticipated the results hastened by the Norman Conquest in the
+south.
+
+Meanwhile a dialect was making its appearance in another quarter of
+England, destined to overshadow the old literary dialects of north and
+south alike, and become the English of the future. The Mercian kingdom,
+which, as its name imports, lay along the _marches_ of the earlier
+states, and was really a congeries of the outlying members of many
+tribes, must have presented from the beginning a linguistic mixture and
+transition; and it is evident that more than one intermediate form of
+speech arose within its confines, between Lancashire and the Thames. The
+specimens of early Mercian now in existence consist mainly of glosses,
+in a mixed Mercian and southern dialect, dating from the 8th century;
+but, in a 9th-century gloss, the so-called Vespasian Psalter,
+representing what is generally held to be pure Mercian. Towards the
+close of the Old English period we find some portions of a gloss to the
+Rushworth Gospels, namely St Matthew and a few verses of St John xviii.,
+to be in Mercian. These glosses, with a few charters and one or two
+small fragments, represent a form of Anglian which in many respects
+stands midway between Northumbrian and Kentish, approaching the one or
+the other more nearly as we have to do with North Mercian or South
+Mercian. And soon after the Conquest we find an undoubted midland
+dialect in the transition stage from Old to Middle English, in the
+eastern part of ancient Mercia, in a district bounded on the south and
+south-east by the Saxon Middlesex and Essex, and on the east and north
+by the East Anglian Norfolk and Suffolk and the Danish settlements on
+the Trent and Humber. In this district, and in the monastery of
+Peterborough, one of the copies of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
+transcribed about 1120, was continued by two succeeding hands to the
+death of Stephen in 1154. The section from 1122 to 1131, probably
+written in the latter year, shows a notable confusion between Old
+English forms and those of a Middle English, impatient to rid itself of
+the inflectional trammels which were still, though in weakened forms, so
+faithfully retained south of the Thames. And in the concluding section,
+containing the annals from 1132 to 1154, and written somewhere about the
+latter year, we find Middle English fairly started on its career. A
+specimen of this new tongue will best show the change that had taken
+place:
+
+  1140 A.D.--_And_[14] te eorl of Angaeu waerd ded, and his sune Henri
+  toc to the rice. And te cuen of France to-daelde fra the king, and
+  scae co_m_ to the iunge eorl Henri. _and_ he toc hire to wiue, _and_
+  al Peitou mid hire. tha ferde he mid micel faerd into Engleland _and_
+  wan castles--_and_ te king ferde agenes hi_m_ mid micel mare ferd.
+  thothwaethere fuhtten hi noht. oc ferden the aerceb_iscop and_ te wise
+  men betwux heo_m_, and makede _that_ sahte _that_ te king sculde ben
+  lauerd _and_ king wile he liuede. _and_ aeft_er_ his daei ware Henri
+  king. _and_ he helde hi_m_ for fader, _and_ he hi_m_ for sune, _and_
+  sib and saehte sculde ben betwyx heo_m_, and on al Engleland.[15]
+
+With this may be contrasted a specimen of southern English, from 10 to
+20 years later (Hatton Gospels, Luke i. 46[16]):
+
+  Da cwaedh Maria: Min saule mersed drihten, and min gast geblissode on
+  gode minen haelende. For tham the he geseah his thinene eadmodnysse.
+  Sodhlice henen-fordh me eadige seggedh alle cneornesse; for tham the
+  me mychele thing dyde se the mihtyg ys; _and_ his name is halig. _And_
+  his mildheortnysse of cneornisse on cneornesse hine ondraedende. He
+  worhte maegne on hys earme; he to-daelde tha ofermode, on moda heora
+  heortan. He warp tha rice of setlle, and tha eadmode he up-an-hof.
+  Hyngriende he mid gode ge-felde, _and_ tha ofermode ydele for-let. He
+  afeng israel his cniht, and gemynde his mildheortnysse; Swa he spraec
+  to ure faederen, Abrahame _and_ his saede on a weorlde.
+
+To a still later date, apparently close upon 1200, belongs the versified
+chronicle of Layamon or Laweman, a priest of Ernely on the Severn, who,
+using as his basis the French _Brut_ of Wace, expanded it by additions
+from other sources to more than twice the extent: his work of 32,250
+lines is a mine of illustration for the language of his time and
+locality. The latter was intermediate between midland and southern, and
+the language, though forty years later than the specimen from the
+Chronicle, is much more archaic in structure, and can scarcely be
+considered even as Early Middle English. The following is a specimen
+(lines 9064-9079):
+
+  On Kinbelines daeie ... the king wes inne Bruttene, com a thissen
+  middel aerde ... anes maidenes sune, iboren wes in Bethleem ... of
+  bezste alre burden. He is ihaten Jesu Crist ... thurh thene halie
+  gost, alre worulde wunne ... walden englenne; faeder he is on heuenen
+  ... froure moncunnes; sune he is on eordhen ... of sele thon maeidene,
+  & thene halie gost ... haldedh mid him seoluen.
+
+The MIDDLE ENGLISH was pre-eminently the _Dialectal_ period of the
+language. It was not till after the middle of the 14th century that
+English obtained official recognition. For three centuries, therefore,
+there was no standard form of speech which claimed any pre-eminence over
+the others. The writers of each district wrote in the dialect familiar
+to them; and between extreme forms the difference was so great as to
+amount to unintelligibility; works written for southern Englishmen had
+to be translated for the benefit of the men of the north:--
+
+  "In sotherin Inglis was it drawin,
+   And turnid ic haue it till ur awin
+   Langage of the northin lede
+   That can na nothir Inglis rede."
+
+  _Cursor Mundi_, 20,064.
+
+Three main dialects were distinguished by contemporary writers, as in
+the often-quoted passage from Trevisa's translation of Higden's
+_Polychronicon_ completed in 1387:--
+
+  "Also Englysche men ... hadde fram the bygynnynge thre maner speche,
+  Southeron, Northeron _and_ Myddel speche (in the myddel of the lond)
+  as hy come of thre maner people of Germania.... Also of the forseyde
+  Saxon tonge, that ys deled a thre, and ys abyde scarslyche with feaw
+  uplondysche men _and_ ys gret wondur, for men of the est with men of
+  the west, as hyt were under the same part of heyvene, acordeth more in
+  sounynge of stheche than men of the north with men of the south;
+  therfore hyt ys that Mercii, that buth men of myddel Engelond, as hyt
+  were parteners of the endes, undurstondeth betre the syde longages
+  Northeron and Southeron, than Northern _and_ Southern undurstondeth
+  oyther other."
+
+The modern study of these Middle English dialects, initiated by the
+elder Richard Garnett, scientifically pursued by Dr Richard Morris, and
+elaborated by many later scholars, both English and German, has shown
+that they were readily distinguished by the conjugation of the present
+tense of the verb, which in typical specimens was as follows:---
+
+    _Southern._
+
+  Ich singe.       We singeth.
+  Thou singest.    [Gh]e singeth.
+  He singeth.      Hy singeth.
+
+    _Midland._
+
+  Ich, I, singe.   We singen.
+  Thou singest.    [Gh]e singen.
+  He singeth.      Hy, thei, singen.
+
+    _Northern._
+
+  Ic. I, sing(e) (I that singes).  We sing(e). We that synges.
+  Thu singes.                      [Gh]e sing(e), [Gh]e foules synges.
+  He singes.                       Thay sing(e). Men synges.
+
+Of these the southern is simply the old West-Saxon, with the vowels
+levelled to _e_. The northern second person in _-es_ preserves an older
+form than the southern and West-Saxon _-est_; but the _-es_ of the third
+person and plural is derived from an older _-eth_, the change of _-th_
+into _-s_ being found in progress in the Durham glosses of the 10th
+century. In the plural, when accompanied by the pronoun subject, the
+verb had already dropped the inflections entirely as in Modern English.
+The origin of the _-en_ plural in the midland dialect, unknown to Old
+English, is probably an instance of _form-levelling_, the inflection of
+the present indicative being assimilated to that of the past, and the
+present and past subjunctive, in all of which _-en_ was the plural
+termination. In the declension of nouns, adjectives and pronouns, the
+northern dialect had attained before the end of the 13th century to the
+simplicity of Modern English, while the southern dialect still retained
+a large number of inflections, and the midland a considerable number.
+The dialects differed also in phonology, for while the northern
+generally retained the hard or guttural values of _k_, _g_, _sc_, these
+were in the two other dialects palatalized before front vowels into
+_ch_, _j_ and _sh_. _Kirk_, _chirche_ or _church_, _bryg_, _bridge_;
+_scryke_, _shriek_, are examples. Old English _hw_ was written in the
+north _qu_(h), but elsewhere _wh_, often sinking into _w_. The original
+long _a_ in _stan_, _mar_, preserved in the northern _stane_, _mare_,
+became _o_ elsewhere, as in _stone_, _more_. So that the north presented
+a general aspect of conservation of old sounds with the most
+thorough-going dissolution of old inflections; the south, a tenacious
+retention of the inflections, with an extensive evolution in the sounds.
+In one important respect, however, phonetic decay was far ahead in the
+north: the final e to which all the old vowels had been levelled during
+the transition stage, and which is a distinguishing feature of Middle
+English in the midland and southern dialects, became mute, _i.e._,
+disappeared, in the northern dialect before that dialect emerged from
+its three centuries of obscuration, shortly before 1300. So thoroughly
+modern had its form consequently become that we might almost call it
+Modern English, and say that the Middle English stage of the northern
+dialect is lost. For comparison with the other dialects, however, the
+same nomenclature may be used, and we may class as Middle English the
+extensive literature which northern England produced during the 14th
+century. The earliest specimen is probably the Metrical Psalter in the
+Cotton Library,[17] copied during the reign of Edward II. from an
+original of the previous century. The gigantic versified paraphrase of
+Scripture history called the _Cursor Mundi_,[18] is held also to have
+been composed before 1300. The dates of the numerous alliterative
+romances in this dialect have not been determined with exactness, as all
+survive in later copies, but it is probable that some of them were
+written before 1300. In the 14th century appeared the theological and
+devotional works of Richard Rolle the anchorite of Hampole, Dan Jon
+Gaytrigg, William of Nassington, and other writers whose names are
+unknown; and towards the close of the century, specimens of the language
+also appear from Scotland both in official documents and in the poetical
+works of John Barbour, whose language, barring minute points of
+orthography, is identical with that of the contemporary northern English
+writers. From 1400 onward, the distinction between northern English and
+Lowland Scottish becomes clearly marked.
+
+In the southern dialect one version of the work called the _Ancren
+Riwle_ or "Rule of Nuns," adapted about 1225 for a small sisterhood at
+Tarrant-Kaines, in Dorsetshire, exhibits a dialectal characteristic
+which had probably long prevailed in the south, though concealed by the
+spelling, in the use of _v_ for _f_, as _valle_ fall, _vordonne_ fordo,
+_vorto_ for to, _veder_ father, _vrom_ from. Not till later do we find a
+recognition of the parallel use of _z_ for _s_. Among the writings which
+succeed, _The Owl and the Nightingale_ of Nicholas de Guildford, of
+Portesham in Dorsetshire, before 1250, the _Chronicle_ of Robert of
+Gloucester, 1298, and Trevisa's translation of Higden, 1387, are of
+special importance in illustrating the history of southern English. The
+earliest form of Langland's _Piers Ploughman_, 1362, as preserved in the
+Vernon MS., appears to be in an intermediate dialect between southern
+and midland.[19] The Kentish form of southern English seems to have
+retained specially archaic features; five short sermons in it of the
+middle of the 13th century were edited by Dr Morris (1866); but the
+great work illustrating it is the _Ayenbite of Inwyt_ (Remorse of
+Conscience), 1340,[20] a translation from the French by Dan Michel of
+Northgate, Kent, who tells us--
+
+  "Thet this boc is y-write mid engliss of Kent;
+   This boc is y-mad uor lewede men,
+   Vor uader, and uor moder, and uor other ken,
+   Ham uor to ber[gh]e uram alle manyere zen,
+   Thet ine hare inwytte ne bleue no uoul wen."
+
+In its use of _v_ (_u_) and _z_ for [s] and _s_, and its grammatical
+inflections, it presents an extreme type of southern speech, with
+peculiarities specially Kentish; and in comparison with contemporary
+Midland English works, it looks like a fossil of two centuries earlier.
+
+Turning from the dialectal extremes of the Middle English to the midland
+speech, which we left at the closing leaves of the Peterborough
+_Chronicle_ of 1154, we find a rapid development of this dialect, which
+was before long to become the national literary language. In this, the
+first great work is the _Ormulum_, or metrical Scripture paraphrase of
+Orm or Ormin, written about 1200, somewhere near the northern frontier
+of the midland area. The dialect has a decided smack of the north, and
+shows for the first time in English literature a large percentage of
+Scandinavian words, derived from the Danish settlers, who, in adopting
+English, had preserved a vast number of their ancestral forms of speech,
+which were in time to pass into the common language, of which they now
+constitute some of the most familiar words. _Blunt_, _bull_, _die_,
+_dwell_, _ill_, _kid_, _raise_, _same_, _thrive_, _wand_, _wing_, are
+words from this source, which appear first in the work of Orm, of which
+the following lines may be quoted:--
+
+  "The Judewisshe folkess boc
+     hemm se[gh][gh]de, thatt hemm birrde
+   Twa bukkes samenn to the preost
+     att kirrke-dure brinngenn;
+   _And_ te[gh][gh] tha didenn blitheli[gh],
+     swa summ the boc hemm tahhte,
+   And brohhtenn twe[gh][gh]enn bukkess thaer
+     Drihhtin thaerwithth to lakenn.
+   And att[21] te kirrke-dure toc
+     the preost ta twe[gh][gh]enn bukkess,
+   _And_ o thatt an he le[gh][gh]de thaer
+     all the[gh][gh]re sake _and_ sinne,
+   _And_ let itt eornenn for thwithth all
+     ut inntill wilde wesste;
+   _And_ toc _and_ snath thatt otherr bucc
+     Drihhtin thaerwithth to lakenn.
+   All thiss wass don forr here ned,
+     _and_ ec forr ure nede;
+   For hemm itt hallp biforenn Godd
+     to clennssenn hemm of sinne;
+   _And_ all swa ma[gh][gh] itt hellpenn the
+     [gh]iff thatt tu willt [itt] foll[gh]henn.
+   [Gh]iff thatt tu willt full innwarrdli[gh]
+     withth fulle trowwthe lefenn
+   All thatt tatt wass bitacnedd taer,
+     to lefenn _and_ to trowwenn."
+
+  _Ormulum_, ed. White, l. 1324.
+
+The author of the _Ormulum_ was a phonetist, and employed a special
+spelling of his own to represent not only the quality but the
+_quantities_ of vowels and consonants--a circumstance which gives his
+work a peculiar value to the investigator. He is generally assumed to
+have been a native of Lincolnshire or Notts, but the point is a disputed
+one, and there is somewhat to be said for the neighbourhood of Ormskirk
+in Lancashire.
+
+It is customary to differentiate between east and west midland, and to
+subdivide these again into north and south. As was natural in a tract of
+country which stretched from Lancaster to Essex, a very considerable
+variety is found in the documents which agree in presenting the leading
+midland features, those of Lancashire and Lincolnshire approaching the
+northern dialect both in vocabulary, phonetic character and greater
+neglect of inflections. But this diversity diminishes as we advance.
+
+Thirty years after the _Ormulum_, the east midland rhymed _Story of
+Genesis and Exodus_[22] shows us the dialect in a more southern form,
+with the vowels of modern English, and from about the same date, with
+rather more northern characteristics, we have an east midland
+_Bestiary_.
+
+Different tests and different dates have been proposed for subdividing
+the Middle English period, but the most important is that of Henry
+Nicol, based on the observation that in the early 13th century, as in
+Ormin, the Old English short vowels in an open syllable still retained
+their short quantity, as _nama_, _over_, _mete_; but by 1250 or 1260
+they had been lengthened to _na-me_, _o-ver_, _me-te_, a change which
+has also taken place at a particular period in all the Germanic, and
+even the Romanic languages, as in _buo-no_ for _bo-num_, _pa-dre_ for
+_pa-trem_, &c. The lengthening of the penult left the final syllable by
+contrast shortened or weakened, and paved the way for the disappearance
+of final e in the century following, through the stages _na-me_,
+_na-me_, _na-m'_, _nam_, the one long syllable in _nam(e)_ being the
+quantitative equivalent of the two short syllables in _na-me_; hence the
+notion that mute _e_ makes a preceding vowel long, the truth being that
+the lengthening of the vowel led to the e becoming mute.
+
+After 1250 we have the _Lay of Havelok_, and about 1300 the writings of
+Robert of Brunne in South Lincolnshire. In the 14th century we find a
+number of texts belonging to the western part of the district.
+South-west midland is hardly to be distinguished from southern in its
+south-western form, and hence texts like _Piers Plowman_ elude any
+satisfactory classification, but several metrical romances exhibit what
+are generally considered to be west midland characteristics, and a
+little group of poems, _Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knighte_, the _Pearl_,
+_Cleanness_ and _Patience_, thought to be the work of a north-west
+midland writer of the 14th century, bear a striking resemblance to the
+modern Lancashire dialect. The end of the century witnessed the prose of
+Wycliff and Mandeville, and the poetry of Chaucer, with whom Middle
+English may be said to have culminated, and in whose writings its main
+characteristics as distinct from Old and Modern English may be studied.
+Thus, we find final e in full use representing numerous original vowels
+and terminations as
+
+  Him thoughte that his herte wolde breke,
+
+in Old English--
+
+  Him thuhte thaet his heorte wolde brecan,
+
+which may be compared with the modern German--
+
+  Ihm dauchte dass sein Herze wollte brechen.
+
+In nouns the -_es_ of the plural and genitive case is still syllabic--
+
+  Reede as the berstl-es of a sow-es eer-es.
+
+Several old genitives and plural forms continued to exist, and the
+dative or prepositional case has usually a final _e_. Adjectives retain
+so much of the old declension as to have -_e_ in the definite form and
+in the plural--
+
+  The tend-re cropp-es and the yong-e sonne.
+  And smal-e fowl-es maken melodie.
+
+Numerous old forms of comparison were in use, which have not come down
+to Modern English, as _herre_, _ferre_, _lenger_, _hext_ = higher,
+farther, longer, highest. In the pronouns, _ich_ lingered alongside of
+_I_; _ye_ was only nominative, and _you_ objective; the northern _thei_
+had dispossessed the southern _hy_, but _her_ and _hem_ (the modern
+'_em_) stood their ground against _their_ and _them_. The verb is _I
+lov-e_, _thou lov-est_, _he lov-eth_; but, in the plural, _lov-en_ is
+interchanged with _lov-e_, as rhyme or euphony requires. So in the
+plural of the past _we love-den_ or _love-de_. The infinitive also ends
+in _en_, often _e_, always syllabic. The present participle, in Old
+English -_ende_, passing through -_inde_, has been confounded with the
+verbal noun in -_ynge_, -_yng_, as in Modern English. The past
+participle largely retains the prefix _y_- or _i_-, representing the Old
+English _ge_-, as in _i-ronne_, _y-don_, Old English _zerunnen_,
+_zedon_, run, done. Many old verb forms still continued in existence.
+The adoption of French words, not only those of Norman introduction, but
+those subsequently introduced under the Angevin kings, to supply
+obsolete and obsolescent English ones, which had kept pace with the
+growth of literature since the beginning of the Middle English period,
+had now reached its climax; later times added many more, but they also
+dropped some that were in regular use with Chaucer and his
+contemporaries.
+
+Chaucer's great contemporary, William Langland, in his _Vision of
+William concerning Piers the Ploughman_, and his imitator the author of
+_Pierce the Ploughman's Crede_ (about 1400) used the Old English
+alliterative versification for the last time in the south. Rhyme had
+made its appearance in the language shortly after the Conquest--if not
+already known before; and in the south and midlands it became decidedly
+more popular than alliteration; the latter retained its hold much longer
+in the north, where it was written even after 1500: many of the northern
+romances are either simply alliterative, or have both alliteration and
+rhyme. To these characteristics of northern and southern verse
+respectively Chaucer alludes in the prologue of the "Persone," who, when
+called upon for his tale said:--
+
+  "But trusteth wel; I am a sotherne man,
+   I cannot geste _rom_, _ram_, _ruf_, by my letter.
+   And, God wote, rime hold I but litel better:
+   And therefore, if you list, I wol not glose,
+   I wol you tell a litel tale in prose."
+
+The changes from Old to Middle English may be summed up thus: Loss of a
+large part of the native vocabulary, and adoption of French words to
+fill their place; not infrequent adoption of French words as synonyms of
+existing native ones; modernization of the English words preserved, by
+vowel change in a definite direction from back to front, and from open
+to close, _[=a,]_ becoming _[=o,]_, original _e_, _o_ tending to _ee_,
+_oo_, monophthongization of the old diphthongs _eo_, _ea_, and
+development of new diphthongs in connexion with _g_, _h_, and _w_;
+adoption of French orthographic symbols, e.g. _ou_ for _u_, _qu_, _v_,
+_ch_, and gradual loss of the symbols [j], th, dh, Th; obscuration of
+vowels after the accent, and especially of final _a_, _o_, _u_ to _e_;
+consequent confusion and loss of old inflections, and their replacement
+by prepositions, auxiliary verbs and rules of position; abandonment of
+alliteration for rhyme; and great development of dialects, in
+consequence of there being no standard or recognized type of English.
+
+But the recognition came at length. Already in 1258 was issued the
+celebrated English proclamation of Henry III., or rather of Simon de
+Montfort in his name, which, as the only public recognition of the
+native tongue between William the Conqueror and Edward III., has
+sometimes been spoken of as the first specimen of English. It runs:--
+
+  "Henr_i_ thur[gh] godes fultume king on Engleneloande Lhoauerd on
+  Yrloand_e_. Duk on Norm_andie_ on Aquitaine and eorl on Aniow. Send
+  igretinge to alle hise holde ilaerde and ileawede on
+  Huntendoneschir_e_. thaet witen [gh]e wel alle thaet _we_ willen and
+  vnne_n_ thaet thaet vre raedesmen alle other the moare dael of heom
+  thaet beoth ichosen thur[gh] us and thur[gh] thaet loandes folk on vre
+  kuneriche. habbeth idon and schullen don in the worthnesse of gode and
+  on vre treowthe. for the freme of the loande. thur[gh] the besi[gh]te
+  of than to-foren-iseide redesmen. beo stedefaest and ilestinde in alle
+  thinge a buten aende. And we hoaten alle vre treowe in the treowthe
+  thaet heo vs o[gh]en. thaet heo stedefaestliche healden and swerien to
+  healden and to werien tho isetnesses thaet ben imakede and beon to
+  makien thur[gh] than to-foren iseide raedesmen. other thur[gh] the
+  moare dael of heom alswo alse hit is biforen iseid. And thaet aehc
+  other helpe thaet for to done bi than ilche othe a[gh]enes alle men.
+  Ri[gh]t for to done and to foangen. And noan ne nime of loande ne of
+  e[gh]te. wherthur[gh] this besi[gh]te mu[gh]e beon ilet other iwersed
+  on onie wise.' And [gh]if oni other onie cumen her on[gh]enes; we
+  willen and hoaten thaet alle vre treowe heom healden deadliche ifoan.
+  And for thaet we willen thaet this beo stedefaest and lestinde; we
+  senden [gh]ew this writ open iseined with vre seel. to halden amanges
+  [gh]ew ine hord. Witnesse vs seluen aet Lunden_e_. thane E[gh]tetenthe
+  day. on the Monthe of Octobr_e_ In the Two-and-fowerti[gh]the [gh]eare
+  of vre cruninge. And this wes idon aetforen vre isworene redesmen....
+
+  "And al on tho ilche worden is isend in to aeurihce othre shcire ouer
+  al thaere kuneriche on Engleneloande. and ek in tel Irelonde."
+
+The dialect of this document is more southern than anything else, with a
+slight midland admixture. It is much more archaic inflectionally than
+the _Genesis and Exodus_ or _Ormulum_; but it closely resembles the old
+Kentish sermons and _Proverbs of Alfred_ in the southern dialect of
+1250. It represents no doubt the London speech of the day. London being
+in a Saxon county, and contiguous to Kent and Surrey, had certainly at
+first a southern dialect; but its position as the capital, as well as
+its proximity to the midland district, made its dialect more and more
+midland. Contemporary London documents show that Chaucer's language,
+which is distinctly more southern than standard English eventually
+became, is behind the London dialect of the day in this respect, and is
+at once more archaic and consequently more southern.
+
+During the next hundred years English gained ground steadily, and by the
+reign of Edward III. French was so little known in England, even in the
+families of the great, that about 1350 "John Cornwal, a maystere of
+gramere, chaungede the lore (= teaching) in gramere scole _and_
+construccion of [i.e. _from_] Freynsch into Englysch";[23] and in
+1362-1363 English by statute took the place of French in the pleadings
+in courts of law. Every reason conspired that this "English" should be
+the midland dialect. It was the intermediate dialect, intelligible, as
+Trevisa has told us, to both extremes, even when these failed to be
+intelligible to each other; in its south-eastern form, it was the
+language of London, where the supreme law courts were, the centre of
+political and commercial life; it was the language in which the
+Wycliffite versions had given the Holy Scriptures to the people; the
+language in which Chaucer had raised English poetry to a height of
+excellence admired and imitated by contemporaries and followers. And
+accordingly after the end of the 14th century, all Englishmen who
+thought they had anything to say to their countrymen generally said it
+in the midland speech. Trevisa's own work was almost the last literary
+effort of the southern dialect; henceforth it was but a rustic patois,
+which the dramatist might use to give local colouring to his creations,
+as Shakespeare uses it to complete Edgar's peasant disguise in _Lear_,
+or which 19th century research might disinter to illustrate obscure
+chapters in the history of language. And though the northern English
+proved a little more stubborn, it disappeared also from literature in
+England; but in Scotland, which had now become politically and socially
+estranged from England, it continued its course as the national language
+of the country, attaining in the 15th and 16th centuries a distinct
+development and high literary culture, for the details of which readers
+are referred to the article on SCOTTISH LANGUAGE.
+
+The 15th century of English history, with its bloody French war abroad
+and Wars of the Roses at home, was a barren period in literature, and a
+transition one in language, witnessing the decay and disappearance of
+the final _e_, and most of the syllabic inflections of Middle English.
+Already by 1420, in Chaucer's disciple Hoccleve, final _e_ was quite
+uncertain; in Lydgate it was practically gone. In 1450 the writings of
+Pecock against the Wycliffites show the verbal inflections in _-en_ in a
+state of obsolescence; he has still the southern pronouns _her_ and
+_hem_ for the northern _their_, _them_:--
+
+  "And here-a[gh]ens holi scripture wole that men schulden lacke the
+  coueryng which wommen schulden haue, & thei schulden so lacke bi that
+  the heeris of her heedis schulden be schorne, & schulde not growe in
+  lengthe doun as wommanys heer schulde growe....
+
+  "Also here-withal into the open si[gh]t of ymagis in open chirchis,
+  alle peple, men & wommen & children mowe come whanne euere thei wolen
+  in ech tyme of the day, but so mowe thei not come in-to the vce of
+  bokis to be delyuered to hem neither to be red bifore hem; & therfore,
+  as for to soone & ofte come into remembraunce of a long mater bi ech
+  oon persoon, and also as forto make that the mo persoones come into
+  remembraunce of a mater, ymagis & picturis serven in a specialer maner
+  than bokis doon, thou[gh] in an other maner ful substanciali bokis
+  seruen better into remembrauncing of tho same materis than ymagis &
+  picturis doon; & therfore, thou[gh] writing is seruen weel into
+  remembrauncing upon the bifore seid thingis, [gh]it not at the ful:
+  Forwhi the bokis han not the avail of remembrauncing now seid whiche
+  ymagis han."[24]
+
+The change of the language during the second period of Transition, as
+well as the extent of dialectal differences, is quaintly expressed a
+generation later by Caxton, who in the prologue to one of the last of
+his works, his translation of Virgil's _Eneydos_ (1490), speaks of the
+difficulty he had in pleasing all readers:--
+
+  "I doubted that it sholde not please some gentylmen, whiche late
+  blamed me, sayeng, y^t in my translacyons I had ouer curyous termes,
+  whiche coud not be vnderstande of comyn peple, and desired me to vse
+  olde and homely termes in my translacyons. And fayn wolde I satysfy
+  euery man; and so to doo, toke an olde boke and redde therein; and
+  certaynly the englysshe was so rude and brood that I coude not wele
+  vnderstande it. And also my lorde abbot of Westmynster ded do shewe to
+  me late certayn euydences wryton in olde englysshe for to reduce it in
+  to our englysshe now vsid. And certaynly it was wreton in suche wyse
+  that it was more lyke to dutche than englysshe; I coude not reduce ne
+  brynge it to be vnderstonden. And certaynly, our langage now vsed
+  varyeth ferre from that whiche was vsed and spoken whan I was borne.
+  For we englysshemen ben borne vnder the domynacyon of the mone, whiche
+  is neuer stedfaste, but euer wauerynge, wexynge one season, and waneth
+  and dycreaseth another season. And that comyn englysshe that is spoken
+  in one shyre varyeth from a nother. In so much that in my days
+  happened that certayn marchauntes were in a ship_e_ in tamyse, for to
+  haue sayled ouer the sea into zelande, and for lacke of wynde thei
+  taryed atte forlond, and wente to lande for to refreshe them. And one
+  of theym named sheffelde, a mercer, cam in to an hows and axed for
+  mete, and specyally he axyd after eggys, And the goode wyf answerde,
+  that she coude speke no frenshe. And the marchaunt was angry, for he
+  also coulde speke no frenshe, but wolde haue hadde egges; and she
+  vnderstode hym not. And thenne at laste a nother sayd that he wolde
+  haue eyren; then the good wyf sayd that she vnderstod hym wel. Loo!
+  what sholde a man in thyse dayes now wryte, egges or eyren? certaynly,
+  it is harde to playse euery man, by cause of dyuersite & chaunge of
+  langage. For in these dayes, euery man that is in ony reputacyon in
+  his countre wyll vtter his comynycacyon and maters in suche maners &
+  termes that fewe men shall vnderstonde theym. And som honest and grete
+  clerkes haue ben wyth me, and desired me to wryte the moste curyous
+  termes that I coude fynde. And thus bytwene playn, rude and curyous, I
+  stande abasshed; but in my Iudgemente, the comyn termes that be dayli
+  vsed ben lyghter to be vnderstonde than the olde and auncyent
+  englysshe."
+
+In the productions of Caxton's press we see the passage from Middle to
+Early Modern English completed. The earlier of these have still an
+occasional verbal plural in _-n_, especially in the word _they ben_; the
+southern _her_ and _hem_ of Middle English vary with the northern and
+Modern English _their_, _them_. In the late works, the older forms have
+been practically ousted, and the year 1485, which witnessed the
+establishment of the Tudor dynasty, may be conveniently put as that
+which closed the Middle English transition, and introduced Modern
+English. Both in the completion of this result, and in its comparative
+permanence, the printing press had an important share. By its exclusive
+patronage of the midland speech, it raised it still higher above the
+sister dialects, and secured its abiding victory. As books were
+multiplied and found their way into every corner of the land, and the
+art of reading became a more common acquirement, the man of
+Northumberland or of Somersetshire had forced upon his attention the
+book-English in which alone these were printed. This became in turn the
+model for his own writings, and by-and-by, if he made any pretensions to
+education, of his own speech. The written _form_ of the language also
+tended to uniformity. In previous periods the scribe made his own
+spelling with a primary aim at expressing his own speech, according to
+the particular values attached by himself or his contemporaries to the
+letters and combinations of the alphabet, though liable to disturbance
+in the most common words and combinations by his ocular recollections of
+the spelling of others. But after the introduction of printing, this
+ocular recognition of words became ever more and more an aim; the book
+addressed the mind directly through the eye, instead of circuitously
+through eye and ear; and thus there was a continuous tendency for
+written words and parts of words to be reduced to a single form, and
+that the most usual, or through some accident the best known, but not
+necessarily that which would have been chosen had the _ear_ been called
+in as umpire. Modern English spelling, with its rigid uniformity as to
+individual results and whimsical caprice as to principles, is the
+creation of the printing-office, the victory which, after a century and
+a half of struggle, mechanical convenience won over natural habits.
+Besides eventually creating a uniformity in writing, the introduction of
+printing made or at least ratified some important changes. The British
+and Old English form of the Roman alphabet has already been referred to.
+This at the Norman Conquest was superseded by an alphabet with the
+French forms and values of the letters. Thus _k_ took the place of the
+older _c_ before _e_ and _i_; _qu_ replaced _cw_; the Norman _w_ took
+the place of the _wen_ (Th), &c.; and hence it has often been said that
+Middle English stands nearer to Old English in pronunciation, but to
+Modern English in spelling. But there were certain sounds in English for
+which Norman writing had no provision; and for these, in writing
+English, the native characters were retained. Thus the Old English g
+([g]), beside the sound in _go_, had a guttural sound as in German
+ta_g_, Irish ma_gh_, and in certain positions a palatalized form of this
+approaching _y_ as in _y_ou (if pronounced with aspiration _hy_ou or
+_gh_you). These sounds continued to be written with the native form of
+the letter as _bur[gh]_, _[gh]our_, while the French form was used for
+the sounds in _go_, _age_,--one original letter being thus represented
+by two. So for the sounds of _th_, especially the sound in _th_at, the
+Old English _thorn_ (th) continued to be used. But as these characters
+were not used for French and Latin, their use even in English became
+disturbed towards the 15th century, and when printing was introduced,
+the founts, cast for continental languages, had no characters for them,
+so that they were dropped entirely, being replaced, [gh] by _gh_, _yh_,
+_y_, and _th_ by _th_. This was a real loss to the English alphabet. In
+the north it is curious that the printers tried to express the _forms_
+rather than the powers of these letters, and consequently [gh] was
+represented by _z_, the black letter form of which was confounded with
+it, while the th was expressed by _y_, which its MS. form had come to
+approach or in some cases simulate. So in early Scotch books we find
+_zellow_, _ze_, _yat_, _yem_ = _yellow_, _ye_, _that_, _them_; and in
+Modern Scottish, such names as _Menzies_, _Dalziel_, _Cockenzie_, and
+the word _gaberlunzie_, in which the _z_ stands for _y_.
+
+MODERN ENGLISH thus dates from Caxton. The language had at length
+reached the all but flectionless state which it now presents. A single
+older verbal form, the southern _-eth_ of the third person singular,
+continued to be the literary prose form throughout the 16th century, but
+the northern form in _-s_ was intermixed with it in poetry (where it
+saved a syllable), and must ere long, as we see from Shakespeare, have
+taken its place in familiar speech. The fuller _an_, _none_, _mine_,
+_thine_, in the early part of the 16th century at least, were used in
+positions where their shortened forms _a_, _no_, _my_, _thy_ are now
+found (_none other_, _mine own_ = _no other_, _my own_). But with such
+minute exceptions, the accidence of the 16th century was the accidence
+of the 19th. While, however, the older inflections had disappeared,
+there was as yet no general agreement as to the mode of their
+replacement. Hence the 16th century shows a syntactic licence and
+freedom which distinguishes it strikingly from that of later times. The
+language seems to be in a plastic, unformed state, and its writers, as
+it were, experiment with it, bending it to constructions which now seem
+indefensible. Old distinctions of case and mood have disappeared from
+noun and verb, without custom having yet decided what prepositions or
+auxiliary verbs shall most fittingly convey their meaning. The laxity of
+word-order which was permitted in older states of the language by the
+_formal_ expression of relations was often continued though the
+inflections which expressed the relations had disappeared. Partial
+analogy was followed in allowing forms to be identified in one case,
+because, in another, such identification was accidentally produced, as
+for instance the past participles of _write_ and _take_ were often made
+_wrote_ and _took_, because the contracted participles of _bind_ and
+_break_ were _bound_ and _broke_. Finally, because, in dropping
+inflections, the former distinctions even between parts of speech had
+disappeared, so that _iron_, e.g., was at once noun, adjective and verb,
+_clean_, adjective, verb and adverb, it appeared as if any word whatever
+might be used in any grammatical relation, where it conveyed the idea of
+the speaker. Thus, as has been pointed out by Dr Abbott, "you can
+_happy_ your friend, _malice_ or _foot_ your enemy, or _fall_ an axe on
+his neck. You can speak and act _easy_, _free_, _excellent_, you can
+talk of _fair_ instead of beauty (fairness), and a _pale_ instead of a
+_paleness_. A _he_ is used for a man, and a lady is described by a
+gentleman as 'the fairest _she_ he has yet beheld.' An adverb can be
+used as a verb, as 'they _askance_ their eyes'; as a noun, 'the
+_backward_ and abyss of time'; or as an adjective, a '_seldom_
+pleasure.'"[25] For, as he also says, "clearness was preferred to
+grammatical correctness, and brevity both to correctness and clearness.
+Hence it was common to place words in the order in which they came
+uppermost in the mind without much regard to syntax, and the result was
+a forcible and perfectly unambiguous but ungrammatical sentence, such as
+
+  The prince that feeds great natures they will slay him.
+
+    _Ben Jonson._
+
+or, as instances of brevity,
+
+  Be guilty of my death since of my crime.
+
+    _Shakespeare._
+
+  It cost more to get than to lose in a day.
+
+    _Ben Jonson._"
+
+These characteristics, together with the presence of words now obsolete
+or archaic, and the use of existing words in senses different from our
+own, as general for specific, literal for metaphorical, and vice versa,
+which are so apparent to every reader of the 16th-century literature,
+make it useful to separate _Early Modern_ or _Tudor_ English from the
+subsequent and still existing stage, since the consensus of usage has
+declared in favour of individual senses and constructions which are
+alone admissible in ordinary language.
+
+The beginning of the Tudor period was contemporaneous with the
+Renaissance in art and literature, and the dawn of modern discoveries in
+geography and science. The revival of the study of the classical writers
+of Greece and Rome, and the translation of their works into the
+vernacular, led to the introduction of an immense number of new words
+derived from these languages, either to express new ideas and objects or
+to indicate new distinctions in or grouping of old ideas. Often also it
+seemed as if scholars were so pervaded with the form as well as the
+spirit of the old, that it came more natural to them to express
+themselves in words borrowed from the old than in their native tongue,
+and thus words of Latin origin were introduced even when English already
+possessed perfectly good equivalents. As has already been stated, the
+French words of Norman and Angevin introduction, being principally Latin
+words in an altered form, when used as English supplied models whereby
+other Latin words could be converted into English ones, and it is after
+these models that the Latin words introduced during and since the 16th
+century have been fashioned. There is nothing in the _form_ of the words
+_procession_ and _progression_ to show that the one was used in England
+in the 11th, the other not till the 16th century. Moreover, as the
+formation of new words from Latin had gone on in French as well as in
+English since the Renaissance, we often cannot tell whether such words,
+e.g. as _persuade_ and _persuasion_, were borrowed from their French
+equivalents or formed from Latin in England independently. With some
+words indeed it is impossible to say whether they were formed in England
+directly from Latin, borrowed from contemporary late French, or had been
+in England since the Norman period, even _photograph_, _geology_ and
+_telephone_ have the form that they would have had if they had been
+living words in the mouths of Greeks, Latins, French and English from
+the beginning, instead of formations of the 19th century.[26] While
+every writer was thus introducing new words according to his notion of
+their being needed, it naturally happened that a large number were not
+accepted by contemporaries or posterity; a long list might be formed of
+these mintages of the 16th and 17th centuries, which either never became
+current coin, or circulated only as it were for a moment. The revived
+study of Latin and Greek also led to modifications in the spelling of
+some words which had entered Middle English in the French form. So
+Middle English _doute_, _dette_, were changed to _doubt_, _debt_, to
+show a more immediate connexion with Latin _dubitum_, _debitum_; the
+actual derivation from the French being ignored. Similarly, words
+containing a Latin and French _t_, which might be traced back to an
+original Greek [theta], were remodelled upon the Greek, e.g. _theme_,
+_throne_, for Middle English _teme_, _trone_, and, by false association
+with Greek, _anthem_, Old English _antefne_, Latin _antiphona_;
+_Anthony_, Latin _Antonius_; _Thames_, Latin _Tamesis_, apparently after
+_Thomas_.
+
+The voyages of English navigators in the latter part of the 16th century
+introduced a considerable number of Spanish words, and American words in
+Spanish forms, of which _negro_, _potato_, _tobacco_, _cargo_,
+_armadillo_, _alligator_, _galleon_ may serve as examples.
+
+The date of 1611, which nearly coincides with the end of Shakespeare's
+literary work, and marks the appearance of the Authorized Version of the
+Bible (a compilation from the various 16th-century versions), may be
+taken as marking the close of Tudor English. The language was
+thenceforth Modern in structure, style and expression, although the
+spelling did not settle down to present usage till about the revolution
+of 1688. The latter date also marks the disappearance from literature of
+a large number of words, chiefly of such as were derived from Latin
+during the 16th and 17th centuries. Of these nearly all that survived
+1688 are still in use; but a long list might be made out of those that
+appear for the last time before that date. This sifting of the literary
+vocabulary and gradual fixing of the literary spelling, which went on
+between 1611, when the language became modern in structure, and 1689,
+when it became modern also in form, suggests for this period the name of
+Seventeenth-Century Transition. The distinctive features of Modern
+English have already been anticipated by way of contrast with preceding
+stages of the language. It is only necessary to refer to the fact that
+the vocabulary is now much more composite than at any previous period.
+The immense development of the physical sciences has called for a
+corresponding extension of terminology which has been supplied from
+Latin and especially Greek; and although these terms are in the first
+instance _technical_, yet, with the spread of education and general
+diffusion of the rudiments and appliances of science, the boundary line
+between _technical_ and _general_, indefinite at the best, tends more
+and more to melt away--this in addition to the fact that words still
+technical become general in figurative or metonymic senses. _Ache_,
+_diamond_, _stomach_, _comet_, _organ_, _tone_, _ball_, _carte_, are
+none the less familiar because once technical words. Commercial, social,
+artistic or literary contact has also led to the adoption of numerous
+words from modern European languages, especially French, Italian,
+Portuguese, Dutch (these two at a less recent period): thus from French
+_soiree_, _seance_, _depot_, _debris_, _programme_, _prestige_; from
+Italian _bust_, _canto_, _folio_, _cartoon_, _concert_, _regatta_,
+_ruffian_; from Portuguese _caste_, _palaver_; from Dutch _yacht_,
+_skipper_, _schooner_, _sloop_. Commercial intercourse and colonization
+have extended far beyond Europe, and given us words more or fewer from
+Hindostani, Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Malay, Chinese, and from American,
+Australian, Polynesian and African languages.[27] More important even
+than these, perhaps, are the dialect words that from time to time obtain
+literary recognition, restoring to us obsolete Old English forms, and
+not seldom words of Celtic or Danish origin, which have been preserved
+in local dialects, and thus at length find their way into the standard
+language.
+
+As to the actual proportion of the various elements of the language, it
+is probable that original English words do not now form more than a
+fourth or perhaps a fifth of the total entries in a full English
+dictionary; and it may seem strange, therefore, that we still identify
+the language with that of the 9th century, and class it as a member of
+the _Low German_ division. But this explains itself, when we consider
+that of the total words in a dictionary only a small portion are used by
+any one individual in speaking or even in writing; that this portion
+includes the great majority of the Anglo-Saxon words, and but a minority
+of the others. The latter are in fact almost all _names_--the vast
+majority names of _things_ (nouns), a smaller number names of
+_attributes_ and _actions_ (adjectives and verbs), and, from their very
+nature, names of the things, attributes and actions which come less
+usually or, it may be, very rarely under our notice. Thus in an ordinary
+book, a novel or story, the foreign elements will amount to from 10 to
+15% of the whole; as the subject becomes more recondite or technical
+their number will increase; till in a work on chemistry or abstruse
+mathematics the proportion may be 40%. But after all, it is not the
+question whence words _may_ have been taken, but _how they are used_ in
+a language that settles its character. If new words when adopted conform
+themselves to the manner and usage of the adopting language, it makes
+absolutely no difference whether they are taken over from some other
+language, or invented off at the ground. In either case they are _new_
+words to begin with; in either case also, if they are needed, they will
+become as thoroughly native, i.e. familiar from childhood to those who
+use them, as those that possess the longest native pedigree. In this
+respect English is still the same language it was in the days of Alfred;
+and, comparing its history with that of other Low German tongues, there
+is no reason to believe that its grammar or structure would have been
+very different, however different its vocabulary might have been, if the
+Norman Conquest had never taken place.
+
+A general broad view of the sources of the English vocabulary and of the
+dates at which the various foreign elements flowed into the language, as
+well as of the great change produced in it by the Norman Conquest, and
+consequent influx of French and Latin elements, is given in the
+accompanying chart. The transverse lines represent centuries, and it
+will be seen how limited a period after all is occupied by modern
+English, how long the language had been in the country before the Norman
+Conquest, and how much of this is prehistoric and without any literary
+remains. Judging by what has happened during the historic period, great
+changes may and indeed _must_ have taken place between the first arrival
+of the Saxons and the days of King Alfred, when literature practically
+begins. The chart also illustrates the continuity of the main stock of
+the vocabulary, the body of primary "words of common life," which,
+notwithstanding numerous losses and more numerous additions, has
+preserved its corporate identity through all the periods. But the
+"poetic and rhetorical," as well as the "scientific" terms of Old
+English have died out, and a new vocabulary of "abstract and general
+terms" has arisen from French, Latin and Greek, while a still newer
+"technical, commercial and scientific" vocabulary is composed of words
+not only from these, but from every civilized and many uncivilized
+languages.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The preceding sketch has had reference mainly to the grammatical changes
+which the language has undergone; distinct from, though intimately
+connected with these (as where the confusion or loss of inflections was
+a consequence of the weakening of final sounds) are the great phonetic
+changes which have taken place between the 8th and 19th centuries, and
+which result in making modern English words very different from their
+Anglo-Saxon originals, even where no element has been lost, as in words
+like _stone_, _mine_, _doom_, _day_, _nail_, _child_, _bridge_, _shoot_,
+Anglo-Saxon _stan_, _min_, _dom_, _daeg_, _naegel_, _cild_, _brycg_,
+_sceot_. The history of English sounds (see PHONETICS) has been treated
+at length by Dr A.J. Ellis and Dr Henry Sweet; and it is only necessary
+here to indicate the broad facts, which are the following, (1) In an
+accented closed syllable, original short vowels have remained nearly
+unchanged; thus the words _at_, _men_, _bill_, _God_, _dust_ are
+pronounced now nearly as in Old English, though the last two were more
+like the Scotch _o_ and North English _u_ respectively, and in most
+words the short _a_ had a broader sound like the provincial _a_ in
+_man_. (2) Long accented vowels and diphthongs have undergone a regular
+sound shift towards closer and more advanced positions, so that the
+words _ban_, _haer_, _soece_ or _sece_, _stol_ (_bahn_ or _bawn_, _her_,
+_sok_ or _saik_, _stole_) are now _bone_, _hair_, _seek_, _stool_; while
+the two high vowels _u_ (= _oo_) and _i_ (_ee_) have become diphthongs,
+as _hus_, _scir_, now _house_, _shire_, though the old sound of _u_
+remains in the north (_hoose_), and the original _i_ in the
+pronunciation _sheer_, approved by Walker, "as in mach_i_ne, and
+sh_i_re, and magaz_i_ne." (3) Short vowels in an open syllable have
+usually been lengthened, as in _na-ma_, _co-fa_, now _name_, _cove_; but
+to this there are exceptions, especially in the case of _i_ and _u_. (4)
+Vowels in terminal unaccented syllables have all sunk into short obscure
+_e_, and then, if final, disappeared; so _oxa_, _seo_, _wudu_ became
+_ox-e_, _se-e_, _wud-e_, and then _ox_, _see_, _wood_; _oxan_, _lufod_,
+now _oxen_, _loved_, _lov'd_; _settan_, _setton_, later _setten_,
+_sette_, _sett_, now _set_. (5) The back consonants, _c_, _g_, _sc_, in
+connexion with front vowels, have often become palatalized to _ch_, _j_,
+_sh_, as _circe_, _rycg_, _fisc_, now _church_, _ridge_, _fish_. A
+medial or final _g_ has passed through a guttural or palatal continuant
+to _w_ or _y_, forming a diphthong or new vowel, as in _boga_, _laga_,
+_daeg_, _heg_, _drig_, now _bow_, _law_, _day_, _hay_, _dry_. _W_ and
+_h_ have disappeared before _r_ and _l_, as in _write_, _(w)lisp_,
+_(h)ring_; _h_ final (=_gh_) has become _f_, _k_, _w_ or nothing, but
+has developed the glides _u_ or _i_ before itself, these combining with
+the preceding vowel to form a diphthong, or merging with it into a
+simple vowel-sound, as _ruh_, _hoh_, _boh_, _deah_, _heah_, _hleah_, now
+_rough_, _hough_, _bough_, _dough_, _high_, _laugh=ruf_, _hok_, _bow_,
+_do_, _hi_, _laf_. _R_ after a vowel has practically disappeared in
+standard English, or at most become vocalized, or combined with the
+vowel, as in _hear_, _bar_, _more_, _her_. These and other changes have
+taken place gradually, and in accordance with well-known phonetic laws;
+the details as to time and mode may be studied in special works. It may
+be mentioned that the total loss of grammatical _gender_ in English, and
+the almost complete disappearance of _cases_, are purely phonetic
+phenomena. _Gender_ (whatever its remote origin) was practically the use
+of adjectives and pronouns with certain distinctive terminations, in
+accordance with the _genus_, _genre_, _gender_ or _kind_ of nouns to
+which they were attached; when these distinctive terminations were
+uniformly levelled to final _e_, or other weak sounds, and thus ceased
+to distinguish nouns into kinds, the distinctions into genders or kinds
+having no other existence disappeared. Thus when _thaet gode hors_,
+_thone godan hund_, _tha godan boc_, became, by phonetic weakening, _the
+gode hors_, _the gode hownd_, _the gode boke_, and later still the _good
+horse_, the _good hound_, the _good book_, the words _horse_, _hound_,
+_book_ were no longer grammatically different kinds of nouns;
+grammatical gender had ceased to exist. The concord of adjectives has
+entirely disappeared; the concord of the pronouns is now regulated by
+_rationality_ and _sex_, instead of grammatical gender, which has no
+existence in English. The man _who_ lost _his_ life; the bird _which_
+built _its_ nest.
+
+Our remarks from the end of the 14th century have been confined to the
+standard or literary form of English, for of the other dialects from
+that date (with the exception of the northern English in Scotland,
+where it became in a social and literary sense a distinct language), we
+have little history. We know, however, that they continued to exist as
+local and popular forms of speech, as well from occasional specimens and
+from the fact that they exist still as from the statements of writers
+during the interval. Thus Puttenham in his _Arte of English Poesie_
+(1589) says:--
+
+  "Our maker [i.e. poet] therfore at these dayes shall not follow Piers
+  Plowman, nor Gower, nor Lydgate, not yet Chaucer, for their language
+  is now not of use with us: neither shall he take the termes of
+  Northern-men, such as they use in dayly talke, whether they be noble
+  men or gentle men or of their best clarkes, all is a [= one] matter;
+  nor in effect any speach used beyond the river of Trent, though no man
+  can deny but that theirs is the purer English Saxon at this day, yet
+  it is not so Courtly nor so currant as our _Southerne_ English is, no
+  more is the far Westerne mans speach: ye shall therefore take the
+  usual speach of the Court, and that of London and the shires lying
+  about London within lx myles, and not much above. I say not this but
+  that in every shyre of England there be gentlemen and others that
+  speake but specially write as good Southerne as we of Middlesex or
+  Surrey do, but not the common people of every shire, to whom the
+  gentlemen, and also their learned clarkes do for the most part
+  condescend, but herein we are already ruled by th' English
+  Dictionaries and other bookes written by learned men."--_Arber's
+  Reprint_, p. 157.
+
+In comparatively modern times there has been a revival of interest in
+these forms of English, several of which following in the wake of the
+revival of Lowland Scots in the 18th and 19th centuries, have produced a
+considerable literature in the form of local poems, tales and
+"folk-lore." In these respects Cumberland, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Devon,
+Somerset and Dorset, the "far north" and "far west" of Puttenham, where
+the dialect was felt to be so independent of literary English as not to
+be branded as a mere vulgar corruption of it, stand prominent. More
+recently the dialects have been investigated philologically, a
+department in which, as in other departments of English philology, the
+elder Richard Garnett must be named as a pioneer. The work was carried
+out zealously by Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte and Dr A.J. Ellis, and
+more recently by the English Dialect Society, founded by the Rev.
+Professor Skeat, for the investigation of this branch of philology. The
+efforts of this society resulted in the compilation and publication of
+glossaries or word-books, more or less complete and trustworthy, of most
+of the local dialects, and in the production of grammars dealing with
+the phonology and grammatical features of a few of these, among which
+that of the Windhill dialect in Yorkshire, by Professor Joseph Wright,
+and that of West Somerset, by the late F.T. Elworthy, deserve special
+mention. From the whole of the glossaries of the Dialect Society, and
+from all the earlier dialect works of the 18th and 19th centuries,
+amplified and illustrated by the contributions of local collaborators in
+nearly every part of the British Isles, Professor Joseph Wright has
+constructed his _English Dialect Dictionary_, recording the local words
+and senses, with indication of their geographical range, their
+pronunciation, and in most cases with illustrative quotations or
+phrases. To this he has added an _English Dialect Grammar_, dealing very
+fully with the phonology of the dialects, showing the various sounds
+which now represent each Old English sound, and endeavouring to define
+the area over which each modern form extends; the accidence is treated
+more summarily, without going minutely into that of each dialect-group,
+for which special dialect grammars must be consulted. The work has also
+a very full and valuable index of every word and form treated.
+
+The researches of Prince L.L. Bonaparte and Dr Ellis were directed
+specially to the classification and mapping of the existing
+dialects,[28] and the relation of these to the dialects of Old and
+Middle English. They recognized a _Northern_ dialect lying north of a
+line drawn from Morecambe Bay to the Humber, which, with the kindred
+Scottish dialects (already investigated and classed),[29] is the direct
+descendant of early northern English, and a _South-western_ dialect
+occupying Somerset, Wilts, Dorset, Gloucester and western Hampshire,
+which, with the _Devonian_ dialect beyond it, are the descendants of
+early southern English and the still older West-Saxon of Alfred. This
+dialect must in the 14th Century have been spoken everywhere south of
+Thames; but the influence of London caused its extinction in Surrey,
+Sussex and Kent, so that already in Puttenham it had become "far
+western." An _East Midland_ dialect, extending from south Lincolnshire
+to London, occupies the cradle-land of the standard English speech, and
+still shows least variation from it. Between and around these typical
+dialects are ten others, representing the old Midland proper, or
+dialects between it and the others already mentioned. Thus "north of
+Trent" the _North-western_ dialect of south Lancashire, Cheshire, Derby
+and Stafford, with that of Shropshire, represents the early West Midland
+English, of which several specimens remain; while the _North-eastern_ of
+Nottingham and north Lincolnshire represents the dialect of the _Lay of
+Havelok_. With the _North Midland_ dialect of south-west Yorkshire,
+these represent forms of speech which to the modern Londoner, as to
+Puttenham, are still decidedly northern, though actually intermediate
+between northern proper and midland, and preserving interesting traces
+of the midland pronouns and verbal inflections. There is an _Eastern_
+dialect in the East Anglian counties; a _Midland_ in Leicester and
+Warwick shires; a _Western_ in Hereford, Worcester and north
+Gloucestershire, intermediate between south-western and north-western,
+and representing the dialect of _Piers Plowman_. Finally, between the
+east midland and south-western, in the counties of Buckingham, Oxford,
+Berks, Hants, Surrey and Sussex, there is a dialect which must have once
+been south-western, but of which the most salient characters have been
+rubbed off by proximity to London and the East Midland speech. In east
+Sussex and Kent this _South-eastern_ dialect attains to a more
+distinctive character. The _Kentish_ form of early Southern English
+evidently maintained its existence more toughly than that of the
+counties immediately south of London. It was very distinct in the days
+of Sir Thomas More; and even, as we see from the dialect attributed to
+Edgar in _Lear_, was still strongly marked in the days of Shakespeare.
+In the south-eastern corner of Ireland, in the baronies of Forth and
+Bargy, in county Wexford, a very archaic form of English, of which
+specimens have been preserved,[30] was still spoken in the 18th century.
+In all probability it dated from the first English invasion. In many
+parts of Ulster forms of Lowland Scotch dating to the settlement under
+James I. are still spoken; but the English of Ireland generally seems to
+represent 16th and 17th century English, as in the pronunciation of
+_tea_, _wheat_ (_tay_, _whait_), largely affected, of course, by the
+native Celtic. The subsequent work of the English Dialect Society, and
+the facts set forth in the _English Dialect Dictionary_, confirm in a
+general way the classification of Bonaparte and Ellis; but they bring
+out strongly the fact that only in a few cases can the boundary between
+dialects now be determined by precise lines. For every dialect there is
+a central region, larger or smaller, in which its characteristics are at
+a maximum; but towards the edges of the area these become mixed and
+blended with the features of the contiguous dialects, so that it is
+often impossible to define the point at which the one dialect ends and
+the other begins. The fact is that the various features of a dialect,
+whether its distinctive words, characteristic pronunciations or special
+grammatical features, though they may have the same centre, have not all
+the same circumference. Some of them extend to a certain distance round
+the centre; others to a much greater distance. The only approximately
+accurate way to map the area of any dialect, whether in England, France,
+Germany or elsewhere, is to take a well-chosen set of its characteristic
+features--words, senses, sounds or grammatical peculiarities, and draw a
+line round the area over which each of these extends; between the
+innermost and outermost of these there will often be a large border
+district. If the same process be followed with the contiguous dialects,
+it will be found that some of the lines of each intersect some of the
+lines of the other, and that the passing of one dialect into another is
+not effected by the formation of intermediate or blended forms of any
+one characteristic, but by the overlapping or intersecting of more or
+fewer of the features of each. Thus a definite border village or
+district may use 10 of the 20 features of dialect A and 10 of those of
+B, while a village on the one side has 12 of those of A with 8 of those
+of B, and one on the other side has 7 of those of A with 13 of those of
+B. Hence a dialect boundary line can at best indicate the line within
+which the dialect has, on the whole, more of the features of A than of B
+or C; and usually no single line can be drawn as a dialect boundary, but
+that without it there are some features of the same dialect, and within
+it some features of the contiguous dialects.
+
+
+  CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE PERIODS AND DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
+
+  CHRONOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE.
+
+  Divisions.               Subdivisions.             Dates
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+   OLD ENGLISH
+  (Full Inflections.)      EARLY OLD ENGLISH.        500-850
+
+                           TYPICAL OLD ENGLISH,      850-1000
+                             or ANGLO-SAXON.
+
+                           LATE OLD ENGLISH          1000-1150
+                             and OLD ENGLISH
+                             TRANSITION.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+    MIDDLE ENGLISH.
+   (Levelled Inflections.)
+
+                           EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH.     1150-1250
+
+                           MIDDLE ENGLISH (typical). 1250-1400
+
+                           LATE MIDDLE ENGLISH
+                             and MIDDLE ENGLISH
+                             TRANSITION.             1400-1485
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+  MODERN ENGLISH.
+  (Lost Inflections.)
+                           EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
+                             (Tudor English).        1450-1611
+
+                           TRANSITIONAL MODERN or
+                             17TH CENTURY ENGLISH.   1611-1689
+
+                           CURRENT ENGLISH.          1689-
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+
+
+  LITERARY DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEADING DIALECTS.
+
+  Northern English.           Midland English.                       Southern English.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+    Anglian.                    Anglian.                    Saxon.                         Kentish.
+    -------                     -------                     -----                          -------
+  Caedmon, 660.                (Charter Glosses), 736-800. (Charter Glosses), 692-780.    (Charter Glosses), 679-770.
+  Beda, 734.                  Beowulf(?)                  (Laws of Ine, 700)             Charters_, 805-840.
+  Leiden Riddle_.               Mercian.                  Literary West-Saxon            Lorica Prayer.
+  Cynewulf, c. 750.             -------                     or Anglo-Saxon.              Psalm 50, c. 860.
+    Old Northumbrian.         (Charter Glosses), 805--.   Charter, 847.
+    ----------------          Vespasian Ps., c. 825.      Alfred, 885.
+  Durham Glosses, 950-975.    Charters, 836-840.          Judith, 900-910.
+  Lindisfarne Gospel Gloss.   Lorica Glosses.             Poems in O.E. Chron., 937-979.
+                              Rushworth Gloss, St.        Battle of Maldon, 993.
+                              Matthew, ? 975-1000.        Aelfric, 1000.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+                              Peterborough Chronicle      Wulfstan, 1016.
+                                1123-31.                  O.E. Chron., Parker MS.
+                                                            ends, 1070.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+    Early Northern English      Early Midland.              Early Southern and             Middle Kentish.
+      and Early Scotch.         -------------                 S.W. English                 --------------
+    ----------------------    Chronicle, 1154.            ------------------             Hatton Gospels, 1170.
+                              Ormulum, 1200.              Cotton Homilies, 1160.         Kentish Sermons, 1250.
+                              Genesis & Exodus, c. 1250.  Layamon, 1203.
+                                Middle English.           Ancren Riwle, 1220.
+                                --------------            --------------------------
+  Cursor Mundi (?).           Harrowing of Hell, 1280.                                   Shoreham, 1320.
+  Hampole, 1350.              Robt. of Brunne, 1303-30.   Procl. of Henry III., 1258.    Ayenbite, 1340.
+  Barbour, 1375.              Pearl, Sir Gawayne.         Robt. Gloucester, 1300.
+  Mandeville (Northern        Wycliffe.                   Trevisa, 1387.
+    version) Wyntoun, 1420.   Chaucer, Gower.
+  Townley Mysteries.          Lydgate.
+  Henryson, 1470.             Caxton, 1477-90.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+    Middle Sccotch.             Tudor English.              South-Western Dialect.         Kentish Dialect.
+    --------------              -------------               ---------------------          ---------------
+  Dunbar, 1500--.             Tyndal, 1525.               Cornishman in A. Boorde,       (in Sir. T. More.)
+  Lyndesay.                   Homilies, 1547-63.            1547.                        (Edgar in Lear, 1605.)
+  Archbp. Hamilton, 1552.     Shakspere, 1590-1613.       Gammer Gurton, 1575.           (in Ben Jonson.)
+  James VI., 1590.            King James's Bible, 1611.   Somersetsh. Man's Complaynt,   Kentish Wooing Song, 1611
+  Montgomery, c. 1600.        Milton, 1626-71.              c. 1645.
+  Sir W. Mure, 1617-57.       Dryden, 1663-1700.
+  Yorkshire Dialogue, 1673.
+  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+    Modern Scotch and           Current English.          Exmoor Scolding, 1746.         Nairne, Kentish Tales,
+      North Eng. Dial.          ---------------           Barnes, 1844.                     1700.
+    -----------------         Addison, 1717.              Elworthy, 1875-88.             Dick and Sal, 1821.
+  Allan Ramsay, 1717.         Johnson, 1750.
+  Burns, 1790.                Coleridge, 1805.
+  Scott, 1815.                Macaulay, 1825.
+  Ian Maclaren, Barrie,       Tennyson, 1830.
+    Crockett, etc.
+
+  The vertical lines represent the four leading forms of
+  English--_Northern_, _Midland_, _Southern_, and _Kentish_--and the
+  names occurring down the course of each are those of writers and works
+  in that form of English at the given date. The thickness of the line
+  shows the comparative literary position of this form of speech at the
+  time: _thick_ indicating a _literary language_; _medium_, a _literary
+  dialect_; _thin_, a _popular dialect_ or _patois_; a _dotted_ line
+  shows that this period is _unrepresented_ by specimens. The horizontal
+  lines divide the periods; these (after the first two) refer mainly to
+  the Midland English; in inflectional decay the Northern English was at
+  least a century in advance of the Midland, and the Southern nearly as
+  much behind it.
+
+Beyond the limits of the British Isles, English is the language of
+extensive regions, now or formerly colonies. In all these countries the
+presence of numerous new objects and new conditions of life has led to
+the supplementing of the vocabulary by the adoption of words from native
+languages, and special adaptation and extension of the sense of English
+words. The use of a common literature, however, prevents the overgrowth
+of these local peculiarities, and also makes them more or less familiar
+to Englishmen at home. It is only in the older states of the American
+Union that anything like a local dialect has been produced; and even
+there many of the so-called Americanisms are quite as much archaic
+English forms which have been lost or have become dialectal in England
+as developments of the American soil.
+
+The steps by which English, from being the language of a few thousand
+invaders along the eastern and southern seaboard of Britain, has been
+diffused by conquest and colonization over its present area form a
+subject too large for the limits of this article. It need only be
+remarked that within the confines of Britain itself the process is not
+yet complete. Representatives of earlier languages survive in Wales and
+the Scottish Highlands, though in neither case can the substitution of
+English be very remote. In Ireland, where English was introduced by
+conquest much later, Irish is still spoken in patches all over the
+country; though English is understood, and probably spoken after a
+fashion, almost everywhere. At opposite extremities of Britain, the
+Cornish of Cornwall and the Norse dialects of Orkney and Shetland died
+out very gradually in the course of the 18th century. The Manx, or
+Celtic of Man, is even now in the last stage of dissolution; and in the
+Channel Isles the Norman _patois_ of Jersey and Guernsey have largely
+yielded to English.
+
+The table on p. 599 (a revision of that brought before the Philological
+Society in Jan. 1876) graphically presents the chronological and
+dialectal development of English. Various names have been proposed for
+the different stages; it seems only necessary to add to those in the
+table the descriptive names of Dr Abbott, who has proposed (_How to
+Parse_, p. 298) to call the Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, the
+"Synthetical or Inflexional Period"; the Old English Transition (Late
+Anglo-Saxon of Dr Skeat), the "Period of Confusion"; the Early Middle
+English, "Analytical Period" (1250-1350); the normal Middle English,
+"National Period" (1350-1500); the Tudor English, "Period of Licence";
+and the Modern English, "Period of Settlement."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--As the study of English has made immense advances
+  within the last generation, it is only in works recently published
+  that the student will find the subject satisfactorily handled. Among
+  the earlier works treating of the whole subject or parts of it may be
+  mentioned--_A History of English Rhythms_, by Edwin Guest (London,
+  1838); the _Philological Essays_ of Richard Garnett (1835-1848),
+  edited by his son (London, 1859); _The English Language_, by R.G.
+  Latham (5th ed., London, 1862); _Origin and History of the English
+  Language_, by G.P. Marsh (revised 1885); _Lectures on the English
+  Language_, by the same (New York and London, 1863); _Historische
+  Grammatik der englischen Sprache_, by C.F. Koch (Weimar, 1863, &c.);
+  _Englische Grammatik_, by Eduard Matzner (Berlin, 1860-1865), (an
+  English translation by C.J. Grece, LL.B., London, 1874); _The
+  Philology of the English Tongue_, by John Earle, M.A. (Oxford, 1866,
+  5th ed. 1892); _Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language_, by
+  F.A. March (New York, 1870); _Historical Outlines of English
+  Accidence_, by the Rev. R. Morris, LL.D. (London, 1873), (new ed. by
+  Kellner); _Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar_, by the
+  same (London, 1874); _The Sources of Standard English_, by T.L.
+  Kington Oliphant, M.A. (London, 1873); _Modern English_, by F. Hall
+  (London, 1873); _A Shakespearian Grammar_, by E.A. Abbott, D.D.
+  (London, 1872); _How to Parse_, by the same (London, 1875); _Early
+  English Pronunciation_, &c., by A.J. Ellis (London, 1869); _The
+  History of English Sounds_, by Henry Sweet (London, 1874, 2nd ed.
+  1888); as well as many separate papers by various authors in the
+  _Transactions of the Philological Society_, and the publications of
+  the Early English Text Society.
+
+  Among more recent works are: M. Kaluza, _Historische Grammatik der
+  englischen Sprache_ (Berlin, 1890); Professor W.W. Skeat, _Principles
+  of English Etymology_ (Oxford, 1887-1891); Johan Storm, _Englische
+  Philologie_ (Leipzig, 1892-1896); L. Kellner, _Historical Outlines of
+  English Syntax_ (London, 1892); O.F. Emerson, _History of the English
+  Language_ (London and New York, 1894); Otto Jespersen, _Progress in
+  Language_, with special reference to English (London, 1894); Lorenz
+  Morsbach, _Mittelenglische Grammatik_, part i. (Halle, 1896); Paul,
+  "Geschichte der englischen Sprache," in _Grundriss der german.
+  Philologie_ (Strassburg, 1898); Eduard Sievers, _Angelsachsische
+  Grammatik_ (3rd ed., Halle, 1898); Eng. transl. of same (2nd ed.), by
+  A.S. Cook (Boston, 1887); K.D. Bulbring, _Altenglisches Elementarbuch_
+  (Heidelberg, 1902); Greenough and Kittredge, _Words and their Ways in
+  English Speech_ (London and New York, 1902); Henry Bradley, _The
+  Making of English_ (London, 1904). Numerous contributions to the
+  subject have also been made in _Englische Studien_ (ed. Kolbing, later
+  Hoops; Leipzig, 1877 onward); _Anglia_ (ed. Wulker, Flugel, &c.;
+  Halle, 1878 onward); publications of Mod. Lang. Assoc. of America
+  (J.W. Bright; Baltimore, 1884 onward), and A.M. Elliott, _Modern
+  Language Notes_ (Baltimore, 1886 onward).
+       (J. A. H. M.; H. M. R. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] A careful examination of several letters of Bosworth's
+    Anglo-Saxon dictionary gives in 2000 words (including derivatives and
+    compounds, but excluding orthographic variants) 535 which still exist
+    as modern English words.
+
+  [2] The practical convenience of having one name for what was the
+    same thing in various stages of development is not affected by the
+    probability that (E.A. Freeman notwithstanding) _Engle_ and _Englisc_
+    were, at an early period, _not_ applied to the whole of the
+    inhabitants of Teutonic Britain, but only to a part of them. The
+    dialects of _Engle_ and _Seaxan_ were alike old forms of what was
+    afterwards English speech, and so, viewed in relation to it, _Old
+    English_, whatever their contemporary names might be.
+
+  [3] The works of Gildas in the original Latin were edited by Mr
+    Stevenson for the English Historical Society. There is an English
+    translation in _Six Old English Chronicles_ in Bohn's Antiquarian
+    library.
+
+  [4] As to the continued existence of Latin in Britain, see further in
+    Rhys's _Lectures on Welsh Philology_, pp. 226-227; also Dogatschar,
+    _Lautlehre d. gr., lat. u. roman. Lehnworte im Altengl._ (Strassburg,
+    1888).
+
+  [5] Aethelstan in 934 calls himself in a charter "Ongol-Saxna cyning
+    and Brytaenwalda eallaes thyses iglandes"; Eadred in 955 is
+    "Angul-seaxna cyning and casere totius Britanniae," and the name is
+    of frequent occurrence in documents written in Latin. These facts
+    ought to be remembered in the interest of the scholars of the 17th
+    century, who have been blamed for the use of the term Anglo-Saxon, as
+    if they had invented it. By "Anglo-Saxon" language they meant the
+    language of the people who _sometimes at least_ called themselves
+    "Anglo-Saxons." Even now the name is practically useful, when we are
+    dealing with the subject _per se_, as is _Old English_, on the other
+    hand, when we are treating it historically or in connexion with
+    English as a whole.
+
+  [6] _Transactions of the Philological Society_ (_1873-1874_), p. 620;
+    new and much enlarged edition, 1888.
+
+  [7] See on this Rhys, _Lectures on Welsh Philology_, v.
+
+  [8] During the Old English period both _c_ and [g] appear to have
+    acquired a palatal value in conjunction with front or palatal
+    vowel-sounds, except in the north where _c_, and in some cases [g],
+    tended to remain guttural in such positions. This value was never
+    distinguished in Old English writing, but may be deduced from certain
+    phonetic changes depending upon it, and from the use of _c_, _cc_, as
+    an alternative for _tj_ (as in _ort_[g]_eard_, _orceard_ = orchard,
+    _fetian_, _feccean_ = fetch), as well as from the normal occurrence
+    of _ch_ and _y_ in these positions in later stages of the language,
+    e.g. _cild_ = child, _taecean_ = teach, [g]_iellan_ = yell, _dae_[g]
+    = day, &c.
+
+  [9] For a discriminating view of the effects of the Norman Conquest
+    on the English Language, see Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, ch. xxv.
+
+  [10] There is no reason to suppose that any attempt was made to
+    proscribe or suppress the native tongue, which was indeed used in
+    some official documents addressed to Englishmen by the Conqueror
+    himself. Its social degradation seemed even on the point of coming to
+    an end, when it was confirmed and prolonged for two centuries more by
+    the accession of the Angevin dynasty, under whom everything French
+    received a fresh impetus.
+
+  [11] MS. Cotton Vesp. A. 22.
+
+  [12] Gospels in Anglo-Saxon, &c., ed. for Cambridge Press, by W.W.
+    Skeat (1871-1887), second text.
+
+  [13] _Old English Homilies of Twelfth Century_, first and second
+    series, ed. R. Morris (E.E.T.S.), (1868-1873).
+
+  [14] The article _the_ becomes _te_ after a preceding _t_ or _d_ by
+    assimilation.
+
+  [15] Earle, _Two of the Saxon Chronicles parallel_ (1865), p. 265.
+
+  [16] Skeat, _Anglo-Saxon and Northumbrian Gospels_ (1874).
+
+  [17] Edited for the Surtees Society, by Rev. J. Stevenson.
+
+  [18] Edited for the Early English Text Society, by Rev. Dr Morris.
+
+  [19] _The Vision of William concerning Piers the Ploughman_ exists in
+    three different recensions, all of which have been edited for the
+    Early English Text Society by Rev. W.W. Skeat.
+
+  [20] Edited by Rev. Dr Morris for Early English Text Society, in
+    1866.
+
+  [21] Here, and in _tatt_, _tu_, _taer_, for _thatt_, _thu_, _thaet_,
+    after _t_, _d_, there is the same phonetic assimilation as in the
+    last section of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle above.
+
+  [22] Edited for the Early English Text Society by Dr Morris (1865).
+
+  [23] Trevisa, _Translation of Higden's Polychronicon_.
+
+  [24] Skeat, _Specimens of English Literature_, pp. 49, 54.
+
+  [25] _A Shakspearian Grammar_, by Dr E.A. Abbott. To this book we are
+    largely indebted for its admirable summary of the characters of Tudor
+    English.
+
+  [26] _Evangelist_, _astronomy_, _dialogue_, are words that have so
+    lived, of which their form is the result. _Photograph_, _geology_,
+    &c., take this form as _if_ they had the same history.
+
+  [27] See extended lists of the foreign words in English in Dr
+    Morris's _Historical Outlines of English Accidence_, p. 33.
+
+  [28] See description and map in _Trans. of Philol. Soc._, 1875-1876,
+    p. 570.
+
+  [29] _The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland, its
+    Pronunciation, Grammar and Historical Relations, with an Appendix on
+    the present limits of the Gaelic and Lowland Scotch, and the
+    Dialectal Divisions of the Lowland Tongue; and a Linguistical Map of
+    Scotland_, by James A.H. Murray (London, 1873).
+
+  [30] _A Glossary (with some pieces of Verse) of the Old Dialect of
+    the English Colony of Forth and Bargy_, collected by Jacob Poole,
+    edited by W. Barnes, B.D. (London, 1867).
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH LAW (_History_). In English jurisprudence "legal memory" is said
+to extend as far as, but no further than the coronation of Richard I.
+(Sept. 3, 1189). This is a technical doctrine concerning prescriptive
+rights, but is capable of expressing an important truth. For the last
+seven centuries, little more or less, the English law, which is now
+overshadowing a large share of the earth, has had not only an extremely
+continuous, but a matchlessly well-attested history, and, moreover, has
+been the subject matter of rational exposition. Already in 1194 the
+daily doings of a tribunal which was controlling and moulding the whole
+system were being punctually recorded in letters yet legible, and from
+that time onwards it is rather the enormous bulk than any dearth of
+available materials that prevents us from tracing the transformation of
+every old doctrine and the emergence and expansion of every new idea. If
+we are content to look no further than the text-books--the books written
+by lawyers for lawyers--we may read our way backwards to Blackstone (d.
+1780), Hale (d. 1676), Coke (d. 1634), Fitzherbert (d. 1538), Littleton
+(d. 1481), Bracton (d. 1268), Glanvill (d. 1190), until we are in the
+reign of Henry of Anjou, and yet shall perceive that we are always
+reading of one and the same body of law, though the little body has
+become great, and the ideas that were few and indefinite have become
+many and explicit.
+
+Beyond these seven lucid centuries lies a darker period. Nearly six
+centuries will still divide us from the dooms of Aethelberht (c. 600),
+and nearly seven from the _Lex Salica_ (c. 500). We may regard the
+Norman conquest of England as marking the confluence of two streams of
+law. The one we may call French or Frankish. If we follow it upwards we
+pass through the capitularies of Carlovingian emperors and Merovingian
+kings until we see Chlodwig and his triumphant Franks invading Gaul,
+submitting their Sicambrian necks to the yoke of the imperial religion,
+and putting their traditional usages into written Latin. The other
+rivulet we may call Anglo-Saxon. Pursuing it through the code of Canute
+(d. 1035) and the ordinances of Alfred (c. 900) and his successors, we
+see Ine publishing laws in the newly converted Wessex (c. 690), and,
+almost a century earlier, Aethelberht doing the same in the newly
+converted Kent (c. 600). This he did, says Beda, in accordance with
+Roman precedents. Perhaps from the Roman missionaries he had heard
+tidings of what the Roman emperor had lately been doing far off in New
+Rome. We may at any rate notice with interest that in order of time
+Justinian's law-books fall between the _Lex Salica_ and the earliest
+Kentish dooms; also that the great pope who sent Augustine to England is
+one of the very few men who between Justinian's day and the 11th century
+lived in the Occident and yet can be proved to have known the Digest.
+In the Occident the time for the Germanic "folk-laws" (_Leges
+Barbarorum_) had come, and a Canon law, ambitious of independence, was
+being constructed, when in the Orient the lord of church and state was
+"enucleating" all that was to live of the classical jurisprudence of
+pagan Rome. It was but a brief interval between Gothic and Lombardic
+domination that enabled him to give law to Italy: Gaul and Britain were
+beyond his reach.
+
+The Anglo-Saxon laws that have come down to us (and we have no reason to
+fear the loss of much beyond some dooms of the Mercian Offa) are best
+studied as members of a large Teutonic family. Those that proceed from
+the Kent and Wessex of the 7th century are closely related to the
+continental folk-laws. Their next of kin seem to be the _Lex Saxonum_
+and the laws of the Lombards. Then, though the 8th and 9th centuries are
+unproductive, we have from Alfred (c. 900) and his successors a series
+of edicts which strongly resemble the Frankish capitularies--so strongly
+that we should see a clear case of imitation, were it not that in
+Frankland the age of legislation had come to its disastrous end long
+before Alfred was king. This, it may be noted, gives to English legal
+history a singular continuity from Alfred's day to our own. The king of
+the English was expected to publish laws at a time when hardly any one
+else was attempting any such feat, and the English dooms of Canute the
+Dane are probably the most comprehensive statutes that were issued in
+the Europe of the 11th century. No genuine laws of the sainted Edward
+have descended to us, and during his reign England seems but too likely
+to follow the bad example of Frankland, and become a loose congeries of
+lordships. From this fate it was saved by the Norman duke, who, like
+Canute before him, subdued a land in which kings were still expected to
+publish laws.
+
+In the study of early Germanic law--a study which now for some
+considerable time has been scientifically prosecuted in Germany--the
+Anglo-Saxon dooms have received their due share of attention. A high
+degree of racial purity may be claimed on their behalf. Celtic elements
+have been sought for in them, but have never been detected. At certain
+points, notably in the regulation of the blood-feud and the construction
+of a tariff of atonements, the law of one rude folk will always be
+somewhat like the law of another; but the existing remains of old Welsh
+and old Irish law stand far remoter from the dooms of Aethelberht and Ine
+than stand the edicts of Rothari and Liutprand, kings of the Lombards.
+Indeed, it is very dubious whether distinctively Celtic customs play any
+considerable part in the evolution of that system of rules of Anglian,
+Scandinavian and Frankish origin which becomes the law of Scotland.
+Within England itself, though for a while there was fighting enough
+between the various Germanic folks, the tribal differences were not so
+deep as to prevent the formation of a common language and a common law.
+Even the strong Scandinavian strain seems to have rapidly blended with
+the Anglian. It amplified the language and the law, but did not
+permanently divide the country. If, for example, we can to-day
+distinguish between _law_ and _right_, we are debtors to the Danes; but
+very soon _law_ is not distinctive of eastern or _right_ of western
+England. In the first half of the 12th century a would-be expounder of
+the law of England had still to say that the country was divided between
+the Wessex law, the Mercian law, and the Danes' law, but he had also to
+point out that the law of the king's own court stood apart from and
+above all partial systems. The local customs were those of shires and
+hundreds, and shaded off into each other. We may speak of more Danish
+and less Danish counties; it was a matter of degree; for rivers were
+narrow and hills were low. England was meant by nature to be the land of
+one law.
+
+Then as to Roman law. In England and elsewhere Germanic law developed in
+an atmosphere that was charged with traditions of the old world, and many
+of these traditions had become implicit in the Christian religion. It
+might be argued that all that we call progress is due to the influence
+exercised by Roman civilization; that, were it not for this, Germanic law
+would never have been set in writing; and that theoretically unchangeable
+custom would never have been supplemented or superseded by express
+legislation. All this and much more of the same sort might be said; but
+the survival in Britain, or the reintroduction into England, of anything
+that we should dare to call Roman jurisprudence would be a different
+matter. Eyes, carefully trained, have minutely scrutinized the
+Anglo-Saxon legal texts without finding the least trace of a Roman rule
+outside the ecclesiastical sphere. Even within that sphere modern
+research is showing that the church-property-law of the middle ages, the
+law of the ecclesiastical "benefice," is permeated by Germanic ideas.
+This is true of Gaul and Italy, and yet truer of an England in which
+Christianity was for a while extinguished. Moreover, the laws that were
+written in England were, from the first, written in the English tongue;
+and this gives them a unique value in the eyes of students of Germanic
+folk-law, for even the very ancient and barbarous _Lex Salica_ is a Latin
+document, though many old Frankish words are enshrined in it. Also we
+notice--and this is of grave importance--that in England there are no
+vestiges of any "Romani" who are being suffered to live under their own
+law by their Teutonic rulers. On the Continent we may see Gundobad, the
+Burgundian, publishing one law-book for the Burgundians and another for
+the Romani who own his sway. A book of laws, excerpted chiefly from the
+Theodosian code, was issued by Alaric the Visigoth for his Roman subjects
+before the days of Justinian, and this book (the so-called _Breviarium
+Alarici or Lex Romana Visigothorum_) became for a long while the chief
+representative of Roman law in Gaul. The Frankish king in his expansive
+realm ruled over many men whose law was to be found not in the _Lex
+Salica_ or _Lex Ribuaria_, but in what was called the _Lex Romana_. "A
+system of personal law" prevailed: the _homo Romanus_ handed on his Roman
+law to his children, while Frankish or Lombardic, Swabian or Saxon law
+would run in the blood of the _homo barbarus_. Of all this we hear
+nothing in England. Then on the mainland of Europe Roman and barbarian
+law could not remain in juxtaposition without affecting each other. On
+the one hand we see distinctively Roman rules making their way into the
+law of the victorious tribes, and on the other hand we see a decay and
+debasement of jurisprudence which ends in the formation of what modern
+historians have called a Roman "vulgar-law" (_Vulgarrecht_). For a short
+age which centres round the year 800 it seemed possible that Frankish
+kings, who were becoming Roman emperors, would be able to rule by their
+capitularies nearly the whole of the Christian Occident. The dream
+vanished before fratricidal wars, heathen invaders, centrifugal
+feudalism, and a centripetal church which found its law in the newly
+concocted forgeries of the Pseudo-Isidore (c. 850). The "personal laws"
+began to transmute themselves into local customs, and the Roman
+vulgar-law began to look like the local custom of those districts where
+the Romani were the preponderating element in the population. Meanwhile,
+the Norse pirates subdued a large tract of what was to be northern
+France--a land where Romani were few. Their restless and boundless vigour
+these Normans retained; but they showed a wonderful power of
+appropriating whatever of alien civilization came in their way. In their
+language, religion and law, they had become French many years before they
+subdued England. It is a plausible opinion that among them there lived
+some sound traditions of the Frankish monarchy's best days, and that
+Norman dukes, rather than German emperors or kings, of the French, are
+the truest spiritual heirs of Charles the Great.
+
+
+  The Norman age.
+
+In our own day, German historians are wont to speak of English law as a
+"daughter" of French or Frankish law. This tendency derived its main
+impulse from H. Brunner's proof that the germ of trial by jury, which
+cannot be found in the Anglo-Saxon laws, can be found in the prerogative
+procedure of the Frankish kings. We must here remember that during a
+long age English lawyers wrote in French and even thought in French, and
+that to this day most of the technical terms of the law, more especially
+of the private law, are of French origin. Also it must be allowed that
+when English law has taken shape in the 13th century it is very like one
+of the _coutumes_ of northern France. Even when linguistic difficulties
+have been surmounted, the Saxon Mirror of Eike von Repgow will seem far
+less familiar to an Englishman than the so-called Establishments of St
+Louis. This was the outcome of a slow process which fills more than a
+century (1066-1189), and was in a great measure due to the reforming
+energy of Henry II., the French prince who, in addition to England,
+ruled a good half of France. William the Conqueror seems to have
+intended to govern Englishmen by English law. After the tyranny of
+Rufus, Henry I. promised a restoration of King Edward's law: that is,
+the law of the Confessor's time (_Lagam Eadwardi regis vobis reddo_).
+Various attempts were then made, mostly, so it would seem, by men of
+French birth, to state in a modern and practicable form the _laga
+Eadwardi_ which was thus restored. The result of their labours is an
+intricate group of legal tracts which has been explored of late years by
+Dr Liebermann. The best of these has long been known as the _Leges
+Henrici Primi_, and aspires to be a comprehensive law-book. Its author,
+though he had some foreign sources at his command, such as the _Lex
+Ribuaria_ and an epitome of the Breviary of Alaric, took the main part
+of his matter from the code of Canute and the older English dooms.
+Neither the Conqueror nor either of his sons had issued many ordinances:
+the invading Normans had little, if any, written law to bring with them,
+and had invaded a country where kings had been lawgivers. Moreover,
+there was much in the English system that the Conqueror was keenly
+interested in retaining--especially an elaborate method of taxing the
+land and its holders. The greatest product of Norman government, the
+grandest feat of government that the world had seen for a long time
+past, the compilation of _Domesday Book_, was a conservative effort, an
+attempt to fix upon every landholder, French or English, the amount of
+geld that was due from his predecessor in title. Himself the rebellious
+vassal of the French king, the duke of the Normans, who had become king
+of the English, knew much of disruptive feudalism, and had no mind to
+see England that other France which it had threatened to become in the
+days of his pious but incompetent cousin. The sheriffs, though called
+_vice-comites_, were to be the king's officers; the shire-moots might be
+called county courts, but were not to be the courts of counts. Much that
+was sound and royal in English public law was to be preserved if William
+could preserve it.
+
+
+  Royal justice.
+
+The gulf that divides the so-called _Leges Henrici_ (c. 1115) from the
+text-book ascribed to Ranulf Glanvill (c. 1188) seems at first sight
+very wide. The one represents a not easily imaginable chaos and clash of
+old rules and new; it represents also a stage in the development of
+feudalism which in other countries is represented chiefly by a
+significant silence. The other is an orderly, rational book, which
+through all the subsequent centuries will be readily understood by
+English lawyers. Making no attempt to tell us what goes on in the local
+courts, its author, who may be Henry II.'s chief justiciar, Ranulf
+Glanvill, or may be Glanvill's nephew, Hubert Walter, fixes our
+attention on a novel element which is beginning to subdue all else to
+its powerful operation. He speaks to us of the justice that is done by
+the king's own court. Henry II. had opened the doors of his
+French-speaking court to the mass of his subjects. Judges chosen for
+their ability were to sit there, term after term; judges were to travel
+in circuits through the land, and in many cases the procedure by way of
+"an inquest of the country," which the Norman kings had used for the
+ascertainment of their fiscal rights, was to be at the disposal of
+ordinary litigants. All this had been done in a piecemeal, experimental
+fashion by ordinances that were known as "assizes." There had not been,
+and was not to be, any enunciation of a general principle inviting all
+who were wronged to bring in their own words their complaints to the
+king's audience. The general prevalence of feudal justice, and of the
+world-old methods of supernatural probation (ordeals, battle, oaths
+sworn with oath-helpers), was to be theoretically respected; but in
+exceptional cases, which would soon begin to devour the rule, a royal
+remedy was to be open to any one who could frame his case within the
+compass of some carefully-worded and prescript formula. With allusion to
+a remote stage in the history of Roman law, a stage of which Henry's
+advisers can have known little or nothing, we may say that a "formulary
+system" is established which will preside over English law until modern
+times. Certain actions, each with a name of its own, are open to
+litigants. Each has its own formula set forth in its original (or, as we
+might say, originating) writ; each has its own procedure and its
+appropriate mode of trial. The litigant chooses his writ, his action,
+and must stand or fall by his choice. Thus a book about royal justice
+tends to become, and Glanvill's book already is, a commentary on
+original writs.
+
+The precipitation of English law in so coherent a form as that which it
+has assumed in Glanvill's book is not to be explained without reference
+to the revival of Roman jurisprudence in Italy. Out of a school of
+Lombard lawyers at Pavia had come Lanfranc the Conqueror's adviser, and
+the Lombardists had already been studying Justinian's Institutes. Then
+at length the Digest came by its rights. About the year 1100 Irnerius
+was teaching at Bologna, and from all parts of the West men were eagerly
+flocking to hear the new gospel of civilization. About the year 1149
+Vacarius was teaching Roman law in England. The rest of a long life he
+spent here, and faculties of Roman and Canon law took shape in the
+nascent university of Oxford. Whatever might be the fate of Roman law in
+England, there could be no doubt that the Canon law, which was
+crystallizing in the _Decretum Gratiani_ (c. 1139) and in the decretals
+of Alexander III., would be the law of the English ecclesiastical
+tribunals. The great quarrel between Henry II. and Thomas of Canterbury
+brought this system into collision with the temporal law of England, and
+the king's ministers must have seen that they had much to learn from the
+methodic enemy. Some of them were able men who became the justices of
+Henry's court, and bishops to boot. The luminous _Dialogue of the
+Exchequer_ (c. 1179), which expounds the English fiscal system, came
+from the treasurer, Richard Fitz Nigel, who became bishop of London; and
+the treatise on the laws of England came perhaps from Glanvill, perhaps
+from Hubert Walter, who was to be both primate and chief justiciar.
+There was healthy emulation of the work that was being done by Italian
+jurists, but no meek acceptance of foreign results.
+
+
+  Bracton.
+
+A great constructive era had opened, and its outcome was a large and
+noble book. The author was Henry of Bratton (his name has been corrupted
+into Bracton), who died in 1268 after having been for many years one of
+Henry III.'s justices. The model for its form was the treatise of Azo of
+Bologna ("master of all the masters of the laws," an Englishman called
+him), and thence were taken many of the generalities of jurisprudence:
+maxims that might be regarded as of universal and natural validity. But
+the true core of the work was the practice of an English court which had
+yearly been extending its operations in many directions. For half a
+century past diligent record had been kept on parchment of all that this
+court had done, and from its rolls Bracton cited numerous decisions. He
+cited them as precedents, paying special heed to the judgments of two
+judges who were already dead, Martin Pateshull and William Raleigh. For
+this purpose he compiled a large Note Book, which was discovered by
+Prof. Vinogradoff in the British Museum in 1884. Thus at a very early
+time English "common law" shows a tendency to become what it afterwards
+definitely became, namely, "case law." The term "common law" was being
+taken over from the canonists by English lawyers, who used it to
+distinguish the general law of the land from local customs, royal
+prerogatives, and in short from all that was exceptional or special.
+Since statutes and ordinances were still rarities, all expressly enacted
+laws were also excluded from the English lawyers' notion of "the common
+law." The Great Charter (1215) had taken the form of a grant of
+"liberties and privileges," comparable to the grants that the king made
+to individual men and favoured towns. None the less, it was in that age
+no small body of enacted law, and, owing to its importance and
+solemnity, it was in after ages regarded as the first article of a
+statute book. There it was followed by the "provisions" issued at Merton
+in 1236 and by those issued at Marlborough after the end of the Barons'
+War. But during Henry III.'s long reign the swift development of English
+law was due chiefly to new "original writs" and new "forms of action"
+devised by the chancery and sanctioned by the court. Bracton knew many
+writs that were unknown to Glanvill, and men were already perceiving
+that limits must be set to the inventive power of the chancery unless
+the king was to be an uncontrollable law-maker. Thus the common law was
+losing the power of rapid growth when Bracton summed the attained
+results in a book, the success of which is attested by a crowd of
+manuscript copies. Bracton had introduced just enough of Roman law and
+Bolognese method to save the law of England from the fate that awaited
+German law in Germany. His book was printed in 1569, and Coke owed much
+to Bracton.
+
+The comparison that is suggested when Edward I. is called the English
+Justinian cannot be pressed very far. Nevertheless, as is well known, it
+is in his reign (1272-1307) that English institutions finally take the
+forms that they are to keep through coming centuries. We already see the
+parliament of the three estates, the convocations of the clergy, the
+king's council, the chancery or secretarial department, the exchequer or
+financial department, the king's bench, the common bench, the
+commissioners of assize and gaol delivery, the small group of
+professionally learned judges, and a small group of professionally
+learned lawyers, whose skill is at the service of those who will employ
+them. Moreover, the statutes that were passed in the first eighteen
+years of the reign, though their bulk seems slight to us nowadays, bore
+so fundamental a character that in subsequent ages they appeared as the
+substructure of huge masses of superincumbent law. Coke commented upon
+them sentence by sentence, and even now the merest smatterer in English
+law must profess some knowledge of _Quia emptores_ and _De donis
+conditionalibus_. If some American states have, while others have not,
+accepted these statutes, that is a difference which is not unimportant
+to citizens of the United States in the 20th century. Then from the
+early years of Edward's reign come the first "law reports" that have
+descended to us: the oldest of them have not yet been printed; the
+oldest that has been printed belongs to 1292. These are the precursors
+of the long series of Year Books (Edw. II.-Hen. VIII.) which runs
+through the residue of the middle ages. Lawyers, we perceive, are
+already making and preserving notes of the discussions that take place
+in court; French notes that will be more useful to them than the formal
+Latin records inscribed upon the plea rolls. From these reports we learn
+that there are already, as we should say, a few "leading counsel," some
+of whom will be retained in almost every important cause. Papal
+decretals had been endeavouring to withdraw the clergy from secular
+employment. The clerical element had been strong among the judges of
+Henry III.'s reign: Bracton was an archdeacon, Pateshull a dean, Raleigh
+died a bishop. Their places begin to be filled by men who are not in
+orders, but who have pleaded the king's causes for him--his serjeants or
+servants at law--and beside them there are young men who are
+"apprentices at law," and are learning to plead. Also we begin to see
+men who, as "attorneys at law," are making it their business to appear
+on behalf of litigants. The history of the legal profession and its
+monopoly of legal aid is intricate, and at some points still obscure;
+but the influence of the canonical system is evident: the English
+attorney corresponds to the canonical proctor, and the English barrister
+to the canonical advocate. The main outlines were being drawn in Edward
+I.'s day; the legal profession became organic, and professional opinion
+became one of the main forces that moulded the law.
+
+The study of English law fell apart from all other studies, and the
+impulse that had flowed from Italian jurisprudence was ebbing. We have
+two comprehensive text-books from Edward's reign: the one known to us as
+_Fleta_, the other as _Britton_; both of them, however, quarry their
+materials from Bracton's treatise. Also we have two little books on
+procedure which are attributed to Chief-Justice Hengham, and a few other
+small tracts of an intensely practical kind. Under the cover of fables
+about King Alfred, the author of the _Mirror of Justices_ made a bitter
+attack upon King Edward's judges, some of whom had fallen into deep
+disgrace. English legal history has hardly yet been purged of the leaven
+of falsehood that was introduced by this fantastic and unscrupulous
+pamphleteer. His enigmatical book ends that literate age which begins
+with Glanvill's treatise and the treasurer's dialogue. Between Edward
+I.'s day and Edward IV.'s hardly anything that deserves the name of book
+was written by an English lawyer.
+
+
+  14th and 15th centuries.
+
+During that time the body of statute law was growing, but not very
+rapidly. Acts of parliament intervened at a sufficient number of
+important points to generate and maintain a persuasion that no limit, or
+no ascertainable limit, can be set to the legislative power of king and
+parliament. Very few are the signs that the judges ever permitted the
+validity of a statute to be drawn into debate. Thus the way was being
+prepared for the definite assertion of parliamentary "omnicompetence"
+which we obtain from the Elizabethan statesman Sir Thomas Smith, and for
+those theories of sovereignty which we couple with the names of Hobbes
+and Austin. Nevertheless, English law was being developed rather by
+debates in court than by open legislation. The most distinctively
+English of English institutions in the later middle ages are the
+Year-Books and the Inns of Court. Year by year, term by term, lawyers
+were reporting cases in order that they and their fellows might know how
+cases had been decided. The allegation of specific precedents was indeed
+much rarer than it afterwards became, and no calculus of authority so
+definite as that which now obtains had been established in Coke's day,
+far less in Littleton's. Still it was by a perusal of reported cases
+that a man would learn the law of England. A skeleton for the law was
+provided, not by the Roman rubrics (such as public and private, real and
+personal, possessory and proprietary, contract and delict), but by the
+cycle of original writs that were inscribed in the chancery's _Registrum
+Brevium_. A new form of action could not be introduced without the
+authority of Parliament, and the growth of the law took the shape of an
+explication of the true intent of ancient formulas. Times of inventive
+liberality alternated with times of cautious and captious conservatism.
+Coke could look back to Edward III.'s day as to a golden age of good
+pleading. The otherwise miserable time which saw the Wars of the Roses
+produced some famous lawyers, and some bold doctrines which broke new
+ground. It produced also Sir Thomas Littleton's (d. 1481) treatise on
+Tenures, which (though it be not, as Coke thought it, the most perfect
+work that ever was written in any human science) is an excellent
+statement of law in exquisitely simple language.
+
+
+  Legal education.
+
+Meanwhile English law was being scholastically taught. This, if we look
+at the fate of native and national law in Germany, or France, or
+Scotland, appears as a fact of primary importance. From beginnings, so
+small and formless that they still elude research, the Inns of Court had
+grown. The lawyers, like other men, had grouped themselves in gilds, or
+gild-like "fellowships." The fellowship acquired property; it was not
+technically incorporate, but made use of the thoroughly English
+machinery of a trust. Behind a hedge of trustees it lived an autonomous
+life, unhampered by charters or statutes. There was a hall in which its
+members dined in common; there was the nucleus of a library; there were
+also dormitories or chambers in which during term-time lawyers lived
+celibately, leaving their wives in the country. Something of the college
+thus enters the constitution of these fellowships; and then something
+academical. The craft gild regulated apprenticeship; it would protect
+the public against incompetent artificers, and its own members against
+unfair competition. So the fellowship of lawyers. In course of time a
+lengthy and laborious course of education of the medieval sort had been
+devised. He who had pursued it to its end received a call to the bar of
+his inn. This call was in effect a degree. Like the doctor or master of
+a university, the full-blown barrister was competent to teach others,
+and was expected to read lectures to students. But further, in a manner
+that is still very dark, these societies had succeeded in making their
+degrees the only steps that led to practice in the king's courts. At the
+end of the middle ages (c. 1470) Sir John Fortescue rehearsed the
+praises of the laws of England in a book which is one of the earliest
+efforts of comparative politics. Contrasting England with France, he
+rightly connects limited monarchy, public and oral debate in the law
+courts, trial by jury, and the teaching of national law in schools that
+are thronged by wealthy and well-born youths. But nearly a century
+earlier, the assertion that English law affords as subtle and civilizing
+a discipline as any that is to be had from Roman law was made by a man
+no less famous than John Wycliffe. The heresiarch naturally loathed the
+Canon law; but he also spoke with reprobation of the "paynims' law," the
+"heathen men's law," the study of which in the two universities was
+being fostered by some of the bishops. That study, after inspiring
+Bracton, had come to little in England, though the canonist was
+compelled to learn something of Justinian, and there was a small demand
+for learned civilians in the court of admiralty, and in what we might
+call the king's diplomatic service. No medieval Englishman did anything
+considerable for Roman law. Even the canonists were content to read the
+books of French and Italian masters, though John Acton (c. 1340) and
+William Lyndwood (1430) wrote meritorious glosses. The Angevin kings, by
+appropriating to the temporal forum the whole province of ecclesiastical
+patronage, had robbed the decretists of an inexhaustible source of
+learning and of lucre. The work that was done by the legal faculties at
+Oxford and Cambridge is slight when compared with the inestimable
+services rendered to the cause of national continuity by the schools of
+English law which grew within the Inns of Court.
+
+
+  Chancery.
+
+A danger threatened: the danger that a prematurely osseous system of
+common law would be overwhelmed by summary justice and royal equity.
+Even when courts for all ordinary causes had been established, a reserve
+of residuary justice remained with the king. Whatever lawyers and even
+parliaments might say, it was seen to be desirable that the king in
+council should with little regard for form punish offenders who could
+break through the meshes of a tardy procedure and should redress wrongs
+which corrupt and timid juries would leave unrighted. Papal edicts
+against heretics had made familiar to all men the notion that a judge
+should at times proceed _summarie et de plano et sine strepitu et figura
+justitiae_. And so extraordinary justice of a penal kind was done by the
+king's council upon misdemeanants, and extraordinary justice of a civil
+kind was ministered by the king's chancellor (who was the specially
+learned member of the council) to those who "for the love of God and in
+the way of charity," craved his powerful assistance. It is now well
+established that the chancellors started upon this course, not with any
+desire to introduce rules of "equity" which should supplement, or
+perhaps supplant, the rules of law, but for the purpose of driving the
+law through those accidental impediments which sometimes unfortunately
+beset its due course. The wrongs that the chancellor redressed were
+often wrongs of the simplest and most brutal kind: assaults, batteries
+and forcible dispossessions. However, he was warned off this field of
+activity by parliament; the danger to law, to lawyers, to trial by jury,
+was evident. But just when this was happening, a new field was being
+opened for him by the growing practice of conveying land to trustees.
+The English trust of land had ancient Germanic roots, and of late we
+have been learning how in far-off centuries our Lombard cousins were in
+effect giving themselves a power of testation by putting their lands in
+trust. In England, when the forms of action were crystallizing, this
+practice had not been common enough to obtain the protection of a writ;
+but many causes conspired to make it common in the 14th century; and so,
+with the general approval of lawyers and laity, the chancellors began to
+enforce by summary process against the trustee the duty that lay upon
+his conscience. In the next century it was clear that England had come
+by a new civil tribunal. Negatively, its competence was defined by the
+rule that when the common law offered a remedy, the chancellor was not
+to intervene. Positively, his power was conceived as that of doing what
+"good conscience" required, more especially in cases of "fraud, accident
+or breach of confidence." His procedure was the summary, the
+heresy-suppressing (not the ordinary and solemn) procedure of an
+ecclesiastical court; but there are few signs that he borrowed any
+substantive rules from legist or decretist, and many proofs that within
+the new field of trust he pursued the ideas of the common law. It was
+long, however, before lawyers made a habit of reporting his decisions.
+He was not supposed to be tightly bound by precedent. Adaptability was
+of the essence of the justice that he did.
+
+
+  The Tudor Age.
+
+A time of strain and trial came with the Tudor kings. It was
+questionable whether the strong "governance" for which the weary nation
+yearned could work within the limits of a parliamentary system, or would
+be compatible with the preservation of the common law. We see new courts
+appropriating large fields of justice and proceeding _summarie et de
+plano_; the star chamber, the chancery, the courts of requests, of
+wards, of augmentations, the councils of the North and Wales; a little
+later we see the high commission. We see also that judicial torture
+which Fortescue had called the road to hell. The stream of law reports
+became intermittent under Henry VIII.; few judges of his or his son's
+reign left names that are to be remembered. In an age of humanism,
+alphabetically arranged "abridgments" of medieval cases were the best
+work of English lawyers: one comes to us from Anthony Fitzherbert (d.
+1538), and another from Robert Broke (d. 1558). This was the time when
+Roman law swept like a flood over Germany. The modern historian of
+Germany will speak of "the Reception" (that is, the reception of Roman
+law), as no less important than the Renaissance and Reformation with
+which it is intimately connected. Very probably he will bestow hard
+words on a movement which disintegrated the nation and consolidated the
+tyranny of the princelings. Now a project that Roman law should be
+"received" in England occurred to Reginald Pole (d. 1558), a humanist,
+and at one time a reformer, who with good fortune might have been either
+king of England or pope of Rome. English law, said the future cardinal
+and archbishop, was barbarous; Roman law was the very voice of nature
+pleading for "civility" and good princely governance. Pole's words were
+brought to the ears of his majestic cousin, and, had the course of
+events been somewhat other than it was, King Henry might well have
+decreed a reception. The role of English Justinian would have perfectly
+suited him, and there are distinct traces of the civilian's Byzantinism
+in the doings of the Church of England's supreme head. The academic
+study of the Canon law was prohibited; regius professorships of the
+civil law were founded; civilians were to sit as judges in the
+ecclesiastical courts. A little later, the Protector Somerset was deeply
+interested in the establishment of a great school for civilians at
+Cambridge. Scottish law was the own sister of English law, and yet in
+Scotland we may see a reception of Roman jurisprudence which might have
+been more whole-hearted than it was, but for the drift of two British
+and Protestant kingdoms towards union. As it fell out, however, Henry
+could get what he wanted in church and state without any decisive
+supersession of English by foreign law. The omnicompetence of an act of
+parliament stands out the more clearly if it settles the succession to
+the throne, annuls royal marriages, forgives royal debts, defines
+religious creeds, attaints guilty or innocent nobles, or prospectively
+lends the force of statute to the king's proclamations. The courts of
+common law were suffered to work in obscurity, for jurors feared fines,
+and matter of state was reserved for council or star chamber. The Inns
+of Court were spared; their moots and readings did no perceptible harm,
+if little perceptible good.
+
+
+  Coke.
+
+Yet it is no reception of alien jurisprudence that must be chronicled,
+but a marvellous resuscitation of English medieval law. We may see it
+already in the Commentaries of Edward Plowden (d. 1585) who reported
+cases at length and lovingly. Bracton's great book was put in print, and
+was a key to much that had been forgotten or misunderstood. Under
+Parker's patronage, even the Anglo-Saxon dooms were brought to light;
+they seemed to tell of a Church of England that had not yet been
+enslaved by Rome. The new national pride that animated Elizabethan
+England issued in boasts touching the antiquity, humanity, enlightenment
+of English law. Resuming the strain of Fortescue, Sir Thomas Smith,
+himself a civilian, wrote concerning the Commonwealth of England a book
+that claimed the attention of foreigners for her law and her polity.
+There was dignified rebuke for the French jurist who had dared to speak
+lightly of Littleton. And then the common law took flesh in the person
+of Edward Coke (1552-1634). With an enthusiastic love of English
+tradition, for the sake of which many offences may be forgiven him, he
+ranged over nearly the whole field of law, commenting, reporting,
+arguing, deciding,--disorderly, pedantic, masterful, an incarnate
+national dogmatism tenacious of continuous life. Imbued with this new
+spirit, the lawyers fought the battle of the constitution against James
+and Charles, and historical research appeared as the guardian of
+national liberties. That the Stuarts united against themselves three
+such men as Edward Coke, John Selden and William Prynne, is the measure
+of their folly and their failure. Words that, rightly or wrongly, were
+ascribed to Bracton rang in Charles's ears when he was sent to the
+scaffold. For the modern student of medieval law many of the reported
+cases of the Stuart time are storehouses of valuable material, since the
+lawyers of the 17th century were mighty hunters after records. Prynne
+(d. 1669), the fanatical Puritan, published ancient documents with
+fervid zeal, and made possible a history of parliament. Selden (d. 1654)
+was in all Europe among the very first to write legal history as it
+should be written. His book about tithes is to this day a model and a
+masterpiece. When this accomplished scholar had declared that he had
+laboured to make himself worthy to be called a common lawyer, it could
+no longer be said that the common lawyers were _indoctissimum genus
+doctissimorum hominum_. Even pliant judges, whose tenure of office
+depended on the king's will, were compelled to cite and discuss old
+precedents before they could give judgment for their master; and even at
+their worst moments they would not openly break with medieval tradition,
+or declare in favour of that "modern police-state" which has too often
+become the ideal of foreign publicists trained in Byzantine law.
+
+
+  Hale.
+
+The current of legal doctrine was by this time so strong and voluminous
+that such events as the Civil War, the Restoration and the Revolution
+hardly deflected the course of the stream. In retrospect, Charles II.
+reigns so soon as life has left his father's body, and James II. ends a
+lawless career by a considerate and convenient abdication. The statute
+book of the restored king was enriched by leaves excerpted from the acts
+of a lord protector; and Matthew Hale (d. 1676), who was, perhaps, the
+last of the great record-searching judges, sketched a map of English law
+which Blackstone was to colour. Then a time of self-complacency came for
+the law, which knew itself to be the perfection of wisdom, and any
+proposal for drastic legislation would have worn the garb discredited by
+the tyranny of the Puritan Caesar. The need for the yearly renewal of the
+Mutiny Act secured an annual session of parliament. The mass of the
+statute law made in the 18th century is enormous; but, even when we have
+excluded from view such acts as are technically called "private," the
+residuary matter bears a wonderfully empirical, partial and minutely
+particularizing character. In this "age of reason," as we are wont to
+think it, the British parliament seems rarely to rise to the dignity of
+a general proposition, and in our own day the legal practitioner is
+likely to know less about the statutes of the 18th century than he knows
+about the statutes of Edward I., Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. Parliament,
+it should be remembered, was endeavouring directly to govern the nation.
+There was little that resembled the permanent civil service of to-day.
+The choice lay between direct parliamentary government and royal
+"prerogative"; and lengthy statutes did much of that work of detail
+which would now be done by virtue of the powers that are delegated to
+ministers and governmental boards. Moreover, extreme and verbose
+particularity was required in statutes, for judges were loath to admit
+that the common law was capable of amendment. A vague doctrine,
+inherited from Coke, taught that statutes might be so unreasonable as to
+be null, and any political theory that seemed to derive from Hobbes
+would have been regarded with not unjust suspicion. But the doctrine in
+question never took tangible shape, and enough could be done to protect
+the common law by a niggardly exposition of every legislating word. It
+is to be remembered that some main features of English public law were
+attracting the admiration of enlightened Europe. When Voltaire and
+Montesquieu applauded, the English lawyer had cause for complacency.
+
+The common law was by no means stagnant. Many rules which come to the
+front in the 18th century are hardly to be traced farther. Especially is
+this the case in the province of mercantile law, where the earl of
+Mansfield's (d. 1793) long presidency over the king's bench marked an
+epoch. It is too often forgotten that, until Elizabeth's reign, England
+was a thoroughly rustic kingdom, and that trade with England was mainly
+in the hands of foreigners. Also in medieval fairs, the assembled
+merchants declared their own "law merchant," which was considered to
+have a supernational validity. In the reports of the common law courts
+it is late in the day before we read of some mercantile usages which can
+be traced far back in the statutes of Italian cities. Even on the basis
+of the excessively elaborated land law--a basis which Coke's Commentary
+on Littleton seemed to have settled for ever--a lofty and ingenious
+superstructure could be reared. One after another delicate devices were
+invented for the accommodation of new wants within the law; but only by
+the assurance that the old law could not be frankly abolished can we be
+induced to admire the subtlety that was thus displayed. As to procedure,
+it had become a maze of evasive fictions, to which only a few learned
+men held the historical clue. By fiction the courts had stolen business
+from each other, and by fiction a few comparatively speedy forms of
+action were set to tasks for which they were not originally framed. Two
+fictitious persons, John Doe and Richard Roe, reigned supreme. On the
+other hand, that healthy and vigorous institution, the Commission of the
+Peace, with a long history behind it, was giving an important share in
+the administration of justice to numerous country gentlemen who were
+thus compelled to learn some law. A like beneficial work was being done
+among jurors, who, having ceased to be regarded as witnesses, had become
+"judges of fact." No one doubted that trial by jury was the "palladium"
+of English liberties, and popularity awaited those who would exalt the
+office of the jurors and narrowly limit the powers of the judge.
+
+
+  Equity.
+
+But during this age the chief addition to English jurisprudence was made
+by the crystallization of the chancellor's equity. In the 17th century
+the chancery had a narrow escape of sharing the fate that befell its
+twin sister the star chamber. Its younger sister the court of requests
+perished under the persistent attacks of the common lawyers. Having
+outlived troubles, the chancery took to orderly habits, and administered
+under the name of "equity" a growing group of rules, which in fact were
+supplemental law. Stages in this process are marked by the
+chancellorships of Nottingham (1673-1675) and Hardwicke (1737-1756).
+Slowly a continuous series of Equity Reports began to flow, and still
+more slowly an "equity bar" began to form itself. The principal outlines
+of equity were drawn by men who were steeped in the common law. By way
+of ornament a Roman maxim might be borrowed from a French or Dutch
+expositor, or a phrase which smacked of that "nature-rightly" school
+which was dominating continental Europe; but the influence exercised by
+Roman law upon English equity has been the subject of gross
+exaggeration. Parliament and the old courts being what they were,
+perhaps it was only in a new court that the requisite new law could be
+evolved. The result was not altogether satisfactory. Freed from contact
+with the plain man in the jury-box, the chancellors were tempted to
+forget how plain and rough good law should be, and to screw up the legal
+standard of reasonable conduct to a height hardly attainable except by
+those whose purses could command the constant advice of a family
+solicitor. A court which started with the idea of doing summary justice
+for the poor became a court which did a highly refined, but tardy
+justice, suitable only to the rich.
+
+
+  Blackstone.
+
+About the middle of the century William Blackstone, then a disappointed
+barrister, began to give lectures on English law at Oxford (1758), and
+soon afterwards he began to publish (1765) his _Commentaries_. Accurate
+enough in its history and doctrine to be an invaluable guide to
+professional students and a useful aid to practitioners, his book set
+before the unprofessional public an artistic picture of the laws of
+England such as had never been drawn of any similar system. No nation
+but the English had so eminently readable a law-book, and it must be
+doubtful whether any other lawyer ever did more important work than was
+done by the first professor of English law. Over and over again the
+_Commentaries_ were edited, sometimes by distinguished men, and it is
+hardly too much to say that for nearly a century the English lawyer's
+main ideas of the organization and articulation of the body of English
+law were controlled by Blackstone. This was far from all. The Tory
+lawyer little thought that he was giving law to colonies that were on
+the eve of a great and successful rebellion. Yet so it was. Out in
+America, where books were few and lawyers had a mighty task to perform,
+Blackstone's facile presentment of the law of the mother country was of
+inestimable value. It has been said that among American lawyers the
+_Commentaries_ "stood for the law of England," and this at a time when
+the American daughter of English law was rapidly growing in stature, and
+was preparing herself for her destined march from the Atlantic to the
+Pacific Ocean. Excising only what seemed to savour of oligarchy, those
+who had defied King George retained with marvellous tenacity the law of
+their forefathers. Profound discussions of English medieval law have
+been heard in American courts; admirable researches into the recesses of
+the Year-Books have been made in American law schools; the names of the
+great American judges are familiar in an England which knows little
+indeed of foreign jurists; and the debt due for the loan of Blackstone's
+_Commentaries_ is being fast repaid. Lectures on the common law
+delivered by Mr Justice Holmes of the Supreme Court of the United States
+may even have begun to turn the scale against the old country. No
+chapter in Blackstone's book nowadays seems more antiquated than that
+which describes the modest territorial limits of that English law which
+was soon to spread throughout Australia and New Zealand and to follow
+the dominant race in India.
+
+
+  Bentham.
+
+Long wars, vast economic changes and the conservatism generated by the
+French Revolution piled up a monstrous arrear of work for the English
+legislature. Meanwhile, Jeremy Bentham (d. 1832) had laboured for the
+overthrow of much that Blackstone had lauded. Bentham's largest projects
+of destruction and reconstruction took but little effect. Profoundly
+convinced of the fungibility and pliability of mankind, he was but too
+ready to draw a code for England or Spain or Russia at the shortest
+notice; and, scornful as he was of the past and its historic deposit, a
+code drawn by Bentham would have been a sorry failure. On the other
+hand, as a critic and derider of the system which Blackstone had
+complacently expounded he did excellent service. Reform, and radical
+reform, was indeed sadly needed throughout a system which was encumbered
+by noxious rubbish, the useless leavings of the middle ages: trial by
+battle and compurgation, deodands and benefit of clergy, John Doe and
+Richard Roe. It is perhaps the main fault of "judge-made law" (to use
+Bentham's phrase) that its destructive work can never be cleanly done.
+Of all vitality, and therefore of all patent harmfulness, the old rule
+can be deprived, but the moribund husk must remain in the system doing
+latent mischief. English law was full of decaying husks when Bentham
+attacked it, and his persistent demand for reasons could not be
+answered. At length a general interest in "law reform" was excited;
+Romilly and Brougham were inspired by Bentham, and the great changes in
+constitutional law which cluster round the Reform Act of 1832 were
+accompanied by many measures which purged the private, procedural and
+criminal law of much, though hardly enough, of the medieval dross. Some
+credit for rousing an interest in law, in definitions of legal terms,
+and in schemes of codification, is due to John Austin (d. 1859) who was
+regarded as the jurist of the reforming and utilitarian group. But,
+though he was at times an acute dissector of confused thought, he was
+too ignorant of the English, the Roman and every other system of law to
+make any considerable addition to the sum of knowledge; and when
+Savigny, the herald of evolution, was already in the field, the day for
+a "Nature-Right"--and Austin's projected "general jurisprudence" would
+have been a Nature-Right--was past beyond recall. The obsolescence of
+the map of law which Blackstone had inherited from Hale, and in which
+many outlines were drawn by medieval formulas, left intelligent English
+lawyers without a guide, and they were willing to listen for a while to
+what in their insularity they thought to be the voice of cosmopolitan
+science. Little came of it all. The revived study of Germanic law in
+Germany, which was just beginning in Austin's day, seems to be showing
+that the scheme of Roman jurisprudence is not the scheme into which
+English law will run without distortion.
+
+
+  Recent changes.
+
+In the latter half of the 19th century some great and wise changes were
+made by the legislature. Notably in 1875 the old courts were merged in a
+new Supreme Court of Judicature, and a concurrent administration of law
+and equity was introduced. Successful endeavours have been made also to
+reduce the bulk of old statute law, and to improve the form of acts of
+parliament; but the emergence of new forces whose nature may be
+suggested by some such names as "socialism" and "imperialism" has
+distracted the attention of the British parliament from the commonplace
+law of the land, and the development of obstructive tactics has caused
+the issue of too many statutes whose brevity was purchased by
+disgraceful obscurity. By way of "partial codification" some branches of
+the common law (bills of exchange, sale of goods, partnership) have been
+skilfully stated in statutes, but a draft criminal code, upon which much
+expert labour was expended, lies pigeon-holed and almost forgotten.
+British India has been the scene of some large legislative exploits, and
+in America a few big experiments have been made in the way of
+code-making, but have given little satisfaction to the bulk of those who
+are competent to appreciate their results. In England there are large
+portions of the law which, in their present condition, no one would
+think of codifying: notably the law of real property, in which may still
+be found numerous hurtful relics of bygone centuries. So omnipresent are
+statutes throughout the whole field of jurisprudence that the
+opportunity of doing any great feat in the development of law can come
+but seldom to a modern court. More and more, therefore, the fate of
+English law depends on the will of parliament, or rather of the
+ministry. The quality of legal text-books has steadily improved; some of
+them are models of clear statement and good arrangement; but no one has
+with any success aspired to be the Blackstone of a new age.
+
+
+  Law reporting.
+
+The Council of Law Reporting was formed in the year 1863. The council
+now consists of three _ex-officio_ members--the attorney-general, the
+solicitor-general and the president of the Incorporated Law Society, and
+ten members appointed by the three Inns of Court, the Incorporated Law
+Society and the council itself on the nomination of the general council
+of the bar. The practitioner and the student now get for a subscription
+of four guineas a year the reports in all the superior courts and the
+House of Lords, and the judicial committee of the privy council issued
+in monthly parts a king's printer's copy of the statutes, and weekly
+notes, containing short notes of current decisions and announcements of
+all new rules made under the Judicature Acts and other acts of
+parliament, and other legal information. In addition the subscriber
+receives the chronological index of the statutes published from time to
+time by the Stationery Office, and last, but not least, the Digests of
+decided cases published by the council from time to time. In 1892 a
+Digest was published containing the cases and statutes for twenty-five
+years, from 1865 to 1890, and this was supplemented by one for the
+succeeding ten years, from 1891 to 1900. The digesting is now carried on
+continuously by means of "Current Indexes," which are published monthly
+and annually, and consolidated into a digest at stated intervals (say)
+of five years. The Indian appeals series, which is not required by the
+general practitioner, is supplied separately at one guinea a year.
+
+
+  Legal education.
+
+In the 16th and 17th centuries the corporate life of the Inns of Court in
+London became less and less active. The general decay of the organization
+of crafts and gilds showed itself among lawyers as among other craftsmen.
+Successful barristers, sharing in the general prosperity of the country,
+became less and less able and willing to devote their time to the welfare
+of their profession as a whole. The Inns of Chancery, though some of
+their buildings still remain--picturesque survivals in their
+"suburbs"--ceased to be used as places for the education of students. The
+benchers of the Inns of Court, until the revival towards the middle of
+the 19th century, had wholly ceased to concern themselves with the
+systematic teaching of law. The modern system of legal education may be
+said to date from the establishment, in 1852, of the council of legal
+education, a body of twenty judges and barristers appointed by the four
+Inns of Court to control the legal education of students preparing to be
+called to the bar. The most important feature is the examination which a
+student must pass before he can be called. The examination (which by
+degrees has been made "stiffer") serves the double purpose of fixing the
+compulsory standard which all must reach, and of guiding the reading of
+students who may desire, sooner or later, to carry their studies beyond
+this standard. The subjects in which the examination is held are divided
+into Roman law; Constitutional law and legal history; Evidence, Procedure
+and Criminal law; Real and Personal Property; Equity; and Common law. The
+council of legal education also appoint a body of readers and assistant
+readers, practising barristers, who deliver lectures and hold classes.
+
+Meanwhile the custom remains by which a student reads for a year or more
+as a pupil in the chambers of some practising barrister. In the 18th
+century it first became usual for students to read with a solicitor or
+attorney, and after a short time the modern practice grew up of reading
+in the chambers of a conveyancer, equity draftsman or special pleader,
+or, in more recent times, in the chambers of a junior barrister. Before
+the modern examination system, a student required to have a certificate
+from the barrister in whose chambers he had been a pupil before he could
+be "called," but the only relic of the old system now is the necessity
+of "eating dinners," six (three for university men) in each of the four
+terms for three years, at one of the Inns of Court.
+
+The education of solicitors suffered from the absence of any
+professional organization until the Incorporated Law Society was
+established in 1825 and the following years. So far as any professional
+education is provided for solicitors or required from them, this is due
+to the efforts of the Law Society. As early as 1729 it was required by
+statute that any person applying for admission as attorney or solicitor
+should submit to examination by one of the judges, who was to test his
+fitness and capacity in consideration of a fee of one shilling. At the
+same time regular preliminary service under articles was required, that
+is to say, under a contract by which the clerk was bound to serve for
+five years. The examination soon became, perhaps always was, an empty
+form. The Law Society, however, soon showed zeal for the education of
+future solicitors. In 1833 lectures were instituted. In 1836 the first
+regular examinations were established, and in 1860 the present system of
+examinations--preliminary, intermediate and final--came into effect. Of
+these only the last two are devoted to law, and both are of a strictly
+professional character. The final examination is a fairly severe test of
+practical acquaintance with all branches of modern English law. The Law
+Society makes some provision for the teaching of students, but this
+teaching is designed solely to assist in preparation for the
+examinations.
+
+At the universities of Oxford and Cambridge there has, since 1850, been
+an attempt to promote the study of law. The curriculum of legal subjects
+in which lectures are given and examinations held is calculated to give
+a student a sound fundamental knowledge of general principles, as well
+as an elementary acquaintance with the rules of modern English law.
+Jurisprudence, Roman law, Constitutional law and International law are
+taught, as well as the law of Real and Personal Property, the Law of
+Contract and Tort, Criminal law, Procedure and Evidence. But the law
+tripos and the law schools suffer from remoteness from the law courts,
+and from the exclusively academical character of the teaching. Law is
+also taught, though not on a very large scale, at Manchester and at
+Liverpool. London University has encouraged the study of law by its
+examinations for law degrees, at which a comparatively high standard of
+knowledge is required; and at University College, London, and King's
+College, London, teaching is given in law and jurisprudence.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--F. Liebermann, _Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen_ (1898);
+  K.E. Digby, _History of the Law of Real Property_; Sir W. Dugdale,
+  _Origines juridicales_ (1671); O.W. Holmes, _The Common Law_ (Boston,
+  1881); H. Hallam, _Constitutional History_; W.S. Holdsworth, _History
+  of English Law_, 3 vols. (1903-9); J. Reeves, _History of English
+  Law_, ed. W.F. Finlason (1869); T. Madox, _History and Antiquities of
+  the Exchequer_ (1769); C. de Franqueville, _Le Systeme judiciaire de
+  la Grande-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1893); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland,
+  _History of English Law_ (2 vols., 1898); H. Brunner, _The Sources of
+  the Law of England_, trans. by W. Hastie (1888); Sir R.K. Wilson,
+  _History of Modern English Law_ (1875); A.V. Dicey, _Law and Public
+  Opinion in England_ (1905); Sir J.F. Stephen, _History of the Criminal
+  Law of England_ (3 vols., 1883); W. Stubbs, _Select Charters,
+  Constitutional History_; the Publications of the Selden Society and
+  the Year Books in the Rolls Series.     (F. W. M.)
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH LITERATURE. The following discussion of the evolution of English
+literature, i.e. of the contribution to literature made in the course of
+ages by the writers of England, is planned so as to give a comprehensive
+view, the details as to particular authors and their work, and special
+consideration of the greater writers, being given in the separate
+articles devoted to them. It is divided into the following sections: (1)
+Earliest times to Chaucer; (2) Chaucer to the end of the middle ages;
+(3) Elizabethan times; (4) the Restoration period; (5) the Eighteenth
+century; (6) the Nineteenth century. The object of these sections is to
+form connecting links among the successive literary ages, leaving the
+separate articles on individual great writers to deal with their special
+interest; attention being paid in the main to the gradually developing
+characteristics of the product, qua literary. The precise delimitation
+of what may narrowly be called "English" literature, i.e. in the English
+language, is perhaps impossible, and separate articles are devoted to
+American literature (q.v.), and to the vernacular literatures of
+Scotland (see SCOTLAND; and CELT: _Literature_), Ireland (see CELT:
+_Literature_), and Wales (see CELT: _Literature_); see also CANADA:
+_Literature_. Reference may also be made to such general articles on
+particular forms as NOVEL; ROMANCE; VERSE, &c.
+
+
+I. EARLIEST TIMES TO CHAUCER
+
+English literature, in the etymological sense of the word, had, so far
+as we know, no existence until Christian times. There is no evidence
+either that the heathen English had adopted the Roman alphabet, or that
+they had learned to employ their native monumental script (the runes) on
+materials suitable for the writing of continuous compositions of
+considerable length.
+
+It is, however, certain that in the pre-literary period at least one
+species of poetic art had attained a high degree of development, and
+that an extensive body of poetry was handed down--not, indeed, with
+absolute fixity of form or substance--from generation to generation.
+This unwritten poetry was the work of minstrels who found their
+audiences in the halls of kings and nobles. Its themes were the exploits
+of heroes belonging to the royal houses of Germanic Europe, with which
+its listeners claimed kinship. Its metre was the alliterative long line,
+the lax rhythm of which shows that it was intended, not to be sung to
+regular melodies, but to be recited--probably with some kind of
+instrumental accompaniment. Of its beauty and power we may judge from
+the best passages in _Beowulf_ (q.v.); for there can be little doubt
+that this poem gained nothing and lost much in the process of literary
+redaction.
+
+The conversion of the people to Christianity necessarily involved the
+decline of the minstrelsy that celebrated the glories of heathen times.
+Yet the descendants of Woden, even when they were devout Christians,
+would not easily lose all interest in the achievements of their kindred
+of former days. Chaucer's knowledge of "the song of Wade" is one proof
+among others that even so late as the 14th century the deeds of Germanic
+heroes had not ceased to be recited in minstrel verse. The paucity of
+the extant remains of Old English heroic poetry is no argument to the
+contrary. The wonder is that any of it has survived at all. We may well
+believe that the professional reciter would, as a rule, be jealous of
+any attempt to commit to writing the poems which he had received by
+tradition or had himself composed. The clergy, to whom we owe the
+writing and the preservation of the Old English MSS., would only in rare
+instances be keenly interested in secular poetry. We possess, in fact,
+portions of four narrative poems, treating of heroic legend--_Beowulf_,
+_Widsith_, _Finnesburh_ and _Waldere_. The second of these has no
+poetical merit, but great archaeological interest. It is an enumeration
+of the famous kings known to German tradition, put into the mouth of a
+minstrel (named Widsith, "far-travelled"), who claims to have been at
+many of their courts and to have been rewarded by them for his song. The
+list includes historical persons such as Ermanaric and Alboin, who
+really lived centuries apart, but (with the usual chronological
+vagueness of tradition) are treated as contemporaries. The extant
+fragment of _Finnesburh_ (50 lines) is a brilliant battle piece,
+belonging to a story of which another part is introduced episodically in
+_Beowulf_. _Waldere_, of which we have two fragments (together 68 lines)
+is concerned with Frankish and Burgundian traditions based on events of
+the 5th century; the hero is the "Waltharius" of Ekkehart's famous Latin
+epic. The English poem may possibly be rather a literary composition
+than a genuine example of minstrel poetry, but the portions that have
+survived are hardly inferior to the best passages of _Beowulf_.
+
+It may reasonably be assumed that the same minstrels who entertained the
+English kings and nobles with the recital of ancient heroic traditions
+would also celebrate in verse the martial deeds of their own patrons and
+their immediate ancestors. Probably there may have existed an abundance
+of poetry commemorative of events in the conquest of Britain and the
+struggle with the Danes. Two examples only have survived, both belonging
+to the 10th century: The _Battle of Brunanburh_, which has been greatly
+over-praised by critics who were unaware that its striking phrases and
+compounds are mere traditional echoes; and the _Battle of Maldon_, the
+work of a truly great poet, of which unhappily only a fragment has been
+preserved.
+
+One of the marvels of history is the rapidity and thoroughness with
+which Christian civilization was adopted by the English. Augustine
+landed in 597; forty years later was born an Englishman, Aldhelm, who in
+the judgment of his contemporaries throughout the Christian world was
+the most accomplished scholar and the finest Latin writer of his time.
+In the next generation England produced in Bede (Baeda) a man who in
+solidity and variety of knowledge, and in literary power, had for
+centuries no rival in Europe. Aldhelm and Bede are known to us only from
+their Latin writings, though the former is recorded to have written
+vernacular poetry of great merit. The extant Old English literature is
+almost entirely Christian, for the poems that belong to an earlier
+period have been expurgated and interpolated in a Christian sense. From
+the writings that have survived, it would seem as if men strove to
+forget that England had ever been heathen. The four deities whose names
+are attached to the days of the week are hardly mentioned at all. The
+names Thunor and Tiw are sometimes used to translate the Latin Jupiter
+and Mars; Woden has his place (but not as a god) in the genealogies of
+the kings, and his name occurs once in a magical poem, but that is all.
+Bede, as a historian, is obliged to tell the story of the conversion;
+but the only native divinities he mentions are the goddesses Hreth and
+Eostre, and all we learn about them is that they gave their names to
+Hrethemonath (March) and Easter. That superstitious practices of heathen
+origin long survived among the people is shown by the acts of church
+councils and by a few poems of a magical nature that have been
+preserved; but, so far as can be discovered, the definite worship of the
+ancient gods quickly died out. English heathenism perished without
+leaving a record.
+
+The Old English religious poetry was written, probably without
+exception, in the cloister, and by men who were familiar with the Bible
+and with Latin devotional literature. Setting aside the wonderful _Dream
+of the Rood_, it gives little evidence of high poetic genius, though
+much of it is marked by a degree of culture and refinement that we
+should hardly have expected. Its material and thought are mainly derived
+from Latin sources; its expression is imitated from the native heroic
+poetry. Considering that a great deal of Latin verse was written by
+Englishmen in the 7th and succeeding centuries, and that in one or two
+poems the line is actually composed of an English and a Latin hemistich
+rhyming together, it seems strange that the Latin influence on Old
+English versification should have been so small. The alliterative long
+line is throughout the only metre employed, and although the laws of
+alliteration and rhythm were less rigorously obeyed in the later than in
+the earlier poetry, there is no trace of approximation to the structure
+of Latin verse. It is true that, owing to imitation of the Latin hymns
+of the church, rhyme came gradually to be more and more frequently used
+as an ornament of Old English verse; but it remained an ornament only,
+and never became an essential feature. The only poem in which rhyme is
+employed throughout is one in which sense is so completely sacrificed to
+sound that a translation would hardly be possible. It was not only in
+metrical respects that the Old English religious poetry remained
+faithful to its native models. The imagery and the diction are mainly
+those of the old heroic poetry, and in some of the poems Christ and the
+saints are presented, often very incongruously, under the aspect of
+Germanic warriors. Nearly all the religious poetry that has any
+considerable religious value seems to have been written in Northumbria
+during the 8th century. The remarkably vigorous poem of _Judith_,
+however, is certainly much later; and the _Exodus_, though early, seems
+to be of southern origin. For a detailed account of the Old English
+sacred poetry, the reader is referred to the articles on CAeDMON and
+CYNEWULF, to one or other of whom nearly every one of the poems, except
+those of obviously late date, has at some time been attributed.
+
+The Riddles (q.v.) of the Exeter Book resemble the religious poetry in
+being the work of scholars, but they bear much more decidedly the
+impress of the native English character. Some of them rank among the
+most artistic and pleasing productions of Old English poetry. The Exeter
+Book contains also several pieces of a gnomic character, conveying
+proverbial instruction in morality and worldly wisdom. Their morality is
+Christian, but it is not unlikely that some of the wise sayings they
+contain may have come down by tradition from heathen times. The very
+curious _Dialogue of Solomon and Saturn_ may be regarded as belonging to
+the same class.
+
+The most original and interesting portion of the Old English literary
+poetry is the group of dramatic monologues--_The Banished Wife's
+Complaint_, _The Husband's Message_, _The Wanderer_, _The Seafarer_,
+_Deor_ and _Wulf and Eadwacer_. The date of these compositions is
+uncertain, though their occurrence in the Exeter Book shows that they
+cannot be later than the 10th century. That they are all of one period
+is at least unlikely, but they are all marked by the same peculiar tone
+of pathos. The monodramatic form renders it difficult to obtain a clear
+idea of the situation of the supposed speakers. It is not improbable
+that most of these poems may relate to incidents of heroic legend, with
+which the original readers were presumed to be acquainted. This,
+however, can be definitely affirmed only in the case of the two short
+pieces--_Deor_ and _Wulf and Eadwacer_--which have something of a lyric
+character, being the only examples in Old English of strophic structure
+and the use of the refrain. _Wulf and Eadwacer_, indeed, exhibits a
+still further development in the same direction, the monotony of the
+long line metre being varied by the admission of short lines formed by
+the suppression of the second hemistich. The highly developed art
+displayed in this remarkable poem gives reason for believing that the
+existing remains of Old English poetry very inadequately represent its
+extent and variety.
+
+While the origins of English poetry go back to heathen times, English
+prose may be said to have had its effective beginning in the reign of
+Alfred. It is of course true that vernacular prose of some kind was
+written much earlier. The English laws of Aethelberht of Kent, though it
+is perhaps unlikely that they were written down, as is commonly
+supposed, in the lifetime of Augustine (died A.D. 604), or even in that
+of the king (d. 616), were well known to Bede; and even in the
+12th-century transcript that has come down to us, their crude and
+elliptical style gives evidence of their high antiquity. Later kings of
+Kent and of Wessex followed the example of publishing their laws in the
+native tongue. Bede is known to have translated the beginning of the
+gospel of John (down to vi. 9). The early part of the Anglo-Saxon
+Chronicle (q.v.) is probably founded partly on prose annals of
+pre-Alfredian date. But although the amount of English prose written
+between the beginning of the 7th and the middle of the 9th century may
+have been considerable, Latin continued to be regarded as the
+appropriate vehicle for works of any literary pretension. If the English
+clergy had retained the scholarship which they possessed in the days of
+Aldhelm and Bede, the creation of a vernacular prose literature would
+probably have been longer delayed; for while Alfred certainly was not
+indifferent to the need of the laity for instruction, the evil that he
+was chiefly concerned to combat was the ignorance of their spiritual
+guides.
+
+Of the works translated by him and the scholars whom he employed, _St
+Gregory's Pastoral Care_ and his _Dialogues_ (the latter rendered by
+Bishop Werferth) are expressly addressed to the priesthood; if the other
+translations were intended for a wider circle of readers, they are all
+(not excepting the secular _History of Orosius_) essentially religious
+in purpose and spirit. In the interesting preface to the _Pastoral
+Care_, in the important accounts of Northern lands and peoples inserted
+in the _Orosius_, and in the free rendering and amplification of the
+_Consolation_ of Boethius and of the _Soliloquies_ of Augustine, Alfred
+appears as an original writer. Other fruits of his activity are his Laws
+(preceded by a collection of those of his 7th-century predecessor, Ine
+of Wessex), and the beginnings of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The Old
+English prose after Alfred is entirely of clerical authorship; even the
+Laws, so far as their literary form is concerned, are hardly to be
+regarded as an exception. Apart from the Chronicle (see ANGLO-SAXON
+CHRONICLE), the bulk of this literature consists of translations from
+Latin and of homilies and saints' lives, the substance of which is
+derived from sources mostly accessible to us in their original form; it
+has therefore for us little importance except from the philological
+point of view. This remark may be applied, in the main, even to the
+writings of Aelfric, notwithstanding the great interest which attaches to
+his brilliant achievement in the development of the capacities of the
+native language for literary expression. The translation of the gospels,
+though executed in Aelfric's time (about 1000), is by other hands. The
+sermons of his younger contemporary, Archbishop Wulfstan, are marked by
+earnestness and eloquence, and contain some passages of historical
+value.
+
+From the early years of the 11th century we possess an encyclopaedic
+manual of the science of the time--chronology, astronomy, arithmetic,
+metre, rhetoric and ethics--by the monk Byrhtferth, a pupil of Abbo of
+Fleury. It is a compilation, but executed with intelligence. The
+numerous works on medicine, the properties of herbs, and the like, are
+in the main composed of selections from Latin treatises; so far as they
+are original, they illustrate the history of superstition rather than
+that of science. It is interesting to observe that they contain one or
+two formulas of incantations in Irish.
+
+Two famous works of fiction, the romance of _Apollonius of Tyre_ and the
+_Letter of Alexander_, which in their Latin form had much influence on
+the later literature of Europe, were Englished in the 11th century with
+considerable skill. To the same period belongs the curious tract on _The
+Wonders of the East_. In these works, and some minor productions of the
+time, we see that the minds of Englishmen were beginning to find
+interest in other than religious subjects.
+
+The crowding of the English monasteries by foreigners, which was one of
+the results of the Norman Conquest, brought about a rapid arrest of the
+development of the vernacular literature. It was not long before the
+boys trained in the monastic schools ceased to learn to read and write
+their native tongue, and learned instead to read and write French. The
+effects of this change are visible in the rapid alteration of the
+literary language. The artificial tradition of grammatical correctness
+lost its hold; the archaic literary vocabulary fell into disuse; and
+those who wrote English at all wrote as they spoke, using more and more
+an extemporized phonetic spelling based largely on French analogies. The
+12th century is a brilliant period in the history of Anglo-Latin
+literature, and many works of merit were written in French (see
+ANGLO-NORMAN). But vernacular literature is scanty and of little
+originality. The _Peterborough Chronicle_, it is true, was continued
+till 1154, and its later portions, while markedly exemplifying the
+changes in the language, contain some really admirable writing. But it
+is substantially correct to say that from this point until the age of
+Chaucer vernacular prose served no other purpose than that of popular
+religious edification. For light on the intellectual life of the nation
+during this period we must look mainly to the works written in Latin.
+The homilies of the 12th century are partly modernized transcripts from
+Aelfric and other older writers, partly translations from French and
+Latin; the remainder is mostly commonplace in substance and clumsy in
+expression. At the beginning of the 13th century the _Ancren Riwle_
+(q.v.), a book of counsel for nuns, shows true literary genius, and is
+singularly interesting in its substance and spirit; but notwithstanding
+the author's remarkable mastery of English expression, his culture was
+evidently French rather than English. Some minor religious prose works
+of the same period are not without merit. But these examples had no
+literary following. In the early 14th century the writings of Richard
+Rolle and his school attained great popularity. The profound influence
+which they exercised on later religious thought, and on the development
+of prose style, has seldom been adequately recognized. The _Ayenbite of
+Inwyt_ (see MICHEL, DAN), a wretchedly unintelligent translation
+(finished in 1340) from Frere Lorens's _Somme des vices et des vertus_,
+is valuable to the student of language, but otherwise worthless.
+
+The break in the continuity of literary tradition, induced by the
+Conquest, was no less complete with regard to poetry than with regard to
+prose. The poetry of the 13th and the latter part of the 12th century
+was uninfluenced by the written works of Old English poets, whose
+archaic diction had to a great extent become unintelligible. But there
+is no ground to suppose that the succession of popular singers and
+reciters was ever interrupted. In the north-west, indeed, the old
+recitative metre seems to have survived in oral tradition, with little
+more alteration than was rendered necessary by the changes in the
+language, until the middle of the 14th century, when it was again
+adopted by literary versifiers. In the south this metre had greatly
+degenerated in strictness before the Conquest, but, with gradually
+increasing laxity in the laws of alliteration and rhythm, it continued
+long in use. It is commonly believed, with great intrinsic probability
+but with scanty actual evidence, that in the Old English period there
+existed, beside the alliterative long line, other forms of verse adapted
+not for recitation but for singing, used in popular lyrics and ballads
+that were deemed too trivial for written record. The influence of native
+popular poetic tradition, whether in the form of recited or of sung
+verse, is clearly discernible in the earliest Middle English poems that
+have been preserved. But the authors of these poems were familiar with
+Latin, and probably spoke French as easily as their mother tongue; and
+there was no longer any literary convention to restrain them from
+adopting foreign metrical forms. The artless verses of the hermit
+Godric, who died in 1170, exhibit in their metre the combined influence
+of native rhythm and of that of Latin hymnology. The _Proverbs of
+Alfred_, written about 1200, is (like the later _Proverbs of Hendyng_)
+in style and substance a gnomic poem of the ancient Germanic type,
+containing maxims some of which may be of immemorial antiquity; and its
+rhythm is mainly of native origin. On the other hand, the solemn and
+touching meditation known as the _Moral Ode_, which is somewhat earlier
+in date, is in a metre derived from contemporary Latin verse--a line of
+seven accents, broken by a caesura, and with feminine end-rhymes. In the
+_Ormulum_ (see ORM) this metre (known as the septenarius) appears
+without rhyme, and with a syllabic regularity previously without example
+in English verse, the line (or distich, as it may be called with almost
+equal propriety) having invariably fifteen syllables. In various
+modified forms, the septenarius was a favourite measure throughout the
+Middle English period. In the poetry of the 13th century the influence
+of French models is conspicuous. The many devotional lyrics, some of
+which, as the _Luve Ron_ of Thomas of Hales, have great beauty, show
+this influence not only in their varied metrical form, but also in their
+peculiar mystical tenderness and fervour. The _Story of Genesis and
+Exodus_, the substance of which is taken from the Bible and Latin
+commentators, derives its metre chiefly from French. Its poetical merit
+is very small. The secular poetry also received a new impulse from
+France. The brilliant and sprightly dialogue of the _Owl and
+Nightingale_, which can hardly be dated later than about 1230, is a
+"contention" of the type familiar in French and Provencal literature.
+The "Gallic" type of humour may be seen in various other writings of
+this period, notably in the _Land of Cockaigne_, a vivacious satire on
+monastic self-indulgence, and in the fabliau of _Dame Siviz_, a story of
+Eastern origin, told with almost Chaucerian skill. Predominantly, though
+not exclusively French in metrical structure, are the charming love
+poems collected in a MS. (Harl. 2253) written about 1320 in
+Herefordshire, some of which (edited in T. Wright's _Specimens of Lyric
+Poetry_) find a place in modern popular anthologies. It is noteworthy
+that they are accompanied by some French lyrics very similar in style.
+The same MS. contains, besides some religious poetry, a number of
+political songs of the time of Edward II. They are not quite the
+earliest examples of their kind; in the time of the Barons' War the
+popular cause had had its singers in English as well as in French.
+Later, the victories of Edward III. down to the taking of Guisnes in
+1352, were celebrated by the Yorkshireman Laurence Minot in alliterative
+verse with strophic arrangement and rhyme.
+
+At the very beginning of the 13th century a new species of composition,
+the metrical chronicle, was introduced into English literature. The huge
+work of Layamon, a history (mainly legendary) of Britain from the time
+of the mythical Brutus till after the mission of Augustine, is a free
+rendering of the Norman-French _Brut_ of Wace, with extensive additions
+from traditional sources. Its metre seems to be a degenerate survival of
+the Old English alliterative line, gradually modified in the course of
+the work by assimilation to the regular syllabic measure of the French
+original. Unquestionable evidence of the knowledge of the poem on the
+part of later writers is scarce, but distinct echoes of its diction
+appear in the chronicle ascribed to Robert of Gloucester, written in
+rhymed septenary measures about 1300. This work, founded in its earlier
+part on the Latin historians of the 12th century, is an independent
+historical source of some value for the events of the writer's own
+times. The succession of versified histories of England was continued by
+Thomas Bek of Castleford in Yorkshire (whose work still awaits an
+editor), and by Robert Mannyng of Brunne (Bourne, Lincolnshire).
+Mannyng's chronicle, finished in 1338, is a translation, in its earlier
+part from Wace's _Brut_, and in its later part from an Anglo-French
+chronicle (still extant) written by Peter Langtoft, canon of
+Bridlington.
+
+Not far from the year 1300 (for the most part probably earlier rather
+than later) a vast mass of hagiological and homiletic verse was produced
+in divers parts of England. To Gloucester belongs an extensive series
+of Lives of Saints, metrically and linguistically closely resembling
+Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle, and perhaps wholly or in part of the
+same authorship. A similar collection was written in the north of
+England, as well as a large body of homilies showing considerable poetic
+skill, and abounding in exempla or illustrative stories. Of _exempla_
+several prose collections had already been made in Anglo-French, and
+William of Wadington's poem _Manuel des peches_, which contains a great
+number of them, was translated in 1303 by Robert Mannyng already
+mentioned, with some enlargement of the anecdotic element, and frequent
+omissions of didactic passages. The great rhyming chronicle of Scripture
+history entitled _Cursor Mundi_ (q.v.) was written in the north about
+this time. It was extensively read and transcribed, and exercised a
+powerful influence on later writers down to the end of the 14th century.
+The remaining homiletic verse of this period is too abundant to be
+referred to in detail; it will be enough to mention the sermons of
+William of Shoreham, written in strophic form, but showing little either
+of metrical skill or poetic feeling. To the next generation belongs the
+_Pricke of Conscience_ by Richard Rolle, the influence of which was not
+less powerful than that of the author's prose writings.
+
+Romantic poetry, which in French had been extensively cultivated, both
+on the continent and in England from the early years of the 12th
+century, did not assume a vernacular form till about 1250. In the next
+hundred years its development was marvellously rapid. Of the vast mass
+of metrical romances produced during this period no detailed account
+need here be attempted (see ROMANCE, and articles, &c. referred to;
+ARTHURIAN ROMANCE). Native English traditions form the basis of _King
+Horn_, _Guy of Warwick_, _Bevis of Hamtoun_ and _Havelok_, though the
+stories were first put into literary form by Anglo-Norman poets. The
+popularity of these home-grown tales (with which may be classed the
+wildly fictitious _Coer de Lion_) was soon rivalled by that of
+importations from France. The English rendering of _Floris and
+Blancheflur_ (a love-romance of Greek origin) is found in the same MS.
+that contains the earliest copy of _King Horn_. Before the end of the
+century, the French "matter of Britain" was represented in English by
+the Southern _Arthur and Merlin_ and the Northern _Tristram_ and _Yvaine
+and Gawin_, the "matter of France" by _Roland and Vernagu_ and _Otuel_;
+the _Alexander_ was also translated, but in this instance the immediate
+original was an Anglo-French and not a continental poem. The tale of
+Troy did not come into English till long afterwards. The Auchinleck MS.,
+written about 1330, contains no fewer than 14 poetical romances; there
+were many others in circulation, and the number continued to grow. About
+the middle of the 14th century, the Old English alliterative long line,
+which for centuries had been used only in unwritten minstrel poetry,
+emerges again in literature. One of the earliest poems in this revived
+measure, _Wynnere and Wastour_, written in 1352, is by a professional
+reciter-poet, who complains bitterly that original minstrel poetry no
+longer finds a welcome in the halls of great nobles, who prefer to
+listen to those who recite verses not of their own making. About the
+same date the metre began to be employed by men of letters for the
+translation of romance--_William of Palerne_ and _Joseph of Arimathea_
+from the French, _Alexander_ from Latin prose. The later development of
+alliterative poetry belongs mainly to the age of Chaucer.
+
+The extent and character of the literature produced during the first
+half of the 14th century indicate that the literary use of the native
+tongue was no longer, as in the preceding age, a mere condescension to
+the needs of the common people. The rapid disuse of French as the
+ordinary medium of intercourse among the middle and higher ranks of
+society, and the consequent substitution of English for French as the
+vehicle of school instruction, created a widespread demand for
+vernacular reading. The literature which arose in answer to this demand,
+though it consisted mainly of translations or adaptations of foreign
+works, yet served to develop the appreciation of poetic beauty, and to
+prepare an audience in the near future for a poetry in which the genuine
+thought and feeling of the nation were to find expression.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Only general works need be mentioned here. Those cited
+  contain lists of books for more detailed information. (1) For the
+  literature from the beginnings to Chaucer:--B. ten Brink, _Geschichte
+  der englischen Litteratur_, vol. i. 2nd ed., by A. Brandl (Strassburg,
+  1899) (English translation from the 1st ed. of 1877, by H.M. Kennedy,
+  London, 1883); _The Cambridge History of English Literature_, vol. i.
+  (1907). (2) For the Old English period:--R. Wulker, _Grundriss zur
+  Geschichte der angelsachsischen Litteratur_ (Leipzig, 1885); Stopford
+  A. Brooke, _English Literature from the Beginning to the Norman
+  Conquest_ (London, 1898); A. Brandl, "Altenglische Litteratur," in H.
+  Paul's _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, vol. ii. (2nd ed.,
+  Strassburg, 1908). (3) For the early Middle English Period:--H.
+  Morley, _English Writers_, vol. iii. (London, 1888; vols. i. and ii.,
+  dealing with the Old English period, cannot be recommended); A.
+  Brandl, "Mittelenglische Litteratur," in H. Paul's _Grundriss der
+  germanischen Philologie_, vol. ii. (1st ed., Strassburg, 1893); W.H.
+  Schofield, _English Literature from the Norman Conquest to Chaucer_
+  (London, 1906).     (H. Br.)
+
+
+II. CHAUCER TO THE RENAISSANCE
+
+The age of Chaucer is of peculiar interest to the student of literature,
+not only because of its brilliance and productiveness but also because
+of its apparent promise for the future. In this, as in other aspects,
+Chaucer (c. 1340-1400) is its most notable literary figure. Beginning as
+a student and imitator of the best French poetry of his day, he was for
+a time, like most of his French contemporaries, little more than a
+skilful maker of elegant verses, dealing with conventional material in a
+conventional way, arranging in new figures the same flowers and bowers,
+sunsets and song-birds, and companies of fair women and their lovers,
+that had been arranged and rearranged by every poet of the court circle
+for a hundred years, and celebrated in sweet phrases of almost unvarying
+sameness. Even at this time, to be sure, he was not without close and
+loving observation of the living creatures of the real world, and his
+verses often bring us flowers dewy and fragrant and fresh of colour as
+they grew in the fields and gardens about London, and birds that had
+learned their music in the woods; but his poetry was still not easily
+distinguishable from that of Machault, Froissart, Deschamps, Transoun
+and the other "courtly makers" of France. But while he was still
+striving to master perfectly the technique of this pretty art of
+trifling, he became acquainted with the new literature of Italy, both
+poetry and prose. Much of the new poetry moved, like that of France,
+among the conventionalities and artificialities of an unreal world of
+romance, but it was of wider range, of fuller tone, of far greater
+emotional intensity, and, at its best, was the fabric, not of elegant
+ingenuity, but of creative human passion,--in Dante, indeed, a wonderful
+visionary structure in which love and hate, and pity and terror, and the
+forms and countenances of men were more vivid and real than in the world
+of real men and real passions. The new prose--which Chaucer knew in
+several of the writings of Boccaccio--was vastly different from any that
+he had ever read in a modern tongue. Here were no mere brief anecdotes
+like those _exempla_ which in the middle ages illustrated vernacular as
+well as Latin sermons, no cumbrous, slow-moving treatises on the Seven
+Deadly Sins, no half-articulate, pious meditations, but rapid, vivid,
+well-constructed narratives ranging from the sentimental beauty of
+stories like Griselda and the Franklin's Tale to coarse mirth and
+malodorous vulgarity equal to those of the tales told later by Chaucer's
+Miller and Reeve and Summoner. All these things he studied and some he
+imitated. There is scarcely a feature of the verse that has not left
+some trace in his own; the prose he did not imitate as prose, but there
+can be little doubt that the subject matter of Boccaccio's tales and
+novels, as well as his poems, affected the direction of Chaucer's
+literary development, and quickened his habit of observing and utilizing
+human life, and that the narrative art of the prose was influential in
+the transformation of his methods of narration.
+
+This transformation was effected not so much through the mere
+superiority of the Italian models to the French as through the stimulus
+which the differences between the two gave to his reflections upon the
+processes and technique of composition, for Chaucer was not a careless,
+happy-go-lucky poet of divine endowment, but a conscious, reflective
+artist, seeking not merely for fine words and fine sentiments, but for
+the proper arrangement of events, the significant exponent of character,
+the right tone, and even the appropriate background and atmosphere,--as
+may be seen, for example, in the transformations he wrought in the
+_Pardoner's Tale_. It is therefore in the latest and most original of
+the _Canterbury Tales_ that his art is most admirable, most
+distinguished by technical excellences. In these we find so many
+admirable qualities that we almost forget that he had any defects. His
+diction is a model of picturesqueness, of simplicity, of dignity, and of
+perfect adaptation to his theme; his versification is not only correct
+but musical and varied, and shows a progressive tendency towards freer
+and more complex melodies; his best tales are not mere repetitions of
+the ancient stories they retell, but new creations, transformed by his
+own imaginative realization of them, full of figures having the
+dimensions and the vivacity of real life, acting on adequate motives,
+and moving in an atmosphere and against a background appropriate to
+their characters and their actions. In the tales of the Pardoner, the
+Franklin, the Summoner, the Squire, he is no less notable as a
+consummate artist than as a poet.
+
+Chaucer, however, was not the only writer of his day remarkable for
+mastery of technique. Gower, indeed, though a man of much learning and
+intelligence, was neither a poet of the first rank nor an artist.
+Despite the admirable qualities of clearness, order and occasional
+picturesqueness which distinguish his work, he lacked the ability which
+great poets have of making their words mean more than they say, and of
+stirring the emotions even beyond the bounds of this enhanced meaning;
+and there is not, perhaps, in all his voluminous work in English, French
+and Latin, any indication that he regarded composition as an art
+requiring consideration or any care beyond that of conforming to the
+chosen rhythm and finding suitable rhymes.
+
+There were others more richly endowed as poets and more finely developed
+as artists. There was the beginner of the _Piers Plowman_ cycle[1], the
+author of the Prologue and first eight passus of the A-text, a man of
+clear and profound observation, a poet whose imagination brought before
+him with distinctness and reality visual images of the motley
+individuals and masses of men of whom he wrote, an artist who knew how
+to organize and direct the figures of his dream-world, the movement of
+his ever-unfolding vision. There was the remarkable successor of this
+man, the author of the B-text, an almost prophetic figure, a great
+poetic idealist, and, helpless though he often was in the direction of
+his thought, an absolute master of images and words that seize upon the
+heart and haunt the memory. Besides these, an unknown writer far in the
+north-west had, in _Gawayne and the Grene Knight_, transformed the
+medieval romance into a thing of speed and colour, of vitality and
+mystery, no less remarkable for its fluent definiteness of form than for
+the delights of hall-feast and hunt, the graceful comedy of temptation,
+and the lonely ride of the doomed Gawayne through the silence of the
+forest and the deep snow. In the same region, by its author's power of
+visual imagination, the Biblical paraphrase, so often a mere humdrum
+narrative, had been transformed, in _Patience_, into a narrative so
+detailed and vivid that the reader is almost ready to believe that the
+author himself, rather than Jonah, went down into the sea in the belly
+of the great fish, and sat humbled and rebuked beside the withered
+gourd-vine. And there also, by some strange chance, blossomed, with
+perhaps only a local and temporary fragrance until its rediscovery in
+the 19th century, that delicate flower of loneliness and aspiration,
+_Pearl_, a wonder of elaborate art as well as of touching sentiment.
+
+All these writings are great, not only relatively, but absolutely. There
+is not one of them which would not, if written in our own time,
+immediately mark its author as a man of very unusual ability. But the
+point of special concern to us at the present moment is not so much that
+they show remarkable poetic power, as that they possess technical merits
+of a very high order. And we are accustomed to believe that, although
+genius is a purely personal and incommunicable element, technical gains
+are a common possession; that after Marlowe had developed the technique
+of blank verse, this technique was available for all; that after Pope
+had mastered the heroic couplet and Gray the ode, and Poe the short
+story, all men could write couplets and odes and short stories of
+technical correctness; that, as Tennyson puts it,
+
+  "All can grow the flower now,
+   For all have got the seed."
+
+But this was singularly untrue of the technical gains made by Chaucer
+and his great contemporaries. _Pearl_ and _Patience_ were apparently
+unknown to the 15th century, but _Gawayne_ and _Piers Plowman_ and
+Chaucer's works were known and were influential in one way or another
+throughout the century. _Gawayne_ called into existence a large number
+of romances dealing with the same hero or with somewhat similar
+situations, some of them written in verse suggested by the remarkable
+verse of their model, but the resemblance, even in versification, is
+only superficial. _Piers Plowman_ gave rise to satirical allegories
+written in the alliterative long line and furnished the figures and the
+machinery for many satires in other metres, but the technical excellence
+of the first _Piers Plowman_ poem was soon buried for centuries under
+the tremendous social significance of itself and its successors. And
+Chaucer, in spite of the fact that he was praised and imitated by many
+writers and definitely claimed as master by more than one, not only
+transmitted to them scarcely any of the technical conquests he had made,
+but seems also to have been almost without success in creating any
+change in the taste of the public that read his poems so eagerly, any
+demand for better literature than had been written by his predecessors.
+
+Wide and lasting Chaucer's influence undoubtedly was. Not only was all
+the court-poetry, all the poetry of writers who pretended to cultivation
+and refinement, throughout the century, in England and Scotland, either
+directly or indirectly imitative of his work, but even the humblest
+productions of unpretentious writers show at times traces of his
+influence. Scotland was fortunate in having writers of greater ability
+than England had (see SCOTLAND: _Literature_). In England the three
+chief followers of Chaucer known to us by name are Lydgate, Hoccleve
+(see OCCLEVE) and Hawes. Because of their praise of Chaucer and their
+supposed personal relations to him, Lydgate and Hoccleve are almost
+inseparable in modern discussions, but 15th century readers and writers
+appear not to have associated them very closely. Indeed, Hoccleve is
+rarely mentioned, while Lydgate is not only mentioned continually, but
+continually praised as Chaucer's equal or even superior. Hoccleve was
+not, to be sure, as prolific as Lydgate, but it is difficult to
+understand why his work, which compares favourably in quality with
+Lydgate's, attracted so much less attention. The title of his greatest
+poem, _De regimine principum_, may have repelled readers who were not
+princely born, though they would have found the work full of the moral
+and prudential maxims and illustrative anecdotes so dear to them; but
+his attack upon Sir John Oldcastle as a heretic ought to have been
+decidedly to the taste of the orthodox upper classes, while his
+lamentations over his misspent youth, his tales and some of his minor
+poems might have interested any one. Of a less vigorous spirit than
+Lydgate, he was, in his mild way, more humorous and more original. Also
+despite his sense of personal loss in Chaucer's death and his care to
+transmit to posterity the likeness of his beloved master, he seems to
+have been less slavish than Lydgate in imitating him. His memory is full
+of Chaucer's phrases, he writes in verse-forms hallowed by the master's
+use, and he tries to give to his lines the movement of Chaucer's
+decasyllables, but he is comparatively free from the influence of those
+early allegorical works of the Master which produced in the 15th century
+so dreary a flock of imitations.
+
+Lydgate's productivity was enormous,--how great no man can say, for, as
+was the case with Chaucer also, his fame caused many masterless poems to
+be ascribed to him, but, after making all necessary deductions, the
+amount of verse that has come down to us from him is astonishing. Here
+it may suffice to say that his translations are predominantly epic
+(140,000 lines), and his original compositions predominantly allegorical
+love poems or didactic poems. If there is anything duller than a dull
+epic it is a dull allegory, and Lydgate has achieved both. This is not
+to deny the existence of good passages in his epics and ingenuity in his
+allegories, but there is no pervading, persistent life in either. His
+epics, like almost all the narrative verse of the time, whether epic,
+legend, versified chronicle or metrical romance, seem designed merely to
+satisfy the desire of 15th century readers for information, the craving
+for facts--true or fictitious--the same craving that made possible the
+poems on alchemy, on hunting, on manners and morals, on the duties of
+parish priests, on the seven liberal arts. His allegories, like most
+allegories of the age, are ingenious rearrangements of old figures and
+old machinery, they are full of what had once been imagination but had
+become merely memory assisted by cleverness. The great fault of all his
+work, as of nearly all the literature of the age, is that it is merely a
+more or less skilful manipulation of what the author had somewhere read
+or heard, and not a faithful transcript of the author's own peculiar
+sense or conception of what he had seen or heard or read. The fault is
+not that the old is repeated, that a twice-told tale is retold, but that
+it is retold without being re-imagined by the teller of the tale,
+without taking on from his personality something that was not in it
+before. Style, to be sure, was a thing that Lydgate and his fellows
+tried to supply, and some of them supplied it abundantly according to
+their lights. But style meant to them external decoration, classical
+allusions, personifications, an inverted or even dislocated order of
+words, and that famous "ornate diction," those "aureate terms," with
+which they strove to surpass the melody, picturesqueness and dignity
+which, for all its simplicity, they somehow dimly discerned in the
+diction of Chaucer.
+
+Stephen Hawes, with his allegorical treatise on the seven liberal
+sciences, came later than these men, only to write worse. He was a
+disciple of Lydgate rather than of Chaucer, and is not only lacking in
+the vigour and sensitiveness which Lydgate sometimes displays, but
+exaggerates the defects of his master. If it be a merit to have
+conceived the pursuit of knowledge under the form of the efforts of a
+knight to win the hand of his lady, it is almost the sole merit to which
+Hawes can lay claim. Two or three good situations, an episode of low
+comedy, and the epitaph of the Knight with its famous final couplet,
+exhaust the list of his credits. The efforts that have been made to
+trace through Hawes the line of Spenser's spiritual ancestry seem not
+well advised. The resemblances that have been pointed out are such as
+arise inevitably from the allegories and from the traditional material
+with which both worked. There is no reason to believe that Spenser owed
+his general conception to Hawes, or that the _Faery Queene_ would have
+differed in even the slightest detail from its present form if the
+_Pastime of Pleasure_ had never been written. The machinery of chivalric
+romance had already been applied to spiritual and moral themes in Spain
+without the aid of Hawes.
+
+It is obvious that the fundamental lack of all these men was imaginative
+power, poetic ability. This is a sufficient reason for failure to write
+good poetry. But why did not men of better ability devote themselves to
+literature in this age? Was it because of the perturbed conditions
+arising from the prevalence of foreign and civil wars? Perhaps not,
+though it is clear that if Sir Thomas Malory had perished in one of the
+many fights through which he lived, the chivalric and literary impulses
+which he perhaps received from the "Fadre of Curteisy," Richard
+Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, would have gone for nothing and we should
+lack the _Morte Darthur_. But it may very well be that the wars and the
+tremendous industrial growth of England fixed the attention of the
+strongest and most original spirits among the younger men and so
+withdrew them from the possible attractions of literature. But, after
+all, whatever general truth may lie in such speculations, the way of a
+young man with his own life is as incalculable as any of the four things
+which Agur son of Jakeh declared to be past finding out; local and
+special accidents rather than general communal influences are apt to
+shape the choice of boys of exceptional character, and we have many
+instances of great talents turning to literature or art when war or
+commerce or science was the dominant attraction of social life.
+
+But even recognizing that the followers of Chaucer were not men of
+genius, it seems strange that their imitation of Chaucer was what it
+was. They not only entirely failed to see what his merits as an artist
+were and how greatly superior his mature work is to his earlier in point
+of technique; they even preferred the earlier and imitated it almost
+exclusively. Furthermore, his mastery of verse seemed to them to consist
+solely in writing verses of approximately four or five stresses and
+arranging them in couplets or in stanzas of seven or eight lines. Their
+preference for the early allegorical work can be explained by their lack
+of taste and critical discernment and by the great vogue of allegorical
+writing in England and France. Men who are just beginning to think about
+the distinction between literature and ordinary writing usually feel
+that it consists in making literary expression differ as widely as
+possible from simple direct speech. For this reason some sort of
+artificial diction is developed and some artificial word order devised.
+Allegory is used as an elegant method of avoiding unpoetical plainness,
+and is an easy means of substituting logic for imagination. The failure
+to reproduce in some degree at least the melody and smoothness of
+Chaucer's decasyllabic verse, and the particular form which that failure
+took in Lydgate, are to be explained by the fact that Lydgate and his
+fellows never knew how Chaucer's verse sounded when properly read. It is
+a mistake to suppose that the disappearance of final unaccented _e_ from
+many words or its instability in many others made it difficult for
+Lydgate and his fellows to write melodious verse. Melodious verse has
+been written since the disappearance of all these sounds, and the
+possibility of a choice between a form with final _e_ and one without it
+is not a hindrance but an advantage to a poet, as Goethe, Schiller,
+Heine and innumerable German poets have shown by their practice. The
+real difficulty with these men was that they pronounced Chaucer's verse
+as if it were written in the English of their own day. As a matter of
+fact all the types of verse discovered by scholars in Lydgate's poems
+can be discovered in Chaucer's also if they be read with Lydgate's
+pronunciation. Chaucer did not write archaic English, as some have
+supposed,--that is, English of an earlier age than his own,--it would
+have been impossible for him to do so with the unfailing accuracy he
+shows; he did, however, write a conservative, perhaps an old-fashioned,
+English, such as was spoken by the conservative members of the class of
+society to which he was attached and for which he wrote. An English with
+fewer final _e_'s was already in existence among the less conservative
+classes, and this rapidly became standard English in consequence of the
+social changes which occurred during his own life. We know that a
+misunderstanding of Chaucer's verse existed from the 16th century to the
+time of Thomas Tyrwhitt; it seems clear that it began even earlier, in
+Chaucer's own lifetime.
+
+There are several poems of the 15th century which were long ascribed to
+Chaucer. Among them are:--the _Complaint of the Black Knight_, or
+_Complaint of a Lover's Life_, now known to be Lydgate's; the _Mother of
+God_, now ascribed to Hoccleve; the _Cuckoo and the Nightingale_, by
+Clanvowe; _La Belle Dame sans merci_, a translation from the French of
+Alain Chartier by Richard Ros; _Chaucer's Dream, or the Isle of Ladies_;
+the _Assembly of Ladies_; the _Flower and the Leaf_; and the _Court of
+Love_. The two poems of Lydgate and Hoccleve are as good as Chaucer's
+poorest work. The _Assembly of Ladies_ and the _Flower and the Leaf_ are
+perhaps better than the _Book of the Duchess_, but not so good as the
+_Parliament of Fowls_. The _Flower and the Leaf_, it will be remembered,
+was very dear to John Keats, who, like all his contemporaries, regarded
+it as Chaucer's. An additional interest attaches to both it and the
+_Assembly of Ladies_, from the fact that the author may have been a
+woman; Professor Skeat is, indeed, confident that he knows who the woman
+was and when she wrote. These poems, like the _Court of Love_, are
+thoroughly conventional in material, all the figures and poetical
+machinery may be found in dozens of other poems in England and France,
+as Professor Neilson has shown for the _Court of Love_ and Mr Marsh for
+the _Flower and the Leaf_; but there are a freshness of spirit and a
+love of beauty in them that are not common; the conventional birds and
+flowers are there, but they seem, like those of Chaucer's _Legend_, to
+have some touch of life, and the conventional companies of ladies and
+gentlemen ride and talk and walk with natural grace and ease. The _Court
+of Love_ is usually ascribed to a very late date, as late even as the
+middle of the 16th century. If this is correct, it is a notable instance
+of the persistence of a Chaucerian influence. An effort has been made,
+to be sure, to show that it was written by Scogan and that the writing
+of it constituted the offence mentioned by Chaucer in his _Envoy to
+Scogan_, but it has been clearly shown that this is impossible, both
+because the language is later than Scogan's time and because nothing in
+the poem resembles the offence clearly described by Chaucer.
+
+Whatever may be true of the authorship of the _Assembly of Ladies_ and
+the _Flower and the Leaf_, there were women writers in England in the
+middle ages. Juliana of Norwich wrote her _Revelations of Divine Love_
+before 1400. The much discussed Dame Juliana Berners, the supposed
+compiler of the treatise on hunting in the _Book of St Albans_, may be
+mythical, though there is no reason why a woman should not have written
+such a book; and a shadowy figure that disappears entirely in the
+sunlight is the supposed authoress of the _Nut Brown Maid_, for if
+language is capable of definite meaning, the last stanza declares
+unequivocally that the poem is the work of a man. But there is a poem
+warning young women against entering a nunnery which may be by a woman,
+and there is an interesting entry among the records of New Romney for
+1463-1464, "Paid to Agnes Forde for the play of the Interlude of our
+Lord's Passion, 6s. 8d.," which is apparently the earliest mention of a
+woman dramatist in England. Finally, Margaret, countess of Richmond, the
+mother of Henry VII., not only aided scholars and encouraged writers,
+but herself translated the (spurious) fourth book of St Thomas a
+Kempis's _Imitatio Christi_. Another Margaret, the duchess of Burgundy,
+it will be remembered, encouraged Caxton in his translation and
+printing. Women seem, indeed, to have been especially lovers of books
+and patrons of writers, and Skelton, if we may believe his _Garland of
+Laurel_, was surrounded by a bevy of ladies comparable to a modern
+literary club; Erasmus's Suffragette Convention may correspond to no
+reality, but the Learned Lady arguing against the Monk for the
+usefulness and pleasure derived from books was not an unknown type.
+Women were capable of many things in the middle ages. English records
+show them to have been physicians, churchwardens, justices of the peace
+and sheriffs, and, according to a satirist, they were also priests.
+
+The most original and powerful poetry of the 15th century was composed
+in popular forms for the ear of the common people and was apparently
+written without conscious artistic purpose. Three classes of productions
+deserve special attention,--songs and carols, popular ballads and
+certain dramatic compositions. The songs and carols belong to a species
+which may have existed in England before the Norman Conquest, but which
+certainly was greatly modified by the musical and lyric forms of France.
+The best of them are the direct and simple if not entirely artless
+expressions of personal emotion, and even when they contain, as they
+sometimes do, the description of a person, a situation, or an event,
+they deal with these things so subjectively, confine themselves so
+closely to the rendering of the emotional effect upon the singer, that
+they lose none of their directness or simplicity. Some of them deal with
+secular subjects, some with religious, and some are curious and
+delightful blendings of religious worship and aspiration with earthly
+tenderness for the embodiments of helpless infancy and protecting
+motherhood which gave Christianity so much of its power over the
+affections and imagination of the middle ages. Even those which begin as
+mere expressions of joy in the Yule-tide eating and drinking and
+merriment catch at moments hints of higher joys, of finer emotions, and
+lift singer and hearer above the noise and stir of earth. Hundreds of
+songs written and sung in the 15th century must have perished; many, no
+doubt, lived only a single season and were never even written down; but
+chance has preserved enough of them to make us wonder at the age which
+could produce such masterpieces of tantalizing simplicity.
+
+The lyrics which describe a situation form a logical, if not a real
+transition to those which narrate an episode or an event. The most
+famous of the latter, the _Nut Brown Maid_, has often been called a
+ballad, and "lyrical ballad" it is in the sense established by Coleridge
+and Wordsworth, but its affinities are rather with the song or carol
+than with the folk-ballad, and, like Henryson's charming _Robin and
+Malkin_, it is certainly the work of a man of culture and of conscious
+artistic purpose and methods. Unaccompanied, as it is, by any other work
+of the same author, this poem, with its remarkable technical merits, is
+an even more astonishing literary phenomenon than the famous single
+sonnet of Blanco White. It can hardly be doubted that the author learned
+his technique from the songs and carols.
+
+The folk-ballad, like the song or carol, belongs in some form to
+immemorial antiquity. It is doubtless a mistake to suppose that any
+ballad has been preserved to us that is a purely communal product, a
+confection of the common knowledge, traditions and emotions of the
+community wrought by subconscious processes into a song that finds
+chance but inevitable utterance through one or more individuals as the
+whole commune moves in its molecular dance. But it is equally a mistake
+to argue that ballads are essentially metrical romances in a state of
+decay. Both the matter and the manner of most of the best ballads forbid
+such a supposition, and it can hardly be doubted that in some of the
+folk-ballads of the 15th century are preserved not only traditions of
+dateless antiquity, but formal elements and technical processes that
+actually are derived from communal song and dance. By the 15th century,
+however, communal habits and processes of composition had ceased, and
+the traditional elements, formulae and technique had become merely
+conventional aids and guides for the individual singer. Ancient as they
+were, conventional as, in a sense, they also were, they exercised none
+of the deadening, benumbing influence of ordinary conventions. They
+furnished, one may say, a vibrant framework of emotional expression,
+each tone of which moved the hearers all the more powerfully because it
+had sung to them so many old, unhappy, far-off things, so many battles
+and treacheries and sudden griefs; a framework which the individual
+singer needed only to fill out with the simplest statement of the event
+which had stirred his own imagination and passions to produce, not a
+work of art, but a song of universal appeal. Not a work of art, because
+there are scarcely half a dozen ballads that are really works of art,
+and the greatest ballads are not among these. There is scarcely one that
+is free from excrescences, from dulness, from trivialities, from
+additions that would spoil their greatest situations and their greatest
+lines, were it not that we resolutely shut our ears and our eyes, as we
+should, to all but their greatest moments. But at their best moments the
+best ballads have an almost incomparable power, and to a people sick, as
+we are, of the ordinary, the usual, the very trivialities and
+impertinences of the ballads only help to define and emphasize these
+best moments. In histories of English literature the ballads have been
+so commonly discussed in connexion with their rediscovery in the 18th
+century, that we are apt to forget that some of the very best were
+demonstrably composed in the 15th and that many others of uncertain date
+probably belong to the same time.
+
+Along with the genuine ballads dealing with a recent event or a
+traditional theme there were ballads in which earlier romances are
+retold in ballad style. This was doubtless inevitable in view of the
+increasing epic tendency of the ballad and the interest still felt in
+metrical romances, but it should not mislead us into regarding the
+genuine folk-ballad as an out-growth of the metrical romance.
+
+Besides the ordinary epic or narrative ballad, the 15th century produced
+ballads in dramatic form, or, perhaps it were better to say, dramatized
+some of its epic ballads. How commonly this was done we do not know,
+but the scanty records of the period indicate that it was a widespread
+custom, though only three plays of this character (all concerning Robin
+Hood) have come down to us. These plays had, however, no further
+independent development, but merely furnished elements of incident and
+atmosphere to later plays of a more highly organized type. With these
+ballad plays may also be mentioned the Christmas plays (usually of St
+George) and the sword-dance plays, which also flourished in the 15th
+century, but survive for us only as obscure elements in the masques and
+plays of Ben Jonson and in such modern rustic performances as Thomas
+Hardy has so charmingly described in _The Return of the Native_.
+
+The additions which the 15th century made to the ancient cycles of
+Scripture plays, the so-called Mysteries, are another instance of a
+literary effort which spent itself in vain (see DRAMA). The most notable
+of these are, of course, the world renowned comic scenes in the
+_Towneley_ (or _Wakefield_) _Plays_, in the pageants of Cain, of Noah
+and of the Shepherds. In none of these is the 15th century writer
+responsible for the original comic intention; in the pageants of Cain
+and of the Shepherds fragments of the work of a 14th century writer
+still remain to prove the earlier existence of the comic conception, and
+that it was traditional in the Noah pageant we know from the testimony
+of Chaucer's Miller; but none the less the 15th century writer was a
+comic dramatist of original power and of a skill in the development of
+both character and situation previously unexampled in England. The
+inability of Lydgate to develop a comic conception is strikingly
+displayed if one compares his _Pageant for Presentation before the King
+at Hereford_ with the work of this unknown artist. But in our admiration
+for this man and his famous episode of Mak and the fictitious infant, we
+are apt to forget the equally fine, though very different qualities
+shown in some of the later pageants of the _York Plays_. Such, for
+example, is the final pageant, that of the _Last Judgment_, a drama of
+slow and majestic movement, to be sure, but with a large and fine
+conception of the great situation, and a noble and dignified elocution
+not inadequate to the theme.
+
+The _Abraham and Isaac_ play of the Brome MS., extant as a separate play
+and perhaps so performed, which has been so greatly admired for its
+cumulative pathos, also belongs demonstrably to this century. It is not,
+as has been supposed, an intermediate stage between French plays and the
+Chester _Abraham and Isaac_, but is derived directly from the latter by
+processes which comparison of the two easily reveals. Scripture plays of
+a type entirely different from the well-known cyclic mysteries,
+apparently confined to the Passion and Resurrection and the related
+events, become known to us for the first time in the records of this
+century. Such plays seem to have been confined to the towns of the
+south, and, as both their location and their structure suggest, may have
+been borrowed from France. In any event, the records show that they
+flourished greatly and that new versions were made from time to time.
+
+Another form of the medieval drama, the Morality Play, had its origin in
+the 15th century,--or else very late in the 14th. The earliest known
+examples of it in England date from about 1420. These are the _Castle of
+Perseverance_ and the _Pride of Life_. Others belonging to the century
+are _Mind, Will and Understanding_, _Mankind_ and Medwall's _Nature_.
+There are also parts of two pageants in the _Ludus Coventriae_ (c. 1460)
+that are commonly classed as Moralities, and these, together with the
+existence of a few personified abstractions in other plays, have led
+some critics to suppose that the Morality was derived from the Mystery
+by the gradual introduction of personified abstractions in the place of
+real persons. But the two kinds of plays are fundamentally different,
+different in subject and in technique; and no replacement of real
+persons by personifications can change a Mystery into a Morality.
+Moreover, the Morality features in Mysteries are later than the origin
+of the Morality itself and are due to the influence of the latter. The
+Morality Play is merely a dramatized allegory, and derives its
+characters and its peculiar technique from the application of the
+dramatic method to the allegory, the favourite literary form of the
+middle ages. None of the 15th century Moralities is literature of the
+first rank, though both the _Castle of Perseverance_ and _Pride of Life_
+contain passages ringing with a passionate sincerity that communicates
+itself to the hearer or reader. But it was not until the beginning of
+the 16th century that a Morality of permanent human interest appeared in
+_Everyman_, which, after all, is a translation from the Dutch, as is
+clearly proved by the fact that in the two prayers near the end of the
+play the Dutch has complicated but regular stanzas, whereas the English
+has only irregularly rhymed passages.
+
+Besides the Mysteries and Moralities, the 15th century had also Miracle
+Plays, properly so called, dealing with the lives, martyrdoms and
+miracles of saints. As we know these only from records of their
+performance or their mere existence--no texts have been preserved to us,
+except the very curious _Play of the Sacrament_--it is impossible to
+speak of their literary or dramatic qualities. The Miracle Play as a
+form was, of course, not confined to the 15th century. Notwithstanding
+the assertions of historians of literature that it died out in England
+soon after its introduction at the beginning of the 12th century, its
+existence can be demonstrated from c. 1110 to the time of Shakespeare.
+But records seem to indicate that it flourished especially during this
+period of supposed barrenness.
+
+What was the nature of the "Komedy of Troylous and Pandor" performed
+before Henry VIII. on the 6th of January 1516 we have no means of
+knowing. It is very early indeed to assume the influence of either
+classical or Italian drama, and although we have no records of similar
+plays from the 15th century, it must be remembered that our records are
+scanty, that the middle ages applied the dramatic method to all sorts of
+material, and that it is therefore not impossible that secular plays
+like this were performed at court at a much earlier date. The record at
+any rate does not indicate that it was a new type of play, and the
+Griselda story had been dramatized in France, Italy and the Netherlands
+before 1500.
+
+That not much good prose was written in the 15th century is less
+surprising than that so little good verse was written. The technique of
+verse composition had been studied and mastered in the preceding age, as
+we have seen, but the technique of prose had apparently received no
+serious consideration. Indeed, it is doubtful if any one thought of
+prose as a possible medium of artistic expression. Chaucer apparently
+did not, in spite of the comparative excellence of his Preface to the
+_Astrolabe_ and his occasional noteworthy successes with the
+difficulties of the philosophy of Boethius; Wycliffe is usually clumsy;
+and the translators of Mandeville, though they often give us passages of
+great charm, obviously were plain men who merely translated as best they
+could. There was, however, a comparatively large amount of prose written
+in the 15th century, mainly for religious or educational purposes,
+dealing with the same sorts of subjects that were dealt with in verse,
+and in some cases not distinguishable from the verse by any feature but
+the absence of rhyme. The vast body of this we must neglect; only five
+writers need be named: John Capgrave, Reginald Pecock, Sir John
+Fortescue, Caxton and Malory. Capgrave, the compiler of the first
+chronicle in English prose since the Conquest, wrote by preference in
+Latin; his English is a condescension to those who could not read Latin
+and has the qualities which belong to the talk of an earnest and sincere
+man of commonplace ability. Pecock and Fortescue are more important.
+Pecock (c. 1395-c. 1460) was a man of singularly acute and logical mind.
+He prided himself upon his dialectic skill and his faculty for
+discovering arguments that had been overlooked by others. His writings,
+therefore--or at least the _Repressor_--are excellent in general
+structure and arrangement, his ideas are presented clearly and simply,
+with few digressions or excrescences, and his sentences, though
+sometimes too long, are more like modern prose than any others before
+the age of Elizabeth. His style is lightened by frequent figures of
+speech, mostly illustrative, and really illustrative, of his ideas,
+while his intellectual ingenuity cannot fail to interest even those whom
+his prejudices and preconceptions repel. Fortescue, like Capgrave, wrote
+by preference in Latin, and, like Pecock, was philosophical and
+controversial. But his principal English work, the _Difference between
+an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy_, differs from Pecock's in being
+rather a pleading than a logical argument, and the geniality and glowing
+patriotism of its author give it a far greater human interest.
+
+No new era in literary composition was marked by the activity of William
+Caxton as translator and publisher, though the printing-press has, of
+course, changed fundamentally the problem of the dissemination and
+preservation of culture, and thereby ultimately affected literary
+production profoundly. But neither Caxton nor the writers whose works he
+printed produced anything new in form or spirit. His publications range
+over the whole field of 15th century literature, and no doubt he tried,
+as his quaint prefaces indicate, to direct the public taste to what was
+best among the works of the past, as when he printed and reprinted the
+_Canterbury Tales_, but among all his numerous publications not one is
+the herald of a new era. The only book of permanent interest as
+literature which he introduced to the world was the _Morte Darthur_ of
+Sir Thomas Malory, and this is a compilation from older romances (see
+ARTHURIAN LEGEND). It is, to be sure, the one book of permanent literary
+significance produced in England in the 15th century; it glows with the
+warmth and beauty of the old knight's conception of chivalry and his
+love for the great deeds and great men of the visionary past, and it
+continually allures the reader by its fresh and vivid diction and by a
+syntax which, though sometimes faulty, has almost always a certain naive
+charm; "thystorye (i.e. the history) of the sayd Arthur," as Caxton long
+ago declared, "is so gloryous and shynyng, that he is stalled in the
+first place of the moost noble, beste and worthyest of the Crysten men";
+it is not, however, as the first of a new species, but as the final
+flower of an old that this glorious and shining book retains its place
+in English literature.
+
+Whatever may have been the effect of the wars and the growth of
+industrial life in England in withdrawing men of the best abilities from
+the pursuit of literature, neither these causes nor any other interfered
+with the activity of writers of lesser powers. The amount of writing is
+really astonishing, as is also its range. More than three hundred
+separate works (exclusive of the large number still ascribed to Lydgate
+and of the seventy printed by Caxton) have been made accessible by the
+Early English Text Society and other public or private presses, and it
+seems probable that an equal number remains as yet unpublished. No list
+of these writings can be given here, but it may not be unprofitable to
+indicate the range of interests by noting the classes of writing
+represented. The classification is necessarily rough, as some writings
+belong to more than one type. We may note, first, love poems,
+allegorical and unallegorical, narrative, didactic, lyrical and
+quasi-lyrical; poems autobiographical and exculpatory; poems of eulogy
+and appeal for aid; tales of entertainment or instruction, in prose and
+in verse; histories ancient and modern, and brief accounts of recent
+historical events, in prose and in verse; prose romances and metrical
+romances; legends and lives of saints, in prose and in verse; poems and
+prose works of religious meditation, devotion and controversy; treatises
+of religious instruction, in prose and in verse; ethical and
+philosophical treatises, and ethical and prudential treatises; treatises
+of government, of political economy, of foreign travel, of hygiene, of
+surgery, of alchemy, of heraldry, of hunting and hawking and fishing, of
+farming, of good manners, and of cooking and carving. Prosaic and
+intended merely to serve practical uses as many of these were, verse is
+the medium of expression as often as prose. Besides this large amount
+and variety of English compositions, it must be remembered that much was
+also written in Latin, and that Latin and French works of this and other
+centuries were read by the educated classes.
+
+Although the intellectual and spiritual movement which we call the
+Italian Renaissance was not unknown in England in the 14th and 15th
+centuries, it is not strange that it exercised no perceptible influence
+upon English literature, except in the case of Chaucer. Chaucer was the
+only English man of letters before the 16th century who knew Italian
+literature. The Italians who visited England and the Englishmen who
+visited Italy were interested, not in literature, but in scholarship.
+Such studies as were pursued by Free, Grey, Flemming, Tilly, Gunthorpe
+and others who went to Italy, made them better grammarians and
+rhetoricians, and no doubt gave them a freer, wider outlook, but upon
+their return to England they were immediately absorbed in administrative
+cares, which left them little leisure for literary composition, even if
+they had had any inclination to write. They prepared the way, however,
+for the leaders of the great intellectual awakening which began in
+England with Linacre, Colet, More and their fellows, and which finally
+culminated in the age of Spenser, Bacon, Shakespeare, Jonson, Gilbert,
+Harvey and Harriott.
+
+When the middle ages ceased in England it is impossible to say
+definitely. Long after the new learning and culture of the Renaissance
+had been introduced there, long after classical and Italian models were
+eagerly chosen and followed, the epic and lyric models of the middle
+ages were admired and imitated, and the ancient forms of the drama lived
+side by side with the new until the time of Shakespeare himself. John
+Skelton, although according to Erasmus "unum Britannicarum literarum
+lumen ac decus," and although possessing great originality and vigour
+both in diction and in versification when attacking his enemies or
+indulging in playful rhyming, was not only a great admirer of Lydgate,
+but equalled even the worst of his predecessors in aureate pedantries of
+diction, in complicated impossibilities of syntax, and in meaningless
+inversions of word-order whenever he wished to write elegant and
+dignified literature. And not a little of the absurd diction of the
+middle of the 16th century is merely a continuation of the bad ideals
+and practices of the refined writers of the 15th.
+
+In fine, the 15th century has, aside from its vigorous, though sometimes
+coarse, popular productions, little that can interest the lover of
+literature. It offers, however, in richest profusion problems for the
+literary antiquarian and the student of the relations between social
+conditions and literary productivity,--problems which have usually been
+attacked only with the light weapons of irresponsible speculation, but
+which may perhaps be solved by a careful comparative study of many
+literatures and many periods. Moreover, although in the quality of its
+literary output it is decidedly inferior to the 14th century, the amount
+and the wide range of its productions indicate the gradual extension of
+the habit of reading to classes of society that were previously
+unlettered; and this was of great importance for the future of English
+literature, just as the innumerable dramatic performances throughout
+England were important in developing audiences for Marlowe and
+Shakespeare and Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+  For bibliography see vol. ii. of the _Cambridge History of Literature_
+  (1909); and Brandl's _Geschichte der mittelenglischen Literatur_
+  (reprinted from Paul's _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_).
+  Interesting general discussions may be found in the larger histories
+  of English Literature, such as Ten Brink's, Jusserand's, and (a little
+  more antiquated) Courthope's and Morley's.     (J. M. Ma.)
+
+
+III. ELIZABETHAN TIMES
+
+_General Influences, and Prologue to 1579._--The history of letters in
+England from More's _Utopia_ (1516), the first Platonic vision, to
+Milton's _Samson Agonistes_ (1671), the latest classic tragedy, is one
+and continuous. That is the period of the English Renaissance, in the
+wider sense, and it covers all and more of the literature loosely called
+"Elizabethan." With all its complexity and subdivisions, it has as real
+a unity as the age of Pericles, or that of Petrarch and Boccaccio, or
+the period in Germany that includes both Lessing and Heine. It is
+peculiar in length of span, in variety of power, and in wealth of
+production, though its master-works on the greater scale are relatively
+few. It is distinct, while never quite cut off, from the middle age
+preceding, and also from the classical or "Augustan" age that followed.
+The coming of Dryden denoted a new phase; but it was still a phase of
+the Renaissance; and the break that declared itself about 1660 counts as
+nothing beside the break with the middle ages; for this implied the
+whole change in art, thought and temper, which re-created the European
+mind. It is true that many filaments unite Renaissance and middle ages,
+not only in the religious and purely intellectual region, but in that of
+art. The matter of Geoffrey of Monmouth, the tales of Arthur and of
+Troilus, the old fairy folklore of the South, the topic of the _Falls of
+Princes_, lived on; and so did the characteristic medieval form,
+allegory and many of the old metres of the 14th century. But then these
+things were transformed, often out of knowledge. Shakespeare's use of
+the histories of Macbeth, Lear and Troilus, and Spenser's of the
+allegoric romance, are examples. And when the gifts of the middle ages
+are not transformed, as in the _Mirror for Magistrates_, they strike us
+as survivals from a lost world.
+
+So vital a change took long in the working. The English Renaissance of
+letters only came into full flower during the last twenty years of the
+16th century, later than in any Southern land; but it was all the richer
+for delay, and would have missed many a life-giving element could it
+have been driven forward sooner. If the actual process of genius is
+beyond analysis, we can still notice the subjects which genius receives,
+or chooses, to work upon, and also the vesture which it chooses for
+them; and we can watch some of the forces that long retard but in the
+end fertilize these workings of genius.
+
+
+  General forces.
+
+What, then, in England, were these forces? Two of them lie outside
+letters, namely, the political settlement, culminating in the later
+reign of Elizabeth, and the religious settlement, whereby the Anglican
+Church grew out of the English Reformation. A third force lay within the
+sphere of the Renaissance itself, in the narrower meaning of the term.
+It was culture--the prefatory work of culture and education, which at
+once prepared and put off the flowering of pure genius. "Elizabethan"
+literature took its complexion from the circumstance that all these
+three forces were in operation at once. The Church began to be fully
+articulate, just when the national feeling was at its highest, and the
+tides of classical and immigrant culture were strongest. Spenser's
+_Faerie Queene_, Hooker's _Ecclesiastical Polity_ and Shakespeare's
+_Henry V._ came in the same decade (1590-1600). But these three forces,
+political, religious and educational, were of very different duration
+and value. The enthusiasm of 1590-1600 was already dying down in the
+years 1600-1610, when the great tragedies were written; and soon a
+wholly new set of political forces began to tell on art. The religious
+inspiration was mainly confined to certain important channels; and
+literature as a whole, from first to last, was far more secular than
+religious. But Renaissance culture, in its ramifications and
+consequences, tells all the time and over the whole field, from 1500 to
+1660. It is this culture which really binds together the long and varied
+chronicle. Before passing to narrative, a short review of each of these
+elements is required.
+
+
+  Politics.
+
+Down to 1579 the Tudor rule was hardly a direct inspiration to authors.
+The reign of Henry VII. was first duly told by Bacon, and that of Henry
+VIII. staged by Shakespeare and Fletcher, in the time of James I. Sir
+Thomas More found in Roper, and Wolsey in Cavendish, sound biographers,
+who are nearly the earliest in the language. The later years of Henry
+VIII. were full of episodes too tragically picturesque for safe handling
+in the lifetime of his children. The next two reigns were engrossed with
+the religious war; and the first twenty years of Elizabeth, if they laid
+the bases of an age of peace, well-being, and national self-confidence
+that was to prove a teeming soil for letters, were themselves poor in
+themes for patriotic art. The abortive treason of the northern earls was
+echoed only in a ringing ballad. But the voyagers, freebooters, and
+explorers reported their experiences, as a duty, not for fame; and
+these, though not till the golden age, were edited by Hakluyt, and
+fledged the poetic fancies that took wing from the "Indian Peru" to the
+"still-vext Bermoothes." Yet, in default of any true historian, the
+queen's wise delays and diplomacies that upheld the English power, and
+her refusal to launch on a Protestant or a national war until occasion
+compelled and the country was ready, were subjects as uninspiring to
+poets as the burning questions of the royal marriage or the royal title.
+But by 1580 the nation was filled with the sense of Elizabeth's success
+and greatness and of its own prosperity. No shorter struggle and no less
+achievement could have nursed the insolent, jubilant patriotism of the
+years that followed; a feeling that for good reasons was peculiar to
+England among the nations, and created the peculiar forms of the
+chronicle play and poem. These were borrowed neither from antiquity nor
+from abroad, and were never afterwards revived. The same exultation
+found its way into the current forms of ode and pastoral, of masque and
+allegory, and into many a dedication and interlude of prose. It was so
+strong as to outlive the age that gave it warrant. The passion for
+England, the passion of England for herself, animates the bulk of
+Drayton's _Poly-Olbion_, which was finished so late as 1622. But the
+public issues were then changing, the temper was darker; and the civil
+struggle was to speak less in poetry than in the prose of political
+theory and ecclesiastical argument, until its after-explosion came in
+the verse of Milton.
+
+
+  Religious change.
+
+The English Reformation, so long political rather than doctrinal or
+imaginative, cost much writing on all sides; but no book like Calvin's
+_Institution_ is its trophy, at once defining the religious change for
+millions of later men and marking a term of departure in the national
+prose. Still, the debating weapons, the axes and billhooks, of
+vernacular English were sharpened--somewhat jaggedly--in the pamphlet
+battles that dwarfed the original energies of Sir Thomas More and evoked
+those of Tyndale and his friends. The powers of the same style were
+proved for descriptive economy by Starkey's Dialogue between Pole and
+Lupset, and for religious appeal by the blunt sound rhetoric and
+forthright jests in the sermons of Latimer (died 1555). Foxe's reports
+of the martyrs are the type of early Protestant English (1563); but the
+reforming divines seldom became real men of letters even when their
+Puritanism, or discontent with the final Anglican settlement and its
+temper, began to announce itself. Their spirit, however, comes out in
+many a corner of poetry, in Gascoigne's _Steel Glass_ as in Spenser's
+_Shepherd's Calendar_; and the English Reformation lived partly on its
+pre-natal memories of Langland as well as of Wycliffe. The fruit of the
+struggle, though retarded, was ample. Carrying on the work of Fisher and
+Cranmer, the new church became the nursing mother of English prose, and
+trained it more than any single influence,--trained it so well, for the
+purposes of sacred learning, translation and oratory, and also as a
+medium of poetic feeling, that in these activities England came to rival
+France. How late any religious writer of true rank arose may be seen by
+the lapse of over half a century between Henry VIII.'s Act of Supremacy
+and Hooker's treatise. But after Hooker the chain of eloquent divines
+was unbroken for a hundred years.
+
+
+  Classical culture.
+
+Renaissance culture had many stages and was fed from many streams. At
+the outset of the century, in the wake of Erasmus, under the teaching of
+Colet and his friends, there spread a sounder knowledge of the Greek and
+Latin tongues, of the classic texts, and so of the ancient life and
+mind. This period of humanism in the stricter sense was far less
+brilliant than in Italy and France. No very great scholar or savant
+arose in Britain for a long time; but neo-Latin literature, the
+satellite of scholarship, shone brightly in George Buchanan. But
+scholarship was created and secured; and in at least one, rather
+solitary, work of power, the _Utopia_ (which remained in Latin till
+1551), the fundamental process was begun which appropriates the Greek
+mind, not only for purposes of schooling, but as a source of new and
+independent thinking. In and after the middle of the century the
+classics were again put forward by Cheke, by Wilson in his _Art of
+Rhetoric_ (1553), and by Ascham in his letters and in his _Schoolmaster_
+(1570), as the true staple of humane education, and the pattern for a
+simple yet lettered English. The literature of translations from the
+classics, in prose and verse, increased; and these works, at first
+plain, business-like, and uninspired, slowly rose in style and power,
+and at last, like the translations from modern tongues, were written by
+a series of masters of English, who thus introduced Plutarch and Tacitus
+to poets and historians. This labour of mediation was encouraged by the
+rapid expansion and reform of the two universities, of which almost
+every great master except Shakespeare was a member; and even Shakespeare
+had ample Latin for his purpose.
+
+
+  Italy and France.
+
+The direct impact of the classics on "Elizabethan" literature, whether
+through such translations or the originals, would take long to describe.
+But their indirect impact is far stronger, though in result the two are
+hard to discern. This is another point that distinguishes the English
+Renaissance from the Italian or the French, and makes it more complex.
+The knowledge of the thought, art and enthusiasms of Rome and Athens
+constantly came round through Italy or France, tinted and charged in the
+passage with something characteristic of those countries. The early
+playwrights read Seneca in Latin and English, but also the foreign
+Senecan tragedies. Spenser, when starting on his pastorals, studied the
+Sicilians, but also Sannazaro and Marot. Shakespeare saw heroic
+antiquity through Plutarch, but also, surely, through Montaigne's
+reading of antiquity. Few of the poets can have distinguished the
+original fountain of Plato from the canalized supply of the Italian
+Neoplatonists. The influence, however, of Cicero on the Anglican pulpit
+was immediate as well as constant; and so was that of the conciser Roman
+masters, Sallust and Tacitus, on Ben Jonson and on Bacon. Such scattered
+examples only intimate the existence of two great chapters of English
+literary history,--the effects of the classics and the effects of Italy.
+The bibliography of 16th-century translations from the Italian in the
+fields of political and moral speculation, poetry, fiction and the
+drama, is so large as itself to tell part of the story. The genius of
+Italy served the genius of England in three distinctive ways. It
+inspired the recovery, with new modulations, of a lost music and a lost
+prosody. It modelled many of the chief poetic forms, which soon were
+developed out of recognition; such were tragedy, allegory, song,
+pastoral and sonnet. Thirdly, it disclosed some of the master-thoughts
+upon government and conduct formed both by the old and the new
+Mediterranean world. Machiavelli, the student of ancient Rome and modern
+Italy, riveted the creed of Bacon. It might be said that never has any
+modern people so influenced another in an equal space of time--and
+letters, here as ever, are only the voice, the symbol, of a whole life
+and culture--if we forgot the sway of French in the later 17th and 18th
+centuries. And the power of French was alive also in the 16th. The track
+of Marot, of Ronsard and the Pleiad and Desportes, of Rabelais and
+Calvin and Montaigne, is found in England. Journeymen like Boisteau and
+Belleforest handed on immortal tales. The influence is noteworthy of
+Spanish mannerists, above all of Guevara upon sententious prose, and of
+the novelists and humorists, headed by Cervantes, upon the drama. German
+legend is found not only in Marlowe's _Faustus_, but in the by-ways of
+play and story. It will be long before the rich and coloured tangle of
+these threads has been completely unravelled with due tact and science.
+The presence of one strand may here be mentioned, which appears in
+unexpected spots.
+
+
+  Philosophy.
+
+As in Greece, and as in the day of Coleridge and Shelley, the fabric of
+poetry and prose is shot through with philosophical ideas; a further
+distinction from other literatures like the Spanish of the golden age or
+the French of 1830. But these were not so much the ideas of the new
+physical science and of Bacon as of the ethical and metaphysical
+ferment. The wave of free talk in the circles of Marlowe, Greville and
+Raleigh ripples through their writings. Though the direct influence of
+Giordano Bruno on English writers is probably limited to a reminiscence
+in the _Faerie Queene_ (Book vii.), he was well acquainted with Sidney
+and Greville, argued for the Copernican theory at Greville's house,
+lectured on the soul at Oxford, and published his epoch-marking Italian
+dialogues during his two years' stay (1583-1585) in London. The debates
+in the earlier schools of Italy on the nature and tenure of the soul are
+heard in the _Nosce Teipsum_ (1599) of Sir John Davies; a stoicism, "of
+the schools" as well as "of the blood," animates Cassius and also the
+French heroes of Chapman; and if the earlier drama is sown with Seneca's
+old maxims on sin and destiny, the later drama, at least in Shakespeare,
+is penetrated with the freer reading of life and conduct suggested by
+Montaigne. Platonism--with its _vox angelica_ sometimes a little
+hoarse--is present from the youthful _Hymns_ of Spenser to the last
+followers of Donne; sometimes drawn from Plato, it is oftener the
+Christianized doctrine codified by Ficino or Pico. It must be noted that
+this play of philosophic thought only becomes marked after 1580, when
+the preparatory tunings of English literature are over.
+
+We may now quickly review the period down to 1580, in the departments of
+prose, verse and drama. It was a time which left few memorials of form.
+
+
+  Prose to 1580.
+
+Early modern English prose, as a medium of art, was of slow growth. For
+long there was alternate strife and union (ending in marriage) between
+the Latin, or more rhetorical, and the ancestral elements of the
+language, and this was true both of diction and of construction. We need
+to begin with the talk of actual life, as we find it in the hands of the
+more naif writers, in its idiom and gusto and unshapen power, to see how
+style gradually declared itself. In state letters and reports, in the
+recorded words of Elizabeth and Mary of Scotland and public men, in
+travels and memoirs, in Latimer, in the rude early versions of Cicero
+and Boethius, in the more unstudied speech of Ascham or Leland, the
+material lies. At the other extreme there are the English liturgy (1549,
+1552, 1559, with the final fusion of Anglican and Puritan eloquence),
+and the sermons of Fisher and Cranmer,--nearly the first examples of a
+sinuous, musical and Ciceronian cadence. A noble pattern for
+saga-narrative and lyrical prose was achieved in the successive versions
+(1526-1540-1568) of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, where a native
+simple diction of short and melodious clauses are prescribed by the
+matter itself. Prose, in fact, down to Shakespeare's time, was largely
+the work of the churchmen and translators, aided by the chroniclers.
+About the mid-century the stories, as well as the books of conduct and
+maxim, drawn from Italy and France, begin to thicken. Perverted symmetry
+of style is found in euphuistic hacks like Pettie. Painter's _Palace of
+Pleasure_ (1566) provided the plots of Bandello and others for the
+dramatists. Hoby's version (1561) of Castiglione's _Courtier_, with its
+command of elate and subtle English, is the most notable imported book
+between Berners's _Froissart_ (1523-1525) and North's _Plutarch_ (1579).
+Ascham's _Schoolmaster_ is the most typical English book of Renaissance
+culture, in its narrower sense, since _Utopia_. Holinshed's _Chronicle_
+(1577-1587) and the work of Halle, if pre-critical, were all the fitter
+to minister to Shakespeare.
+
+
+  Verse to 1580.
+
+The lyric impulse was fledged anew at the court of Henry VIII. The short
+lines and harping burdens of Sir Thomas Wyatt's songs show the revival,
+not only of a love-poetry more plangent than anything in English since
+Chaucer, but also of the long-deadened sense of metre. In Wyatt's
+sonnets, octaves, terzines and other Italian measures, we can watch the
+painful triumphant struggles of this noble old master out of the slough
+of formlessness in which verse had been left by Skelton. Wyatt's primary
+deed was his gradual rediscovery of the iambic decasyllabic line duly
+accented--the line that had been first discovered by Chaucer for
+England; and next came its building into sonnet and stanza. Wyatt (d.
+1542) ended with perfect formal accuracy; he has the honours of victory;
+and Henry Howard, earl of Surrey (d. 1547), a younger-hearted and more
+gracious but a lighter poet, carried on his labour, and caught some of
+Chaucer's as well as the Italian tunes. The blank verse of his two
+translated _Aeneids_, like all that written previous to Peele, gave
+little inkling of the latencies of the measure which was to become the
+cardinal one of English poetry. It was already the vogue in Italy for
+translations from the classics; and we may think of Surrey importing it
+like an uncut jewel and barely conscious of its value. His original
+poems, like those of Wyatt, waited for print till the eve of
+Elizabeth's reign, when they appeared, with those of followers like
+Grimoald, in Tottel's _Miscellany_ (1557), the first of many such
+garlands, and the outward proof of the poetical revival dating twenty
+years earlier. But this was a false dawn. Only one poem of authentic
+power, Sackville's _Induction_ (1563) to that dreary patriotic venture,
+_A Mirror for Magistrates_, was published for twenty years. In spirit
+medieval, this picture of the gates of hell and of the kings in bale
+achieves a new melody and a new intensity, and makes the coming of
+Spenser far less incredible. But poetry was long starved by the very
+ideal that nursed it--that of the all-sided, all-accomplished "courtier"
+or cavalier, to whom verse-making was but one of all the accomplishments
+that he must perfect, like fencing, or courting, or equestrian skill.
+Wyatt and Surrey, Sackville and Sidney (and we may add Hamlet, a true
+Elizabethan) are of this type. One of the first competent professional
+writers was George Gascoigne, whose remarks on metric, and whose blank
+verse satire, _The Steel Glass_ (1576), save the years between Sackville
+and Spenser. Otherwise the gap is filled by painful rhymesters with rare
+flashes, such as Googe, Churchyard and Turberville.
+
+
+  Drama to 1580.
+
+The English Renaissance drama, both comic and tragic, illustrates on the
+largest scale the characteristic power of the antique at this period--at
+first to reproduce itself in imitation, and then to generate something
+utterly different from itself, something that throws the antique to the
+winds. Out of the Morality, a sermon upon the certainty of death or the
+temptations of the soul, acted by personified qualities and supernatural
+creatures, had grown up, in the reign of Henry VII., the Interlude, a
+dialogue spoken by representative types or trades, who faintly recalled
+those in Chaucer's _Prologue_. These forms, which may be termed
+medieval, continued long and blended; sometimes heated, as in
+_Respublica_, with doctrine, and usually lightened by the comic play of
+a "Vice" or incarnation of sinister roguery. John Heywood was the chief
+maker of the pure interludes, and Bishop Bale of the Protestant medleys;
+his _King Johan_, a reformer's partisan tract in verse, contains the
+germs of the chronicle play. In the drama down to 1580 the native talent
+is sparse enough, but the historical interest is high. Out of a seeming
+welter of forms, the structure, the metres and the species that Kyd and
+Marlowe found slowly emerged. Comedy was first delivered from the
+interlude, and fashioned in essence as we know it, by the schoolmasters.
+Drawing on Plautus, they constructed duly-knitted plots, divided into
+acts and scenes and full of homely native fun, for their pupils to
+present. In _Thersites_ (written 1537), the oldest of these pieces, and
+in Udall's _Ralph Roister Doister_ (1552 at latest), the best known of
+them, the characters are lively, and indeed are almost individuals. In
+others, like _Misogonus_ (written 1560), the abstract element and
+improving purpose remain, and the source is partly neo-Latin comedy,
+native or foreign. Romance crept in: serious comedy, with its brilliant
+future, the comedy of high sentiment and averted dangers mingled still
+with farce, was shadowed forth in _Damon and Pithias_ and in the curious
+play _Common Conditions_; while the domestic comedy of intrigue dawned
+in Gascoigne's _Supposes_, adapted from Ariosto. Thus were displaced the
+ranker rustic fun of _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ (written c. 1559) and
+other labours of "rhyming mother-wits." But there was no style, no talk,
+no satisfactory metre. The verse of comedy waited for Greene, and its
+prose for Lyly. Structure, without style, was also the main achievement
+of the early tragedies. The Latin plays of Buchanan, sometimes biblical
+in topic, rest, as to their form, upon Euripides. But early English
+tragedy was shapen after the Senecan plays of Italy and after Seneca
+himself, all of whose dramas were translated by 1581. _Gorboduc, or
+Ferrex and Porrex_, acted about 1561, and written by Sackville and
+Norton, and Hughes' _Misfortunes of Arthur_ (acted 1588), are not so
+much plays as wraiths of plays, with their chain of slaughters and
+revenges, their two-dimensional personages, and their lifeless maxims
+which fail to sweeten the bloodshot atmosphere. The Senecan form was not
+barren in itself, as its sequel in France was to show: it was only
+barren for England. After Marlowe it was driven to the study, and was
+still written (possibly under the impulse of Mary countess of
+Pembroke), by Daniel and Greville, with much reminiscence of the French
+Senecans. But it left its trail on the real drama. It set the pattern of
+a high tragical action, often motived by revenge, swayed by large ideas
+of fate and retribution, and told in blank metre; and it bequeathed,
+besides many moral sentences, such minor points of mechanism as the
+Ghost, the Chorus and the inserted play. There were many hybrid forms
+like _Gismond of Salern_, based on foreign story, alloyed with the mere
+personifications of the Morality, and yet contriving, as in the case of
+_Promos and Cassandra_ (the foundation of _Measure for Measure_), to
+interest Shakespeare. Thus the drama by 1580 had some of its carpentry,
+though not yet a true style or versification. These were only to be won
+by escape from the classic tutelage. The ruder chronicle play also
+began, and the reigns of John and Henry V. amongst others were put upon
+the stage.
+
+
+  Spenser.
+
+_Verse from Spenser to Donne_.--Sir Philip Sidney almost shares with
+Edmund Spenser the honours of announcing the new verse, for part of his
+_Astrophel and Stella_ was written, if not known in unpublished form,
+about 1580-1581, and contains ten times the passion and poetry of _The
+Shepherd's Calendar_ (1579). This work, of which only a few passages
+have the seal of Spenser's coming power, was justly acclaimed for its
+novelty of experiment in many styles, pastoral, satiric and triumphal,
+and in many measures: though it was criticized for its "rustic" and
+archaic diction--a "no language" that was to have more influence upon
+poetry than any of the real dialects of England. Spenser's desire to
+write high tragedy, avowed in his _October_, was not to be granted; his
+nine comedies are lost; and he became the chief non-dramatic poet of his
+time and country. Both the plaintive pessimism of Petrarch and du
+Bellay, with their favourite method of emblem, and the Platonic theory
+of the spiritual love and its heavenly begetting sank into him; and the
+_Hymns To Love_ and _To Beauty_ are possibly his earliest verses of
+sustained perfection and exaltation. These two strains of feeling
+Spenser never lost and never harmonized; the first of them recurs in his
+_Complaints_ of 1591, above all in _The Ruins of Time_, the second in
+his _Amoretti_ (1595) and _Colin Clout_ and _Epithalamion_, which are
+autobiographical. These and a hundred other threads are woven into _The
+Faerie Queene_, an unfinished allegorical epic in honour of moral
+goodness, of which three books came out in 1590 and three more in 1596,
+while the fragment _Of Constancy_ (so-called) is first found in the
+posthumous folio of 1609. This poem is the fullest reflex, outside the
+drama, of the soul and aspirations of the time. For its scenery and
+mechanism the _Orlando Furioso_ of Ariosto furnishes the framework. In
+both poems tales of knightly adventure intertwine unconfused; in both
+the slaying of monsters, the capture of strong places, and the release
+of the innocent, hindered by wizard and sorcerer, or aided by magic
+sword and horn and mirror, constitute the quest; and in both warriors,
+ladies, dwarfs, dragons and figures from old mythology jostle dreamily
+together. To all this pomp Spenser strove to give a moral and often also
+a political meaning. Ariosto was not a _vates sacer_; and so Spenser
+took Tasso's theme of the holy war waged for the Sepulchre, and expanded
+it into a war between good and evil, as he saw them in the world;
+between chastity and lust, loyalty and detraction, England and Spain,
+England and Rome, Elizabeth and usurpers, Irish governor and Irish
+rebel, right and wrong. The title-virtues of his six extant books he
+affects to take from Aristotle; but Holiness, Temperance, Chastity,
+Justice, Friendship and Courtesy form a medley of medieval, puritanical
+and Greek ideals.
+
+Spenser's moral sentiments, often ethereally noble, might well be
+contrasted, and that not always to their credit, with those more secular
+and naturalistic ones that rule in Shakespeare or in Bernardino Telesio
+and Giordano Bruno. But _The Faerie Queene_ lives by its poetry; and its
+poetry lives independently of its creed. The idealized figures of
+Elizabeth, who is the Faerie Queene, and of the "magnificent" Prince
+Arthur, fail to bind the adventures together, and after two books the
+poem breaks down in structure. And indeed all through it relies on
+episode and pageant, on its prevailing and insuppressible loveliness of
+scene and tint, of phrasing and of melody, beside which the inner
+meaning is often an interruption. Spenser is not to be tired; in and out
+of his tapestry, with its "glooming light much like a shade," pace his
+figures on horseback, or in durance, with their clear and pictorial
+allegoric trappings; and they go either singly, or in his favourite
+masques or pageants, suggested by emblematical painting or civic
+procession. He is often duly praised for his lingering and liquid
+melodies and his gracious images, or blamed for their langour; but his
+ground-tone is a sombre melancholy--unlike that of Jaques--and his
+deepest quality as a writer is perhaps his angry power. Few of his forty
+and more thousand lines are unpoetical; in certainty of style amongst
+English poets who have written profusely, he has no equals but Chaucer,
+Milton and Shelley. His "artificial" diction, drawn from middle English,
+from dialect or from false analogy, has always the intention and nearly
+always the effect of beauty; we soon feel that its absence would be
+unnatural, and it has taken its rank among the habitual and exquisite
+implements of English poetry. This equality of noble form is Spenser's
+strength, as dilution and diffusion of phrase, and a certain monotonous
+slowness of _tempo_, are beyond doubt his weaknesses. His chief
+technical invention, the nine-line stanza (_ababbcbcC_) was developed
+not from the Italian octave (_abababcc_), but by adding an alexandrine
+to the eight-line stave (_ababbcbc_) of Chaucer's _Monk's Tale_. It is
+naturally articulated twice--at the fifth line, where the turn of
+repeated rhyme inevitably charms, and at the ninth, which runs now to a
+crashing climax, now to a pensive and sighing close. In rhyming,
+Spenser, if not always accurate, is one of the most natural and
+resourceful of poets. His power over the heroic couplet or quatrain is
+shown in his fable, _Mother Hubbard's Tale_, and in his curious verse
+memoir, _Colin Clout_; both of which are medleys of satire and flattery.
+With formal tasks so various and so hard, it is wonderful how effortless
+the style of Spenser remains. His _Muiopotmos_ is the lightest-handed of
+mock-heroics. No writer of his day except Marlowe was so faithful to the
+law of beauty.
+
+
+  Spenserians.
+
+The mantle of Spenser fell, somewhat in shreds, upon poets of many
+schools until the Restoration. As though in thanks to his master Tasso,
+he lent to Edward Fairfax, the best translator of the _Jerusalem
+Delivered_ (_Godfrey of Bulloigne_, 1600), some of his own ease and
+intricate melody. Harington, the witty translator of Ariosto (1591) and
+spoilt child of the court, owed less to Spenser. The allegorical
+colouring was nobly caught, if sometimes barbarized, in the _Christ's
+Victory and Triumph_ of the younger Giles Fletcher (1610), and Spenser's
+emblematic style was strained, even cracked, by Phineas Fletcher in _The
+Purple Island_ (1633), an aspiring fable, gorgeous in places, of the
+human body and faculties. Both of these brethren clipped and marred the
+stanza, but they form a link between Spenser and their student Milton.
+The allegoric form, long-winded and broken-backed, survived late in
+Henry More's and Joseph Beaumont's verse disquisitions on the soul.
+Spenser's pastoral and allusive manner was allowed by Drayton in his
+_Shepherd's Garland_ (1593), and differently by William Browne in
+_Britannia's Pastorals_ (1613-1616), and by William Basse; while his
+more honeyed descriptions took on a mawkish taste in the anonymous
+_Britain's Ida_ and similar poems. His golden Platonic style was
+buoyantly echoed in _Orchestra_ (1596), Sir John Davies' poem on the
+dancing spheres. He is continually traceable in 17th-century verse,
+blending with the alien currents of Ben Jonson and of Donne. He was
+edited and imitated in the age of Thomson, in the age of William Morris,
+and constantly between.
+
+
+  Drayton and Daniel.
+
+The typical Elizabethan poet is Michael Drayton; who followed Spenser in
+pastoral, Daniel, Sidney, Spenser and Shakespeare in sonnet, Daniel
+again in chronicle and legend, and Marlowe in mythological story, and
+who yet remained himself. His _Endimion and Phoebe_ in passages stands
+near _Hero and Leander_; his _England's Heroical Epistles_ (1597) are in
+ringing rhetorical couplets; his _Odes_ (1606), like the _Ballad of
+Agincourt_ and the _Virginian Voyage_, forestall and equal Cowper's or
+Campbell's; his _Nymphidia_ (1627) was the most popular of burlesque
+fairy poems; and his pastorals are full of graces and felicities. The
+work of Drayton that is least read and most often mentioned is his
+_Poly-Olbion_ (1612-1622), a vast and pious effort, now and then nobly
+repaid, to versify the scenery, legend, customs and particularities of
+every English county. The more recluse and pensive habit of Samuel
+Daniel chills his long chronicle poems; but with Chapman he is the
+clearest voice of Stoicism in Elizabethan letters; and his harmonious
+nature is perfectly expressed in a style of happy, even excellence, free
+alike from "fine madness" and from strain. Sonnet and epistle are his
+favoured forms, and in his _Musophilus_ (1599) as well as in his
+admirable prose _Defence of Rhyme_ (1602), he truly prophesies the hopes
+and glories of that _illustre vulgare_, the literary speech of England.
+All this patriotic and historic verse, like the earlier and ruder
+_Albion's England_ (1586) of William Warner, or Fitzgeoffrey's poem upon
+Drake, or the outbursts of Spenser, was written during or inspired by
+the last twenty years of the queen's reign; and the same is true of
+Shakespeare's and most of the other history plays, which duly eclipsed
+the formal, rusty-gray chronicle poem of the type of the _Mirror for
+Magistrates_, though editions (1559-1610) of the latter were long
+repeated. Patriotic verse outside the theatre, however, full of zeal,
+started at a disadvantage compared with love-sonnet, song, or mythic
+narrative, because it had no models before it in other lands, and
+remained therefore the more shapeless.
+
+
+  Sonnets.
+
+The English love-sonnet, brought in by Wyatt and rifest between 1590 and
+1600, was revived as a purely studious imitation by Watson in his
+_Hekatompathia_ (1582), a string of translations in one of the
+exceptional measures that were freely entitled "sonnets." But from the
+first, in the hands of Sidney, whose _Astrophel and Stella_ (1591) was
+written, as remarked above, about 1581, the sonnet was ever ready to
+pulse into feeling, and to flash into unborrowed beauty, embodying
+sometimes dramatic fancy and often living experience. These three fibres
+of imitation, imagination and confession are intertwisted beyond
+severance in many of the cycles, and now one, now another is uppermost.
+Incaution might read a personal diary into Thomas Lodge's _Phillis_
+(1593), which is often a translation from Ronsard. Literal judges have
+announced that Shakespeare's _Sonnets_ are but his mode of taking
+exercise. But there is poetry in "God's plenty" almost everywhere; and
+few of the series fail of lovely lines or phrasing or even of perfect
+sonnets. This holds of Henry Constable's _Diana_ (1592), of the
+_Parthenophil and Parthenophe_ of Barnabe Barnes (1593), inebriate with
+poetry, and of the stray minor groups, _Alcilia, Licia, Caelia_; while
+the _Caelica_ of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, in irregular form, is full
+of metaphysical passion struggling to be delivered. _Astrophel and
+Stella_, Drayton's _Idea_ (1594-1619), Spenser's _Amoretti_ and
+Shakespeare's _Sonnets_ (printed 1609) are addressed to definite and
+probably to known persons, and are charged with true poetic rage,
+ecstatic or plaintive, desperate or solemn, if they are also
+intermingled with the mere word-play that mocks or beguiles the ebb of
+feeling, or with the purely plastic work that is done for solace. In
+most of these series, as in Daniel's paler but exquisitely-wrought
+_Delia_ (1591-1592), the form is that of the three separate quatrains
+with the closing couplet for emotional and melodic climax; a scheme
+slowly but defiantly evolved, through traceable gradations, from that
+stricter one of Italy, which Drummond and Milton revived, and where the
+crisis properly coincides with the change from octave to sestet.
+
+
+  Mythic poems.
+
+The amorous mythologic tale in verse derives immediately from
+contemporary Italy, but in the beginning from Ovid, whose
+_Metamorphoses_, familiar in Golding's old version (1555-1557),
+furnished descriptions, decorations and many tales, while his _Heroides_
+gave Chaucer and Boccaccio a model for the self-anatomy of tragic or
+plaintive sentiment. Within ten years, between 1588 and 1598, during the
+early sonnet-vogue, appeared Lodge's _Scillaes Metamorphosis_,
+Shakespeare's _Venus and Adonis_ and _Rape of Lucrece_, Marlowe's _Hero
+and Leander_ and Drayton's _Endimion and Phoebe_. Shakespeare owed
+something to Lodge, and Drayton to Marlowe. All these points describe a
+love-situation at length, and save in one instance they describe it from
+without. The exception is Marlowe, who achieves a more than Sicilian
+perfection; he says everything, and is equal to everything that he has
+to say. In _Venus and Adonis_ the poet is enamoured less of love than of
+the tones and poses of lovers and of the beauty and gallant motion of
+animals, while in The _Rape of Lucrece_ he is intent on the gradations
+of lust, shame and indignation, in which he has a spectator's interest.
+Virtuosity, or the delight of the executant in his own brilliant
+cunning, is the mark of most of these pieces.
+
+
+  Lyric.
+
+If we go to the lyrics, the versified mythic tales and the sonnets of
+Elizabethan times for the kind of feeling that Moliere's Alceste loved
+and that Burns and Shelley poured into song, we shall often come away
+disappointed, and think the old poetry heartless. But it is not
+heartless, any more than it is always impassioned or personal; it is
+decorative. The feeling is often that of the craftsman; it is not of the
+singer who spends his vital essence in song and commands an answering
+thrill so long as his native language is alive or understood. The arts
+that deal with ivories or enamelling or silver suggest themselves while
+we watch the delighted tinting and chasing, the sense for gesture and
+grouping (in _Venus and Adonis_), or the delicate beating out of rhyme
+in a madrigal, or the designing of a single motive, or two contrasted
+motives, within the panel of the sonnet. And soon it is evident how
+passion and emotion readily become plastic matter too, whether they be
+drawn from books or observation or self-scrutiny. This is above all the
+case in the sonnet; but it is found in the lyric as well. The result is
+a wonderful fertility of lyrical pattern, a wonderfully diffused power
+of lyrical execution, never to recur at any later time of English
+literature. Wyatt had to recover the very form of such verse from
+oblivion, and this he did in the school of translation and adaptation.
+Not only the decasyllabic, but the lyric, in short lines had almost died
+out of memory, and Wyatt brought it back. From his day to Spenser's
+there is not much lyric that is noteworthy, though in Gascoigne and
+others the impulse is seen. The introduction of Italian music, with its
+favourite metrical schemes, such as the madrigal, powerfully schooled
+and coloured lyric: in especial, the caressing double ending, regular in
+Italian but heavier in English, became common. The Italian poems were
+often translated in their own measure, line by line, and the musical
+setting retained. Their tunes, or other tunes, were then coupled with
+new and original poems; and both appeared together in the song-books of
+Dowland the lutanist, of Jones and Byrd (1588), and in chief (1601-1619)
+of Thomas Campion. The words of Campion's songs are not only supremely
+musical in the wider sense, but are chosen for their singing quality.
+Misled awhile by the heresy that rhyme was wrong, he was yet a master of
+lovely rhyming, as well as of a lyrical style of great range, gaily or
+gravely happy. But, as with most of his fellows, singing is rather his
+calling than his consolation. The lyrics that are sprinkled in plays and
+romances are the finest of this period, and perhaps, in their kind, of
+any period. Shakespeare is the greatest in this province also; but the
+power of infallible and unforgettable song is often granted to slighter,
+gentler playwrights like Greene and Dekker, while it is denied to men of
+weightier build and sterner purpose like Chapman and Jonson. The songs
+of Jonson are indeed at their best of absolute and antique finish; but
+the irrevocable dew of night or dawn seldom lies upon them as it lies on
+the songs of Webster or of Fletcher. The best lyrics in the plays are
+dramatic; they must be read in their own setting. While the action
+stops, they seize and dally with the dominant emotion of the scene, and
+yet relieve it. The songs of Lodge and Breton, of Drayton and Daniel, of
+Oxford and Raleigh, and the fervid brief flights of the Jesuit
+Southwell, show the omnipresence of the vital gift, whether among
+professional writers of the journalistic type, or among poets whose gift
+was not primarily song, or among men of action and quality or men of
+religion, who only wrote when they were stirred. Lullaby and valentine
+and compliment, and love-plaint ranging from gallantry to desperation,
+are all there: and the Fortunate Hour, which visits commonly only a few
+men in a generation, and those but now and then in their lives, is never
+far off. But the master of melody, Spenser, left no songs, apart from
+his two insuperable wedding odes. And religious lyric is rarer before
+the reign of James. Much of the best lyric is saved for us by the
+various Miscellanies, _A Handful of Pleasant Delights_ (1584), the
+_Phoenix Nest_ (1593) and Davison's _Poetical Rhapsody_ (1602); while
+other such collections, like _England's Helicon_ (1600), were chiefly
+garlands of verse that was already in print.
+
+There is plenty of satiric anger and raillery in the spirit of the time,
+but the most genuine part of it is drawn off into drama. Except for
+stray passages in Spenser, Drayton and others, formal satire, though
+profuse, was a literary unreal thing, a pose in the manner of Persius or
+Juvenal, and tiresome in expression. In this kind only Donne triumphed.
+The attempts of Lodge and Hall and Marston and John Davies of Hereford
+and Guilpin and Wither are for the most part simply weariful in
+different ways, and satire waited for Dryden and his age. The attempt,
+however, persisted throughout. Wyatt was the first and last who
+succeeded in the genial, natural Horatian style.
+
+
+  Metaphysical or fantastic schools.
+
+_Verse from Donne to Milton_.--As the age of Elizabeth receded, some
+changes came slowly over non-dramatic verse. In Jonson, as in John Donne
+(1573-1631), one of the greater poets of the nation, and in many writers
+after Donne, may be traced a kind of Counter-Renaissance, or revulsion
+against the natural man and his claims to pleasure--a revulsion from
+which regret for pleasure lost is seldom far. Poetry becomes more
+ascetic and mystical, and this feeling takes shelter alike in the
+Anglican and in the Roman faith. George Herbert (_The Temple_, 1633),
+the most popular, quaint and pious of the school, but the least
+poetical; Crashaw, with his one ecstatic vision (_The Flaming Heart_)
+and occasional golden stanzas; Henry Vaughan, who wrote from 1646 to
+1678, with his mystical landscape and magical cadences; and Thomas
+Traherne, his fellow-dreamer, are the best known of the religious
+Fantastics. But, earlier than most of these are Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury, and Habington with his _Castara_ (1634), who show the same
+temper, if a fitful power and felicity. Such writers form the devouter
+section of the famous "metaphysical" or "fantastic" school, which
+includes, besides Donne its founder, pure amorists like Carew (whose
+touch on certain rhythms has no fellow), young academic followers like
+Cartwright and Cleveland (in whom survives the vein of satire that also
+marks the school), and Abraham Cowley, who wrote from 1633 to 1678, and
+was perhaps the most acceptable living poet about the middle of the
+century. In his _Life of Cowley_ Johnson tramples on the "metaphysical"
+poets and their vices, and he is generally right in detail. The shock of
+cold quaintness, which every one of them continually administers, is
+fatal. Johnson only erred in ignoring all their virtues and all their
+historical importance.
+
+In Donne poetry became deeply intellectualized, and in temper
+disquisitive and introspective. The poet's emotion is played with in a
+cat-and-mouse fashion, and he torments it subtly. Donne's passion is so
+real, if so unheard-of, and his brain so finely-dividing, that he can
+make almost any image, even the remotest, even the commonest, poetical.
+His satires, his _Valentine_, his _Litany_, and his lyric or odic pieces
+in general, have an insolent and sudden daring which is warranted by
+deep-seated power and is only equalled by a few of those tragedians who
+are his nearest of kin. The recurring contrast of "wit" or intelligence,
+and "will" or desire, their struggle, their mutual illumination, their
+fusion as into some third and undiscovered element of human nature, are
+but one idiosyncrasy of Donne's intricate soul, whose general progress,
+so far as his dateless poems permit of its discovery, seems to have been
+from a paganism that is unashamed but crossed with gusts of compunction,
+to a mystical and otherwordly temper alloyed with covetous regrets. The
+_Anatomy of the World_ and other ambitious pieces have the same quality
+amid their outrageous strangeness. In Donne and his successors the
+merely ingenious and ransacking intellect often came to overbalance
+truth and passion; and hence arose conceits and abstract verbiage, and
+the difficulty of finding a perfect poem, however brief, despite the
+omnipresence of the poetic gift. The "fantastic" school, if it contains
+some of the rarest sallies and passages in English, is one of the least
+satisfactory. Its faults only exaggerate those of Sidney, Greville and
+Shakespeare, who often misuse homely or technical metaphor; and English
+verse shared, by coincidence not by borrowing, and with variations of
+its own, in the general strain and torture of style that was besetting
+so many poets of the Latin countries. Yet these poets well earn the name
+of metaphysical, not for their philosophic phrasing, but for the
+shuttle-flight of their fancy to and fro between the things of earth and
+the realities of spirit that lie beyond the screen of the flesh.
+
+
+  Rhythm.
+
+Between Spenser and Milton many measures of lyrical and other poetry
+were modified. Donne's frequent use of roughly-accentual, almost
+tuneless lines is unexplained and was not often followed. Rhythm in
+general came to be studied more for its own sake, and the study was
+rewarded. The lovely cordial music of Carew's amorous iambics, or of
+Wither's trochees, or of Crashaw's odes, or of Marvell's octo-syllables,
+has never been regained. The formal ode set in, sometimes regularly
+"Pindaric" in strophe-grouping, sometimes irregularly "Pindaric" as in
+Cowley's experiments. Above all, the heroic couplet, of the isolated,
+balanced, rhetorical order, such as Spenser, Drayton, Fairfax and
+Sylvester, the translator (1590-1606) of Du Bartas, had often used,
+began to be a regular instrument of verse, and that for special purposes
+which soon became lastingly associated with it. The flatteries of Edmund
+Waller and the Ovidian translations of Sandys dispute the priority for
+smoothness and finish, though the fame was Waller's for two generations;
+but Denham's overestimated _Cooper's Hill_ (1642), Cowley's _Davideis_
+(1656), and even Ogilby's _Aeneid_ made the path plainer for Dryden, the
+first sovereign of the rhetorical couplet which throve as blank verse
+declined. Sonnet and madrigal were the favoured measures of William
+Drummond of Hawthornden, a real and exquisite poet of the studio, who
+shows the general drift of verse towards sequestered and religious
+feeling. Drummond's _Poems_ of 1616 and _Flowers of Zion_ (1623) are
+full of Petrarch and Plato as well as of Christian resignation, and he
+kept alive the artistry of phrasing and versification in a time of
+indiscipline and conflicting forms. William Browne has been named as a
+Spenserian, but his _Britannia's_ Pastorals (1613-1616), with their
+slowly-rippling and overflowing couplets which influenced Keats, were a
+medley of a novel kind. George Wither may equally rank among the lighter
+followers of Spenser, the easy masters of lyrical narrative, and the
+devotional poets. But his _Shepherd's Hunting_ and other pieces in his
+volume of 1622 contain lovely landscapes, partly English and partly
+artificial, and stand far above his pious works, and still further above
+the dreary satires which he lived to continue after the Restoration.
+
+
+  Herrick.
+
+  The long poem.
+
+Of poets yet unmentioned, Robert Herrick is the chief, with his two
+thousand lyrics and epigrams, gathered in _Hesperides_ and _Noble
+Numbers_ (1648). His power of song and sureness of cadence are not
+excelled within his range of topic, which includes flowers and
+maidens--whom he treats as creatures of the same race--and the swift
+decay of both their beauties, and secular regret over this decay and his
+own mortality and the transience of amorous pleasure, and the virtues of
+his friends, and country sports and lore, and religious compunction for
+his own paganism. The _Hesperides_ are pure Renaissance work, in natural
+sympathy with the Roman elegiac writings and with the Pseudo-Anacreon.
+Cowley is best where he is nearest Herrick, and his posy of short lyrics
+outlives his "epic and Pindaric art." There are many writers who last by
+virtue of one or two poems; Suckling by his adept playfulness, Lovelace
+and Montrose by a few gallant stanzas, and many a nameless poet by many
+a consummate cadence. It is the age of sudden flights and brief
+perfections. All the farther out of reach, yet never wholly despaired of
+or unattempted in England, was the "long poem," heroical and noble, the
+"phantom epic," that shadow of the ancient masterpieces, which had
+striven to life in Italy and France. Davenant's _Gondibert_ (1651),
+Cowley's _Davideis_ and Chamberlayne's _Pharonnida_ (1659) attest the
+effort which Milton in 1658 resumed with triumph. These works have
+between them all the vices possible to epic verse, dulness and flatness,
+faintness and quaintness and incoherence. But there is some poetry in
+each of them, and in _Pharonnida_ there is far more than enough poetry
+to save it.
+
+
+  Milton.
+
+Few writers have found a flawless style of their own so early in life as
+John Milton (1608-1674). His youthful pieces show some signs of Spenser
+and the Caroline fantastics; but soon his vast poetical reading ran
+clear and lay at the service of his talent. His vision and phrasing of
+natural things were already original in the _Nativity Ode_, written when
+he was twenty; and, there also, his versification was already that of a
+master, of a renovator. The pensive and figured beauty of _L'Allegro_
+and _Il Penseroso_, two contrasted emblematic panels, the high innocent
+Platonism and golden blank verse of the _Comus_ (1634); the birth of
+long-sleeping power in the _Lycidas_ (1637), with its unapproached
+contrivance both in evolution and detail, where the precious essences of
+earlier myth and pastoral seem to be distilled for an offering in honour
+of the tombless friend;--the newness, the promise, the sureness of it
+all amid the current schools! The historian finds in these poems, with
+their echoes of Plato and Sannazzaro, of Geoffrey of Monmouth and St
+John, the richest and most perfect instance of the studious, decorative
+Renaissance style, and is not surprised to find Milton's scholars a
+century later in the age of Gray. The critic, while feeling that the
+strictly lyrical, spontaneous element is absent, is all the more baffled
+by the skill and enduring charm. The sonnets were written before or
+during Milton's long immersion (1637-1658) in prose and warfare, and
+show the same gifts. They are not cast in the traditional form of
+love-cycle, but are occasional poems; in metre they revert, not always
+strictly but once or twice in full perfection, to the Italian scheme;
+and they recall not Petrarch but the spiritual elegies or patriot
+exaltations of Dante or Guidiccioni.
+
+Milton also had a medieval side to his brain, as the _History of
+Britain_ shows. The heroic theme, which he had resolved from his youth
+up to celebrate, at last, after many hesitations, proved to be the fall
+of man. This, for one of his creed and for the audience he desired, was
+the greatest theme of all. Its scene was the Ptolemaic universe with the
+Christian heaven and hell inserted. The time, indicated by retrospect
+and prophecy, was the whole of that portion of eternity, from the
+creation of Christ to the doomsday, of which the history was sacredly
+revealed. The subject and the general span of the action went back to
+the popular mystery play; and Milton at first planned out _Paradise
+Lost_ as such a play, with certain elements of classic tragedy embodied.
+But according to the current theory the epic, not the drama, was the
+noblest form of verse; and, feeling where his power lay, he adopted the
+epic. The subject, therefore, was partly medieval, partly
+Protestant,--for Milton was a true Protestant in having a variant of
+doctrine shared by no other mortal. But the ordering and presentment,
+with their overture, their interpolated episodes or narratives, their
+journeys between Olympus, Earth and hell, invocations, set similes,
+battles and divine thunderbolts, are those of the classical epic. Had
+Milton shared the free thought as well as the scholarship of the
+Renaissance, the poem could never have existed. With all his range of
+soul and skill, he had a narrower speculative brain than any poet of
+equal gift; and this was well for his great and peculiar task. But
+whatever Milton may fail to be, his heroic writing is the permanent and
+absolute expression of something that in the English stock is
+inveterate--the Promethean self-possession of the mind in defeat, its
+right to solitude there, its claim to judge and deny the victor. This is
+the spirit of his devils, beside whom his divinities, his unfallen
+angels (Abdiel excepted), and even his human couple with their radiance
+and beauty of line, all seem shadowy. The discord between Milton's
+doctrine and his sympathies in _Paradise Lost_ (1667) has never escaped
+notice. The discord between his doctrine and his culture comes out in
+_Paradise Regained_ (1671), when he has at once to reprobate and
+glorify Athens, the "mother of arts." In this afterthought to the
+earlier epic the action is slight, the Enemy has lost spirit, and the
+Christ is something of a pedagogue. But there is a new charm in its
+even, grey desert tint, sprinkled with illuminations of gold and luxury.
+In _Samson Agonistes_ (1671) the ethical treatment as well as the
+machinery is Sophoclean, and the theology not wholly Christian. But the
+fault of Samson is forgotten in his suffering, which is Milton's own;
+and thus a cross-current of sympathy is set up, which may not be much in
+keeping with the story, but revives the somewhat exhausted interest and
+heightens a few passages into a bare and inaccessible grandeur.
+
+The essential solitude of Milton's energies is best seen in his later
+style and versification. When he resumed poetry about 1658, he had
+nothing around him to help him as an artist in heroic language. The most
+recent memories of the drama were also the worst; the forms of Cowley
+and Davenant, the would-be epic poets, were impossible. Spenser's manner
+was too even and fluid as a rule for such a purpose, and his power was
+of an alien kind. Thus Milton went back, doubtless full of Greek and
+Latin memories, to Marlowe, Shakespeare and others among the greater
+dramatists (including John Ford); and their tragic diction and measure
+are the half-hidden bases of his own. The product, however, is unlike
+anything except the imitations of itself. The incongruous elements of
+the _Paradise Lost_ and its divided sympathies are cemented, at least
+superficially, by its style, perhaps the surest for dignity, character
+and beauty that any Germanic language has yet developed. If dull and
+pedantic over certain stretches, it is usually infallible. It is many
+styles in one, and Time has laid no hand on it. In these three later
+poems its variety can be seen. It is perfect in personal invocation and
+appeal; in the complex but unfigured rhetoric of the speeches; in
+narrative of all kinds; for the inlaying work of simile or scenery or
+pageant, where the quick, pure impressions of Milton's youth and
+prime--possibly kept fresher by his blindness--are felt through the
+sometimes conventional setting; and for soliloquy and choric speech of a
+might unapproachable since Dante. To these calls his blank verse
+responds at every point. It is the seal of Milton's artistry, as of his
+self-confidence, for it greatly extends, for the epical purpose, all the
+known powers and liberties of the metre; and yet, as has often been
+shown, it does so not spasmodically but within fixed technical laws or
+rather habits. Latterly, the underlying metrical _ictus_ is at times
+hard to detect. But Milton remains by far the surest and greatest
+instrumentalist, outside the drama, on the English unrhymed line. He
+would, however, have scorned to be judged on his form alone. His soul
+and temper are not merely unique in force. Their historic and
+representative character ensure attention, so long as the oppositions of
+soul and temper in the England of Milton's time remain, as they still
+are, the deepest in the national life. He is sometimes said to harmonize
+the Renaissance and the Puritan spirit; but he does not do this, for
+nothing can do it. The Puritan spirit is the deep thing in Milton; all
+his culture only gives immortal form to its expression. The critics have
+instinctively felt that this is true; and that is why their political
+and religious prepossessions have nearly always coloured, and perhaps
+must colour, every judgment passed upon him. Not otherwise can he be
+taken seriously, until historians are without public passions and
+convictions, or the strife between the hierarch and the Protestant is
+quenched in English civilization.
+
+
+  Drama.
+
+_Drama, 1580-1642_.--We must now go back to the drama, which lies behind
+Milton, and is the most individual product of all English Literature.
+The nascent drama of genius can be found in the "University wits," who
+flourished between 1580 and 1595, and the chief of whom are Lyly, Kyd,
+Peele, Greene and Marlowe. John Lyly is the first practitioner in
+prose--of shapely comic plot and pointed talk--the artificial but actual
+talk of courtly masquers who rally one another with a bright and barren
+finish that is second nature. _Campaspe_, _Sapho and Phao_, _Midas_, and
+Lyly's other comedies, mostly written from 1580 to 1591, are frail
+vessels, often filled with compliment, mythological allegory, or topical
+satire, and enamelled with pastoral interlude and flower-like song. The
+work of Thomas Kyd, especially _The Spanish Tragedy_ (written c. 1585),
+was the most violent effort to put new wine into the old Senecan
+bottles, and he probably wrote the lost pre-Shakespearian _Hamlet_. He
+transmitted to the later drama that subject of pious but ruinous
+revenge, which is used by Chapman, Marston, Webster and many others; and
+his chief play was translated and long acted in Germany. Kyd's want of
+modulation is complete, but he commands a substantial skill of dramatic
+mechanism, and he has more than the feeling for power, just as Peele and
+Greene have more than the feeling for luxury or grace. To the expression
+of luxury Peele's often stately blank verse is well fitted, and it is by
+far the most correct and musical before Marlowe's, as his _Arraignment
+of Paris_ (1584) and his _David and Bethsabe_ attest. Greene did
+something to create the blank verse of gentle comedy, and to introduce
+the tone of idyll and chivalry, in his _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_
+(1594). Otherwise these writers, with Nashe and Lodge, fall into the
+wake of Marlowe.
+
+
+  Marlowe.
+
+_Tamburlaine_, in two parts (part i. c. 1587), _The Life and Death of
+Doctor Faustus_, _The Jew of Malta_, _Edward II._ (the first chronicle
+play of genius), and the incomplete poem _Hero and Leander_ are
+Christopher Marlowe's title-deeds (1564-1593). He established tragedy,
+and inspired its master, and created for it an adequate diction and
+versification. His command of vibrant and heroic recitative should not
+obscure his power, in his greater passages, describing the descent of
+Helen, the passing of Mortimer, and the union of Hero and Leander, to
+attain a kind of Greek transparency and perfection. The thirst for ideal
+beauty, for endless empire, and for prohibited knowledge, no poet has
+better expressed, and in this respect Giordano Bruno is nearest him in
+his own time. This thirst is his own; his great cartoon-figures,
+gigantic rather than heroic, proclaim it for him: their type recurs
+through the drama, from Richard III. to Dryden's orotund heroes; but in
+_Faustus_ and in _Edward II._ they become real, almost human beings. His
+constructive gift is less developed in proportion, though Goethe praised
+the planning-out of _Faustus_. The glory and influence of Marlowe on the
+side of form rest largely on his meteoric blank lines, which are varied
+not a little, and nobly harmonized into periods, and resonant with names
+to the point of splendid extravagance; and their sound is heard in
+Milton, whom he taught how to express the grief and despair of demons
+dissatisfied with their kingdom. Shakespeare did not excel Marlowe in
+Marlowe's own excellences, though he humanized Marlowe's Jew, launched
+his own blank verse on the tide of Marlowe's oratory, and modulated, in
+_Richard II._, his master's type of chronicle tragedy.
+
+
+  Shakespeare.
+
+  1590-1595.
+
+As the middle ages receded, the known life of man upon this earth became
+of sovereign interest, and of this interest the drama is the freest
+artistic expression. If Marlowe is the voice of the impulse to explore,
+the plays of Shakespeare are the amplest freight brought home by any
+voyager. Shakespeare is not only the greatest but the earliest English
+dramatist who took humanity for his province. But this he did not do
+from the beginning. He was at first subdued to what he worked in; and
+though the dry pedantic tragedy was shattered and could not touch him,
+the gore and rant, the impure though genuine force of Kyd do not seem at
+first to have repelled him; if, as is likely, he had a hand in _Titus
+Andronicus_. He probably served with Marlowe and others of the school at
+various stages in the composition of the three chronicle dramas finally
+entitled _Henry VI_. But besides the high-superlative style that is
+common to them all, there runs through them the rhymed rhetoric with
+which Shakespeare dallied for some time, as well as the softer
+flute-notes and deeper undersong that foretell his later blank verse. In
+_Richard III._, though it is built on the scheme and charged with the
+style of Marlowe, Shakespeare first showed the intensity of his original
+power. But after a few years he swept out of Marlowe's orbit into his
+own vaster and unreturning curve. In _King John_ the lyrical, epical,
+satirical and pathetic chords are all present, if they are scarcely
+harmonized. Meantime, Lyly and Greene having displaced the uncouther
+comedy, Shakespeare learned all they had to teach, and shaped the comedy
+of poetic, chivalrous fancy and good-tempered high spirits, which showed
+him the way of escape from his own rhetoric, and enabled him to perfect
+his youthful, noble and gentle blank verse. This attained its utmost
+fineness in _Richard II._, and its full cordiality and beauty in the
+other plays that consummate this period--_A Midsummer Night's Dream_,
+_The Merchant of Venice_, and one romantic tragedy, _Romeo and Juliet_.
+Behind them lay the earlier and fainter romances, with their chivalry
+and gaiety, _The Comedy of Errors_, _Love's Labour's Lost_ and _The Two
+Gentlemen of Verona_. Throughout these years blank verse contended with
+rhyme, which Shakespeare after a while abandoned save for special
+purposes, as though he had exhausted its honey. The Italian Renaissance
+is felt in the scenery and setting of these plays. The _novella_
+furnishes the story, which passes in a city of the Southern type, with
+its absolute ruler, its fantastic by-laws on which the plot nominally
+turns, and its mixture of real life and marvel. The personages, at first
+fainter of feature and symmetrically paired, soon assume sharper
+outline: Richard II. and Shylock, Portia and Juliet, and Juliet's Nurse
+and Bottom are created. The _novella_ has left the earth and taken
+wings: the spirit is now that of youth and Fancy (or love brooding among
+the shallows) with interludes of "fierce vexation," or of tragedy, or of
+kindly farce. And there is a visionary element, felt in the musings of
+Theseus upon the nature of poetry of the dream-faculty itself; an
+element which is new, like the use made of fairy folklore, in the poetry
+of England.
+
+
+  1596-1600.
+
+Tragedy is absent in the succeeding histories (1597-1599), and the
+comedies of wit and romance (1599-1600), in which Shakespeare perfected
+his style for stately, pensive or boisterous themes. Falstaff, the most
+popular as he is the wittiest of all imaginable comic persons,
+dominates, as to their prose or lower world, the two parts of _Henry
+IV._, and its interlude or offshoot, _The Merry Wives of Windsor_. The
+play that celebrates Henry V. is less a drama than a pageant,
+diversified with mighty orations and cheerful humours, and filled with
+the love of Shakespeare for England. Here the most indigenous form of
+art invented by the English Renaissance reaches its climax. The
+Histories are peopled chiefly by men and warriors, of whom Hotspur,
+"dying in his excellence and flower," is perhaps more attractive than
+Henry of Agincourt. But in the "middle comedies," _As You Like It_,
+_Much Ado_, and _Twelfth Night_, the warriors are home at court, where
+women rule the scene and deserve to rule it; for their wit now gives the
+note; and Shakespeare's prose, the medium of their talk, has a finer
+grace and humour than ever before, euphuism lying well in subjection
+behind it.
+
+
+  1601-1608.
+
+Mankind and this world have never been so sharply sifted or so sternly
+consoled, since Lucretius, as in Shakespeare's tragedies. The energy
+which created them evades, like that of the sun, our estimate. But they
+were not out of relation to their time, the first few years of the reign
+of James, with its conspiracies, its Somerset and Overbury horrors, its
+enigmatic and sombre figures like Raleigh, and its revulsion from
+Elizabethan buoyancy. In the same decade were written the chief
+tragedies of Jonson, Chapman, Dekker, Marston, Tourneur; and _The White
+Devil_, and _A Yorkshire Tragedy_, and _The Maid's Tragedy_, and _A
+Woman Killed with Kindness_. But, in spite of Shakespeare's affinities
+with these authors at many points, _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_, _Lear_,
+_Othello_, with the three Roman plays (written at intervals and not
+together), and the two quasi-antique plays _Troilus and Cressida_, and
+_Timon of Athens_, form a body of drama apart from anything else in the
+world. They reveal a new tragic philosophy, a new poetic style, a new
+dramatic technique and a new world of characters. In one way above all
+Shakespeare stands apart; he not only appropriates the ancient pattern
+of heroism, of right living and right dying, revealed by North's
+Plutarch; others did this also; but the intellectual movement of the
+time, though by no means fully reflected, is reflected in his tragedies
+far more than elsewhere. The new and troublous thoughts on man and
+conduct that were penetrating the general mind, the freedom and play of
+vision that Montaigne above all had stimulated, here find their fullest
+scope; and Florio's translation (1603) of Montaigne's Essays, coming out
+between the first and the second versions of Shakespeare's _Hamlet_,
+counted probably for more than any other book. The _Sonnets_ (published
+1609) are also full of far-wandering thoughts on truth and beauty and on
+good and evil. The story they reveal may be ranked with the situations
+of the stranger dramas like _Troilus_ and _Measure for Measure_. But
+whether or no it is a true story, and the Sonnets in the main a
+confession, they would be at the very worst a perfect dramatic record of
+a great poet's suffering and friendship.
+
+
+  Last period.
+
+Shakespeare's last period, that of his tragi-comedies, begins about 1608
+with his contributions to _Pericles, Prince of Tyre_. For unknown
+reasons he was moved, about the time of his retirement home, to record,
+as though in justice to the world, the happy turns by which tragic
+disaster is at times averted. _Pericles_, _The Winter's Tale_,
+_Cymbeline_, and _The Tempest_ all move, after a series of crimes,
+calumnies, or estrangements, to some final scene of enthralling beauty,
+where the lost reappear and love is recovered; as though after all the
+faint and desperate last partings--of Lear and Cordelia, of Hamlet and
+Horatio--which Shakespeare had imagined, he must make retrieval with the
+picture of young and happy creatures whose life renews hope even in the
+experienced. To this end he chose the loose action and free atmosphere
+of the _roman d'aventure_, which had already been adapted by Beaumont
+and Fletcher, who may herein have furnished Shakespeare with novel and
+successful theatrical effects, and who certainly in turn studied his
+handiwork. In _The Tempest_ this tragi-comic scheme is fitted to the
+tales brought by explorers of far isles, wild men, strange gods and airy
+music. Even if it be true that in Prospero's words the poet bids
+farewell to his magic, he took part later nevertheless in the
+composition of _Henry VIII._; and not improbably also in _The Two Noble
+Kinsmen_. His share in two early pieces, _Arden of Feversham_ (1592) and
+_Edward III._, has been urged, never established, and of many other
+dramas he was once idly accused.
+
+Shakespeare's throne rests on the foundation of three equal and master
+faculties. One is that of expression and versification; the next is the
+invention and presentation of human character in action; the third is
+the theatrical faculty. The writing of Dante may seem to us more
+steadily great and perfect, when we remember Shakespeare's conceits, his
+experiments, his haste and impatience in his long wrestle with tragic
+language, his not infrequent sheer infelicities. But Dante is always
+himself, he had not to find words for hundreds of imaginary persons.
+Balzac, again, may have created and exhibited as many types of mankind,
+but except in soul he is not a poet. Shakespeare is a supreme if not
+infallible poet; his verse, often of an antique simplicity or of a rich,
+harmonious, romantic perfection, is at other times strained and
+shattered with what it tries to express, and attains beauty only through
+discord. He is also many persons in one; in his _Sonnets_ he is even, it
+may be thought, himself. But he had furthermore to study a personality
+not of his own fancying--with something in it of Caliban, of Dogberry
+and of Cleopatra--that of the audience in a playhouse. He belongs
+distinctly to the poets like Jonson and Massinger who are true to their
+art as practical dramatists, not to the poets like Chapman whose works
+chance to be in the form of plays. Shakespeare's mastery of this art is
+approved now by every nation. But apart from the skill that makes him
+eternally actable--the skill of raising, straining and relieving the
+suspense, and bringing it to such an ending as the theatre will
+tolerate--he played upon every chord in his own hearers. He frankly
+enlisted Jew-hatred, Pope-hatred and France-hatred; he flattered the
+queen, and celebrated the Union, and stormed the house with his
+_fanfare_ over the national soldier, Henry of Agincourt, and glorified
+England, as in _Cymbeline_, to the last. But in deeper ways he is the
+chief of playwrights. Unlike another master, Ibsen, he nearly always
+tells us, without emphasis, by the words and behaviour of his
+characters, which of them we are to love and hate, and when we are to
+love and when to hate those whom we can neither love nor hate wholly.
+Yet he is not to be bribed, and deals to his characters something of the
+same injustice or rough justice that is found in real life. His loyalty
+to life, as well as to the stage, puts the crown on his felicity and his
+fertility, and raises him to his solitude of dramatic greatness.
+
+
+  Jonson.
+
+Shakespeare's method could not be imparted, and despite reverberations
+in Beaumont, Fletcher, Webster and others he left no school. But his
+friend Ben Jonson, his nearest equal in vigour of brain, though not in
+poetical intuition, was the greatest of dramatic influences down to the
+shutting of the theatres in 1642, and his comedies found fresh disciples
+even after 1660. He had "the devouring eye and the portraying hand"; he
+could master and order the contents of a mighty if somewhat burdensome
+memory into an organic drama, whether the matter lay in Roman historians
+or before his eyes in the London streets. He had an armoury of doctrine,
+drawn from the _Poetics_ and Horace, which moulded his creative
+practice. This was also partly founded on a revulsion against the plays
+around him, with their loose build and moral improbabilities. But in
+spite of his photographic and constructive power, his vision is too
+seldom free and genial; it is that of the satirist who thinks that his
+office is to improve mankind by derisively representing it. And he does
+this by beginning with the "humour," or abstract idiosyncrasy or
+quality, and clothing it with accurately minute costume and gesture, so
+that it may pass for a man; and indeed the result is as real as many a
+man, and in his best-tempered and youthful comedy, _Every Man in his
+Humour_ (acted 1598), it is very like life. In Jonson's monumental
+pieces, _Volpone or the Fox_ (acted 1605) and _The Alchemist_ (acted
+1610), our laughter is arrested by the lowering and portentous
+atmosphere, or is loud and hard, startled by the enormous skill and
+energy displayed. Nor are the joy and relief of poetical comedy given
+for an instant by _The Silent Woman_, _Bartholomew Fair_ (acted 1614),
+or _The Staple of News_, still less by topical plays like _Cynthia's
+Revels_, though their unfailing farce and rampant fun are less charged
+with contempt. The erudite tragedies, _Sejanus_ (acted 1603) and
+_Catiline_, chiefly live by passages of high forensic power. Jonson's
+finer elegies, eulogies and lyrics, which are many, and his fragmentary
+_Sad Shepherd_, show that he also had a free and lovely talent, often
+smothered by doctrine and temper; and his verse, usually strong but full
+of knots and snags, becomes flowing and graciously finished. His prose
+is of the best, especially in his _Discoveries_, a series of ethical
+essays and critical maxims; its prevalently brief and emphatic rhythms
+suggesting those of Hobbes, and even, though less easy and civil and
+various, those of Dryden. The "sons" of Jonson, Randolph and Browne,
+Shadwell and Wilson, were heirs rather to his riot of "humours," his
+learned method and satiric aim, than to his larger style, his
+architectural power, or his relieving graces.
+
+
+  Romantic drama.
+
+As a whole, the romantic drama (so to entitle the remaining bulk of
+plays down to 1642) is a vast stifled jungle, full of wild life and
+song, with strange growths and heady perfumes, with glades of sunshine
+and recesses of poisoned darkness; it is not a cleared forest, where
+single and splendid trees grow to shapely perfection. It has "poetry
+enough for anything"; passionate situations, and their eloquence; and a
+number, doubtless small considering its mass, of living and memorable
+personages. Moral keeping and constructive mastery are rarer still; and
+too seldom through a whole drama do we see human life and hear its
+voices, arranged and orchestrated by the artist. But it can be truly
+said in defence that while structure without poetry is void (as it
+tended at times to be in Ben Jonson), poetry without structure is still
+poetry, and that the romantic drama is like nothing else in this world
+for variety of accent and unexpectedness of beauty. We must read it
+through, as Charles Lamb did, to do it justice. The diffusion of its
+characteristic excellences is surprising. Of its extant plays it is
+hardly safe to leave one unopened, if we are searchers for whatsoever is
+lovely or admirable. The reasons for the lack of steadfast power and
+artistic conscience lay partly in the conditions of the stage.
+Playwrights usually wrote rapidly for bread, and sold their rights. The
+performances of each play were few. There was no authors' copyright, and
+dramas were made to be seen and heard, not to be read. There was no
+articulate dramatic criticism, except such as we find casually in
+Shakespeare, and in the practice and theory of Jonson, who was deaf or
+hostile to some of the chief virtues of the romantic playwrights.
+
+
+  Chapman.
+
+The wealth of dramatic production is so great that only a broad
+classification is here offered. George Chapman stands apart, nearest to
+the greatest in high austerity of sentiment and in the gracious gravity
+of his romantic love-comedies. But the crude melodrama of his tragedies
+is void of true theatrical skill. His quasi-historical French tragedies
+on Bussy d'Ambois and Biron and Chabot best show his gift and also his
+insufferable interrupting quaintness. His versions of Homer (1598-1624),
+honoured alike by Jonson and by Keats, are the greatest verse
+translations of the time, and the real work of Chapman's life. Their
+virtues are only partially Homer's, but the general epic nobility and
+the majesty of single lines, which in length are the near equivalent of
+the hexameter, redeem the want of Homer's limpidity and continuity and
+the translator's imperfect knowledge of Greek. A vein of satiric
+ruggedness unites Jonson and Chapman with Marston and Hall, the
+professors of an artificial and disgusting invective; and the same
+strain spoils Marston's plays, and obscures his genuine command of the
+language of feverish and bitter sentiment. With these writers satire and
+contempt of the world lie at the root both of their comedy and tragedy.
+
+
+  Dekker and Heywood.
+
+  Middleton and Webster.
+
+  Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+  Massinger.
+
+  The Many.
+
+It is otherwise with most of the romantic dramatists, who may be
+provisionally grouped as follows. (_a_) Thomas Dekker and Thomas Heywood
+are writers-of-all-work, the former profuse of tracts and pamphlets, the
+latter of treatises and compilations. They are both unrhetorical and
+void of pose, and divide themselves between the artless comedy of
+bustling, lively, English humours and pathetic, unheroic tragedy. But
+Dekker has splendid and poetical dreams, in _Old Fortunatus_ (1600) and
+_The Honest Whore_, both of luxury and of tenderness; while Heywood, as
+in his _English Traveller_ and _Woman killed with Kindness_ (acted
+1603), excels in pictures of actual, chivalrous English gentlemen and
+their generosities. The fertility and volubility of these writers, and
+their modest carelessness of fame, account for many of their
+imperfections. With them may be named the large crowd of professional
+journeymen, who did not want for power, but wrote usually in partnership
+together, like Munday, Chettle and Drayton, or supplied, like William
+Rowley, underplots of rough, lively comedy or tragedy. (_b_) Amongst
+dramatists of primarily tragic and sombre temper, who in their best
+scenes recall the creator of Angelo, Iago and Timon, must be named
+Thomas Middleton (1570?-1627), John Webster, and Cyril Tourneur.
+Middleton has great but scattered force, and his verse has the grip and
+ring of the best period without a sign of the decadence. He is strong in
+high comedy, like _The Old Law_, that turns on some exquisite point of
+honour--"the moral sense of our ancestors"; in comedy that is merely
+graphic and vigorous; and in detached sketches of lowering wickedness
+and lust, like those in _The Changeling_ and _Women beware Women_. He
+and Webster each created one unforgettable desperado, de Flores in _The
+Changeling_ and Bosola in _The Duchess of Malfi_ (whose "pity," when it
+came, was "nothing akin to him"). In Webster's other principal play,
+_Vittoria Corombona, or the White Devil_ (produced about 1616), the
+title-character is not less magnificent in defiant crime than Goneril or
+Lady Macbeth. The style of Webster, for all his mechanical horrors,
+distils the essences of pity and terror, of wrath and scorn, and is
+profoundly poetical; and his point of view seems to be blank fatalism,
+without Shakespeare's ever-arching rainbow of moral sympathy. Cyril
+Tourneur, in _The Revenger's Tragedy_, is even more of a poet than
+Webster; he can find the phrase for half-insane wrath and nightmare
+brooding, but his chaos of impieties revolts the artistic judgment.
+These specialists, when all is said, are great men in their dark
+province, (_c_) The playwrights who may be broadly called romantic, of
+whom Beaumont, Fletcher and Massinger are the chief, while they share in
+the same sombre vein, have a wider range and move more in the daylight.
+The three just named left a very large body of drama, tragic, comic and
+tragi-comic, in which their several shares can partly be discerned by
+metrical or other tests. Beaumont (d. 1616) is nearest the prime, with
+his vein of Cervantesque mockery and his pure, beautifully-broken and
+cadenced verse, which is seen in his contributions to Philaster and _The
+Maid's Tragedy_. Fletcher (d. 1625) brings us closest to the actual
+gaieties and humours of Jacobean life; he has a profuse comic gift and
+the rare instinct for natural dialogue. His verse, with its flood of
+vehement and expansive rhetoric, heard at its best in plays like
+_Bonduca_, cannot cheat us into the illusion that it is truly dramatic;
+but it overflows with beauty, like his silvery but monotonous
+versification with its endecasyllabics arrested at the end. In Fletcher
+the decadence of form and feeling palpably begins. His personages often
+face about at critical instants and bely their natures by sudden
+revulsions. Wanton and cheap characters invite not only dramatic but
+personal sympathy, as though the author knew no better. There is too
+much fine writing about a chastity which is complacent rather than
+instinctive, and satisfied with its formal resistances and technical
+escapes; so that we are far from Shakespeare's heroines. These faults
+are present also in Philip Massinger (d. 1640), who offers in
+substantial recompense, not like Beaumont and Fletcher treasures of
+incessant vivacious episode and poetry and lyric interlude, but an often
+splendid and usually solid constructive skill, and a steady eloquence
+which is like a high table-land without summits. _A New Way to Pay Old
+Debts_ (1632) is the most enduring popular comedy of the time outside
+Shakespeare's, and one of the best. Massinger's interweaving of
+impersonal or political conceptions, as in _The Bondman_ and _The Roman
+Actor_, is often a triumph of arrangement; and though he wrote in the
+reign of Charles, he is saved by many noble qualities from being merely
+an artist of the decline, (_d_) A mass of plays, of which the authorship
+is unknown, uncertain or attached to a mere name, baffle classification.
+There are domestic tragedies, such as _Arden of Feversham_; scions of
+the vindictive drama, like _The Second Maiden's Tragedy_; historic or
+half-historic tragedies like _Nero_. There are chronicle histories, of
+which the last and one of the best is Ford's _Perkin Warbeck_, and
+melodramas of adventure such as Thomas Heywood poured forth. There are
+realistic citizen comedies akin to _The Merry Wives_, like Porter's
+refreshing _Two Angry Women of Abingdon_; there are Jonsonian comedies,
+vernacular farces, light intrigue-pieces like Field's and many more. Few
+of these, regarded as wholes, come near to perfection; few fail of some
+sally or scene that proves once more the unmatched diffusion of the
+dramatic or poetic instinct. (_e_) Outside the regular drama there are
+many varieties: academic plays, like _The Return from Parnassus_ and
+_Lingua_, which are still mirthful; many pastoral plays or
+entertainments in the Italian style, like _The Faithful Shepherdess_;
+versified character-sketches, of which Day's _Parliament of Bees_, with
+its Theocritean grace and point, is the happiest; many masques and
+shows, often lyrically and scenically lovely, of which kind Jonson is
+the master, and Milton, in his _Comus_, the transfigurer; Senecan dramas
+made only to be read, like Daniel's and Fulke Greville's; and Latin
+comedies, like _Ignoramus_. All these species are only now being fully
+grouped, sifted and edited by scholars, but a number of the six or seven
+hundred dramas of the time remain unreprinted.
+
+
+  Ford and Shirley.
+
+There remain two writers, John Ford and James Shirley, who kept the
+higher tradition alive till the Puritan ordinance crushed the theatre in
+1642. Ford is another specialist, of grave, sinister and concentrated
+power (reflected in his verse and diction), to whom no topic, the incest
+of Annabella in _'Tis Pity She's a Whore_, or the high crazed heroism of
+Calantha in _The Broken Heart_, is beyond the pale, if only he can
+dominate it; as indeed he does, without complicity, standing above his
+subject. Shirley, a fertile writer, has the general characteristic
+gifts, in a somewhat dilute but noble form, of the more romantic
+playwrights, and claims honour as the last of them.
+
+_Prose from 1579 to 1660._--With all the unevenness of poetry, the sense
+of style, of a standard, is everywhere; felicity is never far off. Prose
+also is full of genius, but it is more disfigured than verse by
+aberration and wasted power. A central, classic, durable, adaptive prose
+had been attained by Machiavelli, and by Amyot and Calvin, before 1550.
+In England it was only to become distinct after 1660. Vocabulary,
+sentence-structure, paragraph, idiom and rhythm were in a state of
+unchartered freedom, and the history of their crystallization is not yet
+written. But in more than compensation there is a company of prose
+masters, from Florio and Hooker to Milton and Clarendon, not one of whom
+clearly or fully anticipates the modern style, and who claim all the
+closer study that their special virtues have been for ever lost. They
+seem farther away from us than the poets around them. The verse of
+Shakespeare is near to us, for its tradition has persisted; his prose,
+the most natural and noble of his age, is far away, for its tradition
+has not persisted. One reason of this difference is that English prose
+tried to do more work than that of France and Italy; it tried the work
+of poetry; and it often did that better than it did the normal work of
+prose. This overflow of the imaginative spirit gave power and elasticity
+to prose, but made its task of finding equilibrium the harder. Moreover,
+prose in England was for long a natural growth, never much affected by
+critical or academic canons as in France; and when it did submit to
+canons, the result was often merely manner. The tendons and sinews of
+the language, still in its adolescent power and bewilderment, were long
+unset; that is, the parts of speech--noun and verb, epithet and
+adverb--were in freer interchange than at any period afterwards. The
+build, length and cadence of a complex sentence were habitually
+elaborate; and yet they were disorganized, so that only the ear of a
+master could regulate them. The law of taste and measure, perhaps
+through some national disability, was long unperceived. Prose, in fact,
+could never be sure of doing the day's work in the right fashion. The
+cross-currents of pedantry in the midst of simplicity, the distrust of
+clear plain brevity, which was apt to be affected when it came, the
+mimicries of foreign fashions, and the quaintness and cumbrousness of so
+much average writing, make it easier to classify Renaissance prose by
+its interests than by its styles.
+
+
+  The novel.
+
+  Lyly and euphuism.
+
+The Elizabethan novel was always unhappily mannered, and is therefore
+dead. It fed the drama, which devoured it. The tales of Boccaccio,
+Bandello, Cinthio, Margaret of Navarre, and others were purveyed, as
+remarked above, in the forgotten treasuries of Painter, Pettie, Fenton
+and Whetstone, and many of these works or their originals filled a shelf
+in the playwrights' libraries. The first of famous English novels,
+Lyly's _Euphues_ (1578), and its sequel _Euphues and his England_, are
+documents of form. They are commended by a certain dapper shrewdness of
+observation and an almost witty priggery, not by any real beauty or deep
+feeling. Euphuism, of which Lyly was only the patentee, not the
+inventor, strikes partly back to the Spaniard Guevara, and was a model
+for some years to many followers like Lodge and Greene. It did not
+merely provide Falstaff with a pattern for mock-moral diction and
+vegetable similes. It genuinely helped to organize the English sentence,
+complex or co-ordinate, and the talk of Portia and Rosalind shows what
+could be made of it. By the arch-euphuists, clauses and clusters of
+clauses were paired for parallel or contrast, with the beat of emphatic
+alliteration on the corresponding parts of speech in each constituent
+clause. This was a useful discipline for prose in its period of groping.
+Sidney's incomposite and unfinished _Arcadia_, written 1580-1581,
+despite its painful forced antitheses, is sprinkled with lovely rhythms,
+with pleasing formal landscapes, and even with impassioned sentiment and
+situation, through which the writer's eager and fretted spirit shines.
+Both these stories, like those of Greene and Lodge, show by their
+somewhat affected, edited delineation of life and their courtly tone
+that they were meant in chief for the eyes of ladies, who were excluded
+alike from the stage and from its audience. Nashe's drastic and
+photographic tale of masculine life, _Jack Wilton, or The Unfortunate
+Traveller_, stands almost alone, but some of the gap is filled by the
+contemporary pamphlets, sometimes vivid, often full of fierce or maudlin
+declamation, of Nashe himself--by far the most powerful of the
+group--and of Greene, Dekker and Nicholas Breton. Thus the English novel
+was a minor passing form; the leisurely and amorous romance went on in
+the next century, owing largely to French influence and example.
+
+
+  Criticism.
+
+In criticism, England may almost be counted with the minor Latin
+countries. Sidney, in his _Defence of Poesy_ (1595, written about 1580),
+and Jonson, in his _Discoveries_, offer a well-inspired and lofty
+restatement of the current answers to the current questions, but could
+give no account of the actual creative writing of the time. To defend
+the "truth" of poetry--which was identified with all inventive writing
+and not only with verse--poetry was saddled with the work of science and
+instruction. To defend its character it was treated as a delightful but
+deliberate bait to good behaviour, a theory at best only true of
+allegory and didactic verse. The real relation of tragedy to spiritual
+things, which is admittedly shown, however hard its definition, in
+Shakespeare's plays, no critic for centuries tried to fathom. One of the
+chief quarrels turned on metric. A few lines that Sidney and Campion
+wrote on what they thought the system of Latin quantity are really
+musical. This theory, already raised by Ascham, made a stir, at first in
+the group of Harvey, Sidney, Dyer and Spenser, called the "Areopagus,"
+an informal attempt to copy the Italian academies; and it was revived on
+the brink of the reign of James. But Daniel's firm and eloquent _Defence
+of Rhyming_ (1602) was not needed to persuade the poets to continue
+rhyming in syllabic verse. The stricter view of the nature and
+classification of poetry, and of the dramatic unity of action, is
+concisely given, partly by Jonson, partly by Bacon in his _Advancement
+of Learning_ and _De Augmentis_; and Jonson, besides passing his famed
+judgments on Shakespeare and Bacon, enriched our critical vocabulary
+from the Roman rhetoricians. Scholastic and sensible manuals, like
+Webbe's _Discourse of Poetry_ and the _Art of English Poesy_ (1589)
+ascribed to Puttenham, come in the rear.
+
+
+  Translators.
+
+The translators count for more than the critics; the line of their great
+achievements from Berners' _Froissart_ (1523-1525) to Urquhart's
+_Rabelais_ (1653) is never broken long; and though their lives are often
+obscure, their number witnesses to that far-spread diffusion of the
+talent for English prose, which the wealth of English poetry is apt to
+hide. The typical craftsman in this field, Philemon Holland, translated
+Livy, Pliny, Suetonius, Plutarch's _Morals_ and Camden's _Britannia_,
+and his fount of English is of the amplest and purest. North, in his
+translation, made from Amyot's classic French, of Plutarch's _Lives_
+(1579), disclosed one of the master-works of old example; Florio, in
+Montaigne's _Essays_ (1603), the charter of the new freedom of mental
+exploration; and Shelton, in _Don Quixote_ (1612), the chief tragi-comic
+creation of continental prose. These versions, if by no means accurate
+in the letter, were adequate in point of soul and style to their great
+originals; and the English dress of Tacitus (1591), Apuleius,
+Heliodorus, Commines, _Celestina_ and many others, is so good and often
+so sumptuous a fabric, that no single class of prose authors, from the
+time of More to that of Dryden, excels the prose translators, unless it
+be the Anglican preachers. Their matter is given to them, and with it a
+certain standard of form, so that their natural strength and richness of
+phrase are controlled without being deadened. But the want of such
+control is seen in the many pamphleteers, who are the journalists of the
+time, and are often also playwrights or tale-tellers, divines or
+politicians. The writings, for instance, of the hectic, satiric and
+graphic Thomas Nashe, run at one extreme into fiction, and at the other
+into the virulent rag-sheets of the Marprelate controversy, which is of
+historical and social but not of artistic note, being only a fragment
+of that vast mass of disputatious literature, which now seems grotesque,
+excitable or dull.
+
+
+  Hooker.
+
+Richard Hooker's _Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_ (1594-1597), an
+accepted defence of the Anglican position against Geneva and Rome, is
+the first theological work of note in the English tongue, and the first
+of note since Wycliffe written by an Englishman. It is a plea for reason
+as one of the safe and lawful guides to the faith; but it also speaks
+with admirable temper and large feeling to the ceremonial and aesthetic
+sense. The First Book, the scaffolding of the treatise, discusses the
+nature of law at large; but Hooker hardly has pure speculative power,
+and the language had not yet learnt to move easily in abstract trains of
+thought. In its elaboration of clause and period, in its delicate
+resonant eloquence, Hooker's style is Ciceronian; but his inversions and
+mazes of subordinate sentence somewhat rack the genius of English. Later
+divines like Jeremy Taylor had to disintegrate, since they could not
+wield, this admirable but over-complex eloquence. The sermons
+(1621-1631) of Donne have the mingled strangeness and intimacy of his
+verse, and their subtle flame, imaginative tenacity, and hold upon the
+springs of awe make them unique. Though without artificial symmetry,
+their sentences are intricately harmonized, in strong contrast to such
+pellet-like clauses as those of the learned Lancelot Andrewes, who was
+Donne's younger contemporary and the subject of Milton's Latin epitaph.
+
+
+  Bacon.
+
+With Francis Bacon (1561-1626) English philosophy began its unbroken
+course and took its long-delayed rank in Europe. His prose, of which he
+is the first high and various master in English, was shaped and coloured
+by his bent as orator and pleader, by his immixture in affairs, by his
+speculative brain, and by his use and estimate of Latin. In his
+conscious craftsmanship, his intellectual confidence and curiosity, his
+divining faith in the future of science, and his resolve to follow the
+leadings of nature and experience unswervingly; in his habit of storing
+and using up his experience, and in his wide wordly insight,
+crystallized in maxim, he suggests a kind of Goethe, without the poetic
+hand or the capacity for love and lofty suffering. He saw all nature in
+a map, and wished to understand and control her by outwitting the
+"idols," or inherent paralysing frailties of the human judgment. He
+planned but could not finish a great cycle of books in order to realize
+this conception. The _De Augmentis Scientiarum_ (1623) expanded from the
+English _Advancement of Knowledge_ (1605) draws the map; the _Novum
+Organum_ (1620) sets out the errors of scholasticism and the methods of
+inductive logic; the _New Atlantis_ sketches an ideally equipped and
+moralized scientific community. Bacon shared with the great minds of his
+century the notion that Latin would outlast any vernacular tongue, and
+committed his chief scientific writings to a Latin which is alive and
+splendid and his own, and which also disciplined and ennobled his
+English. The _Essays_ (1597, 1612, 1625) are his lifelong, gradually
+accumulated diary of his opinions on human life and business. These
+famous compositions are often sadly mechanical. They are chippings and
+basketings of maxims and quotations, and of anecdotes, often classical,
+put together inductively, or rather by "simple enumeration" of the pros
+and cons. Still they are the honest notes of a practical observer and
+statesman, disenchanted--why not?--with mankind, concerned with cause
+and effect rather than with right and wrong, wanting the finer faith and
+insight into men and women, but full of reality, touched with
+melancholy, and redeeming some arid, small and pretentious counsels by
+many that are large and wise. Though sometimes betraying the workshop,
+Bacon's style, at its best, is infallibly expressive; like Milton's
+angels, it is "dilated or condensed" according to its purposes. In youth
+and age alike, Bacon commanded the most opposite patterns and extremes
+of prose--the curt maxim, balanced in antithesis or triplet, or standing
+solitary; the sumptuous, satisfying and brocaded period; the movements
+of exposition, oratory, pleading and narrative. The _History of Henry
+VII._ (1622), written after his fall from office, is in form as well as
+insight and mastery of material the one historical classic in English
+before Clarendon. Bacon's musical sense for the value and placing of
+splendid words and proper names resembles Marlowe's. But the master of
+mid-Renaissance prose is Shakespeare; with him it becomes the voice of
+finer and more impassioned spirits than Bacon's--the voice of Rosalind
+and Hamlet. And the eulogist of both men, Ben Jonson, must be named in
+their company for his senatorial weight and dignity of ethical counsel
+and critical maxim.
+
+
+  Hobbes.
+
+  Funereal prose.
+
+As the Stuart rule declined and fell, prose became enriched from five
+chief sources: from philosophy, whether formal or unmethodical; from
+theology and preaching and political dispute; from the poetical
+contemplation of death; from the observation of men and manners; and
+from antiquarian scholarship and history. As in France, where the first
+three of these kinds of writings flourished, it was a time rather of
+individual great writers than of any admitted pattern or common ideal of
+prose form, although in France this pattern was always clearlier
+defined. The mental energy, meditative depth, and throbbing brilliant
+colour of the English drama passed with its decay over into prose. But
+Latin was still often the supplanter: the treatise of Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury, _De Veritate_, of note in the early history of Deism, and much
+of the writing of the ambidextrous Thomas Hobbes, are in Latin. In this
+way Latin disciplined English once more, though it often tempted men of
+genius away from English. _The Leviathan_ (1651) with its companion
+books on _Human Nature_ and _Liberty_, and Hobbes' explosive dialogue on
+the civil wars, _Behemoth_ (1679), have the bitter concision of Tacitus
+and the clearness of a half-relief in bronze. Hobbes' speculations on
+the human animal, the social contract, the absolute power of the
+sovereign, and the subservience owed to the sovereign by the Church or
+"Kingdom of Darkness," enraged all parties, and left their track on the
+thought and controversial literature of the century. With Ben Jonson and
+the jurist Selden (whose English can be judged from his _Table Talk_),
+Hobbes anticipates the brief and clear sentence-structure of the next
+age, though not its social ease and amenity of form. But his grandeur is
+not that of a poet, and the poetical prose is the most distinctive kind
+of this period. It is eloquent above all on death and the vanity of
+human affairs; its solemn tenor prolongs the reflections of Claudio, of
+Fletcher's Philaster, or of Spenser's Despair. It is exemplified in
+Bacon's Essay _Of Death_, in the anonymous descant on the same subject
+wrongly once ascribed to him, in Donne's plea for suicide, in Raleigh's
+_History of the World_, in Drummond's _Cypress Grove_ (1623), in Jeremy
+Taylor's sermons and _Holy Dying_ (1651), and in Sir Thomas Browne's
+_Urn-Burial_ (1658) and _Letter to a Friend_. Its usual vesture is a
+long purple period, freely Latinized, though Browne equally commands the
+form of solemn and monumental epigram. He is also free from the
+dejection that wraps round the other writers on the subject, and a holy
+quaintness and gusto relieve his ruminations. The _Religio Medici_
+(1642), quintessentially learned, wise and splendid, is the fullest
+memorial of his power. Amongst modern prose writers, De Quincey is his
+only true rival in musical sensibility to words.
+
+
+  Jeremy Taylor.
+
+  Burton.
+
+Jeremy Taylor, the last great English casuist and schoolman, and one of
+the first pleaders for religious tolerance (in his _Liberty of
+Prophesying_, 1647), is above all a preacher; tender, intricate,
+copious, inexhaustible in image and picturesque quotation. From the
+classics, from the East, from the animal world, from the life of men and
+children, his illustrations flow, without end or measure. He is a master
+of the lingering cadence, which soars upward and onward on its coupled
+clauses, as on balanced iridescent wings, and is found long after in his
+scholar Ruskin. Imaginative force of another kind pervades Robert
+Burton's _Anatomy of Melancholy_ (1621), where the humorous medium
+refracts and colours every ray of the recluse's far-travelled spirit.
+The mass of Latin citation, woven, not quilted, into Burton's style, is
+another proof of the vitality of the cosmopolitan language. Burton and
+Browne owe much to the pre-critical learning of their time, which yields
+up such precious savours to their fancy, that we may be thankful for the
+delay of more precise science and scholarship. Fancy, too, of a
+suddener and wittier sort, preserves some of the ample labours of Thomas
+Fuller, which are scattered over the years 1631-1662; and the _Lives_
+and _Compleat Angler_ (1653) of Izaak Walton are unspoilt, happy or
+pious pieces of idyllic prose. No adequate note on the secular or sacred
+learning of the time can here be given; on Camden, with his vast
+erudition, historical, antiquarian and comparatively critical
+(_Britannia_, in Latin, 1586); or on Ussher, with his patristic and
+chronological learning, one of the many _savants_ of the Anglican
+church. Other divines of the same camp pleaded, in a plainer style than
+Taylor, for freedom of personal judgment and against the multiplying of
+"vitals in religion"; the chief were Chillingworth, one of the closest
+of English apologists, in his _Religion of Protestants_ (1638), and John
+Hales of Eton. The Platonists, or rather Plotinists, of Cambridge, who
+form a curious digression in the history of modern philosophy, produced
+two writers, John Smith and Henry More, of an exalted and esoteric
+prose, more directly inspired by Greece than any other of the time; and
+their champion of erudition, Cudworth, in his _True Intellectual
+System_, gave some form to their doctrine.
+
+
+  Clarendon.
+
+  Milton's prose.
+
+Above the vast body of pamphlets and disputatious writing that form the
+historian's material stands Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon's _History of
+the Rebellion_, printed in 1702-1704, thirty years after his death.
+Historical writing hitherto, but for Bacon's _Henry VII._, had been
+tentative though profuse. Raleigh's vast disquisition upon all things,
+_The History of the World_ (1614), survives by passages and poetic
+splendours; gallantly written second-hand works like Knolles's _History of
+the Turks_, and the rhetorical _History of the Long Parliament_ by May,
+had failed to give England rank with France and Italy. Clarendon's book,
+one of the greatest of memoirs and most vivid of portrait-galleries,
+spiritually unappreciative of the other side, but full of a subtle
+discrimination of character and political motive, brings its author into
+line with Retz and Saint-Simon, the watchers and recorders and sometimes
+the makers of contemporary history. Clarendon's _Life_, above all the
+picture of Falkland and his friends, is a personal record of the
+delightful sort in which England was thus far infertile. He is the last
+old master of prose, using and sustaining the long, sinuous sentence,
+unworkable in weaker hands. He is the last, for Milton's polemic prose,
+hurled from the opposite camp, was written between 1643 and 1660. Whether
+reviling bishops or royal privilege or indissoluble monogamy, or recalling
+his own youth and aims; or claiming liberty for print in _Areopagitica_
+(1644); in his demonic defiances, or angelic calls to arms, or his animal
+eruptions of spite and hatred, Milton leaves us with a sense of the motive
+energies that were to be transformed into _Paradise Lost_ and _Samson_.
+His sentences are ungainly and often inharmonious, but often irresistible;
+he rigidly withstood the tendencies of form, in prose as in verse, that
+Dryden was to represent, and thus was true to his own literary dynasty.
+
+
+  The Authorized Version.
+
+A special outlying position belongs to the Authorized Version (1611) of
+the Bible, the late fruit of the long toil that had begun with
+Tyndale's, and, on the side of style, with the Wycliffite translations.
+More scholarly than all the preceding versions which it utilized, it won
+its incomparable form, not so much because of the "grand style that was
+in the air," which would have been the worst of models, as because the
+style had been already tested and ennobled by generations of
+translators. Its effect on poetry and letters was for some time far
+smaller than its effect on the national life at large, but it was the
+greatest translation--being of a whole literature, or rather of two
+literatures--in an age of great translations.
+
+Some other kinds of writing soften the transition to Restoration prose.
+The vast catalogue of Characters numbers hundreds of titles. Deriving
+from Theophrastus, who was edited by Casaubon in 1592, they are yet
+another Renaissance form that England shared with France. But in English
+hands, failing a La Bruyere--in Hall's, in Overbury's, even in those of
+the gay and skilful Earle (_Microcosmographie_, 1628)--the Character is
+a mere list of the attributes and oddities of a type or calling. It is
+to the Jonsonian drama of humours what the Pensee, or detached remark,
+practised by Bishop Hall and later by Butler and Halifax, is to the
+Essay. These works tended long to be commonplace or didactic, as the
+popular _Resolves_ of Owen Feltham shows. Cowley was the first essayist
+to come down from the desk and talk as to his equals in easy phrases of
+middle length. A time of dissension was not the best for this kind of
+peaceful, detached writing. The letters of James Howell, the
+autobiography of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and the memoirs of Kenelm
+Digby belong rather to the older and more mannered than to the more
+modern form, though Howell's English is in the plainer and quicker
+movement.
+
+
+IV. RESTORATION PERIOD
+
+  French influence.
+
+_Literature from 1660 to 1700._--The Renaissance of letters in England
+entered on a fresh and peculiar phase in the third quarter of the
+century. The balance of intellectual and artistic power in Europe had
+completely shifted since 1580. Inspiration had died down in Italy, and
+its older classics were no longer a stimulus. The Spanish drama had
+flourished, but its influence though real was scattered and indirect.
+The Germanic countries were slowly emerging into literature; England
+they scarcely touched. But the literary empire of France began to
+declare itself both in Northern and Southern lands, and within half a
+century was assured. Under this empire the English genius partly fell,
+though it soon asserted its own equality, and by 1720 had so reacted
+upon France as more than to repay the debt. Thus between 1660 and 1700
+is prepared a temporary dual control of European letters. But in the age
+of Dryden France gave England more than it received; it gave more than
+it had ever given since the age of Chaucer. During Charles II.'s days
+Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine and Bossuet ran the best of their course.
+Cavalier exiles like Waller, Cowley and Hobbes had come back from the
+winter of their discontent in Paris, and Saint-Evremond, the typical
+_bel esprit_ and critic, settled long in England. A vast body of
+translations from the French is recounted, including latterly the works
+of the Protestant refugees printed in the free Low Countries or in
+England. Naturally this influence told most strongly on the social forms
+of verse and prose--upon comedy and satire, upon criticism and maxim and
+epigram, while it also affected theology and thought. And this meant the
+Renaissance once more, still unexhausted, only working less immediately
+and in fresh if narrower channels. Greek literature, Plato and Homer and
+the dramatists, became dimmer; the secondary forms of Latin poetry came
+to the fore, especially those of Juvenal and the satirists, and the
+_pedestris sermo_, epistolary and critical, of Horace. These had some
+direct influence, as Dryden's translation of them, accompanying his
+Virgil and Lucretius, may show. But they came commended by Boileau,
+their chief modernizer, and in their train was the fashion of gallant,
+epigrammatic and social verse. The tragedy of Corneille and Racine,
+developed originally from the Senecan drama, contended with the
+traditions of Shakespeare and Fletcher, and was reinforced by that of
+the correcter Jonson, in shaping the new theatre of England. The French
+codifiers, who were often also the distorters, of Aristotle's _Poetics_
+and Horace's _Ars poetica_, furnished a canonical body of criticism on
+the epic and the drama, to which Dryden is half a disciple and half a
+rebel. All this implied at once a loss of the larger and fuller
+inspirations of poetry, a decadence in its great and primary forms,
+epic, lyric and tragic, and a disposition, in default of such creative
+power, to turn and take stock of past production. In England, therefore,
+it is the age of secondary verse and of nascent, often searching
+criticism.
+
+
+  Science and Letters.
+
+The same critical spirit was also whetted in the fields of science and
+speculation, which the war and the Puritan rule had not encouraged. The
+activities of the newly-founded Royal Society told directly upon
+literature, and counted powerfully in the organization of a clear,
+uniform prose--the "close, naked, natural way of speaking," which the
+historian of the Society, Sprat, cites as part of its programme. And
+the style of Sprat, as of scientific masters like Newton and Ray the
+botanist, itself attests the change. A time of profound and peaceful and
+fruitful scientific labour began; the whole of Newton's _Principia_
+appeared in 1687; the dream of Bacon came nearer, and England was less
+isolated from the international work of knowledge. The spirit of method
+and observation and induction spread over the whole field of thought and
+was typified in John Locke, whose _Essay concerning Human Understanding_
+came out in English in 1690, and who applied the same deeply sagacious
+and cautious calculus to education and religion and the "conduct of the
+understanding." But his works, though their often mellow and dignified
+style has been ignorantly underrated, also show the change in
+philosophic writing since Hobbes. The old grandeur and pugnacity are
+gone; the imaginative play of science, or quasi-science, on the
+literature of reflection is gone; the eccentrics, the fantasts, the
+dreamers are gone, or only survive in curious transitional writers like
+Joseph Glanvil (_Scepsis scientifica_, 1665) or Thomas Burnet (_Sacred
+Theory of the Earth_, 1684). This change was in part a conscious and an
+angry change, as is clear from the attacks made in Samuel Butler's
+_Hudibras_ (1663-1668) upon scholastic verbiage, astrology, fanatical
+sects and their disputes, poetic and "heroic" enthusiasm and
+intellectual whim.
+
+
+  Courtly and social influence.
+
+Before the Restoration men of letters, with signal exceptions like
+Milton and Marvell, had been Cavalier, courtly and Anglican in their
+sympathies. The Civil War had scattered them away from the capital,
+which, despite Milton's dream in _Areopagitica_ of its humming and
+surging energies, had ceased to be, what it now again became, the
+natural haunt and Rialto of authors. The taste of the new king and court
+served to rally them. Charles II. relished _Hudibras_, used and
+pensioned Dryden, sat under Barrow and South and heard them with
+appreciation, countenanced science, visited comedies, and held his own
+in talk by mother-wit. Letters became the pastime, and therefore one of
+the more serious pursuits, of men of quality, who soon excelled in song
+and light scarifying verse and comedy, and took their own tragedies and
+criticisms gravely. Poetry under such auspices became gallant and
+social, and also personal and partisan; and satire was soon its most
+vital form, with the accessories of compliment, rhymed popular
+argumentation and elegy. The social and conversational instinct was the
+master-influence in prose. It produced a subtle but fundamental change
+in the attitude of author to reader. Prose came nearer to living speech,
+it became more civil and natural and persuasive, and this not least in
+the pulpit. The sense of ennui, or boredom, which seemed as unknown in
+the earlier part of the century as it is to the modern German, became
+strongly developed, and prose was much improved by the fear of provoking
+it. In all these ways the Restoration accompanied and quickened a
+speedier and greater change in letters than any political event in
+English history since the reign of Alfred, when prose itself was
+created.
+
+
+  Prose and criticism.
+
+The formal change in prose can thus be assigned to no one writer, for
+the good reason that it presupposes a change of spoken style lying
+deeper than any personal influence. If we begin with the writing that is
+nearest living talk--the letters of Otway or Lady Rachel Russell, or the
+diary of Pepys (1659-1669)--that supreme disclosure of our
+mother-earth--or the evidence in a state trial, or the dialogue in the
+more natural comedies; if we then work upwards through some of the
+plainer kinds of authorship, like the less slangy of L'Estrange's
+pamphlets, or Burnet's _History of My Own Time_, a solid Whig memoir of
+historical value, until we reach really admirable or lasting prose like
+Dryden's _Preface_ to his _Fables_ (1700), or the maxims of Halifax;--if
+we do this, we are aware, amid all varieties, survivals and reversions,
+of a strong and rapid drift towards the style that we call modern. And
+one sign of this movement is the revulsion against any over-saturating
+of the working, daily language, and even of the language of appeal and
+eloquence, with the Latin element. In Barrow and Glanvil, descendants of
+Taylor and Browne, many Latinized words remain, which were soon
+expelled from style like foreign bodies from an organism. As in the
+mid-sixteenth and the mid-eighteenth century, the process is visible by
+which the Latin vocabulary and Latin complication of sentence first
+gathers strength, and then, though not without leaving its traces, is
+forced to ebb. The instinct of the best writers secured this result, and
+secured it for good and all. In Dryden's diction there is a nearly
+perfect balance and harmony of learned and native constituents, and a
+sensitive tact in Gallicizing; in his build of sentence there is the
+same balance between curtness or bareness and complexity or ungainly
+lengthiness. For ceremony and compliment he keeps a rolling period, for
+invective a short sharp stroke without the gloves. And he not only uses
+in general a sentence of moderate scale, inclining to brevity, but he
+finds out its harmonies; he is a seeming-careless but an absolute master
+of rhythm. In delusive ease he is unexcelled; and we only regret that he
+could not have written prose oftener instead of plays. We should thus,
+however, have lost their prefaces, in which the bulk and the best of
+Dryden's criticisms appear. From the _Essay of Dramatic Poesy_ (1668)
+down to the _Preface to Fables_ (1700) runs a series of essays: _On the
+Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy_, _On Heroic Plays_, _On Translated
+Verse_, _On Satire_ and many more; which form the first connected body
+of criticisms in the language, and are nobly written always. Dryden's
+prose is literature as it stands, and yet is talk, and yet again is
+mysteriously better than talk. The critical writings of John Dennis are
+but a sincere application of the rules and canons that were now becoming
+conventional; Rymer, though not so despicable as Macaulay said, is still
+more depressing than Dennis; and for any critic at once so free, so
+generous and so sure as Dryden we wait in vain for a century.
+
+
+  Contributors to the new prose.
+
+Three or four names are usually associated with Dryden's in the work of
+reforming or modifying prose: Sprat, Tillotson, Sir William Temple, and
+George Savile, marquis of Halifax; but the honours rest with Halifax.
+Sprat, though clear and easy, has little range; Tillotson, though lucid,
+orderly, and a very popular preacher, has little distinction; Temple,
+the elegant essayist, has a kind of barren gloss and fine literary
+manners, but very little to say. The political tracts, essays and maxims
+of Halifax (died 1695) are the most typically modern prose between
+Dryden and Swift, and are nearer than anything else to the best French
+writing of the same order, in their finality of epigram, their neatness
+and mannerliness and sharpness. The _Character of a Trimmer_ and _Advice
+to a Daughter_ are the best examples.
+
+
+  Preachers.
+
+Religious literature, Anglican and Puritan, is the chief remaining
+department to be named. The strong, eloquent and coloured preaching of
+Isaac Barrow the mathematician, who died in 1677, is a survival of the
+larger and older manner of the Church. In its balance of logic, learning
+and emotion, in its command alike of Latin splendour and native force,
+it deserves a recognition it has lost. Another athlete of the pulpit,
+Robert South, who is so often praised for his wit that his force is
+forgotten, continues the lineage, while Tillotson and the elder Sherlock
+show the tendency to the smoother and more level prose. But the
+revulsion against strangeness and fancy and magnificence went too far;
+it made for a temporary bareness and meanness and disharmony, which had
+to be checked by Addison, Bolingbroke and Berkeley. From what Addison
+saved our daily written English, may be seen in the vigorous slangy
+hackwork of Roger L'Estrange, the translator and pamphleteer, in the
+news-sheets of Dunton, and in the satires of Tom Brown. These writers
+were debasing the coinage with their street journalism.
+
+
+  Puritan prose.
+
+  Bunyan.
+
+Another and far nobler variety of vernacular prose is found in the
+Puritans. Baxter and Howe, Fox and Bunyan, had the English Bible behind
+them, which gave them the best of their inspiration, though the first
+two of them were also erudite men. Richard Baxter, an immensely fertile
+writer, is best remembered by those of his own fold for his _Saint's
+Everlasting Rest_ (1650) and his autobiography, John Howe for his
+evangelical apologia _The Living Temple of God_ (1675), Fox for his
+_Journal_ and its mixture of quaintness and rapturous mysticism. John
+Bunyan, the least instructed of them all, is their only born artist. His
+creed and point of view were those of half the nation--the half that was
+usually inarticulate in literature, or spoke without style or genius.
+His reading, consisting not only of the Bible, but of the popular
+allegories of giants, pilgrims and adventure, was also that of his
+class. _The Pilgrim's Progress_, of which the first part appeared in
+1678, the second in 1684, is the happy flowering sport amidst a growth
+of barren plants of the same tribe. The _Progress_ is a dream, more
+vivid to its author than most men's waking memories to themselves; the
+emblem and the thing signified are merged at every point, so that
+Christian's journey is not so much an allegory with a key as a spiritual
+vision of this earth and our neighbours. _Grace Abounding_, Bunyan's
+diary of his own voyage to salvation, _The Holy War_, an overloaded
+fable of the fall and recovery of mankind, and _The Life and Death of Mr
+Badman_, a novel telling of the triumphal earthly progress of a
+scoundrelly tradesman, are among Bunyan's other contributions to
+literature. His union of spiritual intensity, sharp humorous vision, and
+power of simple speech consummately chosen, mark his work off alike from
+his own inarticulate public and from all other literary performance of
+his time.
+
+
+  Transitional verse.
+
+  Hudibras.
+
+  Songsters.
+
+The transition from the older to the newer poetry was not abrupt. Old
+themes and tunes were slowly disused, others previously of lesser mark
+rose into favour, and a few quite fresh ones were introduced. The poems
+of John Oldham and Andrew Marvell belong to both periods. Both of them
+begin with fantasy and elegy, and end with satires, which indeed are
+rather documents than works of art. The monody of Oldham on his friend
+Morwent is poorly exchanged for the _Satires on the Jesuits_ (1681), and
+the lovely metaphysical verses of Marvell on gardens and orchards and
+the spiritual love sadly give place to his _Last Instructions to a
+Painter_ (1669). In his _Horatian Ode_ Marvell had nobly and impartially
+applied his earlier style to national affairs; but the time proved too
+strong for this delightful poet. Another and a stranger satire had soon
+greeted the Restoration, the _Hudibras_ (1663-1678) of Samuel Butler,
+with its companion pieces. The returned wanderers delighted in this
+horribly agile, boisterous and fierce attack on the popular party and
+its religions, and its wrangles and its manners. Profoundly eccentric
+and tiresomely allusive in his form, and working in the short rhyming
+couplets thenceforth called "Hudibrastics," Butler founded a small and
+peculiar but long-lived school of satire. The other verse of the time is
+largely satire of a different tone and metre; but the earlier kind of
+finished and gallant lyric persisted through the reign of Charles II.
+The songs of John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, are usually malicious,
+sometimes passionate; they have a music and a splendid self-abandonment
+such as we never meet again till Burns. Sedley and Dorset and Aphra Behn
+and Dryden are the rightful heirs of Carew and Lovelace, those
+infallible masters of short rhythms; and this secret also was lost for a
+century afterwards.
+
+
+  Dryden.
+
+In poetry, in prose, and to some extent in drama, John Dryden, the
+creature of his time, is the master of its expression. He began with
+panegyric verse, first on Cromwell and then on Charles, which is full of
+fine things and false writing. The _Annus Mirabilis_ (1667) is the chief
+example, celebrating the Plague, the Fire and the naval victory, in the
+quatrains for which Davenant's pompous _Gondibert_ had shown the way.
+The _Essay on Dramatic Poesy_ (1668), a dialogue on the rivalries of
+blank verse with rhyme, and of the Elizabethan drama with the French, is
+perfect modern prose; and to this perfection Dryden attained at a bound,
+while he attained his poetical style more gradually. He practised his
+couplet in panegyric, in heroic tragedy, and in dramatic prologue and
+epilogue for twenty years before it was consummate. Till 1680 he
+supported himself chiefly by his plays, which have not lived so long as
+their critical prefaces, already mentioned. His diction and
+versification came to their full power in his satires, rhymed arguments,
+dedications and translations. _Absalom and Achitophel_ (part i., 1681;
+part ii., with Nahum Tate, 1682), as well as _The Medal_ and _Mac
+Flecknoe_, marked a new birth of English satire, placing it at once on a
+level with that of any ancient or modern country. The mixture of deadly
+good temper, Olympian unfairness, and rhetorical and metrical skill in
+each of these poems has never been repeated. The presentment of
+Achitophel, earl of Shaftesbury, in his relations with Absalom Walters
+and Charles the minstrel-king of Judah, as well as the portraits of
+Shimei and Barzillai and Jotham, the eminent Whigs and Tories, and of
+the poets Og and Doeg, are things whose vividness age has never
+discoloured. Dryden's Protestant arguings in _Religio Laici_ (1682) and
+his equally sincere Papistical arguings in _The Hind and the Panther_
+(1687) are just as skilful. His translations of Virgil and parts of
+Lucretius, of Chaucer and Boccaccio (_Fables_, 1700), set the seal on
+his command of his favourite couplet for the higher kinds of appeal and
+oratory. His _Ode_ on Anne Killigrew, and his popular but coarser
+_Alexander's Feast_, have a more lyric harmony; and his songs, inserted
+in his plays, reflect the change of fashion by their metrical adeptness
+and often thorough-going wantonness. The epithet of "glorious," in its
+older sense of a certain conscious and warranted pride of place, not in
+that of boastful or pretentious, suits Dryden well. Not only did he
+leave a model and a point of departure for Pope, but his influence
+recurs in Churchill, in Gray, in Johnson and in Crabbe, where he is seen
+counteracting, with his large, wholesome and sincere bluntness, the
+acidity of Pope. Dryden was counted near Shakespeare and Milton until
+the romantic revival renewed the sense of proportion; but the same sense
+now demands his acknowledgment as the English poet who is nearest to
+their frontiers of all those who are exiled from their kingdom.
+
+
+  Tragedy.
+
+  Otway.
+
+Restoration and Revolution tragedy is nearly all abortive; it is now
+hard to read it for pleasure. But it has noble flights, and its historic
+interest is high. Two of its species, the rhymed heroic play and the
+rehandling of Shakespeare in blank verse, were also brought to their
+utmost by Dryden, though in both he had many companions. The heroic
+tragedies were a hybrid offspring of the heroic romance and French
+tragedy; and though _The Conquest of Granada_ (1669-1670) and _Tyrannic
+Love_ would be very open to satire in Dryden's own vein, they are at
+least generously absurd. Their intention is never ignoble, if often
+impossible. After a time Dryden went back to Shakespeare, after a
+fashion already set by Sir William Davenant, the connecting link with
+the older tragedy and the inaugurator of the new. They "revived"
+Shakespeare; they vamped him in a style that did not wholly perish till
+after the time of Garrick. _The Tempest_, _Troilus and Cressida_, and
+_Antony and Cleopatra_ were thus handled by Dryden; and the last of
+these, as converted by him into _All for Love_ (1678), is loftier and
+stronger than any of his original plays, its blank verse renewing the
+ties of Restoration poetry with the great age. The heroic plays, written
+in one or other metre, lived long, and expired in the burlesques of
+Fielding and Sheridan. _The Rehearsal_ (1671), a gracious piece of
+fooling partially aimed at Dryden by Buckingham and his friends, did not
+suffice to kill its victims. Thomas Otway and Nathaniel Lee, both of
+whom generally used blank verse, are the other tragic writers of note,
+children indeed of the extreme old age of the drama. Otway's long-acted
+_Venice Preserved_ (1682) has an almost Shakespearian skill in
+melodrama, a wonderful tide of passionate language, and a blunt and bold
+delineation of character; but Otway's inferior style and verse could
+only be admired in an age like his own. Lee is far more of a poet,
+though less of a dramatist, and he wasted a certain talent in noise and
+fury.
+
+
+  Comedy.
+
+  Wycherley.
+
+Restoration comedy at first followed Jonson, whom it was easy to try and
+imitate; Shadwell and Wilson, whose works are a museum for the social
+antiquary, photographed the humours of the town. Dryden's many comedies
+often show his more boisterous and blatant, rarely his finer qualities.
+Like all playwrights of the time he pillages from the French, and
+vulgarizes Moliere without stint or shame. A truer light comedy began
+with Sir George Etherege, who mirrored in his fops the gaiety and
+insolence of the world he knew. The society depicted by William
+Wycherley, the one comic dramatist of power between Massinger and
+Congreve, at first seems hardly human; but his energy is skilful and
+faithful as well as brutal; he excels in the graphic reckless exhibition
+of outward humours and bustle; he scavenges in the most callous good
+spirits and with careful cynicism. _The Plain Dealer_ (1677), a skilful
+transplantation, as well as a depravation of Moliere's _Le Misanthrope_,
+is his best piece: he writes in prose, and his prose is excellent,
+modern and lifelike.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--General Histories: Hallam, _Introduction to the Lit. of
+  Europe_ (1838-1839); G. Saintsbury, _Elizabethan Literature_ (1890),
+  and _History of Literary Criticism_, vol. ii. (1902); W.J. Courthorpe,
+  _History of English Poetry_, vols. i.-v. (1895-1905); J.J. Jusserand,
+  _Histoire litteraire du peuple anglais_, vol. ii. (1904); T. Seccombe
+  and J.W. Allen, _The Age of Shakespeare_ (2 vols., 1903); D. Hannay,
+  _The Later Renaissance_ (1898); H.J.C. Grierson, _First Half of 17th
+  Century_; O. Elton, _The Augustan Ages_ (1899); Masson, _Life of
+  Milton_ (6 vols., London, 1881-1894); R. Garnett, _The Age of Dryden_
+  (1901); W. Raleigh, _The English Novel_ (1894); J.J. Jusserand, _Le
+  Roman anglais au temps de Shakespeare_ (1887, Eng. tr., 1901); G.
+  Gregory Smith, _Elizabethan Critical Essays_ (2 vols., 1904, reprints
+  and introd.). Classical and Foreign Influences.--Mary A. Scott,
+  _Elizabethan Translations from the Italian_ (bibliography),
+  (Baltimore, 1895); E. Koeppel, _Studien zur Gesch. der ital. Novelle
+  i. d. eng. Litteratur des 16ten Jahrh._ (Strasb., 1892); L. Einstein
+  _The Italian Renaissance in England_ (New York, 1902); J. Erskine,
+  _The Elizabethan Lyric_ (New York, 1903); J.S. Harrison, _Platonism in
+  Eliz. Poetry of the 16th and 17th Centuries_ (New York, 1903); S. Lee,
+  _Elizabethan Sonnets_ (2 vols., 1904); C.H. Herford, _Literary
+  Relations of England and Germany in 16th Century_; J.G. Underhill,
+  _Spanish Lit. in the England of the Tudors_ (New York, 1899); J.E.
+  Spingarn, _Hist. of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance_ (New York,
+  1899). Many articles in _Englische Studien_, _Anglia_, &c., on
+  influences, texts and sources. See too arts. DRAMA; SONNET;
+  RENAISSANCE.     (O. E.*)
+
+
+V. THE 18TH CENTURY
+
+  Social changes.
+
+In the reign of Anne (1702-1714) the social changes which had commenced
+with the Restoration of 1660 began to make themselves definitely felt.
+Books began to penetrate among all classes of society. The period is
+consequently one of differentiation and expansion. As the practice of
+reading becomes more and more universal, English writers lose much of
+their old idiosyncrasy, intensity and obscurity. As in politics and
+religion, so in letters, there is a great development of nationality.
+Commercial considerations too for the first time become important. We
+hear relatively far less of religious controversy, of the bickering
+between episcopalians and nonconformists and of university squabbles.
+Specialization and cumbrous pedantry fall into profound disfavour.
+Provincial feeling exercises a diminishing sway, and literature becomes
+increasingly metropolitan or suburban. With the multiplication of
+moulds, the refinement of prose polish, and the development of breadth,
+variety and ease, it was natural enough, having regard to the place that
+the country played in the world's affairs, that English literature
+should make its debut in western Europe. The strong national savour
+seemed to stimulate the foreign appetite, and as represented by Swift,
+Pope, Defoe, Young, Goldsmith, Richardson, Sterne and Ossian, if we
+exclude Byron and Scott, the 18th century may be deemed the cosmopolitan
+age, _par excellence_, of English Letters. The charms of 18th-century
+English literature, as it happens, are essentially of the rational,
+social and translatable kind: in intensity, exquisiteness and
+eccentricity of the choicer kinds it is proportionately deficient. It is
+pre-eminently an age of prose, and although verbal expression is seldom
+represented at its highest power, we shall find nearly every variety of
+English prose brilliantly illustrated during this period: the
+aristocratic style of Bolingbroke, Addison and Berkeley; the gentlemanly
+style of Fielding; the keen and logical controversy of Butler,
+Middleton, Smith and Bentham; the rhythmic and balanced if occasionally
+involved style of Johnson and his admirers; the limpid and flowing
+manner of Hume and Mackintosh; the light, easy and witty flow of
+Walpole; the divine chit-chat of Cowper; the colour of Gray and
+Berkeley; the organ roll of Burke; the detective journalism of Swift and
+Defoe; the sly familiarity of Sterne; the dance music and wax candles
+of Sheridan; the pomposity of Gibbon; the air and ripple of Goldsmith;
+the peeping preciosity of Boswell,--these and other characteristics can
+be illustrated in 18th-century prose as probably nowhere else.
+
+But more important to the historian of literature even than the
+development of qualities is the evolution of types. And in this respect
+the 18th century is a veritable index-museum of English prose.
+Essentially, no doubt, it is true that in form the prose and verse of
+the 18th century is mainly an extension of Dryden, just as in content it
+is a reflection of the increased variety of the city life which came
+into existence as English trade rapidly increased in all directions. But
+the taste of the day was rapidly changing. People began to read in
+vastly increasing numbers. The folio was making place on the shelves for
+the octavo. The bookseller began to transcend the mere tradesman. Along
+with newspapers the advertizing of books came into fashion, and the
+market was regulated no longer by what learned men wanted to write, but
+what an increasing multitude wanted to read. The arrival of the octavo
+is said to have marked the enrolment of man as a reader, that of the
+novel the attachment of woman. Hence, among other causes, the rapid
+decay of lyrical verse and printed drama, of theology and epic, in
+ponderous tomes. The fashionable types of which the new century was to
+witness the fixation are accordingly the essay and the satire as
+represented respectively by Addison and Steele, Swift and Goldsmith, and
+by Pope and Churchill. Pope, soon to be followed by Lady Mary Wortley
+Montagu, was the first Englishman who treated letter-writing as an art
+upon a considerable scale. Personalities and memoirs prepare the way for
+history, in which as a department of literature English letters hitherto
+had been almost scandalously deficient. Similarly the new growth of
+fancy essay (Addison) and plain biography (Defoe) prepared the way for
+the English novel, the most important by far of all new literary
+combinations. Finally, without going into unnecessary detail, we have a
+significant development of topography, journalism and criticism. In the
+course of time, too, we shall perceive how the pressure of town life and
+the logic of a capital city engender, first a fondness for landscape
+gardening and a somewhat artificial Arcadianism, and then, by degrees,
+an intensifying love of the country, of the open air, and of the rare,
+exotic and remote in literature.
+
+
+  Locke: Addison.
+
+At the outset of the new century the two chief architects of public
+opinion were undoubtedly John Locke and Joseph Addison. When he died at
+High Laver in October 1704 at the mature age of seventy-two, Locke had,
+perhaps, done more than any man of the previous century to prepare the way
+for the new era. Social duty and social responsibility were his two
+watchwords. The key to both he discerned in the _Human Understanding_--"no
+province of knowledge can be regarded as independent of reason." But the
+great modernist of the time was undoubtedly Joseph Addison (1672-1719). He
+first left the 17th century, with its stiff euphuisms, its formal
+obsequiousness, its ponderous scholasticism and its metaphorical
+antitheses, definitely behind. He did for English culture what Rambouillet
+did for that of France, and it is hardly an exaggeration to call the
+half-century before the great fame of the English novel, the half century
+of the _Spectator_.
+
+
+  Steele.
+
+Addison's mind was fertilized by intercourse with the greater and more
+original genius of Swift and with the more inventive and more genial
+mind of Steele. It was Richard Steele (1672-1729) in the _Tatler_ of
+1709-1710 who first realized that the specific which that urbane age
+both needed and desired was no longer copious preaching and rigorous
+declamation, but homoeopathic doses of good sense, good taste and
+good-humoured morality, disguised beneath an easy and fashionable style.
+Nothing could have suited Addison better than the opportunity afforded
+him of contributing an occasional essay or roundabout paper in praise of
+virtue or dispraise of stupidity and bad form to his friend's
+periodical. When the _Spectator_ succeeded the _Tatler_ in March 1711,
+Addison took a more active share in shaping the chief characters (with
+the immortal baronet, Sir Roger, at their head) who were to make up the
+"Spectator Club"; and, better even than before, he saw his way, perhaps,
+to reinforcing his copious friend with his own more frugal but more
+refined endowment. Such a privileged talent came into play at precisely
+the right moment to circulate through the coffee houses and to convey a
+large measure of French courtly ease and elegance into the more humdrum
+texture of English prose. Steele became rather disreputable in his later
+years, Swift was banished and went mad, but Addison became a personage
+of the utmost consideration, and the essay as he left it became an
+almost indispensable accomplishment to the complete gentlemen of that
+age. As an architect of opinion from 1717 to 1775 Addison may well rank
+with Locke.
+
+
+  Swift.
+
+  Arbuthnot.
+
+  Bolingbroke.
+
+The other side, both in life and politics, was taken by Jonathan Swift
+(1667-1745), who preferred to represent man on his unsocial side. He
+sneered at most things, but not at his own order, and he came to defend
+the church and the country squirearchy against the conventicle and Capel
+court. To undermine the complacent entrenchments of the Whig capitalists
+at war with France no sap proved so effectual as his pen. Literary
+influence was then exercised in politics mainly by pamphlets, and Swift
+was the greatest of pamphleteers. In the _Journal to Stella_ he has left
+us a most wonderful portrait of himself in turn currying favour,
+spoiled, petted and humiliated by the party leaders of the Tories from
+1710-1713. He had always been savage, and when the Hanoverians came in
+and he was treated as a suspect, his hate widened to embrace all mankind
+(_Gulliver's Travels_, 1726) and he bit like a mad dog. Would that he
+could have bitten more, for the infection of English stylists! In wit,
+logic, energy, pith, resourcefulness and Saxon simplicity, his prose has
+never been equalled. The choicest English then, it is the choicest
+English still. Dr John Arbuthnot (1667-1735) may be described as an
+understudy of Swift on the whimsical side only, whose malignity, in a
+nature otherwise most kindly, was circumscribed strictly by the limits
+of political persiflage. Bernard Mandeville (1670-1733), unorthodox as
+he was in every respect, discovered a little of Swift's choice pessimism
+in his assault (in _The Fable of the Bees_ of 1723) against the genteel
+optimism of the _Characteristics_ of Lord Shaftesbury. Neither the
+matter nor the manner of the brilliant Tory chieftain Henry St John,
+Viscount Bolingbroke (1678-1751), appears to us now as being of the
+highest significance; but, although Bolingbroke's ideas were
+second-hand, his work has an historical importance; his dignified,
+balanced and decorated style was the cynosure of 18th-century statesmen.
+His essays on "History" and on "a Patriot King" both disturb a soil well
+prepared, and set up a reaction against such evil tendencies as a
+narrowing conception of history and a primarily factious and partisan
+conception of politics. It may be noted here how the fall of Bolingbroke
+and the Tories in 1714 precipitated the decay of the Renaissance ideal
+of literary patronage. The dependence of the press upon the House of
+Lords was already an anomaly, and the practical toleration achieved in
+1695 removed another obstacle from the path of liberation. The
+government no longer sought to strangle the press. It could generally be
+tuned satisfactorily and at the worst could always be temporarily
+muzzled. The pensions hitherto devoted to men of genius were diverted
+under Walpole to spies and journalists. Yet one of the most unscrupulous
+of all the fabricators of intelligence, looked down upon as a huckster
+of the meanest and most inconsiderable literary wares, established his
+fame by a masterpiece of which literary genius had scarcely even
+cognizance.
+
+
+  Defoe.
+
+The new trade of writing was represented most perfectly by Daniel Defoe
+(1660-1731), who represents, too, what few writers possess, a competent
+knowledge of work and wages, buying and selling, the squalor and roguery
+of the very hungry and the very mean. From reporting sensations and
+chronicling _faits divers_, Defoe worked his way almost insensibly to
+the Spanish tale of the old Mendoza or picaresque pattern. _Robinson
+Crusoe_ was a true story expanded on these lines, and written down under
+stress of circumstance when its author was just upon sixty. Resembling
+that of Bunyan and, later, Smollett in the skilful use made of places,
+facts and figures, Defoe's style is the mirror of man in his shirt
+sleeves. What he excelled in was plain, straightforward story-telling,
+in understanding and appraising the curiosity of the man in the street,
+and in possessing just the knowledge and just the patience, and just the
+literary stroke that would enable him most effectually to satisfy it. He
+was the first and cleverest of all descriptive reporters, for he knew
+better than any successor how and where to throw in those irrelevant
+details, tricks of speech and circumlocution, which tend to give an air
+of verisimilitude to a bald and unconvincing narrative--the funny little
+splutterings and naivetes as of a plain man who is not telling a tale
+for effect, but striving after his own manner to give the plain
+unvarnished truth. Defoe contributes story, Addison character, Fielding
+the life-atmosphere, Richardson and Sterne the sentiment, and we have
+the 18th-century novel complete--the greatest literary birth of modern
+time. Addison, Steele, Swift and Defoe, as master-builders of prose
+fiction, are consequently of more importance than the "Augustan poets,"
+as Pope and his school are sometimes called, for the most that they can
+be said to have done is to have perfected a more or less transient mode
+of poetry.
+
+
+  Pope.
+
+  Thomson.
+
+  Collins. Gray.
+
+To the passion, imagination or musical quality essential to the most
+inspired kinds of poetry Alexander Pope (1688-1744) can lay small claim.
+His best work is contained in the _Satires_ and _Epistles_, which are
+largely of the proverb-in-rhyme order. Yet in lucid, terse and pungent
+phrases he has rarely if ever been surpassed. His classical fancy, his
+elegant turn for periphrasis and his venomous sting alike made him the
+idol of that urbane age. Voltaire in 1726 had called him the best poet
+living, and at his death his style was paramount throughout the
+civilized world. It was the apotheosis of wit, point, lucidity and
+technical correctness. Pope was the first Englishman to make poetry pay
+(apart from patronage). He was flattered by imitation to an extent which
+threatened to throw the school of poetry which he represented into
+permanent discredit. Prior, Gay, Parnell, Akenside, Pomfret, Garth,
+Young, Johnson, Goldsmith, Falconer, Glover, Grainger, Darwin, Rogers,
+Hayley and indeed a host of others--the once famous mob of gentlemen who
+wrote with ease--worshipped Pope as their poetic founder. The
+second-rate wore his badge. But although the cult of Pope was the
+established religion of poetic taste from 1714 to 1798, there were
+always nonconformists. The poetic revolt, indeed, was far more versatile
+than the religious revival of the century. The _Winter_ (1726) of James
+Thomson may be regarded as inaugurating a new era in English poetry.
+Lady Winchilsea, John Philips, author of _Cyder_, and John Dyer, whose
+_Grongar Hill_ was published a few months before _Winter_, had pleaded
+by their work for a truthful and unaffected, and at the same time a
+romantic treatment of nature in poetry; but the ideal of artificiality
+and of a frigid poetic diction by which English poetry was dominated
+since the days of Waller and Cowley was first effectively challenged by
+Thomson. At the time when the Popean couplet was at the height of its
+vogue he deliberately put it aside in favour of the higher poetic power
+of blank verse. And he it was who transmitted the sentiment of natural
+beauty not merely to imitators such as Savage, Armstrong, Somerville,
+Langhorne, Mickle and Shenstone, but also to his elegist, William
+Collins, to Gray and to Cowper, and so indirectly to the lyrical bards
+of 1798. By the same hands and those of Shenstone experiments were being
+made in the stanza of _The Faerie Queene_; a little later, owing to the
+virtuosity of Bishop Percy, the cultivation of the old English and
+Scottish ballad literature was beginning to take a serious turn.
+Dissatisfaction with the limitations of "Augustan" poetry was similarly
+responsible for the revived interest in Shakespeare and Chaucer. Gray
+stood not only for a far more intimate worship of wild external nature,
+but also for an awakened curiosity in Scandinavian, Celtic and Icelandic
+poetry.
+
+To pretend then that the poetic heart of the 18th century was Popean to
+the core is nothing short of extravagance. There were a number of true
+poets in the second and third quarters of the century to whom all
+credit is due as pioneers and precentors of the romantic movement under
+the depressing conditions to which innovators in poetry are commonly
+subject. They may strike us as rather an anaemic band after the great
+Elizabethan poets. Four of them were mentally deranged (Collins, Smart,
+Cowper, Blake), while Gray was a hermit, and Shenstone and Thomson the
+most indolent of recluses. The most adventurous, one might say the most
+virile of the group, was a boy who died at the age of seventeen. Single
+men all (save for Blake), a more despondent group of artists as a whole
+it would not perhaps be easy to discover. Catacombs and cypresses were
+the forms of imagery that came to them most naturally. Elegies and
+funeral odes were the types of expression in which they were happiest.
+Yet they strove in the main to follow the gleam in poetry, to reinstate
+imagination upon its throne, and to substitute the singing voice for the
+rhetorical recitative of the heroic couplet. Within two years of the
+death of Pope, in 1746, William Collins was content to _sing_ (not say)
+what he had in him without a glimpse of wit or a flash of eloquence--and
+in him many have discerned the germ of that romantic _eclosion_ which
+blossomed in _Christabel_. A more important if less original factor in
+that movement was Collins's severe critic Thomas Gray, a man of the
+widest curiosities of his time, in whom every attribute of the poet to
+which scholarship, taste and refinement are contributory may be found to
+the full, but in whom the strong creative energy is fatally
+lacking--despite the fact that he wrote a string of "divine truisms" in
+his _Elegy_, which has given to multitudes more of the exquisite
+pleasure of poetry than any other single piece in the English language.
+Shenstone and Percy, Capell, the Wartons and eventually Chatterton,
+continued to mine in the shafts which Gray had been the first to sink.
+Their laborious work of discovery resembled that which was commencing in
+regard to the Gothic architecture which the age of Pope had come to
+regard as rude and barbaric. The Augustans had come seriously to regard
+all pre-Drydenic poetry as grossly barbarian. One of the greatest
+achievements of the mid-eighteenth century was concerned with the
+disintegration of this obstinate delusion. The process was manifold; and
+it led, among other things, to a realization of the importance of the
+study of comparative literature.
+
+
+  The novel.
+
+  Richardson.
+
+The literary grouping of the 18th century is, perhaps, the biggest thing
+on the whole that English art has to show; but among all its groups the
+most famous, and probably the most original, is that of its
+proto-novelists Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and Sterne. All nations
+have had their novels, which are as old at least as Greek vases. The
+various types have generally had collective appellations such as
+Milesian Tales, Alexandrian Romances, Romances of Chivalry, Acta
+Sanctorum, Gesta Romanorum, Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles, Romances of
+Roguery, Arabian Nights; but owing to the rivalry of other more popular
+or more respectable or at least more eclectic literary forms, they
+seldom managed to attain a permanent lodgment in the library. The taste
+in prose fiction changes, perhaps, more rapidly than that in any other
+kind of literature. In Britain alone several forms had passed their
+prime since the days of Caxton and his Arthurian prose romance of _Morte
+d'Arthur_. Such were the wearisome Arcadian romance or pastoral heroic;
+the new centos of tales of chivalry like the _Seven Champions of
+Christendom_; the utopian, political and philosophical romances
+(_Oceana_, _The Man in the Moone_); the grotesque and facetious stories
+of rogues retailed from the Spanish or French in dwarf volumes; the
+prolix romance of modernized classic heroism (_The Grand Cyrus_); the
+religious allegory (Bunyan's _Life and Death of Mr Badman_); the novels
+of outspoken French or Italian gallantry, represented by Aphra Behn; the
+imaginary voyages so notably adapted to satire by Dr Swift; and last,
+but not least, the minutely prosaic chronicle-novels of Daniel Defoe.
+The prospect of the novel was changing rapidly. The development of the
+individual and of a large well-to-do urban middle class, which was
+rapidly multiplying its area of leisure, involved a curious and
+self-conscious society, hungry for pleasure and new sensations, anxious
+to be told about themselves, willing in some cases even to learn
+civilization from their betters. The disrepute into which the drama had
+fallen since Jeremy Collier's attack on it directed this society by an
+almost inevitable course into the flowery paths of fiction. The novel,
+it is true, had a reputation which was for the time being almost as
+unsavoury as that of the drama, but the novel was not a confirmed
+ill-doer, and it only needed a touch of genius to create for it a vast
+congregation of enthusiastic votaries. In the _Tatler_ and _Spectator_
+were already found the methods and subjects of the modern novel. The De
+Coverley papers in the _Spectator_, in fact, want nothing but a
+love-thread to convert them into a serial novel of a high order. The
+supreme importance of the sentimental interest had already been
+discovered and exemplified to good purpose in France by Madame de la
+Fayette, the Marquise de Tencin, Marivaux and the Abbe Prevost. Samuel
+Richardson (1689-1762), therefore, when he produced the first two modern
+novels of European fame in _Pamela_ (1740) and _Clarissa_ (1748),
+inherited far more than he invented. There had been Richardsonians
+before Richardson. _Clarissa_ is nevertheless a pioneer work, and we
+have it on the high authority of M. Jusserand that the English have
+contributed more than any other people to the formation of the
+contemporary novel. Of the long-winded, typical and rather chaotic
+English novel of love analysis and moral sentiment (as opposed to the
+romance of adventure) Richardson is the first successful charioteer.
+
+
+  Fielding.
+
+  Smollett.
+
+The novel in England gained prodigiously by the shock of opposition
+between the ideals of Richardson and Henry Fielding (1707-1754), his
+rival and parodist. Fielding's brutal toleration is a fine corrective to
+the slightly rancid morality of Richardson, with its frank insistence
+upon the cash-value of chastity and virtue. Fielding is, to be brief,
+the succinct antithesis of Richardson, and represents the opposite pole
+of English character. He is the Cavalier, Richardson the Roundhead; he
+is the gentleman, Richardson the tradesman; he represents church and
+county, Richardson chapel and borough. Richardson had much of the
+patient insight and intensity of genius, but he lacked the humour and
+literary accomplishment which Fielding had in rich abundance. Fielding
+combined breadth and keenness, classical culture and a delicate Gallic
+irony to an extent rare among English writers. He lacked the delicate
+intuition of Richardson in the analysis of women, nor could he compass
+the broad farcical humour of Smollett or the sombre colouring by which
+Smollett produces at times such poignant effects of contrast. There was
+no poetry in Fielding; but there was practically every other ingredient
+of a great prose writer--taste, culture, order, vivacity, humour,
+penetrating irony and vivid, pervading common sense, and it is
+Fielding's chef-d'oeuvre _Tom Jones_ (1749) that we must regard if not
+as the fundament at least as the head of the corner in English prose
+fiction. Before _Tom Jones_ appeared, the success of the novel had drawn
+a new competitor into the field in Tobias Smollett, the descendant of a
+good western lowland family who had knocked about the world and seen
+more of its hurlyburly than Fielding himself. In _Roderick Random_
+(1748) Smollett represents a rougher and more uncivilized world even
+than that depicted in _Joseph Andrews_. The savagery and horse-play
+peculiar to these two novelists derives in part from the rogue romance
+of Spain (as then recently revived by Lesage), and has a counterpart to
+some extent in the graphic art of Hogarth and Rowlandson; yet one cannot
+altogether ignore an element of exaggeration which has greatly injured
+both these writers in the estimation (and still more in the affection)
+of posterity. The genius which struggles through novels such as
+_Roderick Random_ and _Ferdinand Count Fathom_ was nearly submerged
+under the hard conditions of a general writer during the third quarter
+of the 18th century, and it speaks volumes for Smollett's powers of
+recuperation that he survived to write two such masterpieces of sardonic
+and humorous observation as his _Travels_ and _Humphry Clinker_.
+
+
+  Sterne.
+
+The fourth proto-master of the English novel was the antiquarian
+humorist Lawrence Sterne. Though they owed a good deal to _Don Quixote_
+and the French novelists, Fielding and Smollett were essentially
+observers of life in the quick. Sterne brought a far-fetched style, a
+bookish apparatus and a deliberate eccentricity into fiction. _Tristram
+Shandy_, produced successively in nine small volumes between 1760 and
+1764, is the pretended history of a personage who is not born (before
+the fourth volume) and hardly ever appears, carried on in an eccentric
+rigmarole of old and new, original and borrowed humour, arranged in a
+style well known to students of the later Valois humorists as
+_fatrasie_. Far more than Moliere, Sterne took his literary _bien_
+wherever he found it. But he invented a kind of tremolo style of his
+own, with the aid of which, in conjunction with the most unblushingly
+indecent innuendoes, and with a conspicuous genius for humorous
+portraiture, trembling upon the verge of the pathetic, he succeeded in
+winning a new domain for the art of fiction.
+
+These four great writers then, Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and
+Sterne--all of them great pessimists in comparison with the benignant
+philosophers of a later fiction--first thoroughly fertilized this
+important field. Richardson obtained a European fame during his
+lifetime. Sterne, as a pioneer impressionist, gave all subsequent
+stylists a new handle. Fielding and Smollett grasped the new instrument
+more vigorously, and fashioned with it models which, after serving as
+patterns to Scott, Marryat, Cooper, Ainsworth, Dickens, Lever,
+Stevenson, Merriman, Weyman and other romancists of the 19th century,
+have still retained a fair measure of their original popularity
+unimpaired.
+
+
+  Johnson.
+
+Apart from the novelists, the middle period of the 18th century is
+strong in prose writers: these include Dr Johnson, Oliver Goldsmith,
+Lord Chesterfield and Horace Walpole. The last three were all influenced
+by the sovereign lucidity of the best French style of the day.
+Chesterfield and Walpole were both writers of aristocratic experience
+and of European knowledge and sentiment. Johnson alone was a
+distinctively English thinker and stylist. His knowledge of the world,
+outside England, was derived from books, he was a good deal of a
+scholar, an earnest moralist, and something of a divine; his style, at
+any rate, reaches back to Taylor, Barrow and South, and has a good deal
+of the complex structure, the cadence, and the balance of English and
+Latinistic words proper to the 17th century, though the later influence
+of Addison and Bolingbroke is also apparent; Johnson himself was fond of
+the essay, the satire in verse, and the moral tale (_Rasselas_); but he
+lacked the creative imagination indispensable for such work and excelled
+chiefly as biographer and critic. For a critic even, it must be admitted
+that he was singly deficient in original ideas. He upholds authority. He
+judges by what he regards as the accepted rules, derived by Dryden,
+Rapin, Boileau, Le Bossu, Rymer, Dennis, Pope and such "estimable
+critics" from the ancients, whose decisions on such matters he regards
+as paramount. He tries to carry out a systematic, motived criticism; but
+he asserts rather than persuades or convinces. We go to his critical
+works (_Lives of the Poets_ and _Essay on Shakespeare_) not for their
+conclusions, but for their shrewd comments on life, and for an
+application to literary problems of a caustic common sense. Johnson's
+character and conversation, his knowledge and memory were far more
+remarkable than his ideas or his writings, admirable though the best of
+these were; the exceptional traits which met in his person and made that
+age regard him as a nonpareil have found in James Boswell a delineator
+unrivalled in patience, dexterity and dramatic insight. The result has
+been a portrait of a man of letters more alive at the present time than
+that which any other age or nation has bequeathed to us. In most of his
+ideas Johnson was a generation behind the typical academic critics of
+his date, Joseph and Thomas Warton, who championed against his authority
+what the doctor regarded as the finicking notions of Gray. Both of the
+Wartons were enthusiastic for Spenser and the older poetry; they were
+saturated with Milton whom they placed far above the correct Mr Pope,
+they wrote sonnets (thereby provoking Johnson's ire) and attempted to
+revive medieval and Celtic lore in every direction. Johnson's one
+attempt at a novel or tale was _Rasselas_, a long "Rambler" essay upon
+the vanity of human hope and ambition, something after the manner of the
+Oriental tales of which Voltaire had caught the idea from Swift and
+Montesquieu; but _Rasselas_ is quite unenlivened by humour, personality
+or any other charm.
+
+
+  Goldsmith.
+
+This one quality that Johnson so completely lacked was possessed in its
+fullest perfection by Oliver Goldsmith, whose style is the supreme
+expression of 18th-century clearness, simplicity and easy graceful
+fluency. Much of Goldsmith's material, whether as playwright, story
+writer or essayist, is trite and commonplace--his material worked up by
+any other hand would be worthless. But, whenever Goldsmith writes about
+human life, he seems to pay it a compliment, a relief of fun and good
+fellowship accompanies his slightest description, his playful and
+delicate touch could transform every thought that he handled into
+something radiant with sunlight and fragrant with the perfume of youth.
+Goldsmith's plots are Irish, his critical theories are French with a
+light top dressing of Johnson and Reynolds or Burke, while his prose
+style is an idealization of Addison. His versatility was great, and, in
+this and in other respects, he and Johnson are constantly reminding us
+that they were hardened professionals, writing against time for money.
+
+
+  Chesterfield and Walpole.
+
+Much of the best prose work of this period, from 1740 to 1780, was done
+under very different conditions. The increase of travel, of intercourse
+between the nobility of Europe, and of a sense of solidarity,
+self-consciousness, leisure and connoisseurship among that section of
+English society known as the governing class, or, since Disraeli, as
+"the Venetian oligarchy," could hardly fail to produce an increasing
+crop of those elaborate collections of letters and memoirs which had
+already attained their apogee in France with Mme de Sevigne and the duc
+de Saint-Simon. England was not to remain far behind, for in 1718
+commence the _Letters_ of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu; ten years more saw
+the commencement of Lord Hervey's _Memoirs of the Reign of George II._;
+and Lord Chesterfield and Lord Orford (better known as Horace Walpole)
+both began their inimitable series of _Letters_ about 1740. These
+writings, none of them written ostensibly for the press, serve to show
+the enormous strides that English prose was making as a medium of
+vivacious description. The letters are all the recreation of extensive
+knowledge and cosmopolitan acquirements; they are not strong on the
+poetic or imaginative side of things, but they have an intense
+appreciation of the actual and mundane side of fallible humanity. Lord
+Chesterfield's _Letters_ to his son and to his godson are far more, for
+they introduce a Ciceronian polish and a Gallic irony and wit into the
+hitherto uncultivated garden of the literary graces in English prose.
+Chesterfield, whose theme is manners and social amenity, deliberately
+seeks a form of expression appropriate to his text--the perfection of
+tact, neatness, good order and _savoir faire_. After his grandfather,
+the marquess of Halifax, Lord Chesterfield, the synonym in the vulgar
+world for a heartless exquisite, is in reality the first fine gentleman
+and epicurean in the best sense in English polite literature. Both
+Chesterfield and Walpole were conspicuous as raconteurs in an age of
+witty talkers, of whose talk R.B. Sheridan, in _The School for Scandal_
+(1777), served up a _supreme_. Some of it may be tinsel, but it looks
+wonderfully well under the lights. The star comedy of the century
+represents the sparkle of this brilliant crowd: it reveals no hearts,
+but it shows us every trick of phrase, every eccentricity of manner and
+every foible of thought. But the most mundane of the letter writers, the
+most frivolous, and also the most pungent, is Horace Walpole, whose
+writings are an epitome of the history and biography of the Georgian
+era. "Fiddles sing all through them, wax lights, fine dresses, fine
+jokes, fine plate, fine equipages glitter and sparkle; never was such a
+brilliant, smirking Vanity Fair as that through which he leads us." Yet,
+in some ways, he was a corrective to the self-complacency of his
+generation, a vast dilettante, lover of "Gothic," of curios and
+antiques, of costly printing, of old illuminations and stained glass. In
+his short miracle-novel, called _The Castle of Otranto_, he set a
+fashion for mystery and terror in fiction, for medieval legend,
+diablerie, mystery, horror, antique furniture and Gothic jargon, which
+led directly by the route of Anne Radcliffe, Maturin, _Vathek_, _St
+Leon_ and _Frankenstein_, to _Queenhoo Hall_, to _Waverley_ and even to
+Hugo and Poe.
+
+
+  Fanny Burney. Boswell.
+
+Meanwhile the area of the Memoir was widening rapidly in the hands of
+Fanny, the sly daughter of the wordly-wise and fashionable musician, Dr
+Burney, author of a novel (_Evelina_) most satirical and facete, written
+ere she was well out of her teens; not too kind a satirist of her former
+patroness, Mrs Thrale (afterwards Piozzi), the least tiresome of the new
+group of scribbling sibyls, blue stockings, lady dilettanti and Della
+Cruscans. Both, as portraitists and purveyors of _Johnsoniana_, were
+surpassed by the inimitable James Boswell, first and most fatuous of all
+interviewers, in brief a biographical genius, with a new recipe,
+distinct from Sterne's, for disclosing personality, and a deliberate,
+artificial method of revealing himself to us, as it were, unawares.
+
+From all these and many other experiments, a far more flexible prose was
+developing in England, adapted for those critical reviews, magazines and
+journals which were multiplying rapidly to exploit the new masculine
+interest, apart from the schools, in history, topography, natural
+philosophy and the picturesque, just as circulating libraries were
+springing up to exploit the new feminine passion for fiction, which
+together with memoirs and fashionable poetry contributed to give the
+booksellers bigger and bigger ideas.
+
+
+  The progress of authorship.
+
+It is surprising how many types of literary productions with which we
+are now familiar were first moulded into definite and classical form
+during the Johnsonian period. In addition to the novel one need only
+mention the economic treatise, as exemplified for the first time in the
+admirable symmetry of _The Wealth of Nations_, the diary of a faithful
+observer of nature such as Gilbert White, the _Fifteen Discourses_
+(1769-1791) in which Sir Joshua Reynolds endeavours for the first time
+to expound for England a philosophy of Art, the historico-philosophical
+tableau as exemplified by Robertson and Gibbon, the light political
+parody of which the poetry of _The Rolliad_ and _Anti-Jacobin_ afford so
+many excellent models; and, going to the other extreme, the ponderous
+archaeological or topographical monograph, as exemplified in Stuart and
+Revett's _Antiquities of Athens_, in Robert Wood's colossal _Ruins of
+Palmyra_ (1753), or the monumental _History of Leicestershire_ by John
+Nichols. Such works as this last might well seem the outcome of Horace
+Walpole's maxim: In this scribbling age "let those who can't write,
+glean." In short, the literary landscape in Johnson's day was slowly but
+surely assuming the general outlines to which we are all accustomed. The
+literary conditions of the period dated from the time of Pope in their
+main features, and it is quite possible that they were more considerably
+modified in Johnson's own lifetime than they have been since. The
+booksellers, or, as they would now be called, publishers, were steadily
+superseding the old ties of patronage, and basing their relations with
+authors upon a commercial footing. A stage in their progress is marked
+by the success of Johnson's friend and Hume's correspondent, William
+Strahan, who kept a coach, "a credit to literature." The evolution of a
+normal status for the author was aided by the definition of copyright
+and gradual extinction of piracy.
+
+
+  Historians.
+
+Histories of their own time by Clarendon and Burnet have been in much
+request from their own day to this, and the first, at least, is a fine
+monument of English prose; Bolingbroke again, in 1735, dwelt memorably
+upon the ethical, political and philosophical value of history. But it
+was not until the third quarter of the 18th century that English
+literature freed itself from the imputation of lagging hopelessly behind
+France, Italy and Germany in the serious work of historical
+reconstruction. Hume published the first volume of his _History of
+England_ in 1754. Robertson's _History of Scotland_ saw the light in
+1759 and his _Charles V._ in 1769; Gibbon's _Decline and Fall of the
+Roman Empire_ came in 1776. Hume was, perhaps, the first modernist in
+history; he attempted to give his work a modern interest and, Scot
+though he was, a modern style--it could not fail, as he knew, to derive
+piquancy from its derision of the Whiggish assumption which regarded
+1688 as a political millennium. Wm. Robertson was, perhaps, the first
+man to adapt the polished periphrases of the pulpit to historical
+generalization. The gifts of compromise which he had learned as
+Moderator of the General Assembly he brought to bear upon his historical
+studies, and a language so unfamiliar to his lips as academic English he
+wrote with so much the more care that the greatest connoisseurs of the
+day were enthusiastic about "Robertson's wonderful style." Even more
+portentous in its superhuman dignity was the style of Edward Gibbon, who
+combined with the unspiritual optimism of Hume and Robertson a far more
+concentrated devotion to his subject, an industry more monumental, a
+greater co-ordinative vigour, and a malice which, even in the 18th
+century, rendered him the least credulous man of his age. Of all
+histories, therefore, based upon the transmitted evidence of other ages
+rather than on the personal observation of the writer's own, Gibbon's
+_Decline and Fall_ has hitherto maintained its reputation best. Hume,
+even before he was superseded, fell a prey to continuations and
+abridgements, while Robertson was supplanted systematically by the
+ornate pages of W.H. Prescott.
+
+The increasing transparency of texture in the working English prose
+during this period is shown in the writings of theologians such as
+Butler and Paley, and of thinkers such as Berkeley and Hume, who, by
+prolonging and extending Berkeley's contention that matter was an
+abstraction, had shown that mind would have to be considered an
+abstraction too, thereby signalling a school of reaction to common sense
+or "external reality" represented by Thomas Reid, and with modifications
+by David Hartley, Abraham Tucker and others. Butler and Paley are merely
+two of the biggest and most characteristic apologists of that day, both
+great stylists, though it must be allowed that their very lucidity and
+good sense excites almost more doubt than it stills, and both very
+successful in repelling the enemy in controversy, though their very
+success accentuates the faults of that unspiritual age in which
+churchmen were so far more concerned about the title deeds than about
+the living portion of the church's estate. Free thought was already
+beginning to sap their defences in various directions, and in Tom Paine,
+Priestley, Price, Godwin and Mackintosh they found more formidable
+adversaries than in the earlier deists. The greatest champion, however,
+of continuity and conservation both in church and state, against the new
+schools of latitudinarians and radicals, the great eulogist of the
+unwritten constitution, and the most perfect master of emotional prose
+in this period, prose in which the harmony of sense and sound is
+attained to an extent hardly ever seen outside supreme poetry, was
+Edmund Burke, one of the most commanding intellects in the whole range
+of political letters--a striking contrast in this respect to Junius,
+whose mechanical and journalistic talent for invective has a quite
+ephemeral value.
+
+
+  Return to nature.
+
+  Change in poetic spirit.
+
+  Cowper. Blake. Burns.
+
+From 1660 to 1760 the English mind was still much occupied in shaking
+off the last traces of feudality. The crown, the parliament, the manor
+and the old penal code were left, it is true: but the old tenures and
+gild-brotherhoods, the old social habits, miracles, arts, faith,
+religion and letters were irrevocably gone. The attempt of the young
+Chevalier in 1745 was a complete anachronism, and no sooner was this
+generally felt to be so than men began to regret that it should so be.
+Men began to describe as "grand" and "picturesque" scenery hitherto
+summarized as "barren mountains covered in mist"; while Voltaire and
+Pope were at their height, the world began to realize that the Augustan
+age, in its zeal for rationality, civism and trim parterres, had
+neglected the wild freshness of an age when literature was a wild flower
+that grew on the common. Rousseau laid the axe to the root of this
+over-sophistication of life; Goldsmith, half understanding, echoed some
+of his ideas in "The Deserted Village." Back from books to men was now
+the prescription--from the crowded town to the spacious country. From
+plains and valleys to peaks and pinewoods. From cities, where men were
+rich and corrupt, to the earlier and more primitive moods of earth. The
+breath had scarcely left the body of the Grand Monarque before an
+intrigue was set on foot to dispute the provisions of his will. So with
+the critical testament of Pope. Within a few years of his death we find
+Gray, Warton, Hurd and other disciples of the new age denying to Pope
+the highest kind of poetic excellence, and exalting imagination and
+fancy into a sphere far above the Augustan qualities of correct taste
+and good judgment. Decentralization and revolt were the new watchwords
+in literature. We must eschew France and Italy and go rather to Iceland
+or the Hebrides for fresh poetic emotions: we must shun academies and
+classic coffee-houses and go into the street-corners or the hedge-lanes
+in search of Volkspoesie. An old muniment chest and a roll of yellow
+parchment were the finest incentives to the new spirit of the
+picturesque. How else are we to explain the enthusiasm that welcomed the
+sham Ossianic poems of James Macpherson in 1760; Percy's patched-up
+ballads of 1765 (_Reliques of Ancient Poetry_); the new enthusiasm for
+Chaucer; the "black letter" school of Ritson, Tyrrwhitt, George Ellis,
+Steevens, Ireland and Malone; above all, the spurious 15th-century poems
+poured forth in 1768-1769 with such a wild gusto of archaic imagination
+by a prodigy not quite seventeen years of age? Chatterton's precocious
+fantasy cast a wonderful spell upon the romantic imagination of other
+times. It does not prepare us for the change that was coming over the
+poetic spirit of the last two decades of the century, but it does at
+least help us to explain it. The great masters of verse in Britain
+during this period were the three very disparate figures of William
+Cowper, William Blake and Robert Burns. Cowper was not a poet of vivid
+and rapturous visions. There is always something of the rusticating
+city-scholar about his humour. The ungovernable impulse and imaginative
+passion of the great masters of poesy were not his to claim. His motives
+to express himself in verse came very largely from the outside. The
+greater part, nearly all his best poetry is of the occasional order. To
+touch and retouch, he says, in one of his letters--among the most
+delightful in English--is the secret of almost all good writing,
+especially verse. Whatever is short should be nervous, masculine and
+compact. In all the arts that raise the best occasional poetry to the
+level of greatness Cowper is supreme. In phrase-moulding, verbal
+gymnastic and prosodical marquetry he has scarcely a rival, and the
+fruits of his poetic industry are enshrined in the filigree of a most
+delicate fancy and a highly cultivated intelligence, purified and thrice
+refined in the fire of mental affliction. His work expresses the rapid
+civilization of his time, its humanitarian feeling and growing
+sensitiveness to natural beauty, home comfort, the claims of animals and
+the charms of light literature. In many of his short poems, such as "The
+Royal George," artistic simplicity is indistinguishable from the stern
+reticence of genius. William Blake had no immediate literary
+descendants, for he worked alone, and Lamb was practically alone in
+recognizing what he wrote as poetry. But he was by far the most original
+of the reactionaries who preceded the Romantic Revival, and he caught
+far more of the Elizabethan air in his lyric verse than any one else
+before Coleridge. The _Songs of Innocence_ and _Songs of Experience_, in
+1789 and 1794, sing themselves, and have a bird-like spontaneity that
+has been the despair of all song-writers from that day to this. After
+1800 he winged his flight farther and farther into strange and unknown
+regions. In the finest of these earlier lyrics, which owe so little to
+his contemporaries, the ripple of the stream of romance that began to
+gush forth in 1798 is distinctly heard. But the first poetic genius of
+the century was unmistakably Robert Burns. In song and satire alike
+Burns is racy, in the highest degree, of the poets of North Britain, who
+since Robert Sempill, Willy Hamilton of Gilbertfield, douce Allan
+Ramsay, the Edinburgh periwig-maker and miscellanist, and Robert
+Fergusson, "the writer-chiel, a deathless name," had kept alive the old
+native poetic tradition, had provided the strolling fiddlers with merry
+and wanton staves, and had perpetuated the daintiest shreds of national
+music, the broadest colloquialisms, and the warmest hues of patriotic
+or local sentiment. Burns immortalizes these old staves by means of his
+keener vision, his more fiery spirit, his stronger passion and his
+richer volume of sound. Burns's fate was a pathetic one. Brief, broken
+glimpses of a genius that could never show itself complete, his poems
+wanted all things for completeness: culture, leisure, sustained effort,
+length of life. Yet occasional, fragmentary, extemporary as most of them
+are, they bear the guinea stamp of true genius. His eye is unerring, his
+humour of the ripest, his wit both fine and abundant. His ear is less
+subtle, except when dialect is concerned. There he is infallible.
+Landscape he understands in subordination to life. For abstract ideas
+about Liberty and 1789 he cares little. But he is a patriot and an
+insurgent, a hater of social distinction and of the rich. Of the divine
+right or eternal merit of the system under which the poor man sweats to
+put money into the rich man's pocket and fights to keep it there, and is
+despised in proportion to the amount of his perspiration, he had a low
+opinion. His work has inspired the meek, has made the poor feel
+themselves less of ciphers in the world and given courage to the
+down-trodden. His love of women has inspired some of the most ardently
+beautiful lyrics in the world. Among modern folk-poets such as Jokai and
+Mistral, the position of Burns in the hearts of his own people is the
+best assured.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.--The dearth of literary history in England makes
+  it rather difficult to obtain a good general view of letters in
+  Britain during the 18th century. Much may be gleaned, however, from
+  chapters of Lecky's _History of England during the 18th Century_, from
+  Stephen's _Lectures on English Literature and Society in the 18th
+  Century_ (1904), from Taine's _History of English Literature_ (van
+  Laun's translation), from vols. v. and vi. of Prof. Courthope's
+  _History of English Poetry_, and from the second volume of Chambers's
+  _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_ (1902). The two vols. dealing
+  respectively with the _Age of Pope_ and the _Age of Johnson_ in Bell's
+  Handbooks of English Literature will be found useful, and suggestive
+  chapters will be found in Saintsbury's _Short History_ and in A.H.
+  Thompson's _Student's History of English Literature_ (1901). The same
+  may, perhaps, be said of books v. and vi. in the _Bookman Illustrated
+  History of English Literature_ (1906), by the present writer.
+  Sidelights of value are to be found in Walter Raleigh's little book on
+  the _English Novel_, in Beljame's _Le Publique et les hommes de
+  lettres en Angleterre au XVIII^e siecle_, in H.A. Beers' _History of
+  English Romanticism in the 18th Century_ (1899), and above all in Sir
+  Leslie Stephen's _History of English Thought during the 18th Century_;
+  Stephen's _Hours in a Library_, the monographs dealing with the period
+  in the English Men of Letters series, the Vignettes and Portraits of
+  Austin Dobson and George Paston, Elwin's _Eighteenth Century Men of
+  Letters_, and Thomas Wright's _Caricature History of the Georges_,
+  must also be kept in mind.     (T. Se.)
+
+
+VI. THE 19TH CENTURY
+
+We have seen how great was the reverence which the 18th century paid to
+poetry, and how many different kinds of poetic experiment were going on,
+mostly by the imitative efforts of revivalists (Spenserians, Miltonians,
+Shakespeareans, Ballad-mongers, Scandinavian, Celtic, Gothic scholars
+and the like), but also in the direction of nature study and landscape
+description, while the more formal type of Augustan poetry, satire and
+description, in the direct succession of Pope, was by no means
+neglected.
+
+
+  Wordsworth.
+
+The most original vein in the 19th century was supplied by the
+Wordsworth group, the first manifesto of which appeared in the _Lyrical
+Ballads_ of 1798. William Wordsworth himself represents, in the first
+place, a revolutionary movement against the poetic diction of
+study-poets since the first acceptance of the Miltonic model by Addison.
+His ideal, imperfectly carried out, was a reversion to popular language
+of the utmost simplicity and directness. He added to this the idea of
+the enlargement of man by Nature, after Rousseau, and went further than
+this in the utterance of an essentially pantheistic desire to become
+part of its loveliness, to partake in a mystical sense of the loneliness
+of the mountain, the sound of falling water, the upper horizon of the
+clouds and the wind. To the growing multitude of educated people who
+were being pent in huge cities these ideas were far sweeter than the
+formalities of the old pastoral. Wordsworth's great discovery, perhaps,
+was that popular poetry need not be imitative, artificial or
+condescending, but that a simple story truthfully told of the passion,
+affliction or devotion of simple folk, and appealing to the primal
+emotion, is worthy of the highest effort of the poetic artist, and may
+achieve a poetic value far in advance of conventional descriptions of
+strikingly grouped incidents picturesquely magnified or rhetorically
+exaggerated. But Wordsworth's theories might have ended very much where
+they began, had it not been for their impregnation by the complementary
+genius of Coleridge.
+
+
+  Coleridge.
+
+Coleridge at his best was inspired by the supreme poetic gifts of
+passion, imagination, simplicity and mystery, combining form and colour,
+sound and sense, novelty and antiquity, realism and romanticism,
+scholarly ode and popular ballad. His three fragmentary poems _The Rime
+of the Ancient Mariner_, _Christabel_ and _Kubla Khan_ are the three
+spells and touchstones, constituting what is often regarded by the best
+judges as the high-standard of modern English poetry. Their subtleties
+and beauties irradiated the homelier artistic conceptions of Wordsworth,
+and the effect on him was permanent. Coleridge's inspiration, on the
+other hand, was irrecoverable; a physical element was due, no doubt, to
+the first exaltation indirectly due to the opium habit, but the moral
+influence was contributed by the Wordsworths. The steady will of the
+Dalesman seems to have constrained Coleridge's imagination from aimless
+wandering; his lofty and unwavering self-confidence inspired his friend
+with a similar energy. Away from Wordsworth after 1798, Coleridge lost
+himself in visions of work that always remained to be "transcribed," by
+one who had every poetic gift--save the rudimentary will for sustained
+and concentrated effort.
+
+
+  Lamb.
+
+  Hazlitt.
+
+  Leigh Hunt. De Quincey.
+
+Coleridge's more delicate sensibility to the older notes of that more
+musical era in English poetry which preceded the age of Dryden and Pope
+was due in no small measure to the luminous yet subtle intuitions of his
+friend Charles Lamb. Lamb's appreciation of the imaginative beauty
+inhumed in old English literature amounted to positive genius, and the
+persistence with which he brought his perception of the supreme
+importance of imagination and music in poetry to bear upon some of the
+finest creative minds of 1800, in talk, letters, selections and essays,
+brought about a gradual revolution in the aesthetic morality of the day.
+He paid little heed to the old rhetoric and the _ars poetica_ of
+classical comparison. His aim was rather to discover the mystery, the
+folk-seed and the old-world element, latent in so much of the finer
+ancient poetry and implicit in so much of the new. The _Essays of Elia_
+(1820-1825) are the binnacle of Lamb's vessel of exploration. Lamb and
+his great rival, William Hazlitt, both maintained that criticism was not
+so much an affair of learning, or an exercise of comparative and
+expository judgment, as an act of imagination in itself. Hazlitt became
+one of the master essayists, a fine critical analyst and declaimer,
+denouncing all insipidity and affectation, stirring the soul with
+metaphor, soaring easily and acquiring a momentum in his prose which
+often approximates to the impassioned utterance of Burke. Like Lamb, he
+wanted to measure his contemporaries by the Elizabethans, or still older
+masters, and he was deeply impressed by _Lyrical Ballads_. The new
+critics gradually found responsible auxiliaries, notably Leigh Hunt, De
+Quincey and Wilson of _Blackwood's_. Leigh Hunt, not very important in
+himself, was a cause of great authorship in others. He increased both
+the depth and area of modern literary sensibility. The world of books
+was to him an enchanted forest, in which every leaf had its own secret.
+He was the most catholic of critics, but he knew what was poor--at least
+in other people. As an essayist he is a feminine diminutive of Lamb,
+excellent in fancy and literary illustration, but far inferior in
+decisive insight or penetrative masculine wit. The Miltonic quality of
+impassioned pyramidal prose is best seen in Thomas De Quincey, of all
+the essayists of this age, or any age, the most diffuse, unequal and
+irreducible to rule, and which yet at times trembles upon the brink of a
+rhythmical sonority which seems almost to rival that of the greatest
+poetry. Leigh Hunt supplies a valuable link between Lamb, the sole
+external moderator of the Lake school, Byron, Shelley, and the junior
+branch of imaginative Aesthetic, represented by Keats.
+
+
+  Keats.
+
+John Keats (1795-1821), three years younger than Shelley, was the
+greatest poetic artist of his time, and would probably have surpassed
+all, but for his collapse of health at twenty-five. His vocation was as
+unmistakable as that of Chatterton, with whose youthful ardour his own
+had points of likeness. The two contemporary conceptions of him as a
+fatuous Cockney Bunthorne or as "a tadpole of the lakes" were equally
+erroneous. But Keats was in a sense the first of the virtuoso or
+aesthetic school (caricatured later by the formula of "Art for Art's
+sake"); artistic beauty was to him a kind of religion, his expression
+was more technical, less personal than that of his contemporaries, he
+was a conscious "romantic," and he travelled in the realms of gold with
+less impedimenta than any of his fellows. Byron had always himself to
+talk about, Wordsworth saw the universe too much through the medium of
+his own self-importance, Coleridge was a metaphysician, Shelley hymned
+Intellectual Beauty; Keats treats of his subject, "A Greek Urn," "A
+Nightingale," the season of "Autumn," in such a way that our thought
+centres not upon the poet but upon the enchantment of that which he
+sings. In his three great medievalising poems, "The Pot of Basil," "The
+Eve of St Agnes" and "La Belle Dame Sans Merci," even more than in his
+Odes, Keats is the forerunner of Tennyson, the greatest of the
+word-painters. But apart from his perfection of loveliness, he has a
+natural magic and a glow of humanity surpassing that of any other known
+poet. His poetry, immature as it was, gave a new beauty to the language.
+His loss was the greatest English Literature has sustained.
+
+
+  Landor.
+
+Before Tennyson, Rossetti and Morris, Keats's best disciples in the
+aesthetic school were Thomas Lovell Beddoes, George Dailey and Thomas
+Hood, the failure of whose "Midsummer Fairies" and "Fair Inez" drove him
+into that almost mortific vein of verbal humour which threw up here and
+there a masterpiece such as "The Song of a Shirt." The master virtuoso
+of English poetry in another department (the classical) during this and
+the following age was Walter Savage Landor, who threw off a few
+fragments of verse worthy of the Greek Anthology, but in his Dialogues
+or "Imaginary Conversations" evolved a kind of violent monologizing upon
+the commonplace which descends into the most dismal caverns of egotism.
+Carlyle furiously questioned his competence. Mr Shaw allows his
+classical amateurship and respectable strenuosity of character, but
+denounces his work, with a substratum of truth, as that of a
+"blathering, unreadable pedant."
+
+
+  Shelley.
+
+Among those, however, who found early nutriment in Landor's Miltonic
+_Gebir_ (1798) must be reckoned the most poetical of our poets. P.B.
+Shelley was a spirit apart, who fits into no group, the associate of
+Byron, but spiritually as remote from him as possible, hated by the
+rationalists of his age, and regarded by the poets with more pity than
+jealousy. He wrote only for poets, and had no public during his lifetime
+among general readers, by whom, however, he is now regarded as _the
+poet_ par excellence. In his conduct it must be admitted that he was in
+a sense, like Coleridge, irresponsible, but on the other hand his poetic
+energy was irresistible and all his work is technically of the highest
+order of excellence. In ideal beauties it is supreme; its great lack is
+its want of humanity; in this he is the opposite of Wordsworth who reads
+human nature into everything. Shelley, on the other hand, dehumanises
+things and makes them unearthly. He hangs a poem, like a cobweb or a
+silver cloud, on a horn of the crescent moon, and leaves it to dangle
+there in a current of ether. His quest was continuous for figures of
+beauty, figures, however, more ethereal and less sensuous than those in
+Keats; having obtained such an idea he passed it again and again through
+the prism of his mind, in talk, letters, prefaces, poems. The deep sense
+of the mystery of words and their lightest variations in the skein of
+poetry, half forgotten since Milton's time, had been recovered in a
+great measure by Coleridge and Wordsworth since 1798; Lamb, too, and
+Hazlitt, and, perhaps, Hogg were in the secret, while Keats had its
+open sesame on his lips ere he died. The union of poetic emotion with
+verbal music of the greatest perfection was the aim of all, but none of
+these masters made words breathe and sing with quite the same
+spontaneous ease and fervour that Shelley attained in some of the lyrics
+written between twenty-four and thirty, such as "The Cloud," "The
+Skylark," the "Ode of the West Wind," "The Sensitive Plant," the "Indian
+Serenade."
+
+The path of the new romantic school had been thoroughly prepared during
+the age of Gray, Cowper and Burns, and it won its triumphs with little
+resistance and no serious convulsions. The opposition was noisy, but its
+representative character has been exaggerated. In the meantime, however,
+the old-fashioned school and the Popean couplet, the Johnsonian dignity
+of reflection and the Goldsmithian ideal of generalized description,
+were well maintained by George Crabbe (1754-1832), "though Nature's
+sternest painter yet the best," a worsted-stockinged Pope and austere
+delineator of village misdoing and penurious age, and Samuel Rogers
+(1763-1855), the banker poet, liberal in sentiment, extreme Tory in
+form, and dilettante delineator of Italy to the music of the heroic
+couplet. Robert Southey, Thomas Campbell and Thomas Moore were a dozen
+years younger and divided their allegiance between two schools. In the
+main, however, they were still poeticisers of the orthodox old pattern,
+though all wrote a few songs of exceptional merit, and Campbell
+especially by defying the old anathemas.
+
+
+  Byron.
+
+The great champion of the Augustan masters was himself the architect of
+revolution. First the idol and then the outcast of respectable society,
+Lord Byron sought relief in new cadences and new themes for his poetic
+talent. He was, however, essentially a history painter or a satirist in
+verse. He had none of the sensitive aesthetic taste of a Keats, none of
+the spiritual ardour of a Shelley, or of the elemental beauty or
+artistry of Wordsworth or Coleridge. He manages the pen (said Scott)
+with the careless and negligent ease of a man of quality. The "Lake
+Poets" sought to create an impression deep, calm and profound, Byron to
+start a theme which should enable him to pose, travel, astonish,
+bewilder and confound as lover of daring, freedom, passion and revolt.
+For the subtler symphonic music--that music of the spheres to which the
+ears of poets alone are attuned--Byron had an imperfect sympathy. The
+delicate ear is often revolted in his poetry by the vices of impromptu
+work. He steadily refused to polish, to file or to furbish--the damning,
+inevitable sign of a man born to wear a golden tassel. "I am like the
+tiger. If I miss the first spring I go growling back to the jungle."
+Subtlety is sacrificed to freshness and vigour. The exultation, the
+breadth, the sweeping magnificence of his effects are consequently most
+appreciated abroad, where the ineradicable flaws of his style have no
+power to annoy.
+
+The European fame of Byron was from the first something quite unique. At
+Missolonghi people ran through the streets crying "The great man is
+dead--he is gone." His corpse was refused entrance at Westminster; but
+the poet was taken to the inmost heart of Russia, Poland, Spain, Italy,
+France, Germany, Scandinavia, and among the Slavonic nations generally.
+In Italy his influence is plainly seen in Berchet, Leopardi, Giusti, and
+even Carducci. In Spain the Myrtle Society was founded in Byron's
+honour. Hugo in his _Orientales_ traversed Greece. Chateaubriand joined
+the Greek Committee. Delavigne dedicated his verse to Byron; Lamartine
+wrote another canto to _Childe Harold_; Merimee is interpenetrated by
+Byronesque feeling which also animates the best work of Heine, Pushkin,
+Lermontov, and Mickievicz, and even De Musset.
+
+
+  Criticism.
+
+Like Scott, Byron was a man of two eras, and not too much ahead of his
+time to hold the Press-Dragon in fee. His supremacy and that of his
+satellites Moore and Campbell were championed by the old papers and by
+the two new blatant Quarterlies, whose sails were filled not with the
+light airs of the future but by the Augustan "gales" of the classical
+past. The distinction of this new phalanx of old-fashioned critics who
+wanted to confer literature by university degree was that they wrote as
+gentlemen for gentlemen: they first gave criticism in England a
+respectable shakedown. Francis Jeffrey, a man of extraordinary ability
+and editor of _The Edinburgh Review_ from 1803 to 1829 (with the
+mercurial Sydney Smith, the first of English conversationists, as his
+aide-de-camp), exercised a powerful influence as a standardizer of the
+second rate. He was one of the first of the critics to grasp firmly the
+main idea of literary evolution--the importance of time, environment,
+race and historical development upon the literary landscape; but he was
+vigorously aristocratic in his preferences, a hater of mystery,
+symbolism or allegory, an instinctive individualist of intolerant
+pattern. His chief weapons against the new ideas were social superiority
+and omniscience, and he used both unsparingly. The strident political
+partisanship of the _Edinburgh_ raised up within six years a serious
+rival in the _Quarterly_, which was edited in turn by the good-natured
+pedagogue William Gifford and by Scott's extremely able son-in-law John
+Gibson Lockhart, the "scorpion" of the infant _Blackwood_. With the aid
+of the remnant of the old anti-Jacobins, Canning, Ellis, Barrow,
+Southey, Croker, Hayward, Apperley and others, the theory of _Quarterly_
+infallibility was carried to its highest point of development about
+1845.
+
+The historical and critical work of the _Quarterly_ era, as might be
+expected, was appropriate to this gentlemanly censorship. The thinkers
+of the day were economic or juristic--Bentham, the great codifier;
+Malthus, whose theory of population gave Darwin his main impulse to
+theorise; and Mackintosh, whose liberal opposition to Burke deserved a
+better fate than it has ever perhaps received. The historians were
+mainly of the second class--the judicial Hallam, the ornate Roscoe, the
+plodding Lingard, the accomplished Milman, the curious Isaac D'Israeli,
+the academic Bishop Thirlwall. Mitford and Grote may be considered in
+the light of Tory and Radical historical pamphleteers, but Grote's work
+has the much larger measure of permanent value. As the historian of
+British India, James Mill's industry led him beyond his thesis of
+Benthamism in practice. Sir William Napier's heroic picture of the
+Peninsular War is strongly tinged by bias against the Tory
+administration of 1808-1813; but it conserves some imperishable scenes
+of war. Some of the most magnetic prose of the Regency Period was
+contained in the copious and insincere but profoundly emotionalising
+pamphlets of the self-taught Surrey labourer William Cobbett, in whom
+Diderot's paradox of a comedian is astonishingly illustrated. Lockhart's
+Lives of Burns and of Sir Walter Scott--the last perhaps the most
+memorable prose monument of its epoch--appeared in 1828 and 1838, and
+both formed the subjects of Thomas Carlyle in the _Edinburgh Review_,
+where, under the unwelcome discipline of Jeffrey, the new prophet worked
+nobly though in harness.
+
+
+  Scott.
+
+Great as the triumph of the Romantic masters and the new ideas was, it
+is in the ranks of the Old School after all that we have to look for the
+greatest single figure in the literature of this age. Except in the
+imitative vein of ballad or folk-song, the poetry of Sir Walter Scott is
+never quite first-rate. It is poetry for repetition rather than for
+close meditation or contemplation, and resembles a military band more
+than a full orchestra. Nor will his prose bear careful analysis. It is a
+good servant, no more. When we consider, however, not the intensity but
+the vast extent, range and versatility of Scott's powers, we are
+constrained to assign him the first place in his own age, if not that in
+the next seat to Shakespeare in the whole of the English literary
+Pantheon. Like Shakespeare, he made humour and a knowledge of human
+nature his first instruments in depicting the past. Unlike Shakespeare,
+he was a born antiquary, and he had a great (perhaps excessive) belief
+in _mise en scene_, costume, patois and scenic properties generally. His
+portraiture, however, is Shakespearean in its wisdom and maturity, and,
+although he wrote very rapidly, it must be remembered that his mind had
+been prepared by strenuous work for twenty years as a storehouse of
+material in which nothing was handled until it had been carefully
+mounted by the imagination, classified in the memory, and tested by
+experimental use. Once he has got the imagination of the reader well
+grounded to earth, there is nothing he loves better than telling a good
+story. Of detail he is often careless. But he trusted to a full wallet,
+and rightly, for mainly by his abundance he raised the literature of the
+novel to its highest point of influence, breathing into it a new spirit,
+giving it a fulness and universality of life, a romantic charm, a
+dignity and elevation, and thereby a coherence, a power and predominance
+which it never had before.
+
+In Scott the various lines of 18th-century conservatism and 19th-century
+romantic revival most wonderfully converge. His intense feeling for Long
+Ago made him a romantic almost from his cradle. The master faculties of
+history and humour made a strong conservative of him; but his Toryism
+was of a very different spring from that of Coleridge or Wordsworth. It
+was not a reaction from disappointment in the sequel of 1789, nor was it
+the result of reasoned conviction. It was indwelling, rooted deeply in
+the fibres of the soil, to which Scott's attachment was passionate, and
+nourished as from a source by ancestral sentiment and "heather"
+tradition. This sentiment made Scott a victorious pioneer of the
+Romantic movement all over Europe. At the same time we must remember
+that, with all his fondness for medievalism, he was fundamentally a
+thorough 18th-century Scotsman and successor of Bailie Nicol Jarvie: a
+worshipper of good sense, toleration, modern and expert governmental
+ideas, who valued the past chiefly by way of picturesque relief, and was
+thoroughly alive to the benefit of peaceful and orderly rule, and deeply
+convinced that we are much better off as we are than we could have been
+in the days of King Richard or good Queen Bess. Scott had the mind of an
+enlightened 18th-century administrator and statesmen who had made a
+fierce hobby of armour and old ballads. To expect him to treat of
+intense passion or romantic medievalism as Charlotte Bronte or Dante
+Gabriel Rossetti would have treated them is as absurd as to expect to
+find the sentiments of a Mrs Browning blossoming amidst the horse-play
+of _Tom Jones_ or _Harry Lorrequer_. Scott has few niceties or secrets:
+he was never subtle, morbid or fantastic. His handling is ever broad,
+vigorous, easy, careless, healthy and free. Yet nobly simple and
+straightforward as man and writer were, there is something very complex
+about his literary legacy, which has gone into all lands and created
+bigoted enemies (Carlyle, Borrow) as well as unexpected friends
+(Hazlitt, Newman, Jowett); and we can seldom be sure whether his
+influence is reactionary or the reverse. There has always been something
+semi-feudal about it. The "shirra" has a demesne in letters as broad as
+a countryside, a band of mesne vassals and a host of Eildon hillsmen,
+Tweedside cottiers, minor feudatories and forest retainers attached to
+the "Abbotsford Hunt." Scott's humour, humanity and insistence upon the
+continuity of history transformed English literature profoundly.
+
+
+  Transition fiction.
+
+Scott set himself to coin a quarter of a million sterling out of the new
+continent of which he felt himself the Columbus. He failed (quite
+narrowly), but he made the Novel the paymaster of literature for at
+least a hundred years. His immediate contemporaries and successors were
+not particularly great. John Galt (1779-1839), Susan Ferrier (1782-1854)
+and D.M. Moir (1798-1851) all attempted the delineation of Scottish
+scenes with a good deal of shrewdness of insight and humour. The main
+bridge from Scott to the great novelists of the 'forties and 'fifties
+was supplied by sporting, military, naval and political novels,
+represented in turn by Surtees, Smith, Hook, Maxwell, Lever, Marryat,
+Cooper, Morier, Ainsworth, Bulwer Lytton and Disraeli. Surtees gave
+all-important hints to _Pickwick_, Marryat developed grotesque
+character-drawing, Ainsworth and Bulwer attempted new effects in
+criminology and contemporary glitter. Disraeli in the 'thirties was one
+of the foremost romantic wits who had yet attempted the novel. Early in
+the 'forties he received the laying-on of hands from the Young England
+party, and attempted to propagandize the good tidings of his mission in
+_Coningsby_ and _Sybil_, novels full of _entrainement_ and promise, if
+not of actual genius. Unhappily the author was enmeshed in the fatal
+drolleries of the English party system, and _Lothair_ is virtually a
+confession of abandoned ideals. He completes the forward party in
+fiction; Jane Austen (1775-1815) stands to this as Crabbe and Rogers to
+Coleridge and Shelley. She represents the fine flower of the expiring
+18th century. Scott could do the trumpet notes on the organ. She fingers
+the fine ivory flutes. She combines self-knowledge and artistic
+reticence with a complete tact and an absolute lucidity of vision within
+the area prescribed. Within the limits of a park wall in a country
+parish, absolutely oblivious of Europe and the universe, her art is
+among the finest and most finished that our literature has to offer. In
+irony she had no rival at that period. But the trimness of her plots and
+the delicacy of her miniature work have affinities in Maria Edgeworth,
+Harriet Martineau and Mary Russell Mitford, three excellent writers of
+pure English prose. There is a finer aroma of style in the contemporary
+"novels" of Thomas Love Peacock (1785-1866). These, however, are rather
+tournaments of talk than novels proper, releasing a flood of satiric
+portraiture upon the idealism of the day--difficult to be apprehended in
+perfection save by professed students. Peacock's style had an
+appreciable influence upon his son-in-law George Meredith (1828-1909).
+His philosophy is for the most part Tory irritability exploding in
+ridicule; but Peacock was one of the most lettered men of his age, and
+his flouts and jeers smack of good reading, old wine and respectable
+prejudices. In these his greatest successor was George Borrow
+(1803-1881), who used three volumes of half-imaginary autobiography and
+road-faring in strange lands as a sounding-board for a kind of romantic
+revolt against the century of comfort, toleration, manufactures,
+mechanical inventions, cheap travel and commercial expansion,
+unaccompanied (as he maintains) by any commensurate growth of human
+wisdom, happiness, security or dignity.
+
+
+  The Victorian era.
+
+In the year of Queen Victoria's accession most of the great writers of
+the early part of the century, whom we may denominate as "late
+Georgian," were silent. Scott, Byron, Shelley, Keats, Coleridge, Lamb,
+Sheridan, Hazlitt, Mackintosh, Crabbe and Cobbett were gone. Wordsworth,
+Southey, Campbell, Moore, Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, De Quincey, Miss
+Edgeworth, Miss Mitford, Leigh Hunt, Brougham, Samuel Rogers were still
+living, but the vital portion of their work was already done. The
+principal authors who belong equally to the Georgian and Victorian eras
+are Landor, Bulwer, Marryat, Hallam, Milman and Disraeli; none of whom,
+with the exception of the last, approaches the first rank in either. The
+significant work of Tennyson, the Brownings, Carlyle, Dickens,
+Thackeray, the Brontes, George Eliot, Mrs Gaskell, Trollope, the
+Kingsleys, Spencer, Mill, Darwin, Ruskin, Grote, Macaulay, Freeman,
+Froude, Lecky, Buckle, Green, Maine, Borrow, FitzGerald, Arnold,
+Rossetti, Swinburne, Meredith, Hardy, Stevenson, Morris, Newman, Pater,
+Jefferies--the work of these writers may be termed conclusively
+Victorian; it gives the era a stamp of its own and distinguishes it as
+the most varied in intellectual riches in the whole course of our
+literature. Circumstances have seldom in the world been more favourable
+to a great outburst of literary energy. The nation was secure and
+prosperous to an unexampled degree, conscious of the will and the power
+to expand still further. The canons of taste were still aristocratic.
+Books were made and unmade according to a regular standard. Literature
+was the one form of art which the English understood, in which they had
+always excelled since 1579, and in which their originality was supreme.
+To the native genius for poetry was now added the advantage of materials
+for a prose which in lucidity and versatility should surpass even that
+of Goldsmith and Hazlitt. The diversity of form and content of this
+great literature was commensurate with the development of human
+knowledge and power which marked its age. In this and some other
+respects it resembles the extraordinary contemporary development in
+French literature which began under the reign of Louis Philippe. The one
+signally disconcerting thing about the great Victorian writers is their
+amazing prolixity. Not content with two or three long books, they write
+whole literatures. A score of volumes, each as long as the Bible or
+Shakespeare, barely represents the output of such authors as Carlyle,
+Ruskin, Froude, Dickens, Thackeray, Newman, Spencer or Trollope. They
+obtained vast quantities of new readers, for the middle class was
+beginning to read with avidity; but the quality of brevity, the
+knowledge when to stop, and with it the older classic conciseness and
+the nobler Hellenic idea of a perfect measure--these things were as
+though they had not been. Meanwhile, the old schools were broken up and
+the foolscap addressed to the old masters. Singers, entertainers,
+critics and historians abound. Every man may say what is in him in the
+phrases that he likes best, and the sole motto that compels is "every
+style is permissible except the style that is tiresome." The old models
+are strangely discredited, and the only conventions which hold are those
+concerning the subjects which English delicacy held to be tabooed. These
+conventions were inordinately strict, and were held to include all the
+unrestrained, illicit impulses of love and all the more violent
+aberrations from the Christian code of faith and ethics. Infidel
+speculation and the liaisons of lawless love (which had begun to form
+the staple of the new French fiction--hence regarded by respectable
+English critics of the time as profoundly vitiated and scandalous) had
+no recognized existence and were totally ignored in literature designed
+for general reading. The second or Goody-two-Shoes convention remained
+strictly in force until the penultimate decade of the 19th century, and
+was acquiesced in or at least submitted to by practically all the
+greatest writers of the Victorian age. The great poets and novelists of
+that day easily out-topped their fellows. Society had no difficulty in
+responding to the summons of its literary leaders. Nor was their fame
+partial, social or sectional. The great novelists of early Victorian
+days were aristocratic and democratic at once. Their popularity was
+universal within the limits of the language and beyond it. The greatest
+of men were men of imagination rather than men of ideas, but such
+sociological and moral ideas as they derived from their environment were
+poured helter-skelter into their novels, which took the form of huge
+pantechnicon magazines. Another distinctive feature of the Victorian
+novel is the position it enabled women to attain in literature, a
+position attained by them in creative work neither before nor since.
+
+
+  Dickens.
+
+The novelists to a certain extent created their own method like the
+great dramatists, but such rigid prejudices or conventions as they found
+already in possession they respected without demur. Both Dickens and
+Thackeray write as if they were almost entirely innocent of the
+existence of sexual vice. As artists and thinkers they were both
+formless. But the enormous self-complacency of the England of their
+time, assisted alike by the part played by the nation from 1793 to 1815,
+evangelicalism, free trade (which was originally a system of
+super-nationalism) and later, evolution, generated in them a great
+benignity and a strong determination towards a liberal and humanitarian
+philosophy. Despite, however, the diffuseness of the envelope and the
+limitations of horizon referred to, the unbookish and almost unlettered
+genius of Charles Dickens (1812-1870), the son of a poor lower
+middle-class clerk, almost entirely self-educated, has asserted for
+itself the foremost place in the literary history of the period. Dickens
+broke every rule, rioted in absurdity and bathed in extravagance. But
+everything he wrote was received with an almost frantic joy by those who
+recognized his creations as deifications of themselves, his scenery as
+drawn by one of the quickest and intensest observers that ever lived,
+and his drollery as an accumulated dividend from the treasury of human
+laughter. Dickens's mannerisms were severe, but his geniality as a
+writer broke down every obstruction, reduced Jeffrey to tears and Sydney
+Smith to helpless laughter.
+
+
+  Thackeray.
+
+The novel in France was soon to diverge and adopt the form of an
+anecdote illustrating the traits of a very small group of persons, but
+the English novel, owing mainly to the predilection of Dickens for those
+Gargantuan entertainers of his youth, Fielding and Smollett, was to
+remain anchored to the history. William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863)
+was even more historical than Dickens, and most of his leading
+characters are provided with a detailed genealogy. Dickens's great
+works, excepting _David Copperfield_ and _Great Expectations_, had all
+appeared when Thackeray made his mark in 1848 with _Vanity Fair_, and
+Thackeray follows most of his predecessor's conventions, including his
+conventional religion, ethics and politics, but he avoids his worse
+faults of theatricality. He never forces the note or lashes himself into
+fury or sentimentality; he limits himself in satire to the polite sphere
+which he understands, he is a great master of style and possesses every
+one of its fairy gifts except brevity. He creates characters and scenes
+worthy of Dickens, but within a smaller range and without the same
+abundance. He is a traveller and a cosmopolitan, while Dickens is
+irredeemably Cockney. He is often content to criticize or annotate or to
+preach upon some congenial theme, while Dickens would be in the flush of
+humorous creation. His range, it must be remembered, is wide, in most
+respects a good deal wider than his great contemporary's, for he is at
+once novelist, pamphleteer, essayist, historian, critic, and the writer
+of some of the most delicate and sentimental _vers d'occasion_ in the
+language.
+
+
+  Charlotte Bronte.
+
+  George Eliot.
+
+  Kingsley. Trollope. Reade. Meredith. Hardy.
+
+The absorption of England in itself is shown with exceptional force in
+the case of Thackeray, who was by nature a cosmopolitan, yet whose work
+is so absorbed with the structure of English society as to be almost
+unintelligible to foreigners. The exploration of the human heart and
+conscience in relation to the new problems of the time had been almost
+abandoned by the novel since Richardson's time. It was for woman to
+attempt to resolve these questions, and with the aid of powerful
+imagination to propound very different conclusions. The conviction of
+Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855) was that the mutual passionate love of one
+man and one woman is sacred and creates a centre of highest life, energy
+and joy in the world. George Eliot (1819-1880), on the other hand,
+detected a blind and cruel egoism in all such ecstasy of individual
+passion. It was in the autumn of 1847 that _Jane Eyre_ shocked the
+primness of the coteries by the unconcealed ardour of its love passages.
+Twelve years later _Adam Bede_ astonished the world by the intensity of
+its ethical light and shade. The introspective novel was now very
+gradually to establish a supremacy over the historical. The romance of
+the Brontes' forlorn life colours _Jane Eyre_, colours _Wuthering
+Heights_ and colours _Villette_; their work is inseparable from their
+story to an extent that we perhaps hardly realize. George Eliot did not
+receive this adventitious aid from romance, and her work was, perhaps,
+unduly burdened by ethical diatribe, scientific disquisition and moral
+and philosophical asides. It is more than redeemed, however, by her
+sovereign humour, by the actual truth in the portrayal of that
+absolutely self-centred Midland society of the 'thirties and 'forties,
+and by the moral significance which she extracts from the smaller
+actions and more ordinary characters of life by means of sympathy,
+imagination and a deep human compassion. Her novels are generally
+admitted to have obtained twin summits in _Adam Bede_ (1859) and
+_Middlemarch_ (1872). An even nicer delineator of the most delicate
+shades of the curiously remote provincial society of that day was Mrs
+Gaskell (1810-1865), whose _Cranford_ and _Wives and Daughters_ attain
+to the perfection of easy, natural and unaffected English narrative.
+Enthusiasm and a picturesque boyish ardour and partisanship are the
+chief features of _Westward Ho!_ and the other vivid and stirring novels
+of Charles Kingsley (1819-1875), to which a subtler gift in the
+discrimination of character must be added in the case of his brother
+Henry Kingsley (1830-1876). Charles, however, was probably more
+accomplished as a poet than in the to him too exciting operation of
+taking sides in a romance. The novels of Trollope, Reade and Wilkie
+Collins are, generally speaking, a secondary product of the literary
+forces which produced the great fiction of the 'fifties. The two last
+were great at structure and sensation: Trollope dogs the prose of
+every-day life with a certainty and a clearness that border upon
+inspiration. The great novels of George Meredith range between 1859 and
+1880, stories of characters deeply interesting who reveal themselves to
+us by flashes and trust to our inspiration to do the rest. The wit, the
+sparkle, the entrain and the horizon of these books, from _Richard
+Feverel_ to the master analysis of _The Egoist_, have converted the
+study of Meredith into an exact science. Thomas Hardy occupies a place
+scarcely inferior to Meredith's as a stylist, a discoverer of new
+elements of the plaintive and the wistful in the vanishing of past
+ideals, as a depicter of the old southern rustic life of England and its
+tragi-comedy, in a series of novels which take rank with the greatest.
+
+
+  Tennyson.
+
+If Victorian literature had something more than a paragon in Dickens, it
+had its paragon too in the poet Tennyson. The son of a Lincolnshire
+parson of squirearchal descent, Alfred Tennyson consecrated himself to
+the vocation of poesy with the same unalterable conviction that had
+characterized Milton, Pope, Thomson, Wordsworth and Keats, and that was
+yet to signalize Rossetti and Swinburne, and he became easily the
+greatest virtuoso of his time in his art. To lyrics and idylls of a
+luxurious and exotic picturesqueness he gave a perfection of technique
+which criticism has chastened only to perfect in such miracles of
+description as "The Lotus Eaters," "The Dream of Fair Women," and "Morte
+d'Arthur." He received as vapour the sense of uneasiness as to the
+problems of the future which pervaded his generation, and in the elegies
+and lyrics of _In Memoriam_, in _The Princess_ and in _Maud_ he gave
+them back to his contemporaries in a running stream, which still
+sparkles and radiates amid the gloom. After the lyrical monodrama of
+_Maud_ in 1855 he devoted his flawless technique of design, harmony and
+rhythm to works primarily of decoration and design (_The Idylls of the
+King_), and to experiments in metrical drama for which the time was not
+ripe; but his main occupation was varied almost to the last by lyrical
+blossoms such as "Frater Ave," "Roman Virgil," or "Crossing the Bar,"
+which, like "Tears, Idle Tears" and "O that 'twere possible," embody the
+aspirations of Flaubert towards a perfected art of language shaping as
+no other verse probably can.
+
+
+  Browning.
+
+Few, perhaps, would go now to _In Memoriam_ as to an oracle for
+illumination and guidance as many of Queen Victoria's contemporaries
+did, from the Queen herself downwards. And yet it will take very long
+ere its fascination fades. In language most musical it rearticulates the
+gospel of Sorrow and Love, and it remains still a pathetic expression of
+emotions, sentiments and truths which, as long as human nature remains
+the same, and as long as calamity, sorrow and death are busy in the
+world, must be always repeating themselves. Its power, perhaps, we may
+feel of this poem and indeed of most of Tennyson's poetry, is not quite
+equal to its charm. And if we feel this strongly, we shall regard Robert
+Browning as the typical poet of the Victorian era. His thought has been
+compared to a galvanic battery for the use of spiritual paralytics. The
+grave defect of Browning is that his ideas, however excellent, are so
+seldom completely won; they are left in a twilight, or even a darkness
+more Cimmerian than that to which the worst of the virtuosi dedicate
+their ideas. Similarly, even in his "Dramatic Romances and Lyrics"
+(1845) or his "Men and Women" (1855) he rarely depicts action, seldom
+goes further than interpreting the mind of man as he approaches action.
+If Dickens may be described as the eye of Victorian literature, Tennyson
+the ear attuned to the subtlest melodies, Swinburne the reed to which
+everything blew to music, Thackeray the velvet pulpit-cushion, Eliot the
+impending brow, and Meredith the cerebral dome, then Browning might well
+be described as the active brain itself eternally expounding some point
+of view remote in time and place from its own. Tennyson was ostensibly
+and always a poet in his life and his art, in his blue cloak and
+sombrero, his mind and study alike stored with intaglios of the thought
+of all ages, always sounding and remodelling his verses so that they
+shall attain the maximum of sweetness and symmetry. He was a recluse.
+Browning on the other hand dissembled his poethood, successfully
+disguised his muse under the semblance of a stock merchant, was civil to
+his fellowmen, and though nervous with bores, encountered every one he
+met as if he were going to receive more than he could impart. In
+Tennyson's poetry we are always discovering new beauties. In Browning's
+we are finding new blemishes. Why he chose rhythm and metre for
+seven-eighths of his purpose is somewhat of a mystery. His protest
+against the materialistic view of life is, perhaps, a more valid one
+than Tennyson's; he is at pains to show us the noble elements valuable
+in spite of failure to achieve tangible success. He realizes that the
+greater the man, the greater is the failure, yet protests unfailingly
+against the despondent or materialist view of life. His nimble
+appreciation of character and motive attracts the attentive curiosity of
+highly intellectual people; but the question recurs with some
+persistence as to whether poetry, after all, was the right medium for
+the expression of these views.
+
+
+  Ruskin. Morris. Symonds. Pater.
+
+Many of Browning's ideas and fertilizations will, perhaps, owing to the
+difficulty and uncertainty which attaches to their form, penetrate the
+future indirectly as the stimulant of other men's work. This is
+especially the case with those remarkable writers who have for the first
+time given the fine arts a considerable place in English literature,
+notably John Ruskin (_Modern Painters_, 1842, _Seven Lamps_, 1849,
+_Stones of Venice_, 1853), William Morris, John Addington Symonds and
+Walter Pater. Browning, it is true, shared the discipleship of the first
+two with Kingsley and Carlyle. But Ruskin outlived all discipleships and
+transcended almost all the prose writers of his period in a style the
+elements of emotional power in which still preserve their secret.
+
+
+  Arnold.
+
+More a poet of doubt than either Tennyson or the college friend, A.H.
+Clough, whose loss he lamented in one of the finest pastoral elegies of
+all ages, Matthew Arnold takes rank with Tennyson, Browning and
+Swinburne alone among the Dii Majores of Victorian poetry. He is perhaps
+a disciple of Wordsworth even more than of Goethe, and he finds in
+Nature, described in rarefied though at times intensely beautiful
+phrase, the balm for the unrest of man's unsatisfied yearnings, the
+divorce between soul and intellect, and the sense of contrast between
+the barren toil of man and the magic operancy of nature. His most
+delicate and intimate strains are tinged with melancholy. The infinite
+desire of what might have been, the _lacrimae rerum_, inspires
+"Resignation," one of the finest pieces in his volume of 1849 (_The
+Strayed Reveller_). In the deeply-sighed lines of "Dover Beach" in 1867
+it is associated with his sense of the decay of faith. The dreaming
+garden trees, the full moon and the white evening star of the beautiful
+English-coloured _Thyrsis_ evoke the same mood, and render Arnold one of
+the supreme among elegiac poets. But his poetry is the most individual
+in the circle and admits the popular heart never for an instant. As a
+popularizer of Renan and of the view of the Bible, not as a talisman but
+as a literature, and, again, as a chastener of his contemporaries by
+means of the iteration of a few telling phrases about philistines,
+barbarians, sweetness and light, sweet reasonableness, high seriousness,
+Hebraism and Hellenism, "young lions of the _Daily Telegraph_," and "the
+note of provinciality," Arnold far eclipsed his fame as a poet during
+his lifetime. His crusade of banter against the bad civilization of his
+own class was one of the most audaciously successful things of the kind
+ever accomplished. But all his prose theorizing was excessively
+superficial. In poetry he sounded a note which the prose Arnold seemed
+hopelessly unable ever to fathom.
+
+
+  Rossetti.
+
+It is easier to speak of the virtuoso group who derived their first
+incitement to poetry from Chatterton, Keats and the early exotic ballads
+of Tennyson, far though these yet were from attaining the perfection in
+which they now appear after half a century of assiduous correction. The
+chief of them were Dante Gabriel Rossetti, his sister Christina, William
+Morris and Algernon Charles Swinburne. The founders of this school,
+which took and acquired the name Pre-Raphaelite, were profoundly
+impressed by the Dante revival and by the study of the early Florentine
+masters. Rossetti himself was an accomplished translator from Dante and
+from Villon. He preferred Keats to Shelley because (like himself) he had
+no philosophy. The 18th century was to him as if it had never been, he
+dislikes Greek lucidity and the open air, and prefers lean medieval
+saints, spectral images and mystic loves. The passion of these students
+was retrospective; they wanted to revive the literature of a forgotten
+past, Italian, Scandinavian, French, above all, medieval. To do this is
+a question of enthusiastic experiment and adventure. Rossetti leads the
+way with his sonnets and ballads. Christina follows with _Goblin
+Market_, though she subsequently, with a perfected technique, writes
+poetry more and more confined to the religious emotions. William Morris
+publishes in 1858 his _Defence of Guenevere_, followed in ten years by
+_The Earthly Paradise_, a collection of metrical tales, which hang in
+the sunshine like tapestries woven of golden thread, where we should
+naturally expect the ordinary paperhanging of prose romance.
+
+
+  Swinburne.
+
+From the verdurous gloom of the studio with its mysterious and occult
+properties in which Rossetti compounded his colours, Morris went forth
+shortly to chant and then to narrate Socialist songs and parables.
+Algernon Charles Swinburne set forth to scandalize the critics of 1866
+with the roses and lilies of vice and white death in _Poems and
+Ballads_, which was greeted with howls and hisses, and reproach against
+a "fleshly school of modern poetry." Scandalous verses these were,
+rioting on the crests of some of these billows of song. More discerning
+persons perceived the harmless impersonal unreality and mischievous
+youthful extravagance of all these Cyprian outbursts, that the poems
+were the outpourings of a young singer up to the chin in the Pierian
+flood, and possessed by a poetic energy so urgent that it could not wait
+to apply the touchstones of reality or the chastening planes of
+experience. Swinburne far surpassed the promoters of this exotic school
+in technical excellence, and in _Atalanta in Calydon_ and its successors
+may be said to have widened the bounds of English song, to have created
+a new music and liberated a new harmonic scale in his verse. Of the two
+elements which, superadded to a consummate technique, compose the great
+poet, intensity of imagination and intensity of passion, the latter in
+Swinburne much predominated. The result was a great abundance of heat
+and glow and not perhaps quite enough defining light. Hence the tendency
+to be incomprehensible, so fatal in its fascination for the poets of the
+last century, which would almost justify the title of the triumvirs of
+twilight to three of the greatest. It is this incomprehensibility which
+alienates the poet from the popular understanding and confines his
+audience to poets, students and scholars. Poetry is often comparable to
+a mountain range with its points and aiguilles, its peaks and crags, its
+domes and its summits. But Swinburne's poetry, filled with the sound and
+movement of great waters, is as incommunicable as the sea. Trackless and
+almost boundless, it has no points, no definite summits. The poet never
+seems to know precisely when he is going to stop. His metrical flow is
+wave-like, beautiful and rather monotonous, inseparable from the general
+effect. His endings seem due to an exhaustion of rhythm rather than to
+an exhaustion of sense. A cessation of meaning is less perceptible than
+a cessation of magnificent sound.
+
+
+  Newman and the Church.
+
+Akin in some sense to the attempt made to get behind the veil and to
+recapture the old charms and spells of the middle ages, to discover the
+open sesame of the _Morte D'Arthur_ and the _Mabinogion_ and to reveal
+the old Celtic and monastic life which once filled and dominated our
+islands, was the attempt to overthrow the twin gods of the 'forties and
+'fifties, state-Protestantism and the sanctity of trade. The curiously
+assorted Saint Georges who fought these monsters were John Henry Newman
+and Thomas Carlyle. The first cause of the movement was, of course, the
+anomalous position of the Anglican Church, which had become a province
+of the oligarchy officered by younger sons. It stood apart from foreign
+Protestantism; its ignorance of Rome, and consequently of what it
+protested against, was colossal; it was conscious of itself only as an
+establishment--it had produced some very great men since the days of the
+non-jurors, when it had mislaid its historical conscience, but these had
+either been great scholars in their studies, such as Berkeley, Butler,
+Warburton, Thomas Scott, or revivalists, evangelicals and missionaries,
+such as Wilson, Wesley, Newton, Romaine, Cecil, Venn, Martyn, who were
+essentially Congregationalists rather than historical Churchmen. A new
+spiritual beacon was to be raised; an attempt was to be made to realize
+the historical and cosmic aspects of the English Church, to examine its
+connexions, its descent and its title-deeds. In this attempt Newman was
+to spend the best years of his life.
+
+The growth of liberal opinions and the denudation of the English Church
+of spiritual and historical ideas, leaving "only pulpit orators at
+Clapham and Islington and two-bottle orthodox" to defend it, seemed to
+involve the continued existence of Anglicanism in any form in
+considerable doubt. Swift had said at the commencement of the 18th
+century that if an act was passed for the extirpation of the gospel,
+bank stock might decline 1%; but a century later it is doubtful whether
+the passing of such a bill would have left any trace, however
+evanescent, upon the stability of the money market. The Anglican _via
+media_ had enemies not only in the philosophical radicals, but also in
+the new caste of men of science. Perhaps, as J.A. Froude suggests, these
+combined enemies, _The Edinburgh Review_, Brougham, Mackintosh, the
+Reform Ministry, Low Church philosophy and the London University were
+not so very terrible after all. The Church was a vested interest which
+had a greater stake in the country and was harder to eradicate than they
+imagined. But it had nothing to give to the historian and the idealist.
+They were right to fight for what their souls craved after and found in
+the Church of Andrewes, Herbert, Ken and Waterland. Belief in the divine
+mission of the Church lingered on in the minds of such men as Alexander
+Knox or his disciple Bishop Jebb; but few were prepared to answer the
+question--"What is the Church as spoken of in England? Is it the Church
+of Christ?"--and the answers were various. Hooker had said it was "the
+nation"; and in entirely altered circumstances, with some
+qualifications, Dr Arnold said the same. It was "the Establishment"
+according to the lawyers and politicians, both Whig and Tory. It was an
+invisible and mystical body, said the Evangelicals. It was the aggregate
+of separate congregations, said the Nonconformists. It was the
+parliamentary creation of the Reformation, said the Erastians. The true
+Church was the communion of the Pope; the pretended Church was a
+legalized schism, said the Roman Catholics. All these ideas were
+floating about, loose and vague, among people who talked much about the
+Church.
+
+One thing was persistently obvious, namely, that the nationalist church
+had become opportunist in every fibre, and that it had thrown off almost
+every semblance of ecclesiastical discipline. The view was circulated
+that the Church owed its continued existence to the good sense of the
+individuals who officered it, and to the esteem which possession and
+good sense combined invariably engendered in the reigning oligarchy. But
+since Christianity was true--and Newman was the one man of modern times
+who seems never to have doubted this, never to have overlooked the
+unmistakable threat of eternal punishment to the wicked and
+unbelieving--modern England, with its march of intellect and its chatter
+about progress, was advancing with a light heart to the verge of a
+bottomless abyss. By a diametrically opposite chain of reasoning Newman
+reached much the same conclusion as Carlyle. Newman sought a haven of
+security in a rapprochement with the Catholic Church. The medieval
+influences already at work in Oxford began to fan the flame which
+kindled to a blaze in the ninetieth of the celebrated _Tracts for the
+Times_. It proved the turning of the ways leading Keble and Pusey to
+Anglican ritual and Newman to Rome. This anti-liberal campaign was
+poison to the state-churchmen and Protestants, and became perhaps the
+chief intellectual storm centre of the century. Charles Kingsley in 1864
+sought to illustrate by recent events that veracity could not be
+considered a Roman virtue.
+
+
+  Scientific cross-currents.
+
+  Macaulay.
+
+After some preliminary ironic sparring Newman was stung into writing
+what he deliberately called _Apologia pro vita sua_. In this, apart from
+the masterly dialectic and exposition in which he had already shown
+himself an adept, a volume of autobiography is made a chapter of general
+history, unsurpassed in its kind since the _Confessions_ of St
+Augustine, combined with a perfection of form, a precision of phrasing
+and a charm of style peculiar to the genius of the author, rendering it
+one of the masterpieces of English prose. But while Newman was thus
+sounding a retreat, louder and more urgent voices were signalling the
+advance in a totally opposite direction. The _Apologia_ fell in point of
+time between _The Origin of Species_ and _Descent of Man_, in which
+Charles Darwin was laying the corner stones of the new science of which
+Thomas Huxley and Alfred Russel Wallace were to be among the first
+apostles, and almost coincided with the _First Principles_ of a
+synthetic philosophy, in which Herbert Spencer was formulating a set of
+probabilities wholly destructive to the acceptance of positive truth in
+any one religion. The typical historian of the 'fifties, Thomas
+Babington Macaulay, and the seminal thinker of the 'sixties, John Stuart
+Mill, had as determinedly averted their faces from the old conception of
+revealed religion. Nourished in the school of the great Whig pamphleteer
+historians, George Grote and Henry Hallam, Macaulay combined gifts of
+memory, enthusiastic conviction, portraiture and literary expression,
+which gave to his historical writing a resonance unequalled (even by
+Michelet) in modern literature. In spite of faults of taste and
+fairness, Macaulay's resplendent gifts enabled him to achieve for the
+period from Charles II. to the peace of Ryswick what Thucydides had done
+for the Peloponnesian War. The pictures that he drew with such exultant
+force are stamped ineffaceably upon the popular mind. His chief faults
+are not of detail, but rather a lack of subtlety as regards
+characterization and motive, a disposition to envisage history too
+exclusively as a politician, and the sequence of historical events as a
+kind of ordered progress towards the material ideals of universal trade
+and Whig optimism as revealed in the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+
+
+  Carlyle.
+
+Macaulay's tendency to disparage the past brought his whole vision of
+the Cosmos into sharp collision with that of his rival appellant to the
+historical conscience, Thomas Carlyle, a man whose despair of the
+present easily exceeded Newman's. But Carlyle's despondency was totally
+irrespective of the attitude preserved by England towards the Holy
+Father, whom he seldom referred to save as "the three-hatted Papa" and
+"servant of the devil." It may be in fact almost regarded as the reverse
+or complement to the excess of self-complacency in Macaulay. We may
+correct the excess of one by the opposite excess of the other. Macaulay
+was an optimist in ecstasy with the material advance of his time in
+knowledge and power; the growth of national wealth, machinery and means
+of lighting and locomotion caused him to glow with satisfaction.
+Carlyle, the pessimist, regards all such symptoms of mechanical
+development as contemptible. Far from panegyrizing his own time, he
+criticizes it without mercy. Macaulay had great faith in rules and
+regulations, reform bills and parliamentary machinery. Carlyle regards
+them as wiles of the devil. Frederick William of Prussia, according to
+Macaulay, was the most execrable of fiends, a cross between Moloch and
+Puck, his palace was hell, and Oliver Twist and Smike were petted
+children compared with his son the crown prince. In the same bluff and
+honest father Carlyle recognized the realized ideal of his fancy and
+hugged the just man made perfect to his heart of hearts. Such men as
+Bentham and Cobden, Mill and Macaulay, had in Carlyle's opinion spared
+themselves no mistaken exertion to exalt the prosperity and happiness of
+their own day. The time had come to react at all hazards against the
+prevalent surfeit of civilization. Henceforth his literary activity was
+to take two main directions. First, tracts for the times against modern
+tendencies, especially against the demoralizing modern talk about
+progress by means of money and machinery which emanated like a miasma
+from the writings of such men as Mill, Macaulay, Brougham, Buckle and
+from the Quarterlies. Secondly, a cyclopean exhibition of Caesarism,
+discipline, the regimentation of workers, and the convertibility of the
+Big Stick and the Bible, with a preference to the Big Stick as a
+panacea. The snowball was to grow rapidly among such writers as
+Kingsley, Ruskin, George Borrow, unencumbered by reasoning or deductive
+processes which they despised. Carlyle himself felt that the condition
+of England was one for anger rather than discussion. He detested the
+rationalism and symmetry of such methodists of thought as Mill, Buckle,
+Darwin, Spencer, Lecky, Ricardo and other demonstrations of the dismal
+science--mere chatter he called it. The palliative philanthropy of the
+day had become his aversion even more than the inroads of Rome under
+cover of the Oxford movement which Froude, Borrow and Kingsley set
+themselves to correct. As an historian of a formal order Carlyle's
+historical portraits cannot bear a strict comparison with the published
+work of Gibbon and Macaulay, or even of Maine and Froude in this period,
+but as a biographer and autobiographer Carlyle's caustic insight has
+enabled him to produce much which is of the very stuff of human nature.
+Surrounded by philomaths and savants who wrote smoothly about the
+perfectibility of man and his institutions, Carlyle almost alone refused
+to distil his angry eloquence and went on railing against the passive
+growth of civilization at the heart of which he declared that he had
+discovered a cancer. This uncouth Titan worship and prostration before
+brute force, this constant ranting about jarls and vikings trembles
+often on the verge of cant and comedy, and his fiddling on the one
+string of human pretension and bankruptcy became discordant almost to
+the point of chaos. Instinctively destructive, he resents the
+apostleship of teachers like Mill, or the pioneer discoveries of men
+like Herbert Spencer and Darwin. He remains, nevertheless, a great
+incalculable figure, the cross grandfather of a school of thought which
+is largely unconscious of its debt and which so far as it recognizes it
+takes Carlyle in a manner wholly different from that of his
+contemporaries.
+
+
+  New schools.
+
+  History.
+
+The deaths of Carlyle and George Eliot (and also of George Borrow) in
+1881 make a starting-point for the new schools of historians, novelists,
+critics and biographers, and those new nature students who claim to cure
+those evil effects of civilization which Carlyle and his disciples had
+discovered. History in the hands of Macaulay, Buckle and Carlyle had
+been occupied mainly with the bias and tendency of change, the results
+obtained by those who consulted the oracle being more often than not
+diametrically opposite. With Froude still on the one hand as the
+champion of Protestantism, and with E.A. Freeman and J.R. Green on the
+other as nationalist historians, the school of applied history was fully
+represented in the next generation, but as the records grew and
+multiplied in print in accordance with the wise provisions made in 1857
+by the commencement of the Rolls Series of medieval historians, and the
+Calendars of State Papers, to be followed shortly by the rapidly growing
+volumes of Calendars of Historical Manuscripts, historians began to
+concentrate their attention more upon the process of change as their
+right subject matter and to rely more and more upon documents,
+statistics and other impersonal and disinterested forms of material.
+Such historical writers as Lecky, Lord Acton, Creighton, Morley and
+Bryce contributed to the process of transition mainly as essayists, but
+the new doctrines were tested and to a certain extent put into action by
+such writers as Thorold Rogers, Stubbs, Gardiner and Maitland. The
+theory that History is a science, no less and no more, was propounded in
+so many words by Professor Bury in his inaugural lecture at Cambridge in
+1903, and this view and the corresponding divergence of history from the
+traditional pathway of Belles Lettres has become steadily more dominant
+in the world of historical research and historical writing since 1881.
+The bulk of quite modern historical writing can certainly be justified
+from no other point of view.
+
+
+  The novel.
+
+The novel since 1881 has pursued a course curiously analogous to that of
+historical writing. Supported as it was by masters of the old regime
+such as Meredith and Hardy, and by those who then ranked even higher in
+popular esteem such as Wilkie Collins, Anthony Trollope, Besant and
+Rice, Blackmore, William Black and a monstrous rising regiment of lady
+novelists--Mrs Lynn Linton, Rhoda Broughton, Mrs Henry Wood, Miss
+Braddon, Mrs Humphry Ward, the type seemed securely anchored to the old
+formulas and the old ways. In reality, however, many of these popular
+workers were already moribund and the novel was being honeycombed by
+French influence.
+
+This is perceptible in Hardy, but may be traced with greater
+distinctness in the best work of George Gissing, George Moore, Mark
+Rutherford, and later on of H.G. Wells, Arnold Bennett and John
+Galsworthy. The old novelists had left behind them a giant's robe.
+Intellectually giants, Dickens and Thackeray were equally gigantic
+spendthrifts. They worked in a state of fervent heat above a glowing
+furnace, into which they flung lavish masses of unshaped metal, caring
+little for immediate effect or minute dexterity of stroke, but knowing
+full well that the emotional energy of their temperaments was capable of
+fusing the most intractable material, and that in the end they would
+produce their great downright effect. Their spirits rose and fell, but
+the case was desperate; copy had to be despatched at once or the current
+serial would collapse. Good and bad had to make up the tale against
+time, and revelling in the very exuberance and excess of their humour,
+the novelists invariably triumphed. It was incumbent on the new school
+of novelists to economize their work with more skill, to relieve their
+composition of irrelevancies, to keep the writing in one key, and to
+direct it consistently to one end--in brief, to unify the novel as a
+work of art and to simplify its ordonnance.
+
+The novel, thus lightened and sharpened, was conquering new fields. The
+novel of the 'sixties remained not, perhaps, to win many new triumphs,
+but a very popular instrument in the hands of those who performed
+variations on the old masters, and much later in the hands of Mr William
+de Morgan, showing a new force and quiet power of its own. The novel,
+however, was ramifying in other directions in a way full of promise for
+the future. A young Edinburgh student, Robert Louis Stevenson, had
+inherited much of the spirit of the Pre-Raphaelitic virtuosos, and
+combined with their passion for the romance of the historic past a
+curiosity fully as strong about the secrets of romantic technique. A
+coterie which he formed with W.E. Henley and his cousin R.A.M. Stevenson
+studied words as a young art student studies paints, and made studies
+for portraits of buccaneers with the same minute drudgery that Rossetti
+had studied a wall or Morris a piece of figured tapestry. While thus
+forming a new romantic school whose work when wrought by his methods
+should be fit to be grafted upon the picturesque historic fiction of
+Scott and Dumas, Stevenson was also naturalizing the short story of the
+modern French type upon English ground. In this particular field he was
+eclipsed by Rudyard Kipling, who, though less original as a man of
+letters, had a technical vocabulary and descriptive power far in advance
+of Stevenson's, and was able in addition to give his writing an exotic
+quality derived from Oriental colouring. This regional type of writing
+has since been widely imitated, and the novel has simultaneously
+developed in many other ways, of which perhaps the most significant is
+the psychological study as manipulated severally by Shorthouse, Mallock
+and Henry James.
+
+
+  Criticism.
+
+The expansion of criticism in the same thirty years was not a whit less
+marked than the vast divagation of the novel. In the early 'eighties it
+was still tongue-bound by the hypnotic influence of one or two copy-book
+formulae--Arnold's "criticism of life" as a definition of poetry, and
+Walter Pater's implied doctrine of art for art's sake. That two dicta so
+manifestly absurd should have cast such an augur-like spell upon the
+free expression of opinion, though it may of course, like all such
+instances, be easily exaggerated, is nevertheless a curious example of
+the enslavement of ideas by a confident claptrap. A few representatives
+of the old schools of motived or scientific criticism, deduced from the
+literatures of past time, survived the new century in Leslie Stephen,
+Saintsbury, Stopford Brooke, Austin Dobson, Courthope, Sidney Colvin,
+Watts-Dunton; but their agreement is certainly not greater than among
+the large class of emancipated who endeavour to concentrate the
+attention of others without further ado upon those branches of
+literature which they find most nutritive. Among the finest appreciators
+of this period have been Pattison and Jebb, Myers, Hutton, Dowden, A.C.
+Bradley, William Archer, Richard Garnett, E. Gosse and Andrew Lang.
+Birrell, Walkley and Max Beerbohm have followed rather in the wake of
+the Stephens and Bagehot, who have criticized the sufficiency of the
+titles made out by the more enthusiastic and lyrical eulogists. In
+Arthur Symons, Walter Raleigh and G.K. Chesterton the new age possessed
+critics of great originality and power, the work of the last two of whom
+is concentrated upon the application of ideas about life at large to the
+conceptions of literature. In exposing palpable nonsense as such, no one
+perhaps did better service in criticism than the veteran Frederic
+Harrison.
+
+In the cognate work of memoir and essay, the way for which has been
+greatly smoothed by co-operative lexicographical efforts such as the
+_Dictionary of National Biography_, the _New English Dictionary_, the
+_Victoria County History_ and the like, some of the most dexterous and
+permeating work of the transition from the old century to the new was
+done by H.D. Traill, Gosse, Lang, Mackail, E.V. Lucas, Lowes Dickinson,
+Richard le Gallienne, A.C. Benson, Hilaire Belloc, while the open-air
+relief work for dwellers pent in great cities, pioneered by Gilbert
+White, has been expanded with all the zest and charm that a novel
+pursuit can endow by such writers as Richard Jefferies, an open-air and
+nature mystic of extraordinary power at his best, Selous, Seton
+Thompson, W.H. Hudson.
+
+
+  Poetry.
+
+The age has not been particularly well attuned to the efforts of the
+newer poets since Coventry Patmore in the _Angel in the House_ achieved
+embroidery, often extremely beautiful, upon the Tennysonian pattern, and
+since Edward FitzGerald, the first of all letter-writing commentators on
+life and letters since Lamb, gave a new cult to the decadent century in
+his version of the Persian centoist Omar Khayyam. The prizes which in
+Moore's day were all for verse have now been transferred to the prose
+novel and the play, and the poets themselves have played into the hands
+of the Philistines by disdaining popularity in a fond preference for
+virtuosity and obscurity. Most kinds of the older verse, however, have
+been well represented, descriptive and elegiac poetry in particular by
+Robert Bridges and William Watson; the music of the waters of the
+western sea and its isles by W.B. Yeats, Synge, Moira O'Neill, "Fiona
+Macleod" and an increasing group of Celtic bards; the highly wrought
+verse of the 17th-century lyrists by Francis Thompson, Lionel Johnson,
+Ernest Dowson; the simplicity of a more popular strain by W.H. Davies,
+of a brilliant rhetoric by John Davidson, and of a more intimate romance
+by Sturge Moore and Walter de la Mare. Light verse has never, perhaps,
+been represented more effectively since Praed and Calverley and Lewis
+Carroll than by Austin Dobson, Locker Lampson, W.S. Gilbert and Owen
+Seaman. The names of C.M. Doughty, Alfred Noyes, Herbert Trench and
+Laurence Binyon were also becoming prominent at the opening of the 20th
+century. For originality in form and substance the palm rests in all
+probability with A.E. Housman, whose _Shropshire Lad_ opens new avenues
+and issues, and with W.E. Henley, whose town and hospital poems had a
+poignant as well as an ennobling strain. The work of Henry Newbolt, Mrs.
+Meynell and Stephen Phillips showed a real poetic gift. Above all these,
+however, in the esteem of many reign the verses of George Meredith and
+of Thomas Hardy, whose _Dynasts_ was widely regarded by the best judges
+as the most remarkable literary production of the new century.
+
+
+  Drama.
+
+The new printed and acted drama dates almost entirely from the late
+'eighties. Tom Robertson in the 'seventies printed nothing, and his
+plays were at most a timid recognition of the claims of the drama to
+represent reality and truth. The enormous superiority of the French
+drama as represented by Augier, Dumas _fils_ and Sardou began to dawn
+slowly upon the English consciousness. Then in the 'eighties came Ibsen,
+whose daring in handling actuality was only equalled by his intrepid
+stage-craft. Oscar Wilde and A.W. Pinero were the first to discover how
+the spirit of these new discoveries might be adapted to the English
+stage. Gilbert Murray, with his fascinating and tantalizing versions
+from Euripides, gave a new flexibility to the expansion that was going
+on in English dramatic ideas. Bernard Shaw and his disciples,
+conspicuous among them Granville Barker, gave a new seasoning of wit to
+the absolute novelties of subject, treatment and application with which
+they transfixed the public which had so long abandoned thought upon
+entering the theatre. This new adventure enjoyed a _succes de stupeur_,
+the precise range of which can hardly be estimated, and the force of
+which is clearly by no means spent.
+
+
+  20th-century changes.
+
+English literature in the 20th century still preserves some of the old
+arrangements and some of the consecrated phrases of patronage and
+aristocracy; but the circumstances of its production were profoundly
+changed during the 19th century. By 1895 English literature had become a
+subject of regular instruction for a special degree at most of the
+universities, both in England and America. This has begun to lead to
+research embodied in investigations which show that what were regarded
+as facts in connexion with the earlier literature can be regarded so no
+longer. It has also brought comparative and historical treatment of a
+closer kind and on a larger scale to bear upon the evolution of literary
+types. On the other hand it has concentrated an excessive attention
+perhaps upon the grammar and prosody and etymology of literature, it has
+stereotyped the admiration of lifeless and obsolete forms, and has
+substituted antiquarian notes and ready-made commentary for that live
+enjoyment, which is essentially individual and which tends insensibly to
+evaporate from all literature as soon as the circumstance of it changes.
+It is prone, moreover, to force upon the immature mind a rapt admiration
+for the mirror before ever it has scanned the face of the original. A
+result due rather to the general educational agencies of the time is
+that, while in the middle of the 19th century one man could be found to
+write competently on a given subject, in 1910 there were fifty. Books
+and apparatus for reading have multiplied in proportion. The fact of a
+book having been done quite well in a certain way is no longer any bar
+whatever to its being done again without hesitation in the same way.
+This continual pouring of ink from one bottle into another is calculated
+gradually to raise the standard of all subaltern writing and compiling,
+and to leave fewer and fewer books securely rooted in a universal
+recognition of their intrinsic excellence, power and idiosyncrasy or
+personal charm. Even then, of what we consider first-rate in the 19th
+century, for instance, but a very small residuum can possibly survive.
+The one characteristic that seems likely to cling and to differentiate
+this voluble century is its curious reticence, of which the 20th century
+has already made uncommonly short work. The new playwrights have
+untaught England a shyness which came in about the time of Southey,
+Wordsworth and Sir Walter Scott. That the best literature has survived
+hitherto is at best a pious opinion. As the area of experience grows it
+is more and more difficult to circumscribe or even to describe the
+supreme best, and such attempts have always been responsible for base
+superstition. It is clear that some limitation of the literary
+stock-in-trade will become increasingly urgent as time goes on, and the
+question may well occur as to whether we are insuring the right baggage.
+The enormous apparatus of literature at the present time is suitable
+only to a peculiar phasis and manner of existence. Some hold to the
+innate and essential aristocracy of literature; others that it is bound
+to develop on the popular and communistic side, for that at present,
+like machinery and other deceptive benefits, it is a luxury almost
+exclusively advantageous to the rich. But to predict the direction of
+change in literature is even more futile than to predict the direction
+of change in human history, for of all factors of history, literature,
+if one of the most permanent, is also one of the least calculable.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.--_The Age of Wordsworth_ and _The Age of
+  Tennyson_ in Bell's "Handbooks of English Literature" are of special
+  value for this period. Prof. Dowden's and Prof. Saintsbury's
+  19th-century studies fill in interstices; and of the "Periods of
+  European Literature," the _Romantic Revolt_ and _Romantic Triumph_ are
+  pertinent, as are the literary chapters in vols. x. and xi. of the
+  _Cambridge Modern History_. Of more specific books George Brandes's
+  _Literary Currents of the Nineteenth Century_, Stedman's _Victorian
+  Poets_, Holman Hunt's _Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood_, R.H. Hutton's
+  _Contemporary Thought_ (and companion volumes), Sir Leslie Stephen's
+  _The Utilitarians_, Buxton Forman's _Our Living Poets_, Dawson's
+  _Victorian Novelists_, Thureau-Dangin's _Renaissance des idees
+  catholiques en Angleterre_, A. Chevrillon's _Sydney Smith et la
+  renaissance des idees liberales en Angleterre_, A.W. Benn's _History
+  of English Thought in the Nineteenth Century_, the publishing
+  histories of Murray, Blackwood, Macvey Napier, Lockhart, &c., J.M.
+  Robertson's _Modern Humanists_, and the critical miscellanies of Lord
+  Morley, Frederic Harrison, W. Bagehot, A. Birrell, Andrew Lang and E.
+  Gosse, will be found, in their several degrees, illuminating. The
+  chief literary lives are those of Scott by Lockhart, Carlyle by
+  Froude, Macaulay by Trevelyan, Dickens by Forster and Charlotte Bronte
+  by Mrs Gaskell.     (T. Se.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Piers Plowman_ has been so long attributed as a whole to
+    Langland (q.v.), that in spite of modern analytical criticism it is
+    most conveniently discussed under that name.
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISHRY (_Englescherie_), a legal name given, in the reign of William
+the Conqueror, to the presentment of the fact that a person slain was an
+Englishman. If an unknown man was found slain, he was presumed to be a
+Norman, and the hundred was fined accordingly, unless it could be proved
+that he was English. Englishry, if established, excused the hundred. Dr
+W. Stubbs (_Constitutional History_, i. 196) says that possibly similar
+measures were taken by King Canute. Englishry was abolished in 1340.
+
+  See _Select Cases from the Coroners' Rolls, 1265-1413_, ed. C. Gross,
+  Selden Society (London, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+ENGRAVING, the process or result of the action implied by the verb "to
+engrave" or mark by incision, the marks (whether for inscriptive,
+pictorial or decorative purposes) being produced, not by simply staining
+or discolouring the material (as with paint, pen or pencil), but by
+cutting into or otherwise removing a portion of the substance. In the
+case of pictures, the engraved surface is reproduced by printing; but
+this is only one restricted sense of "engraving," since the term
+includes seal-engraving (where a cast is taken), and also the chased
+ornamentation of plate or gems, &c.
+
+The word itself is derived from an O. Fr. _engraver_ (not to be confused
+with the same modern French word used for the running of a boat's keel
+into the beach, or for the sticking of a cart's wheels in the mud,--from
+_greve_, Provencal _grava_, sands of the sea or river shore; cf. Eng.
+"gravel"); it was at one time supposed that the Gr. _[Greek: graphein]_,
+to write, was etymologically connected, but this view is not now
+accepted, and (together with "grave," meaning either to engrave, or the
+place where the dead are buried) the derivation is referred to a common
+Teutonic form signifying "to dig" (O. Eng. _grafan_, Ger. _graben_). The
+modern French _graver_, to engrave, is a later adoption. The idea of a
+furrow, by digging or cutting, is thus historically associated with an
+engraving, which may properly include the rudest marks cut into any
+substance. In old English literature it included carving and sculpture,
+from which it has become convenient to differentiate the terminology;
+and the ancients who chiselled their writing on slabs of stone were
+really "engraving." The word is not applicable, therefore, either
+strictly to lithography (q.v.), nor to any of the photographic processes
+(see PROCESS), except those in which the surface of the plate is
+actually eaten into or lowered. In the latter case, too, it is
+convenient to mark a distinction and to ignore the strict analogy. In
+modern times the term is, therefore, practically restricted--outside the
+spheres of gem-engraving and seal-engraving (see GEM), or the inscribing
+or ornamenting of stone, plate, glass, &c.--to the art of making
+original pictures (i.e. by the draughtsman himself, whether copies of
+an original painting or not), either by incised lines on metal plates
+(see LINE-ENGRAVING), or by the corrosion of the lines with acid (see
+ETCHING), or by the roughening of a metal surface without actual lines
+(see MEZZOTINT), or by cutting a wood surface away so as to leave lines
+in relief (see WOOD-ENGRAVING); the result in each case may be called
+generically an engraving, and in common parlance the term is applied,
+though incorrectly, to the printed reproduction or "print."
+
+Of these four varieties of engraving--line-engraving, etching, mezzotint
+or wood-engraving--the woodcut is historically the earliest.
+Line-engraving is now practically obsolete, while etching and mezzotint
+have recently come more and more to the front. To the draughtsman the
+difference in technical handling in each case has in most cases some
+relation to his own artistic impulse, and to his own feeling for beauty.
+A line engraver, as P.G. Hamerton said, will not see or think like an
+etcher, nor an etcher like an engraver in mezzotint. Each kind, with its
+own sub-varieties, has its peculiar effect and attraction. A real
+knowledge of engraving can only be attained by a careful study and
+comparison of the prints themselves, or of accurate facsimiles, so that
+books are of little use except as guides to prints when the reader
+happens to be unaware of their existence, or else for their explanation
+of technical processes. The value of the prints varies not only
+according to the artist, but also according to the fineness of the
+impression, and the "state" (or stage) in the making of the plate, which
+may be altered from time to time. "Proofs" may also be taken from the
+plate, and even touched up by the artist, in various stages and various
+degrees of fineness of impression.
+
+The department of art-literature which classifies prints is called
+_Iconography_, and the classifications adopted by iconographers are of
+the most various kinds. For example, if a complete book were written on
+Shakespearian iconography it would contain full information about all
+prints illustrating the life and works of Shakespeare, and in the same
+way there may be the iconography of a locality or of a single event.
+
+  The history of engraving is a part of iconography, and various
+  histories of the art exist in different languages. In England W.Y.
+  Ottley wrote an _Early History of Engraving_, published in two volumes
+  4to (1816), and began what was intended to be a series of notices on
+  engravers and their works. The facilities for the reproduction of
+  engravings by the photographic processes have of late years given an
+  impetus to iconography. One of the best modern writers on the subject
+  was Georges Duplessis, the keeper of prints in the national library of
+  France. He wrote a _History of Engraving in France_ (1888), and
+  published many notices of engravers to accompany the reproductions by
+  M. Amand Durand. He is also the author of a useful little manual
+  entitled _Les Merveilles de la gravure_ (1871). Jansen's work on the
+  origin of wood and plate engraving, and on the knowledge of prints of
+  the 15th and 16th centuries, was published at Paris in two volumes 8vo
+  in 1808. Among general works see Adam Bartsch, _Le Peintre-graveur_
+  (1803-1843); J.D. Passavant, _Le Peintre-graveur_ (1860-1864); P.G.
+  Hamerton, _Graphic Arts_ (1882); William Gilpin, _Essay on Prints_
+  (1781); J. Maberly, _The Print Collector_ (1844); W.H. Wiltshire,
+  _Introduction to the Study and Collection of Ancient Prints_ (1874);
+  F. Wedmore, _Fine Prints_ (1897). See also the lists of works given
+  under the separate headings for LINE-ENGRAVING, ETCHING, MEZZOTINT and
+  WOOD-ENGRAVING.
+
+
+
+
+ENGROSSING, a term used in two legal senses: (1) the writing or copying
+of a legal or other document in a fair large hand (_en gros_), and (2)
+the buying up of goods wholesale in order to sell at a higher price so
+as to establish a monopoly. The word "engross" has come into English
+ultimately from the Late Lat. _grossus_, thick, stout, large, through
+the A. Fr. _engrosser_, Med. Lat. _ingrossare_, to write in a large
+hand, and the French phrase _en gros_, in gross, wholesale. Engrossing
+and the kindred practices of forestalling and regrating were early
+regarded as serious offences in restraint of trade, and were punishable
+both at common law and by statute. They were of more particular
+importance in relation to the distribution of corn supplies. The statute
+of 1552 defines engrossing as "buying corn growing, or any other corn,
+grain, butter, cheese, fish or other dead victual, with _intent to sell
+the same again_." The law forbade all dealing in corn as an article of
+ordinary merchandise, apart from questions of foreign import or export.
+The theory was that when corn was plentiful in any district it should be
+consumed at what it would bring, without much respect to whether the
+next harvest might be equally abundant, or to what the immediate wants
+of an adjoining province of the same country might be. The first statute
+on the subject appears to have been passed in the reign of Henry III.,
+though the general policy had prevailed before that time both in popular
+prejudice and in the feudal custom. The statute of Edward VI. (1552) was
+the most important, and in it the offences were elaborately defined; by
+this statute any one who bought corn to sell it again was made liable to
+two months' imprisonment with forfeit of the corn. A second offence was
+punished by six months' imprisonment and forfeit of double the value of
+the corn, and a third by the pillory and utter ruin. Severe as this
+statute was, liberty was given by it to transport corn from one part of
+the country under licence to men of approved probity, which implied that
+there was to be some buying of corn to sell it again and elsewhere.
+Practically "engrossing" came to be considered buying wholesale to sell
+again wholesale. "Forestalling" was different, and the statutes were
+directed against a class of dealers who went forward and bought or
+contracted for corn and other provisions, and spread false rumours in
+derogation of the public and open markets appointed by law, to which our
+ancestors appear to have attached much importance, and probably in these
+times not without reason. The statute of Edward VI. was modified by many
+subsequent enactments, particularly by the statute of 1663, by which it
+was declared that there could be no "engrossing" of corn when the price
+did not exceed 48s. per quarter, and which Adam Smith recognized, though
+it adhered to the variable and unsatisfactory element of price, as
+having contributed more to the progress of agriculture than any previous
+law in the statute book. In 1773 these injurious statutes were
+abolished, but the penal character of "engrossing" and "forestalling"
+had a root in the common law of England, as well as in the popular
+prejudice, which kept the evil alive to a later period. As the public
+enlightenment increased the judges were at no loss to give
+interpretations of the common law consistent with public policy.
+Subsequent to the act of 1773, for example, there was a case of
+conviction and punishment for engrossing hops, _R._ v. _Waddington_,
+1800, 1 East, 143, but though this was deemed a sound and proper
+judgment at the time, yet it was soon afterwards overthrown in other
+cases, on the ground that buying wholesale to sell wholesale was not in
+"restraint of trade" as the former judges had assumed.
+
+In 1800, one John Rusby was indicted for having bought ninety quarters
+of oats at 41s. per quarter and selling thirty of them at 43s. the same
+day. Lord Kenyon, the presiding judge, animadverted strongly against the
+repealing act of 1773, and addressed the jury strongly against the
+accused. Rusby was heavily fined, but, on appeal, the court was equally
+divided as to whether engrossing, forestalling and regrating were still
+offences at common law. In 1844, all the statutes, English, Irish and
+Scottish, defining the offences, were repealed and with them the
+supposed common law foundation. In the United States there have been
+strong endeavours by the government to suppress trusts and combinations
+for engrossing. (See also TRUSTS; MONOPOLY.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--D. Macpherson, _Annals of Commerce_ (1805); J.S.
+  Girdler, _Observations on Forestalling, Regrating and Ingrossing_
+  (1800); W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_; W.J.
+  Ashley, _Economic History_; Sir J. Stephen, _History of Criminal Law_;
+  Murray, _New English Dictionary_.
+
+
+
+
+ENGYON, an ancient town of the interior of Sicily, a Cretan colony,
+according to legend, and famous for an ancient temple of the Matres
+which aroused the greed of Verres. Its site is uncertain; some
+topographers have identified it with Gangi, a town 20 m. S.S.E. of
+Cefalu, but only on the ground of the similarity of the two names.
+
+  See C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, v. 2568.
+
+
+
+
+ENID, a city and the county-seat of Garfield county, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
+about 55 m. N.W. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900) 3444; (1907) 10,087 (355 of
+negro descent); (1910) 13,799. Enid is served by the St Louis & San
+Francisco, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the Chicago, Rock Island
+& Pacific railways, and by several branch lines, and is an important
+railway centre. It is the seat of the Oklahoma Christian University
+(1907; co-educational). Enid is situated in a flourishing agricultural
+and stock-raising region, of which it is the commercial centre, and has
+various manufactures, including lumber, brick, tile and flour. Natural
+gas was discovered near the city in 1907. Enid was founded in 1893 and
+was chartered as a city in the same year.
+
+
+
+
+ENIGMA (Gr. [Greek: ainigma]), a riddle or puzzle, especially a form of
+verse or prose composition in which the answer is concealed by means of
+metaphors. Such were the famous riddle of the Sphinx and the riddling
+answers of the ancient oracles. The composition of enigmas was a
+favourite amusement in Greece and prizes were often given at banquets
+for the best solution of them (Athen. x. 457). In France during the 17th
+century enigma-making became fashionable. Boileau, Charles Riviere
+Dufresny and J.J. Rousseau did not consider it beneath their literary
+dignity. In 1646 the abbe Charles Cotier (1604-1682) published a
+_Recueil des enigmes de ce temps_. The word is applied figuratively to
+anything inexplicable or difficult of understanding.
+
+
+
+
+ENKHUIZEN, a seaport of Holland in the province of North Holland, on the
+Zuider Zee, and a railway terminus, 11-1/2 m. N.E. by E. of Hoorn, with
+which it is also connected by steam tramway. In conjunction with the
+railway service there is a steamboat ferry to Stavoren in Friesland.
+Pop. (1900) 6865. Enkhuizen, like its neighbour Hoorn, exhibits many
+interesting examples of domestic architecture dating from the 16th and
+17th centuries, when it was an important and flourishing city. The
+facades of the houses are usually built in courses of brick and stone,
+and adorned with carvings, sculptures and inscriptions. Some ruined
+gateways belonging to the old city walls are still standing; among them
+being the tower-gateway called the Dromedary (1540), which overlooks the
+harbour. The tower contains several rooms, one of which was formerly
+used as a prison. Among the churches mention must be made of the
+Zuiderkerk, or South church, with a conspicuous tower (1450-1525); and
+the Westerkerk, or West church, which possesses a beautifully carved
+Renaissance screen and pulpit of the middle of the 16th century, and a
+quaint wooden bell-house (1519) built for use before the completion of
+the bell-tower. There are also a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue.
+The picturesque town hall (1688) contains some finely decorated rooms
+with paintings by Johan van Neck, a collection of local antiquities and
+the archives. Other interesting buildings are the orphanage (1616),
+containing some 17th and 18th century portraits and ancient leather
+hangings; the weigh-house (1559), the upper story of which was once used
+by the Surgeons' Gild, several of the window-panes (dating chiefly from
+about 1640), being decorated with the arms of various members; the
+former mint (1611); and the ancient assembly-house of the dike-reeves of
+Holland and West Friesland. Enkhuizen possesses a considerable fishing
+fleet and has some shipbuilding and rope-making, as well as market
+traffic.
+
+
+
+
+ENNEKING, JOHN JOSEPH (1841-   ), American landscape painter, was born,
+of German ancestry, in Minster, Ohio, on the 4th of October 1841. He was
+educated at Mount St Mary's College, Cincinnati, served in the American
+Civil War in 1861-1862, studied art in New York and Boston, and gave it
+up because his eyes were weak, only to return to it after failing in the
+manufacture of tinware. In 1873-1876 he studied in Munich under Schleich
+and Leier, and in Paris under Daubigny and Bonnat; and in 1878-1879 he
+studied in Paris again and sketched in Holland. Enneking is a
+"plein-airist," and his favourite subject is the "November twilight" of
+New England, and more generally the half lights of early spring, late
+autumn, and winter dawn and evening.
+
+
+
+
+ENNIS (Gaelic, _Innis_, an island; Irish, _Ennis_ and _Inish_), the
+county town of Co. Clare, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division,
+on the river Fergus, 25 m. W.N.W. from Limerick by the Great Southern &
+Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5093. It is the junction
+for the West Clare line. Ennis has breweries, distilleries and extensive
+flour-mills; and in the neighbourhood limestone is quarried. The
+principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church, which is the
+pro-cathedral of the diocese of Killaloe; the parish church formed out
+of the ruins of the Franciscan Abbey, founded in 1240 by Donough Carbrac
+O'Brien; a school on the foundation of Erasmus Smith, and various county
+buildings. The abbey, though greatly mutilated, is full of interesting
+details, and includes a lofty tower, a marble screen, a chapter-house, a
+notable east window, several fine tombs and an altar of St Francis. On
+the site of the old court-house a colossal statue in white limestone of
+Daniel O'Connell was erected in 1865. The interesting ruins of Clare
+Abbey, founded in 1194 by Donnell O'Brien, king of Munster, are half-way
+between Ennis and the village of Clare Castle. O'Brien also founded
+Killone Abbey, beautifully situated on the lough of the same name, 3 m.
+S. of the town, possessing the unusual feature of a crypt and a holy
+well. Five miles N.W. of Ennis is Dysert O'Dea, with interesting
+ecclesiastical remains, a cross, a round tower and a castle. Ennis was
+incorporated in 1612, and returned two members to the Irish parliament
+until the Union, and thereafter one to the Imperial parliament until
+1885.
+
+
+
+
+ENNISCORTHY, a market town of Co. Wexford, Ireland, in the north
+parliamentary division, on the side of a steep hill above the Slaney,
+which here becomes navigable for barges of large size. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 5458. It is 77-1/2 m. S. by W. from Dublin by the Dublin
+& South-Eastern railway. There are breweries and flour-mills; tanning,
+distilling and woollen manufactures are also prosecuted to some extent,
+and the town is the centre of the agricultural trade for the district,
+which is aided by the water communication with Wexford. There are
+important fowl markets and horse-fairs. Enniscorthy was taken by
+Cromwell in 1649, and in 1798 was stormed and burned by the rebels,
+whose main forces encamped on an eminence called Vinegar Hill, which
+overlooks the town from the east. The old castle of Enniscorthy, a
+massive square pile with a round tower at each corner, is one of the
+earliest military structures of the Anglo-Norman invaders, founded by
+Raymond le Gros (1176). Ferns, the next station to Enniscorthy on the
+railway towards Dublin, was the seat of a former bishopric, and the
+modernized cathedral, and ruins of a church, an Augustinian monastery
+founded by Dermod Mac-Morrough about 1160, and a castle of the Norman
+period, are still to be seen. Enniscorthy was incorporated by James I.,
+and sent two members to the Irish parliament until the Union.
+
+
+
+
+ENNISKILLEN, WILLIAM WILLOUGHBY COLE, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1886), British
+palaeontologist, was born on the 25th of January 1807, and educated at
+Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford. As Lord Cole he early began to devote
+his leisure to the study and collection of fossil fishes, with his
+friend Sir Philip de M.G. Egerton, and he amassed a fine collection at
+Florence Court, Enniskillen--including many specimens that were
+described and figured by Agassiz and Egerton. This collection was
+subsequently acquired by the British Museum. He died on the 21st of
+November 1886, being succeeded by his son (b. 1845) as 4th earl.
+
+The first of the Coles (an old Devonshire and Cornwall family) to settle
+in Ireland was Sir William Cole (d. 1653), who was "undertaker" of the
+northern plantation and received a grant of a large property in
+Fermanagh in 1611, and became provost and later governor of Enniskillen.
+In 1760 his descendant John Cole (d. 1767) was created Baron
+Mountflorence, and the latter's son, William Willoughby Cole
+(1736-1803), was in 1776 created Viscount Enniskillen and in 1789 earl.
+The 1st earl's second son, Sir Galbraith Lowry Cole (1772-1842), was a
+prominent general in the Peninsular War, and colonel of the 27th
+Inniskillings, the Irish regiment with whose name the family was
+associated.
+
+
+
+
+ENNISKILLEN [INNISKILLING], a market town and the county town of county
+Fermanagh, Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, picturesquely
+situated on an island in the river connecting the upper and lower loughs
+Erne, 116 m. N.W. from Dublin by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 5412. The town occupies the whole island, and is
+connected with two suburbs on the mainland on each side by two bridges.
+It has a brewery, tanneries and a small manufactory of cutlery, and a
+considerable trade in corn, pork and flax. In 1689 Enniskillen defeated
+a superior force sent against it by James II. at the battle of Crom; and
+part of the defenders of the town were subsequently formed into a
+regiment of cavalry, which still retains the name of the Inniskilling
+Dragoons. The town was incorporated by James I., and returned two
+members to the Irish parliament until the Union; thereafter it returned
+one to the Imperial parliament until 1885. There are wide communications
+by water by the river and the upper and lower loughs Erne, and by the
+Ulster canal to Belfast. The loughs contain trout, large pike and other
+coarse fish. Two miles from Enniskillen in the lower lough is Devenish
+Island, with its celebrated monastic remains. The abbey of St Mary here
+was founded by St Molaise (Laserian) in the 6th century; here too are a
+fine round tower 85 ft. high, remains of domestic buildings, a holed
+stone and a tall well-preserved cross. The whole is carefully preserved
+by the commissioners of public works under the Irish Church Act of 1869.
+Steamers ply between Enniskillen and Belleek on the lower lake, and
+between Enniskillen and Knockninny on the upper lake.
+
+
+
+
+ENNIUS, QUINTUS (239-170 B.C.), ancient Latin poet, was born at Rudiae
+in Calabria. Familiar with Greek as the language in common use among the
+cultivated classes of his district, and with Oscan, the prevailing
+dialect of lower Italy, he further acquired a knowledge of Latin; to use
+his own expression (Gellius xvii. 17), he had three "hearts" (_corda_),
+the Latin word being used to signify the seat of intelligence. He is
+said (Servius on _Aen._ vii. 691) to have claimed descent from one of
+the legendary kings of his native district, Messapus the eponymous hero
+of Messapia, and this consciousness of ancient lineage is in accordance
+with the high self-confident tone of his mind, with his sympathy with
+the dominant genius of the Roman republic, and with his personal
+relations to the members of her great families. Of his early years
+nothing is directly known, and we first hear of him in middle life as
+serving during the Second Punic War, with the rank of centurion, in
+Sardinia, in the year 204, where he attracted the attention of Cato the
+elder, and was taken by him to Rome in the same year. Here he taught
+Greek and adapted Greek plays for a livelihood, and by his poetical
+compositions gained the friendship of the greatest men in Rome. Amongst
+these were the elder Scipio and Fulvius Nobilior, whom he accompanied on
+his Aetolian campaign (189). Through the influence of Nobilior's son,
+Ennius subsequently obtained the privilege of Roman citizenship (Cicero,
+_Brutus_, 20. 79). He lived plainly and simply on the Aventine with the
+poet Caecilius Statius. He died at the age of 70, immediately after
+producing his tragedy _Thyestes_. In the last book of his epic poem, in
+which he seems to have given various details of his personal history, he
+mentions that he was in his 67th year at the date of its composition. He
+compared himself, in contemplation of the close of the great work of his
+life, to a gallant horse which, after having often won the prize at the
+Olympic games, obtained his rest when weary with age. A similar feeling
+of pride at the completion of a great career is expressed in the
+memorial lines which he composed to be placed under his bust after
+death,--"Let no one weep for me, or celebrate my funeral with mourning;
+for I still live, as I pass to and fro through the mouths of men." From
+the impression stamped on his remains, and from the testimony of his
+countrymen, we think of him as a man of a robust, sagacious and cheerful
+nature (Hor. _Epp._ ii. 1. 50; Cic. _De sen._ 5); of great industry and
+versatility; combining imaginative enthusiasm and a vein of religious
+mysticism with a sceptical indifference to popular beliefs and a scorn
+of religious imposture; and tempering the grave seriousness of a Roman
+with a genial capacity for enjoyment (Hor. _Epp._ i. 19. 7).
+
+Till the appearance of Ennius, Roman literature, although it had
+produced the epic poem of Naevius and some adaptations of Greek tragedy,
+had been most successful in comedy. Naevius and Plautus were men of
+thoroughly popular fibre. Naevius suffered for his attacks on members of
+the aristocracy, and, although Plautus carefully avoids any direct
+notice of public matters, yet the bias of his sympathies is indicated in
+several passages of his extant plays. Ennius, on the other hand, was by
+temperament in thorough sympathy with the dominant aristocratic element
+in Roman life and institutions. Under his influence literature became
+less suited to the popular taste, more especially addressed to a limited
+and cultivated class, but at the same time more truly expressive of what
+was greatest and most worthy to endure in the national sentiment and
+traditions. He was a man of many-sided activity. He devoted attention to
+questions of Latin orthography, and is said to have been the first to
+introduce shorthand writing in Latin. He attempted comedy, but with so
+little success that in the canon of Volcacius Sedigitus he is mentioned,
+solely as a mark of respect "for his antiquity," tenth and last in the
+list of comic poets. He may be regarded also as the inventor of Roman
+satire, in its original sense of a "medley" or "miscellany," although it
+was by Lucilius that the character of aggressive and censorious
+criticism of men and manners was first imparted to that form of
+literature. The word _satura_ was originally applied to a rude scenic
+and musical performance, exhibited at Rome before the introduction of
+the regular drama. The _saturae_ of Ennius were collections of writings
+on various subjects, written in various metres and contained in four (or
+six) books. Among these were included metrical versions of the physical
+speculations of Epicharmus, of the gastronomic researches of
+Archestratus of Gela (_Hedyphagetica_), and, probably, of the
+rationalistic doctrines of Euhemerus. It may be noticed that all these
+writers whose works were thus introduced to the Romans were Sicilian
+Greeks. Original compositions were also contained in these _saturae_,
+and among them the panegyric on Scipio, unless this was a drama. The
+satire of Ennius seems to have resembled the more artistic satire of
+Horace in its record of personal experiences, in the occasional
+introduction of dialogue, in the use made of fables with a moral
+application, and in the didactic office which it assumed.
+
+But the chief distinction of Ennius was gained in tragic and narrative
+poetry. He was the first to impart to the Roman adaptations of Greek
+tragedy the masculine dignity, pathos and oratorical fervour which
+continued to animate them in the hands of Pacuvius and Accius, and, when
+set off by the acting of Aesopus, called forth vehement applause in the
+age of Cicero. The titles of about twenty-five of his tragedies are
+known to us, and a considerable number of fragments, varying in length
+from a few words to about fifteen lines, have been preserved. These
+tragedies were for the most part adaptations and, in some cases,
+translations from Euripides. One or two were original dramas, of the
+class called _praetextae_, i.e. dramas founded on Roman history or
+legend; thus, the _Ambracia_ treated of the capture of that city by his
+patron Nobilior, the _Sabinae_ of the rape of the Sabine women. The
+heroes and heroines of the Trojan cycle, such as Achilles, Ajax,
+Telamon, Cassandra, Andromache, were prominent figures in some of the
+dramas adapted from the Greek. Several of the more important fragments
+are found in Cicero, who expresses a great admiration for their manly
+fortitude and dignified pathos. In these remains of the tragedies of
+Ennius we can trace indications of strong sympathy with the nobler and
+bolder elements of character, of vivid realization of impassioned
+situations, and of sagacious observation of life. The frank bearing,
+fortitude and self-sacrificing heroism of the best type of the soldierly
+character find expression in the persons of Achilles, Telamon and
+Eurypylus; and a dignified and passionate tenderness of feeling makes
+itself heard in the lyrical utterances of Cassandra and Andromache. The
+language is generally nervous and vigorous, occasionally vivified with
+imaginative energy. But it flows less smoothly and easily than that of
+the dialogue of Latin comedy. It shows the same tendency to aim at
+effect by alliterations, assonances and plays on words. The rudeness of
+early art is most apparent in the inequality of the metres in which both
+the dialogue and the "recitative" are composed.
+
+But the work which gained him his reputation as the Homer of Rome, and
+which called forth the admiration of Cicero and Lucretius and frequent
+imitation from Virgil, was the _Annales_, a long narrative poem in
+eighteen books, containing the record of the national story from
+mythical times to his own. Although the whole conception of the work
+implies that confusion of the provinces of poetry and history which was
+perpetuated by later writers, and especially by Lucan and Silius
+Italicus, yet it was a true instinct of genius to discern in the idea of
+the national destiny the only possible motive of a Roman epic. The
+execution of the poem (to judge from the fragments, amounting to about
+six hundred lines), although rough, unequal and often prosaic, seems to
+have combined the realistic fidelity and freshness of feeling of a
+contemporary chronicle with the vivifying and idealizing power of
+genius. Ennius prided himself especially on being the first to form the
+strong speech of Latium into the mould of the Homeric hexameter in place
+of the old Saturnian metre. And although it took several generations of
+poets to beat their music out to the perfection of the Virgilian
+cadences, yet in the rude adaptation of Ennius the secret of what
+ultimately became one of the grandest organs of literary expression was
+first discovered and revealed. The inspiring idea of the poem was
+accepted, purified of all alien material, and realized in artistic shape
+by Virgil in his national epic. He deliberately imparted to that poem
+the charm of antique associations by incorporating with it much of the
+phraseology and sentiment of Ennius. The occasional references to Roman
+history in Lucretius are evidently reminiscences of the _Annales_. He as
+well as Cicero speaks of him with pride and affection as "Ennius
+noster." Of the great Roman writers Horace had least sympathy with him;
+yet he testifies to the high esteem in which he was held during the
+Augustan age. Ovid expresses the grounds of that esteem when he
+characterizes him as
+
+  "Ingenio maximus, arte rudis."
+
+A sentence of Quintilian expresses the feeling of reverence for his
+genius and character, mixed with distaste for his rude workmanship, with
+which the Romans of the early empire regarded him: "Let us revere Ennius
+as we revere the sacred groves, hallowed by antiquity, whose massive and
+venerable oak trees are not so remarkable for beauty as for the
+religious awe which they inspire" (_Inst. or._ x. 1. 88).
+
+  Editions of the fragments by L. Muller (1884), L. Valmaggi (1900, with
+  notes), J. Vahlen (1903); monographs by L. Muller (1884 and 1893), C.
+  Pascal, _Studi sugli scrittori Latini_ (1900); see also Mommsen,
+  _History of Rome_, bk. iii. ch. 14. On Virgil's indebtedness to Ennius
+  see V. Crivellari, _Quae praecipue hausit Vergilius ex Naevio et
+  Ennio_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX (A.D. 474-521), bishop of Pavia, Latin
+rhetorician and poet. He was born at Arelate (Arles) and belonged to a
+distinguished but impecunious family. Having lost his parents at an
+early age, he was brought up by an aunt at Ticinum (Pavia); according to
+some, at Mediolanum (Milan). After her death he was received into the
+family of a pious and wealthy young lady, to whom he was betrothed. It
+is not certain whether he actually married this lady; she seems to have
+lost her money and retired to a convent, whereupon Ennodius entered the
+Church, and was ordained deacon (about 493) by Epiphanius, bishop of
+Pavia. From Pavia he went to Milan, where he continued to reside until
+his elevation to the see of Pavia about 515. During his stay at Milan he
+visited Rome and other places, where he gained a reputation as a teacher
+of rhetoric. As bishop of Pavia he played a considerable part in
+ecclesiastical affairs. On two occasions (in 515 and 517) he was sent to
+Constantinople by Theodoric on an embassy to the emperor Anastasius, to
+endeavour to bring about a reconciliation between the Eastern and
+Western churches. He died on the 17th of July 521; his epitaph still
+exists in the basilica of St Michael at Pavia (_Corpus Inscriptionum
+Latinarum_, v. pt. ii. No. 6464).
+
+Ennodius is one of the best representatives of the twofold (pagan and
+Christian) tendency of 5th-century literature, and of the Gallo-Roman
+clergy who upheld the cause of civilization and classical literature
+against the inroads of barbarism. But his anxiety not to fall behind his
+classical models--the chief of whom was Virgil--his striving after
+elegance and grammatical correctness, and a desire to avoid the
+commonplace have produced a turgid and affected style, which, aggravated
+by rhetorical exaggerations and popular barbarisms, makes his works
+difficult to understand. It has been remarked that his poetry is less
+unintelligible than his prose.
+
+  The numerous writings of this versatile ecclesiastic may be divided
+  into (1) letters, (2) miscellanies, (3) discourses, (4) poems. The
+  letters on a variety of subjects, addressed to high church and state
+  officials, are valuable for the religious and political history of the
+  period. Of the miscellanies, the most important are: _The Panegyric of
+  Theodoric_, written to thank the Arian prince for his tolerance of
+  Catholicism and support of Pope Symmachus (probably delivered before
+  the king on the occasion of his entry into Ravenna or Milan); like all
+  similar works, it is full of flattery and exaggeration, but if used
+  with caution is a valuable authority; _The Life of St Epiphanius_,
+  bishop of Pavia, the best written and perhaps the most important of
+  all his writings, an interesting picture of the political activity and
+  influence of the church; _Eucharisticon de Vita Sua_, a sort of
+  "confessions," after the manner of St Augustine; the description of
+  the enfranchisement of a slave with religious formalities in the
+  presence of a bishop; _Paraenesis didascalica_, an educational guide,
+  in which the claims of grammar as a preparation for the study of
+  rhetoric, the mother of all the sciences, are strongly insisted on.
+  The discourses (_Dictiones_) are sacred, scholastic, controversial and
+  ethical. The discourse on the anniversary of Laurentius, bishop of
+  Milan, is the chief authority for the life of that prelate; the
+  scholastic discourses, rhetorical exercises for the schools, contain
+  eulogies of classical learning, distinguished professors and pupils;
+  the controversial deal with imaginary charges, the subjects being
+  chiefly borrowed from the _Controversiae_ of the elder Seneca; the
+  ethical harangues are put into the mouth of mythological personages
+  (e.g. the speech of Thetis over the body of Achilles). Amongst the
+  poems mention may be made of two _Itineraria_, descriptions of a
+  journey from Milan to Brigantium (Briancon) and of a trip on the Po;
+  an apology for the study of profane literature; an epithalamium, in
+  which Love is introduced as execrating Christianity; a dozen hymns,
+  after the manner of St Ambrose, probably intended for church use;
+  epigrams on various subjects, some being epigrams proper--inscriptions
+  for tombs, basilicas, baptisteries--others imitations of Martial,
+  satiric pieces and descriptions of scenery.
+
+  There are two excellent editions of Ennodius by G. Hartel (vol. vi. of
+  _Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum_, Vienna, 1882) and F.
+  Vogel (vol. vii. of _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, 1885, with
+  exhaustive prolegomena). On Ennodius generally consult M. Fertig,
+  _Ennodius und seine Zeit_ (1855-1860); A. Dubois, _La Latinite
+  d'Ennodius_ (1903); F. Magani, _Ennodio_ (Pavia, 1886); A. Ebert,
+  _Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters im Abendlande_, i.
+  (1889); M. Manitius, Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie
+  (1891); Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman Literature_, S 479 (Eng. tr., 1892).
+  French translation by the abbe S. Leglise (Paris, 1906 foll.).
+
+
+
+
+ENNS, a town of Austria, in upper Austria, 11 m. by rail S.E. of Linz.
+Pop. (1900) 4371. It is situated on the Enns near its confluence with
+the Danube and possesses a 15th-century castle, an old Gothic church,
+and a town hall erected in 1565. Three miles to the S.W. lies the
+Augustinian monastery of St Florian, one of the oldest and largest
+religious houses of Austria. Founded in the 7th century, it was occupied
+by the Benedictines till the middle of the 11th century. It was
+established on a firm basis in 1071, when it passed into the hands of
+the Augustinians. The actual buildings, which are among the most
+magnificent in Austria, were constructed between 1686 and 1745. Its
+library, with over 70,000 volumes, contains valuable manuscripts and
+also a fine collection of coins. Enns is one of the oldest towns in
+Austria, and stands near the site of the Roman _Laureacum_. The nucleus
+of the actual town was formed by a castle, called Anasiburg or Anesburg,
+erected in 900 by the Bavarians as a post against the incursions of the
+Hungarians. It soon attained commercial prosperity, and by a charter of
+1212 was made a free town. In 1275 it passed into the hands of Rudolph
+of Habsburg. An encounter between the French and the Austrian troops
+took place here on the 5th of November 1805.
+
+
+
+
+ENOCH ([Hebrew: hanockh, hanockh], Hanokh, Teaching or Dedication). (1)
+In Gen. iv. 17, 18 (J), the eldest son of Cain, born while Cain was
+building a city, which he named after Enoch; nothing is known of the
+city. (2) In Gen. v. 24, &c. (P), _seventh_ in descent from Adam in the
+line of Seth; he "walked with God," and after 365 years "was not for God
+took him." [(1) and (2) are often regarded as both corruptions of the
+_seventh_ primitive king Evedorachos (Enmeduranki in cuneiform
+inscriptions), the two genealogies, Gen. iv. 16-24, v. 12-17, being
+variant forms of the Babylonian list of primitive kings. Enmeduranki is
+the favourite of the sun-god, cf. Enoch's 365 years.[1]] Heb. xi. 5 says
+Enoch "was not found, because God _translated_ him." Later Jewish
+legends represented him as receiving revelations on astronomy, &c., and
+as the first author; apparently following the Babylonian account which
+makes Enmeduranki receive instruction in all wisdom from the sun-god.[1]
+Two apocryphal works written in the name of Enoch are extant, the _Book
+of Enoch_, compiled from documents written 200-50 B.C., quoted as the
+work of Enoch, Jude 14 and 15; and the _Book of the Secrets of Enoch_,
+A.D. 1-50. Cf. 1 Chron. i. 3; Luke iii. 37; Wisdom iv. 7-14; Ecclus.
+xliv. 16, xlix. 14. (3) Son, i.e. clan, of Midian, in Gen. xxv. 4; 1
+Chron. i. 33. (4) Son, i.e. clan, of Reuben, E.V. _Hanoch_, _Henoch_, in
+Gen. xlvi. 9; Exod. vi. 14; Num. xxvi. 5; 1 Chron. v. 3. There may have
+been some historical connexion between these two clans with identical
+names.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Eberhard Schrader, _Die Keilinschriften und das A.T._, 3rd ed.,
+    pp. 540 f.
+
+
+
+
+ENOCH, BOOK OF. The _Book of Enoch_, or, as it is sometimes called, the
+_Ethiopic Book of Enoch_, in contradistinction to the _Slavonic Book of
+Enoch_ (see later), is perhaps the most important of all the apocryphal
+or pseudapocryphal Biblical writings for the history of religious
+thought. It is not the work of a single author, but rather a
+conglomerate of literary fragments which once circulated under the names
+of Enoch, Noah and possibly Methuselah. In the _Book of the Secrets of
+Enoch_ we have additional portions of this literature. As the former
+work is derived from a variety of Pharisaic writers in Palestine, so the
+latter in its present form was written for the most part by Hellenistic
+Jews in Egypt.
+
+The _Book of Enoch_ was written in the second and first centuries B.C.
+It was well known to many of the writers of the New Testament, and in
+many instances influenced their thought and diction. Thus it is quoted
+by name as a genuine production of Enoch in the Epistle of Jude, 14 sq.,
+and it lies at the base of Matt. xix. 28 and John v. 22, 27, and many
+other passages. It had also a vast indirect influence on the Palestinian
+literature of the 1st century of our era. Like the Pentateuch, the
+Psalms, the Megilloth, the Pirke Aboth, this work was divided into five
+parts, with the critical discussion of which we shall deal below. With
+the earlier Fathers and Apologists it had all the weight of a canonical
+book, but towards the close of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th
+century it began to be discredited, and finally fell under the ban of
+the Church. Almost the latest reference to it in the early church is
+made by George Syncellus in his Chronography about A.D. 800. The book
+was then lost sight of till 1773, when Bruce discovered the Ethiopic
+version in Abyssinia.
+
+_Original Language._--That the _Book of Enoch_ was written in Semitic is
+now accepted on all hands, but scholars are divided as to whether the
+Semitic language in question was Hebrew or Aramaic. Only one valuable
+contribution on this question has been made, and that by Halevy in the
+_Journal Asiatique_, Avril-Mai 1867, pp. 352-395. This scholar is of
+opinion that the entire work was written in Hebrew. Since this
+publication, however, fresh evidence bearing on the question has been
+discovered in the Greek fragment (i.-xxxii.) found in Egypt. Since this
+fragment contains three Aramaic words transliterated in the Greek, some
+scholars, and among them Schurer, Levi and N. Schmidt, have concluded
+that not only are chapters i.-xxxvi. derived from an Aramaic original,
+but also the remainder of the book. In support of the latter statement
+no evidence has yet been offered by these or any other scholars, nor yet
+has there been any attempt to meet the positive arguments of Halevy for
+a Hebrew original of xxxvii.-civ., whose Hebrew reconstructions of the
+text have been and must be adopted in many cases by every editor and
+translator of the book. A prolonged study of the text, which has brought
+to light a multitude of fresh passages the majority of which can be
+explained by retranslation into Hebrew, has convinced the present
+writer[1] that, whilst the evidence on the whole is in favour of an
+Aramaic original of vi.-xxxvi., it is just as conclusive on behalf of
+the Hebrew original of the greater part of the rest of the book.
+
+_Versions--Greek, Latin and Ethiopic._--The Semitic original was
+translated into Greek. It is not improbable that there were two distinct
+Greek versions. Of the one, several fragments have been preserved in
+Syncellus (A.D. 800), vi.-x. 14, viii. 4-ix. 4, xv. 8-xvi. 1; of the
+other, i.-xxxii. in the Giza Greek fragment discovered in Egypt and
+published by Bouriant (_Fragments grecs du livre d'Enoch_); in 1892, and
+subsequently by Lods, Dillmann, Charles (_Book of Enoch_, 318 sqq.),
+Swete, and finally by Radermacher and Charles (_Ethiopic Text_, 3-75).
+In addition to these fragments there is that of lxxxix. 42-49 (see
+Gildemeister in the _ZDMG_, 1855, pp. 621-624, and Charles, _Ethiopic
+Text_, pp. 175-177). Of the Latin version only i. 9 survives, being
+preserved in the Pseudo-Cyprian's _Ad Novatianum_, and cvi. 1-18
+discovered by James in an 8th-century MS. of the British Museum (see
+James, _Apoc. anecdota_, 146-150; Charles, _op. cit._ 219-222). This
+version is made from the Greek.
+
+The Ethiopic version, which alone preserves the entire text, is a very
+faithful translation of the Greek. Twenty-eight MSS. of this version are
+in the different libraries of Europe, of which fifteen are to be found
+in England. This version was made from an ancestor of the Greek fragment
+discovered at Giza. Some of the utterly unintelligible passages in this
+fragment are literally reproduced in the Ethiopic. The same wrong order
+of the text in vii.-viii. is common to both. In order to recover the
+original text, it is from time to time necessary to retranslate the
+Ethiopic into Greek, and the latter in turn into Aramaic or Hebrew. By
+this means we are able to detect dittographies in the Greek and variants
+in the original Semitic. The original was written to a large extent in
+verse. The discovery of this fact is most helpful in the criticism of
+the text. This version was first edited by Laurence in 1838 from one
+MS., in 1851 by Dillmann from five, in 1902 by Flemming from fifteen
+MSS., and in 1906 by the present writer from twenty-three.
+
+  _Translations and Commentaries._--Laurence, _The Book of Enoch_
+  (Oxford, 1821); Dillmann, _Das Buch Henoch_ (1853); Schodde, _The Book
+  of Enoch_ (1882); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893); Beer, "Das Buch
+  Henoch," in Kautzsch's _Apok. u. Pseud. des A.T._ (1900), ii. 217-310;
+  Flemming and Radermacher, _Das Buch Henoch_ (1901); Martin, _Le Livre
+  d'Henoch_ (1906). _Critical Inquiries._--The bibliography will be
+  found in Schurer, _Gesch. d. judischen Volkes_^3, iii. 207-209, and a
+  short critical account of the most important of these in Charles, _op.
+  cit._ pp. 9-21.
+
+_The different Elements in the Book, with their respective
+Characteristics and Dates._--We have remarked above that the _Book of
+Enoch_ is divided into five parts--i.-xxxvi., xxxvii.-lxxi.,
+lxxii.-lxxxii., lxxxiii.-xc., xci-cviii. Some of these parts constituted
+originally separate treatises. In the course of their reduction and
+incorporation into a single work they suffered much mutilation and loss.
+From an early date the compositeness of this work was recognized.
+Scholars have varied greatly in their critical analyses of the work (see
+Charles, _op. cit._ 6-21, 309-311). The analysis which gained most
+acceptation was that of Dillmann (Herzog's _Realencyk._^2 xii.
+350-352), according to whom the present books consist of--(1) the
+groundwork, i.e. i.-xxxvi., lxxii.-cv., written in the time of John
+Hyrcanus; (2) xxxvii.-lxxi., xvii.-xix., before 64 B.C.; (3) the Noachic
+fragments, vi. 3-8, viii. 1-3, ix. 7, x. 1, 11, xx., xxxix. 1, 2a,
+liv. 7-lv. 2, lx., lxv.-lxix. 25, cvi.-cvii.; and (4) cviii., from a
+later hand. With much of this analysis there is no reason to disagree.
+The similitudes are undoubtedly of different authorship from the rest of
+the book, and certain portions of the book are derived from the _Book of
+Noah_. On the other hand, the so-called groundwork has no existence
+unless in the minds of earlier critics and some of their belated
+followers in the present. It springs from at least four hands, and may
+be roughly divided into four parts, corresponding to the present actual
+divisions of the book.
+
+A new critical analysis of the book based on this view was given by
+Charles (_op. cit._ pp. 24-33), and further developed by Clemen and
+Beer. The analysis of the latter (see Herzog, _Realencyk._^3 xiv. 240)
+is very complex. The book, according to this scholar, is composed of the
+following separate elements from the Enoch tradition:--(1) Ch. i.-v.;
+(2) xii-xvi.; (3) xvii.-xix.; (4) xx.-xxxvi.; (5) xxxvii.-lxix. (from
+diverse sources); (6) lxx.-lxxi.; (7) lxxii.-lxxxii.; (8)
+lxxxiii.-lxxxiv.; (9) lxxxv.-xc.; (10) xciii., cxi. 12-17; (11) xci.
+1-11, 18, 19, xcii., xciv.-cv.; (12) cviii., and from the Noah
+tradition; (13) vi.-xi.; (14) xxxix. 1-2a, liv. 7-lv. 2, lx.,
+lxv.-lxix. 25; (15) cvi.-cvii. Thus while Clemen finds eleven separate
+sources, Beer finds fifteen. A fresh study from the hand of Appel (_Die
+Composition des athiopischen Henochbuchs_, 1906) seeks to reach a final
+analysis of our book. But though it evinces considerable insight, it
+cannot escape the charge of extravagance. The original book or
+ground-work of Enoch consisted of i.-xvi., xx.-xxxvi. This work called
+forth a host of imitators, and a number of their writings, together with
+the groundwork, were edited as a Book of Methuselah, i.e. lxxii.-cv.
+Then came the final redactor, who interpolated the groundwork and the
+Methuselah sections, adding two others from his own pen. The Similitudes
+he worked up from a series of later sources, and gave them the second
+place in the final work authenticating them with the name of Noah. The
+date of the publication of the entire work Appel assigns to the years
+immediately following the death of Herod.
+
+  We shall now give an analysis of the book, with the dates of the
+  various sections where possible. Of these we shall deal with the
+  easiest first. _Chap. lxxii.-lxxxii._ constitutes a work in itself,
+  the writer of which had very different objects before him from the
+  writers of the rest of the book. His sole aim is to give the law of
+  the heavenly bodies. His work has suffered disarrangements and
+  interpolations at the hands of the editor of the whole work. Thus
+  lxxvi.-lxxvii., which are concerned with the winds, the quarters of
+  the heaven, and certain geographical matters, and lxxxi., which is
+  concerned wholly with ethical matters, are foreign to a work which
+  professes in its title (lxxii. 1) to deal only with the luminaries of
+  the heaven and their laws. Finally, lxxxii. should stand before
+  lxxix.; for the opening words of the latter suppose it to be already
+  read. The date of this section can be partially established, for it
+  was known to the author of Jubilees, and was therefore written before
+  the last third of the 2nd century B.C.
+
+  _Chaps. lxxxiii.-xc._--This section was written before 161 B.C., for
+  "the great horn," who is Judas the Maccabee, was still warring when
+  the author was writing. (Dillmann, Schurer and others take the great
+  horn to be John Hyrcanus, but this interpretation does violence to the
+  text.) These chapters recount three visions: the first two deal with
+  the first-world judgment; the third with the entire history of the
+  world till the final judgment. An eternal Messianic kingdom at the
+  close of the judgment is to be established under the Messiah, with its
+  centre in the New Jerusalem set up by God Himself.
+
+  _Chaps. xci.-civ._--In the preceding section the Maccabees were the
+  religious champions of the nation and the friends of the Hasidim. Here
+  they are leagued with the Sadducees, and are the declared foes of the
+  Pharisaic party. This section was written therefore after 134 B.C.,
+  when the breach between John Hyrcanus and the Pharisees took place and
+  before the savage massacres of the latter by Jannaeus (95 B.C.); for
+  it is not likely that in a book dealing with the sufferings of the
+  Pharisees such a reference would be omitted. These chapters indicate a
+  revolution in the religious hopes of the nation. An eternal Messianic
+  kingdom is no longer anticipated, but only a temporary one, at the
+  close of which the final judgment will ensue. The righteous dead rise
+  not to this kingdom but to spiritual blessedness in heaven itself--to
+  an immortality of the soul. This section also has suffered at the
+  hands of the final editor. Thus xci. 12-17, which describe the last
+  three weeks of the Ten-Weeks Apocalypse, should be read immediately
+  after xciii. 1-10, which recount the first seven weeks of the same
+  apocalypse. But, furthermore, the section obviously begins with xcii.
+  "Written by Enoch the scribe," &c. Then comes xci. 1-10 as a natural
+  sequel. The Ten-Weeks Apocalypse, xciii. 1-10, xci. 12-17, if it came
+  from the same hand, followed, and then xciv. The attempt (by Clemen
+  and Beer) to place the Ten-Weeks Apocalypse before 167, because it
+  makes no reference to the Maccabees, is not successful; for where the
+  history of mankind from Adam to the final judgment is despatched in
+  sixteen verses, such an omission need cause little embarrassment, and
+  still less if the author is the determined foe of the Maccabees, whom
+  he would probably have stigmatized as apostates, if he had mentioned
+  them at all, just as he similarly brands all the Sadducean priesthood
+  that preceded them to the time of the captivity. This Ten-Weeks
+  Apocalypse, therefore, we take to be the work of the writer of the
+  rest of xci.-civ.
+
+  _Chaps. i.-xxxvi._--This is the most difficult section of the book. It
+  is very composite. Chaps. vi.-xi. is apparently an independent
+  fragment of the Enoch Saga. It is itself compounded of the Semjaza and
+  Azazel myths, and in its present composite form is already presupposed
+  by lxxxviii.-lxxxix. 1; hence its present form is earlier than 166
+  B.C. It represents a primitive and very sensuous view of the eternal
+  Messianic kingdom on earth, seeing that the righteous beget 1000
+  children before they die. These chapters appear to be from the Book of
+  Noah; for they never refer to Enoch but to Noah only (x. 1). Moreover,
+  when the author of Jubilees is clearly drawing on the Book of Noah,
+  his subject-matter (vii. 21-25) agrees most closely with that of these
+  chapters in Enoch (see Charles' edition of Jubilees, pp. lxxi. sq.
+  264). xii.-xvi., on the other hand, belong to the Book of Enoch. These
+  represent for the most part what Enoch saw in a vision. Now whereas
+  vi.-xvi. deal with the fall of the angels, their destruction of
+  mankind, and the condemnation of the fallen angels, the subject-matter
+  now suddenly changes and xvii.-xxxvi. treat of Enoch's journeyings
+  through earth and heaven escorted by angels. Here undoubtedly we have
+  a series of doublets; for xvii.-xix. stand in this relation to
+  xx.-xxxvi., since both sections deal with the same subjects. Thus
+  xvii. 4 = xxiii.; xvii. 6 = xxii.; xviii. 1 = xxxiv.-xxxvi.; xviii.
+  6-9 = xxiv.-xxv., xxxii. 1-2; xviii. 11, xix. = xxi. 7-10; xviii.
+  12-16 = xxi. 1-6. They belong to the same cycle of tradition and
+  cannot be independent of each other. Chap. xx. appears to show that
+  xx.-xxxvi. is fragmentary, since only four of the seven angels
+  mentioned in xx. have anything to do in xxi.-xxxvi. Finally, i.-v.
+  seems to be of a different date and authorship from the rest.
+
+  _Chaps. xxxvii.-lxxi._--These constitute the well-known Similitudes.
+  They were written before 64 B.C., for Rome was not yet known to the
+  writer, and after 95 B.C., for the slaying of the righteous, of which
+  the writer complains, was not perpetrated by the Maccabean princes
+  before that date. This section consists of three
+  similitudes--xxxviii.-xliv., xlv.-lvii., lviii.-lxix. These are
+  introduced and concluded by xxxvii. and lxx. There are many
+  interpolations--lx., lxv.-lxix. 25 confessedly from the Book of Noah;
+  most probably also liv. 7-lv. 2. Whence others, such as xxxix. 1,
+  2a, xli. 3-8, xliii. sq., spring is doubtful. Chaps. 1, lvi. 5-lvii.
+  3a are likewise insertions.
+
+  In R.H. Charles's edition of Enoch, lxxi. was bracketed as an
+  interpolation. The writer now sees that it belongs to the text of the
+  Similitudes though it is dislocated from its original context. It
+  presents two visits of Enoch to heaven in lxxi. 1-4 and lxxi. 5-17.
+  The extraordinary statement in lxxi. 14, according to which Enoch is
+  addressed as "the Son of Man," is seen, as Appel points out, on
+  examination of the context to have arisen from the loss of a portion
+  of the text after verse 13, in which Enoch saw a heavenly being with
+  the Head of Days and asked the angel who accompanied him who this
+  being was. Then comes ver. 14, which, owing to the loss of this
+  passage, has assumed the form of an address to Enoch: "Thou art the
+  Son of Man," but which stood originally as the angel's reply to Enoch:
+  "This is the Son of Man," &c. Ver. 15, then, gives the message sent to
+  Enoch by the Son of Man. In the next verse the second person should be
+  changed into the third. Thus we recover the original text of this
+  difficult chapter. The Messianic doctrine and eschatology of this
+  section is unique. The Messiah is here for the first time described as
+  the pre-existent Son of Man (xlviii. 2), who sits on the throne of God
+  (xlv. 3; xlvii. 3), possesses universal dominion (lxii. 6), and is the
+  Judge of all mankind (lxix. 27). After the judgment there will be a
+  new heaven and a new earth, which will be the abode of the blessed.
+
+THE BOOK OF THE SECRETS OR ENOCH, or _Slavonic Enoch_. This new fragment
+of the Enochic literature has only recently come to light through five
+MSS. discovered in Russia and Servia. Since about A.D. 500 it has been
+lost sight of. It is cited without acknowledgment in the _Book of Adam
+and Eve_, the _Apocalypses of Moses and Paul_, the _Sibylline Oracles_,
+the _Ascension of Isaiah_, the _Epistle of Barnabas_, and referred to by
+Origen and Irenaeus (see Charles, _The Book of the Secrets of Enoch_,
+1895, pp. xvii-xxiv). For Charles's _editio princeps_ of this work, in
+1895, Professor Morfill translated two of the best MSS., as well as
+Sokolov's text, which is founded on these and other MSS. In 1896
+Bonwetsch issued his _Das slavische Henochbuch_, in which a German
+translation of the above two MSS. is given side by side, preceded by a
+short introduction.
+
+  _Analysis._--Chaps. i.-ii. Introduction: life of Enoch: his dream, in
+  which he is told that he will be taken up to heaven: his admonitions
+  to his sons. iii.-xxxvi. What Enoch saw in heaven. iii.-vi. The first
+  heaven: the rulers of the stars: the great sea and the treasures of
+  snow, &c. vii. The second heaven: the fallen angels. viii.-x. The
+  third heaven: Paradise and place of punishment. xi.-xvii. The fourth
+  heaven: courses of the sun and moon: phoenixes. xviii. The fifth
+  heaven: the watchers mourning for their fallen brethren. xix. The
+  sixth heaven: seven bands of angels arrange and study the courses of
+  the stars, &c.: others set over the years, the fruits of the earth,
+  the souls of men. xx.-xxxvi. The seventh heaven. The Lord sitting on
+  His throne with the ten chief orders of angels. Enoch is clothed by
+  Michael in the raiment of God's glory and instructed in the secrets of
+  nature and of man, which he wrote down in 366 books. God reveals to
+  Enoch the history of the creation of the earth and the seven planets
+  and circles of the heaven and of man, the story of the fallen angels,
+  the duration of the world through 7000 years, and its millennium of
+  rest. xxxviii.-lxvi. Enoch returns to earth, admonishes his sons:
+  instructs them on what he had seen in the heavens, gives them his
+  books. Bids them not to swear at all nor to expect any intercession of
+  the departed saints for sinners. lvi.-lxiii. Methuselah asks Enoch's
+  blessing before he departs, and to all his sons and their families
+  Enoch gives fresh instruction. lxiv.-lxvi. Enoch addressed the
+  assembled people at Achuszan. lxvii.-lxviii. Enoch's translation.
+  Rejoicings of the people on behalf of the revelation given them
+  through Enoch.
+
+_Language and Place of Writing._--A large part of this book was written
+for the first time in Greek. This may be inferred from such statements
+as (1) xxx. 13, "And I gave him a name (i.e. Adam) from the four
+substances: the East, the West, the North and the South." Thus Adam's
+name is here derived from the initial letters of the four quarters:
+[Greek: anatole, dusis, arktos, mesembria]. This derivation is
+impossible in Semitic. This context is found elsewhere in the Sibyllines
+iii. 24 sqq. and other Greek writings. (2) Again our author uses the
+chronology of the Septuagint and in 1, 4 follows the Septuagint text of
+Deuteronomy xxxii. 35 against the Hebrew. On the other hand, some
+sections may wholly or in part go back to Hebrew originals. There is a
+Hebrew Book of Enoch attributed to R. Ishmael ben Elisha who lived at
+the close of the 1st century and the beginning of the 2nd century B.C.
+This book is very closely related to the Book of the Secrets of Enoch,
+or rather, to a large extent dependent upon it. Did Ishmael ben Elisha
+use the Book of the Secrets of Enoch in its Greek form, or did he find
+portions of it in Hebrew? At all events, extensive quotations from a
+Book of Enoch are found in the rabbinical literature of the middle ages,
+and the provenance of these has not yet been determined. See _Jewish
+Encyc._ i. 676 seq.
+
+But there is a stronger argument for a Hebrew original of certain
+sections to be found in the fact that the Testaments of the XII.
+Patriarchs appears to quote xxxiv. 2, 3 of our author in T. Napth. iv.
+1, T. Benj. ix.
+
+The book in its present form was written in Egypt. This may be inferred
+(1) from the variety of speculations which it holds in common with Philo
+and writings of a Hellenistic character that circulated mainly in Egypt.
+(2) The Phoenixes are Chalkydries (ch. xii.)--monstrous serpents with
+the heads of crocodiles--are natural products of the Egyptian
+imagination. (3) The syncretistic character of the creation account
+(xxv.-xxvi.) betrays Egyptian elements.
+
+_Relation to Jewish and Christian Literature._--The existence of a
+kindred literature in Neo-Hebrew has been already pointed out. We might
+note besides that it is quoted in the Book of Adam and Eve, the
+Apocalypse of Moses, the Apocalypse of Paul, the anonymous work _De
+montibus Sina et Sion_, the Sibylline Oracles ii. 75, Origen, _De
+princip._ i. 3, 2. The authors of the Ascension of Isaiah, the Apoc. of
+Baruch and the Epistle of Barnabas were probably acquainted with it. In
+the New Testament the similarity of matter and diction is sufficiently
+strong to establish a close connexion, if not a literary dependence.
+Thus with Matt. v. 9, "Blessed are the peacemakers," cf. lii. 11,
+"Blessed is he who establishes peace": with Matt. v. 34, 35, 37, "Swear
+not at all," cf. xlix. 1, "I will not swear by a single oath, neither by
+heaven, nor by earth, nor by any other creature which God made--if there
+is no truth in man, let them swear by a word yea, yea, or nay, nay."
+
+_Date and Authorship._--The book was probably written between 30 B.C.
+and A.D. 70. It was written after 30 B.C., for it makes use of Sirach,
+the (Ethiopic) Book of Enoch and the Book of Wisdom. It was written
+before A.D. 70; for the temple is still standing: see lix. 2.
+
+The author was an orthodox Hellenistic Jew who lived in Egypt. He
+believed in the value of sacrifices (xlii. 6; lix. 1, 2, &c), but is
+careful to enforce enlightened views regarding them (xlv. 3, 4; lxi. 4,
+5.) in the law, lii. 8, 9; in a blessed immortality, I. 2; lxv. 6, 8-10,
+in which the righteous should be clothed in "the raiment of God's
+glory," xxii. 8. In questions relating to cosmology, sin, death, &c, he
+is an eclectic, and allows himself the most unrestricted freedom, and
+readily incorporates Platonic (xxx. 16), Egyptian (xxv. 2) and Zend
+(lviii. 4-6) elements into his system of thought.
+
+_Anthropological Views._--All the souls of men were created before the
+foundation of the world (xxiii. 5) and likewise their future abodes in
+heaven or hell (xlix. 2, lviii. 5). Man's name was derived, as we have
+already seen, from the four quarters of the world, and his body was
+compounded from seven substances (xxx. 8). He was created originally
+good: freewill was bestowed upon him with instruction in the two ways of
+light and darkness, and then he was left to mould his own destiny (xxx.
+15). But his preferences through the bias of the flesh took an evil
+direction, and death followed as the wages of sin (xxx. 16).
+
+  LITERATURE.--Morfill and Charles, _The Book of the Secrets of Enoch_
+  (Oxford, 1896); Bonwetsch, "Das slavische Henochbuch," in the
+  _Abhandlungen der koniglichen gelehrten Gesellschaft zu Gottingen_
+  (1896). See also Schurer _in loc._ and the Bible Dictionaries.
+       (R. H. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The evidence is given at length in R.H. Charles' _Ethiopic Text
+    of Enoch_, pp. xxvii-xxxiii.
+
+
+
+
+ENOMOTO, BUYO, VISCOUNT (1839-1909), Japanese vice-admiral, was born in
+Tokyo. He was the first officer sent by the Tokugawa government to study
+naval science in Europe, and after going through a course of instruction
+in Holland he returned in command of the frigate "Kaiyo Maru," built at
+Amsterdam to order of the Yedo administration. The salient episode of
+his career was an attempt to establish a republic at Hakodate. Finding
+himself in command of a squadron which represented practically the whole
+of Japan's naval forces, he refused to acquiesce in the deposition of
+the Shogun, his liege lord, and, steaming off to Yezo (1867), proclaimed
+a republic and fortified Hakodate. But he was soon compelled to
+surrender. The newly organized government of the empire, however,
+instead of inflicting the death penalty on him and his principal
+followers, as would have been the inevitable sequel of such a drama in
+previous times, punished them with imprisonment only, and four years
+after the Hakodate episode, Enomoto received an important post in
+Hokkaido, the very scene of his wild attempt. Subsequently (1874), as
+his country's representative in St Petersburg, he concluded the treaty
+by which Japan exchanged the southern half of Saghalien for the Kuriles.
+He received the title of viscount in 1885, and afterwards held the
+portfolios of communications, education and foreign affairs. He died at
+Tokyo in 1909.
+
+
+
+
+ENOS (anc. _Aenos_), a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of
+Adrianople; on the southern shore of the river Maritza, where its
+estuary broadens to meet the Aegean Sea in the Gulf of Enos. Pop. (1905)
+about 8000. Enos occupies a ridge of rock surrounded by broad marshes.
+It is the seat of a Greek bishop, and the population is mainly Greek. It
+long possessed a valuable export trade, owing to its position at the
+mouth of the Maritza, the great natural waterway from Adrianople to the
+sea. But its commerce has declined, owing to the unhealthiness of its
+climate, to the accumulation of sandbanks in its harbour, which now only
+admits small coasters and fishing-vessels, and to the rivalry of
+Dedeagatch, a neighbouring seaport connected with Adrianople by rail.
+
+
+
+
+ENRIQUEZ GOMEZ, ANTONIO (c. 1601-c. 1661), Spanish dramatist, poet and
+novelist of Portuguese-Jewish origin, was known in the early part of his
+career as Enrique Enriquez de Paz. Born at Segovia, he entered the army,
+obtained a captaincy, was suspected of heresy, fled to France about
+1636, assumed the name of Antonio Enriquez Gomez, and became majordomo
+to Louis XIII., to whom he dedicated _Luis dado de Dios a Anna_ (Paris,
+1645). Some twelve years later he removed to Amsterdam, avowed his
+conversion to Judaism, and was burned in effigy at Seville on the 14th
+of April 1660. He is supposed to have returned to France, and to have
+died there in the following year. Three of his plays, _El Gran Cardenal
+de Espana_, _don Gil de Albornoz_, and the two parts of _Fernan Mendez
+Pinto_ were received with great applause at Madrid about 1629; in 1635
+he contributed a sonnet to Montalban's collection of posthumous
+panegyrics on Lope de Vega, to whose dramatic school Enriquez Gomez
+belonged. The _Academias morales de las Musas_, consisting of four plays
+(including _A lo que obliga el honor_, which recalls Calderon's _Medico
+de su honra_), was published at Bordeaux in 1642; _La Torre de
+Babilonia_, containing the two parts of _Fernan Mendez Pinto_, appeared
+at Rouen in 1647; and in the preface to his poem, _El Samson Nazareno_
+(Rouen, 1656), Enriquez Gomez gives the titles of sixteen other plays
+issued, as he alleges, at Seville. There is no foundation for the theory
+that he wrote the plays ascribed to Fernando de Zarate. His dramatic
+works, though effective on the stage, are disfigured by extravagant
+incidents and preciosity of diction. The latter defect is likewise
+observable in the mingled prose and verse of _La Culpa del primer
+peregrino_ (Rouen, 1644) and the dialogues entitled _Politica Angelica_
+(Rouen, 1647). Enriquez Gomez is best represented by _El Siglo
+Pitagorico y Vida de don Gregorio Guadana_ (Rouen, 1644), a striking
+picaresque novel in prose and verse which is still reprinted.
+
+
+
+
+ENSCHEDE, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, near the
+Prussian frontier, and a junction station 5 m. by rail S.E. of Hengelo.
+Pop. (1900) 23,141. It is important as the centre of the flourishing
+cotton-spinning and weaving industries of the Twente district; while by
+the railway via Gronau and Koesfeld to Dortmund it is in direct
+communication with the Westphalian coalfields. Enschede possesses
+several churches, an industrial trade school, and a large park intended
+for the benefit of the working classes. About two-thirds of the town was
+burnt down in 1862.
+
+
+
+
+ENSENADA, CENON DE SOMODEVILLA, MARQUES DE LA (1702-1781), Spanish
+statesman, was born at Alesanco near Logrono on the 2nd of June 1702.
+When he had risen to high office it was said that his pedigree was
+distinguished, but nothing is known of his parents--Francisco de
+Somodevilla and his wife Francisca de Bengoechea,--nor is anything known
+of his own life before he entered the civil administration of the
+Spanish navy as a clerk in 1720. He served in administrative capacities
+at the relief of Ceuta in that year and in the reoccupation of Oran in
+1731. His ability was recognized by Don Jose Patinos, the chief minister
+of King Philip V. Somodevilla was much employed during the various
+expeditions undertaken by the Spanish government to put the king's sons
+by his second marriage with Elizabeth Farnese, Charles and Philip, on
+the thrones of Naples and Parma. In 1736 Charles, afterwards King
+Charles III. of Spain, conferred on him the Neapolitan title of Marques
+de la Ensenada. The name can be resolved into the three Spanish words
+"en se nada," meaning "in himself nothing." The courtly flattery of the
+time, and the envy of the nobles who disliked the rise of men of
+Ensenada's class, seized upon this poor play on words; an _Ensenada_ is,
+however, a roadstead or small bay. In 1742 he became secretary of state
+and war to Philip, duke of Parma. In the following year (11th of April
+1743), on the death of Patinos's successor Campillo, he was chosen by
+Philip V. as minister of finance, war, the navy and the Indies (i.e. the
+Colonies). Ensenada met the nomination with a becoming _nolo
+episcopari_, professing that he was incapable of filling the four posts
+at once. His reluctance was overborne by the king, and he became in fact
+prime minister at the age of forty-one. During the remainder of the
+king's reign, which lasted till the 11th of July 1746, and under his
+successor Ferdinand VI. until 1754, Ensenada was the effective prime
+minister. His administration is notable in Spanish history for the
+vigour of his policy of internal reform. The reports on the finances and
+general condition of the country, which he drew up for the new king on
+his accession, and again after peace was made with England at
+Aix-la-Chapelle on the 18th of October 1748, are very able and
+clear-sighted. Under his direction the despotism of the Bourbon kings
+became paternal. Public works were undertaken, shipping was encouraged,
+trade was fostered, numbers of young Spaniards were sent abroad for
+education. Many of them abused their opportunity, but on the whole the
+prosperity of the country revived, and the way was cleared for the more
+sweeping innovations of the following reign. Ensenada was a strong
+partizan of a French alliance and of a policy hostile to England. Sir B.
+Keene, the English minister, supported the Spanish court party opposed
+to him, and succeeded in preventing him from adding the foreign office
+to others which he held. Ensenada would probably have fallen sooner but
+for the support he received from the Portuguese queen, Barbara. In 1754
+he offended her by opposing an exchange of Spanish and Portuguese
+colonial possessions in America which she favoured. On the 20th of July
+of that year he was arrested by the king's order, and sent into mild
+confinement at Granada, which he was afterwards allowed to exchange for
+Puerto de Santa Maria. On the accession of Charles III. in 1759, he was
+released from arrest and allowed to return to Madrid. The new king named
+him as member of a commission appointed to reform the system of
+taxation. Ensenada could not renounce the hope of again becoming
+minister, and entered into intrigues which offended the king. On the
+18th of April 1766 he was again exiled from court, and ordered to go to
+Medina del Campo. He had no further share in public life, and died on
+the 2nd of December 1781. Ensenada acquired wealth in office, but he was
+never accused of corruption. Though, like most of his countrymen, he
+suffered from the mania for grandeur, and was too fond of imposing
+schemes out of all proportion with the resources of the state, he was
+undoubtedly an able and patriotic man, whose administration was
+beneficial to Spain.
+
+  For his administration see W. Coxe, _Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of
+  the House of Bourbon_ (London, 1815), but the only complete account of
+  Ensenada is by Don Antonio Rodriguez Villa, _Don Cenon de Somodevilla,
+  Marques de la Ensenada_ (Madrid, 1878).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ENSIGN (through the Fr. _enseigne_ from the Latin plural _insignia_), a
+distinguishing token, emblem or badge such as symbols of office, or in
+heraldry, the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet or mitre
+borne above the charge or arms. The word is more particularly used of a
+military or naval standard or banner. In the British navy, ensign has a
+specific meaning, and is the name of a flag having a red, white or blue
+ground, with the Union Jack in the upper corner next the staff. The
+white ensign (which is sometimes further distinguished by having the St
+George's Cross quartered upon it) is only used in the royal navy and the
+royal yacht squadron, while the blue and red ensigns are the badges of
+the naval reserve, some privileged companies, and the merchant service
+respectively (see FLAG). Until 1871 the lowest grade of commissioned
+officers in infantry regiments of the British army had the title of
+ensign (now replaced by that of second lieutenant). It is the duty of
+the officers of this rank to carry the colours of the regiment (see
+COLOURS, MILITARY). In the 16th century ensign was corrupted into
+"ancient," and was used in the two senses of a banner and the bearer of
+the banner. In the United States navy, the title ensign superseded in
+1862 that of _passed midshipman_. It designates an officer ranking with
+second lieutenant in the army.
+
+
+
+
+ENSILAGE, the process of preserving green food for cattle in an undried
+condition in a silo (from Gr. [Greek: siros], Lat. _sirus_, a pit for
+holding grain), i.e. a pit, an erection above ground, or stack, from
+which air has been as far as possible excluded. The fodder which is the
+result of the process is called silage. In various parts of Germany a
+method of preserving green fodder precisely similar to that used in the
+case of _Sauerkraut_ has prevailed for upwards of a century. Special
+attention was first directed to the practice of ensilage by a French
+agriculturist, Auguste Goffart of the district of Sologne, near Orleans,
+who in 1877 published a work (_Manuel de la culture et de l'ensilage des
+mais et autres fourrages verts_) detailing the experiences of many years
+in preserving green crops in silos. An English translation of Goffart's
+book by J.B. Brown was published in New York in 1879, and, as various
+experiments had been previously made in the United States in the way of
+preserving green crops in pits, Goffart's experience attracted
+considerable attention. The conditions of American dairy farming proved
+eminently suitable for the ensiling of green maize fodder; and the
+success of the method was soon indisputably demonstrated among the New
+England farmers. The favourable results obtained in America led to much
+discussion and to the introduction of the system in the United Kingdom,
+where, with different conditions, success has been more qualified.
+
+It has been abundantly proved that ensilage forms a wholesome and
+nutritious food for cattle. It can be substituted for root crops with
+advantage, because it is succulent and digestible; milk resulting from
+it is good in quality and taste; it can be secured largely irrespective
+of weather; it carries over grass from the period of great abundance and
+waste to times when none would otherwise be available; and a larger
+number of cattle can be supported on a given area by the use of ensilage
+than is possible by the use of green crops.
+
+Early silos were made of stone or concrete either above or below
+ground, but it is recognized that air may be sufficiently excluded in a
+tightly pressed stack, though in this case a few inches of the fodder
+round the sides is generally useless owing to mildew. In America round
+erections made of wood and 35 or 40 ft. in depth are most commonly used.
+The crops suitable for ensilage are the ordinary grasses, clovers,
+lucerne, vetches, oats, rye and maize, the latter being the most
+important silage crop in America; various weeds may also be stored in
+silos with good results, notably spurrey (_Spergula arvensis_), a most
+troublesome plant in poor light soils. As a rule the crop should be mown
+when in full flower, and deposited in the silo on the day of its
+cutting. Maize is cut a few days before it is ripe and is shredded
+before being elevated into the silo. Fair, dry weather is not essential;
+but it is found that when moisture, natural and extraneous, exceeds 75%
+of the whole, good results are not obtained. The material is spread in
+uniform layers over the floor of the silo, and closely packed and
+trodden down. If possible, not more than a foot or two should be added
+daily, so as to allow the mass to settle down closely, and to heat
+uniformly throughout. When the silo is filled or the stack built, a
+layer of straw or some other dry porous substance may be spread over the
+surface. In the silo the pressure of the material, when chaffed,
+excludes air from all but the top layer; in the case of the stack extra
+pressure is applied by means of planks or other weighty objects in order
+to prevent excessive heating.
+
+The closeness with which the fodder is packed determines the nature of
+the resulting silage by regulating the chemical changes which occur in
+the stack. When closely packed, the supply of oxygen is limited; and the
+attendant acid fermentation brings about the decomposition of the
+carbohydrates present into acetic, butyric and lactic acids. This
+product is named "sour silage." If, on the other hand, the fodder be
+unchaffed and loosely packed, or the silo be built gradually, oxidation
+proceeds more rapidly and the temperature rises; if the mass be
+compressed when the temperature is 140 deg.-160 deg. F., the action
+ceases and "sweet silage" results. The nitrogenous ingredients of the
+fodder also suffer change: in making sour silage as much as one-third of
+the albuminoids may be converted into amino and ammonium compounds;
+while in making "sweet silage" a less proportion is changed, but they
+become less digestible. In extreme cases, sour silage acquires a most
+disagreeable odour. On the other hand it keeps better than sweet silage
+when removed from the silo.
+
+
+
+
+ENSTATITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the group of orthorhombic
+pyroxenes. It is a magnesium metasilicate, MgSiO3, often with a little
+iron replacing the magnesium: as the iron increases in amount there is a
+transition to bronzite (q.v.), and with still more iron to hypersthene
+(q.v.). Bronzite and hypersthene were known long before enstatite, which
+was first described by G.A. Kenngott in 1855, and named from [Greek:
+enstates], "an opponent," because the mineral is almost infusible before
+the blowpipe: the material he described consisted of imperfect prismatic
+crystals, previously thought to be scapolite, from the serpentine of
+Mount Zdjar near Schonberg in Moravia. Crystals suitable for goniometric
+measurement were later found in the meteorite which fell at Breitenbach
+in the Erzgebirge, Bohemia. Large crystals, a foot in length and mostly
+altered to steatite, were found in 1874 in the apatite veins traversing
+mica-schist and hornblende-schist at the apatite mine of Kjorrestad,
+near Brevig in southern Norway. Isolated crystals are of rare
+occurrence, the mineral being usually found as an essential constituent
+of igneous rocks; either as irregular masses in plutonic rocks (norite,
+peridotite, pyroxenite, &c.) and the serpentines which have resulted by
+their alteration, or as small idiormorphic crystals in volcanic rocks
+(trachyte, andesite). It is also a common constituent of meteoric
+stones, forming with olivine the bulk of the material: here it often
+forms small spherical masses, or chondrules, with an internal radiated
+structure.
+
+Enstatite and the other orthorhombic pyroxenes are distinguished from
+those of the monoclinic series by their optical characters, viz.
+straight extinction, much weaker double refraction and stronger
+pleochroism: they have prismatic cleavages (with an angle of 88 deg.
+16') as well as planes of parting parallel to the planes of symmetry in
+the prism-zone. Enstatite is white, greenish or brown in colour; its
+hardness is 5-1/2, and sp. gr. 3.2-3.3.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ENTABLATURE (Lat. _in_, and _tabula_, a tablet), the architectural term
+for the superstructure carried by the columns in the classic orders
+(q.v.). It usually consists of three members, the architrave (the
+supporting member carried from column to column, pier or wall); the
+frieze (the decorative member); and the cornice (the projecting and
+protective member). Sometimes the frieze is omitted, as in the
+entablature of the portico of the caryatides of the Erechtheum. There is
+every reason to believe that the frieze did not exist in the archaic
+temple of Diana at Ephesus; and it is not found in the Lycian tombs,
+which are reproductions in the rock of timber structures based on early
+Ionian work.
+
+
+
+
+ENTADA, in botany, a woody climber belonging to the family _Leguminosae_
+and common throughout the tropics. The best-known species is _Entada
+scandens_, the sword-bean, so called from its large woody pod, 2 to 4
+ft. in length and 3 to 4 in. broad, which contains large flat hard
+polished chestnut-coloured seeds or "beans." The seeds are often made
+into snuff-boxes or match-boxes, and a preparation from the kernel is
+used as a drug by the natives in India. The seeds will float for a long
+time in water, and are often thrown up on the north-western coasts of
+Europe, having been carried by the Gulf-stream from the West Indies;
+they retain their vitality, and under favourable conditions will
+germinate. Linnaeus records the germination of a seed on the coast of
+Norway.
+
+
+
+
+ENTAIL (from Fr. _tailler_, to cut; the old derivation from _tales
+haeredes_ is now abandoned), in law, a limited form of succession
+(q.v.). In architecture, the term "entail" denotes an ornamental device
+sunk in the ground of stone or brass, and subsequently filled in with
+marble, mosaic or enamel.
+
+
+
+
+ENTASIS (from Gr. [Greek: enteinein], to stretch a line or bend a bow),
+in architecture, the increment given to the column (q.v.), to correct
+the optical illusion which produces an apparent hollowness in an
+extended straight line. It was referred to by Vitruvius (iii. 3), and
+was first noticed in the columns of the Doric orders in Greek temples by
+Allason in 1814, and afterwards measured and verified by Penrose. It
+varies in different temples, and is not found in some: it is most
+pronounced in the temple of Jupiter Olympius, most delicate in the
+Erechtheum. The entasis is almost invariably introduced in the spires of
+English churches.
+
+
+
+
+ENTERITIS (Gr. [Greek: enteron], intestine), a general medical term for
+inflammation of the bowels. According to the anatomical part specially
+attacked, it is subdivided into duodenitis, jejunitis, ileitis,
+typhlitis, appendicitis, colitis, proctitis. The chief symptom is
+diarrhoea. The term "enteric fever" has recently come into use instead
+of "typhoid" for the latter disease; but see TYPHOID FEVER.
+
+
+
+
+ENTHUSIASM, a word originally meaning inspiration by a divine afflatus
+or by the presence of a god. The Gr. [Greek: enthousiasmos], from which
+the word is adapted, is formed from the verb [Greek: enthousiazein], to
+be [Greek: entheos], possessed by a god [Greek: theos]. Applied by the
+Greeks to manifestations of divine "possession," by Apollo, as in the
+case of the Pythia, or by Dionysus, as in the case of the Bacchantes and
+Maenads, it was also used in a transferred or figurative sense; thus
+Socrates speaks of the inspiration of poets as a form of enthusiasm
+(Plato, _Apol. Soc._ 22 C). Its uses, in a religious sense, are confined
+to an exaggerated or wrongful belief in religious inspiration, or to
+intense religious fervour or emotion. Thus a Syrian sect of the 4th
+century was known as "the Enthusiasts"; they believed that by perpetual
+prayer, ascetic practices and contemplation, man could become inspired
+by the Holy Spirit, in spite of the ruling evil spirit, which the fall
+had given to him. From their belief in the efficacy of prayer [Greek:
+euche], they were also known as Euchites. In ordinary usage,
+"enthusiasm" has lost its peculiar religious significance, and means a
+whole-hearted devotion to an ideal, cause, study or pursuit; sometimes,
+in a depreciatory sense, it implies a devotion which is partisan and is
+blind to difficulties and objections. (See further INSPIRATION, for a
+comparison of the religious meanings of "enthusiasm," "ecstasy" and
+"fanaticism.")
+
+
+
+
+ENTHYMEME (Gr. [Greek: en, thymos]), in formal logic, the technical
+name of a syllogistic argument which is incompletely stated. Any one of
+the premises may be omitted, but in general it is that one which is most
+obvious or most naturally present to the mind. In point of fact the full
+formal statement of a syllogism is rare, especially in rhetorical
+language, when the deliberate omission of one of the premises has a
+dramatic effect. Thus the suppression of the conclusion may have the
+effect of emphasizing the idea which necessarily follows from the
+premises. Far commoner is the omission of one of the premises which is
+either too clear to need statement or of a character which makes its
+omission desirable. A famous instance quoted in the _Port Royal Logic_,
+pt. iii. ch. xiv., is Medea's remark to Jason in Ovid's _Medea_,
+"Servare potui, perdere an possim rogas?" where the major premise "Qui
+servare, perdere possunt" is understood. This use of the word enthymeme
+differs from Aristotle's original application of it to a syllogism based
+on probabilities or signs ([Greek: ex eikoton e semeion]), i.e. on
+propositions which are generally valid ([Greek: eikota]) or on
+particular facts which may be held to justify a general principle or
+another particular fact (_Anal. prior._ [beta] xxvii. 70 a 10).
+
+  See beside text-books on logic, Sir W. Hamilton's _Discussions_
+  (1547); Mansel's ed. of Aldrich, Appendix F; H.W.B. Joseph, _Introd.
+  to Logic_, chap. xvi.
+
+
+
+
+ENTOMOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: entoma,] insects, and [Greek: logos], a
+discourse), the science that treats of insects, i.e. of the animals
+included in the class Hexapoda of the great phylum (or sub-phylum)
+Arthropoda. The term, however, is somewhat elastic in its current use,
+and students of centipedes and spiders are often reckoned among the
+entomologists. As the number of species of insects is believed to exceed
+that of all other animals taken together, it is no wonder that their
+study should form a special division of zoology with a distinctive name.
+
+Beetles (Scarabaei) are the subjects of some of the oldest sculptured
+works of the Egyptians, and references to locusts, bees and ants are
+familiar to all readers of the Hebrew scriptures. The interest of
+insects to the eastern races was, however, economic, religious or moral.
+The science of insects began with Aristotle, who included in a class
+"Entoma" the true insects, the arachnids and the myriapods, the
+Crustacea forming another class ("Malacostraca") of the "Anaema" or
+"bloodless animals." For nearly 2000 years the few writers who dealt
+with zoological subjects followed Aristotle's leading.
+
+In the history of the science, various lines of progress have to be
+traced. While some observers have studied in detail the structure and
+life-history of a few selected types (insect anatomy and development),
+others have made a more superficial examination of large series of
+insects to classify them and determine their relationships (systematic
+entomology), while others again have investigated the habits and
+life-relations of insects (insect bionomics). During recent years the
+study of fossil insects (palaeoentomology) has attracted much attention.
+
+The foundations of modern entomology were laid by a series of wonderful
+memoirs on anatomy and development published in the 17th and 18th
+centuries. Of these the most famous are M. Malpighi's treatise on the
+silkworm (1669) and J. Swammerdam's _Biblia naturae_, issued in 1737,
+fifty years after its author's death, and containing observations on the
+structure and life-history of a series of insect types. Aristotle and
+Harvey (_De generatione animalium_, 1651) had considered the insect larva
+as a prematurely hatched embryo and the pupa as a second egg. Swammerdam,
+however, showed the presence under the larval cuticle of the pupal
+structures. His only unfortunate contribution to entomology--indeed to
+zoology generally--was his theory of pre-formation, which taught the
+presence within the egg of a perfectly formed but miniature adult. A year
+before Malpighi's great work appeared, another Italian naturalist, F.
+Redi, had disproved by experiment the spontaneous generation of maggots
+from putrid flesh, and had shown that they can only develop from the eggs
+of flies.
+
+Meanwhile the English naturalist, John Ray, was studying the
+classification of animals; he published, in 1705, his _Methodus
+insectorum_, in which the nature of the metamorphosis received due
+weight. Ray's "Insects" comprised the Arachnids, Crustacea, Myriapoda
+and Annelida, in addition to the Hexapods. Ray was the first to
+formulate that definite conception of the species which was adopted by
+Linnaeus and emphasized by his binominal nomenclature. In 1735 appeared
+the first edition of the _Systema naturae_ of Linnaeus, in which the
+"Insecta" form a group equivalent to the Arthropoda of modern
+zoologists, and are divided into seven orders, whose names--Coleoptera,
+Diptera, Lepidoptera, &c., founded on the nature of the wings--have
+become firmly established. The fascinating subjects of insect bionomics
+and life-history were dealt with in the classical memoirs (1734-1742) of
+the Frenchman R.A.F. de Reaumur, and (1752-1778) of the Swede C. de
+Geer. The freshness, the air of leisure, the enthusiasm of discovery
+that mark the work of these old writers have lessons for the modern
+professional zoologist, who at times feels burdened with the accumulated
+knowledge of a century and a half. From the end of the 18th century
+until the present day, it is only possible to enumerate the outstanding
+features in the progress of entomology. In the realm of classification,
+the work of Linnaeus was continued in Denmark by J.C. Fabricius
+(_Systema entomologica_, 1775), and extended in France by G.P.B. Lamarck
+(_Animaux sans vertebres_, 1801) and G. Cuvier (_Lecons d'anatomie
+comparee_, 1800-1805), and in England by W.E. Leach (_Trans. Linn. Soc._
+xi., 1815). These three authors definitely separated the Arachnida,
+Crustacea and Myriapoda as classes distinct from the Insecta (see
+HEXAPODA). The work of J.O. Westwood (_Modern Classification of
+Insects_, 1839-1840) connects these older writers with their successors
+of to-day.
+
+In the anatomical field the work of Malpighi and Swammerdam was at first
+continued most energetically by French students. P. Lyonnet had
+published in 1760 his elaborate monograph on the goat-moth caterpillar,
+and H.E. Strauss-Durckheim in 1828 issued his great treatise on the
+cockchafer. But the name of J.C.L. de Savigny, who (_Mem. sur les
+animaux sans vertebres_, 1816) established the homology of the jaws of
+all insects whether biting or sucking, deserves especial honour. Many
+anatomical and developmental details were carefully worked out by L.
+Dufour (in a long series of memoirs from 1811 to 1860) in France, by G.
+Newport ("Insecta" in _Encyc. Anat. and Physiol._, 1839) in England, and
+by H. Burmeister (_Handbuch der Entomologie_, 1832) in Germany. Through
+the 19th century, as knowledge increased, the work of investigation
+became necessarily more and more specialized. Anatomists like F. Leydig,
+F. Muller, B.T. Lowne and V. Graber turned their attention to the
+detailed investigation of some one species or to special points in the
+structure of some particular organs, using for the elucidation of their
+subject the ever-improving microscopical methods of research.
+
+Societies for the discussion and publication of papers on entomology
+were naturally established as the number of students increased. The
+Societe Entomologique de France was founded in 1832, the Entomological
+Society of London in 1834. Few branches of zoology have been more
+valuable as a meeting-ground for professional and amateur naturalists
+than entomology, and not seldom has the amateur--as in the case of
+Westwood--developed into a professor. During the pre-Linnaean period,
+the beauty of insects--especially the Lepidoptera--had attracted a
+number of collectors; and these "Aurelians"--regarded as harmless
+lunatics by most of their friends--were the forerunners of the
+systematic students of later times. While the insect fauna of European
+countries was investigated by local naturalists, the spread of
+geographical exploration brought ever-increasing stores of exotic
+material to the great museums, and specialization--either in the fauna
+of a small district or in the world-wide study of an order or a group of
+families--became constantly more marked in systematic work. As examples
+may be instanced the studies of A.H. Haliday and H. Loew on the European
+Diptera, of John Curtis on British insects, of H.T. Stainton and O.
+Staudinger on the European Lepidoptera, of R. M'Lachlan on the European
+and of H.A. Hagen on the North American Neuroptera, of D. Sharp on the
+_Dyticidae_ and other families of Coleoptera of the whole world.
+
+The embryology of insects is entirely a study of the last century. C.
+Bonnet indeed observed in 1745 the virgin-reproduction of Aphids, but it
+was not until 1842 that R.A. von Kolliker described the formation of the
+blastoderm in the egg of the midge _Chironomus_. Later A. Weismann
+(1863-1864) traced details of the growth of embryo and of pupa among the
+Diptera, and A. Kovalevsky in 1871 first described the formation of the
+germinal layers in insects. Most of the recent work on the embryology of
+insects has been done in Germany or the United States, and among
+numerous students V. Graber, K. Heider, W.M. Wheeler and R. Heymons may
+be especially mentioned.
+
+The work of de Reaumur and de Geer on the bionomics and life-history of
+insects has been continued by numerous observers, among whom may be
+especially mentioned in France J.H. Fabre and C. Janet, in England W.
+Kirby and W. Spence, J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) and L.C. Miall, and in
+the United States C.V. Riley. The last-named may be considered the
+founder of the strong company of entomological workers now labouring in
+America. Though Riley was especially interested in the bearings of
+insect life on agriculture and industry--economic entomology (q.v.)--he
+and his followers have laid the science generally under a deep
+obligation by their researches.
+
+After the publication of C. Darwin's _Origin of Species_ (1859) a fresh
+impetus was given to entomology as to all branches of zoology, and it
+became generally recognized that insects form a group convenient and
+hopeful for the elucidation of certain problems of animal evolution. The
+writings of Darwin himself and of A.R. Wallace (both at one time active
+entomological collectors) contain much evidence drawn from insects in
+favour of descent with modification. The phylogeny of insects has since
+been discussed by F. Brauer, A.S. Packard and many others; mimicry and
+allied problems by H.W. Bates, F. Muller, E.B. Poulton and M.C. Piepers;
+the bearing of insect habits on theories of selection and
+use-inheritance by A. Weismann, G.W. and E. Peckham, G.H.T. Eimer and
+Herbert Spencer; variation by W. Bateson and M. Standfuss.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--References to the works of the above authors, and to
+  many others, will be found under HEXAPODA and the special articles on
+  various insect orders. Valuable summaries of the labours of Malpighi,
+  Swammerdam and other early entomologists are given in L.C. Miall and
+  A. Denny's _Cockroach_ (London, 1886), and L. Henneguy's _Les
+  Insectes_ (Paris, 1904).     (G. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+ENTOMOSTRACA. This zoological term, as now restricted, includes the
+Branchiopoda, Ostracoda and Copepoda. The Ostracoda have the body
+enclosed in a bivalve shell-covering, and normally unsegmented. The
+Branchiopoda have a very variable number of body-segments, with or
+without a shield, simple or bivalved, and some of the postoral
+appendages normally branchial. The Copepoda have normally a segmented
+body, not enclosed in a bivalved shell-covering, the segments not
+exceeding eleven, the limbs not branchial.
+
+Under the heading CRUSTACEA the Entomostraca have already been
+distinguished not only from the Thyrostraca or Cirripedes, but also from
+the Malacostraca, and an intermediate group of which the true position
+is still disputed. The choice is open to maintain the last as an
+independent subclass, and to follow Claus in calling it the Leptostraca,
+or to introduce it among the Malacostraca as the Nebaliacea, or with
+Packard and Sars to make it an entomostracan subdivision under the title
+Phyllocarida. At present it comprises the single family _Nebaliidae_.
+The bivalved carapace has a jointed rostrum, and covers only the front
+part of the body, to which it is only attached quite in front, the
+valve-like sides being under control of an adductor muscle. The eyes are
+stalked and movable. The first antennae have a lamellar appendage at the
+end of the peduncle, a decidedly non-entomostracan feature. The second
+antennae, mandibles and two pairs of maxillae may also be claimed as of
+malacostracan type. To these succeed eight pairs of foliaceous branchial
+appendages on the front division of the body, followed on the hind
+division by four pairs of powerful bifurcate swimming feet and two
+rudimentary pairs, the number, though not the nature, of these
+appendages being malacostracan. On the other hand, the two limbless
+segments that precede the caudal furca are decidedly non-malacostracan.
+The family was long limited to the single genus _Nebalia_ (Leach), and
+the single species _N. bipes_ (O. Fabricius). Recently Sars has added a
+Norwegian species, _N. typhlops_, not blind but weak-eyed. There are
+also now two more genera, _Paranebalia_ (Claus, 1880), in which the
+branchial feet are much longer than in _Nebalia_, and _Nebaliopsis_
+(Sars, 1887), in which they are much shorter. All the species are
+marine.
+
+BRANCHIOPODA.--In this order, exclusion of the Phyllocarida will leave
+three suborders of very unequal extent, the Phyllopoda, Cladocera,
+Branchiura. The constituents of the last have often been classed as
+Copepoda, and among the Branchiopods must be regarded as aberrant, since
+the "branchial tail" implied in the name has no feet, and the actual
+feet are by no means obviously branchial.
+
+_Phyllopoda._--This "leaf-footed" suborder has the appendages which
+follow the second maxillae variable in number, but all foliaceous and
+branchial. The development begins with a free nauplius stage. In the
+outward appearance of the adults there is great want of uniformity, one
+set having their limbs sheltered by no carapace, another having a broad
+shield over most of them, and a third having a bivalved shell-cover
+within which the whole body can be enclosed. In accord with these
+differences the sections may be named Gymnophylla, Notophylla,
+Conchophylla. The equivalent terms applied by Sars are Anostraca,
+Notostraca, Conchostraca, involving a termination already appropriated
+to higher divisions of the Crustacean class, for which it ought to be
+reserved.
+
+  1. Gymnophylla.--These singular crustaceans have long soft flexible
+  bodies, the eyes stalked and movable, the first antennae small and
+  filiform, the second lamellar in the female, in the male prehensile;
+  this last character gives rise to some very fanciful developments.
+  There are three families, two of which form companies rather severely
+  limited. Thus the _Polyartemiidae_, which compensate themselves for
+  their stumpy little tails by having nineteen instead of the normal
+  eleven pairs of branchial feet, consist exclusively of _Polyartemia
+  forcipata_ (Fischer, 1851). This species from the high north of Europe
+  and Asia carries green eggs, and above them a bright pattern in
+  ultramarine (Sars, 1896, 1897). The _Thamnocephalidae_ have likewise
+  but a single species, _Thamnocephalus platyurus_ (Packard, 1877),
+  which justifies its title "bushy-head of the broad tail" by a
+  singularity at each end. Forward from the head extends a long ramified
+  appendage described as the "frontal shrub," backward from the fourth
+  abdominal segment of the male spreads a fin-like expansion which is
+  unique. In the ravines of Kansas, pools supplied by torrential rains
+  give birth to these and many other phyllopods, and in turn "millions
+  of them perish by the drying up of the pools in July" (Packard). The
+  remaining family, the _Branchipodidae_, includes eight genera. In the
+  long familiar _Branchipus_, _Chirocephalus_ and _Streptocephalus_ the
+  males have frontal appendages, but these are wanting in the
+  "brine-shrimp" _Artemia_, and the same want helps to distinguish
+  _Branchinecta_ (Verrill, 1869) from the old genus _Branchipus_. Of
+  _Branchiopsyllus_ (Sars, 1897) the male is not yet known, but in his
+  genera of the same date, the Siberian _Artemiopsis_ and the South
+  African _Branchipodopsis_ (1898), there is no such appendage. Of the
+  last genus the type species _B. hodgsoni_ belongs to Cape Colony, but
+  the specimens described were born and bred and observed in Norway. For
+  the study of fresh-water Entomostraca large possibilities are now
+  opened to the naturalist. A parcel of dried mud, coming for example
+  from Palestine or Queensland, and after an indefinite interval of time
+  put into water in England or elsewhere, may yield him living forms,
+  both new and old, in the most agreeable variety. Some caution should
+  be used against confounding accidentally introduced indigenous species
+  with those reared from the imported eggs. Those, too, who send or
+  bring the foreign soil should exercise a little thought in the choice
+  of it, since dry earth that has never had any Entomostraca near it at
+  home will not become fertile in them by the mere fact of exportation.
+
+  2. Notophylla.--In this division the body is partly covered by a broad
+  shield, united in front with the head; the eyes are sessile, the first
+  antennae are small, the second rudimentary or wanting; of the numerous
+  feet, sometimes sixty-three pairs, exceeding the number of segments to
+  which they are attached, the first pair are more or less unlike the
+  rest, and in the female the eleventh have the epipod and exopod
+  (flabellum and sub-apical lobe of Lankester) modified to form an
+  ovisac. Development begins with a nauplius stage. Males are very rare.
+  The single family _Apodidae_ contains only two genera, _Apus_ and its
+  very near neighbour _Lepidurus_. _Apus australiensis_ (Spencer and
+  Hall, 1896) may rank as the largest of the Entomostraca, reaching in
+  the male, from front of shield to end of telson, a length of 70 mm.,
+  in the female of 64 mm. In a few days, or at most a fortnight, after a
+  rainfall numberless specimens of these sizes were found swimming
+  about, "and as not a single one was to be found in the water-pools
+  prior to the rain, these must have been developed from the egg."
+  Similarly, in Northern India _Apus himalayanus_ was "collected from a
+  stagnant pool in a jungle four days after a shower of rain had
+  fallen," following a drought of four months (Packard).
+
+  3. Conchophylla.--Though concealed within the bivalved shell-cover,
+  the mouth-parts are nearly as in the Gymnophylla, but the flexing of
+  the caudal part is in contrast, and the biramous second antennae
+  correspond with what is only a larval character in the other
+  phyllopods. In the male the first one or two pairs of feet are
+  modified into grasping organs. The small ova are crowded beneath the
+  dorsal part of the valves. The development usually begins with a
+  nauplius stage (Sars, 1896, 1900). There are four families: (a) The
+  _Limnadiidae_, with feet from 18 to 32 pairs, comprise four (or five)
+  genera. Of these _Limnadella_ (Girard, 1855) has a single eye. It
+  remains rather obscure, though the type species originally "was
+  discovered in great abundance in a roadside puddle subject to
+  desiccation." _Limnadia_ (Brongniart, 1820) is supposed to consist of
+  species exclusively parthenogenetic. But when asked to believe that
+  males never occur among these amazons, one cannot but remember how
+  hard it is to prove a negative. (b) The _Lynceidae_, with not more
+  than twelve pairs of feet. This family is limited to the species,
+  widely distributed, of the single genus _Lynceus_, established by O.F.
+  Muller in 1776 and 1781, and first restricted by Leach in 1816 in the
+  _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (art. "Annulosa," of that edition). Leach
+  there assigns to it the single species _L. brachyurus_ (Muller), and
+  as this is included in the genus _Limnetis_ (Loven, 1846), that genus
+  must be a synonym of _Lynceus_ as restricted. (c) _Leptestheriidae_.
+  _Estheria_ (Ruppell, 1837) was instituted for the species
+  _dahalacensis_, which Sars includes in his genus _Leptestheria_
+  (1898); but _Estheria_ was already appropriated, and of its synonyms
+  _Cyzicus_ (Audouin, 1837) is lost for vagueness, while _Isaura_ (Joly,
+  1842) is also appropriated, so that _Leptestheria_ becomes the name of
+  the typical genus, and determines the name of the family. (d)
+  _Cyclestheriidae_. This family consists of the single species
+  _Cyclestheria hislopi_ (Baird), reported from India, Ceylon, Celebes,
+  Australia, East Africa and Brazil. Sars (1887) having had the
+  opportunity of raising it from dried Australian mud, found that,
+  unlike other phyllopods, but like the Cladocera, the parent keeps its
+  brood within the shell until their full development.
+
+_Cladocera._--In this suborder the head is more or less distinct, the
+rest of the body being in general laterally compressed and covered by a
+bivalved test. The title "branching horns" alludes to the second
+antennae, which are two-branched except in the females of _Holopedium_,
+with each branch setiferous, composed of only two to four joints. The
+mandibles are without palp. The pairs of feet are four to six. The eye
+is single, and in addition to the eye there is often an "eye-spot,"
+_Monospilus_ being unique in having the eye-spot alone and no eye, while
+_Leydigiopsis_ (Sars, 1901) has an eye with an eye-spot equal to it or
+larger. The heart has a pair of venous ostia, often blending into one,
+and an anterior arterial aorta. Respiration is conducted by the general
+surface, by the branchial lamina (external branch) of the feet, and the
+vesicular appendage (when present) at the base of this branch. The
+"abdomen," behind the limbs, is usually very short, occasionally very
+long. The "postabdomen," marked off by the two postabdominal setae,
+usually has teeth or spines, and ends in two denticulate or ciliate
+claws, or it may be rudimentary, as in _Polyphemus_. Many species have a
+special glandular organ at the back of the head, which _Sida
+crystallina_ uses for attaching itself to various objects. The Leydigian
+or nuchal organ is supposed to be auditory and to contain an otolith.
+The female lays two kinds of eggs--"summer-eggs," which develop without
+fertilization, and "winter-eggs" or resting eggs, which require to be
+fertilized. The latter in the _Daphniidae_ are enclosed in a modified
+part of the mother's shell, called the ephippium from its resemblance to
+a saddle in shape and position. In other families a less elaborate case
+has been observed, for which Scourfield has proposed the term
+protoephippium. In _Leydigia_ he has recently found a structure almost
+as complex as that of the _Daphniidae_. In some families the resting
+eggs escape into the water without special covering. Only the embryos of
+_Leptodora_ are known to hatch out in the nauplius stage. _Penilia_
+(Dana, 1849) is perhaps the only exclusively marine genus. The great
+majority of the Cladocera belong to fresh water, but their adaptability
+is large, since _Moina rectirostris_ (O.F. Muller) can equally enjoy a
+pond at Blackheath, and near Odessa live in water twice as salt as that
+of the ocean. In point of size a Cladoceran of 5 mm. is spoken of as
+colossal.
+
+  Dr Jules Richard in his revision (1895) retains the sections proposed
+  by Sars in 1865, Calyptomera and Gymnomera. The former, with the feet
+  for the most part concealed by the carapace, is subdivided into two
+  tribes, the Ctenopoda, or "comb-feet," in which the six pairs of
+  similar feet, all branchial and nonprehensile, are furnished with
+  setae arranged like the teeth of a comb, and the Anomopoda, or
+  "variety-feet," in which the front feet differ from the rest by being
+  more or less prehensile, without branchial laminae.
+
+  The Ctenopoda comprise two families: (a) the _Holopediidae_, with a
+  solitary species, _Holopedium gibberum_ (Zaddach), queerly clothed in
+  a large gelatinous involucre, and found in mountain tarns all over
+  Europe, in large lakes of N. America, and also in shallow ponds and
+  waters at sea-level; (b) the _Sididae_, with no such involucre, but
+  with seven genera, and rather more than twice as many species. Of
+  _Diaphanosoma modiglianii_ Richard says that at different points of
+  Lake Toba in Sumatra millions of specimens were obtained, among which
+  he had not met with a single male.
+
+  The Anomopoda are arranged in four families, all but one very
+  extensive. (a) _Daphniidae_. Of the seven genera, the cosmopolitan
+  _Daphnia_ contains about 100 species and varieties, of which Thomas
+  Scott (1899) observes that "scarcely any of the several characters
+  that have at one time or another been selected as affording a means
+  for discriminating between the different forms can be relied on as
+  satisfactory." Though this may dishearten the systematist, Scourfield
+  (1900) reminds us that "It was in a water-flea that Metschnikoff first
+  saw the leucocytes (or phagocytes) trying to get rid of disease germs
+  by swallowing them, and was so led to his epoch-making discovery of
+  the part played by these minute amoeboid corpuscles in the animal
+  body." For _Scapholeberis mucronata_ (O.F. Muller), Scourfield has
+  shown how it is adapted for movement back downwards in the water along
+  the underside of the surface film, which to many small crustaceans is
+  a dangerously disabling trap. (b) _Bosminidae_. To _Bosmina_ (Baird,
+  1845) Richard added _Bosminopsis_ in 1895. (c) _Macrotrichidae._ In
+  this family _Macrothrix_ (Baird, 1843) is the earliest genus, among
+  the latest being _Grimaldina_ (Richard, 1892) and _Jheringula_ (Sars,
+  1900). Dried mud and vegetable debris from S. Paulo in Brazil supplied
+  Sars with representatives of all the three in his Norwegian aquaria,
+  in some of which the little _Macrothrix elegans_ "multiplied to such
+  an extraordinary extent as at last to fill up the water with immense
+  shoals of individuals." "The appearance of male specimens was always
+  contemporary with the first ephippial formation in the females." For
+  _Streblocerus pygmaeus_, grown under the same conditions, Sars
+  observes: "This is perhaps the smallest of the Cladocera known, and is
+  hardly more than visible to the naked eye," the adult female scarcely
+  exceeding 0.25 mm. Yet in the next family _Alonella nana_ (Baird)
+  disputes the palm and claims to be the smallest of all known
+  Arthropoda. (d) _Chydoridae._ This family, so commonly called
+  _Lynceidae_, contains a large number of genera, among which one may
+  usually search in vain, and rightly so, for the genus _Lynceus_. The
+  key to the riddle is to be found in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ for
+  1816. There, as above explained, Leach began the subdivision of
+  Muller's too comprehensive genus, the result being that _Lynceus_
+  belongs to the Phyllopoda, and _Chydorus_ (Leach, 1816) properly gives
+  its name to the present family, in which the doubly convoluted
+  intestine is so remarkable. Of its many genera, _Leydigia_,
+  _Leydigiopsis_, _Monospilus_ have been already mentioned. _Dadaya
+  macrops_ (Sars, 1901), from South America and Ceylon, has a very large
+  eye and an eye-spot fully as large, but it is a very small creature,
+  odd in its behaviour, moving by jumps at the very surface of the
+  water. "To the naked eye it looked like a little black atom darting
+  about in a most wonderful manner."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Dolops ranarum_ (Stuhlmann).]
+
+  The Gymnomera, with a carapace too small to cover the feet, which are
+  all prehensile, are divided also into two tribes, the Onychopoda, in
+  which the four pairs of feet have a toothed maxillary process at the
+  base, and the Haplopoda, in which there are six pairs of feet, without
+  such a process. To the _Polyphemidae_, the well-known family of the
+  former tribe, Sars in 1897 added two remarkable genera, _Cercopagis_,
+  meaning "tail with a sling," and _Apagis_, "without a sling," for
+  seven species from the Sea of Azov. The Haplopoda likewise have but a
+  single family, the _Leptodoridae_, and this has but the single genus
+  _Leptodora_ (Lilljeborg, 1861). Dr Richard (1895, 1896) gives a
+  Cladoceran bibliography of 601 references.
+
+_Branchiura._--This term was introduced by Thorell in 1864 for the
+_Argulidae_, a family which had been transferred to the Branchiopoda by
+Zenker in 1854, though sometimes before and since united with the
+parasitic Copepoda. Though the animals have an oral siphon, they do not
+carry ovisacs like the siphonostomous copepods, but glue their eggs in
+rows to extraneous objects. Their lateral, compound, feebly movable eyes
+agree with those of the Phyllopoda. The family are described by Claus as
+"intermittent parasites," because when gorged they leave their hosts,
+fishes or frogs, and swim about in freedom for a considerable period.
+The long-known _Argulus_ (O.F. Muller) has the second maxillae
+transformed into suckers, but in _Dolops_ (Audouin, 1837) (fig. 1), the
+name of which supersedes the more familiar _Gyropeltis_ (Heller, 1857),
+these effect attachment by ending in strong hooks (Bouvier, 1897). A
+third genus, _Chonopeltis_ (Thiele, 1900), has suckers, but has lost its
+first antennae, at least in the female.
+
+OSTRACODA.--The body, seldom in any way segmented, is wholly encased in
+a bivalved shell, the caudal part strongly inflexed, and almost always
+ending in a furca. The limbs, including antennae and mouth organs, never
+exceed seven definite pairs. The first antennae never have more than
+eight joints. The young usually pass through several stages of
+development after leaving the egg, and this commonly after, even long
+after, the egg has left the maternal shell. Parthenogenesis is frequent.
+
+The four tribes instituted by Sars in 1865 were reduced to two by G.W.
+Muller in 1894, the Myodocopa, which almost always have a heart, and the
+Podocopa, which have none.
+
+  _Myodocopa._--These have the furcal branches broad, lamellar, with at
+  least three pairs of strong spines or ungues. Almost always the shell
+  has a rostral sinus. Muller divides the tribe into three families,
+  _Cypridinidae, Halocypridae_, and the heartless _Polycopidae_, which
+  constituted the tribe Cladocopa of Sars. From the first of these Brady
+  and Norman distinguish the Asteropidae (fig. 3), remarkable for seven
+  pairs of long branchial leaves which fold over the hinder extremity of
+  the animal, and the _Sarsiellidae_, still somewhat obscure, besides
+  adding the _Rutidermatidae_, knowledge of which is based on skilful
+  maceration of minute and long-dried specimens. The _Halocypridae_ are
+  destitute of compound lateral eyes, and have the sexual orifice
+  unsymmetrically placed.
+
+  _Podocopa._--In these the furcal branches are linear or rudimentary,
+  the shell is without rostral sinus, and, besides distinguishing
+  characters of the second antennae, they have always a branchial plate
+  well developed on the first maxillae, which is inconstant in the other
+  tribe. There are five families: (a) _Cyprididae_ (? including
+  _Cypridopsidae_ of Brady and Norman). In some of the genera
+  parthenogenetic propagation is carried to such an extent that of the
+  familiar _Cypris_ it is said, "until quite lately males in this genus
+  were unknown; and up to the present time no male has been found in the
+  British Islands" (Brady and Norman, 1896). On the other hand, the
+  ejaculatory duct with its verticillate sac in the male of _Cypris_ and
+  other genera is a feature scarcely less remarkable. (b) _Bairdiidae_,
+  which have the valves smooth, with the hinge untoothed. (c)
+  _Cytheridae_ (? including _Paradoxostomatidae_ of Brady and Norman),
+  in which the valves are usually sculptured, with toothed hinge. Of
+  this family the members are almost exclusively marine, but
+  _Limnicythere_ is found in fresh water, and _Xestoleberis bromeliarum_
+  (Fritz Muller) lives in the water that collects among the leaves of
+  Bromelias, plants allied to the pine-apples. (d) _Darwinulidae_,
+  including the single species _Darwinula stevensoni_, Brady and
+  Robertson, described as "perhaps the most characteristic Entomostracan
+  of the East Anglian Fen District." (e) _Cytherellidae_, which, unlike
+  the Ostracoda in general, have the hinder part of the body segmented,
+  at least ten segments being distinguishable in the female. They have
+  the valves broad at both ends, and were placed by Sars in a separate
+  tribe, called Platycopa.
+
+The range in time of the Ostracoda is so extended that, in G.W.
+Muller's opinion, their separation into the families now living may have
+already taken place in the Cambrian period. Their range in space,
+including carriage by birds, may be coextensive with the distribution of
+water, but it is not known what height of temperature or how much
+chemical adulteration of the water they can sustain, how far they can
+penetrate underground, nor what are the limits of their activity between
+the floor and the surface of aquatic expanses, fresh or saline. In
+individual size they have never been important, and of living forms the
+largest is one of recent discovery, _Crossophorus africanus_, a
+Cypridinid about three-fifths of an inch (15.5 mm.) long; but a length
+of one or two millimetres is more common, and it may descend to the
+seventy-fifth of an inch. By multitude they have been, and still are,
+extremely important.
+
+  Though the exterior is more uniform than in most groups of Crustacea,
+  the bivalved shell or carapace may be strongly calcified and diversely
+  sculptured (fig. 2), or membranaceous and polished, hairy or smooth,
+  oval or round or bean-shaped, or of some less simple pattern; the
+  valves may fit neatly, or one overlap the other, their hinge may have
+  teeth or be edentulous, and their front part may be excavated for the
+  protrusion of the antennae or have no such "rostral sinus." By various
+  modifications of their valves and appendages the creatures have become
+  adapted for swimming, creeping, burrowing, or climbing, some of them
+  combining two or more of these activities, for which their structure
+  seems at the first glance little adapted. Considering the imprisonment
+  of the ostracod body within the valves, it is more surprising that the
+  _Asteropidae_ and _Cypridinidae_ should have a pair of compound and
+  sometimes large eyes, in addition to the median organ at the base of
+  the "frontal tentacle," than that other members of the group should be
+  limited to that median organ of sight, or have no eyes at all. The
+  median eye when present may have or not have a lens, and its three
+  pigment-cups may be close together or wide apart and the middle one
+  rudimentary. As might be expected, in thickened and highly embossed
+  valves thin spaces occur over the visual organ. The frontal organ
+  varies in form and apparently in function, and is sometimes absent.
+  The first antennae, according to the family, may assist in walking,
+  swimming, burrowing, climbing, grasping, and besides they carry
+  sensory setae, and sometimes they have suckers on their setae (see
+  Brady and Norman on _Cypridina norvegica_). The second antennae are
+  usually the chief motor-organs for swimming, walking and climbing. The
+  mandibles are normally five-jointed, with remnants of an outer branch
+  on the second joint, the biting edge varying from strong development
+  to evanescence, the terminal joints or "palp" giving the organ a
+  leg-like appearance and function, which disappears in suctorial genera
+  such as _Paracytherois_. The variable first maxillae are seldom
+  pediform, their function being concerned chiefly with nutrition,
+  sensation and respiration. The variability in form and function of the
+  second maxillae is sufficiently shown by the fact that G.W. Muller,
+  our leading authority, adopts the confusing plan of calling them
+  second maxillae in the _Cypridinidae_ (including _Asteropidae_),
+  maxillipeds in the _Halocypridae_ and _Cyprididae_, and first legs in
+  the _Bairdiidae_, _Cytheridae_, _Polycopidae_ and _Cytherellidae_, so
+  that in his fine monograph he uses the term first leg in two quite
+  different senses. The first legs, meaning thereby the sixth pair of
+  appendages, are generally pediform and locomotive, but sometimes
+  unjointed, acting as a kind of brushes to cleanse the furca, while in
+  the _Polycopidae_ they are entirely wanting. The second legs are
+  sometimes wanting, sometimes pediform and locomotive, sometimes
+  strangely metamorphosed into the "vermiform organ," generally long,
+  many-jointed, and distally armed with retroverted spines, its function
+  being that of an extremely mobile cleansing foot, which can insert
+  itself among the eggs in the brood-space, between the branchial leaves
+  of _Asterope_ (fig. 3), and even range over the external surface of
+  the valves. The "brush-formed" organs of the Podocopa are medially
+  placed, and, in spite of their sometimes forward situation, Muller
+  believes among other possibilities that they and the penis in the
+  _Cypridinidae_ may be alike remnants of a third pair of legs, not
+  homologous with the penis of other Ostracoda (Podocopa included). The
+  furca is, as a rule, a powerful motor-organ, and has its laminae edged
+  with strong teeth (ungues) or setae or both. The young, though born
+  with valves, have at first a nauplian body, and pass through various
+  stages to maturity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cythereis ornata_ (G.W. Muller). One
+  eye-space is shown above on the left.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Asterope arthuri_. Left valve removed.
+
+    M,     End of adductor muscle.
+    OC,    Eye.
+    AI,    Second antenna.
+    MX. 1, First maxilla.
+    MX. 2, Second maxilla.
+    P. 1,  First foot.
+    V. O,  Vermiform organ.
+    BR,    Seven branchial leaves.
+    F,     Projecting ungues of the furca.]
+
+  Brady and Norman, in their _Monograph of the Ostracoda of the North
+  Atlantic and North-Western Europe_ (1889), give a bibliography of 125
+  titles, and in the second part (1896) they give 55 more. The lists are
+  not meant to be exhaustive, any more than G.W. Muller's literature
+  list of 125 titles in 1894. They do not refer to Latreille, 1802, with
+  whom the term Ostracoda originates.
+
+COPEPODA.--The body is not encased in a bivalved shell; its articulated
+segments are at most eleven, those behind the genital segment being
+without trace of limbs, but the last almost always carrying a furca.
+Sexes separate, fertilization by spermatophores. Ova in single or double
+or rarely several packets, attached as ovisacs or egg-strings to the
+genital openings, or enclosed in a dorsal marsupium, or deposited singly
+or occasionally in bundles. The youngest larvae are typical nauplii. The
+next, the copepodid or cyclopid, stage is characterized by a cylindrical
+segmented body, with fore- and hind-body distinct, and by having at most
+six cephalic limbs and two pairs of swimming feet.
+
+The order thus defined (see Giesbrecht and Schmeil, _Das Tierreich_,
+1898), with far over a thousand species (Hansen, 1900), embraces forms
+of extreme diversity, although, when species are known in all their
+phases and both sexes, they constantly tend to prove that there are no
+sharply dividing lines between the free-living, the semi-parasitic, and
+those which in adult life are wholly parasitic and then sometimes
+grotesquely unlike the normal standard. Giesbrecht and Hansen have shown
+that the mouth-organs consist of mandibles, first and second maxillae
+and maxillipeds; and Claus himself relinquished his long-maintained
+hypothesis that the last two pairs were the separated exopods and
+endopods of a single pair of appendages. Thorell's classification (1859)
+of Gnathostoma, Poecilostoma, Siphonostoma, based on the mouth-organs,
+was long followed, though almost at the outset shown by Claus to depend
+on the erroneous supposition that the Poecilostoma were devoid of
+mandibles. Brady added a new section, Choniostomata, in 1894, and
+another, Leptostomata, in 1900, each for a single species. Canu in 1892
+proposed two groups, Monoporodelphya and Diporodelphya, the copulatory
+openings of the female being paired in the latter, unpaired in the
+former. It may be questioned whether this distinction, however important
+in itself, would lead to a satisfactory grouping of families. In the
+same year Giesbrecht proposed his division of the order into Gymnoplea
+and Podoplea.
+
+In appearance an ordinary Copepod is divided into fore- and hind-body,
+of its eleven segments the composite first being the head, the next five
+constituting the thorax, and the last five the abdomen. The coalescence
+of segments, though frequent, does not after a little experience
+materially confuse the counting. But there is this peculiarity, that the
+middle segment is sometimes continuous with the broader fore-body,
+sometimes with the narrower hind-body. In the former case the hind-body,
+consisting only of the abdomen, forms a pleon or tail-part devoid of
+feet, and the species so constructed are Gymnoplea, those of the naked
+or footless pleon. In the latter case the middle segment almost always
+carries with it to the hind-body a pair of rudimentary limbs, whence the
+term Podoplea, meaning species that have a pleon with feet. It may be
+objected that hereby the term pleon is used in two different senses,
+first applying to the abdomen alone and then to the abdomen plus the
+last thoracic segment. Even this verbal flaw would be obviated if
+Giesbrecht could prove his tentative hypothesis, that the Gymnoplea may
+have lost a pre-genital segment of the abdomen, and the Podoplea may
+have lost the last segment of the thorax. The classification is worked
+out as follows:--
+
+  1. _Gymnoplea._--First segment of hind-body footless, bearing the
+  orifices of the genital organs (in the male unsymmetrically placed);
+  last foot of the fore-body in the male a copulatory organ; neither, or
+  only one, of the first pair of antennae in the male geniculating;
+  cephalic limbs abundantly articulated and provided with many plumose
+  setae; heart generally present. Animals usually free-living, pelagic
+  (Giesbrecht and Schmeil).
+
+  This group, with 65 genera and four or five hundred species, is
+  divided by Giesbrecht into tribes: (a) Amphaskandria. In this tribe
+  the males have both antennae of the first pair as sensory organs.
+  There is but one family, the _Calanidae_, but this is a very large
+  one, with 26 genera and more than 100 species. Among them is the
+  cosmopolitan _Calanus finmarchicus_, the earliest described (by Bishop
+  Gunner in 1770) of all the marine free-swimming Copepoda. Among them
+  also is the peacock Calanid, _Calocalanus pavo_ (Dana), with its
+  highly ornamented antennae and gorgeous tail, the most beautiful
+  species of the whole order (fig. 4). (b) Heterarthrandria. Here the
+  males have one or the other of the first pair of antennae modified
+  into a grasping organ for holding the female. There are four families,
+  the _Diaptomidae_ with 27 genera, the _Pontellidae_ with 10, the
+  _Pseudocyclopidae_ and _Candaciidae_ each with one genus. The first of
+  these families is often called _Centropagidae_, but, as Sars has
+  pointed out, _Diaptomus_ (Westwood, 1836) is the oldest genus in it.
+  Of 177 species valid in the family Giesbrecht and Schmeil assign 67 to
+  _Diaptomus_. In regard to one of its species Dr Brady says: "In one
+  instance, at least (Talkin Tarn, Cumberland) I have seen the net come
+  up from a depth of 6 or 8 ft. below the surface with a dense mass
+  consisting almost entirely of _D. gracilis_." The length of this
+  net-filling species is about a twentieth of an inch.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Calocalanus pavo_ (Dana).]
+
+  2. _Podoplea._--The first segment of the hind-body almost always with
+  rudimentary pair of feet; orifices of the genital organs
+  (symmetrically placed in both sexes) in the following segment; neither
+  the last foot of the fore-body nor the rudimentary feet just mentioned
+  acting as a copulatory organ in the male; both or neither of the first
+  pair of antennae in the male geniculating; cephalic limbs less
+  abundantly articulated and with fewer plumose setae or none, but with
+  hooks and clasping setae. Heart almost always wanting. Free-living
+  (rarely pelagic) or parasitic (Giesbrecht and Schmeil).
+
+  This group is also divided by Giesbrecht into two tribes,
+  Ampharthrandria and Isokerandria. In 1892 he distinguished the former
+  as those in which the first antennae of the male have both members
+  modified for holding the female, and the genital openings of the
+  female have a ventral position, sometimes in close proximity,
+  sometimes strongly lateral; the latter as those in which the first
+  antennae of the male are similar to those of the female, the function
+  of holding her being transferred to the male maxillipeds, while the
+  genital openings of the female are dorsal, though at times strongly
+  lateral. In 1899, with a view to the many modifications exhibited by
+  parasitic and semi-parasitic species, the definitions, stripped of a
+  too hampering precision, took a different form: (a) Ampharthrandria.
+  "Swimming Podoplea with geniculating first antennae in the male sex,
+  and descendants of such; first antennae in female and male almost
+  always differently articulated." The families occupy fresh water as
+  well as the sea. Naturally "descendants" which have lost the
+  characteristic feature of the definition cannot be recognized without
+  some further assistance than the definition supplies. Of the families
+  comprised, the _Mormonillidae_ consist only of _Mormonilla_
+  (Giesbrecht), and are not mentioned by Giesbrecht in 1899 in the
+  grouping of this section. The _Thaumatoessidae_ include _Thaumatoessa_
+  (Kroyer), established earlier than its synonym _Thaumaleus_ (Kroyer),
+  or than _Monstrilla_ (Dana, 1849). The species are imperfectly known.
+  The defect of mouth-organs probably does not apply to the period of
+  youth, which some of them spend parasitically in the body-cavity of
+  worms (Giard, 1896). To the _Cyclopidae_ six genera are allotted by
+  Giesbrecht in 1900. _Cyclops_ (O.F. Muller, 1776), though greatly
+  restricted since Muller's time, still has several scores of species
+  abundantly peopling inland waters of every kind and situation, without
+  one that can be relied on as exclusively marine like the species of
+  _Oithona_ (Baird). The _Misophriidae_ are now limited to _Misophria_
+  (Boeck). The presence of a heart in this genus helps to make it a link
+  between the Podoplea and Gymnoplea, though in various other respects
+  it approaches the next family. The _Harpacticidae_ owe their name to
+  the genus _Arpacticus_ (Milne-Edwards, 1840). Brady in 1880 assigns to
+  this family 33 genera and 81 species. Canu (1892) distinguishes eight
+  sub-families, _Longipediinae_, _Peltidiinae_, _Tachidiinae_,
+  _Amymoninae_, _Harpacticinae_, _Idyinae_, _Canthocamptinae_ (for which
+  _Canthocampinae_ should be read), and _Nannopinae_, adding
+  _Stenheliinae_ (Brady) without distinctive characters for it. The
+  _Ascidicolidae_ have variable characters, showing a gradual adaptation
+  to parasitic life in Tunicates. Giesbrecht (1900) considers Canu quite
+  right in grouping together in this single family those parasites of
+  ascidians, simple and compound, which had been previously distributed
+  among families with the more or less significant names
+  _Notodelphyidae_, _Doropygidae_, _Buproridae_, _Schizoproctidae_,
+  _Kossmechtridae_, _Enterocolidae_, _Enteropsidae_. Further, he
+  includes in it his own _Enterognathus comatulae_, not from an
+  ascidian, but from the intestine of the beautiful starfish _Antedon
+  rosaceus_. The _Asterocheridae_, which have a good swimming capacity,
+  except in the case of _Cancerilla tubulata_ (Dalyell), lead a
+  semi-parasitic life on echinoderms, sponges, &c., imbibing their food.
+  Giesbrecht, displacing the older name _Ascomyzontidae_, assigns to
+  this family 21 genera in five subfamilies, and suggests that the
+  long-known but still puzzling _Nicothoe_ from the gills of the lobster
+  might be placed in an additional subfamily, or be made the
+  representative of a closely related family. The _Dichelestiidae_, on
+  account of their sometimes many-jointed first antennae, are referred
+  also to this tribe by Giesbrecht. (b) Isokerandria. "Swimming Podoplea
+  without genicullating first antennae in the male sex, and descendants
+  of such. First antennae of male and female almost always articulated
+  alike." To this tribe Giesbrecht assigns the families _Clausidiidae_,
+  _Corycaeidae_, _Oncaeidae_, _Lichomolgidae_, _Ergasilidae_,
+  _Bomolochidae_, _Clausiidae_, _Nereicolidae_. Here also must for the
+  time be placed the _Caligidae_, _Philichthyidae_ (_Philichthydae_ of
+  Vogt, Carus, Claus), _Lernaeidae_, _Chondracanthidae_,
+  _Sphaeronellidae_ (better known as _Choniostomatidae_, from H.J.
+  Hansen's remarkable study of the group), _Lernaeopodidae_,
+  _Herpyllobiidae_, _Entomolepidae_. For the distinguishing marks of all
+  these, the number of their genera and species, their habits and
+  transformations and dwellings, the reader must be referred to the
+  writings of specialists. Sars (1901) proposed seven
+  suborders--Calanoida, Harpacticoida, Cyclopoida, Notodelphoida,
+  Monstrilloida, Caligoida, Lernaeoida.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(The earlier memoirs of importance are cited in
+  Giesbrecht's _Monograph of Naples_, 1892); Canu, "Hersiliidae," _Bull.
+  Sci. France belgique_, ser. 3, vol. i. p. 402 (1888); and _Les
+  Copepodes du Boulonnais_ (1892); Cuenot, _Rev. biol. Nord France_,
+  vol. v. (1892); Giesbrecht, "Pelag. Copepoden." _F. u. fl. des Golfes
+  von Neapel_ (Mon. 19, 1892); Hansen, _Entomol. Med._ vol. iii. pt. 5
+  (1892); I.C. Thompson, "Copepoda of Liverpool Bay," _Trans. Liv. Biol.
+  Soc._ vol. vii. (1893); Schmeil, "Deutschlands Copepoden,"
+  _Bibliotheca zoologica_ (1892-1897); Brady, _Journ. R. Micr. Soc._ p.
+  168 (1894); T. Scott, "Entomostraca from the Gulf of Guinea," _Trans.
+  Linn. Soc. London_, vol. vi. pt. 1 (1894); Giesbrecht, _Mitteil. Zool.
+  Stat. Neapel_, vol. xi. p. 631; vol. xii. p. 217 (1895); T. and A.
+  Scott, _Trans. Linn. Soc. London_, ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 419 (1896);
+  Hansen "Choniostomatidae" (1897); Sars, _Proc. Mus. Zool. St
+  Petersburg_, "Caspian Entomostraca" (1897); Giesbrecht and Schmeil,
+  "Copepoda gymnoplea," _Das Tierreich_ (1898); Giesbrecht,
+  "Asterocheriden," _F. u. fl. Neapel_ (Mon. 25, 1899); Bassett-Smith,
+  "Copepoda on Fishes," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, p. 438 (1899); Brady,
+  _Trans. Zool. Soc. London_, vol. xv. pt. 2, p. 31 (1899); Sars, _Arch.
+  Naturv._ vol. xxi. No. 2 (1899); Giesbrecht, _Mitteil. Zool. Stat.
+  Neapel_, vol. xiv. p. 39 (1900); Scott, "Fish Parasites," _Scottish
+  Fishery Board_, 18th Ann. Rep. p. 144 (1900); Stebbing, _Willey's
+  Zool. Results_, pt. 5, p. 664 (1900); Embleton, _Journ. Linn. Soc.
+  London_, vol. xxviii. p. 211 (1901); Sars, _Crustacea of Norway_, vol.
+  iv. (1901).     (T. R. R. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ENTRAGUES, CATHERINE HENRIETTE DE BALZAC D' (1579-1633), marquise de
+Verneuil, mistress of Henry IV., king of France, was the daughter of
+Charles Balzac d'Entragues and of Marie Touchet, mistress of Charles IX.
+Ambitious and intriguing, she succeeded in inducing Henry IV. to promise
+to marry her after the death of Gabrielle d'Estrees, a promise which led
+to bitter scenes at court when shortly afterwards Henry married Marie
+de' Medici. She carried her spite so far as to be deeply compromised in
+the conspiracy of Marshal Biron against the king in 1606, but escaped
+with a slight punishment, and in 1608 Henry actually took her back into
+favour again. She seems then to have been involved in the Spanish
+intrigues which preceded the death of the king in 1610.
+
+  See H. de la Ferriere, _Henri IV. le roi, l'amoureux_ (Paris, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+ENTRECASTEAUX, JOSEPH-ANTOINE BRUNI D' (1739-1793), French navigator,
+was born at Aix in 1739. At the age of fifteen he entered the navy. In
+the war of 1778 he commanded a frigate of thirty-two guns, and by his
+clever seamanship was successful in convoying a fleet of merchant
+vessels from Marseilles to the Levant, although they were attacked by
+two pirate vessels, each of which was larger than his own ship. In 1785
+he was appointed to the command of the French fleet in the East Indies,
+and two years later he was named governor of the Mauritius and the Isle
+of Bourbon. While in command of the East India fleet he made a voyage to
+China, an achievement which, in 1791, led the French government to
+select him to command an expedition which it was sending out to seek
+some tidings of the unfortunate La Perouse, of whom nothing had been
+heard since February 1788. Rear-admiral d'Entrecasteaux's expedition
+comprised the "Recherche" and "L'Esperance," with Captain Huon de
+Kermadec as second in command. No tidings were obtained of the missing
+navigator, but in the course of his search Entrecasteaux made important
+geographical discoveries. He traced the outlines of the eastern coast of
+New Caledonia, made extensive surveys round the Tasmanian coast, and
+touched at several places on the south coast of New Holland. The two
+ships entered Storm Bay, Tasmania, on the 21st of April 1792, and
+remained there until the 16th of May, surveying and naming the
+d'Entrecasteaux Channel, the entrances to the Huon and Derwent rivers,
+Bruni Island, Recherche Bay, Port Esperance and various other
+localities. Excepting the name of the river Derwent (originally called
+Riviere du Nord by its French discoverers), these foregoing appellations
+have been retained. Leaving Tasmania the expedition sailed northward for
+the East Indies, and while coasting near the island of Java,
+Entrecasteaux was attacked by scurvy and died on the 20th of July 1793.
+
+
+
+
+ENTRE MINHO E DOURO (popularly called _Minho_), a former province of
+Northern Portugal; bounded on the N. by Galicia in Spain, E. by
+Traz-os-Montes, S. by Beira and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900)
+1,170,361; area 2790 sq. m. Though no longer officially recognized, the
+old provincial name remains in common use. The coast-line of Entre Minho
+e Douro is level and unbroken except by the estuaries of the main
+rivers; inland, the elevation gradually increases towards the north and
+east, where several mountain ranges mark the frontier. Of these, the
+most important are the Serra da Peneda (4728 ft.), between the rivers
+Minho and Limia; the Serra do Gerez (4357 ft.), on the Galician border;
+the Serra da Cabreira (4021 ft.), immediately to the south; and the
+Serra de Marao (4642 ft.), in the extreme south-east. As its name
+implies, the province is bounded by two great rivers, the Douro (q.v.)
+on the south, and the Minho (Spanish _Mino_) on the north; but a small
+tract of land south of the Douro estuary is included also within the
+provincial boundary. There are three other large rivers which, like the
+Minho, flow west-south-west into the Atlantic. The Limia or Antela
+(Spanish _Linia_) rises in Galicia, and reaches the sea at Vianna do
+Castello; the Cavado springs from the southern foot hills of La Raya
+Seca, on the northern frontier of Traz-os-Montes, and forms, at its
+mouth, the small harbour of Espozende; and the Ave descends from its
+sources in the Serra da Cabreira to Villa do Conde, where it enters the
+Atlantic. A large right-hand tributary of the Douro, the Tamega, rises
+in Galicia, and skirts the western slopes of the Serra de Marao.
+
+The climate is mild, except among the mountains, and such plants as
+heliotrope, fuchsias, palms, and aloes thrive in the open throughout the
+year. Wheat and maize are grown on the plains, and other important
+products are wine, fruit, olives and chestnuts. Fish abound along the
+coast and in the main rivers; timber is obtained from the mountain
+forests, and dairy-farming and the breeding of pigs and cattle are
+carried on in all parts. As the province is occupied by a hardy and
+industrious peasantry, and the density of population (419.5 per sq. m.)
+is more than twice that of any other province on the Portuguese
+mainland, the soil is very closely cultivated. The methods and
+implements of the farmers are, however, most primitive, and at the
+beginning of the 20th century it was not unusual to see a mule, or even
+a woman, harnessed with the team of oxen to an old-fashioned wooden
+plough. Small quantities of coal, iron, antimony, lead and gold are
+mined; granite and slate are quarried; and there are mineral springs at
+Moncao (pop. 2283) on the Minho. The Oporto-Corunna railway traverses
+the western districts and crosses the Spanish frontier at Tuy; its
+branch lines give access to Braga, Guimaraes and Povoa de Varzim; and
+the Oporto-Salamanca railway passes up the Douro valley. The greater
+part of the north and west can only be reached by road, and even the
+chief highways are ill-kept. In these regions the principal means of
+transport is the springless wooden cart, drawn by one or more of the
+tawny and under-sized but powerful oxen, with immense horns and
+elaborately carved yoke, which are characteristic of northern Portugal.
+For administrative purposes the province is divided into three
+districts: Vianna do Castello in the north, Braga in the centre, Oporto
+in the south. The chief towns are separately described; they include
+Oporto (167,955), one of the greatest wine-producing cities in the
+world; Braga (24,202), the seat of an archbishop who is primate of
+Portugal; the seaports of Povoa de Varzim (12,623) and Vianna do
+Castello (9990); and Guimaraes (9104), a place of considerable
+historical interest.
+
+
+
+
+ENTREPOT (a French word, from the Lat. _interpositum_, that which is
+placed between), a storehouse or magazine for the temporary storage of
+goods, provisions, &c.; also a place where goods, which are not allowed
+to pass into a country duty free, are stored under the superintendence
+of the custom house authorities till they are re-exported. In a looser
+sense, any town which has a considerable distributive trade is called an
+_entrepot_. The word is also used attributively to indicate the kind of
+trade carried on in such towns.
+
+
+
+
+ENTRE RIOS (Span. "between rivers"), a province of the eastern Argentine
+Republic, forming the southern part of a region sometimes described as
+the Argentine Mesopotamia, bounded N. by Corrientes, E. by Uruguay with
+the Uruguay river as the boundary line, S. by Buenos Aires and W. by
+Santa Fe, the Parana river forming the boundary line with these two
+provinces. Pop. (1895) 292,019; (1905, est.) 376,600. The province has
+an area of 28,784 sq. m., consisting for the most part of an undulating,
+well-watered and partly-wooded plain, terminating in a low, swampy
+district of limited extent in the angle between the two great rivers.
+The great forest of Monteil occupies an extensive region in the N.,
+estimated at nearly one-fifth the area of the province. Its soil is
+exceptionally fertile and its climate is mild and healthy. The province
+is sometimes called the "garden of Argentina," which would probably be
+sufficiently correct had its population devoted as much energy to
+agriculture as they have to political conflict and civil war. Its
+principal industry is that of stock-raising, exporting live cattle,
+horses, hides, jerked beef, tinned and salted meats, beef extract,
+mutton and wool. Its agricultural products are also important, including
+wheat, Indian corn, barley and fruits. Lime, gypsum and firewood are
+also profitable items in its export trade. The Parana and Uruguay rivers
+provide exceptional facilities for the shipment of produce and the Entre
+Rios railways, consisting of a trunk line running E. and W. across the
+province from Parana to Concepcion del Uruguay and several tributary
+branches, afford ample transportation facilities to the ports. Another
+railway line follows the Uruguay from Concordia northward into
+Corrientes. Entre Rios has been one of the most turbulent of the
+Argentine provinces, and has suffered severely from political disorder
+and civil war. Comparative quiet reigned from 1842 to 1870 under the
+autocratic rule of Gen. J.J. Urquiza. After his assassination in 1870
+these partizan conflicts were renewed for two or three years, and then
+the province settled down to a life of comparative peace, followed by an
+extraordinary development in her pastoral and agricultural industries.
+Among these is the slaughtering and packing of beef, the exportation of
+which has reached large proportions. The capital is Parana, though the
+seat of government was originally located at Concepcion del Uruguay, and
+was again transferred to that town during Urquiza's domination.
+Concepcion del Uruguay, or Concepcion (founded 1778), is a flourishing
+town and port on the Uruguay, connected by railway with an extensive
+producing region which gives it an important export trade, and is the
+seat of a national college and normal school. Its population was
+estimated at 9000 in 1905. Other large towns are Gualeguay and
+Gualeguaychu.
+
+
+
+
+ENVOY (Fr. _envoye_, "sent"), a diplomatic agent of the second rank. The
+word _envoye_ comes first into general use in this connexion in the 17th
+century, as a translation of the Lat. _ablegatus_ or _missus_ (see
+DIPLOMACY). Hence the word envoy is commonly used of any one sent on a
+mission of any sort.
+
+
+
+
+ENZIO (c. 1220-1272), king of Sardinia, was a natural son of the
+emperor Frederick II. His mother was probably a German, and his name,
+Enzio, is a diminutive form of the German _Heinrich_. His father had a
+great affection for him, and he was probably present at the battle of
+Cortenuova in 1237. In 1238 he was married, in defiance of the wishes of
+Pope Gregory IX., to Adelasia, widow of Ubaldo Visconti and heiress of
+Torres and Gallura in Sardinia. Enzio took at once the title of king of
+Torres and Gallura, and in 1243 that of king of Sardinia, but he only
+spent a few months in the island, and his sovereignty existed in name
+alone. In July 1239 he was appointed imperial vicegerent in Italy, and
+sharing in his father's excommunication in the same year, took a
+prominent part in the war which broke out between the emperor and the
+pope. He commenced his campaign by subduing the march of Ancona, and in
+May 1241 was in command of the forces which defeated the Genoese fleet
+at Meloria, where he seized a large amount of booty and captured a
+number of ecclesiastics who were proceeding to a council summoned by
+Gregory to Rome. Later he fought in Lombardy. In 1248 he assisted
+Frederick in his vain attempt to take Parma, but was wounded and taken
+prisoner by the Bolognese at Fossalta on the 26th of May 1249. His
+captivity was a severe blow to the Hohenstaufen cause in Italy, and was
+soon followed by the death of the emperor. He seems to have been well
+treated by the people of Bologna, where he remained a captive until his
+death on the 14th of March 1272. He was apparently granted a magnificent
+funeral, and was buried in the church of St Dominic at Bologna. During
+his imprisonment Enzio is said to have been loved by Lucia da Viadagola,
+a well-born lady of Bologna, who shared his captivity and attempted to
+procure his release. Some doubt has, however, been cast upon this story,
+and the same remark applies to another which tells how two friends had
+almost succeeded in freeing him from prison concealed in a wine-cask,
+when he was recognized by a lock of his golden hair. His marriage with
+Adelasia had been declared void by the pope in 1243, and he left one
+legitimate, and probably two illegitimate daughters. Enzio forms the
+subject of a drama by E.B.S. Raupach and of an opera by A.F.B. Dulk.
+
+  See F.W. Grossman, _Konig Enzio_ (Gottingen, 1883); and H. Blasius,
+  _Konig Enzio_ (Breslau, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+ENZYME (Gr. [Greek: enzymos], leavened, from [Greek: en], in, and
+[Greek: zyme], leaven), a term, first suggested by Kuhne, for an
+unorganized ferment (see FERMENTATION), a group of substances, in the
+constitution of plants and animals, which decompose certain carbon
+compounds occurring in association with them. See also PLANTS:
+_Physiology_; NUTRITION, &c.
+
+
+
+
+EOCENE (Gr. [Greek: eos], dawn, [Greek: kainos], recent), in geology,
+the name suggested by Sir C. Lyell in 1833 for the lower subdivision of
+the rocks of the Tertiary Era. The term was intended to convey the idea
+that this was the period which saw the dawn of the recent or existing
+forms of life, because it was estimated that among the fossils of this
+period only 3-1/2% of the species are still living. Since Lyell's time
+much has been learned about the fauna and flora of the period, and many
+palaeontologists doubt if any of the Eocene _species_ are still extant,
+unless it be some of the lowest forms of life. Nevertheless the name is
+a convenient one and is in general use. The Eocene as originally defined
+was not long left intact, for E. Beyrich in 1854 proposed the term
+"Oligocene" for the upper portion, and later, in 1874, K. Schimper
+suggested "Paleocene" as a separate appellation for the lower portion.
+The Oligocene division has been generally accepted as a distinct period,
+but "Paleocene" is not so widely used.
+
+In north-western Europe the close of the Cretaceous period was marked
+by an extensive emergence of the land, accompanied, in many places, by
+considerable erosion of the Mesozoic rocks; a prolonged interval elapsed
+before a relative depression of the land set in and the first Eocene
+deposits were formed. The early Eocene formations of the
+London-Paris-Belgian basin were of fresh-water and brackish origin;
+towards the middle of the period they had become marine, while later
+they reverted to the original type. In southern and eastern Europe
+changes of sea-level were less pronounced in character; here the late
+Cretaceous seas were followed without much modification by those of the
+Eocene period, so rich in foraminiferal life. In many other regions, the
+great gap which separates the Tertiary from the Mesozoic rocks in the
+neighbourhood of London and Paris does not exist, and the boundary line
+is difficult to draw. Eocene strata succeed Cretaceous rocks without
+serious unconformity in the Libyan area, parts of Denmark, S.E. Alps,
+India, New Zealand and central N. America. The unconformity is marked in
+England, parts of Egypt, on the Atlantic coastal plain and in the
+eastern gulf region of N. America, as well as in the marine Eocene of
+western Oregon. The clastic Flysch formation of the Carpathians and
+northern Alps appears to be of Eocene age in the upper and Cretaceous in
+the lower part. The Eocene sea covered at various times a strip of the
+Atlantic coast from New Jersey southward and sent a great tongue or bay
+up the Mississippi valley; similar epicontinental seas spread over parts
+of the Pacific border, but the plains of the interior with the mountains
+on the west were meanwhile being filled with terrestrial and lacustrine
+deposits which attained an enormous development. This great extension of
+non-marine formations in the Eocene of different countries has
+introduced difficulties in the way of exact correlation; it is safer,
+therefore, in the present state of knowledge, to make no attempt to find
+in the Eocene strata of America and India, &c., the precise equivalent
+of subdivisions that have been determined with more or less exactitude
+in the London-Paris-Belgian area.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Eocene Rocks.]
+
+It is possible that in Eocene times there existed a greater continuity
+of the northern land masses than obtains to-day. Europe at that time was
+probably united with N. America through Iceland and Greenland; while on
+the other side, America may have joined Asia by the way of Alaska. On
+the other hand, the great central, mediterranean sea which stretched
+across the Eurasian continents sent an arm northward somewhere just east
+of the Ural mountains, and thus divided the northern land mass in that
+region. S. America, Australia and perhaps Africa _may_ have been
+connected more or less directly with the Antarctic continent.
+
+Associated, no doubt, with the crustal movements which closed the
+Cretaceous and inaugurated the Eocene period, there were local and
+intermittent manifestations of volcanic activity throughout the period.
+Diabases, gabbros, serpentines, soda-potash granites, &c., are found in
+the Eocene of the central and northern Apennines. Tuffs occur in the
+Veronese and Vicentin Alps--Ronca and Spelecco schists. Tuffs, basalts
+and other igneous rocks appear also in Montana, Wyoming, California,
+Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Colorado; also in Central America, the
+Antillean region and S. America.
+
+It has been very generally assumed by geologists, mainly upon the
+evidence of plant remains, that the Eocene period opened with a
+temperate climate in northern latitudes; later, as indicated by the
+London Clay, Alum Bay and Bournemouth beds, &c., the temperature appears
+to have been at least subtropical. But it should be observed that the
+frequent admixture of temperate forms with what are now tropical species
+makes it difficult to speak with certainty as to the degree of warmth
+experienced. The occurrence of lignites in the Eocene of the Paris
+basin, Tirol and N. America is worthy of consideration in this
+connexion. On the other hand, the coarse boulder beds in the lower
+Flysch have been regarded as evidence of local glaciation; this would
+not be inconsistent with a period of widespread geniality of climate, as
+is indicated by the large size of the nummulites and the dispersion of
+the marine Mollusca, but the evidence for glaciation is not yet
+conclusive.
+
+  _Eocene Stratigraphy._--In Britain, with the exception of the Bovey
+  beds (q.v.) and the leaf-bearing beds of Antrim and Mull, Eocene rocks
+  are confined to the south-eastern portion of England. They lie in the
+  two well-marked synclinal basins of London and Hampshire which are
+  conterminous in the western area (Hampshire, Berkshire), but are
+  separated towards the east by the denuded anticline of the Weald. The
+  strata in these two basins have been grouped in the following  manner:--
+
+                   _London Basin._               _Hampshire Basin._
+
+    Upper    Upper Bagshot Sands.          Headon Hill and Barton Sands.
+
+            / Middle Bagshot Beds and      Bracklesham Beds and leaf
+    Middle <    part of Lower Bagshot        beds of Bournemouth and
+            \   Beds.                        Alum Bay.
+
+            / Part of Lower Bagshot
+            |   Beds,  London  Clay,
+            |   Blackheath and Oldhaven    London Clay and the equivalent
+    Lower  <    Beds, Woolwich and           Bognor Beds, Woolwich
+            |   Reading Beds, Thanet         and Reading Beds.
+            \   Sands.
+
+  The Thanet sands have not been recognized in the Hampshire basin; they
+  are usually pale yellow and greenish sands with streaks of clay and at
+  the base; resting on an evenly denuded surface of chalk is a very
+  constant layer of green-coated, well-rounded chalk flint pebbles. It
+  is a marine formation, but fossils are scarce except in E. Kent, where
+  it attains its most complete development. The Woolwich and Reading
+  beds (see READING BEDS) contain both marine and estuarine fossils. In
+  western Kent, between the Woolwich beds and the London Clay are the
+  Oldhaven beds or Blackheath pebbles, 20 to 40 ft., made up almost
+  entirely of well-rounded flint pebbles set in sand; the fossils are
+  marine and estuarine. The London Clay, 500 ft. thick, is a marine
+  deposit consisting of blue or brown clay with sandy layers and
+  septarian nodules; its equivalent in the Hampshire area is sometimes
+  called the Bognor Clay, well exposed on the coast of Sussex. The
+  Bagshot, Bracklesham and Barton beds will be found briefly described
+  under those heads.
+
+  Crossing the English Channel, we find in northern France and Belgium a
+  series of deposits identified in their general characters with those
+  of England. The anticlinal ridge of the English Weald is prolonged
+  south-eastwards on to the continent, and separates the Belgian from
+  the French Eocene areas much as it separates the areas of London and
+  Hampshire; and it is clear that at the time of deposition all four
+  regions were intimately related and subject to similar variations of
+  marine and estuarine conditions. With a series of strata so variable
+  from point to point it is natural that many purely local phases should
+  have received distinctive names; in the Upper Eocene of the Paris
+  basin the more important formations are the highly fossiliferous
+  marine sands known as the "Sands of Beauchamp" and the local
+  fresh-water limestone, the "Calcaire de St Ouen." The Middle Eocene is
+  represented by the well-known "Calcaire grossier," about 90 ft. thick.
+  The beds in this series vary a good deal lithologically, some being
+  sandy, others marly or glauconitic; fossils are abundant. The Upper
+  Calcaire grossier or "Caillasses" is a fresh-water formation; the
+  middle division is marine; while the lower one is partly marine,
+  partly of fresh-water origin. The numerous quarries and mines for
+  building stone in the neighbourhood of Paris have made it possible to
+  acquire a very precise knowledge of this division, and many of the
+  beds have received trade names, such as "Rochette," "Roche," "Banc
+  franc," "Banc vert," "Cliquart," "Saint Nom;" the two last named are
+  dolomitic. Below these limestones are the nummulitic sands of Cuise
+  and Soissons. The Lower Eocene contains the lignitic plastic clay
+  (_argile plastique_) of Soissons and elsewhere; the limestones of
+  Rilly and Sezanne and the greenish glauconitic sands of Bracheux. The
+  relative position of the above formations with respect to those of
+  Belgium and England will be seen from the table of Eocene strata. The
+  Eocene deposits of southern Europe differ in a marked manner from
+  those of the Anglo-Parisian basin. The most important feature is the
+  great development of nummulitic limestone with thin marls and
+  nummulitic sandstones. The sea in which the nummulitic limestones were
+  formed occupied the site of an enlarged Mediterranean communicating
+  with similar waters right round the world, for these rocks are found
+  not only in southern Europe, including all the Alpine tracts, Greece
+  and Turkey and southern Russia, but they are well developed in
+  northern Africa, Asia Minor, Palestine, and they may be followed
+  through Persia, Baluchistan, India, into China, Tibet, Japan, Sumatra,
+  Borneo and the Philippines. The nummulitic limestones are frequently
+  hard and crystalline, especially where they have been subjected to
+  elevation and compression as in the Alpine region, 10,000 ft. above
+  the sea, or from 16,000, to 20,000 ft., in the central Asian plateau.
+  Besides being a widespread formation the nummulitic limestone is
+  locally several thousand feet thick.
+
+  While the foraminiferal limestones were being formed over most of
+  southern Europe, a series of clastic beds were in course of formation
+  in the Carpathians and the northern Alpine region, viz. the Flysch and
+  the Vienna sandstone. Some portions of this Alpine Eocene are coarsely
+  conglomeratic, and in places there are boulders of non-local rocks of
+  enormous dimensions included in the argillaceous or sandy matrix. The
+  occurrence of these large boulders together with the scarceness of
+  fossils has suggested a glacial origin for the formation; but the
+  evidence hitherto collected is not conclusive. C.W. von Gumbel has
+  classified the Eocene of the northern Alps (Bavaria, &c.) as  follows:--
+
+    Upper Eocene, Flysch and Vienna sandstone, with younger nummulitic
+                    beds and Haring group.
+
+    Middle  "     Kressenberg Beds, with older nummulitic beds.
+
+    Lower   "     Burberg Beds, Greensands with small nummulites.
+
+  The Haring group of northern Tirol contains lignite beds of some
+  importance. In the southern and S.E. Alps the following divisions are
+  recognized.
+
+    Upper Eocene, Macigno or Tassello--Vienna Sandstone, conglomerates,
+                    marls and shales.
+
+    Middle  "     Nummulitic limestones, three subdivisions.
+
+    Lower   "     Liburnian stage (or Proteocene), foraminiferal
+                    limestones with fresh-water intercalations at the top
+                    and bottom, the _Cosina_ beds, fresh-water in the
+                    middle of the series.
+
+  In the central and northern Apennines the Eocene strata have been
+  subdivided by Prof. F. Sacco into an upper Bartonian, a middle
+  Parisian and a lower Suessonian series. In the middle member are the
+  representatives of the Flysch and the Macigno. These Eocene strata are
+  upwards of 5500 ft. thick. In northern Africa the nummulitic
+  limestones and sandstones are widely spread; the lower portions
+  comprise the Libyan group and the shales of Esneh on the Nile
+  (Flandrien), the _Alveolina_ beds of Sokotra and others; the Mokattam
+  stage of Egypt is a representative of the later Eocene. Much of the N.
+  African Eocene contains phosphatic beds. In India strata of Eocene age
+  are extensively developed; in Sind the marine Ranikot beds, 1500 to
+  2000 ft., consisting of clays with gypsum and lignite, shales and
+  sandstones; these beds have, side by side with Eocene nummulites, a
+  few fossils of Cretaceous affinities. Above the Ranikot beds are the
+  massive nummulitic limestones and sandstones of the Kirthar group;
+  these are succeeded by the nummulitic limestones and shales at the
+  base of the Nari group. In the southern Himalayan region the
+  nummulitic phase of Eocene deposit is well developed, but there are
+  difficulties in fixing the line of demarcation between this and the
+  younger formations. The lower part of the Sirmur series of the Simla
+  district may belong to this period; it is subdivided into the Kasauli
+  group and the Dagshai group with the Subathu group at the base.
+  Beneath the thick nummulitic Eocene limestone of the Salt Range are
+  shales and marls with a few coal seams. The marine Eocene rocks of N.
+  America are most extensively developed round the coast of the Gulf of
+  Mexico, whence they spread into the valley of the Mississippi and, as
+  a comparatively narrow strip, along the Atlantic coastal plain to New
+  Jersey.
+
+  The series in Alabama, which may be taken as typical of the Gulf coast
+  Eocene, is as  follows:--
+
+    Upper Jacksonian, White limestone of Alabama (and Vicksburg?).
+
+    Middle Claibornian, Claiborne series.
+                        Buhrstone series.
+
+    Lower, Chickasawan Sands and lignites.
+           Midwayan or Clayton formation, limestones.
+
+  The above succession is not fully represented in the Atlantic coast
+  states.
+
+  On the Pacific coast marine formations are found in California and
+  Oregon; such are the Tejon series with lignite and oil; the Escondido
+  series of S. California (7000 ft.), part of the Pascadero series of
+  the Santa Cruz Mountains; the Pulaski, Tyee, Arago and Coaledo
+  beds--with coals--in Oregon. In the Puget formation of Washington we
+  have a great series of sediments, largely of brackish water origin,
+  and in parts coal-bearing. The total thickness of this formation has
+  been estimated at 20,000 ft. (it may prove to be less than this), but
+  it is probable that only the lower portion is of Eocene age. The most
+  interesting of the N. American Eocene deposits are those of the Rocky
+  Mountains and the adjacent western plains, in Wyoming, Nevada,
+  Nebraska, Colorado, &c.; they are of terrestrial, lacustrine or
+  aeolian origin, and on this account and because they were not strictly
+  synchronous, there is considerable difficulty in placing them in their
+  true position in the time-scale. The main divisions or groups are
+  generally recognized as  follows:--
+
+                                                        Mammalian
+                                                        Zonal Forms.
+
+    Upper [1] Uinta Group, 800 ft. (? = Jacksonian)     _Diplacodon._
+                                                        _Telmatotherium._
+
+    Middle[2] Bridger Group, 2000 ft. (? = Claibornian) _Uintatherium._
+
+    Lower [3] Wind River Group, 800 ft.                 _Bathyopsis._
+          [4] Wasatch Group, 2000 ft. (? = Chickasawan) _Coryphodon._
+
+    Basal [5] Torrejon Group, 300 ft.                   _Pantolambda._
+          [6] Puerco Group, 500 to 1000 ft.             _Polymastodon._
+
+                [1] South of the Uinta Mts. in Utah.
+                [2] Fort Bridger Basin.
+                [3] Wind river in Wyoming.
+                [4] Wasatch Mts. in Utah.
+                [5] Torrejon in New Mexico.
+                [6] Puerco river, New Mexico.
+
+  The Fort Union beds of Canada and parts of Montana and N. Dakota are
+  probably the oldest Eocene strata of the Western Interior; they are
+  some 2000 ft. thick and possibly are equivalent to the Midwayan group.
+  But in these beds, as in those known as Arapahoe, Livingston, Denver,
+  Ohio and Ruby, which are now often classed as belonging to the upper
+  Laramie formation, it is safer to regard them as a transitional series
+  between the Mesozoic and Tertiary systems. There is, however, a marked
+  unconformity between the Eocene Telluride or San Miguel and Poison
+  Canyon formations of Colorado and the underlying Laramie rocks.
+
+  Many local aspects of Eocene rocks have received special names, but
+  too little is known about them to enable them to be correctly placed
+  in the Eocene series. Such are the Clarno formation (late Eocene) of
+  the John Day basin, Oregon, the Pinyon conglomerate of Yellowstone
+  Park, the Sphinx conglomerate of Montana, the Whitetail conglomerate
+  of Arizona, the Manti shales of Utah, the Mojave formation of S.
+  California and the Amyzon formation of Nevada.
+
+  Of the Eocene of other countries little is known in detail. Strata of
+  this age occur in Central and S. America (Patagonia-Megellanian
+  series--Brazil, Chile, Argentina), in S. Australia (and in the Great
+  Australian Bight), New Zealand, in Seymour Island near Graham Land in
+  the Antarctic Regions, Japan, Java, Borneo, New Guinea, Moluccas,
+  Philippines, New Caledonia, also in Greenland, Bear Island,
+  Spitzbergen and Siberia.
+
+_Organic Life of the Eocene Period._--As it has been observed above, the
+name Eocene was given to this period on the ground that in its fauna
+only a small percentage of _living_ species were present; this estimation
+was founded upon the assemblage of invertebrate remains in which, from
+the commencement of this period until the present day, there has been
+comparatively little change. The real biological interest of the period
+centres around the higher vertebrate types. In the marine mollusca the
+most noteworthy change is the entire absence of ammonoids, the group
+which throughout the Mesozoic era had taken so prominent a place, but
+disappeared completely with the close of the Cretaceous. Nautiloids were
+more abundant than they are at present, but as a whole the Cephalopods
+took a more subordinate part than they had done in previous periods. On
+the other hand, Gasteropods and Pelecypods found in the numerous shallow
+seas a very suitable environment and flourished exceedingly, and their
+shells are often preserved in a state of great perfection and in
+enormous numbers. Of the Gasteropod genera _Cerithium_ with its
+estuarine and lagoonal forms _Potamides_, _Potamidopsis_, &c., is very
+characteristic; _Rostellaria_, _Voluta_, _Fusus_, _Pleurotoma_, _Conus_,
+_Typhis_, may also be cited. _Cardium_, _Venericardia_, _Crassatella_,
+_Corbulomya_, _Cytherea_, _Lucina_, _Anomia_, _Ostrea_ are a few of the
+many Pelecypod genera. Echinoderms were represented by abundant
+sea-urchins, _Echinolampas_, _Linthia_, _Conoclypeus_, &c. Corals
+flourished on the numerous reefs and approximated to modern forms
+(_Trochosmilia_, _Dendrophyllia_). But by far the most abundant marine
+organisms were the foraminifera which flourished in the warm seas in
+countless myriads. Foremost among these are the _Nummulites_, which by
+their extraordinary numerical development and great size, as well as by
+their wide distribution, demand special recognition. Many other genera
+of almost equal importance as rock builders, lived at the same time:
+_Orthophragma_, _Operculina_, _Assilina_, _Orbitolites_, _Miliola_,
+_Alveolina_. Crustacea were fairly abundant (_Xanthopsis_, _Portunus_),
+and most of the orders and many families of modern insects were
+represented.
+
+When we turn to the higher forms of life, the reptiles and mammals,
+we find a remarkable contrast between the fauna of the Eocene and those
+periods which preceded and succeeded it. The great group of Saurian
+reptiles, whose members had held dominion on land and sea during most of
+the Mesozoic time, had completely disappeared by the beginning of the
+Eocene; in their place placental mammals made their appearance and
+rapidly became the dominant group. Among the early Eocene mammals no
+trace can be found of the numerous and clearly-marked orders with which
+we are familiar to-day; instead we find obscurely differentiated forms,
+which cannot be fitted without violence into any of the modern orders.
+The early placental mammals were generalized types (with certain
+non-placental characters) with potentialities for rapid divergence and
+development in the direction of the more specialized modern orders.
+Thus, the Creodonta foreshadowed the Carnivora, the Condylarthra
+presaged the herbivorous groups; but before the close of this period, so
+favourable were the conditions of life to a rapid evolution of types,
+that most of the great _orders_ had been clearly defined, though none of
+the Eocene _genera_ are still extant. Among the early carnivores were
+_Arctocyon_, _Palaeonictis_, _Amblyctonus_, _Hyaenodon_, _Cynodon_,
+_Provivera_, _Patriofelis_. The primitive dog-like forms did not appear
+until late in the period, in Europe; and true cats did not arrive until
+later, though they were represented by _Eusmilus_ in the Upper Eocene of
+France. The primitive ungulates (Condylarths) were generalized forms
+with five effective toes, exemplified in _Phenacodus_. The gross
+Amblypoda, with five-toed stumpy feet (_Coryphodon_), were prominent in
+the early Eocene; particularly striking forms were the _Dinoceratidae_,
+_Dinoceras_, with three pairs of horns or protuberances on its massive
+skull and a pair of huge canine teeth projecting downwards; _Tinoceras_,
+_Uintatherium_, _Loxophodon_, &c.; these elephantine creatures, whose
+remains are so abundant in the Eocene deposits of western America, died
+out before the close of the period. The divergence of the hoofed mammals
+into the two prominent divisions, the odd-toed and even-toed, began in
+this period, but the former did not get beyond the three-toed stage. The
+least differentiated of the odd-toed group were the Lophiodonts: tapirs
+were foreshadowed by _Systemodon_ and similar forms (_Palaeotherium_,
+_Paloplotherium_); the peccary-like _Hyracotherium_ was a forerunner of
+the horse, _Hyrochinus_ was a primitive rhinoceros. The evolution of the
+horse through such forms as _Hyracotherium_, _Pachynolophus_,
+_Eohippus_, &c., appears to have proceeded along parallel lines in
+Eurasia and America, but the true horse did not arrive until later.
+Ancestral deer were represented by _Dichobune_, _Amphitragulus_ and
+others, while many small hog-like forms existed (_Diplopus_, _Eohyus_,
+_Hyopotamus_, _Homacodon_). The primitive stock of the camel group
+developed in N. America in late Eocene time and sent branches into S.
+America and Eurasia. The edentates were very generalized forms at this
+period (Ganodonta); the rodents (Tillodontia) attained a large size for
+members of this group, e.g. _Tillotherium_. The Insectivores had Eocene
+forerunners, and the Lemuroids--probable ancestors of the apes--were
+forms of great interest, _Anaptomorphus_, _Microsyops_, _Heterohyus_,
+_Microchaerus_, _Coenopithecus_; even the Cetaceans were well
+represented by _Zeuglodon_ and others.
+
+  +--------------+-------------------------+----------------------+-------------------+---------------+------------------+------------------+
+  |              |                         |                      |                   | Mediterranean |                  |                  |
+  |              |                         |                      |                   |  regions and  |      Flysch      |                  |
+  |   Stages.    |      Paris Basin.       |       England.       |   Belgian Basin.  | Great Central |      Phase.      |  North America.  |
+  |              |                         |                      |                   |     sea.      |                  |                  |
+  +--------------+-------------------------+----------------------+-------------------+---------------+------------------+------------------+
+  | Bartonien.[1]| Limestone of Saint-Ouen.| Barton beds.         |                   |               |                  | Unita Group and  |
+  |              | Sands of Mortefontaine. |                      | Sands of Lede.    |               |                  |   Jacksonian.    |
+  |              | Sands of Beauchamp.     | Upper Bagshot sands. |                   |               |                  |                  |
+  |              | Sands of Auvers.        |                      |                   |               |                  |                  |
+  +--------------+-------------------------+----------------------+-------------------+               |                  |                  |
+  |              |                         | Bracklesham and      | Laekenien.        |               |                  | Bridger Group    |
+  | Lutetien.    | Calcaire grossier.      |   Bournemouth beds.  | Bruxellien.       |               |                  |   and            |
+  |              |                         | Lower Bagshot sands. | Paniselien.       |               | Upper part of the|   Claibornian.   |
+  +--------------+-------------------------+----------------------+-------------------+               |  Alpine Flysch   |                  |
+  | Ypresien.    | Nummulitic sands of     | Alum Bay leaf beds.  | Sands of Mons en  |               |  and Vienna and  | Wind River Group.|
+  |              |   Soissons and Sands of |                      |   Pevele.         | Nummulitic    |  Carpathian      | Wasatch Group    |
+  |              |   Cuise and Aizy.       |                      | Flanders Clay.    |   limestones, |  sandstones.     |   and            |
+  |              |                         |                      |                   |   sandstones  |                  |                  |
+  +---+----------+                         |                      +-------------------+   and shales. |                  |                  |
+  |   |          |                         | London Clay.         |                   |               | Macigno of the   |                  |
+  | L |          |                         | Oldhaven beds.       | Upper Landenien   |               |   Apennines and  |                  |
+  | a | Sparna-  |                         |                      |   sands.          |               |   Maritime Alps. | Chickasawan.     |
+  | n |   cien.  | Plastic Clay and lignite| Woolwich and Reading |                   |               |                  |                  |
+  | d |          |   beds.                 |   beds.              | Sands of          |               |                  |                  |
+  | e |----------+-------------------------+----------------------+   Ostricourt.     |               |                  | Torrejon Group   |
+  | n |          | Limestones of Rilly and |                      |                   |               |                  |   and            |
+  | i |          |   Sezanne.              | Thanet sands.        | Landenien tuffeau.|               |                  |   Midwayan.      |
+  | e |Thanetien.| Sands of Rilly and      |                      |                   |               |                  |                  |
+  | n |          |   Bracheux.             |                      | Marls of Gelinden.|               |                  | Puerco Group.    |
+  |   |          |                         |                      |                   |               |                  |                  |
+  +---+----------+-------------------------+----------------------+-------------------+---------------+------------------+------------------+
+
+The non-placental mammals although abundant were taking a secondary
+place; _Didelphys_, the primitive opossum, is noteworthy on account of
+its wide geographical range.
+
+Among the birds, the large flightless forms, _Eupterornis_, _Gastornis_,
+were prominent, and many others were present, such as the ancestral
+forms of our modern gulls, albatrosses, herons, buzzards, eagles, owls,
+quails, plovers. Reptiles were poorly represented, with the exception of
+crocodilians, tortoises, turtles and some large snakes.
+
+The flora of the Eocene period, although full of interest, does not
+convey the impression of newness that is afforded by the fauna of the
+period. The reason for this difference is this: the newer flora had been
+introduced and had developed to a considerable extent in the Cretaceous
+period, and there is no sharp break between the flora of the earlier and
+that of the later period; in both we find a mixed assemblage--what we
+should now regard as tropical palms, growing side by side with
+mild-temperate trees. Early Eocene plants in N. Europe, oaks, willows,
+chestnuts (Castanea), laurels, indicate a more temperate climate than
+existed in Middle Eocene when in the Isle of Wight, Hampshire and the
+adjacent portions of the continent, palms, figs, cinnamon flourished
+along with the cactus, magnolia, sequoia, cypress and ferns. The late
+Eocene flora of Europe was very similar to its descendant in modern
+Australasia.
+
+  See A. de Lapparent, _Traite de geologie_, vol. iii. (5th ed., 1906),
+  which contains a good general account of the period, with numerous
+  references to original papers. Also R.B. Newton, _Systematic List of
+  the Frederick E. Edwards Collection of British Oligocene and Eocene
+  Mollusca in the British Museum_ (_Natural History_) (1891), pp.
+  299-325; G.D. Harris, "A Revision of our Lower Eocenes," _Proc.
+  Geologists' Assoc._ x., 1887-1888; W.B. Clark, "Correlation Papers:
+  Eocene" (1891), _U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. No. 83._ For more recent
+  literature consult _Geological Literature added to the Geological
+  Society's Library_, published annually by the society.     (J. A. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1]
+    Bartonien  from Barton, England.
+    Lutetien    "   Lutetia = Paris.
+    Ypresien    "   Ypres, Flanders.
+    Landenien   "   Landen, Belgium.
+    Thanetien   "   The Isle of Thanet.
+    Sparnacien  "   Sparnacum = Epernay.
+    Laekenien   "   Laeken, Belgium.
+    Bruxellien  "   Brussels.
+    Paniselien  "   Mont Panisel, near Mons.
+
+    Other names that have been applied to subdivisions of the Eocene not
+    included in the table are Parisien and Suessonien (Soissons); Ludien
+    (Ludes in the Paris basin) and Priabonien (Priabona in the Vicentine
+    Alps); Heersien (Heer near Maastricht) and Wemmelien (Wemmel,
+    Belgium); very many more might be mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+EON DE BEAUMONT, CHARLES GENEVIEVE LOUISE AUGUSTE ANDRE TIMOTHEE D'
+(1728-1810), commonly known as the CHEVALIER D'EON, French political
+adventurer, famous for the supposed mystery of his sex, was born near
+Tonnerre in Burgundy, on the 7th of October 1728. He was the son of an
+advocate of good position, and after a distinguished course of study at
+the College Mazarin he became a doctor of law by special dispensation
+before the usual age, and adopted his father's profession. He began
+literary work as a contributor to Freron's _Annee litteraire_, and
+attracted notice as a political writer by two works on financial and
+administrative questions, which he published in his twenty-fifth year.
+His reputation increased so rapidly that in 1755 he was, on the
+recommendation of Louis Francois, prince of Conti, entrusted by Louis
+XV. (who had originally started his "secret" foreign policy--i.e. by
+undisclosed agents behind the backs of his ministers--in favour of the
+prince of Conti's ambition to be king of Poland) with a secret mission
+to the court of Russia. It was on this occasion that he is said for the
+first time to have assumed the dress of a woman, with the connivance, it
+is supposed, of the French court.[1] In this disguise he obtained the
+appointment of reader to the empress Elizabeth, and won her over
+entirely to the views of his royal master, with whom he maintained a
+secret correspondence during the whole of his diplomatic career. After a
+year's absence he returned to Paris to be immediately charged with a
+second mission to St Petersburg, in which he figured in his true sex,
+and as brother of the reader who had been at the Russian court the year
+before. He played an important part in the negotiations between the
+courts of Russia, Austria and France during the Seven Years' War. For
+these diplomatic services he was rewarded with the decoration of the
+grand cross of St Louis. In 1759 he served with the French army on the
+Rhine as aide-de-camp to the marshal de Broglie, and was wounded during
+the campaign. He had held for some years previously a commission in a
+regiment of dragoons, and was distinguished for his skill in military
+exercises, particularly in fencing. In 1762, on the return of the duc de
+Nivernais, d'Eon, who had been secretary to his embassy, was appointed
+his successor, first as resident agent and then as minister
+plenipotentiary at the court of Great Britain. He had not been long in
+this position when he lost the favour of his sovereign, chiefly,
+according to his own account, through the adverse influence of Madame de
+Pompadour, who was jealous of him as a secret correspondent of the king.
+Superseded by count de Guerchy, d'Eon showed his irritation by denying
+the genuineness of the letter of appointment, and by raising an action
+against Guerchy for an attempt to poison him. Guerchy, on the other
+hand, had previously commenced an action against d'Eon for libel,
+founded on the publication by the latter of certain state documents of
+which he had possession in his official capacity. Both parties succeeded
+in so far as a true bill was found against Guerchy for the attempt to
+murder, though by pleading his privilege as ambassador he escaped a
+trial, and d'Eon was found guilty of the libel. Failing to come up for
+judgment when called on, he was outlawed. For some years afterwards he
+lived in obscurity, appearing in public chiefly at fencing matches.
+During this period rumours as to the sex of d'Eon, originating probably
+in the story of his first residence at St Petersburg as a female, began
+to excite public interest. In 1774 he published at Amsterdam a book
+called _Les Loisirs du Chevalier d'Eon_, which stimulated gossip. Bets
+were frequently laid on the subject, and an action raised before Lord
+Mansfield in 1777 for the recovery of one of these bets brought the
+question to a judicial decision, by which d'Eon was declared a female. A
+month after the trial he returned to France, having received permission
+to do so as the result of negotiations in which Beaumarchais was
+employed as agent. The conditions were that he was to deliver up certain
+state documents in his possession, and to wear the dress of a female.
+The reason for the latter of these stipulations has never been clearly
+explained, but he complied with it to the close of his life. In 1784 he
+received permission to visit London for the purpose of bringing back his
+library and other property. He did not, however, return to France,
+though after the Revolution he sent a letter, using the name of Madame
+d'Eon, in which he offered to serve in the republican army. He continued
+to dress as a lady, and took part in fencing matches with success,
+though at last in 1796 he was badly hurt in one. He died in London on
+the 22nd of May 1810. During the closing years of his life he is said to
+have enjoyed a small pension from George III. A post-mortem examination
+of the body conclusively established the fact that d'Eon was a man.
+
+  The best modern accounts are in the duc de Broglie's _Le Secret du
+  roi_ (1888); Captain J. Buchan Telfer's _Strange Career of the
+  Chevalier d'Eon_ (1888); Octave Homberg and Fernand Jousselin, _Le
+  Chevalier d'Eon_ (1904); and A. Lang's _Historical Mysteries_ (1904).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] But see Lang's _Historical Mysteries_, pp. 241-242, where this
+    traditional account is discussed and rejected.
+
+
+
+
+EOTVOS, JOZSEF, BARON (1813-1871), Hungarian writer and statesman, the
+son of Baron Ignacz Eotvos and the baroness Lilian, was born at Buda on
+the 13th of September 1813. After an excellent education he entered the
+civil service as a vice-notary, and was early introduced to political
+life by his father. He also spent many years in western Europe,
+assimilating the new ideas both literary and political, and making the
+acquaintance of the leaders of the Romantic school. On his return to
+Hungary he wrote his first political work, _Prison Reform_; and at the
+diet of 1839-1840 he made a great impression by his eloquence and
+learning. One of his first speeches (published, with additional matter,
+in 1841) warmly advocated Jewish emancipation. Subsequently, in the
+columns of the _Pesti Hirlap_, Eotvos disseminated his progressive ideas
+farther afield, his standpoint being that the necessary reforms could
+only be carried out administratively by a responsible and purely
+national government. The same sentiments pervade his novel _The Village
+Notary_ (1844-1846), one of the classics of the Magyar literature, as
+well as in the less notable romance _Hungary in 1514_, and the comedy
+_Long live Equality!_ In 1842 he married Anna Rosty, but his happy
+domestic life did not interfere with his public career. He was now
+generally regarded as one of the leading writers and politicians of
+Hungary, while the charm of his oratory was such that, whenever the
+archduke palatine Joseph desired to have a full attendance in the House
+of Magnates, he called upon Eotvos to address it. The February
+revolution of 1848 was the complete triumph of Eotvos' ideas, and he
+held the portfolio of public worship and instruction in the first
+responsible Hungarian ministry. But his influence extended far beyond
+his own department. Eotvos, Deak and Szechenyi represented the pacific,
+moderating influence in the council of ministers, but when the premier,
+Batthyany, resigned, Eotvos, in despair, retired for a time to Munich.
+Yet, though withdrawn from the tempests of the War of Independence, he
+continued to serve his country with his pen. His _Influence of the
+Ruling Ideas of the 19th Century on the State_ (Pest, 1851-1854, German
+editions at Vienna and Leipzig the same year) profoundly influenced
+literature and public opinion in Hungary. On his return home, in 1851,
+he kept resolutely aloof from all political movements. In 1859 he
+published _The Guarantees of the Power and Unity of Austria_ (Ger. ed.
+Leipzig, same year), in which he tried to arrive at a compromise between
+personal union and ministerial responsibility on the one hand and
+centralization on the other. After the Italian war, however, such a
+halting-place was regarded as inadequate by the majority of the nation.
+In the diet of 1861 Eotvos was one of the most loyal followers of Deak,
+and his speech in favour of the "Address" (see DEAK, FRANCIS) made a
+great impression at Vienna. The enforced calm which prevailed during the
+next few years enabled him to devote himself once more to literature,
+and, in 1866, he was elected president of the Hungarian academy. In the
+diets of 1865 and 1867 he fought zealously by the side of Deak, with
+whose policy he now completely associated himself. On the formation of
+the Andrassy cabinet (Feb. 1867) he once more accepted the portfolio of
+public worship and education, being the only one of the ministers of
+1848 who thus returned to office. He had now, at last, the opportunity
+of realizing the ideals of a lifetime. That very year the diet passed
+his bill for the emancipation of the Jews; though his further efforts in
+the direction of religious liberty were less successful, owing to the
+opposition of the Catholics. But his greatest achievement was the
+National Schools Act, the most complete system of education provided for
+Hungary since the days of Maria Theresa. Good Catholic though he was (in
+matters of religion he had been the friend and was the disciple of
+Montalembert), Eotvos looked with disfavour on the dogma of papal
+infallibility, promulgated in 1870, and when the bishop of Fehervar
+proclaimed it, Eotvos cited him to appear at the capital _ad audiendum
+verbum regium_. He was a constant defender of the composition with
+Austria (_Ausgleich_), and during the absence of Andrassy used to
+preside over the council of ministers; but the labours of the last few
+years were too much for his failing health, and he died at Pest on the
+2nd of February 1871. On the 3rd of May 1879 a statue was erected to him
+at Pest in the square which bears his name.
+
+Eotvos occupied as prominent a place in Hungarian literature as in
+Hungarian politics. His peculiarity, both as a politician and as a
+statesman, lies in the fact that he was a true philosopher, a
+philosopher at heart as well as in theory; and in his poems and novels
+he clothed in artistic forms all the great ideas for which he contended
+in social and political life. The best of his verses are to be found in
+his ballads, but his poems are insignificant compared with his romances.
+It was _The Carthusians_, written on the occasion of the floods at Pest
+in 1838, that first took the public by storm. The Magyar novel was then
+in its infancy, being chiefly represented by the historico-epics of
+Josika. Eotvos first modernized it, giving prominence in his pages to
+current social problems and political aspirations. The famous _Village
+Notary_ came still nearer to actual life, while _Hungary in 1514_, in
+which the terrible Dozsa _Jacquerie_ (see DOZSA) is so vividly
+described, is especially interesting because it rightly attributes the
+great national catastrophe of Mohacs to the blind selfishness of the
+Magyar nobility and the intense sufferings of the people. Yet, as
+already stated, all these books are written with a moral purpose, and
+their somewhat involved and difficult style is, nowadays at any rate, a
+trial to those who are acquainted with the easy, brilliant and lively
+novels of Jokai.
+
+  The best edition of Eotvos' collected works is that of 1891, in 17
+  vols. Comparatively few of his writings have been translated, but
+  there are a good English version (London, 1850) and numerous German
+  versions of _The Village Notary_, while _The Emancipation of the Jews_
+  has been translated into Italian and German (Pest, 1841-1842), and a
+  German translation of _Hungary in 1514_, under the title of _Der
+  Bauernkrieg in Ungarn_ was published at Pest in 1850.
+
+  See A. Ban, _Life and Art of Baron Joseph Eotvos_ (Hung.) (Budapest,
+  1902); Zoltan Ferenczi _Baron Joseph Eotvos_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1903)
+  [this is the best biography]; and M. Berkovics, _Baron Joseph Eotvos
+  and the French Literature_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1904).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+EPAMINONDAS (c. 418-362), Theban general and statesman, born about 418
+B.C. of a noble but impoverished family. For his education he was
+chiefly indebted to Lysis of Tarentum, a Pythagorean exile who had found
+refuge with his father Polymnis. He first comes into notice in the
+attack upon Mantineia in 385, when he fought on the Spartan side and
+saved the life of his future colleague Pelopidas. In his youth
+Epaminondas took little part in public affairs; he held aloof from the
+political assassinations which preceded the Theban insurrection of 379.
+But in the following campaigns against Sparta he rendered good service
+in organizing the Theban defence. In 371 he represented Thebes at the
+congress in Sparta, and by his refusal to surrender the Boeotian cities
+under Theban control prevented the conclusion of a general peace. In the
+ensuing campaign he commanded the Boeotian army which met the
+Peloponnesian levy at Leuctra, and by a brilliant victory on this site,
+due mainly to his daring innovations in the tactics of the heavy
+infantry, established at once the predominance of Thebes among the
+land-powers of Greece and his own fame as the greatest and most original
+of Greek generals. At the instigation of the Peloponnesian states which
+armed against Sparta in consequence of this battle, Epaminondas in 370
+led a large host into Laconia; though unable to capture Sparta he
+ravaged its territory and dealt a lasting blow at Sparta's predominance
+in Peloponnesus by liberating the Messenians and rebuilding their
+capital at Messene. Accused on his return to Thebes of having exceeded
+the term of his command, he made good his defence and was re-elected
+boeotarch. In 369 he forced the Isthmus lines and secured Sicyon for
+Thebes, but gained no considerable successes. In the following year he
+served as a common soldier in Thessaly, and upon being reinstated in
+command contrived the safe retreat of the Theban army from a difficult
+position. Returning to Thessaly next year at the head of an army he
+procured the liberation of Pelopidas from the tyrant Alexander of Pherae
+without striking a blow. In his third expedition (366) to Peloponnesus,
+Epaminondas again eluded the Isthmus garrison and won over the Achaeans
+to the Theban alliance. Turning his attention to the growing maritime
+power of Athens, Epaminondas next equipped a fleet of 100 triremes, and
+during a cruise to the Propontis detached several states from the
+Athenian confederacy. When subsequent complications threatened the
+position of Thebes in Peloponnesus he again mustered a large army in
+order to crush the newly formed Spartan league (362). After some
+masterly operations between Sparta and Mantineia, by which he nearly
+captured both these towns, he engaged in a decisive battle on the latter
+site, and by his vigorous shock tactics gained a complete victory over
+his opponents (see MANTINEIA). Epaminondas himself received a severe
+wound during the combat, and died soon after the issue was decided.
+
+His title to fame rests mainly on his brilliant qualities both as a
+strategist and as a tactician; his influence on military art in Greece
+was of the greatest. For the purity and uprightness of his character he
+likewise stood in high repute; his culture and eloquence equalled the
+highest Attic standard. In politics his chief achievement was the final
+overthrow of Sparta's predominance in the Peloponnese; as a constructive
+statesman he displayed no special talent, and the lofty pan-Hellenic
+ambitions which are imputed to him at any rate never found a practical
+expression.
+
+  Cornelius Nepos, _Vita Epaminondae_; Diodorus xv. 52-88; Xenophon,
+  _Hellenica_, vii.; L. Pomtow, _Das Leben des Epaminondas_ (Berlin,
+  1870); von Stein, _Geschichte der spartanischen und thebanischen
+  Hegemonie_ (Dorpat, 1884), pp. 123 sqq.; H. Swoboda in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopadie_, v. pt. 2 (Stuttgart, 1905), pp. 2674-2707; also
+  ARMY: _History_, S 6.     (M. O. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+EPARCH, an official, a governor of a province of Roman Greece, [Greek:
+eparchos], whose title was equivalent to, or represented that of the
+Roman _praefectus_. The area of his administration was called an eparchy
+([Greek: eparchia]). The term survives as one of the administrative
+units of modern Greece, the country being divided into nomarchies,
+subdivided into eparchies, again subdivided into demarchies (see GREECE:
+_Local Administration_). "Eparch" and "eparchy" are also used in the
+Russian Orthodox Church for a bishop and his diocese respectively.
+
+
+
+
+EPAULETTE (a French word, from _epaule_, a shoulder), properly a
+shoulder-piece, and so applied to the shoulder-knot of ribbon to which a
+scapulary was attached, worn by members of a religious order. The
+military usage was probably derived from the metal plate (_epauliere_)
+which protected the shoulder in the defensive armour of the 16th
+century. It was first used merely as a shoulder knot to fasten the
+baldric, and the application of it to mark distinctive grades of rank
+was begun in France at the suggestion, it is said, of Charles Louis
+Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle, in 1759. In modern times it always
+appears as a shoulder ornament for military and naval uniforms. At first
+it consisted merely of a fringe hanging from the end of the
+shoulder-strap or cord over the sleeve, but towards the end of the 18th
+century it became a solid ornament, consisting of a flat shoulder-piece,
+extended beyond the point of the shoulder into an oval plate, from the
+edge of which hangs a thick fringe, in the case of officers of gold or
+silver. The epaulette is worn in the British navy by officers above the
+rank of sub-lieutenant; in the army it ceased to be worn about 1855. It
+is worn by officers in the United States navy above the rank of ensign;
+since 1872 it is only worn by general officers in the army. In most
+other countries epaulettes are worn by officers, and in the French army
+by the men also, with a fringe of worsted, various distinctions of shape
+and colour being observed between ranks, corps and arms of the service.
+The "scale" is similar to the epaulette, but has no fringe.
+
+
+
+
+EPEE, CHARLES-MICHEL, ABBE DE L' (1712-1789), celebrated for his
+labours in behalf of the deaf and dumb, was born at Paris on the 25th of
+November 1712, being the son of the king's architect. He studied for the
+church, but having declined to sign a religious formula opposed to the
+doctrines of the Jansenists, he was denied ordination by the bishop of
+his diocese. He then devoted himself to the study of law; but about the
+time of his admission to the bar of Paris, the bishop of Troyes granted
+him ordination, and offered him a canonry in his cathedral. This bishop
+died soon after, and the abbe, coming to Paris, was, on account of his
+relations with Soanen, the famous Jansenist, deprived of his
+ecclesiastical functions by the archbishop of Beaumont. About the same
+time it happened that he heard of two deaf mutes whom a priest lately
+dead had been endeavouring to instruct, and he offered to take his
+place. The Spaniard Pereira was then in Paris, exhibiting the results he
+had obtained in the education of deaf mutes; and it has been affirmed
+that it was from him that Epee obtained his manual alphabet. The abbe,
+however, affirmed that he knew nothing of Pereira's method; and whether
+he did or not, there can be no doubt that he attained far greater
+success than Pereira or any of his predecessors, and that the whole
+system now followed in the instruction of deaf mutes virtually owes its
+origin to his intelligence and devotion. In 1755 he founded, for this
+beneficent purpose, a school which he supported at his own expense until
+his death, and which afterwards was succeeded by the "Institution
+Nationale des Sourds Muets a Paris," founded by the National Assembly in
+1791. He died on the 23rd of December 1789. In 1838 a bronze monument
+was erected over his grave in the church of Saint Roch. He published
+various books on his method of instruction, but that published in 1784
+virtually supersedes all others. It is entitled _La Veritable Maniere
+d'instruire les sourds et muets, confirmee par une longue experience_.
+He also began a _Dictionnaire general des signes_, which was completed
+by his successor, the abbe Sicard.
+
+
+
+
+EPEE-DE-COMBAT, a weapon still used in France for duelling, and there
+and elsewhere (blunted, of course) for exercise and amusement in fencing
+(q.v.). It has a sharp-pointed blade, about 35 in. long, without any
+cutting edge, and the guard, or shell, is bowl-shaped, having its
+convexity towards the point. The _epee_ is the modern representative of
+the small-sword, and both are distinguished from the older rapier,
+mainly by being several inches shorter and much lighter in weight. The
+small-sword (called thus in opposition to the heavy cavalry broadsword),
+was worn by gentlemen in full dress throughout the 18th century, and it
+still survives in the modern English court costume.
+
+Fencing practice was originally carried on without the protection of any
+mask for the face. Wire masks were not invented till near 1780 by a
+famous fencing-master, La Boessiere the elder, and did not come into
+general use until much later. Consequently, in order to avoid dangerous
+accidents to the face, and especially the eyes, it was long the rigorous
+etiquette of the fencing-room that the point should always be kept low.
+
+In the 17th century a Scottish nobleman, who had procured the
+assassination of a fencing-master in revenge for having had one of his
+eyes destroyed by the latter at sword-play, pleaded on his trial for
+murder that it was the custom to "spare the face."
+
+Rowlandson's well-known drawing of a fencing bout, dated 1787, shows two
+accomplished amateurs making a foil assault without masks, while in the
+background a less practised one is having a wire mask tied on.
+
+For greater safety the convention was very early arrived at that no hits
+should count in a fencing-bout except those landing on the breast. Thus
+sword-play soon became so unpractical as to lose much of its value as a
+training for war or the duel. For, hits with "sharps" take effect
+wherever they are made, and many an expert fencer of the old school has
+been seriously wounded, or lost his life in a duel, through forgetting
+that very simple fact.
+
+Strangely enough, when masks began to be generally worn, and the
+_fleuret_ (_anglice_, "foil," a cheap and light substitute for the real
+epee) was invented, fencing practice became gradually even more
+conventional than before. No one seems to have understood that with
+masks all the conventions could be safely done away with, root and
+branch, and sword-practice might assume all the semblance of reality.
+Nevertheless it should be clearly recognized that the basis of modern
+foil-fencing was laid with the epee or small-sword alone, in and before
+the days of Angelo, of Danet, and the famous chevalier de St George, who
+were among the first to adopt the fleuret also. All the illustrious
+French professors who came after them, such as La Boessiere the younger,
+Lafaugere, Jean Louis, Cordelois, Grisier, Bertrand and Robert, with
+amateurs like the baron d'Ezpeleta, were foil-players pure and simple,
+whose reputations were gained before the modern epee play had any
+recognized status. It was reserved for Jacob, a Parisian fencing-master,
+to establish in the last quarter of the 19th century a definite method
+of the epee, which differed essentially from all its forerunners. He was
+soon followed by Baudry, Spinnewyn, Laurent and Ayat. The methods of the
+four first-named, not differing much _inter se_, are based on the
+perception that in the real sword fight, where hits are effective on all
+parts of the person, the "classical" bent-arm guard, with the foil
+inclining upwards, is hopelessly bad. It offers a tempting mark in the
+exposed sword-arm itself, while the point requires a movement to bring
+it in line for the attack, which involves a fatal loss of time. The epee
+is really in the nature of a short lance held in one hand, and for both
+rapidity and precision of attack, as well as for the defence of the
+sword-arm and the body behind it, a position of guard _with the arm
+almost fully extended, and epee in line with the forearm_, is far the
+safest. Against this guard the direct lunge at the body is impossible,
+except at the risk of a mutual or double hit (_le coup des deux
+veuves_). No safe attack at the face or body can be made without first
+binding or beating, opposing or evading the adverse blade, and such an
+attack usually involves an initial forward movement. Beats and binds of
+the blade, with retreats of the body, or counter attacks with
+opposition, replace the old foil-parries in most instances, except at
+close quarters. And much of the offensive is reduced to thrusts at the
+wrist or forearm, intended to disable without seriously wounding the
+adversary. The direct lunge (_coup-droit_) at the body often succeeds in
+tournaments, but usually at the cost of a counter hit, which, though
+later in time, would be fatal with sharp weapons.
+
+Ayat's method, as might be expected from a first-class foil-player, is
+less simple. Indeed for years, too great simplicity marked the most
+successful epee-play, because it usually gained its most conspicuous
+victories over those who attempted a foil defence, and whose practice
+gave them no safe strokes for an attack upon the extended blade. But by
+degrees the epeists themselves discovered new ways of attacking with
+comparative safety, and at the present day a complete epee-player is
+master of a large variety of attractive as well as scientific movements,
+both of attack and defence.
+
+It was mainly by amateurs that this development was achieved. Perhaps
+the most conspicuous representative of the new school is J.
+Joseph-Renaud, a consummate swordsman, who has also been a champion
+foil-player. Lucien Gaudin, Alibert and Edmond Wallace may be also
+mentioned as among the most skilful amateurs, Albert Ayat and L. Bouche
+as professors--all of Paris. Belgium, Italy and England have also
+produced epeists quite of the first rank.
+
+The epee lends itself to competition far better than the foil, and the
+revival of the small-sword soon gave rise in France to "pools" and
+"tournaments" in which there was the keenest rivalry between all comers.
+
+In considering the epee from a British point of view, it may be
+mentioned that it was first introduced publicly in London by C.
+Newton-Robinson at an important assault-at-arms held in the Steinway
+Hall on the 4th May 1900. Professor Spinnewyn was the principal
+demonstrator, with his pupil, the late Willy Sulzbacher. The next day
+was held at the Inns of Court R. V. School of Arms, Lincoln's Inn, the
+first English open epee tournament for amateurs. It was won by W.
+Sulzbacher, C. Newton-Robinson being second, and Paul Ettlinger, a
+French resident in London, third. This was immediately followed by the
+institution of the Epee Club of London, which, under the successive
+residencies of a veteran swordsman, Sir Edward Jenkinson, and of Lord
+Desborough, subsequently held annual open international tournaments. The
+winners were: in 1901, Willy Sulzbacher; 1902, Robert Montgomerie; 1903,
+the marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat; 1904, J.J. Renaud; 1905, R.
+Montgomerie. In 1906 the Amateur Fencing Association for the first time
+recognized the best-placed Englishman, Edgar Seligman (who was the
+actual winner), as the English epee champion. In 1907 R. Montgomerie was
+again the winner, in 1908 C.L. Daniell, in 1909 R. Montgomerie.
+
+Among the most active of the English amateurs who were the earliest to
+perceive the wonderful possibilities of epee-play, it is right to
+mention Captain Hutton, Lord Desborough, Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon, Bart.,
+Sir Charles Dilke, Bart., Lord Howard de Walden, Egerton Castle, A.S.
+Cope, R.A., W.H.C. Staveley, C.F. Clay, Lord Morpeth, Evan James, Paul
+King, J.B. Cunliffe, John Norbury, Jr., Theodore A. Cook, John
+Jenkinson, R. Montgomerie, S. Martineau, E.B. Milnes, H.J. Law, R.
+Merivale, the Marquis of Dufferin, Hugh Pollock, R.W. Doyne, A.G. Ross,
+the Hon. Ivor Guest and Henry Balfour.
+
+Among foreign amateurs who did most to promote the use of the epee in
+England were Messrs P. Ettlinger, Anatole Paroissien, J. Joseph-Renaud,
+W. Sulzbacher, Rene Lacroix, H.G. Berger and the Marquis de
+Chasseloup-Laubat.
+
+Epee practice became popular among Belgian and Dutch fencers about the
+same time as in England, and this made it possible to set on foot
+international team-contests for amateurs, which have done much to
+promote good feeling and acquaintanceship among swordsmen of several
+countries. In 1903 a series of international matches between teams of
+six was inaugurated in Paris. Up to 1909 the French team uniformly won
+the first place, with Belgium or England second.
+
+English fencers who were members of these international teams were Lord
+Desborough, Theodore A. Cook, Bowden, Cecil Haig, J. Norbury, Jr., R.
+Montgomerie, John Jenkinson, F. Townsend, W.H.C. Staveley, S. Martineau,
+C.L. Daniell, W. Godden, Captain Haig, M.D.V. Holt, Edgar Seligman, C.
+Newton-Robinson, A.V. Buckland, P.M. Davson, E.M. Amphlett and L.V.
+Fildes. In 1906 a British epee team of four, consisting of Lord
+Desborough, Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon, Bart., Edgar Seligman and C.
+Newton-Robinson, with Lord Howard de Walden and Theodore Cook as
+reserves (the latter acting as captain of the team), went to Athens to
+compete in the international match at the Olympic games. After defeating
+the Germans rather easily, the team opposed and worsted the Belgians. It
+thus found itself matched against the French in the final, the Greek
+team having been beaten by the French and the Dutch eliminated by the
+Belgians. After a very close fight the result was officially declared a
+tie. This was the first occasion upon which an English fencing team had
+encountered a French one of the first rank upon even terms. In fighting
+off the tie, however, the French were awarded the first prize and the
+Englishmen the second.
+
+In the Olympic games of London, 1908, the Epee International Individual
+Tournament was won by Alibert (France), but Montgomerie, Haig and Holt
+(England) took the 4th, 5th, and 8th places in the final pool. The
+result of the International Team competition was also very creditable to
+the English representatives, Daniell, Haig, Holt, Montgomerie and
+Amphlett, who by defeating the Dutch, Germans, Danes and Belgians took
+second place to the French. Egerton Castle was captain of the English
+team.
+
+In open International Tournaments on the Continent, English epeists have
+also been coming to the front. None had won such a competition up to
+1909 outright, but the following had reached the final pool: C.
+Newton-Robinson, Brussels, 1901 (10th), Etretat, 1904 (6th); E.
+Seligman, Copenhagen, 1907 (2nd), and Paris, 1909 (12th); R.
+Montgomerie, Paris, 1909 (5th); and E.M. Amphlett, Paris, 1909 (10th).
+
+The method of ascertaining the victor in epee "tournaments" is by
+dividing the competitors into "pools," usually of six or eight fencers.
+Each of these fights an assault for first hit only, with every other
+member of the same pool, and he who is least often hit, or not at all,
+is returned the winner. If the competitors are numerous, fresh pools are
+formed out of the first two, three or four in each pool of the
+preliminary round, and so on, until a small number are left in for a
+final pool, the winner of which is the victor of the tournament.
+
+Epee fencing can be, and often is, conducted indoors, but one of its
+attractions consists in its fitness for open-air practice in pleasant
+gardens.
+
+In the use of the epee the most essential points are (1) the position of
+the sword-arm, which, whether fully extended or not, should always be so
+placed as to ensure the protection of the wrist, forearm and elbow from
+direct thrusts, by the intervention of the guard or shell; (2) readiness
+of the legs for _instant_ advance or retreat; and (3) the way in which
+the weapon is held, the best position (though hard to acquire and
+maintain) being that adopted by J.J. Renaud with the fingers _over_ the
+grip, so that a downward beat does not easily disarm.
+
+The play of individuals is determined by their respective temperaments
+and physical powers. But every fencer should be always ready to deliver
+a well-aimed, swift, direct thrust at any exposed part of the
+antagonist's arm, his mask or thigh. Very tall men, who are usually not
+particularly quick on their legs, should not as a rule attack, otherwise
+than by direct thrusts, when matched against shorter men. For if they
+merely extend their sword-arm in response to a simple attack, their
+longer reach will ward it off with a stop or counter-thrust. Short men
+can only attack them safely by beating, binding, grazing, pressing or
+evading the blade, and the taller fencers must be prepared with all the
+well-known parries and counters to such offensive movements, as well as
+with the stop-thrust to be made either with advancing opposition or with
+a retreat. Fencers of small stature must be exceedingly quick on their
+feet, unless they possess the art of parrying to perfection, and even
+then, if slow to shift ground, they will continually be in danger. With
+plenty of room, the quick mover can always choose the moment when he
+will be within distance, for an attack which his slower opponent will be
+always fearing and unable to prevent or anticipate.
+
+It is desirable to put on record the modern form of the weapon. An
+average epee weighs, complete, about a pound and a half, while a foil
+weighs approximately one-third less. The epee blade is exactly like that
+of the old small-sword after the abandonment of the "_colichemarde_"
+form, in which the "_forte_" of the blade was greatly thickened. In
+length from guard or shell to point it measures about 35 in., and in
+width at the shell about 13/16ths of an inch. From this it gradually and
+regularly tapers to the point. There is no cutting edge. The side of the
+epee which is usually held uppermost is slightly concave, the other is
+strengthened with a midrib, nearly equal in thickness and similar in
+shape to either half of the true blade. The material is tempered steel.
+There is a haft or tang about 8 in. long, which is pushed through a
+circular guard or shell ("_coquille_") of convex form, the diameter of
+which is normally 5 in. and the convexity 1-3/4 in. The shell is of
+steel or aluminium, and if of the latter metal, sometimes fortified at
+the centre with a disk of steel the size of a crown piece. The insertion
+of the haft or tang through the shell may be either central or excentric
+to the extent of about 1 in., for the better protection of the outside
+of the forearm.
+
+After passing through the shell, the haft of the blade is inserted in a
+grip or handle ("_poignet_"), averaging 7 in. in length and of
+quadrangular section, which is made of tough wood covered with leather,
+india-rubber, wound cord or other strong material with a rough surface.
+The grip is somewhat wider than its vertical thickness when held in the
+usual way, and it diminishes gradually from shell to pommel for
+convenience of holding. It should have a slight lateral curvature, so
+that in executing circular movements the pommel is kept clear of the
+wrist. The pommel, usually of steel, is roughly spherical or
+eight-sided, and serves as a counterbalance. The end of the haft is
+riveted through it, except in the case of "_epees demontables_," which
+are the most convenient, as a blade may be changed by simply unscrewing
+or unlocking the pommel.
+
+An epee is well balanced and light in hand when, on poising the blade
+across the forefinger, about 1 in. in advance of the shell, it is in
+equilibrium.
+
+For practice, the point is blunted to resemble the flat head of a nail,
+and is made still more incapable of penetration by winding around it a
+small ball of waxed thread, such as cobblers use. This is called the
+"button." In competitions various forms of "_boutons marqueurs_," all of
+which are unsatisfactory, are occasionally used. The "_pointe d'arret_,"
+like a small tin-tack placed head downwards on the flattened point of
+the epee, and fastened on by means of the waxed thread, is, on the
+contrary, most useful, by fixing in the clothes, to show where and when
+a good hit has been made. The point need only protrude about 1/16th of
+an inch from the button. There are several kinds of pointes d'arret. The
+best is called, after its inventor, the "Leon Sazie," and has three
+blunt points of hardened steel each slightly excentric. The single point
+is sometimes prevented by the thickness of the button from scoring a
+good hit.
+
+A mask of wire netting is used to protect the face, and a stout glove on
+the sword hand. It is necessary to wear strong clothes and to pad the
+jacket and trousers at the most exposed parts, in case the blade should
+break unnoticed. A vulnerable spot, which ought to be specially padded,
+is just under the sword-arm.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the older works on the history and practice of
+  the small-sword, or epee, are the following:--_The Scots
+  Fencing-Master, or Compleat Small-swordsman_, by W.H. Gent (Sir
+  William Hope, afterwards baronet) (Edinburgh, 1687), and several other
+  works by the same author, of later date, for which see _Schools and
+  Masters of Fence_, by Egerton Castle; _Nouveau traite de la perfection
+  sur le fait des armes_, by P.G.F. Girard (Paris, 1736); _L'Ecole des
+  armes_, by M. Angelo (London, 1763); _L'Art des armes_, by M. Danet (2
+  vols., Paris, 1766-1767); _Nouveau traite de l'art des armes_, by
+  Nicolas Demeuse (Liege, 1778).
+
+  More modern are: _Traite de l'art des armes_, by la Boessiere, Jr.
+  (Paris, 1818); _Les Armes et le duel_, by A. Grisier (2nd ed., Paris,
+  1847); _Les Secrets de l'epee_, by the baron de Bazancourt (Paris,
+  1862); _Schools and Masters of Fence_, by Egerton Castle (London,
+  1885); _Le Jeu de l'epee_, by J. Jacob and Emil Andre (Paris, 1887);
+  _L'Escrime pratique au XIX^e siecle_, by Ambroise Baudry (Paris);
+  L'Escrime a l'epee, by A. Spinnewyn and Paul Manonry (Paris, 1898);
+  _The Sword and the Centuries_, by Captain Hutton (London,1901); "The
+  Revival of the Small-sword," by C. Newton-Robinson, in the _Nineteenth
+  Century and After_ (London, January 1905); _Nouveau Traite de l'epee_,
+  by Dr Edom, privately published (Paris, 1908); and, most important of
+  all, _Methode d'escrime a l'epee_, by J. Joseph-Renaud, privately
+  published (Paris, 1909).     (C. E. N. R.)
+
+
+
+
+EPERJES, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Saros, 190 m. N.E.
+of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,098. It is situated on the left bank
+of the river Tarcza, an affluent of the Theiss, and has been almost
+completely rebuilt since a great fire in 1887. Eperjes is one of the
+oldest towns of Hungary, and is still partly surrounded by its old
+walls. It is the seat of a Greek-Catholic bishop, and possesses a
+beautiful cathedral built in the 18th century in late Gothic style. It
+possesses manufactures of cloth, table-linen and earthenware, and has an
+active trade in wine, linen, cattle and grain. About 2 m. to the south
+is Sovar with important salt-works.
+
+In the same county, 28 m. by rail N. of Eperjes, is situated the old
+town of _Bartfa_ (pop. 6098), which possesses a Gothic church from the
+14th century, and an interesting town-hall, dating from the 15th
+century, and containing very valuable archives. In its neighbourhood,
+surrounded by pine forests, are the baths of Bartfa, with twelve mineral
+springs--iodate, ferruginous and alkaline--used for bathing and
+drinking.
+
+About 6 m. N.W. of Eperjes is situated the village of Vorosvagas, which
+contains the only opal mine in Europe. The opal was mined here 800 years
+ago, and the largest piece hitherto found, weighing 2940 carats and
+estimated to have a value of L175,000, is preserved in the Court Museum
+at Vienna.
+
+Eperjes was founded about the middle of the 12th century by a German
+colony, and was elevated to the rank of a royal free town in 1347 by
+Louis I. (the Great). It was afterwards fortified and received special
+privileges. The Reformation found many early adherents here, and the
+town played an important part during the religious wars of the 17th
+century. It became famous by the so-called "butchery of Eperjes," a
+tribunal instituted by the Austrian general Caraffa in 1687, which
+condemned to death and confiscated the property of a great number of
+citizens accused of Protestantism. During the 16th and the 17th
+centuries its German educational establishments enjoyed a wide
+reputation.
+
+
+
+
+EPERNAY, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Marne, 88 m. E.N.E. of Paris on the main line of the
+Eastern railway to Chalons-sur-Marne. Pop. (1906) 20,291. The town is
+situated on the left bank of the Marne at the extremity of the pretty
+valley of the Cubry, by which it is traversed. In the central and oldest
+quarter the streets are narrow and irregular; the surrounding suburbs
+are modern and more spacious, and that of La Folie, on the east,
+contains many handsome villas belonging to rich wine merchants. The town
+has also extended to the right bank of the Marne. One of its churches
+preserves a portal and stained-glass windows of the 16th century, but
+the other public buildings are modern. Epernay is best known as the
+principal _entrepot_ of the Champagne wines, which are bottled and kept
+in extensive vaults in the chalk rock on which the town is built. The
+manufacture of the apparatus and material used in the champagne industry
+occupies many hands, and the Eastern Railway Company has important
+workshops here. Brewing, and the manufacture of sugar and of hats and
+caps, are also carried on. Epernay is the seat of a sub-prefect and has
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and communal colleges for
+girls and boys.
+
+Epernay (_Sparnacum_) belonged to the archbishops of Reims from the 5th
+to the 10th century, at which period it came into the possession of the
+counts of Champagne. It suffered severely during the Hundred Years' War,
+and was burned by Francis I. in 1544. It resisted Henry of Navarre in
+1592, and Marshal Biron fell in the attack which preceded its capture.
+In 1642 it was, along with Chateau-Thierry, erected into a duchy and
+assigned to the duke of Bouillon.
+
+
+
+
+EPERNON, a town of northern France in the department of Eure-et-Loir, at
+the confluence of the Drouette and the Guesle, 17 m. N.E. of Chartres by
+rail. Pop. (1906) 2370. It belonged originally to the counts of
+Montfort, who, in the 11th century, built a castle here of which the
+ruins are still left, and granted a charter to the town. In the 13th
+century it became an independent lordship, which remained attached to
+the crown of Navarre till, in the 16th century, it was sold by King
+Henry (afterwards King Henry IV. of France) to Jean Louis de Nogaret,
+for whom it was raised to the rank of a duchy in 1581. The new duke of
+Epernon was one of the favourites of Henry III., who were called _les
+Mignons_; the king showered favours upon him, giving him the posts of
+colonel-general in the infantry and of admiral of France. Under the
+reign of Henry IV. he made himself practically independent in his
+government of Provence. He was instrumental in giving the regency to
+Marie de' Medici in 1610, and as a result exercised a considerable
+influence upon the government. During his governorship of Guienne in
+1622 he had some scandalous scenes with the parlement and the archbishop
+of Bordeaux. He died in 1642. His eldest son, Henri de Nogaret de la
+Valette, duke of Candale, served under Richelieu, in the armies of
+Guienne, of Picardy and of Italy. The second son of Jean Louis de
+Nogaret, Bernard, who was born in 1592, and died in 1661, was, like his
+father, duke of Epernon, colonel-general in the infantry and governor of
+Guienne. After his death, the title of duke of Epernon was borne by the
+families of Goth and of Pardaillan.
+
+
+
+
+EPHEBEUM (from Gr. [Greek: ephebos], a young man), in architecture, a
+large hall in the ancient Palaestra furnished with seats (Vitruvius v.
+11), the length of which should be a third larger than the width. It
+served for the exercises of youths of from sixteen to eighteen years of
+age.
+
+
+
+
+EPHEBI (Gr. [Greek: epi], and [Greek: hebe], i.e. "those who have
+reached puberty"), a name specially given, in Athens and other Greek
+towns, to a class of young men from eighteen to twenty years of age, who
+formed a sort of college under state control. On the completion of his
+seventeenth year the Athenian youth attained his civil majority, and,
+provided he belonged to the first three property classes and passed the
+scrutiny ([Greek: dokimasia]) as to age, civic descent and physical
+capability, was enrolled on the register of his deme ([Greek:
+lexiarchikon grammateion]). He thereby at once became liable to the
+military training and duties, which, at least in the earliest times,
+were the main object of the Ephebia. In the time of Aristotle the names
+of the enrolled ephebi were engraved on a bronze pillar (formerly on
+wooden tablets) in front of the council-chamber. After admission to the
+college, the ephebus took the oath of allegiance, recorded in Pollux and
+Stobaeus (but not in Aristotle), in the temple of Aglaurus, and was sent
+to Munychia or Acte to form one of the garrison. At the end of the first
+year of training, the ephebi were reviewed, and, if their performance
+was satisfactory, were provided by the state with a spear and a shield,
+which, together with the _chlamys_ (cloak) and _petasus_ (broad-brimmed
+hat), made up their equipment. In their second year they were
+transferred to other garrisons in Attica, patrolled the frontiers, and
+on occasion took an active part in war. During these two years they were
+free from taxation, and were not allowed (except in certain cases) to
+appear in the law courts as plaintiffs or defendants. The ephebi took
+part in some of the most important Athenian festivals. Thus during the
+Eleusinia they were told off to fetch the sacred objects from Eleusis
+and to escort the image of Iacchus on the sacred way. They also
+performed police duty at the meetings of the ecclesia.
+
+After the end of the 4th century B.C. the institution underwent a
+radical change. Enrolment ceased to be obligatory, lasted only for a
+year, and the limit of age was dispensed with. Inscriptions attest a
+continually decreasing number of ephebi, and with the admission of
+foreigners the college lost its representative national character. This
+was mainly due to the weakening of the military spirit and the progress
+of intellectual culture. The military element was no longer
+all-important, and the ephebia became a sort of university for
+well-to-do young men of good family, whose social position has been
+compared with that of the Athenian "knights" of earlier times. The
+institution lasted till the end of the 3rd century A.D.
+
+It is probable that the ephebia was in existence in the 5th century
+B.C., and controlled by the Areopagus and strategus as its moral and
+military supervisors. In the 4th century their place was taken by ten
+_sophronistae_ (one for each tribe), who, as the name implies, took
+special interest in the morals of those under them, their military
+training being in the hands of experts, of whom the chief were the
+_hoplomachus_, the _acontistes_, the _toxotes_ and the _aphetes_
+(instructors respectively in the use of arms, javelin-throwing, archery
+and the use of artillery engines). Later, the _sophronistae_ were
+superseded by a single official called _cosmetes_, elected for a year by
+the people, who appointed the instructors. When the ephebia instead of a
+military college became a university, the military instructors were
+replaced by philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians and artists. In
+Roman imperial times several new officials were introduced, one of
+special importance being the director of the Diogeneion, where youths
+under age were trained for the ephebia. At this period the college of
+ephebi was a miniature city; its members called themselves "citizens,"
+and it possessed an archon, strategus, herald and other officials, after
+the model of ancient Athens.
+
+  There is an extensive class of inscriptions, ranging from the 3rd
+  century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D., containing decrees relating to
+  the ephebi, their officers and instructors, and lists of the same, and
+  a whole chapter (42) of the Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_ is
+  devoted to the subject. The most important treatises on the subject
+  are: W. Dittenberger, _De ephebis Atticis_ (Gottingen, 1863); A.
+  Dumont, _Essai sur l'ephebie attique_ (1875-1876); L. Grasberger,
+  _Erziehung und Unterricht im klassichen Altertum_, iii. (Wurzburg,
+  1881); J.P. Mahaffy, _Old Greek Education_ (1881); P. Girard,
+  _L'Education athenienne au V_^e _et IV_^e _siecle avant J.-C._ (2nd
+  ed., 1891), and article in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquites_ which contains further bibliographical references; G.
+  Gilbert, _The Constitutional Antiquities of Athens_ (Eng. tr., 1895);
+  G. Busolt, _Die griechischen Staats- und Rechtsaltertumer_ (1892); T.
+  Thalheim and J. Ohler in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie der
+  classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. pt. 2 (1905); W.W. Capes,
+  _University Life in Ancient Athens_ (1877).
+
+
+
+
+EPHEMERIS (Greek for a "diary"), a table giving for stated times the
+apparent position and other numerical particulars relating to a heavenly
+body. The _Astronomical Ephemeris_, familiarly known as the "Nautical
+Almanac," is a national annual publication containing ephemerides of the
+principal or more conspicuous heavenly bodies, elements and other data
+of eclipses, and other matter useful to the astronomer and navigator.
+The governments of the United Kingdom, United States, France, Germany
+and Spain publish such annals.
+
+
+
+
+EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. This book of the New Testament, the most
+general and least occasional and polemic of all the Pauline epistles, a
+large section of which seems almost like the literary elaboration of a
+theological topic, may best be described as a solemn oration, addressed
+to absent hearers, and intended not primarily to clarify their minds but
+to stir their emotions. It is thus a true letter, but in the grand
+style, verging on the nature not of an essay but a poem. _Ephesians_ has
+been called "the crown of St Paul's writings," and whether it be
+measured by its theological or its literary interest and importance, it
+can fairly dispute with _Romans_ the claim to be his greatest epistle.
+In the public and private use of Christians some parts of _Ephesians_
+have been among the most favourite of all New Testament passages. Like
+its sister Epistle to the Colossians, it represents, whoever wrote it,
+deep experience and bold use of reflection on the meaning of that
+experience; if it be from the pen of the Apostle Paul, it reveals to us
+a distinct and important phase of his thought.
+
+To the nature of the epistle correspond well the facts of its title and
+address. The title "To the Ephesians" is found in the Muratorian canon,
+in Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria, as well as in all the
+earliest MSS. and versions. Marcion, however (c. A.D. 150), used and
+recommended copies with the title "To the Laodiceans." This would be
+inexplicable if Eph. i. 1 had read in Marcion's copies, as it does in
+most ancient authorities, "To the saints which are at Ephesus"; but in
+fact the words [Greek: en Epheso] of verse 1 were probably absent. They
+were not contained in the text used by Origen (d. 253); Basil (d. 379)
+says that "ancient copies" omitted the words; and they are actually
+omitted by Codices B (Vaticanus, 4th century) and [Hebrew: alef]
+(Sinaiticus, 4th century), together with Codex 67 (11th century). The
+words "in Ephesus" were thus probably originally lacking in the address,
+and were inserted from the suggestion of the title. Either the address
+was general ("to the saints who are also faithful") or else a blank was
+left. In the latter case the name may have been intended to be supplied
+orally, in communicating the letter, or a different name may have been
+written in each of the individual copies. Under any of these hypotheses
+the address would indicate that we have a circular letter, written to a
+group of churches, doubtless in Asia Minor. This would account for the
+general character of the epistle, as well as for the entire and striking
+absence of personal greetings and of concrete allusions to existing
+circumstances among the readers. It appears to have drawn its title, "To
+the Ephesians," from one of the churches for which it was intended,
+perhaps the one from which a copy was secured when Paul's epistles were
+collected, shortly before or after the year 100. That our epistle is the
+one referred to in Col. iv. 16, which was to be had by the Colossians
+from Laodicea, is not unlikely. Such an identification doubtless led
+Marcion to alter the title in his copies.
+
+The structure of _Ephesians_ is epistolary; it opens with the usual
+salutation (i. 1-2) and closes with a brief personal note and formal
+farewell (vi. 21-24). In the intervening body of the epistle the writer
+also follows the regular form of a letter. In an ordinary Greek letter
+(as the papyri show) we should find the salutation followed by an
+expression of gratification over the correspondent's good health and of
+prayer for its continuance. Paul habitually expanded and deepened this,
+and, in this case, that paragraph is enormously enlarged, so that it may
+be regarded as including chapters i.-iii., and as carrying the main
+thought of the epistle. Chapters iv.-vi. merely make application of the
+main ideas worked out in chapters i.-iii. Throughout the epistle we have
+a singular combination of the seemingly desultory method of a letter,
+turning aside at a word and straying wherever the mood of the moment
+leads, with the firm, forward march of earnest and mature thought. In
+this combination resides the doubtless unconscious but nevertheless real
+literary art of the composition.
+
+The fundamental theme of the epistle is _The Unity of Mankind in
+Christ_, and hence the Unity and Divinity of the Church of Christ. God's
+purpose from eternity was to unite mankind in Christ, and so to bring
+human history to its goal, the New Man, the measure of the stature of
+the fulness of Christ. Those who have believed in Christ are the present
+representatives and result of this purpose; and a clear knowledge of the
+purpose itself, the secret of the ages, has now been revealed to men.
+This theme is not formally discussed, as in a theological treatise, but
+is rather, as it were, celebrated in lofty eulogy and application.
+First, in chapters i.-iii., under the mask of a conventional
+congratulatory paragraph, the writer declares at length the privileges
+which this great fact confers upon those who by faith receive the gift
+of God, and he is thus able to touch on the various aspects of his
+subject. Then, in chapters iv.-vi., he turns, with a characteristic and
+impressive "therefore," to set forth the obligations which correspond to
+the privileges he has just expounded. This author is indeed interested
+to prosecute vigorous and substantial thinking, but the mainspring of
+his interest is the conviction that such thought is significant for
+inner and outer life.
+
+The relationship, both literary and theological, between the epistle to
+the _Ephesians_ and that to _the Colossians_ (q.v.) is very close. It is
+to be seen in many of the prominent ideas of the two writings,
+especially in the developed view of the central position of Christ in
+the whole universe; in the conception of the Church as Christ's body, of
+which He is the head; in the thought of the great Mystery, once secret,
+now revealed. There is further resemblance in the formal moral code,
+arranged by classes of persons, and having much the same contents in the
+two epistles (Eph. v. 22-vi. 9; Col. iii. 18-iv. 1). In both, also,
+Tychicus carries the letter, and in almost identical language the
+readers are told that he will by word of mouth give fuller information
+about the apostle's affairs (Eph. vi. 21-22; Col. iv. 7-8). Moreover, in
+a great number of characteristic phrases and even whole verses the two
+are alike. Compare, for instance, Eph. i. 7, Col. i. 14; Eph. i. 10,
+Col. i. 20; Eph. i. 21, Col. i. 16; Eph. i. 22, 23, Col. i. 18, 19; Eph.
+ii. 5, Col. ii. 13; Eph. ii. 11, Col. ii. 11; Eph: ii. 16, Col. i. 20;
+Eph. iii. 2, 3, Col. i. 25, 26, and many other parallels. Only a
+comparison in detail will give a true impression of the extraordinary
+degree of resemblance. Yet the two epistles do not follow the same
+course of thought, and their contents cannot be successfully exhibited
+in a common synoptical abstract. Each has its independent occasion,
+purpose, character and method; but they draw largely on a common store
+of thought and use common means of expression.
+
+The question of the authorship of _Ephesians_ is less important to the
+student of the history of Christian thought than in the case of most of
+the Pauline epistles, because of the generalness of tone and the lack of
+specific allusion in the work. It purports to be by Paul, and was held
+to be his by Marcion and in the Muratorian canon, and by Irenaeus,
+Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria, all writing at the end of the 2nd
+century. No doubt of the Pauline authorship was expressed in ancient
+times; nor is there any lack of early use by writers who make no direct
+quotation, to raise doubts as to the genuineness of the epistle. The
+influence of its language is probably to be seen in Ignatius, Polycarp
+and Hermas, less certainly in the epistle of Barnabas. Some resemblances
+of expression in Clement of Rome and in Second Clement may have
+significance. There is here abundant proof that the epistle was in
+existence, and was highly valued and influential with leaders of
+Christian thought, about the year 100, when persons who had known Paul
+well were still living.
+
+To the evidence given above may be added the use of _Ephesians_ in the
+First Epistle of Peter. If the latter epistle could be finally
+established as genuine, or its date fixed, it would give important
+evidence with regard to _Ephesians_; but in the present state of
+discussion we must confine ourselves to pointing out the fact. Some of
+the more striking points of contact are the following: Eph. i. 3, 1
+Peter i. 3; Eph. i. 20, 21, 1 Peter iii. 22; Eph. ii. 2, 3, iv. 17, 1
+Peter iv. 3; Eph. ii. 21, 22, 1 Peter ii. 5; Eph. v. 22, 1 Peter iii. 1,
+2; Eph. v. 25, 1 Peter iii. 7, 8; Eph. vi. 5, 1 Peter ii. 18, 19. A
+similar relation exists between _Romans_ and _1 Peter_. In both cases
+the dependence is clearly on the part of _1 Peter_; for ideas and
+phrases that in _Ephesians_ and _Romans_ have their firm place in
+closely wrought sequences, are found in _1 Peter_ with less profound
+significance and transformed into smooth and pointed maxims and
+apophthegmatic sentences.
+
+Objections to the genuineness of _Ephesians_ have been urged since the
+early part of the 19th century. The influence of Schleiermacher, whose
+pupil Leonhard Usteri in his _Entwickelung der paulinischen
+Lehrbegriffs_ (1824) expressed strong doubts as to _Ephesians_, carried
+weight. He held that Tychicus was the author. De Wette first (1826)
+doubted, then (1843) denied that the epistle was by Paul. The chief
+attack came, however, from Baur (1845) and his colleagues of the
+Tubingen school. Against the genuineness have appeared Ewald, Renan,
+Hausrath, Hilgenfeld, Ritschl, Pfleiderer, Weizsacker, Holtzmann, von
+Soden, Schmiedel, von Dobschutz and many others. On the other hand, the
+epistle has been defended by Bleek, Neander, Reuss, B. Weiss, Meyer,
+Sabatier, Lightfoot, Hort, Sanday, Bacon, Julicher, Harnack, Zahn and
+many others. In recent years a tendency has been apparent among critics
+to accept _Ephesians_ as a genuine work of Paul. This has followed the
+somewhat stronger reaction in favour of _Colossians_.
+
+Before speaking of the more fundamental grounds urged for the rejection
+of _Ephesians_, we may look at various points of detail which are of
+less significance.
+
+(1) The style has unquestionably a slow and lumbering movement, in
+marked contrast with the quick effectiveness of _Romans_ and
+_Galatians_. The sentences are much longer and less vivacious, as any
+one can see by a superficial examination. But nevertheless there are
+parts of the earlier epistles where the same tendency appears (e.g. Rom.
+iii. 23-26), and on the whole the style shows Paul's familiar traits.
+(2) The vocabulary is said to be peculiar. But it can be shown to be no
+more so than that of _Galatians_ (Zahn, _Einleitung_, i. pp. 365 ff.).
+On the other hand, some words characteristic of Paul's use appear
+(notably [Greek: dio], five times), and the most recent and careful
+investigation of Paul's vocabulary (Nageli, _Wortschatz der paulinischen
+Briefe_, 1905) concludes that the evidence speaks for Pauline
+authorship. (3) Certain phrases have aroused suspicion, for instance,
+"the devil" (vi. 11, instead of Paul's usual term "Satan"); "his holy
+apostles and prophets" (iii. 5, as smacking of later fulsomeness); "I
+Paul" (iii. 1); "unto me, who am less than the least of all the saints"
+(iii. 8, as exaggerated). But these cases, when properly understood and
+calmly viewed, do not carry conviction against the epistle. (4) The
+relation of _Ephesians_ to _Colossians_ would be a serious difficulty
+only if _Colossians_ were held to be not by Paul. Those who hold to the
+genuineness of _Colossians_ find it easier to explain the resemblances
+as the product of the free working of the same mind, than as due to a
+deliberate imitator. Holtzmann's elaborate and very ingenious theory
+(1872) that _Colossians_ has been expanded, on the basis of a shorter
+letter of Paul, by the same later hand which had previously written the
+whole of _Ephesians_, has not met with favour from recent scholars.
+
+But the more serious difficulties which to many minds still stand in the
+way of the acceptance of the epistle have come from the developed phase
+of Pauline theology which it shows, and from the general background and
+atmosphere of the underlying system of thought, in which the absence of
+the well-known earlier controversies is remarkable, while some things
+suggest the thought of John and a later age. Among the most important
+points in which the ideas and implications of _Ephesians_ suggest an
+authorship and a period other than that of Paul are the following:
+
+(a) The union of Gentiles and Jews in one body is already accomplished.
+(b) The Christology is more advanced, uses Alexandrian terms, and
+suggests the ideas of the Gospel of John. (c) The conception of the
+Church as the body of Christ is new. (d) There is said to be a general
+softening of Pauline thought in the direction of the Christianity of the
+2nd century, while very many characteristic ideas of the earlier
+epistles are absent.
+
+With regard to the changed state of affairs in the Church, it must be
+said that this can be a conclusive argument only to one who holds the
+view of the Tubingen scholars, that the Apostolic Age was all of a piece
+and was dominated solely by one controversy. The change in the situation
+is surely not greater than can be imagined within the lifetime of Paul.
+That the epistle implies as already existent a developed system of
+Gnostic thought such as only came into being in the 2nd century is not
+true, and such a date is excluded by the external evidence. As to the
+other points, the question is, whether the admittedly new phase of
+Paul's theological thought is so different from his earlier system as to
+be incompatible with it. In answering this question different minds will
+differ. But it must remain possible that contact with new scenes and
+persons, and especially such controversial necessities as are
+exemplified in _Colossians_, stimulated Paul to work out more fully,
+under the influence of Alexandrian categories, lines of thought of which
+the germs and origins must be admitted to have been present in earlier
+epistles. It cannot be maintained that the ideas of _Ephesians_ directly
+contradict either in formulation or in tendency the thought of the
+earlier epistles. Moreover, if _Colossians_ be accepted as Pauline (and
+among other strong reasons the unquestionable genuineness of the epistle
+to Philemon renders it extremely difficult not to accept it), the chief
+matters of this more advanced Christian thought are fully legitimated
+for Paul.
+
+On the other hand, the characteristics of the thought in _Ephesians_
+give some strong evidence confirmatory of the epistle's own claim to be
+by Paul. (a) The writer of Eph. ii. 11-22 was a Jew, not less proud of
+his race than was the writer of Rom. ix.-xi. or of Phil. iii. 4 ff. (b)
+The centre in all the theology of the epistle is the idea of redemption.
+The use of Alexandrian categories is wholly governed by this interest.
+(c) The epistle shows the same panoramic, pictorial, dramatic conception
+of Christian truth which is everywhere characteristic of Paul. (d) The
+most fundamental elements in the system of thought do not differ from
+those of the earlier epistles.
+
+The view which denies the Pauline authorship of _Ephesians_ has to
+suppose the existence of a great literary artist and profound
+theologian, able to write an epistle worthy of Paul at his best, who,
+without betraying any recognizable motive, presented to the world in the
+name of Paul an imitation of _Colossians_, incredibly laborious and yet
+superior to the original in literary workmanship and power of thought,
+and bearing every appearance of earnest sincerity. It must further be
+supposed that the name and the very existence of this genius were
+totally forgotten in Christian circles fifty years after he wrote. The
+balance of evidence seems to lie on the side of the genuineness of the
+Epistle.
+
+If _Ephesians_ was written by Paul, it was during the period of his
+imprisonment, either at Caesarea or at Rome (iii. 1, iv. 1, vi. 20). At
+very nearly the same time he must have written _Colossians_ and
+_Philemon_; all three were sent by Tychicus. There is no strong reason
+for holding that the three were written from Caesarea. For Rome speaks
+the greater probability of the metropolis as the place in which a
+fugitive slave would try to hide himself, the impression given in
+_Colossians_ of possible opportunity for active mission work (Col. iv.
+3, 4; cf. Acts xxviii. 30, 31), the fact that _Philippians_, which in a
+measure belongs to the same group, was pretty certainly written from
+Rome. As to the Christians addressed, they are evidently converts from
+heathenism (ii. 1, 11-13, 17 f., iii. 1, iv. 17); but they are not
+merely Gentile Christians at large, for Tychicus carries the letter to
+them, Paul has some knowledge of their special circumstances (i. 15),
+and they are explicitly distinguished from "all the saints" (iii. 18,
+vi. 18). We may most naturally think of them as the members of the
+churches of Asia. The letter is very likely referred to in Col. iv. 16,
+although this theory is not wholly free from difficulties.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best commentaries on _Ephesians_ are by C.J.
+  Ellicott (1855, 4th ed. 1868), H.A.W. Meyer (4th ed., 1867), (Eng.
+  trans. 1880), T.K. Abbott (1897), J.A. Robinson (1903, 2nd ed. 1904);
+  in German by H. von Soden (in _Hand-Commentar_) (1891, 2nd ed. 1893),
+  E. Haupt (in Meyer's _Kommentar_) (8th ed., 1902). J.B. Lightfoot's
+  commentary on _Colossians_ (1875, 3rd ed. 1879) is important for
+  _Ephesians_ also. On the English text see H.C.G. Moule (in Cambridge
+  Bible for Schools) (1887). R.W. Dale, _Epistle to the Ephesians; its
+  Doctrine and Ethics_ (1882), is a valuable series of expository
+  discourses.
+
+  Questions of genuineness, purpose, &c., are discussed in the New
+  Testament _Introductions_ of H. Holtzmann (1885, 3rd ed. 1892); B.
+  Weiss (1886, 3rd ed. 1897, Eng. trans. 1887); G. Salmon (1887, 8th ed.
+  1897); A. Julicher (1894, 5th and 6th ed. 1906, Eng. trans. 1904); T.
+  Zahn (1897-1899, 2nd ed. 1900); and in the thorough investigations of
+  H. Holtzmann, _Kritik der Epheser- und Kolosserbriefe_ (1872), and
+  F.J.A. Hort, _Prolegomena to St Paul's Epistles to the Romans and the
+  Ephesians_ (1895). See also the works on the _Apostolic Age_ of C.
+  Weizsacker (1886, 2nd ed. 1892, Eng. trans. 1894-1895); O. Pfleiderer
+  (_Das Urchristenthum_) (1887, 2nd ed. 1902, Eng. trans. 1906); and
+  A.C. McGiffert (1897).
+
+  On early attestation see A.H. Charteris, _Canonicity_ (1880) and the
+  _New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers_ (Oxford, 1905).
+
+  The theological ideas of Ephesians are also discussed in some of the
+  works on Paul's theology; see especially F.C. Baur, _Paulus_ (1845,
+  2nd ed. 1866-1867, Eng. trans. 1873-1874); O. Pfleiderer, _Der
+  Paulinismus_ (1873, 2nd ed. 1890, Eng. trans. 1877); and in the works
+  on New Testament theology by B. Weiss (1868, 7th ed. 1903, Eng. trans.
+  1882-1883); H. Holtzmann (1897), and G.B. Stevens (1899). See also
+  Somerville, _St Paul's Conception of Christ_ (1897).
+
+  For a guide to other literature see W. Lock, art. "Ephesians, Epistle
+  to," in Hastings's _Dictionary of the Bible_, the various works of
+  Holtzmann above referred to, and T.K. Abbott's _Commentary_, pp.
+  35-40.     (J. H. Rs.)
+
+
+
+
+EPHESUS, an ancient Ionian city on the west coast of Asia Minor. In
+historic times it was situate on the lower slopes of the hills, Coressus
+and Prion, which rise out of a fertile plain near the mouth of the river
+Cayster, while the temple and precinct of Artemis or Diana, to the fame
+of which the town owed much of its celebrity, were in the plain itself,
+E.N.E. at a distance of about a mile. But there is reason to think both
+town and shrine had different sites in pre-Ionian times, and that both
+lay farther south among the foot-hills of Mt. Solmissus. The situation
+of the city was such as at all times to command a great commerce. Of the
+three great river basins of Ionia and Lydia, those of the Hermus,
+Cayster and Maeander, it commanded the second, and had already access by
+easy passes to the other two.
+
+The earliest inhabitants assigned to Ephesus by Greek writers are the
+"Amazons," with whom we hear of Leleges, Carians and Pelasgi. In the
+11th century B.C., according to tradition (the date is probably too
+early), Androclus, son of the Athenian king Codrus, landed on the spot
+with his Ionians and a mixed body of colonists; and from his conquest
+dates the history of the Greek Ephesus. The deity of the city was
+Artemis; but we must guard against misconception when we use that name,
+remembering that she bore close relation to the primitive Asiatic
+goddess of nature, whose cult existed before the Ionian migration at the
+neighbouring Ortygia, and that she always remained the virgin-mother of
+all life and especially wild life, and an embodiment of the fertility
+and productive power of the earth. The well-known monstrous
+representation of her, as a figure with many breasts, swathed below the
+waist in grave-clothes, was probably of late and alien origin. In early
+Ionian times she seems to have been represented as a natural matronly
+figure, sometimes accompanied by a child, and to have been a more
+typically Hellenic goddess than she became in the Hellenistic and Roman
+periods.
+
+Twice in the period 700-500 B.C. the city owed its preservation to the
+interference of the goddess; once when the swarms of the Cimmerians
+overran Asia Minor in the 7th century and burnt the Artemision itself;
+and once when Croesus besieged the town in the century succeeding, and
+only retired after it had solemnly dedicated itself to Artemis, the sign
+of such dedication being the stretching of a rope from city to
+sanctuary. Croesus was eager in every way to propitiate the goddess, and
+since about this time her temple was being restored on an enlarged
+scale, he presented most of the columns required for the building as
+well as some cows of gold. That is to say, these gifts were probably
+paid for out of the proceeds of the sequestration of the property of a
+rich Lydian merchant, Sadyattes, which Croesus presented to Ephesus
+(Nic. Damasc. fr. 65). To counteract, perhaps, the growing Lydian
+influence, Athens, the mother-city of Ephesus, despatched one of her
+noblest citizens, Aristarchus, to restore law on the basis of the
+Solonian constitution. The labours of Aristarchus seem to have borne
+fruit. It was an Ephesian follower of his, Hermodorus, who aided the
+Decemviri at Rome in their compilation of a system of law. And in the
+same generation Heraclitus, probably a descendant of Codrus, quitted his
+hereditary magistracy in order to devote himself to philosophy, in which
+his name became almost as great as that of any Greek. Poetry had long
+flourished at Ephesus. From very early times the Homeric poems found a
+home and admirers there; and to Ephesus belong the earliest elegiac
+poems of Greece, the war songs of Callinus, who flourished in the 7th
+century B.C. and was the model of Tyrtaeus. The city seems to have been
+more than once under tyrannical rule in the early Ionian period; and it
+fell thereafter first to Croesus of Lydia, and then to Cyrus, the
+Persian, and when the Ionian revolt against Persia broke out in the year
+500 B.C. under the lead of Miletus, the city remained submissive to
+Persian rule. When Xerxes returned from the march against Greece, he
+honoured the temple of Artemis, although he sacked other Ionian shrines,
+and even left his children behind at Ephesus for safety's sake. We hear
+again of Persian respect for the temple in the time of Tissaphernes (411
+B.C.). After the final Persian defeat at the Eurymedon (466 B.C.),
+Ephesus for a time paid tribute to Athens, with the other cities of the
+coast, and Lysander first and Agesilaus afterwards made it their
+headquarters. To the latter fact we owe a contemporary description of it
+by Xenophon. In the early part of the 4th century it fell again under
+Persian influence, and was administered by an oligarchy.
+
+Alexander was received by the Ephesians in 334, and established
+democratic government. Soon after his death the city fell into the hands
+of Lysimachus, who introduced fresh Greek colonists from Lebedus and
+Colophon and, it is said, by means of an artificial inundation compelled
+those who still dwelt in the plain by the temple to migrate to the city
+on the hills, which he surrounded by a solid wall. He renamed the city
+after his wife Arsinoe, but the old name was soon resumed. Ephesus was
+very prosperous during the Hellenistic period, and is conspicuous both
+then and later for the abundance of its coinage, which gives us a more
+complete list of magistrates' names than we have for any other Ionian
+city. The Roman coinage is remarkable for the great variety and
+importance of its types. After the defeat of Antiochus the Great, king
+of Syria, by the Romans, Ephesus was handed over by the conquerors to
+Eumenes, king of Pergamum, whose successor, Attalus Philadelphus,
+unintentionally worked the city irremediable harm. Thinking that the
+shallowness of the harbour was due to the width of its mouth, he built a
+mole part-way across the latter; the result, however, was that the
+silting up of the harbour proceeded more rapidly than before. The third
+Attalus of Pergamum bequeathed Ephesus with the rest of his possessions
+to the Roman people, and it became for a while the chief city, and for
+longer the first port, of the province of Asia, the richest in the
+empire. Henceforth Ephesus remained subject to the Romans, save for a
+short period, when, at the instigation of Mithradates Eupator of Pontus,
+the cities of Asia Minor revolted and massacred their Roman residents.
+The Ephesians even dragged out and slew those Romans who had fled to the
+precinct of Artemis for protection, notwithstanding which sacrilege they
+soon returned from their new to their former masters, and even had the
+effrontery to state, in an inscription preserved to this day, that their
+defection to Mithradates was a mere yielding to superior force. Sulla,
+after his victory over Mithradates, brushed away their pretexts, and
+inflicting a very heavy fine told them that the punishment fell far
+short of their deserts. In the civil wars of the 1st century B.C. the
+Ephesians twice supported the unsuccessful party, giving shelter to, or
+being made use of by, first, Brutus and Cassius, and afterwards Antony,
+for which partisanship or weakness they paid very heavily in fines.
+
+All this time the city was gradually growing in wealth and in devotion
+to the service of Artemis. The story of St Paul's doings there
+illustrates this fact, and the sequel is very suggestive,--the burning,
+namely, of books of sorcery of great value. Addiction to the practice of
+occult arts had evidently become general in the now semi-orientalized
+city. The Christian Church which Paul planted there was governed by
+Timothy and John, and is famous in Christian tradition as a nurse of
+saints and martyrs. According to local belief, Ephesus was also the last
+home of the Virgin, who was lodged near the city by St John and there
+died. But to judge from the Apocalyptic Letter to this Church (as shown
+by Sir W.M. Ramsay), the latter showed a dangerous tendency to lightness
+and reaction, and later events show that the pagan tradition of Artemis
+continued very strong and perhaps never became quite extinct in the
+Ephesian district. It was, indeed, long before the spread of
+Christianity threatened the old local cult. The city was proud to be
+termed _neocorus_ or servant of the goddess. Roman emperors vied with
+wealthy natives in lavish gifts, one Vibius Salutaris among the latter
+presenting a quantity of gold and silver images to be carried annually
+in procession. Ephesus contested stoutly with Smyrna and Pergamum the
+honour of being called the first city of Asia; each city appealed to
+Rome, and we still possess rescripts in which the emperors endeavoured
+to mitigate the bitterness of the rivalry. One privilege Ephesus
+secured; the Roman governor of Asia always landed and first assumed
+office there: and it was long the provincial centre of the official cult
+of the emperor, and seat of the Asiarch. The Goths destroyed both city
+and temple in the year A.D. 262, and although the city revived and the
+cult of Artemis continued, neither ever recovered its former splendour.
+A general council of the Christian Church was held there in 431 in the
+great double church of St Mary, which is still to be seen. On this
+occasion Nestorius was condemned, and the honour of the Virgin
+established as _Theotokus_, amid great popular rejoicing, due,
+doubtless, in some measure to the hold which the cult of the virgin
+Artemis still had on the city. (On this council see below.) Thereafter
+Ephesus seems to have been gradually deserted owing to its malaria; and
+life transferred itself to another and higher site near the Artemision,
+the name of which, Ayassoluk (written by early Arab geographers
+_Ayathulukh_), is now known to be a corruption of the title of St John
+_Theologos_, given to a great cathedral built on a rocky hill near the
+present railway station, in the time of Justinian I. This church was
+visited by Ibn Batuta in A.D. 1333; but few traces are now visible. The
+ruins of the Artemision, after serving as a quarry to local builders,
+were finally covered deep with mud by the river Cayster, or one of its
+left bank tributaries, the Selinus, and the true site remained
+unsuspected until 1869.
+
+_Excavations._--The first light thrown on the topography of Ephesus was
+due to the excavations conducted by the architect, J.T. Wood, on behalf
+of the trustees of the British Museum, during the years 1863-1874. He
+first explored the Odeum and the Great Theatre situate in the city
+itself, and in the latter place had the good fortune to find an
+inscription which indicated to him in what direction to search for the
+Artemision; for it stated that processions came to the city from the
+temple by the Magnesian gate and returned by the Coressian. These two
+gates were next identified, and following up that road which issued from
+the Magnesian gate, Wood lighted first on a ruin which he believed to be
+the tomb of Androclus, and afterwards on an angle of the peribolus wall
+of the time of Augustus. After further tentative explorations, he struck
+the actual pavement of the Artemision on the last day of 1869.
+
+_The Artemision._--Wood removed the whole stratum of superficial
+deposit, nearly 20 ft. deep, which overlay the huge area of the temple,
+and exposed to view not only the scanty remains of the latest edifice,
+built after 350 B.C., but the platform of an earlier temple, now known
+to be that of the 6th century to which Croesus contributed. Below this
+he did not find any remains. He discovered and sent to England parts of
+several sculptured drums (_columnae caelatae_) of the latest temple, and
+archaic sculptures from the drums and parapet of the earlier building.
+He also made accurate measurements and a plan of the Hellenistic temple,
+found many inscriptions and a few miscellaneous antiquities, and had
+begun to explore the Precinct, when the great expense and other
+considerations induced the trustees of the British Museum to suspend his
+operations in 1874. Wood made two subsequent attempts to resume work,
+but failed; and the site lay desolate till 1904, when the trustees,
+wishing to have further information about the earlier strata and the
+Precinct, sent D.G. Hogarth to re-examine the remains. As a result of
+six months' work, Wood's "earliest temple" was re-cleared and planned,
+remains of three earlier shrines were found beneath it, a rich deposit
+of offerings, &c., belonging to the earliest shrine was discovered, and
+tentative explorations were made in the Precinct. This deep digging,
+however, which reached the sand of the original marsh, released much
+ground water and resulted in the permanent flooding of the site.
+
+[Illustration: Ground plan of the 6th Century ("Croesus") Temple at
+Ephesus, conjecturally restored by A.E. Henderson.]
+
+The history of the Artemision, as far as it can be inferred from the
+remains, is as follows. (1) There was no temple on the plain previous to
+the Ionian occupation, the primeval seat of the nature-goddess having
+been in the southern hills, at Ortygia (near mod. _Arvalia_). Towards
+the end of the 8th century B.C. a small shrine came into existence on
+the plain. This was little more than a small platform of green schist
+with a sacred tree and an altar, and perhaps later a wooden icon
+(image), the whole enclosed in a _temenos_: but, as is proved by a great
+treasure of objects in precious and other metals, ivory, bone, crystal,
+paste, glass, terra-cotta and other materials, found in 1904-1905,
+partly within the platform on which the cult-statue stood and partly
+outside, in the lowest stratum of deposit, this early shrine was
+presently enriched by Greeks with many and splendid offerings of
+Hellenic workmanship. A large number of electron coins, found among
+these offerings, and in style the earliest of their class known, combine
+with other evidence to date the whole treasure to a period considerably
+anterior to the reign of Croesus. This treasure is now divided between
+the museums of Constantinople and London. (2) Within a short time,
+perhaps after the Cimmerian sack (? 650 B.C.), this shrine was restored,
+slightly enlarged, and raised in level, but not altered in character.
+(3) About the close of the century, for some reason not known, but
+possibly owing to collapse brought about by the marshy nature of the
+site, this was replaced by a temple of regular Hellenic form. The latter
+was built in relation to the earlier central statue-base but at a higher
+level than either of its predecessors, doubtless for dryness' sake. Very
+little but its foundations was spared by later builders, and there is
+now no certain evidence of its architectural character; but it is very
+probable that it was the early temple in which the Ionic order is said
+to have been first used, after the colonists had made use of Doric in
+their earlier constructions (e.g. in the _Panionion_); and that it was
+the work of the Cnossian Chersiphron and his son, Metagenes, always
+regarded afterwards as the first builders of a regular Artemision. Their
+temple is said by Strabo to have been made bigger by another architect.
+(4) The latter's work must have been the much larger temple, exposed by
+Wood, and usually known as the Archaic or Croesus temple. This overlies
+the remains of No. 3, at a level higher by about a metre, and the area
+of its _cella_ alone contains the whole of the earlier shrines. Its
+central point, however, was still the primitive statue-base, now
+enlarged and heightened. About half its pavement, parts of the _cella_
+walls and of three columns of the peristyle, and the foundations of
+nearly all the platform, are still in position. The visible work was all
+of very fine white marble, quarried about 7 m. N.E., near the modern Kos
+Bunar. Fragments of relief-sculptures belonging to the parapet and
+columns, and of fluted drums and capitals, cornices and other
+architectural members have been recovered, showing that the workmanship
+and Ionic style were of the highest excellence, and that the building
+presented a variety of ornament, rare among Hellenic temples. The whole
+ground-plan covered about 80,000 sq. ft. The height of the temple is
+doubtful, the measurements of columns given us by later authority having
+reference probably to its successor, the height of which was considered
+abnormal and marvellous. Judged by the diameter of the drums, the
+columns of the Croesus temple were not two-thirds of the height of those
+of the Hellenistic temple. This fourth temple is, beyond question, that
+to which Croesus contributed, and it was, therefore, in process of
+building about 540 B.C. Our authorities seem to be referring to it when
+they tell us that the Artemision was raised by common contribution of
+the great cities of Asia, and took 120 years to complete. It was
+dedicated with great ceremony, probably between 430 and 420 B.C., and
+the famous Timotheus, son of Thersander, carried off the magnificent
+prize for a lyric ode against all comers. Its original architects were,
+probably, Paeonius of Ephesus, and Demetrius, a [Greek: hieros] of the
+shrine itself: but it has been suggested that the latter may have been
+rather the actual contracting builder than the architect. Of this temple
+Herodotus speaks as existing in his day; and unless weight be given to
+an isolated statement of Eusebius, that it was burned about 395 B.C., we
+must assume that it survived until the night when one Herostratus,
+desirous of acquiring eternal fame if only by a great crime, set it
+alight. This is said to have happened in 356 B.C. on the October night
+on which Alexander the Great came into the world, and, as Hegesias said,
+the goddess herself was absent, assisting at the birth; but the
+exactness of this portentous synchronism makes the date suspect. (5) It
+was succeeded by what is called the Hellenistic temple, begun almost
+immediately after the catastrophe, according to plans drawn by the
+famous Dinocrates the architect of Alexandria. The platform was once
+more raised to a higher level, some 7 ft. above that of the Archaic, by
+means of huge foundation blocks bedded upon the earlier structures; and
+this increase of elevation necessitated a slight expansion of the area
+all round, and ten steps in place of three. The new columns were of
+greater diameter than the old and over 60 ft. high; and from its great
+height the whole structure was regarded as a marvel, and accounted one
+of the wonders of the world. Since, however, other Greek temples had
+colonnades hardly less high, and were of equal or greater area, it has
+been suggested that the Ephesian temple had some distinct element of
+grandiosity, no longer known to us--perhaps a lofty sculptured parapet
+or some imposing form of _podium_. Bede, in his treatise _De sept. mir.
+mundi_, describes a stupendous erection of several storeys; but his
+other descriptions are so fantastic that no credence can be attached to
+this. The fifth temple was once more of Ionic order, but the finish and
+style of its details as attested by existing remains were inferior to
+those of its predecessor. The great sculptured drums and pedestals, now
+in the British Museum, belong to the lower part of certain of its
+columns: but nothing of its frieze or pediments (if it had any) has been
+recovered. Begun probably before 350 B.C., it was in building when
+Alexander came to Ephesus in 334 and offered to bear the cost of its
+completion. It was probably finished by the end of the century; for
+Pliny the Elder states that its cypress-wood doors had been in existence
+for 400 years up to his time. It stood intact, except for very partial
+restorations, till A.D. 262 when it was sacked and burned by the Goths:
+but it appears to have been to some extent restored afterwards, and its
+cult no doubt survived till the Edict of Theodosius closed the pagan
+temples. Its material was then quarried extensively for the construction
+of the great cathedral of St John Theologos on the neighbouring hill
+(Ayassoluk), and a large Byzantine building (a church?) came into
+existence on the central part of its denuded site, but did not last
+long. Before the Ottoman conquest its remains were already buried under
+several feet of silt.
+
+The organization of the temple hierarchy, and its customs and
+privileges, retained throughout an Asiatic character. The priestesses of
+the goddess were [Greek: parthenoi] (i.e. unwedded), and her priests
+were compelled to celibacy. The chief among the latter, who bore the
+Persian name of Megabyzus and the Greek title Neocorus, was doubtless a
+power in the state as well as a dignitary of religion. His official
+dress and spadonic appearance are probably revealed to us by a small
+ivory statuette found by D.G. Hogarth in 1905. Besides these there was a
+vast throng of dependents who lived by the temple and its
+services--_theologi_, who may have expounded sacred legends, _hymnodi_,
+who composed hymns in honour of the deity, and others, together with a
+great crowd of _hieroi_ who performed more menial offices. The making of
+shrines and images of the goddess occupied many hands. To support this
+greedy mob, offerings flowed in in a constant stream from votaries and
+from visitors, who contributed sometimes money, sometimes statues and
+works of art. These latter so accumulated that the temple became a rich
+museum, among the chief treasures of which were the figures of Amazons
+sculptured in competition by Pheidias, Polyclitus, Cresilas and
+Phradmon, and the painting by Apelles of Alexander holding a
+thunderbolt. The temple was also richly endowed with lands, and
+possessed the fishery of the Selinusian lakes, with other large
+revenues. But perhaps the most important of all the privileges possessed
+by the goddess and her priests was that of _asylum_. Fugitives from
+justice or vengeance who reached her precincts were perfectly safe from
+all pursuit and arrest. The boundaries of the space possessing such
+virtue were from time to time enlarged. Mithradates extended them to a
+bowshot from the temple in all directions, and Mark Antony imprudently
+allowed them to take in part of the city, which part thus became free of
+all law, and a haunt of thieves and villains. Augustus, while leaving
+the right of asylum untouched, diminished the space to which the
+privilege belonged, and built round it a wall, which still surrounds the
+ruins of the temple at the distance of about a quarter of a mile,
+bearing an inscription in Greek and Latin, which states that it was
+erected in the proconsulship of Asinius Gallus, out of the revenues of
+the temple. The right of asylum, however, had once more to be defended
+by a deputation sent to the emperor Tiberius. Besides being a place of
+worship, a museum and a sanctuary, the Ephesian temple was a great bank.
+Nowhere in Asia could money be more safely bestowed, and both kings and
+private persons placed their treasures under the guardianship of the
+goddess.
+
+_The City._--After Wood's superficial explorations, the city remained
+desolate till 1894, when the Austrian Archaeological Institute obtained
+a concession for excavation and began systematic work. This has
+continued regularly ever since, but has been carried down no farther
+than the imperial stratum. The main areas of operation have been: (1)
+The _Great Theatre_. The stage buildings, orchestra and lower parts of
+the _cavea_ have been cleared. In the process considerable additions
+were made to Wood's find of sculptures in marble and bronze, and of
+inscriptions, including missing parts of the Vibius Salutaris texts.
+This theatre has a peculiar interest as the scene of the tumult aroused
+by the mission of St Paul; but the existing remains represent a
+reconstruction carried out after his time. (2) The _Hellenistic Agora_,
+a huge square, surrounded by porticoes, lying S.W. of the theatre and
+having fine public halls on the S. It has yielded to the Austrians fine
+sculpture in marble and bronze and many inscriptions. (3) _The Roman
+Agora_, with its large halls, lying N.W. of the theatre. Here were found
+many inscriptions of Roman date and some statuary. (4) A street running
+from the S.E. angle of the Hellenic Agora towards the Magnesian gate.
+This was found to be lined with pedestals of honorific statues and to
+have on the west side a remarkable building, stated in an inscription to
+have been a library. The tomb of the founder, T. Julius Celsus, is hard
+by, and some fine Roman reliefs, which once decorated it, have been sent
+to Vienna. (5) A street running direct to the port from the theatre.
+This is of great breadth, and had a Horologion half-way down and fine
+porticoes and shops. It was known as the Arcadiane after having been
+restored at a higher level than formerly by the emperor Arcadius (A.D.
+395). It leaves on the right the great _Thermae_ of Constantine, of
+which the Austrians have cleared out the south-east part. This huge pile
+used to be taken for the Artemision by early visitors to Ephesus. Part
+of the quays and buildings round the port were exposed, after measures
+had been taken to drain the upper part of the marsh. (6) The Double
+Church of the Virgin "Deipara" in the N.W. of the city, wherein the
+council of 431 was held. Here interesting inscriptions and Byzantine
+architectural remains were found. Besides these excavated monuments, the
+Stadion; the _enceinte_ of fortifications erected by Lysimachus, which
+runs from the tower called the "Prison of St Paul" and right along the
+crests of the Bulbul (Prion) and Panajir hills; the round monument
+miscalled the "Tomb of St Luke"; and the Opistholeprian gymnasium near
+the Magnesian gate, are worthy of attention.
+
+The work done by the Austrians enables a good idea to be obtained of the
+appearance presented by a great Graeco-Roman city of Asia in the last
+days of its prosperity. It may be realized better there than anywhere
+how much architectural splendour was concentrated in the public
+quarters. But the restriction of the clearance to the upper stratum of
+deposit has prevented the acquisition of much further knowledge. Both
+the Hellenistic and, still more, the original Ionian cities remain for
+the most part unexplored. It should, however, be added that very
+valuable topographical exploration has been carried out in the environs
+of Ephesus by members of the Austrian expedition, and that the Ephesian
+district is now mapped more satisfactorily than any other district of
+ancient interest in Asia Minor.
+
+The Turkish village of Ayassoluk (the modern representative of Ephesus),
+more than a mile N.E. of the ancient city, has revived somewhat of
+recent years owing to the development of its fig gardens by the Aidin
+railway, which passes through the upper part of the plain. It is
+noteworthy for a splendid ruined mosque built by the Seljuk, Isa Bey
+II., of Aidin, in 1375, which contains magnificent columns: for a
+castle, near which lie remains of the pendentives from the cupola of the
+great cathedral of St John, now deeply buried in its own ruins: and for
+an aqueduct, Turkish baths and mosque-tombs. There is a fair inn managed
+by the Aidin Railway Company.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Guhl, _Ephesiaca_ (1843); E. Curtius, _Ephesos_
+  (1874); C. Zimmermann, _Ephesos im ersten christlichen Jahrhundert_
+  (1874); J.T. Wood, _Discoveries at Ephesus_ (1877); E.L. Hicks, _Anc.
+  Greek Inscr. in the Brit. Museum_, iii. 2 (1890); B.V. Head, "Coinage
+  of Ephesus" (_Numism. Chron._, 1880); J. Menadier, _Qua condicione
+  Ephesii usi sint_, &c. (1880); Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven
+  Churches_ (1904); O. Benndorf, R. Heberdey, &c., _Forschungen in
+  Ephesos_, vol. i. (1906) (Austrian Arch. Institute); D.G. Hogarth,
+  _Excavations at Ephesus: the Archaic Artemisia_ (2 vols., 1908), with
+  chapters by C.H. Smith, A. Hamilton Smith, B.V. Head, and A.E.
+  Henderson.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF. This Church council was convened in 431 for the
+purpose of taking authoritative action concerning the doctrine of the
+person of Christ. The councils of Nicaea and Constantinople had asserted
+the full divinity and real humanity of Christ, without, however,
+defining the manner of their union. The attempt to solve the apparent
+incongruity of a perfect union of two complete and distinct natures in
+one person produced first Apollinarianism, which substituted the divine
+Logos for the human [Greek: nous] or [Greek: pneuma] of Jesus, thereby
+detracting from the completeness of his humanity; and then Nestorianism,
+which destroyed the unity of Christ's person by affirming that the
+divine Logos dwelt in the man Jesus as in a temple, and that the union
+of the two was in respect of dignity, and furthermore that, inasmuch as
+the Logos could not have been born, to call Mary [Greek: theotokos],
+"Godbearer," was absurd and blasphemous. The Alexandrians, led by Cyril,
+stood for the doctrine of the perfect union of two complete natures in
+one person, and made [Greek: theotokos] the shibboleth of orthodoxy. The
+theological controversy was intensified by the rivalry of the two
+patriarchates, Alexandria and Constantinople, for the primacy of the
+East. As bishop of Constantinople Nestorius naturally looked to the
+emperor for support, while Cyril turned to Rome. A Roman synod in 430
+found Nestorius heretical and decreed his excommunication unless he
+should recant. Shortly afterwards an Alexandrian synod condemned his
+doctrines in twelve anathemas, which only provoked counter-anathemas.
+The emperor now intervened and summoned a council, which met at Ephesus
+on the 22nd of June 431. Nestorius was present with an armed escort, but
+refused to attend the council on the ground that the patriarch of
+Antioch (his friend) had not arrived. The council, nevertheless,
+proceeded to declare him excommunicate and deposed. When the Roman
+legates appeared they "examined and approved" the acts of the council,
+whether as if thereby giving them validity, or as if concurring with the
+council, is a question not easy to answer from the records. Cyril, the
+president, apparently regarded the subscription of the legates as the
+acknowledgment of "canonical agreement" with the synod.
+
+The disturbances that followed the arrival of John, the patriarch of
+Antioch, are sufficiently described in the article NESTORIUS.
+
+The emperor finally interposed to terminate that scandalous strife,
+banished Nestorius and dissolved the council. Ultimately he gave
+decision in favour of the orthodox. The council was generally received
+as ecumenical, even by the Antiochenes, and the differences between
+Cyril and John were adjusted (433) by a "Union Creed," which, however,
+did not prevent a recrudescence of theological controversy.
+
+  See Mansi iv. pp. 567-1482, v. pp. 1-1023; Hardouin i. pp. 1271-1722;
+  Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 141-247 (Eng. trans. iii. pp. 1-114);
+  Peltanus, _SS. Magni et Ecumen. Conc. Ephesini primi Acta omnia_ ...
+  (Ingolstadt, 1576); Wilhelm Kraetz, _Koptische Akten zum Ephes.
+  Konzil_ ... (Leipzig, 1904); also the articles NESTORIUS; CYRIL;
+  THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA.
+
+The so-called "Robber Synod" of Ephesus (_Latrocinium Ephesinum_) of
+449, although wholly irregular and promptly repudiated by the church,
+may, nevertheless, not improperly be treated here. The archimandrite
+Eutyches (q.v.) having been deposed by his bishop, Flavianus of
+Constantinople, on account of his heterodox doctrine of the person of
+Christ, had appealed to Dioscurus, the successor of Cyril in the see of
+Alexandria, who restored him and moved the emperor Theodosius II. to
+summon a council, which should "utterly destroy Nestorianism." Rome
+recognizing that she had more to fear from Alexandria, departed from her
+traditional policy and sided with Constantinople. The council of 130
+bishops, which convened on the 8th of August 449, was completely
+dominated by Dioscurus. Eutyches was acquitted of heresy and reinstated,
+Flavianus and other bishops deposed, the Roman legates insulted, and all
+opposition was overborne by intimidation or actual violence. The death
+of Flavianus, which soon followed, was attributed to injuries received
+in this synod; but the proof of the charge leaves something to be
+desired.
+
+The emperor confirmed the synod, but the Eastern Church was divided
+upon the question of accepting it, and Leo I. of Rome excommunicated
+Dioscurus, refused to recognize the successor of Flavianus and demanded
+a new and greater council. The death of Theodosius II. removed the main
+support of Dioscurus, and cleared the way for the council of Chalcedon
+(q.v.), which deposed the Alexandrian and condemned Eutychianism.
+
+  See Mansi vi. pp. 503 sqq., 606 sqq.; Hardouin ii. 71 sqq.; Hefele
+  (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 349 sqq. (Eng. trans. iii. pp. 221 sqq.); S.G.F.
+  Perry, _The Second Synod of Ephesus_ (Dartford, 1881); l'Abbe Martin,
+  _Actes du brigandage d'Ephese_ (Amiens, 1874) and _Le Pseudo-synode
+  connu dans l'histoire sous le nom de brigandage d'Ephese_ (Paris,
+  1875).     (T. F. C.)
+
+
+
+
+EPHOD, a Hebrew word (_ephod_) of uncertain meaning, retained by the
+translators of the Old Testament. In the post-exilic priestly writings
+(5th century B.C. and later) the ephod forms part of the gorgeous
+ceremonial dress of the high-priest (see Ex. xxix. 5 sq. and especially
+Ecclus. xlv. 7-13). It was a very richly decorated object of coloured
+threads interwoven with gold, worn outside the luxurious mantle or robe;
+it was kept in place by a girdle, and by shoulder-pieces (?), to which
+were attached brooches of onyx (fastened to the robe) and golden rings
+from which hung the "breastplate" (or rather pouch) containing the
+sacred lots, Urim and Thummim. The somewhat involved description in Ex.
+xxviii. 6 sqq., xxxix. 2 sqq. (see V. Ryssel's ed. of Dillmann's
+commentary on Ex.-Lev.) leaves it uncertain whether it covered the back,
+encircling the body like a kind of waistcoat, or only the front; at all
+events it was not a garment in the ordinary sense, and its association
+with the sacred lots indicates that the ephod was used for divination
+(cf. Num. xxvii. 21), and had become the distinguishing feature of the
+leading priestly line (cf. 1 Sam. ii. 28).[1] But from other passages it
+seems that the ephod had been a familiar object whose use was by no
+means so restricted. Like the teraphim (q.v.) it was part of the common
+stock of Hebrew cult; it is borne (rather than worn) by persons acting
+in a priestly character (Samuel at Shiloh, priests of Nob, David), it is
+part of the worship of individuals (Gideon at Ophrah), and is found in a
+private shrine with a lay attendant (Micah; Judg. xvii. 5; see, however,
+vv. 10-13).[2] Nevertheless, while the prophetical teaching came to
+regard the ephod as contrary to the true worship of Yahweh, the priestly
+doctrine of the post-exilic age (when worship was withdrawn from the
+community at large to the recognized priesthood of Jerusalem) has
+retained it along with other remains of earlier usage, legalizing it, as
+it were, by confining it exclusively to the Aaronites.
+
+  An intricate historical problem is involved at the outset in the
+  famous ephod, which the priest Abiathar brought in his hand when he
+  fled to David after the massacre of the priests of Nob. It is
+  evidently regarded as the one which had been in Nob (1 Sam. xxi. 9),
+  and the presence of the priests at Nob is no less clearly regarded as
+  the sequel of the fall of Shiloh. The ostensible intention is to
+  narrate the transference of the sacred objects to David (cf. 2 Sam. i.
+  10), and henceforth he regularly inquires of Yahweh in his movements
+  (1 Sam. xxiii. 9-12, xxx. 7 sq.; cf. xxiii. 2, 4; 2 Sam. ii. 1, v.
+  19-23). It is possible that the writer (or writers) desired to trace
+  the earlier history of the ephod through the line of Eli and Abiathar
+  to the time when the Zadokite priests gained the supremacy (see
+  LEVITES); but elsewhere Abiathar is said to have borne the ark (1
+  Kings ii. 26; cf. 2 Sam. vii. 6), and this fluctuation is noteworthy
+  by reason of the present confusion in the text of 1 Sam. xiv. 3, 18
+  (see commentaries).
+
+  On one view, the ark in Kirjath-jearim was in non-Israelite hands (1
+  Sam. vii. 1 sq.); on the other, Saul's position as king necessitates
+  the presumption that his sway extended over Judah and Israel,
+  including those cities which otherwise appear to have been in the
+  hands of aliens (1 Sam. xiv. 47 sq.; cf. xvii. 54, &c.). There are
+  some fundamental divergencies in the representations of the traditions
+  of both David and Saul (qq.v.), and there is indirect and independent
+  evidence which makes 1 Kings ii. 26 not entirely isolated. Here it
+  must suffice to remark that the ark, too, was also an object for
+  ascertaining the divine will (especially Judg. xx. 26-28; cf. 18, 23),
+  and it is far from certain that the later records of the ark (which
+  was too heavy to be borne by one), like those of the ephod, are valid
+  for earlier times.
+
+For the form of the earlier ephod the classic passage is 2 Sam. vi. 14,
+where David girt in (or with) a linen ephod dances before the ark at its
+entry into Jerusalem and incurs the unqualified contempt of his wife
+Michal, the daughter of Saul. Relying upon the known custom of
+performing certain observances in a practically, or even entirely, nude
+condition, it seems plausible to infer that the ephod was a scanty
+wrapping, perhaps a loin-cloth, and this view has found weighty support.
+On the other hand, the idea of contempt at the exposure of the person,
+to whatever extent, may not have been so prominent, especially if the
+custom were not unfamiliar, and it is possible that the sequel refers
+more particularly to grosser practices attending outbursts of religious
+enthusiasm.[3]
+
+The favourite view that the ephod was also an image rests partly upon 1
+Sam. xxi. 9, where Goliath's sword is wrapped in a cloth in the
+sanctuary of Nob _behind the ephod_. But it is equally natural to
+suppose that it hung on a nail in the wall, and apart from the omission
+of the significant words in the original Septuagint, the possibility
+that the text read "ark" cannot be wholly ignored (see above; also G.F.
+Moore, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1307, n. 2). Again, in the story of Micah's
+shrine and the removal of the sacred objects and the Levite priest by
+the Danites, parallel narratives have been used: the graven and molten
+images of Judg. xvii. 2-4 corresponding to the ephod and teraphim of
+ver. 5. Throughout there is confusion in the use of these terms, and the
+finale refers only to the graven image of Dan (xviii. 30 sq., see 1
+Kings xii. 28 sq.). But the combination of ephod and teraphim (as in
+Hos. iii. 4) is noteworthy, since the fact that the latter were images
+(1 Sam. xix. 13; Gen. xxxi. 34) could be urged against the view that the
+former were of a similar character. Finally, according to Judg. viii.
+27, Gideon made an ephod of gold, about 70 lb. in weight, and "put" it
+in Ophrah. It is regarded as a departure from the worship of Yahweh,
+although the writer of ver. 33 (cf. also ver. 23) hardly shared this
+feeling; it was probably something once harmlessly associated with the
+cult of Yahweh (cf. CALF, GOLDEN), and the term "ephod" may be due to a
+later hand under the influence of the prophetical teaching referred to
+above. The present passage is the only one which appears to prove that
+the ephod was an image, and several writers, including Lotz (_Realencyk.
+f. prot. Theol._ vol. v., s.v.), T.C. Foote (pp. 13-18) and A.
+Maecklenburg (_Zeit. f. wissens. Theol._, 1906, pp. 433 sqq.) find this
+interpretation unnecessary.
+
+Archaeological evidence for objects of divination (see, e.g., the
+interesting details in Ohnefalsch-Richter, _Kypros, the Bible and
+Homer_, i. 447 sq.), and parallels from the Oriental area, can be
+readily cited in support of any of the explanations of the ephod which
+have been offered, but naturally cannot prove the form which it actually
+took in Palestine. Since images were clothed, it could be supposed that
+the diviner put on the god's apparel (cf. _Ency. Bib._ col. 1141); but
+they were also plated, and in either case the transference from a
+covering to the object covered is intelligible. If the ephod was a
+loin-cloth, its use as a receptacle and the known evolution of the
+article find useful analogies (Foote, p. 43 sq., and _Ency. Bib._ col.
+1734 [1]). Finally, if there is no decisive evidence for the view that
+it was an image (Judg. viii. 27), or that as a wrapping it formed the
+sole covering of the officiating agent (2 Sam. vi.), all that can safely
+be said is that it was certainly used in divination and presumably did
+not differ radically from the ephod of the post-exilic age.
+
+  See further, in addition to the monographs already cited, the articles
+  in Hastings's _Dict. Bible_ (by S.R. Driver), _Ency. Bib._ (by G.F.
+  Moore), and _Jew. Encyc._ (L. Ginsburg), and E. Sellin, in _Oriental.
+  Studien: Theodor Noldeke_ (ed. Bezold, 1906), pp. 699 sqq.
+       (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cf. the phrase "ephod of prophecy" (_Testament of Levi_, viii.
+    2). The priestly apparatus of the post-exilic age retains several
+    traces of old mythological symbolism and earlier cult, the meaning of
+    which had not altogether been forgotten. With the dress one may
+    perhaps compare the apparel of the gods Marduk and Adad, for which
+    see A. Jeremias, _Das Alte Test. im Lichte des Alten Orients_, 2nd
+    ed., figs. 33, 46, and pp. 162, 449.
+
+  [2] The ordinary interpretation "_linen_ ephod" (1 Sam. ii. 18, xxii.
+    18; 2 Sam. vi. 14) is questioned by T.C. Foote in his useful
+    monograph, _Journ. Bibl. Lit._ xxi., 1902, pp. 3, 47. This writer
+    also aptly compares the infant Samuel with the child who drew the
+    lots at the temple of Fortuna at Praeneste (Cicero, _De divin._ ii.
+    41, 86), and with the modern practice of employing innocent
+    instruments of chance in lotteries (_op. cit._ pp. 22, 27).
+
+  [3] It is not stated that the linen ephod was David's sole covering,
+    and it is difficult to account for the text in the parallel passage 1
+    Chron. xv. 27 (where he is clothed with a robe); "girt," too, is
+    ambiguous, since the verb is even used of a sword. On the question of
+    nudity (cf. 1 Sam. xix. 24) see Robertson Smith, _Rel. Sem._^2 pp.
+    161, 450 sq.; _Ency. Bib._ s.vv. "girdle," "sackcloth"; and M.
+    Jastrow, _Journ. Am. Or. Soc._ xx. 144, xxi. 23. The significant
+    terms "uncover," "play" (2 Sam. vi. 20 sq.), have other meanings
+    intelligible to those acquainted with the excesses practised in
+    Oriental cults.
+
+
+
+
+EPHOR (Gr. [Greek: ephoros]), the title of the highest magistrates of
+the ancient Spartan state. It is uncertain when the office was created
+and what was its original character. That it owed its institution to
+Lycurgus (Herod. i. 65; cf. Xen. _Respub. Lacedaem._ viii. 3) is very
+improbable, and we may either regard it as an immemorial Dorian
+institution (with C.O. Muller, H. Gabriel, H.K. Stein, Ed. Meyer and
+others), or accept the tradition that it was founded during the first
+Messenian War, which necessitated a prolonged absence from Sparta on the
+part of both kings (Plato, _Laws_, iii. 692 a; Aristotle, _Politics_, v.
+9. 1 = p. 1313 a 26; Plut. _Cleomenes_, 10; so G. Dum, G. Gilbert,
+A.H.J. Greenidge). There is no evidence for the theory that originally
+the ephors were market inspectors; they seem rather to have had from the
+outset judicial or police functions. Gradually they extended their
+powers, aided by the jealousy between the royal houses, which made it
+almost impossible for the two kings to co-operate heartily, and from the
+5th to the 3rd century they exercised a growing despotism which Plato
+justly calls a _tyrannis_ (_Laws_, 692). Cleomenes III. restored the
+royal power by murdering four of the ephors and abolishing the office,
+and though it was revived by Antigonus Doson after the battle of
+Sellasia, and existed at least down to Hadrian's reign (_Sparta Museum
+Catalogue_, Introd. p. 10), it never regained its former power.
+
+In historical times the ephors were five in number, the first of them
+giving his name to the year, like the eponymous archon at Athens. Where
+opinions were divided the majority prevailed. The ephors were elected
+annually, originally no doubt by the kings, later by the people; their
+term of office began with the new moon after the autumnal equinox, and
+they had an official residence ([Greek: ephoreion]) in the Agora. Every
+full citizen was eligible and no property qualification was required.
+
+The ephors summoned and presided over meetings of the Gerousia and
+Apella, and formed the executive committee responsible for carrying out
+decrees. In their dealings with the kings they represented the supremacy
+of the people. There was a monthly exchange of oaths, the kings swearing
+to rule according to the laws, the ephors undertaking on this condition
+to maintain the royal authority (Xen. _Resp. Laced._ 15. 7). They alone
+might remain seated in a king's presence, and had power to try and even
+to imprison a king, who must appear before them at the third summons.
+Two of them accompanied the army in the field, not interfering with the
+king's conduct of the campaign, but prepared, if need be, to bring him
+to trial on his return. The ephors, again, exercised a general
+guardianship of law and custom and superintended the training of the
+young. They shared the criminal jurisdiction of the Gerousia and decided
+civil suits. The administration of taxation, the distribution of booty,
+and the regulation of the calendar also devolved upon them. They could
+actually put _perioeci_ to death without trial, if we may believe
+Isocrates (xii. 181), and were responsible for protecting the state
+against the helots, against whom they formally declared war on entering
+office, so as to be able to kill any whom they regarded as dangerous
+without violating religious scruples. Finally, the ephors were supreme
+in questions of foreign policy. They enforced, when necessary, the alien
+acts ([Greek: xenelasia]), negotiated with foreign ambassadors,
+instructed generals, sent out expeditions and were the guiding spirits
+of the Spartan confederacy.
+
+  See the constitutional histories of G. Gilbert (Eng. trans.), pp. 16,
+  52-59; G. Busolt, p. 84 ff., V. Thumser, p. 241 ff., G.F. Schomann
+  (Eng. trans.), p. 236 ff., A.H.J. Greenidge, p. 102 ff.; Szanto's
+  article "Ephoroi" in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, v. 2860 ff.;
+  Ed. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_, i. 244 ff.; C.O.
+  Muller, _Dorians_, bk. iii. ch. vii.; G. Grote, _History of Greece_,
+  pt. ii. ch. vi.; G. Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, i.^2 555 ff.; B.
+  Niese, _Historische Zeitschrift_, lxii. 58 ff. Of the many monographs
+  dealing with this subject the following are specially useful: G. Dum,
+  _Entstehung und Entwicklung des spartan_. _Ephorats_ (Innsbruck,
+  1878); H.K. Stein, _Das spartan_. _Ephorat bis auf Cheilon_
+  (Paderborn, 1870); K. Kuchtner, _Entstehung und ursprungliche
+  Bedeutung des spartan_. _Ephorats_ (Munich, 1897); C. Frick, _De
+  ephoris Spartanis_ (Gottingen, 1872); A. Schaefer, _De ephoris
+  Lacedaemoniis_ (Greifswald, 1863); E. von Stern, _Zur Entstehung und
+  ursprunglichen Bedeutung des Ephorats in Sparta_ (Berlin, 1894).
+       (M. N. T.)
+
+
+
+
+EPHORUS (c. 400-330 B.C.), of Cyme in Aeolis, in Asia Minor, Greek
+historian. Together with the historian Theopompus he was a pupil of
+Isocrates, in whose school he attended two courses of rhetoric. But he
+does not seem to have made much progress in the art, and it is said to
+have been at the suggestion of Isocrates himself that he took up
+literary composition and the study of history. The fruit of his labours
+was his [Greek: Historiai] in 29 books, the first universal history,
+beginning with the return of the Heraclidae to Peloponnesus, as the
+first well-attested historical event. The whole work was edited by his
+son Demophilus, who added a 30th book, containing a summary description
+of the Social War and ending with the taking of Perinthus (340) by
+Philip of Macedon (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi. 14 with xvi. 76). Each book was
+complete in itself, and had a separate title and preface. It is clear
+that Ephorus made critical use of the best authorities, and his work,
+highly praised and much read, was freely drawn upon by Diodorus
+Siculus[1] and other compilers. Strabo (viii. p. 332) attaches much
+importance to his geographical investigations, and praises him for being
+the first to separate the historical from the merely geographical
+element. Polybius (xii. 25 g) while crediting him with a knowledge of
+the conditions of naval warfare, ridicules his description of the
+battles of Leuctra and Mantineia as showing ignorance of the nature of
+land operations. He was further to be commended for drawing (though not
+always) a sharp line of demarcation between the mythical and historical
+(Strabo ix. p. 423); he even recognized that a profusion of detail,
+though lending corroborative force to accounts of recent events, is
+ground for suspicion in reports of far-distant history. His style was
+high-flown and artificial, as was natural considering his early
+training, and he frequently sacrificed truth to rhetoric effect; but,
+according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, he and Theopompus were the only
+historical writers whose language was accurate and finished. Other works
+attributed to him were:--_A Treatise on Discoveries; Respecting Good and
+Evil Things; On Remarkable Things in Various Countries_ (it is doubtful
+whether these were separate works, or merely extracts from the
+_Histories_); _A Treatise on my Country_, on the history and antiquities
+of Cyme, and an essay _On Style_, his only rhetorical work, which is
+occasionally mentioned by the rhetorician Theon. Nothing is known of his
+life, except the statement in Plutarch that he declined to visit the
+court of Alexander the Great.
+
+  Fragments in C.W. Muller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, i., with
+  critical introduction on the life and writings of Ephorus; see J.A.
+  Klugmann, _De Ephoro historico_ (1860); C.A. Volquardsen,
+  _Untersuchungen uber die Quellen der griechischen und sicilischen
+  Geschichten bei Diodor_. _xi.-xvi._ (1868); and specially J.B. Bury,
+  _Ancient Greek Historians_ (1909); E. Schwartz, in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyc._ s.v.; and article GREECE: _History_: Ancient Authorities.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It is now generally recognized, thanks to Volquardsen and others,
+    that Ephorus is the principal authority followed by Diodorus, except
+    in the chapters relating to Sicilian history.
+
+
+
+
+EPHRAEM SYRUS (Ephraim the Syrian), a saint who lived in Mesopotamia
+during the first three quarters of the 4th century A.D. He is perhaps
+the most influential of all Syriac authors; and his fame as a poet,
+commentator, preacher and defender of orthodoxy has spread throughout
+all branches of the Christian Church. This reputation he owes partly to
+the vast fertility of his pen--according to the historian Sozomen he was
+credited with having written altogether 3,000,000 lines--partly to the
+elegance of his style and a certain measure of poetic inspiration, more
+perhaps to the strength and consistency of his personal character, and
+his ardour in defence of the creed formulated at Nicaea.
+
+An anonymous life of Ephraim was written not long after his death in
+373. The biography has come down to us in two recensions. But in neither
+form is it free from later interpolation; and its untrustworthiness is
+shown by its conflicting with data supplied by his own works, as well as
+by the manner in which it is overloaded with miraculous events. The
+following is a probable outline of the main facts of Ephraim's life. He
+was born in the reign of Constantine (perhaps in 306) at or near
+Nisibis. His father was a pagan, the priest of an idol called Abnil or
+Abizal.[1] During his boyhood Ephraim showed a repugnance towards
+heathen worship, and was eventually driven by his father from the home.
+He became a ward and disciple of the famous Jacob--the same who attended
+the Council of Nicaea as bishop of Nisibis, and died in 338. At his
+hands Ephraim seems to have received baptism at the age of 18 or of 28
+(the two recensions differ on this point), and remained at Nisibis till
+its surrender to the Persians by Jovian in 363. Probably in the course
+of these years he was ordained a deacon, but from his humble estimate of
+his own worth refused advancement to any higher degree in the church. He
+seems to have played an important part in guiding the fortunes of the
+city during the war begun by Shapur II. in 337, in the course of which
+Nisibis was thrice unsuccessfully besieged by the Persians (in 338, 346
+and 350). The statements of his biographer to this effect accord with
+the impression we derive from his own poems (_Carmina Nisibena_, 1-21).
+His intimate relations with Bishop Jacob were continued with the three
+succeeding bishops--Babu (338-?349), Vologaeses (?349-361), and
+Abraham--on all of whom he wrote encomia. The surrender of the city in
+363 to the Persians resulted in a general exodus of the Christians, and
+Ephraim left with the rest. After visiting Amid (Diarbekr) he proceeded
+to Edessa, and there settled and spent the last ten years of his life.
+He seems to have lived mainly as a hermit outside the city: his time was
+devoted to study, writing, teaching and the refutation of heresies. It
+is possible that during these years he paid a visit to Basil at
+Caesarea. Near the end of his life he rendered great public service by
+distributing provisions in the city during a famine. The best attested
+date for his death is the 9th of June 373. It is clear that this
+chronology leaves no room for the visit to Egypt, and the eight years
+spent there in refuting Arianism, which are alleged by his biographer.
+Perhaps, as has been surmised, there may be confusion with another
+Ephraim. Nor can he have written the funeral panegyric on Basil who
+survived him by three months. But with all necessary deductions the
+biography is valuable as witnessing to the immense reputation for
+sanctity and for theological acumen which Ephraim had gained in his
+lifetime, or at least soon after he died. His biographer's statement as
+to his habits and appearance is worth quoting, and is probably
+true:--"From the time he became a monk to the end of his life his only
+food was barley bread and sometimes pulse and vegetables: his drink was
+water. And his flesh was dried upon his bones, like a potter's sherd.
+His clothes were of many pieces patched together, the colour of dirt. In
+stature he was little; his countenance was always sad, and he never
+condescended to laughter. And he was bald and beardless."
+
+The statement in his Life that Ephraim miraculously learned Coptic falls
+to the ground with the narrative of his Egyptian visit: and the story of
+his suddenly learning to speak Greek through the prayer of St Basil is
+equally unworthy of credence. He probably wrote only in Syriac, though
+he may have possessed some knowledge of Greek and possibly of Hebrew.
+But many of his works must have been early translated into other
+languages; and we possess in MSS. versions into Greek, Armenian, Coptic,
+Arabic and Ethiopic. The Greek versions occupy three entire volumes of
+the Roman folio edition, and the extant Armenian versions (mainly of
+N.T. commentaries) were published at Venice in four volumes in 1836.
+
+It was primarily as a sacred poet that Ephraim impressed himself on his
+fellow-countrymen. With the exception of his commentaries on scripture,
+nearly all his extant Syriac works are composed in metre. In many cases
+the metrical structure is of the simplest, consisting only in the
+arrangement of the discourse in lines of uniform length--usually
+heptasyllabic (Ephraim's favourite metre) or pentasyllabic. A more
+complicated arrangement is found in other poems, such as the _Carmina
+Nisibena_: these are made up of strophes, each consisting of lines of
+different lengths according to a settled scheme, with a recurring
+refrain. T.J. Lamy has estimated that, in this class of poems, there are
+as many as 66 different varieties of metres to be found in the works of
+Ephraim. These strophic poems were set to music, and sung by alternating
+choirs of girls. According to Ephraim's biographer, his main motive for
+providing these hymns set to music was his desire to counteract the
+baneful effects produced by the heretical hymns of Bardaisan and his son
+Harmonius, which had enjoyed popularity and been sung among the
+Edessenes for a century and a half.
+
+The subject-matter of Ephraim's poems covers all departments of
+theology. Thus the Roman edition contains (of metrical works) exegetical
+discourses, hymns on the Nativity of Christ, 65 hymns against heretics,
+85 on the Faith against sceptics, a discourse against the Jews, 85
+funeral hymns, 4 on freewill, 76 exhortations to repentance, 12 hymns on
+paradise, and 12 on miscellaneous subjects. The edition of Lamy has
+added many other poems, largely connected with church festivals. It must
+be confessed that, judged by Western standards, the poems of Ephraim are
+prolix and wearisome in the extreme, and are distinguished by few
+striking poetic beauties. And so far as they are made the vehicle of
+reasoning, their efficiency is seriously hampered by their poetic form.
+On the other hand, it is fair to remember that the taste of Ephraim's
+countrymen in poetry was very different from ours. As Duval remarks:
+"quant a la prolixite de saint Ephrem que nous trouvons parfois
+fastidieuse, on ne peut la condamner sans tenir compte du gout des
+Syriens qui aimaient les repetitions et les developpements de la meme
+pensee, et voyaient des qualites la ou nous trouvons des defauts"
+(_Litter. syriaque_, p. 19). He is no worse in these respects than the
+best of the Syriac writers who succeeded him. And he surpasses almost
+all of them in the richness of his diction, and his skill in the use of
+metaphors and illustrations.
+
+Of Ephraim as a commentator on Scripture we have only imperfect means of
+judging. His commentaries on the O.T. are at present accessible to us
+only in the form they had assumed in the _Catena Patrum_ of Severus
+(compiled in 861), and to some extent in quotations by later Syriac
+commentators. His commentary on the Gospels is of great importance in
+connexion with the textual history of the N.T., for the text on which he
+composed it was that of the Diatessaron. The Syriac original is lost:
+but the ancient Armenian version survives, and was published at Venice
+in 1836 along with Ephraim's commentary on the Pauline epistles (also
+only extant in Armenian) and some other works. A Latin version of the
+Armenian Diatessaron commentary has been made by Aucher and Mosinger
+(Venice, 1876). Using this version as a clue, J.R. Harris[2] has been
+able to identify a number of Syriac quotations from or references to
+this commentary in the works of Isho'dadh, Bar-Kepha (Severus),
+Bar-salibi and Barhebraeus. Although, as Harris points out, it is
+unlikely that the original text of the Diatessaron had come down
+unchanged through the two centuries to Ephraim's day, the text on which
+he comments was in the main unaffected by the revision which produced
+the Peshitta. Side by side with this conclusion may be placed the result
+of F.C. Burkitt's[3] careful examination of the quotations from the
+Gospels in the other works of Ephraim; he shows conclusively that in all
+the undoubtedly genuine works the quotations are from a pre-Peshitta
+text.
+
+As a theologian, Ephraim shows himself a stout defender of Nicaean
+orthodoxy, with no leanings in the direction of either the Nestorian or
+the Monophysite heresies which arose after his time. He regarded it as
+his special task to combat the views of Marcion, of Bardaisan and of
+Mani.
+
+To the modern historian Ephraim's main contribution is in the material
+supplied by the 72 hymns[4] known as _Carmina Nisibena_ and published by
+G. Bickell in 1866. The first 20 poems were written at Nisibis between
+350 and 363 during the Persian invasions; the remaining 52 at Edessa
+between 363 and 373. The former tell us much of the incidents of the
+frontier war, and particularly enable us to reconstruct in detail the
+history of the third siege of Nisibis in 350.
+
+  Of the many editions of Ephraim's works a full list is given by Nestle
+  in _Realenk. f. protest. Theol. und Kirche_ (3rd ed.). For modern
+  students the most important are: (1) the great folio edition in 6
+  volumes (3 of works in Greek and 3 in Syriac), in which the text is
+  throughout accompanied by a Latin version (Rome, 1732-1746); on the
+  unsatisfactory character of this edition (which includes many works
+  that are not Ephraim's) and especially of the Latin version, see
+  Burkitt, _Ephraim's Quotations_, pp. 4 sqq.; (2) _Carmina Nisibena_,
+  edited with a Latin translation by G. Bickell (Leipzig, 1866); (3)
+  _Hymni et sermones_, edited with a Latin translation by T.J. Lamy (4
+  vols., Malines, 1882-1902). Many selected homilies have been edited or
+  translated by Overbeck, Zingerle and others (cf. Wright, _Short
+  History_, pp. 35 sqq.); a selection of the _Hymns_ was translated by
+  H. Burgess, _Select Metrical Hymns of Ephrem Syrus_ (1853). Of the two
+  recensions of Ephraim's biography, one was edited in part by J.S.
+  Assemani (B.O. i. 26 sqq.) and in full by S.E. Assemani in the Roman
+  edition (iii. pp. xxiii.-lxiii.); the other by Lamy (ii. 5-90) and
+  Bedjan (_Acta mart. et sanct._ iii. 621-665). The long poem on the
+  history of Joseph, twice edited by Bedjan (Paris, 1887 and 1891) and
+  by him attributed to Ephraim, is more probably the work of Balai.
+       (N. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It is true that in the _Confession_ attributed to him and printed
+    among his Greek works in the first volume of the Roman edition he
+    speaks (p. 129) of his parents as having become martyrs for the
+    Christian faith. But this document is of very doubtful authenticity.
+
+  [2] _Fragments of the Commentary of Ephrem Syrus upon the
+    Diatessaron_ (London, 1895).
+
+  [3] "Ephraim's Quotations from the Gospel," in _Texts and Studies_,
+    vol. vii. (Cambridge, 1901).
+
+  [4] There were originally 77, but 5 have perished.
+
+
+
+
+EPHRAIM, a tribe of Israel, called after the younger son of Joseph, who
+in his benediction exalted Ephraim over the elder brother Manasseh (Gen.
+xlviii.). These two divisions were often known as the "house of Joseph"
+(Josh. xvii. 14 sqq.; Judg. i. 22; 2 Sam. xix. 20; 1 Kings xi. 28). The
+relations between them are obscure; conflicts are referred to in Is. ix.
+21,[1] and Ephraim's proud and ambitious character is indicated in its
+demands as narrated in Josh. xvii. 14; Judg. viii. 1-3, xii. 1-6.
+throughout, Ephraim played a distinctive and prominent part; it probably
+excelled Manasseh in numerical strength, and the name became a synonym
+for the northern kingdom of Israel. Originally the name may have been a
+geographical term for the central portion of Palestine. Regarded as a
+tribe, it lay to the north of Benjamin, which traditionally belongs to
+it; but whether the young "brother" (see BENJAMIN) sprang from it, or
+grew up separately, is uncertain. Northwards, Ephraim lost itself in
+Manasseh, even if it did not actually include it (Judg. i. 27; 1 Chron.
+vii. 29); the boundaries between them can hardly be recovered. Ephraim's
+strength lay in the possession of famous sites: Shechem, with the tomb
+of the tribal ancestor, also one of the capitals; Shiloh, at one period
+the home of the ark; Timnath-Serah (or Heres), the burial-place of
+Joshua; and Samaria, whose name was afterwards extended to the whole
+district (see SAMARIA).
+
+Shechem itself was visited by Abraham and Jacob, and the latter bought
+from the sons of Hamor a burial-place (Gen. xxxiii. 19). The story of
+Dinah may imply some early settlement of tribes in its vicinity (but see
+SIMEON), and the reference in Gen. xlviii. 22 (see R.V. marg.) alludes
+to its having been forcibly captured. But how this part of Palestine
+came into the hands of the Israelites is not definitely related in the
+story of the invasion (see JOSHUA).
+
+A careful discussion of the Biblical data referring to Ephraim is given
+by H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bib._, s.v. On the characteristic narratives which
+appear to have originated in Ephraim (viz. the Ephraimite or Elohist
+source, E), see GENESIS and BIBLE: _Old Testament Criticism._ See
+further ABIMELECH; GIDEON; MANASSEH; and JEWS: _History_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Inter-tribal feuds during the period of the monarchy may underlie
+    the events mentioned in 1 Kings xvi. 9 sq., 21 sq.; 2 Kings xv. 10,
+    14.
+
+
+
+
+EPHTHALITES, or WHITE HUNS. This many-named and enigmatical tribe was
+of considerable importance in the history of India and Persia in the 5th
+and 6th centuries, and was known to the Byzantine writers, who call them
+[Greek: Ephthalitoi, Euthagitoi,] [Greek: Nephthalitoi] or [Greek:
+Abdeloi]. The last of these is an independent attempt to render the
+original name, which was probably something like Aptal or Haptal, but
+the initial [Nu] of the third is believed to be a clerical error. They
+were also called [Greek: Leukoi Ounnoi] or [Greek: Chounoi], White (that
+is fair-skinned) Huns. In Arabic and Persian they are known as Haital
+and in Armenian as Haithal, Idal or Hepthal. The Chinese name Yetha
+seems an attempt to represent the same sound. In India they were called
+Hunas. Ephthalite is the usual orthography, but Hephthalite is perhaps
+more correct.
+
+Our earliest information about the Ephthalites comes from the Chinese
+chronicles, in which it is stated that they were originally a tribe of
+the great Yue-Chi (q.v.), living to the north of the Great Wall, and in
+subjection to the Jwen-Jwen, as were also the Turks at one time. Their
+original name was Hoa or Hoa-tun; subsequently they styled themselves
+Ye-tha-i-li-to after the name of their royal family, or more briefly
+Ye-tha. Before the 5th century A.D. they began to move westwards, for
+about 420 we find them in Transoxiana, and for the next 130 years they
+were a menace to Persia, which they continually and successfully
+invaded, though they never held it as a conquest. The Sassanid king,
+Bahram V., fought several campaigns with them and succeeded in keeping
+them at bay, but they defeated and killed Peroz (Firuz), A.D. 484. His
+son Kavadh I. (Kobad), being driven out of Persia, took refuge with the
+Ephthalites, and recovered his throne with the assistance of their khan,
+whose daughter he had married, but subsequently he engaged in prolonged
+hostilities with them. The Persians were not quit of the Ephthalites
+until 557 when Chosroes Anushirwan destroyed their power with the
+assistance of the Turks, who now make their first appearance in western
+Asia.
+
+The Huns who invaded India appear to have belonged to the same stock as
+those who molested Persia. The headquarters of the horde were at Bamian
+and at Balkh, and from these points they raided south-east and
+south-west. Skandagupta repelled an invasion in 455, but the defeat of
+the Persians in 484 probably stimulated their activity, and at the end
+of the 5th century their chief Toromana penetrated to Malwa in central
+India and succeeded in holding it for some time. His son Mihiragula (c.
+510-540) made Sakala in the Punjab his Indian capital, but the cruelty
+of his rule provoked the Indian princes to form a confederation and
+revolt against him about 528. He was not, however, killed, but took
+refuge in Kashmir, where after a few years he seized the throne and then
+attacked the neighbouring kingdom of Gandhara, perpetrating terrible
+massacres. About a year after this he died (c. 540), and shortly
+afterwards the Ephthalites collapsed under the attacks of the Turks.
+They do not appear to have moved on to another sphere, as these nomadic
+tribes often did when defeated, and were probably gradually absorbed in
+the surrounding populations. Their political power perhaps continued in
+the Gurjara empire, which at one time extended to Bengal in the east and
+the Nerbudda in the south, and continued in a diminished form until A.D.
+1040. These Gurjaras appear to have entered India in connexion with the
+Hunnish invasions.
+
+Our knowledge of the Indian Hunas is chiefly derived from coins, from a
+few inscriptions distributed from the Punjab to central India, and from
+the account of the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang, who visited the country
+just a century after the death of Mihiragula. The Greek monk Cosmas
+Indicopleustes, who visited India about 530, describes the ruler of the
+country, whom he calls Gollas, as a White Hun king, who exacted an
+oppressive tribute with the help of a large army of cavalry and war
+elephants. Gollas no doubt represents the last part of the name
+Mihiragula or Mihirakula.
+
+The accounts of the Ephthalites, especially those of the Indian Hunas,
+dwell on their ferocity and cruelty. They are represented as delighting
+in massacres and torture, and it is said that popular tradition in India
+still retains the story that Mihiragula used to amuse himself by rolling
+elephants down a precipice and watching their agonies. Their invasions
+shook Indian society and institutions to the foundations, but, unlike
+the earlier Kushans, they do not seem to have introduced new ideas into
+India or have acted as other than a destructive force, although they may
+perhaps have kept up some communication between India and Persia. The
+first part of Mihiragula seems to be the name of the Persian deity
+Mithra, but his patron deity was Siva, and he left behind him the
+reputation of a ferocious persecutor of Buddhism. Many of his coins bear
+the Nandi bull (Siva's emblem), and the king's name is preceded by the
+title _sahi_ (shah), which had previously been used by the Kushan
+dynasty. Toramana's coins are found plentifully in Kashmir, which,
+therefore, probably formed part of the Huna dominions before
+Mihiragula's time, so that when he fled there after his defeat he was
+taking refuge, if not with his own subjects, at least with a kindred
+clan.
+
+Greek writers give a more flattering account of the Ephthalites, which
+may perhaps be due to the fact that they were useful to the East Roman
+empire as enemies of Persia and also not dangerously near. Procopius
+says that they were far more civilized than the Huns of Attila, and the
+Turkish ambassador who was received by Justin is said to have described
+them as [Greek: astikoi], which may merely mean that they lived in the
+cities which they conquered. The Chinese writers say that their customs
+were like those of the Turks; that they had no cities, lived in felt
+tents, were ignorant of writing and practised polyandry. Nothing
+whatever is known of their language, but some scholars explain the names
+Toramana and Jauvla as Turkish.
+
+For the possible connexion between the Ephthalites and the European Huns
+see HUNS. The Chinese statement that the Hoa or Ye-tha were a section of
+the great Yue-Chi, and that their customs resembled those of the Turks
+(Tu-Kiue), is probably correct, but does not amount to much, for the
+relationship did not prevent them from fighting with the Yue-Chi and
+Turks, and means little more than that they belonged to the warlike and
+energetic section of central Asian nomads, which is in any case certain.
+They appear to have been more ferocious and less assimilative than the
+other conquering tribes. This may, however, be due to the fact that
+their contact with civilization was so short; the Yue-Chi and Turks had
+had some commerce with more advanced races before they played any part
+in political history, but the Ephthalites appear as raw barbarians, and
+were annihilated as a nation in little more than a hundred years. Like
+the Yue-Chi they have probably contributed to form some of the physical
+types of the Indian population, and it is noticeable that polyandry is a
+recognized institution among many Himalayan tribes, and is also said to
+be practised secretly by the Jats and other races of the plains.
+
+  Among original authorities may be consulted Procopius, Menander
+  Protector, Cosmas Indicopleustes (trans. McCrindle, Hakluyt Society,
+  1897), the Kashmir chronicle _Rajatarangini_ (trans. Stein, 1900, and
+  Yuan Chwang). See also A. Stein, _White Huns and Kindred Tribes_
+  (1905); O. Franke, _Beitrage aus chinesischen Quellen zur Kenntnis der
+  Turkvolker und Skythen_ (1904); Ujfalvy, _Memoire sur les Huns Blancs_
+  (1898); Drouin, _Memoire sur les Huns Ephthalites_ (1895); and various
+  articles by Vincent Smith, Specht, Drouin, and E.H. Parker in the
+  _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, _Journal asiatique_, _Revue
+  numismatique_, _Asiatic Quarterly_, &c.     (C. El.)
+
+
+
+
+EPI, the French architectural term for a light finial, generally of
+metal, but sometimes of terra-cotta, forming the termination of a spire
+or the angle of a roof.
+
+
+
+
+EPICENE (from the Gr. [Greek: epikoinos], common), a term in Greek and
+Latin grammar denoting nouns which, possessing but one gender, are used
+to describe animals of either sex. In English grammar there are no true
+epicene nouns, but the term is sometimes used instead of _common
+gender_. In figurative and literary language, epicene is an adjective
+applied to persons having the characteristics of both sexes, and hence
+is occasionally used as a synonym of "effeminate."
+
+
+
+
+EPICHARMUS (c. 540-450 B.C.), Greek comic poet, was born in the island
+of Cos. Early in life he went to Megara in Sicily, and after its
+destruction by Gelo (484) removed to Syracuse, where he spent the rest
+of his life at the court of Hiero, and died at the age of ninety or
+(according to a statement in Lucian, _Macrobii_, 25) ninety-seven. A
+brazen statue was set up in his honour by the inhabitants, for which
+Theocritus composed an inscription (_Epigr._ 17). Epicharmus was the
+chief representative of the Sicilian or Dorian comedy. Of his works 35
+titles and a few fragments have survived. In the city of tyrants it
+would have been dangerous to present comedies like those of the Athenian
+stage, in which attacks were made upon the authorities. Accordingly, the
+comedies of Epicharmus are of two kinds, neither of them calculated to
+give offence to the ruler. They are either mythological travesties
+(resembling the satyric drama of Athens) or character comedies. To the
+first class belong the _Busiris_, in which Heracles is represented as a
+voracious glutton; the _Marriage of Hebe_, remarkable for a lengthy list
+of dainties. The second class dealt with different classes of the
+population (the sailor, the prophet, the boor, the parasite). Some of
+the plays seem to have bordered on the political, as _The Plunderings_,
+describing the devastation of Sicily in the time of the poet. A short
+fragment has been discovered (in the Rainer papyri) from the [Greek:
+Odysseus automolos], which told how Odysseus got inside Troy in the
+disguise of a beggar and obtained valuable information. Another feature
+of his works was the large number of excellent sentiments expressed in a
+brief proverbial form; the Pythagoreans claimed him as a member of their
+school, who had forsaken the study of philosophy for the writing of
+comedy. Plato (_Theaetetus_, 152 E) puts him at the head of the masters
+of comedy, coupling his name with Homer and, according to a remark in
+Diogenes Laertius, Plato was indebted to Epicharmus for much of his
+philosophy. Ennius called his didactic poem on natural philosophy
+_Epicharmus_ after the comic poet. The metres employed by Epicharmus
+were iambic trimeter, and especially trochaic and anapaestic tetrameter.
+The plot of the plays was simple, the action lively and rapid; hence
+they were classed among the _fabulae motoriae_ (stirring, bustling), as
+indicated in the well-known line of Horace (_Epistles_, ii. 1. 58):
+
+  "Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi."
+
+  Epicharmus is the subject of articles in Suidas and Diogenes Laertius
+  (viii. 3). See A.O. Lorenz, _Leben und Schriften des Koers E._ (with
+  account of the Doric drama and fragments, 1864); J. Girard, _Etudes
+  sur la poesie grecque_ (1884); Kaibel in Pauly-Wissowa's
+  _Realencyclopadie_, according to whom Epicharmus was a Siceliot; for
+  the papyrus fragment, Blass in _Jahrbucher fur Philologie_, cxxxix.,
+  1889.
+
+
+
+
+EPIC POETRY, or EPOS (from the Gr. [Greek: epos], a story, and [Greek:
+epikos], pertaining to a story), the names given to the most dignified
+and elaborate forms of narrative poetry. The word _epopee_ is also, but
+more rarely, employed to designate the same thing, [Greek: epopoios] in
+Greek being a maker of epic poetry, and [Greek: epopoiia] what he makes.
+
+It is to Greece, where the earliest literary monuments which we possess
+are of an epical character, that we turn for a definition of these vast
+heroic compositions, and we gather that their subject-matter was not
+confined, as Voltaire and the critics of the 18th century supposed, to
+"narratives in verse of warlike adventures." When we first discover the
+epos, hexameter verse has already been selected for its vehicle. In this
+form epic poems were composed not merely dealing with war and personal
+romance, but carrying out a didactic purpose, or celebrating the
+mysteries of religion. These three divisions, to which are severally
+attached the more or less mythical names of Homer, Hesiod and Orpheus
+seem to have marked the earliest literary movement of the Greeks. But,
+even here, we must be warned that what we possess is not primitive;
+there had been unwritten epics, probably in hexameters, long before the
+composition of any now-surviving fragment. The saga of the Greek nation,
+the catalogue of its arts and possessions, the rites and beliefs of its
+priesthood, must have been circulated, by word of mouth, long before any
+historical poet was born. We look upon Homer and Hesiod as records of
+primitive thought, but Professor Gilbert Murray reminds us that "our
+_Iliad, Odyssey_, _Erga_ and _Theogony_ are not the first, nor the
+second, nor the twelfth of such embodiments." The early epic poets,
+Lesches, Linus, Orpheus, Arctinus, Eugammon are the veriest shadows,
+whose names often betray their symbolic and fabulous character. It is
+now believed that there was a class of minstrels, the Rhapsodists or
+Homeridae, whose business it was to recite poetry at feasts and other
+solemn occasions. "The real bards of early Greece were all nameless and
+impersonal." When our tradition begins to be preserved, we find
+everything of a saga-character attributed to Homer, a blind man and an
+inhabitant of Chios. This gradually crystallized until we find Aristotle
+definitely treating Homer as a person, and attributing to him the
+composition of three great poems, the _Iliad_, the _Odyssey_ and the
+_Margites_, now lost (see HOMER). The first two of these have been
+preserved and form for us the type of the ancient epic; when we speak of
+epic poetry, we unconsciously measure it by the example of the _Iliad_
+and the _Odyssey_. It is quite certain, however, that these poems had
+not merely been preceded by a vast number of revisions of the mythical
+history of the country, but were accompanied by innumerable poems of a
+similar character, now entirely lost. That antiquity did not regard
+these other epics as equal in beauty to the _Iliad_ seems to be certain;
+but such poems as _Cypria_, _Iliou Persis_ (Sack of Ilion) and
+_Aethiopis_ can hardly but have exhibited other sides of the epic
+tradition. Did we possess them, it is almost certain that we could speak
+with more assurance as to the scope of epic poetry in the days of oral
+tradition, and could understand more clearly what sort of ballads in
+hexameter it was which rhapsodes took round from court to court. In the
+4th century B.C. it seems that people began to write down what was not
+yet forgotten of all this oral poetry. Unfortunately, the earliest
+critic who describes this process is Proclus, a Byzantine neo-Platonist,
+who did not write until some 800 years later, when the whole tradition
+had become hopelessly corrupted. When we pass from Homer and Hesiod,
+about whose actual existence critics will be eternally divided, we reach
+in the 7th century a poet, Peisander of Rhodes, who wrote an epic poem,
+the _Heracleia_, of which fragments remain. Other epic writers, who
+appear to be undoubtedly historic, are Antimachus of Colophon, who wrote
+a _Thebais_; Panyasis, who, like Peisander, celebrated the feats of
+Heracles; Choerilus of Samos; and Anyte, of whom we only know that she
+was an epic poetess, and was called "The female Homer." In the 6th and
+5th centuries B.C. there was a distinct school of philosophical epic,
+and we distinguish the names of Xenophanes, Parmenides and Empedocles as
+the leaders of it.
+
+From the dawn of Latin literature epic poetry seems to have been
+cultivated in Italy. A Greek exile, named Livius Andronicus, translated
+the _Odyssey_ into Latin during the first Punic War, but the earliest
+original epic of Rome was the lost _Bellum Punicum_ of Naevius, a work
+to which Virgil was indebted. A little later, Ennius composed, about 172
+B.C., in 18 books, an historical epic of the _Annales_, dealing with the
+whole chronicle of Rome. This was the foremost Latin poem, until the
+appearance of the _Aeneid_; it was not imitated, remaining, for a
+hundred years, as Mr Mackail has said, "not only the unique, but the
+satisfying achievement in this kind of poetry." Virgil began the most
+famous of Roman epics in the year 30 B.C., and when he died, nine years
+later, he desired that the MS. of the _Aeneid_ should be burned, as it
+required three years' work to complete it. Nevertheless, it seems to us,
+and seemed to the ancient world, almost perfect, and a priceless
+monument of art; it is written, like the great Greek poems on which it
+is patently modelled, in hexameters. In the next generation, the
+_Pharsalia_ of Lucan, of which Cato, as the type of the republican
+spirit, is the hero, was the principal example of Latin epic. Statius,
+under the Flavian emperors, wrote several epic poems, of which the
+_Thebaid_ survives. In the 1st century A.D. Valerius Flaccus wrote the
+_Argonautica_ in 8 books, and Silius Italicus the _Punic War_, in 17
+books; these authors show a great decline in taste and merit, even in
+comparison with Statius, and Silius Italicus, in particular, is as
+purely imitative as the worst of the epic writers of modern Europe. At
+the close of the 4th century the style revived with Claudian, who
+produced five or six elaborate historical and mythological epics of
+which the _Rape of Proserpine_ was probably the most remarkable; in his
+interesting poetry we have a valuable link between the Silver Age in
+Rome and the Italian Renaissance. With Claudian the history of epic
+poetry among the ancients closes.
+
+In medieval times there existed a large body of narrative poetry to
+which the general title of Epic has usually been given. Three principal
+schools are recognized, the French, the Teutonic and the Icelandic.
+Teutonic epic poetry deals, as a rule, with legends founded on the
+history of Germany in the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, and in particular
+with such heroes as Ermanaric, Attila and Theodoric. But there is also
+an important group in it which deals with English themes, and among
+these _Beowulf_, _Waldere_, _The Lay of Maldon_ and _Finnesburh_ are
+pre-eminent. To this group is allied the purely German poem of
+_Hildebrand_, attributed to c. 800. Among these _Beowulf_ is the only
+one which exists in anything like complete form, and it is of all
+examples of Teutonic epic the most important. With all its trivialities
+and incongruities, which belong to a barbarous age, _Beowulf_ is yet a
+solid and comprehensive example of native epic poetry. It is written,
+like all old Teutonic work of the kind, in alliterative unrhymed rhythm.
+In Iceland, a new heroic literature was invented in the middle ages, and
+to this we owe the Sagas, which are, in fact, a reduction to prose of
+the epics of the warlike history of the North. These Sagas took the
+place of a group of archaic Icelandic epics, the series of which seems
+to have closed with the noble poem of _Atlamal_, the principal surviving
+specimen of epic poetry as it was cultivated in the primitive literature
+of Iceland. The surviving epical fragments of Icelandic composition are
+found thrown together in the _Codex Regius_, under the title of _The
+Elder Edda_, a most precious MS. discovered in the 17th century. The
+Icelandic epics seem to have been shorter and more episodical in
+character than the lost Teutonic specimens; both kinds were written in
+alliterative verse. It is not probable that either possessed the organic
+unity and vitality of spirit which make the Sagas so delightful. The
+French medieval epics (see CHANSONS DE GESTE) are late in comparison
+with those of England, Germany and Iceland. They form a curious
+transitional link between primitive and modern poetry; the literature of
+civilized Europe may be said to begin with them. There is a great
+increase of simplicity, a great broadening of the scene of action. The
+Teutonic epics were obscure and intense, the French _chansons de geste_
+are lucid and easy. The existing masterpiece of this kind, the
+magnificent _Roland_, is doubtless the most interesting and pleasing of
+all the epics of medieval Europe. Professor Ker's analysis of its merits
+may be taken as typical of all that is best in the vast body of epic
+which comes between the antique models, which were unknown to the
+medieval poets, and the artificial epics of a later time which were
+founded on vast ideal themes, in imitation of the ancients. "There is
+something lyrical in _Roland_, but the poem is not governed by lyrical
+principles; it requires the deliberation and the freedom of epic; it
+must have room to move in before it can come up to the height of its
+argument. The abruptness of its periods is not really an interruption of
+its even flight; it is an abruptness of detail, like a broken sea with a
+larger wave moving under it; it does not impair or disguise the grandeur
+of the movement as a whole." Of the progress and decline of the chansons
+de geste (q.v.) from the ideals of _Roland_ a fuller account is given
+elsewhere. _To the Nibelungenlied_ (q.v.) also, detailed attention is
+given in a separate article.
+
+What may be called the artificial or secondary epics of modern Europe,
+founded upon an imitation of the _Iliad_ and the _Aeneid_, are more
+numerous than the ordinary reader supposes, although but few of them
+have preserved much vitality. In Italy the _Chanson de Roland_ inspired
+romantic epics by Luigi Pulci (1432-1487), whose _Morgante Maggiore_
+appeared in 1481, and is a masterpiece of burlesque; by M.M. Boiardo
+(1434-1494), whose _Orlando Innamorato_ was finished in 1486; by
+Francesco Bello (1440?-1495), whose _Mambriano_ was published in 1497;
+by Lodovico Ariosto (q.v.), whose _Orlando Furioso_, by far the greatest
+of its class, was published in 1516, and by Luigi Dolce (1508-1568), as
+well as by a great number of less illustrious poets. G.G. Trissino
+(1478-1549) wrote a _Deliverance of Italy from the Goths_ in 1547, and
+Bernardo Tasso (1493-1569) an _Amadigi_ in 1559; Berni remodelled the
+epic of Boiardo in 1541, and Teofilo Folengo (1491-1544), ridiculed the
+whole school in an _Orlandino_ of 1526. An extraordinary feat of
+mock-heroic epic was _The Bucket_ (1622) of Alessandro Tassoni
+(1565-1638). The most splendid of all the epics of Italy, however, was,
+and remains, the _Jerusalem Delivered_ of Torquato Tasso (q.v.),
+published originally in 1580, and afterwards rewritten as _The Conquest
+of Jerusalem_, 1593. The fantastic _Adone_ (1623) of G.B. Marini
+(1569-1625) and the long poems of Chiabrera, close the list of Italian
+epics. Early Portuguese literature is rich in epic poetry. Luis Pereira
+Brandao wrote an _Elegiada_ in 18 books, published in 1588; Jeronymo
+Corte-Real (d. 1588) a _Shipwreck of Sepulveda_ and two other epics;
+V.M. Quevedo, in 1601, an _Alphonso of Africa_, in 12 books; Sa de
+Menezes (d. 1664) a _Conquest of Malacca_, 1634; but all these, and many
+more, are obscured by the glory of Camoens (q.v.), whose magnificent
+_Lusiads_ had been printed in 1572, and forms the summit of Portuguese
+literature. In Spanish poetry, the _Poem of the Cid_ takes the first
+place, as the great national epic of the middle ages; it is supposed to
+have been written between 1135 and 1175. It was followed by the
+_Rodrigo_, and the medieval school closes with the _Alphonso XI._ of
+Rodrigo Yanez, probably written at the close of the 12th century. The
+success of the Italian imitative epics of the 15th century led to some
+imitation of their form in Spain. Juan de la Cueva (1550?-1606)
+published a _Conquest of Betica_ in 1603; Cristobal de Virues
+(1550-1610) a _Monserrate_, in 1588; Luis Barahona de Soto continued
+Ariosto in a _Tears of Angelica_; Gutierrez wrote an _Austriada_ in
+1584; but perhaps the finest modern epic in Spanish verse is the
+_Araucana_ (1569-1590) of Alonso de Ercilla y Zuniga (1533-1595), "the
+first literary work of merit," as Mr Fitzmaurice-Kelly remarks,
+"composed in either American continent." In France, the epic never
+flourished in modern times, and no real success attended the _Franciade_
+of Ronsard, the _Alaric_ of Scudery, the _Pucelle_ of Chapelain, the
+_Divine Epopee_ of Soumet, or even the _Henriade_ of Voltaire. In
+English literature _The Faery Queen_ of Spenser has the same claim as
+the Italian poems mentioned above to bear the name of epic, and Milton,
+who stands entirely apart, may be said, by his isolated _Paradise Lost_,
+to take rank with Homer and Virgil, as one of the three types of the
+mastery of epical composition.
+
+  See Bossu, _Traite du poeme epique_ (1675); Voltaire, _Sur la poesie
+  epique_; Fauviel, _L'Origine de l'epopee chevaleresque_ (1832); W.P.
+  Ker, _Epic and Romance_ (1897), and _Essays in Medieval Literature_
+  (1905); Gilbert Murray, _History of Ancient Greek Literature_ (1897);
+  W. von Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_ (1879); Gaston
+  Paris, _La Litterature francaise au moyen age_ (1890); Leon Gautier,
+  _Les Epopees francaises_ (1865-1868). For works on the Greek epics see
+  also GREEK LITERATURE and CYCLE.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+EPICTETUS (born c. A.D. 60), Greek philosopher, was probably a native
+of Hierapolis in south-west Phrygia. The name Epictetus is merely the
+Greek for "acquired" (from [Greek: epiktasthai]); his original name is
+not known. As a boy he was a slave in the house of Epaphroditus, a
+freedman and courtier of the emperor Nero. He managed, however, to
+attend the lectures of the Stoic Musonius Rufus, and subsequently became
+a freedman. He was lame and of weakly health. In 90 he was expelled with
+the other philosophers by Domitian, who was irritated by the support and
+encouragement which the opposition to his tyranny found amongst the
+adherents of Stoicism. For the rest of his life he settled at Nicopolis,
+in southern Epirus, not far from the scene of the battle of Actium.
+There for several years he lived, and taught by close earnest personal
+address and conversation. According to some authorities he lived into
+the time of Hadrian; he himself mentions the coinage of the emperor
+Trajan. His contemporaries and the next generation held his character
+and teaching in high honour. According to Lucian, the earthenware lamp
+which had belonged to the sage was bought by an antiquarian for 3000
+drachmas. He was never married. He wrote nothing; but much of his
+teaching was taken down with affectionate care by his pupil Flavius
+Arrianus, the historian of Alexander the Great, and is preserved in two
+treatises, of the larger of which, called the _Discourses of Epictetus_
+([Greek: Epiktetou Diatribai]), four books are still extant. The other
+treatise is a shorter and more popular work, the _Encheiridion_
+("Handbook"). It contains in an aphoristic form the main doctrines of
+the longer work.
+
+The philosophy of Epictetus is intensely practical, and exhibits a high
+idealistic type of morality. He is an earnest, sometimes stern and
+sometimes pathetic, preacher of righteousness, who despises the mere
+graces of style and the subtleties of an abstruse logic. He has no
+patience with mere antiquarian study of the Stoical writers. The problem
+of how life is to be carried out well is the one question which throws
+all other inquiries into the shade. True education lies in learning to
+wish things to be as they actually are; it lies in learning to
+distinguish what is our own from what does not belong to us. But there
+is only one thing which is fully our own,--that is, our will or purpose.
+God, acting as a good king and a true father, has given us a will which
+cannot be restrained, compelled or thwarted. Nothing external, neither
+death nor exile nor pain nor any such thing, can ever force us to act
+against our will; if we are conquered, it is because we have willed to
+be conquered. And thus, although we are not responsible for the ideas
+that present themselves to our consciousness, we are absolutely and
+without any modification responsible for the way in which we use them.
+Nothing is ours besides our will. The divine law which bids us keep fast
+what is our own forbids us to make any claim to what is not ours; and
+while enjoining us to make use of whatever is given to us, it bids us
+not long after what has not been given. "Two maxims," he says, "we must
+ever bear in mind--that apart from the will there is nothing either good
+or bad, and that we must not try to anticipate or direct events, but
+merely accept them with intelligence." We must, in short, resign
+ourselves to whatever fate and fortune bring to us, believing, as the
+first article of our creed, that there is a god, whose thought directs
+the universe, and that not merely in our acts, but even in our thoughts
+and plans, we cannot escape his eye. In the world the true position of
+man is that of member of a great system, which comprehends God and men.
+Each human being is in the first instance a citizen of his own nation or
+commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men,
+whereof the city political is only a copy in miniature. All men are the
+sons of God, and kindred in nature with the divinity. For man, though a
+member in the system of the world, has also within him a principle which
+can guide and understand the movement of all the members; he can enter
+into the method of divine administration, and thus can learn--and it is
+the acme of his learning--the will of God, which is the will of nature.
+Man, said the Stoic, is a rational animal; and in virtue of that
+rationality he is neither less nor worse than the gods, for the
+magnitude of reason is estimated not by length nor by height but by its
+judgments. Each man has within him a guardian spirit, a god within him,
+who never sleeps; so that even in darkness and solitude we are never
+alone, because God is within, our guardian spirit. The body which
+accompanies us is not strictly speaking ours; it is a poor dead thing,
+which belongs to the things outside us. But by reason we are the masters
+of those ideas and appearances which present themselves from without; we
+can combine them, and systematize, and can set up in ourselves an order
+of ideas corresponding with the order of nature.
+
+The natural instinct of animated life, to which man also is originally
+subject, is self-preservation and self-interest. But men are so ordered
+and constituted that the individual cannot secure his own interests
+unless he contribute to the common welfare. We are bound up by the law
+of nature with the whole fabric of the world. The aim of the philosopher
+therefore is to reach the position of a mind which embraces the whole
+world in its view,--to grow into the mind of God and to make the will of
+nature our own. Such a sage agrees in his thought with God; he no longer
+blames either God or man; he fails of nothing which he purposes and
+falls in with no misfortune unprepared; he indulges in neither anger nor
+envy nor jealousy; he is leaving manhood for godhead, and in his dead
+body his thoughts are concerned about his fellowship with God.
+
+The historical models to which Epictetus reverts are Diogenes and
+Socrates. But he frequently describes an ideal character of a missionary
+sage, the perfect Stoic--or, as he calls him, the Cynic. This missionary
+has neither country nor home nor land nor slave; his bed is the ground;
+he is without wife or child; his only mansion is the earth and sky and a
+shabby cloak. He must suffer stripes, and must love those who beat him
+as if he were a father or a brother. He must be perfectly unembarrassed
+in the service of God, not bound by the common ties of life, nor
+entangled by relationships, which if he transgresses he will lose the
+character of a man of honour, while if he upholds them he will cease to
+be the messenger, watchman and herald of the gods. The perfect man thus
+described will not be angry with the wrong-doer; he will only pity his
+erring brother; for anger in such a case would only betray that he too
+thought the wrong-doer gained a substantial blessing by his wrongful
+act, instead of being, as he is, utterly ruined.
+
+  The best editions of the works of Epictetus are by J. Schweighauser (6
+  vols., Leipzig, 1799-1800) and H. Schenkl (Leipzig, 1894, 1898).
+  English translations by Elizabeth Carter (London, 1758); G. Long
+  (London, 1848, ed. 1877, 1892, 1897); T.W. Higginson (Boston, 1865,
+  new ed. 1890); of the _Encheiridion_ alone by H. Talbot (London,
+  1881); T.W.H. Rolleston (London, 1881). See A. Bonhoffer, _Epiktet und
+  die Stoa_ (Stuttgart, 1890) and _Die Ethik des Stoikers Epiktet_
+  (1894): E.M. Schranka, _Der Stoiker Epiktet und seine Philosophie_
+  (Frankfort, 1885); T. Zahn, _Der Stoiker Epiktet und sein Verhaltnis
+  zum Christentum_ (2nd ed. Erlangen, 1895). See also STOICS and works
+  quoted.     (W. W.; X.)
+
+
+
+
+EPICURUS (342-270 B.C.), Greek philosopher, was born in Samos in the end
+of 342 or the beginning of 341 B.C., seven years after the death of
+Plato. His father Neocles, a native of Gargettos, a small village of
+Attica, had settled in Samos, not later than 352, as one of the cleruchs
+sent out after the victory of Timotheus in 366-365. At the age of
+eighteen he went to Athens, where the Platonic school was flourishing
+under the lead of Xenocrates. A year later, however, Antipater banished
+some 12,000 of the poorer citizens, and Epicurus joined his father, who
+was now living at Colophon. It seems possible that he had listened to
+the lectures of Nausiphanes, a Democritean philosopher, and Pamphilus
+the Platonist, but he was probably, like his father, merely an ordinary
+teacher. Stimulated, however, by the perusal of some writings of
+Democritus, he began to formulate a doctrine of his own; and at
+Mitylene, Colophon and Lampsacus, he gradually gathered round him
+several enthusiastic disciples. In 307 he returned to Athens, which had
+just been restored to a nominal independence by Demetrius Poliorcetes,
+and there he lived for the rest of his life. The scene of his teaching
+was a garden which he bought for about L300 (80 _minae_). There he
+passed his days as the loved and venerated head of a remarkable, and up
+to that time unique, society of men and women. Amongst the number were
+Metrodorus (d. 277), his brother Timocrates, and his wife Leontion
+(formerly a hetaera), Polyaenus, Hermarchus, who succeeded Epicurus as
+chief of the school, Leonteus and his wife Themista, and Idomeneus,
+whose wife was a sister of Metrodorus. It is possible that the relations
+between the sexes--in this prototype of Rabelais's Abbey of
+Theleme--were not entirely what is termed Platonic. But there is on the
+other hand scarcely a doubt that the tales of licentiousness circulated
+by opponents are groundless. The stories of the Stoics, who sought to
+refute the views of Epicurus by an appeal to his alleged antecedents and
+habits, were no doubt in the main, as Diogenes Laertius says, the
+stories of maniacs. The general charges, which they endeavoured to
+substantiate by forged letters, need not count for much, and in many
+cases they only exaggerated what, if true, was not so heinous as they
+suggested. Against them trustworthy authorities testified to his general
+and remarkable considerateness, pointing to the statues which the city
+had raised in his honour, and to the numbers of his friends, who were
+many enough to fill whole cities.
+
+The mode of life in his community was plain. The general drink was
+water and the food barley bread; half a pint of wine was held an ample
+allowance. "Send me," says Epicurus to a correspondent, "send me some
+Cythnian cheese, so that, should I choose, I may fare sumptuously."
+There was no community of property, which, as Epicurus said, would imply
+distrust of their own and others' good resolutions. The company was held
+in unity by the charms of his personality, and by the free intercourse
+which he inculcated and exemplified. Though he seems to have had a warm
+affection for his countrymen, it was as human beings brought into
+contact with him, and not as members of a political body, that he
+preferred to regard them. He never entered public life. His kindliness
+extended even to his slaves, one of whom, named Mouse, was a brother in
+philosophy.
+
+Epicurus died of stone in 270 B.C. He left his property, consisting of
+the garden ([Greek: Kepoi Epikourou]), a house in Melite (the south-west
+quarter of Athens), and apparently some funds besides, to two trustees
+on behalf of his society, and for the special interest of some youthful
+members. The garden was set apart for the use of the school; the house
+became the house of Hermarchus and his fellow-philosophers during his
+lifetime. The surplus proceeds of the property were further to be
+applied to maintain a yearly offering in commemoration of his departed
+father, mother and brothers, to pay the expenses incurred in celebrating
+his own birthday every year on the 7th of the month Gamelion, and for a
+social gathering of the sect on the 20th of every month in honour of
+himself and Metrodorus. Besides similar tributes in honour of his
+brothers and Polyaenus, he directed the trustees to be guardians of the
+son of Polyaenus and the son of Metrodorus; whilst the daughter of the
+last mentioned was to be married by the guardians to some member of the
+society who should be approved of by Hermarchus. His four slaves, three
+men and one woman, were left their freedom. His books passed to
+Hermarchus.
+
+_Philosophy._--The Epicurean philosophy is traditionally divided into
+the three branches of logic, physics and ethics. It is, however, only as
+a basis of facts and principles for his theory of life that logical and
+physical inquiries find a place at all. Epicurus himself had not
+apparently shared in any large or liberal culture, and his influence was
+certainly thrown on the side of those who depreciated purely scientific
+pursuits as one-sided and misleading. "Steer clear of all culture" was
+his advice to a young disciple. In this aversion to a purely or mainly
+intellectual training may be traced a recoil from the systematic
+metaphysics of Plato and Aristotle, whose tendency was to subordinate
+the practical man to the philosopher. Ethics had been based upon logic
+and metaphysics. But experience showed that systematic knowledge of
+truth is not synonymous with right action. Hence, in the second place,
+Plato and Aristotle had assumed a perfect state with laws to guide the
+individual aright. It was thus comparatively easy to show how the
+individual could learn to apprehend and embody the moral law in his own
+conduct. But experience had in the time of Epicurus shown the temporary
+and artificial character of the civic form of social life. It was
+necessary, therefore, for Epicurus to go back to nature to find a more
+enduring and a wider foundation for ethical doctrine, to go back from
+words to realities, to give up reasonings and get at feelings, to test
+conceptions and arguments by a final reference to the only touchstone of
+truth--to sensation. There, and there only, one seems to find a common
+and a satisfactory ground, supposing always that all men's feelings give
+the same answer. Logic must go, but so also must the state, as a
+specially-privileged and eternal order of things, as anything more than
+a contrivance serving certain purposes of general utility.
+
+To the Epicureans the elaborate logic of the Stoics was a superfluity.
+In place of logic we find canonic, the theory of the three tests of truth
+and reality. (1) The only ultimate canon of reality is sensation;
+whatever we feel, whatever we perceive by any sense, that we know on the
+most certain evidence we can have to be real, and in proportion as our
+feeling is clear, distinct and vivid, in that proportion are we sure of
+the reality of its object. But in what that vividness ([Greek: enargeia])
+consists is a question which Epicurus does not raise, and which he would
+no doubt have deemed superfluous quibbling over a matter sufficiently
+settled by common sense. (2) Besides our sensations, we learn truth and
+reality by our preconceptions or ideas ([Greek: prolepseis]). These are
+the fainter images produced by repeated sensations, the "ideas" resulting
+from previous "impressions"--sensations at second-hand as it were, which
+are stored up in memory, and which a general name serves to recall. These
+bear witness to reality, not because we feel anything now, but because we
+felt it once; they are sensations registered in language, and again, if
+need be, translatable into immediate sensations or groups of sensation.
+(3) Lastly, reality is vouched for by the imaginative apprehensions of
+the mind ([Greek: phantastikai epibolai]), immediate feelings of which
+the mind is conscious as produced by some action of its own. This last
+canon, however, was of dubious validity. Epicureanism generally was
+content to affirm that whatever we effectively feel in consciousness is
+real; in which sense they allow reality to the fancies of the insane, the
+dreams of a sleeper, and those feelings by which we imagine the existence
+of beings of perfect blessedness and endless life. Similarly, just
+because fear, hope and remembrance add to the intensity of consciousness,
+the Epicurean can hold that bodily pain and pleasure is a less durable
+and important thing than pain and pleasure of mind. Whatever we feel to
+affect us does affect us, and is therefore real. Error can arise only
+because we mix up our opinions and suppositions with what we actually
+feel. The Epicurean canon is a rejection of logic; it sticks fast to the
+one point that "sensation is sensation," and there is no more to be made
+of it. Sensation, it says, is unreasoning ([Greek: alogos]); it must be
+accepted, and not criticized. Reasoning can come in only to put
+sensations together, and to point out how they severally contribute to
+human welfare; it does not make them, and cannot alter them.
+
+_Physics._--In the Epicurean physics there are two parts--a general
+metaphysic and psychology, and a special explanation of particular
+phenomena of nature. The method of Epicurus is the argument of analogy.
+It is an attempt to make the phenomena of nature intelligible to us by
+regarding them as instances on a grand scale of that with which we are
+already familiar on a small scale. This is what Epicurus calls
+explaining what we do not see by what we do see.
+
+In physics Epicurus founded upon Democritus, and his chief object was to
+abolish the dualism between mind and matter which is so essential a
+point in the systems of Plato and Aristotle. All that exists, says
+Epicurus, is corporeal ([Greek: to pan esti soma]); the intangible is
+non-existent, or empty space. If a thing exists it must be felt, and to
+be felt it must exert resistance. But not all things are intangible
+which our senses are not subtle enough to detect. We must indeed accept
+our feelings; but we must also believe much which is not directly
+testified by sensation, if only it serves to explain phenomena and does
+not contravene our sensations. The fundamental postulates of
+Epicureanism are atoms and the void ([Greek: atoma kai kenon]). Space is
+infinite, and there is an illimitable multitude of indestructible,
+indivisible and absolutely compact atoms in perpetual motion in this
+illimitable space. These atoms, differing only in size, figure and
+weight, are perpetually moving with equal velocities, but at a rate far
+surpassing our conceptions; as they move, they are for ever giving rise
+to new worlds; and these worlds are perpetually tending towards
+dissolution, and towards a fresh series of creations. This universe of
+ours is only one section out of the innumerable worlds in infinite
+space; other worlds may present systems very different from that of our
+own. The soul of man is only a finer species of body, spread throughout
+the whole aggregation which we term his bodily frame. Like a warm
+breath, it pervades the human structure and works with it; nor could it
+act as it does in perception unless it were corporeal. The various
+processes of sense, notably vision, are explained on the principles of
+materialism. From the surfaces of all objects there are continually
+flowing thin filmy images exactly copying the solid body whence they
+originate; and these images by direct impact on the organism produce (we
+need not care to ask how) the phenomena of vision. Epicurus in this way
+explains vision by substituting for the apparent action of a body at a
+distance a direct contact of image and organ. But without following the
+explanation into the details in which it revels, it may be enough to say
+that the whole hypothesis is but an attempt to exclude the occult
+conception of action at a distance, and substitute a familiar
+phenomenon.
+
+_The Gods._--This aspect of the Epicurean physics becomes clearer when
+we look at his mode of rendering particular phenomena intelligible. His
+purpose is to eliminate the common idea of divine interference. That
+there are gods Epicurus never dreams of denying. But these gods have not
+on their shoulders the burden of upholding and governing the world. They
+are themselves the products of the order of nature--a higher species
+than humanity, but not the rulers of man, neither the makers nor the
+upholders of the world. Man should worship them, but his worship is the
+reverence due to the ideals of perfect blessedness; it ought not to be
+inspired either by hope or by fear. To prevent all reference of the more
+potent phenomena of nature to divine action Epicurus rationalizes the
+processes of the cosmos. He imagines all possible plans or hypotheses,
+not actually contradicted by our experience of familiar events, which
+will represent in an intelligible way the processes of astronomy and
+meteorology. When two or more modes of accounting for a phenomena are
+equally admissible as not directly contradicted by known phenomena, it
+seems to Epicurus almost a return to the old mythological habit of mind
+when a savant asserts that the real cause is one and only one.
+"Thunder," he says, "may be explained in many other ways; only let us
+have no myths of divine action. To assign only a single cause for these
+phenomena, when the facts familiar to us suggest several, is insane, and
+is just the absurd conduct to be expected from people who dabble in the
+vanities of astronomy." We need not be too curious to inquire how these
+celestial phenomena actually do come about; we can learn how they might
+have been produced, and to go further is to trench on ground beyond the
+limits of human knowledge.
+
+Thus, if Epicurus objects to the doctrine of mythology, he objects no
+less to the doctrine of an inevitable fate, a necessary order of things
+unchangeable and supreme over the human will. The Stoic doctrine of
+Fatalism seemed to Epicurus no less deadly a foe of man's true welfare
+than popular superstition. Even in the movement of the atoms he
+introduces a sudden change of direction, which is supposed to render
+their aggregation easier, and to break the even law of destiny. So, in
+the sphere of human action, Epicurus would allow of no absolutely
+controlling necessity. In fact, it is only when we assume for man this
+independence of the gods and of fatality that the Epicurean theory of
+life becomes possible. It assumes that man can, like the gods, withdraw
+himself out of reach of all external influences, and thus, as a sage,
+"live like a god among men, seeing that the man is in no wise like a
+mortal creature who lives in undying blessedness." And this present life
+is the only one. With one consent Epicureanism preaches that the death
+of the body is the end of everything for man, and hence the other world
+has lost all its terrors as well as all its hopes.
+
+The attitude of Epicurus in this whole matter is antagonistic to
+science. The idea of a systematic enchainment of phenomena, in which
+each is conditioned by every other, and none can be taken in isolation
+and explained apart from the rest, was foreign to his mind. So little
+was the scientific conception of the solar system familiar to Epicurus
+that he could reproach the astronomers, because their account of an
+eclipse represented things otherwise than as they appear to the senses,
+and could declare that the sun and stars were just as large as they
+seemed to us.
+
+_Ethics._--The moral philosophy of Epicurus is a qualified hedonism,
+the heir of the Cyrenaic doctrine that pleasure is the good thing in
+life. Neither sect, it may be added, advocated sensuality pure and
+unfeigned--the Epicurean least of all. By pleasure Epicurus meant both
+more and less than the Cyrenaics. To the Cyrenaics pleasure was of
+moments; to Epicurus it extended as a habit of mind through life. To the
+Cyrenaics pleasure was something active and positive; to Epicurus it was
+rather negative--tranquillity more than vigorous enjoyment. The test of
+true pleasure, according to Epicurus, is the removal and absorption of
+all that gives pain; it implies freedom from pain of body and from
+trouble of mind. The happiness of the Epicurean was, it might almost
+seem, a grave and solemn pleasure--a quiet unobtrusive ease of heart,
+but not exuberance and excitement. The sage of Epicureanism is a
+rational and reflective seeker for happiness, who balances the claims of
+each pleasure against the evils that may possibly ensue, and treads the
+path of enjoyment cautiously. Prudence is, therefore, the only real
+guide to happiness; it is thus the chief excellence, and the foundation
+of all the virtues. It is, in fact, says Epicurus--in language which
+contrasts strongly with that of Aristotle on the same topic--"a more
+precious power than philosophy." The reason or intellect is introduced
+to balance possible pleasures and pains, and to construct a scheme in
+which pleasures are the materials of a happy life. Feeling, which
+Epicurus declared to be the means of determining what is good, is
+subordinated to a reason which adjudicates between competing pleasures
+with the view of securing tranquillity of mind and body. "We cannot live
+pleasantly without living wisely and nobly and righteously." Virtue is
+at least a means of happiness, though apart from that it is no good in
+itself, any more than mere sensual enjoyments, which are good only
+because they may sometimes serve to secure health of body and
+tranquillity of mind. (See further ETHICS.)
+
+_The Epicurean School._--Even in the lifetime of Epicurus we hear of the
+vast numbers of his friends, not merely in Greece, but in Asia and
+Egypt. The crowds of Epicureans were a standing enigma to the adherents
+of less popular sects. Cicero pondered over the fact; Arcesilaus
+explained the secession to the Epicurean camp, compared with the fact
+that no Epicurean was ever known to have abandoned his school, by saying
+that, though it was possible for a man to be turned into a eunuch, no
+eunuch could ever become a man. But the phenomenon was not obscure. The
+doctrine has many truths, and is attractive to many in virtue of its
+simplicity and its immediate relation to life. The dogmas of Epicurus
+became to his followers a creed embodying the truths on which salvation
+depended; and they passed on from one generation to another with
+scarcely a change or addition. The immediate disciples of Epicurus have
+been already mentioned, with the exception of Colotes of Lampsacus, a
+great favourite of Epicurus, who wrote a work arguing "that it was
+impossible even to live according to the doctrines of the other
+philosophers." In the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. Apollodorus, nicknamed
+[Greek: kepotyrannos] ("Lord of the Garden"), and Zeno of Sidon (who
+describes Socrates as "the Attic buffoon": Cic. _De nat. deor._ i, 21,
+33, 34) taught at Athens. About 150 B.C. Epicureanism established itself
+at Rome. Beginning with C. Amafinius or Amafanius (Cic. _Acad._ i. 2,
+_Tusc._ iv. 3), we find the names of Phaedrus (who became scholarch at
+Athens c. 70 B.C.) and Philodemus (originally of Gadara in Palestine) as
+distinguished Epicureans in the time of Cicero. But the greatest of its
+Roman names was Lucretius, whose _De rerum natura_ embodies the main
+teaching of Epicurus with great exactness, and with a beauty which the
+subject seemed scarcely to allow. Lucretius is a proof, if any were
+needed, that Epicureanism is compatible with nobility of soul. In the
+1st century of the Christian era, the nature of the time, with its
+active political struggles, naturally called Stoicism more into the
+foreground, yet Seneca, though nominally a Stoic, draws nearly all his
+suavity and much of his paternal wisdom from the writings of Epicurus.
+The position of Epicureanism as a recognized school in the 2nd century
+is best seen in the fact that it was one of the four schools (the others
+were the Stoic, Platonist, and Peripatetic) which were placed on a
+footing of equal endowment when Marcus Aurelius founded chairs of
+philosophy at Athens. The evidence of Diogenes proves that it still
+subsisted as a school a century later, but its spirit lasted longer than
+its formal organization as a school. A great deal of the best of the
+Renaissance was founded on Epicureanism, and in more recent times a
+great number of prominent thinkers have been Epicureans in a greater or
+less degree. Among these may be mentioned Pierre Gassendi, who revived
+and codified the doctrine in the 17th century; Moliere, the comte de
+Gramont, Rousseau, Fontenelle and Voltaire. All those whose ethical
+theory is in any degree hedonistic are to some extent the intellectual
+descendants of Epicurus (see HEDONISM).
+
+_Works._--Epicurus was a voluminous writer ([Greek: polygraphotatos],
+Diog. Laert. x. 26)--the author, it is said, of about 300 works. He had
+a style and vocabulary of his own. His chief aim in writing was
+plainness and intelligibility, but his want of order and logical
+precision thwarted his purpose. He pretended to have read little, and to
+be the original architect of his own system, and the claim was no doubt
+on the whole true. But he had read Democritus, and, it is said,
+Anaxagoras and Archelaus. His works, we learn, were full of repetition,
+and critics speak of vulgarities of language and faults of style. None
+the less his writings were committed to memory and remained the
+text-books of Epicureanism to the last. His chief work was a treatise on
+nature ([Greek: Peri physeos]), in thirty-seven books, of which
+fragments from about nine books have been found in the rolls discovered
+at Herculaneum, along with considerable treatises by several of his
+followers, and most notably Philodemus. An epitome of his doctrine is
+contained in three letters preserved by Diogenes.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The chief ancient accounts of Epicurus are in the tenth
+  book of Diogenes Laertius, in Lucretius, and in several treatises of
+  Cicero and Plutarch. Gassendi, in his _De vita, moribus, et doctrina
+  Epicuri_ (Lyons, 1647), and his _Syntagma philosophiae Epicuri_,
+  systematized the doctrine. The _Volumina Herculanensia_ (1st and 2nd
+  series) contain fragments of treatises by Epicurus and members of his
+  school. See also H. Usener, _Epicurea_ (Leipzig, 1887) and _Epicuri
+  recogniti specimen_ (Bonn, 1880); _Epicuri physica et meteorologica_
+  (ed. J.G. Schneider, Leipzig, 1813); Th. Gomperz in his _Herkulanische
+  Studien_, and in contributions to the Vienna Academy
+  (_Monatsberichte_), has tried to evolve from the fragments more
+  approximation to modern empiricism than they seem to contain. For
+  criticism see W. Wallace, _Epicureanism_ (London, 1880), and
+  _Epicurus; A Lecture_ (London, 1896); G. Trezza, _Epicuro e
+  l'Epicureismo_ (Florence, 1877; ed. Milan, 1885); E. Zeller,
+  _Philosophy of the Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics_ (Eng. trans. O.J.
+  Reichel, 1870; ed. 1880); Sir James Mackintosh, _On the Progress of
+  Ethical Philosophy_ (4th ed.); J. Watson, _Hedonistic Theories_
+  (Glasgow, 1895); J. Kreibig, _Epicurus_ (Vienna, 1886); A.
+  Goedeckemeyer, _Epikurs Verhaltnis zu Demokrit in der Naturphil._
+  (Strassburg, 1897); Paul von Gizycki, _Uber das Leben und die
+  Moralphilos. des Epikur (Halle, 1879), and Einleitende Bemerkungen zu
+  einer Untersuchung uber den Werth der Naturphilos. des Epikur_
+  (Berlin, 1884); P. Cassel, _Epikur der Philosoph_ (Berlin, 1892); M.
+  Guyau, _La Morale d'Epicure et ses rapports avec les doctrines
+  contemporaines_ (Paris, 1878; revised and enlarged, 1881); F. Picavet,
+  _De Epicuro novae religionis sectatore_ (Paris, 1889); H. Sidgwick,
+  _History of Ethics_ (5th ed., 1902).     (W. W.; X.)
+
+
+
+
+EPICYCLE (Gr. [Greek: epi], upon, and [Greek: kyklos], circle), in
+ancient astronomy, a small circle the centre of which describes a larger
+one. It was especially used to represent geometrically the periodic
+apparent retrograde motion of the outer planets, Mars, Jupiter and
+Saturn, which we now know to be due to the annual revolution of the
+earth around the sun, but which in the Ptolemaic astronomy were taken to
+be real.
+
+
+
+
+EPICYCLOID, the curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a
+circle rolling externally on another circle. If the moving circle rolls
+internally on the fixed circle, a point on the circumference describes a
+"hypocycloid" (from [Greek: hypo], under). The locus of any other
+carried point is an "epitrochoid" when the circle rolls externally, and
+a "hypotrochoid" when the circle rolls internally. The epicycloid was so
+named by Ole Romer in 1674, who also demonstrated that cog-wheels having
+epicycloidal teeth revolved with minimum friction (see MECHANICS:
+_Applied_); this was also proved by Girard Desargues, Philippe de la
+Hire and Charles Stephen Louis Camus. Epicycloids also received
+attention at the hands of Edmund Halley, Sir Isaac Newton and others;
+spherical epicycloids, in which the moving circle is inclined at a
+constant angle to the plane of the fixed circle, were studied by the
+Bernoullis, Pierre Louis M. de Maupertuis, Francois Nicole, Alexis
+Claude Clairault and others.
+
+  In the annexed figure, there are shown various examples of the curves
+  named above, when the radii of the rolling and fixed circles are in
+  the ratio of 1 to 3. Since the circumference of a circle is
+  proportional to its radius, it follows that if the ratio of the radii
+  be commensurable, the curve will consist of a finite number of cusps,
+  and ultimately return into itself. In the particular case when the
+  radii are in the ratio of 1 to 3 the epicycloid (curve a) will
+  consist of three cusps external to the circle and placed at equal
+  distances along its circumference. Similarly, the corresponding
+  epitrochoids will exhibit three loops or nodes (curve b), or assume
+  the form shown in the curve c. It is interesting to compare the
+  forms of these curves with the three forms of the cycloid (q.v.). The
+  hypocycloid derived from the same circles is shown as curve d, and
+  is seen to consist of three cusps arranged internally to the fixed
+  circle; the corresponding hypotrochoid consists of a three-foil and is
+  shown in curve e. The epicycloid shown is termed the "three-cusped
+  epicycloid" or the "epicycloid of Cremona."
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The cartesian equation to the epicycloid assumes the form
+                                   _____
+    x = (a + b) cos[theta] - b cos(a + b / b)[theta],
+                                   _____
+    y = (a + b) sin[theta] - b sin(a + b / b)[theta],
+
+  when the centre of the fixed circle is the origin, and the axis of x
+  passes through the initial point of the curve (i.e. the original
+  position of the moving point on the fixed circle), a and b being the
+  radii of the fixed and rolling circles, and [theta] the angle through
+  which the line joining the centres of the two circles has passed. It
+  may be shown that if the distance of the carried point from the centre
+  of the rolling circle be mb, the equation to the epitrochoid is
+                                    _____
+    x = (a + b) cos[theta] - mb cos(a + b / b)[theta],
+                                    _____
+    y = (a + b) sin[theta] - mb sin(a + b / b)[theta].
+
+  The equations to the hypocycloid and its corresponding trochoidal
+  curves are derived from the two preceding equations by changing the
+  sign of b. Leonhard Euler (_Acta Petrop._ 1784) showed that the same
+  hypocycloid can be generated by circles having radii of 1/2(a [+-] b)
+  rolling on a circle of radius a; and also that the hypocycloid formed
+  when the radius of the rolling circle is greater than that of the
+  fixed circle is the same as the epicycloid formed by the rolling of a
+  circle whose radius is the difference of the original radii. These
+  propositions may be derived from the formulae given above, or proved
+  directly by purely geometrical methods.
+
+  The tangential polar equation to the epicycloid, as given above, is
+                       ______
+  p = (a + 2b) sin(a / a + 2b)[psi], while the intrinsic equation is
+                            ______
+  s = 4(b/a)(a + b) cos(a / a + 2b)[psi] and the pedal equation is
+                _____
+  r^2 = a^2 + (4b.a + b)p^2 / (a + 2b)^2. Therefore any epicycloid or
+  hypocycloid may be represented by the equations p = A sin B[psi] or p
+  = A cos B[psi], s = A sin B[psi] or s = A cos B[psi], or r^2 = A +
+  Bp^2, the constants A and B being readily determined by the above
+  considerations.
+
+  If the radius of the rolling circle be one-half of the fixed circle,
+  the hypocycloid becomes a diameter of this circle; this may be
+  confirmed from the equation to the hypocycloid. If the ratio of the
+  radii be as 1 to 4, we obtain the four-cusped hypocycloid, which has
+  the simple cartesian equation x^(2/3) + y^(2/3) = a^(2/3). This curve
+  is the envelope of a line of constant length, which moves so that its
+  extremities are always on two fixed lines at right angles to each
+  other, i.e. of the line x/[alpha] + y/[beta] = 1, with the condition
+  [alpha]^2 + [beta]^2 = 1/a, a constant. The epicycloid when the radii
+  of the circles are equal is the cardioid (q.v.), and the corresponding
+  trochoidal curves are limacons (q.v.). Epicycloids are also examples
+  of certain caustics (q.v.).
+
+  For the methods of determining the formulae and results stated above
+  see J. Edwards, _Differential Calculus_, and for geometrical
+  constructions see T.H. Eagles, _Plane Curves_.
+
+
+
+
+EPIDAURUS, the name of two ancient cities of southern Greece.
+
+1. A maritime city situated on the eastern coast of Argolis, sometimes
+distinguished as [Greek: he hiera Epidauros], or Epidaurus the Holy. It
+stood on a small rocky peninsula with a natural harbour on the northern
+side and an open but serviceable bay on the southern; and from this
+position acquired the epithet of [Greek: distomos], or the two-mouthed.
+Its narrow but fertile territory consisted of a plain shut in on all
+sides except towards the sea by considerable elevations, among which the
+most remarkable were Mount Arachnaeon and Titthion. The conterminous
+states were Corinth, Argos, Troezen and Hermione. Its proximity to
+Athens and the islands of the Saronic gulf, the commercial advantages of
+its position, and the fame of its temple of Asclepius combined to make
+Epidaurus a place of no small importance. Its origin was ascribed to a
+Carian colony, whose memory was possibly preserved in Epicarus, the
+earlier name of the city; it was afterwards occupied by Ionians, and
+appears to have incorporated a body of Phlegyans from Thessaly. The
+Ionians in turn succumbed to the Dorians of Argos, who, according to the
+legend, were led by Deiphontes; and from that time the city continued to
+preserve its Dorian character. It not only colonized the neighbouring
+islands, and founded the city of Aegina, by which it was ultimately
+outstripped in wealth and power, but also took part with the people of
+Argos and Troezen in their settlements in the south of Asia Minor. The
+monarchical government introduced by Deiphontes gave way to an
+oligarchy, and the oligarchy degenerated into a despotism. When Procles
+the tyrant was carried captive by Periander of Corinth, the oligarchy
+was restored, and the people of Epidaurus continued ever afterwards
+close allies of the Spartan power. The governing body consisted of 180
+members, chosen from certain influential families, and the executive was
+entrusted to a select committee of _artynae_ (from [Greek: artynein], to
+manage). The rural population, who had no share in the affairs of the
+city, were called [Greek: konipodes] ("dusty-feet"). Among the objects
+of interest described by Pausanias as extant in Epidaurus are the image
+of Athena Cissaea in the Acropolis, the temple of Dionysus and Artemis,
+a shrine of Aphrodite, statues of Asclepius and his wife Epione, and a
+temple of Hera. The site of the last is identified with the chapel of St
+Nicolas; a few portions of the outer walls of the city can be traced;
+and the name Epidaurus is still preserved by the little village of
+Nea-Epidavros, or Pidhavro.
+
+[Illustration: Map--Epidaurus Hieron of Asclepius.]
+
+The _Hieron_ (sacred precinct) of Asclepius, which lies inland about 8
+m. from the town of Epidaurus, has been thoroughly excavated by the
+Greek Archaeological Society since the year 1881, under the direction of
+M. Kavvadias. In addition to the sacred precinct, with its temples and
+other buildings, the theatre and stadium have been cleared; and several
+other extensive buildings, including baths, gymnasia, and a hospital for
+invalids, have also been found. The sacred road from Epidaurus, which is
+flanked by tombs, approaches the precinct through a gateway or
+propylaea. The chief buildings are grouped together, and include temples
+of Asclepius and Artemis, the Tholos, and the Abaton, or portico where
+the patients slept. In addition to remains of architecture and
+sculpture, some of them of high merit, there have been found many
+inscriptions, throwing light on the cures attributed to the god. The
+chief buildings outside the sacred precinct are the theatre and the
+stadium.
+
+The temple of Asclepius, which contained the gold and ivory statue by
+Thrasymedes of Paros, had six columns at the ends and eleven at the
+sides; it was raised on stages and approached by a ramp at the eastern
+front. An inscription has been found recording the contracts for
+building this temple; it dates from about 460 B.C. The sculptor
+Timotheus--one of those who collaborated in the Mausoleum--is mentioned
+as undertaking to make the acroteria that stood on the ends of the
+pediments, and also models for the sculpture that filled one of them.
+Some of this sculpture has been found; the acroteria are Nereids mounted
+on sea-horses, and one pediment contained a battle of Greeks and
+Amazons. The great altar lay to the south of the temple, and a little to
+the east of it are what appear to be the remains of an earlier altar,
+built into the corner of a large square edifice of Roman date, perhaps a
+house of the priests. Just to the south of this are the foundations of a
+small temple of Artemis. The Tholos lay to the south-west of the temple
+of Asclepius; it must, when perfect, have been one of the most beautiful
+buildings in Greece; the exquisite carving of its mouldings is only
+equalled by that of the Erechtheum at Athens. It consisted of a circular
+chamber, surrounded on the outside by a Doric colonnade, and on the
+inside by a Corinthian one. The architect was Polyclitus, probably to be
+identified with the younger sculptor of that name. In the inscription
+recording the contracts for its building it is called the Thymele; and
+this name may give the clue to its purpose; it was probably the
+idealized architectural representative of a primitive pit of sacrifice,
+such as may still be seen in the Asclepianum at Athens. The foundations
+now visible present a very curious appearance, consisting of a series of
+concentric walls. Those in the middle are thin, having only the pavement
+of the cella to support, and are provided with doors and partitions that
+make a sort of subterranean labyrinth. There is no evidence for the
+statement sometimes made that there was a well or spring below the
+Tholos. North of the Tholos is the long portico described in
+inscriptions as the Abaton; it is on two different levels, and the lower
+or western portion of it had two storeys, of which the upper one was on
+a level with the ground in the eastern portion. Here the invalids used
+to sleep when consulting the god, and the inscriptions found here record
+not only the method of consulting the god, but the manner of his cures.
+Some of the inscriptions are contemporary dedications; but those which
+give us most information are long lists of cases, evidently compiled by
+the priests from the dedications in the sanctuary, or from tradition.
+There is no reason to doubt that most of the records have at least a
+basis of fact, for the cases are in accord with well-attested phenomena
+of a similar nature at the present day; but there are others, such as
+the miraculous mending of a broken vase, which suggest either invention
+or trickery.
+
+In early times, though there is considerable variety in the cases
+treated and the methods of cure, there are certain characteristics
+common to the majority of the cases. The patient consulting the god
+sleeps in the Abaton, sees certain visions, and, as a result, comes
+forth cured the next morning. Sometimes there seem to be surgical cases,
+like that of a man who had a spear-head extracted from his jaw, and
+found it laid in his hands when he awoke in the morning, and there are
+many examples resembling those known at the present day at Lourdes or
+Tenos, where hysterical or other similar affections are cured by the
+influence of imagination or sudden emotion. It is, however, difficult to
+make any scientific use of the records, owing to the indiscriminate
+manner in which genuine and apocryphal cases are mingled, and
+circumstantial details are added. We learn the practice of later times
+from some dedicated inscriptions. Apparently the old faith-healing had
+lost its efficacy, and the priests substituted for it elaborate
+prescriptions as to diet, baths and regimen which must have made
+Epidaurus and its visitors resemble their counterparts in a modern spa.
+At this time there were extensive buildings provided for the
+accommodation of invalids, some of which have been discovered and
+partially cleared; one was built by Antoninus Pius. They were in the
+form of great courtyards surrounded by colonnades and chambers.
+
+  Between the precinct and the theatre was a large gymnasium, which was
+  in later times converted to other purposes, a small odeum being built
+  in the middle of it. In a valley just to the south-west of the
+  precinct is the stadium, of which the seats and goal are well
+  preserved. There is a gutter round the level space of the stadium,
+  with basins at intervals for the use of spectators or competitors, and
+  a post at every hundred feet of the course, thus dividing it into six
+  portions. The goal, which is well preserved at the upper end, is
+  similar to that at Olympia; it consists of a sill of stone sunk level
+  with the ground, with parallel grooves for the feet of the runners at
+  starting, and sockets to hold the posts that separated the spaces
+  assigned to the various competitors, and served as guides to them in
+  running. For these were substituted later a set of stone columns
+  resembling those in the proscenium of a theatre. There was doubtless a
+  similar sill at the lower end for the start of the stadium, this upper
+  one being intended for the start of the diaulos and longer races.
+
+  The theatre still deserves the praise given it by Pausanias as the
+  most beautiful in Greece. The auditorium is in remarkable
+  preservation, almost every seat being still _in situ_, except a few
+  where the supporting walls have given way on the wings. The whole plan
+  is drawn from three centres, the outer portion of the curves being
+  arcs of a larger circle than the one used for the central portion; the
+  complete circle of the orchestra is marked by a sill of white
+  limestone, and greatly enhances the effect of the whole. There are
+  benches with backs not only in the bottom row, but also above and
+  below the diazoma. The acoustic properties of the theatre are
+  extraordinarily good, a speaker in the orchestra being heard
+  throughout the auditorium without raising his voice. The stage
+  buildings are not preserved much above their foundations, and show
+  signs of later repairs; but their general character can be clearly
+  seen. They consist of a long rectangular building, with a proscenium
+  or column front which almost forms a tangent to the circle of the
+  orchestra; at the middle and at either end of this proscenium are
+  doors leading into the orchestra, those at the end set in projecting
+  wings; the top of the proscenium is approached by a ramp, of which the
+  lower part is still preserved, running parallel to the parodi, but
+  sloping up as they slope down. The proscenium was originally about 14
+  ft. high and 12 ft. broad; so corresponding approximately to the Greek
+  stage as described by Vitruvius. M. Kavvadias, who excavated the
+  theatre, believes that the proscenium is contemporary with the rest of
+  the theatre, which, like the Tholos, was built by Polyclitus (the
+  younger); but Professor W. Dorpfeld maintains that it is a later
+  addition. In any case, the theatre at Epidaurus ranks as the most
+  typical of Greek theatres, both from the simplicity of its plan and
+  the beauty of its proportions.
+
+  See Pausanias i. 29; _Expedition de la Moree_, ii.; Curtius,
+  _Peloponnesus_, ii.; _Transactions of Roy. Soc. of Lit._, 2nd series,
+  vol. ii.; Weclawski, _De rebus Epidauriorum_ (Posen, 1854).
+
+  The excavations at the Hieron have been recorded as they went on in
+  the [Greek: Praktika] of the Greek Archaeological Society, especially
+  for 1881-1884 and 1889, and also in the [Greek: Ephemeris
+  Archaiologike], especially for 1883 and 1885; see also Kavvadias, Les
+  _Fouilles d'Epidaure_ and [Greek: To Hieron tou Asklepiou en Epidauro
+  kai he therapeia ton asthenon]; Defrasse and Lechat, _Epidaure_. A
+  museum was completed in 1910.
+
+2. A city of Peloponnesus on the east coast of Laconia, distinguished by
+the epithet of Limera (either "The Well-havened" or "The Hungry"). It
+was founded by the people of Epidaurus the Holy, and its principal
+temples were those of Asclepius and Aphrodite. It was abandoned during
+the middle ages; its inhabitants took possession of the promontory of
+Minoa, turned it into an island, and built and fortified thereon the
+city of Monembasia, which became the most flourishing of all the towns
+in the Morea, and gave its name to the well-known Malmsey or Malvasia
+wine. The ruins of Epidaurus are to be seen at the place now called
+Palaea Monemvasia.
+
+A third Epidaurus was situated in Illyricum, on the site of the present
+Ragusa Vecchia; but it is not mentioned till the time of the civil wars
+of Pompey and Caesar, and has no special interest.     (E. Gr.)
+
+
+
+
+EPIDIORITE, in petrology, a typical member of a family of rocks
+consisting essentially of hornblende and felspar, often with epidote,
+garnet, sphene, biotite, or quartz, and having usually a foliated
+structure. The term is to some extent synonymous with "amphibolite" and
+"hornblende-schist." These rocks are metamorphic, and though having a
+mineral constitution somewhat similar to that of diorite, they have been
+produced really from rocks of more basic character, such as diabase,
+dolerite and gabbro. They occur principally among the schists, slates
+and gneisses of such districts as the Scottish Highlands, the north-west
+of Ireland, Brittany, the Harz, the Alps, and the crystalline ranges of
+eastern N. America. Their hornblende in microscopic section is usually
+dark green, rarely brownish; their felspar may be clear and
+recrystallized, but more frequently is converted into a turbid aggregate
+of epidote, zoisite, quartz, sericite and albite. In the less complete
+stages of alteration, ophitic structure may persist, and the original
+augite of the rock may not have been entirely replaced by hornblende.
+Pink or brownish garnets are common and may be an inch or two in
+diameter. The iron oxides, originally ilmenite, are usually altered to
+sphene. Biotite, if present, is brown; epidote is yellow or colourless;
+rutile, apatite and quartz all occur with some frequency. The essential
+minerals, hornblende and felspar, rarely show crystalline outlines, and
+this is generally true also of the others. The rocks may be fine
+grained, so that their constituents are hardly visible to the unaided
+eye; or may show crystals of hornblende an inch in length. Their
+prevalent colour is dark green and they weather with brown surfaces. In
+many parts of the world epidiorites and the quartz veins which sometimes
+occur in them have proved to be auriferous. As they are tough, hard
+rocks, when fresh, they are well suited for use as road-mending stones.
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+EPIDOSITE, in petrology, a typical member of a family of metamorphic
+rocks composed mainly of epidote and quartz. In colour they are pale
+yellow or greenish yellow, and they are hard and somewhat brittle. They
+may occur in more than one way and are derived from several kinds of
+rock. Some have been epidotic grits and sandstones; others are
+limestones which have undergone contact-alteration; probably the
+majority, however, are allied to epidiorite and amphibolite, and are
+local modifications of rocks which were primarily basic intrusions or
+lavas. The sedimentary epidosites occur with mica-schists, sheared grits
+and granulitic gneisses; they often show, on minute examination, the
+remains of clastic structures. The epidosites derived from limestones
+may contain a great variety of minerals such as calcite, augite, garnet,
+scapolite, &c., but their source may usually be inferred from their
+close association with calc-silicate rocks in the field. The third group
+of epidosites may form bands, veins, or irregular streaks and nodules in
+masses of epidiorite and hornblende-schist. In microscopic section they
+are often merely a granular mosaic of quartz and epidote with some iron
+oxides and chlorite, but in other cases they retain much of the
+structure of the original rock though there has been a complete
+replacement of the former minerals by new ones. Epidosites when streaked
+and variegated have been cut and polished as ornamental stones. They are
+translucent and hard, and hence serve for brooch stones, and the simpler
+kinds of jewelry. These rocks occasionally carry gold in visible yellow
+specks.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+EPIDOTE, a mineral species consisting of basic calcium, aluminium and
+iron orthosilicate, Ca2(AlOH)(Al, Fe)2(SiO4)3, crystallizing in the
+monoclinic system. Well-developed crystals are of frequent occurrence:
+they are commonly prismatic in habit, the direction of elongation being
+perpendicular to the single plane of symmetry. The faces lettered M, T
+and r in the figure are often deeply striated in the same direction: M
+is a direction of perfect cleavage, and T of imperfect cleavage:
+crystals are often twinned on the face T. Many of the characters of the
+mineral vary with the amount of iron present (Fe2O3, 5-17%), for
+instance, the colour, the optical constants, and the specific gravity
+(3.3-3.5). The hardness is 6-1/2. The colour is green, grey, brown or
+nearly black, but usually a characteristic shade of yellowish-green or
+pistachio-green. The pleochroism is strong, the pleochroic colours being
+usually green, yellow and brown. The names thallite (from [Greek:
+thallos], "a young shoot") and pistacite (from [Greek: pistakia],
+"pistachio nut") have reference to the colour. The name epidote is one
+of R.J. Hauy's crystallographic names, and is derived from [Greek:
+epidosis], "increase," because the base of the primitive prism has one
+side longer than the other. Several other names (achmatite, bucklandite,
+escherite, puschkinite, &c.) have been applied to this species.
+Withamite is a carmine-red to straw-yellow, strongly pleochroic variety
+from Glencoe in Scotland. Fouqueite and clinozoisite are white or pale
+rose-red varieties containing very little iron, thus having the same
+chemical composition as the orthorhombic mineral zoisite (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Epidote is an abundant rock-forming mineral, but one of secondary
+origin. It occurs in crystalline limestones and schistose rocks of
+metamorphic origin; and is also a product of weathering of various
+minerals (felspars, micas, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, &c.)
+composing igneous rocks. A rock composed of quartz and epidote is known
+as epidosite. Well-developed crystals are found at many localities, of
+which the following may be specially mentioned: Knappenwand, near the
+Gross-Venediger in the Untersulzbachthal in Salzburg, as magnificent,
+dark green crystals of long prismatic habit in cavities in
+epidote-schist, with asbestos, adularia, calcite, and apatite; the Ala
+valley and Traversella in Piedmont; Arendal in Norway (arendalite); Le
+Bourg d'Oisans in Dauphine (oisanite and delphinite); Haddam in
+Connecticut; Prince of Wales Island in Alaska, here as large, dark
+green, tabular crystals with copper ores in metamorphosed limestone.
+
+The perfectly transparent, dark green crystals from the Knappenwand and
+from Brazil have occasionally been cut as gem-stones.
+
+Belonging to the same isomorphous group with epidote are the species
+piedmontite and allanite, which may be described as manganese and cerium
+epidotes respectively.
+
+Piedmontite has the composition Ca2(AlOH)(Fe, Mn)2(SiO4)3; it occurs as
+small, reddish-black, monoclinic crystals in the manganese mines at San
+Marcel, near Ivrea in Piedmont, and in crystalline schists at several
+places in Japan. The purple colour of the Egyptian _porfido rosso
+antico_ is due to the presence of this mineral.
+
+Allanite has the same general formula R2"(R'"OH)R2'"(SiO4)3, where R"
+represents calcium and ferrous iron, and R'" aluminium, ferric iron and
+metals of the cerium group. In external appearance it differs widely
+from epidote, being black or dark brown in colour, pitchy in lustre, and
+opaque in the mass; further, there is little or no cleavage, and
+well-developed crystals are rarely met with. The crystallographic and
+optical characters are similar to those of epidote; the pleochroism is
+strong with reddish-, yellowish-, and greenish-brown colours. Although
+not a common mineral, allanite is of fairly wide distribution as a
+primary accessory constituent of many crystalline rocks, e.g. gneiss,
+granite, syenite, rhyolite, andesite, &c. It was first found in the
+granite of east Greenland and described by Thomas Allan in 1808, after
+whom the species was named. Allanite is a mineral readily altered by
+hydration, becoming optically isotropic and amorphous: for this reason
+several varieties have been distinguished, and many different names
+applied. Orthite, from [Greek: orthos], "straight," was the name given
+by J.J. Berzelius in 1818 to a hydrated form found as slender prismatic
+crystals, sometimes a foot in length, at Finbo, near Falun in Sweden.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+EPIGONI ("descendants"), in Greek legend, the sons of the seven heroes
+who fought against Thebes (see ADRASTUS). Ten years later, to avenge
+their fathers, the Epigoni undertook a second expedition, which was
+completely successful. Thebes was forced to surrender and razed to the
+ground. In early times the war of the Epigoni was a favourite subject of
+epic poetry. The term is also applied to the descendants of the
+Diadochi, the successors of Alexander the Great.
+
+
+
+
+EPIGONION (Gr. [Greek: epigoneion]), an ancient stringed instrument
+mentioned in Athenaeus 183 C, probably a psaltery. The epigonion was
+invented, or at least introduced into Greece, by Epigonus, a Greek
+musician of Ambracia in Epirus, who was admitted to citizenship at
+Sicyon as a recognition of his great musical ability and of his having
+been the first to pluck the strings with his fingers, instead of using
+the plectrum.[1] The instrument, which Epigonus named after himself, had
+forty strings.[2] It was undoubtedly a kind of harp or psaltery, since
+in an instrument of so many strings some must have been of different
+lengths, for tension and thickness only could hardly have produced forty
+different sounds, or even twenty, supposing that they were arranged in
+pairs of unisons. Strings of varying lengths require a frame like that
+of the harp, or of the Egyptian cithara which had one of the arms
+supporting the cross bar or zugon shorter than the other,[3] or else
+strings stretched over harp-shaped bridges on a sound-board in the case
+of a psaltery. Juba II., king of Mauretania, who reigned from 30 B.C.,
+said (ap. Athen. l.c.) that Epigonus brought the instrument from
+Alexandria and played upon it with the fingers of both hands, not only
+using it as an accompaniment to the voice, but introducing chromatic
+passages, and a chorus of other stringed instruments, probably citharas,
+to accompany the voice. Epigonus was also a skilled citharist and played
+with his bare hands without plectrum.[4] Unfortunately we have no record
+of when Epigonus lived. Vincenzo Galilei[5] has given us a description
+of the epigonion accompanied by an illustration, representing his
+conception of the ancient instrument, an upright psaltery with the
+outline of the clavicytherium (but no keyboard).     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Michael Praetorius, _Syntagma musicum_, tom. 1, c. 13, p. 380:
+    Salomon van Til, _Sing-Dicht und Spiel-Kunst_, p. 95.
+
+  [2] Pollux, _Onomasticon_, lib. iv. cap. 9, 59.
+
+  [3] For an illustration, see Kathleen Schlesinger, _Orchestral
+    Instruments_, part ii. "Precursors of the Violin Family," fig. 165,
+    p. 219.
+
+  [4] Athenaeus, iv. p. 183 d. and xiv. p. 638 a.
+
+  [5] _Dialogo della musica antica e moderna_, ed. 1602, p. 40.
+
+
+
+
+EPIGRAM, properly speaking, anything that is inscribed. Nothing could be
+more hopeless, however, than an attempt to discover or devise a
+definition wide enough to include the vast multitude of little poems
+which at one time or other have been honoured with the title of epigram,
+and precise enough to exclude all others. Without taking account of its
+evident misapplications, we find that the name has been given--first, in
+strict accordance with its Greek etymology, to any actual inscription on
+monument, statue or building; secondly, to verses never intended for
+such a purpose, but assuming for artistic reasons the epigraphical form;
+thirdly, to verses expressing with something of the terseness of an
+inscription a striking or beautiful thought; and fourthly, by
+unwarrantable restriction, to a little poem ending in a "point,"
+especially of the satirical kind. The last of these has obtained
+considerable popularity from the well-known lines--
+
+  "The qualities rare in a bee that we meet
+     In an epigram never should fail;
+   The body should always be little and sweet,
+     And a sting should be left in its tail"--
+
+which represent the older Latin of some unknown writer--
+
+  "Omne epigramma sit instar apis: sit aculeus illi;
+     Sint sua mella; sit et corporis exigui."
+
+Attempts not a few of a more elaborate kind have been made to state the
+essential element of the epigram, and to classify existing specimens;
+but, as every lover of epigrams must feel, most of them have been
+attended with very partial success. Scaliger, in the third book of his
+_Poetics_, gives a fivefold division, which displays a certain ingenuity
+in the nomenclature but is very superficial: the first class takes its
+name from _mel_, or honey, and consists of adulatory specimens; the
+second from _fel_, or gall; the third from _acetum_, or vinegar; and the
+fourth from _sal_, or salt; while the fifth is styled the condensed, or
+multiplex. This classification is adopted by Nicolaus Mercerius in his
+_De conscribendo epigrammate_ (Paris, 1653); but he supplemented it by
+another of much more scientific value, based on the figures of the
+ancient rhetoricians. Lessing, in the preface to his own epigrams, gives
+an interesting treatment of the theory, his principal doctrine being
+practically the same as that of several of his less eminent
+predecessors, that there ought to be two parts more or less clearly
+distinguished,--the first awakening the reader's attention in the same
+way as an actual monument might do, and the other satisfying his
+curiosity in some unexpected manner. An attempt was made by Herder to
+increase the comprehensiveness and precision of the theory; but as he
+himself confesses, his classification is rather vague--the expository,
+the paradigmatic, the pictorial, the impassioned, the artfully turned,
+the illusory, and the swift. After all, if the arrangement according to
+authorship be rejected, the simplest and most satisfactory is according
+to subjects. The epigram is one of the most catholic of literary forms,
+and lends itself to the expression of almost any feeling or thought. It
+may be an elegy, a satire, or a love-poem in miniature, an embodiment of
+the wisdom of the ages, a bon-mot set off with a couple of rhymes.
+
+  "I cannot tell thee who lies buried here;
+   No man that knew him followed by his bier;
+   The winds and waves conveyed him to this shore,
+   Then ask the winds and waves to tell thee more."
+
+      ANONYMOUS.
+
+  "Wherefore should I vainly try
+     To teach thee what my love will be
+   In after years, when thou and I
+     Have both grown old in company,
+   If words are vain to tell thee how,
+   Mary, I do love thee now?"
+
+      ANONYMOUS.
+
+  "O Bruscus, cease our aching ears to vex,
+   With thy loud railing at the softer sex;
+   No accusation worse than this could be,
+   That once a woman did give birth to thee."
+
+      ACILIUS.
+
+  "Treason doth never prosper. What's the reason?
+   For if it prospers none dare call it treason."
+
+      HARRINGTON.
+
+  "Ward has no heart they say, but I deny it;
+   He has a heart, and gets his speeches by it."
+
+      ROGERS.
+
+From its very brevity there is no small danger of the epigram passing
+into childish triviality: the paltriest pun, a senseless anagram, is
+considered stuff enough and to spare. For proof of this there is
+unfortunately no need to look far; but perhaps the reader could not find
+a better collection ready to his hand than the second twenty-five of the
+_Epigrammatum centuriae_ of Samuel Erichius; by the time he reaches No.
+11 of the 47th century, he will be quite ready to grant the
+appropriateness of the identity maintained between the German _Seele_,
+or soul, and the German _Esel_, or ass.
+
+Of the epigram as cultivated by the Greeks an account is given in the
+article ANTHOLOGY, discussing those wonderful collections which bid fair
+to remain the richest of their kind. The delicacy and simplicity of so
+much of what has been preserved is perhaps their most striking feature;
+and one cannot but be surprised at the number of poets proved capable of
+such work. In Latin literature, on the other hand, the epigrammatists
+whose work has been preserved are comparatively few, and though several
+of them, as Catullus and Martial, are men of high literary genius, too
+much of what they have left behind is vitiated by brutality and
+obscenity. On the subsequent history of the epigram, indeed, Martial has
+exercised an influence as baneful as it is extensive, and he may fairly
+be counted the far-off progenitor of a host of scurrilous verses. Nearly
+all the learned Latinists of the 16th and 17th centuries may claim
+admittance into the list of epigrammatists,--Bembo and Scaliger,
+Buchanan and More, Stroza and Sannazaro. Melanchthon, who succeeded in
+combining so much of Pagan culture with his Reformation Christianity,
+has left us some graceful specimens, but his editor, Joannes Major
+Joachimus, has so little idea of what an epigram is, that he includes in
+his collection some translations from the Psalms. The Latin epigrams of
+Etienne Pasquier were among the most admirable which the Renaissance
+produced in France. John Owen, or, as he Latinized his name, Johannes
+Audoenus, a Cambro-Briton, attained quite an unusual celebrity in this
+department, and is regularly distinguished as Owen the Epigrammatist.
+The tradition of the Latin epigram has been kept alive in England by
+such men as Porson, Vincent Bourne and Walter Savage Landor. Happily
+there is now little danger of any too personal epigrammatist suffering
+the fate of Niccolo Franco, who paid the forfeit of his life for having
+launched his venomous Latin against Pius V., though he may still incur
+the milder penalty of having his name inserted in the _Index
+Expurgatorius_, and find, like John Owen, that he consequently has lost
+an inheritance.
+
+In English literature proper there is no writer like Martial in Latin
+or Logau in German, whose fame is entirely due to his epigrams; but
+several even of those whose names can perish never have not disdained
+this diminutive form. The designation epigram, however, is used by
+earlier English writers with excessive laxity, and given or withheld
+without apparent reason. The epigrams of Robert Crowley (1550) and of
+Henry Parrot (1613) are worthless so far as form goes. John Weever's
+collection (1599) is of interest mainly because of its allusion to
+Shakespeare. Ben Jonson furnishes a number of noble examples in his
+_Underwoods_; and one or two of Spenser's little poems and a great many
+of Herrick's are properly classed as epigrams. Cowley, Waller, Dryden,
+Prior, Parnell, Swift, Addison, Johnson, Goldsmith and Young have all
+been at times successful in their epigrammatical attempts; but perhaps
+none of them has proved himself so much "to the manner born" as Pope,
+whose name indeed is almost identified with the epigrammatical spirit in
+English literature. Few English modern poets have followed in his
+footsteps, and though nearly all might plead guilty to an epigram or
+two, there is no one who has a distinct reputation as an epigrammatist.
+Such a reputation might certainly have been Landor's, had he not chosen
+to write the best of his minor poems in Latin, and thus made his readers
+nearly as select as his language.
+
+The French are undoubtedly the most successful cultivators of the "salt"
+and the "vinegar" epigram; and from the 16th century downwards many of
+their principal authors have earned no small celebrity in this
+department. The epigram was introduced into French literature by Mellin
+de St Gelais and Clement Marot. It is enough to mention the names of
+Boileau, J.B. Rousseau, Lebrun, Voltaire, Marmontel, Piron, Rulhiere,
+and M.J. Chenier. In spite of Rapin's dictum that a man ought to be
+content if he succeeded in writing one really good epigram, those of
+Lebrun alone number upwards of 600, and a very fair proportion of them
+would doubtless pass muster even with Rapin himself. If Piron was never
+anything better, "pas meme academicien," he appears at any rate in
+Grimm's phrase to have been "une machine a saillies, a epigrammes, et a
+bons mots." Perhaps more than anywhere else the epigram has been
+recognized in France as a regular weapon in literary and political
+contests, and it might not be altogether a hopeless task to compile an
+epigrammatical history from the Revolution to the present time.
+
+While any fair collection of German epigrams will furnish examples that
+for keenness of wit would be quite in place in a French anthology, the
+Teutonic tendency to the moral and didactic has given rise to a class
+but sparingly represented in French. The very name of _Sinngedichte_
+bears witness to this peculiarity, which is exemplified equally by the
+rude _priameln_ or _proeameln_, of the 13th and 14th centuries and the
+polished lines of Goethe and Schiller. Logau published his _Deutsche
+Sinngetichte Drey Tausend_ in 1654, and Wernicke no fewer than six
+volumes of _Ueberschriften oder Epigrammata_ in 1697; Kastner's
+_Sinngedichte_ appeared in 1782, and Haug and Weissen's _Epigrammatische
+Anthologie_ in 1804. Kleist, Opitz, Gleim, Hagedorn, Klopstock and A.W.
+Schlegel all possess some reputation as epigrammatists; Lessing is
+_facile princeps_ in the satirical style; and Herder has the honour of
+having enriched his language with much of what is best from Oriental and
+classical sources.
+
+It is often by no means easy to trace the history of even a single
+epigram, and the investigator soon learns to be cautious of
+congratulating himself on the attainment of a genuine original. The same
+point, refurbished and fitted anew to its tiny shaft, has been shot
+again and again by laughing cupids or fierce-eyed furies in many a
+frolic and many a fray. During the period when the epigram was the
+favourite form in Germany, Gervinus tells us how the works, not only of
+the Greek and Roman writers, but of Neo-Latinists, Spaniards, Dutchmen,
+Frenchmen, Englishmen and Poles were ransacked and plundered; and the
+same process of pillage has gone on in a more or less modified degree in
+other times and countries. Very noticeable often are the modifications
+of tone and expression occasioned by national and individual
+characteristics; the simplicity of the prototype may become common-place
+in the imitation, the sublime be distorted into the grotesque, the
+pathetic degenerate into the absurdly sentimental; or on the other hand,
+an unpromising _motif_ may be happily developed into unexpected beauty.
+A good illustration of the variety with which the same epigram may be
+translated and travestied is afforded by a little volume published in
+Edinburgh in 1808, under the title of _Lucubrations on the Epigram--_
+
+  [Greek: Ei men en mathein a dei pathein,
+  kai me pathein, kalon en to mathein
+  ei de dei pathein a d' en mathein,
+  ti dei mathein; chre gar pathein.]
+
+  The two collections of epigrams most accessible to the English reader
+  are Booth's _Epigrams, Ancient and Modern_ (1863) and Dodd's _The
+  Epigrammatists_ (1870). In the appendix to the latter is a pretty full
+  bibliography, to which the following list may serve as a
+  supplement:--Thomas Corraeus, _De toto eo poematis genere quod
+  epigramma dicitur_ (Venice, 1569; Bologna, 1590); Cottunius, _De
+  conficiendo epigrammate_ (Bologna, 1632); Vincentius Gallus,
+  _Opusculum de epigrammate_ (Milan, 1641); Vavassor, _De epigrammate
+  liber_ (Paris, 1669); _Gedanke von deutschen Epigrammatibus_ (Leipzig,
+  1698); _Doctissimorum nostra aetate Italorum epigrammata; Flaminii
+  Moleae Naugerii, Cottae, Lampridii, Sadoleti, et aliorum, cura Jo.
+  Gagnaei_ (Paris, c. 1550); Brugiere de Barante, _Recueil des plus
+  belles epigrammes des poetes francais_ (2 vols., Paris, 1698); Chr.
+  Aug. Heumann, _Anthologia Latina: hoc est, epigrammata partim a
+  priscis partim junioribus a poetis_ (Hanover, 1721); Fayolle,
+  _Acontologie ou dictionnaire d'epigrammes_ (Paris, 1817); Geijsbeck,
+  _Epigrammatische Anthologie_, Sauvage, _Les Guepes gauloises: petit
+  encyclopedie des meilleurs epigrammes, &c., depuis Clement Marot
+  jusqu'aux poetes de nos jours_ (1859); _La Recreation et passe-temps
+  des tristes: recueil d'epigrammes et de petits contes en vers
+  reimprime sur l'edition de Rouen_ 1595, &c. (Paris, 1863). A large
+  number of epigrams and much miscellaneous information in regard to
+  their origin, application and translation is scattered through _Notes
+  and Queries_.
+
+  See also an article in _The Quarterly Review_, No. 233.
+
+
+
+
+EPIGRAPHY (Gr. [Greek: epi], on, and [Greek: graphein], to write), a
+term used to denote (1) the study of inscriptions collectively, and (2)
+the science connected with the classification and explanation of
+inscriptions. It is sometimes employed, too, in a more contracted sense,
+to denote the palaeography, in inscriptions. Generally, it is that part
+of archaeology which has to do with inscriptions engraved on stone,
+metal or other permanent material (not, however, coins, which come under
+the heading NUMISMATICS).
+
+  See INSCRIPTIONS; PALAEOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+EPILEPSY (Gr. [Greek: epi], upon, and [Greek: lambanein], to seize), or
+FALLING SICKNESS, a term applied generally to a nervous disorder,
+characterized by a fit of sudden loss of consciousness, attended with
+convulsions. There may, however, exist manifestations of epilepsy much
+less marked than this, yet equally characteristic of the disease; while,
+on the other hand, it is to be borne in mind that many other attacks of
+a convulsive nature have the term "epileptic" or "epileptiform" applied
+to them.
+
+Epilepsy was well known in ancient times, and was regarded as a special
+infliction of the gods, hence the names _morbus sacer_, _morbus divus_.
+It was also termed _morbus Herculeus_, from Hercules having been
+supposed to have been epileptic, and _morbus comitialis_, from the
+circumstance that when any member of the forum was seized with an
+epileptic fit the assembly was broken up. _Morbus caducus_, _morbus
+lunaticus astralis_, _morbus demoniacus_, _morbus major_, were all terms
+employed to designate epilepsy.
+
+There are three well-marked varieties of the epileptic seizure; to these
+the terms _le grand mal_, _le petit mal_ and _Jacksonian epilepsy_ are
+usually applied. Any of these may exist alone, but the two former may be
+found to exist in the same individual. The first of these, if not the
+more common, is at least that which attracts the most attention, being
+what is generally known as an _epileptic fit_.
+
+Although in most instances such an attack comes on suddenly, it is in
+many cases preceded by certain premonitory indications or warnings,
+which may be present for a greater or less time previously. These are of
+very varied character, and may be in the form of some temporary change
+in the disposition, such as unusual depression or elevation of spirits,
+or of some alteration in the look. Besides these general symptoms, there
+are frequently peculiar sensations which immediately precede the onset
+of the fit, and to such the name of _aura epileptica_ is applied. In its
+strict sense this term refers to a feeling of a breath of air blowing
+upon some part of the body, and passing upwards towards the head. This
+sensation, however, is not a common one, and the term has now come to be
+applied to any peculiar feeling which the patient experiences as a
+precursor of the attack. The so-called _aura_ may be of mental
+character, in the form of an agonizing feeling of momentary duration; of
+sensorial character, in the form of pain in a limb or in some internal
+organ, such as the stomach, or morbid feeling connected with the special
+senses; or, further, of motorial character, in the form of contractions
+or trembling in some of the muscles. When such sensations affect a limb,
+the employment of firm compression by the hand or by a ligature
+occasionally succeeds in warding off an attack. The aura may be so
+distinct and of such duration as to enable the patient to lie down, or
+seek a place of safety before the fit comes on.
+
+The seizure is usually preceded by a loud scream or cry, which is not to
+be ascribed, as was at one time supposed, to terror or pain, but is due
+to the convulsive action of the muscles of the larynx, and the expulsion
+of a column of air through the narrowed glottis. If the patient is
+standing he immediately falls, and often sustains serious injury.
+Unconsciousness is complete, and the muscles generally are in a state of
+stiffness or tonic contraction, which will usually be found to affect
+those of one side of the body in particular. The head is turned by a
+series of jerks towards one or other shoulder, the breathing is for the
+moment arrested, the countenance first pale then livid, the pupils
+dilated and the pulse rapid. This, the first stage of the fit, generally
+lasts for about half a minute, and is followed by the state of clonic
+(i.e. tumultuous) spasm of the muscles, in which the whole body is
+thrown into violent agitation, occasionally so great that bones may be
+fractured or dislocated. The eyes roll wildly, the teeth are gnashed
+together, and the tongue and cheeks are often severely bitten. The
+breathing is noisy and laborious, and foam (often tinged with blood)
+issues from the mouth, while the contents of the bowels and bladder are
+ejected. The aspect of the patient in this condition is shocking to
+witness, and the sight has been known to induce a similar attack in an
+onlooker. This stage lasts for a period varying from a few seconds to
+several minutes, when the convulsive movements gradually subside, and
+relaxation of the muscles takes place, together with partial return of
+consciousness, the patient looking confusedly about him and attempting
+to speak. This, however, is soon followed by drowsiness and stupor,
+which may continue for several hours, when he awakes either apparently
+quite recovered or fatigued and depressed, and occasionally in a state
+of excitement which sometimes assumes the form of mania.
+
+Epileptic fits of this sort succeed each other with varying degrees of
+frequency, and occasionally, though not frequently, with regular
+periodicity. In some persons they only occur once in a lifetime, or once
+in the course of many years, while in others they return every week or
+two, or even are of daily occurrence, and occasionally there are
+numerous attacks each day. According to Sir J.R. Reynolds, there are
+four times as many epileptics who have their attacks more frequently
+than once a month as there are of those whose attacks recur at longer
+intervals. When the fit returns it is not uncommon for one seizure to be
+followed by another within a few hours or days. Occasionally there
+occurs a constant succession of attacks extending over many hours, and
+with such rapidity that the patient appears as if he had never come out
+of the one fit. The term _status epilepticus_ is applied to this
+condition, which is sometimes followed with fatal results. In many
+epileptics the fits occur during the night as well as during the day,
+but in some instances they are entirely nocturnal, and it is well known
+that in such cases the disease may long exist and yet remain
+unrecognized either by the patient or the physician.
+
+The second manifestation of epilepsy, to which the names _epilepsia
+mitior_ or _le petit mal_ are given, differs from that above described
+in the absence of the convulsive spasms. It is also termed by some
+authors _epileptic vertigo_ (giddiness), and consists essentially in the
+sudden arrest of volition and consciousness, which is of but short
+duration, and may be accompanied with staggering or some alteration in
+position or motion, or may simply exhibit itself in a look of absence or
+confusion, and should the patient happen to be engaged in conversation,
+by an abrupt termination of the act. In general it lasts but a few
+seconds, and the individual resumes his occupation without perhaps being
+aware of anything having been the matter. In some instances there is a
+degree of spasmodic action in certain muscles which may cause the
+patient to make some unexpected movement, such as turning half round, or
+walking abruptly aside, or may show itself by some unusual expression of
+countenance, such as squinting or grinning. There may be some amount of
+_aura_ preceding such attacks, and also of faintness following them. The
+_petit mal_ most commonly co-exists with the _grand mal_, but has no
+necessary connexion with it, as each may exist alone. According to
+Armand Trousseau, the _petit mal_ in general precedes the manifestation
+of the _grand mal_, but sometimes the reverse is the case.
+
+The third manifestation--_Jacksonian epilepsy_ or _partial epilepsy_--is
+distinguished by the fact that consciousness is retained or lost late.
+The patient is conscious throughout, and is able to watch the march of
+the spasm. The attacks are usually the result of lesions in the motor
+area of the brain, such being caused, in many instances, by depression
+of the vault of the skull, due to trauma.
+
+Epilepsy appears to exert no necessarily injurious effect upon the
+general health, and even where it exists in an aggravated form is quite
+consistent with a high degree of bodily vigour. It is very different,
+however, with regard to its influence upon the mind; and the question of
+the relation of epilepsy to insanity is one of great and increasing
+importance. Allusion has already been made to the occasional occurrence
+of maniacal excitement as one of the results of the epileptic seizure.
+Such attacks, to which the name of _furor epilepticus_ is applied, are
+generally accompanied with violent acts on the part of the patient,
+rendering him dangerous, and demanding prompt measures of restraint.
+These attacks are by no means limited to the more severe form of
+epilepsy, but appear to be even more frequently associated with the
+milder form--the epileptic vertigo--where they either replace altogether
+or immediately follow the short period of absence characteristic of this
+form of the disease. Numerous cases are on record of persons known to be
+epileptic being suddenly seized, either after or without apparent
+spasmodic attack, with some sudden impulse, in which they have used
+dangerous violence to those beside them, irrespective altogether of
+malevolent intention, as appears from their retaining no recollection
+whatever, after the short period of excitement, of anything that had
+occurred; and there is reason to believe that crimes of heinous
+character, for which the perpetrators have suffered punishment, have
+been committed in a state of mind such as that now described. The
+subject is obviously one of the greatest medico-legal interest and
+importance in regard to the question of criminal responsibility.
+
+Apart, however, from such marked and comparatively rare instances of
+what is termed epileptic insanity, the general mental condition of the
+epileptic is in a large proportion of cases unfavourably affected by the
+disease. There are doubtless examples (and their number according to
+statistics is estimated at less than one-third) where, even among those
+suffering from frequent and severe attacks, no departure from the normal
+condition of mental integrity can be recognized. But in general there
+exists some peculiarity, exhibiting itself either in the form of
+defective memory, or diminishing intelligence, or what is perhaps as
+frequent, in irregularities of temper, the patient being irritable or
+perverse and eccentric. In not a few cases there is a steady mental
+decline, which ends in dementia or idiocy. It is stated by some high
+authorities that epileptic women suffer in regard to their mental
+condition more than men. It also appears to be the case that the later
+in life the disease shows itself the more likely is the mind to suffer.
+Neither the frequency nor the severity of the seizures seem to have any
+necessary influence in the matter; and the general opinion appears to be
+that the milder form of the disease is that with which mental failure is
+more apt to be associated. (For a consideration of the conditions of the
+nervous system which result in epilepsy, see the article
+NEUROPATHOLOGY.)
+
+The influence of hereditary predisposition in epilepsy is very marked.
+It is necessary, however, to bear in mind the point so forcibly insisted
+on by Trousseau in relation to epilepsy, that hereditary transmission
+may be either direct or indirect, that is to say, that what is epilepsy
+in one generation may be some other form of neurosis in the next, and
+conversely, nervous diseases being remarkable for their tendency to
+transformation in their descent in families. Where epilepsy is
+hereditary, it generally manifests itself at an unusually early period
+of life. A singular fact, which also bears to some extent upon the
+pathology of this disease, was brought to light by Dr Brown Sequard in
+his experiments, namely, that the young of animals which had been
+artifically rendered epileptic were liable to similar seizures. In
+connexion with the hereditary transmission of epilepsy it must be
+observed that all authorities concur in the opinion that this disease is
+one among the baneful effects that often follow marriages of
+consanguinity. Further, there is reason to believe that intemperance,
+apart altogether from its direct effect in favouring the occurrence of
+epilepsy, has an evil influence in the hereditary transmission of this
+as of other nervous diseases. A want of symmetry in the formation of the
+skull and defective cerebral development are not infrequently observed
+where epilepsy is hereditarily transmitted.
+
+Age is of importance in reference to the production of epilepsy. The
+disease may come on at any period of life, but it appears from the
+statistics of Reynolds and others, that it most frequently first
+manifests itself between the ages of ten and twenty years, the period of
+second dentition and puberty, and again at or about the age of forty.
+
+Among other causes which are influential in the development of epilepsy
+may be mentioned sudden fright, prolonged mental anxiety, over-work and
+debauchery. Epileptic fits also occur in connexion with a depraved stage
+of the general health, and with irritations in distant organs, as seen
+in the fits occurring in dentition, in kidney disease, and as a result
+of worms in the intestines. The symptoms traceable to these causes are
+sometimes termed _sympathetic_ or _eccentric epilepsy_; these are but
+rarely _epileptic_ in the strictest sense of the word, but rather
+epileptiform.
+
+Epilepsy is occasionally feigned for the purpose of extortion, but an
+experienced medical practitioner will rarely be deceived; and when it is
+stated that although many of the phenomena of an attack, particularly
+the convulsive movements, can be readily simulated, yet that the
+condition of the pupils, which are dilated during the fit, cannot be
+feigned, and that the impostor seldom bites his tongue or injures
+himself, deception is not likely to succeed even with non-medical
+persons of intelligence.
+
+The _medical treatment_ of epilepsy can only be briefly alluded to here.
+During the fit little can be done beyond preventing as far as possible
+the patient from injuring himself while unconsciousness continues. Tight
+clothing should be loosened, and a cork or pad inserted between the
+teeth. When the fit is of long continuance, the dashing of cold water on
+the face and chest, or the inhalation of chloroform, or of nitrite of
+amyl, may be useful; in general, however, the fit terminates
+independently of any such measures. When the fit is over the patient
+should be allowed to sleep, and have the head and shoulders well raised.
+
+In the intervals of the attack, the general health of the patient is
+one of the most important points to be attended to. The strictest
+hygienic and dietetic rules should be observed, and all such causes as
+have been referred to as favouring the development of the disease
+should, as far as possible, be avoided. In the case of children, parents
+must be made to realize that epilepsy is a chronic disease, and that
+therefore the seizures must not be allowed to interfere unnecessarily
+with the child's training. The patient must be treated as such only
+during the attack; between times, though being carefully watched, must
+be made to follow a child's normal pursuits, and no distinction must be
+made from other children. The same applies to adults: it is far better
+for them to have some definite occupation, preferably one that keeps
+them in the open air. If such patients become irritable, then they
+should be placed under supervision. As regards those who cannot be
+looked after at home, colonies on a self-supporting basis have been
+tried, and where the supervision has been intelligent the success has
+been proved, a fairly high level of health and happiness being attained.
+
+The various bromides are the only medical drugs that have produced any
+beneficial results. They require to be given in large doses which are
+carefully regulated for every individual patient, as the quantities
+required vary enormously. Children take far larger doses in proportion
+than adults. They are best given in a very diluted form, and after
+meals, to diminish the chances of gastric disturbance. Belladonna seems
+also to have some influence on the disease, and forms a useful addition;
+arsenic should also be prescribed at times, both as a tonic, and for the
+sake of the improvement it effects in those patients who develop a
+tendency to _acne_, which is one of the troublesome results of bromism.
+The administration of the bromides should be maintained until three
+years after the cessation of the fits. The occurrence of gastric pain,
+palpitations and loss of the palate reflex are indications to stop, or
+to decrease the quantity of the drug. In very severe cases opium may be
+required.
+
+Surgical treatment for epilepsy is yet in its infancy, and it is too
+early to judge of its results. This does not apply, however, to cases of
+_Jacksonian epilepsy_, where a very large number have been operated on
+with marked benefit. Here the lesion of the brain is, in a very large
+percentage of the patients, caused by pressure from outside, from the
+presence of a tumour or a depressed fracture; the removal of the one, or
+the elevation of the other is the obvious procedure, and it is usually
+followed by the complete disappearance of the seizures.
+
+
+
+
+EPILOGUE. The appendix or supplement to a literary work, and in
+particular to a drama in verse, is called an _epilogue_, from [Greek:
+epilogos], the name given by the Greeks to the peroration of a speech.
+As we read in Shakespeare's _Midsummer Night's Dream_, the epilogue was
+generally treated as the apology for a play; it was a final appeal made
+to encourage the good-nature of the audiences, and to deprecate attack.
+The epilogue should form no part of the work to which it is attached,
+but should be independent of it; it should be treated as a sort of
+commentary. Sometimes it adds further information with regard to what
+has been left imperfectly concluded in the work itself. For instance, in
+the case of a play, the epilogue will occasionally tell us what became
+of the characters after the action closed; but this is irregular and
+unusual, and the epilogue is usually no more than a graceful way of
+dismissing the audience. Among the ancients the form was not cultivated,
+further than that the leader of the chorus or the last speaker advanced
+and said "Vos valete, et plaudite, cives"--"Good-bye, citizens, and we
+hope you are pleased." Sometimes this formula was reduced to the one
+word, "Plaudite!" The epilogue as a literary species is almost entirely
+confined to England, and it does not occur in the earliest English
+plays. It is rare in Shakespeare, but Ben Jonson made it a particular
+feature of his drama, and may almost be said to have invented the
+tradition of its regular use. He employed the epilogue for two purposes,
+either to assert the merit of the play or to deprecate censure of its
+defects. In the former case, as in _Cynthia's Revels_ (1600), the actor
+went off, and immediately came on again saying:--
+
+  "Gentles, be't known to you, since I went in
+   I am turned rhymer, and do thus begin:--
+   The author (jealous how your sense doth take
+   His travails) hath enjoined me to make
+   Some short and ceremonious epilogue,"--
+
+and then explained to the audience what an extremely interesting play it
+had been. In the second case, when the author was less confident, his
+epilogue took a humbler form, as in the comedy of _Volpone_ (1605),
+where the actor said:--
+
+  "The seasoning of a play is the applause.
+   Now, as the Fox be punished by the laws,
+   He yet doth hope, there is no suffering due
+   For any fact which he hath done 'gainst _you_.
+   If there be, censure him; here he doubtful stands:
+   If not, fare jovially and clap your hands."
+
+Beaumont and Fletcher used the epilogue sparingly, but after their day
+it came more and more into vogue, and the form was almost invariably
+that which Ben Jonson had brought into fashion, namely, the short
+complete piece in heroic couplets. The hey-day of the epilogue, however,
+was the Restoration, and from 1660 to the decline of the drama in the
+reign of Queen Anne scarcely a play, serious or comic, was produced on
+the London stage without a prologue and an epilogue. These were almost
+always in verse, even if the play itself was in the roughest prose, and
+they were intended to impart a certain literary finish to the piece.
+These Restoration epilogues were often very elaborate essays or satires,
+and were by no means confined to the subject of the preceding play. They
+dealt with fashions, or politics, or criticism. The prologues and
+epilogues of Dryden are often brilliantly finished exercises in literary
+polemic. It became the custom for playwrights to ask their friends to
+write these poems for them, and the publishers would even come to a
+prominent poet and ask him to supply one for a fee. It gives us an idea
+of the seriousness with which the epilogue was treated that Dryden
+originally published his valuable "Defence of the Epilogue; or An Essay
+on the Dramatic Poetry of the Last Age" (1672) as a defence of the
+epilogue which he had written for _The Conquest of Granada_. In France
+the custom of reciting dramatic epilogues has never prevailed. French
+criticism gives the name to such adieux to the public, at the close of a
+non-dramatic work, as are reserved by La Fontaine for certain critical
+points in the "Fables."     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+EPIMENIDES, poet and prophet of Crete, lived in the 6th century B.C.
+Many fabulous stories are told of him, and even his existence is
+doubted. While tending his father's sheep, he is said to have fallen
+into a deep sleep in the Dictaean cave near Cnossus where he lived, from
+which he did not awake for fifty-seven years (Diogenes Laertius i.
+109-115). When the Athenians were visited by a pestilence in consequence
+of the murder of Cylon, he was invited by Solon (596) to purify the
+city. The only reward he would accept was a branch of the sacred olive,
+and a promise of perpetual friendship between Athens and Cnossus
+(Plutarch, _Solon_, 12; Aristotle, _Ath. Pol._ 1). He died in Crete at
+an advanced age; according to his countrymen, who afterwards honoured
+him as a god, he lived nearly three hundred years. According to another
+story, he was taken prisoner in a war between the Spartans and
+Cnossians, and put to death by his captors, because he refused to
+prophesy favourably for them. A collection of oracles, a theogony, an
+epic poem on the Argonautic expedition, prose works on purifications and
+sacrifices, and a cosmogony, were attributed to him. Epimenides must be
+reckoned with Melampus and Onomacritus as one of the founders of
+Orphism. He is supposed to be the Cretan prophet alluded to in the
+epistle to Titus (i. 12).
+
+  See C. Schultess, _De Epimenide Cretensi_ (1877); O. Kern, _De Orphei,
+  Epimenidis ... Theogoniis_ (1888); G. Barone di Vincenzo, _E. di Creta
+  e le Credenze religiose de' suoi Tempi_ (1880); H. Demoulin,
+  _Epimenide de Crete_ (1901); H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der
+  Vorsokratiker_ (1903); O. Kern in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+EPINAL, a town on the north-eastern frontier of France, capital of the
+department of Vosges, 46 m. S.S.E. of Nancy on the Eastern railway
+between that town and Belfort. Pop. (1906), town 21,296, commune
+(including garrison) 29,058. The town proper--the Grande Ville--is
+situated on the right bank of the Moselle, which at this point divides
+into two arms forming an island whereon another quarter--the Petite
+Ville--is built. The lesser of these two arms, which is canalized,
+separates the island from the suburb of Hospice on its left bank. The
+right bank of the Moselle is bordered for some distance by pleasant
+promenades, and an extensive park surrounds the ruins of an old
+stronghold which dominated the Grande Ville from an eminence on the
+east. Apart from the church of St Goery (or St Maurice) rebuilt in the
+13th century but preserving a tower of the 12th century, the public
+buildings of Epinal offer little of architectural interest. The old
+hospital on the island-quarter contains a museum with interesting
+collections of paintings, Gallo-Roman antiquities, sculpture, &c. Close
+by stands the library, which possesses many valuable MSS.
+
+The fortifications of Epinal are connected to the southward with
+Belfort, Dijon and Besancon, by the fortified line of the Moselle, and
+north of it lies the unfortified zone called the _Trouee d'Epinal_, a
+gap designedly left open to the invaders between Epinal and Toul,
+another great fortress which is itself connected by the Meuse _forts
+d'arret_ with Verdun and the places of the north-east. Epinal therefore
+is a fortress of the greatest possible importance to the defence of
+France, and its works, all built since 1870, are formidable permanent
+fortifications. The Moselle runs from S. to N. through the middle of the
+girdle of forts; the fortifications of the right bank, beginning with
+Fort de la Mouche, near the river 3 m. above Epinal, form a chain of
+detached forts and batteries over 6 m. long from S. to N., and the
+northernmost part of this line is immensely strengthened by numerous
+advanced works between the villages of Dogneville and Longchamp. On the
+left bank, a larger area of ground is included in the perimeter of
+defence for the purposes of encampment, the most westerly of the forts,
+Girancourt, being 7 m. distant from Epinal; from the lower Moselle to
+Girancourt the works are grouped principally about Uxegney and Sarchey;
+from Girancourt to the upper river and Fort de la Mouche a long ridge
+extends in an arc, and on this south-western section the principal
+defence is Fort Ticha and its annexes. The circle of forts, which has a
+perimeter of nearly 30 m., was in 1895 reinforced by the construction of
+sixteen new works, and the area of ground enclosed and otherwise
+protected by the defences of Epinal is sufficiently extensive to
+accommodate a large army.
+
+Epinal is the seat of a prefect and of a court of assizes and has
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of
+trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, training-colleges, a communal
+college and industrial school, and exchange and a branch of the Bank of
+France. The town, which is important as the centre of a cotton-spinning
+region, carries on cotton-spinning, -weaving and -printing, brewing and
+distilling, and the manufacture of machinery and iron goods, glucose,
+embroidery, hats, wall-paper and tapioca. An industry peculiar to Epinal
+is the production of cheap images, lithographs and engravings. There is
+also trade in wine, grain, live-stock and starch products made in the
+vicinity. Epinal is an important junction on the Eastern railway.
+
+Epinal originated towards the end of the 10th century with the founding
+of a monastery by Theodoric (Dietrich) I., bishop of Metz, whose
+successors ruled the town till 1444, when its inhabitants placed
+themselves under the protection of King Charles VII. In 1466 it was
+transferred to the duchy of Lorraine, and in 1766 it was, along with
+that duchy, incorporated with France. It was occupied by the Germans on
+the 12th of October 1870 after a short fight, and until the 15th was the
+headquarters of General von Werder.
+
+
+
+
+EPINAOS (Gr. [Greek: epi], after, and [Greek: naos], a temple), in
+architecture, the open vestibule behind the nave. The term is not found
+in any classic author, but is a modern coinage, originating in Germany,
+to differentiate the feature from "opisthodomus," which in the Parthenon
+was an enclosed chamber.
+
+
+
+
+EPINAY, LOUISE FLORENCE PETRONILLE TARDIEU D'ESCLAVELLES D'
+(1726-1783), French writer, was born at Valenciennes on the 11th of
+March 1726. She is well known on account of her _liaisons_ with Rousseau
+and Baron von Grimm, and her acquaintanceship with Diderot, D'Alembert,
+D'Holbach and other French men of letters. Her father, Tardieu
+d'Esclavelles, a brigadier of infantry, was killed in battle when she
+was nineteen; and she married her cousin Denis Joseph de La Live
+d'Epinay, who was made a collector-general of taxes. The marriage was an
+unhappy one; and Louise d'Epinay believed that the prodigality,
+dissipation and infidelities of her husband justified her in obtaining a
+formal separation in 1749. She settled in the chateau of La Chevrette in
+the valley of Montmorency, and there received a number of distinguished
+visitors. Conceiving a strong attachment for J.J. Rousseau, she
+furnished for him in 1756 in the valley of Montmorency a cottage which
+she named the "Hermitage," and in this retreat he found for a time the
+quiet and natural rural pleasures he praised so highly. Rousseau, in his
+_Confessions_, affirmed that the inclination was all on her side; but
+as, after her visit to Geneva, Rousseau became her bitter enemy, little
+weight can be given to his statements on this point. Her intimacy with
+Grimm, which began in 1755, marks a turning-point in her life, for under
+his influence she escaped from the somewhat compromising conditions of
+her life at La Chevrette. In 1757-1759 she paid a long visit to Geneva,
+where she was a constant guest of Voltaire. In Grimm's absence from
+France (1775-1776), Madame d'Epinay continued, under the superintendence
+of Diderot, the correspondence he had begun with various European
+sovereigns. She spent most of her later life at La Briche, a small house
+near La Chevrette, in the society of Grimm and of a small circle of men
+of letters. She died on the 17th of April 1783. Her _Conversations
+d'Emilie_ (1774), composed for the education of her grand-daughter,
+Emilie de Belsunce, was crowned by the French Academy in 1783. The
+_Memoires et Correspondance de Mme d'Epinay, renfermant un grand nombre
+de lettres inedites de Grimm, de Diderot, et de J.-J. Rousseau, ainsi
+que des details_, &c, was published at Paris (1818) from a MS. which she
+had bequeathed to Grimm. The _Memoires_ are written by herself in the
+form of a sort of autobiographic romance. Madame d'Epinay figures in it
+as Madame de Montbrillant, and Rene is generally recognized as Rousseau,
+Volx as Grimm, Garnier as Diderot. All the letters and documents
+published along with the _Memoires_ are genuine. Many of Madame
+d'Epinay's letters are contained in the _Correspondance de l'abbe
+Galiani_ (1818). Two anonymous works, _Lettres a mon fils_ (Geneva,
+1758) and _Mes moments heureux_ (Geneva, 1759), are also by Madame
+d'Epinay.
+
+  See Rousseau's _Confessions_; Lucien Perey [Mlle Herpin] and Gaston
+  Maugras, _La Jeunesse de Mme d'Epinay, les dernieres annees de Mme
+  d'Epinay_ (1882-1883); Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. ii.;
+  Edmond Scherer, _Etudes sur la litterature contemporaine_, vols. iii.
+  and vii. There are editions of the _Memoires_ by L. Enault (1855) and
+  by P. Boiteau (1865); and an English translation, with introduction
+  and notes (1897), by J.H. Freese.
+
+
+
+
+EPIPHANIUS, SAINT (c. 315-402), a celebrated Church Father, born in the
+beginning of the 4th century at Bezanduca, a village of Palestine, near
+Eleutheropolis. He is said to have been of Jewish extraction. In his
+youth he resided in Egypt, where he began an ascetic course of life,
+and, freeing himself from Gnostic influences, invoked episcopal
+assistance against heretical thinkers, eighty of whom were driven from
+the cities. On his return to Palestine he was ordained presbyter by the
+bishop of Eleutheropolis, and became the president of a monastery which
+he founded near his native place. The account of his intimacy with the
+patriarch Hilarion is not trustworthy. In 367 he was nominated bishop of
+Constantia, previously known as Salamis, the metropolis of Cyprus--an
+office which he held till his death in 402. Zealous for the truth, but
+passionate and bigoted, he devoted himself to two great labours, namely,
+the spread of the recently established monasticism, and the confutation
+of heresy, of which he regarded Origen and his followers as the chief
+representatives. The first of the Origenists that he attacked was John,
+bishop of Jerusalem, whom he denounced from his own pulpit at Jerusalem
+(394) in terms so violent that the bishop sent his archdeacon to request
+him to desist; and afterwards, instigated by Theophilus, bishop of
+Alexandria, he proceeded so far as to summon a council of Cyprian
+bishops to condemn the errors of Origen. In his closing years he came
+into conflict with Chrysostom, the patriarch of Constantinople, who had
+given temporary shelter to four Nitrian monks whom Theophilus had
+expelled on the charge of Origenism. The monks gained the support of the
+empress Eudoxia, and when she summoned Theophilus to Constantinople that
+prelate forced the aged Epiphanius to go with him. He had some
+controversy with Chrysostom but did not stay to see the result of
+Theophilus's machinations, and died on his way home. The principal work
+of Epiphanius is the _Panarion_, or treatise on heresies, of which he
+also wrote an abridgment. It is a "medicine chest" of remedies for all
+kinds of heretical belief, of which he names eighty varieties. His
+accounts of the earlier errors (where he has preserved for us large
+excerpts from the original Greek of Irenaeus) are more reliable than
+those of contemporary heresies. In his desire to see the Church safely
+moored he also wrote the _Ancoratus_, or discourse on the true faith.
+His encyclopaedic learning shows itself in a treatise on Jewish weights
+and measures, and another (incomplete) on ancient gems. These, with two
+epistles to John of Jerusalem and Jerome, are his only genuine remains.
+He wrote a large number of works which are lost. In allusion to his
+knowledge of Hebrew, Syriac, Egyptian, Greek and Latin, Jerome styles
+Epiphanius [Greek: Pentaglossos] (Five-tongued); but if his knowledge of
+languages was really so extensive, it is certain that he was utterly
+destitute of critical and logical power. His early asceticism seems to
+have imbued him with a love of the marvellous; and his religious zeal
+served only to increase his credulity. His erudition is outweighed by
+his prejudice, and his inability to recognize the responsibilities of
+authorship makes it necessary to assign most value to those portions of
+his works which he simply cites from earlier writers.
+
+  The primary sources for the life are the church histories of Socrates
+  and Sozomen, Palladius's _De vita Chrysostomi_ and Jerome's _De vir.
+  illust._ 114. Petau (Petavius) published an edition of the works in 2
+  vols. fol. at Paris in 1622; cf. Migne, _Patr. Graec._ 41-43. The
+  Panarion and other works were edited by F. Oehler (Berlin, 1859-1861).
+  For more recent work especially on the fragments see K. Bonwetsch's
+  art. in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk._ v. 417.
+
+  Other theologians of the same name were: (1) Epiphanius Scholasticus,
+  friend and helper of Cassiodorus; (2) Epiphanius, bishop of Ticinum
+  (Pavia), c. 438-496; (3) Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia and
+  Metropolitan of Cyprus (the Younger), c. A.D. 680, to whom some
+  critics have ascribed certain of the works supposed to have been
+  written by the greater Epiphanius; (4) Epiphanius, bishop of
+  Constantia in the 9th century, to whom a similar attribution has been
+  made.
+
+
+
+
+EPIPHANY, FEAST OF. The word epiphany, in Greek, signifies an apparition
+of a divine being. It was used as a singular or a plural, both in its
+Greek and Latin forms, according as one epiphany was contemplated or
+several united in a single commemoration. For in the East from an early
+time were associated with the feast of the Baptism of Christ
+commemorations of the physical birth, of the Star of the Magi, of the
+miracles of Cana, and of the feeding of the five thousand. The
+commemoration of the Baptism was also called by the Greek fathers of the
+4th century the Theophany or Theophanies, and the Day of Lights, i.e. of
+the Illumination of Jesus or of the Light which shone in the Jordan. In
+the Teutonic west it has become the Festival of the three kings (i.e.
+the Magi), or simply Twelfth day. Leo the Great called it the Feast of
+the _Declaration_; Fulgentius, of the _Manifestation_; others, of the
+_Apparition_ of Christ.
+
+In the following article it is attempted to ascertain the date of
+institution of the Epiphany feast, its origin, and its significance and
+development.
+
+Clement of Alexandria first mentions it. Writing c. 194 he states that
+the Basilidians feasted the day of the Baptism, devoting the whole night
+which preceded it to lections of the scriptures. They fixed it in the
+15th year of Tiberius, on the 15th or 11th of the month Tobi, dates of
+the Egyptian fixed calendar equivalent to January 10th and 6th. When
+Clement wrote the great church had not adopted the feast, but toward
+A.D. 300 it was widely in vogue. Thus the Acts of Philip the Martyr,
+bishop of Heraclea in Thrace, A.D. 304, mention the "holy day of the
+Epiphany." Note the singular. Origen seems not to have heard of it as a
+feast of the Catholic church, but Hippolytus (died c. 235) recognized it
+in a homily which may be genuine.
+
+In the age of the Nicene Council, A.D. 325, the primate of Alexandria
+was charged at every Epiphany Feast to announce to the churches in a
+"Festal Letter" the date of the forthcoming Easter. Several such letters
+written by Athanasius and others remain. In the churches so addressed
+the feast of Jan. 6 must have been already current.
+
+In Jerusalem, according to the Epistle of Macarius[1] to the Armenians,
+c. 330, the feast was kept with zeal and splendour, and was with Easter
+and Pentecost a favourite season for Baptism.
+
+We have evidence of the 4th century from Spain that a long fast marked
+the season of Advent, and prepared for the feast of Epiphany on the 6th
+of January. The council of Saragossa c. 380 enacted that for 21 days,
+from the 17th of December to the 6th of January, the Epiphany, the
+faithful should not dance or make merry, but steadily frequent the
+churches. The synod of Lerida in 524 went further and forbade marriages
+during Advent. Our earliest Spanish lectionary, the _Liber comicus_ of
+Toledo, edited by Don Morin (_Anecd. Maredsol._ vol. i.), provides
+lections for five Sundays in Advent, and the gospel lections[2] chosen
+regard the Baptism of Christ, not His Birth, of which the feast, like
+that of the Annunciation, is mentioned, but not yet dated, December 25
+being assigned to St Stephen. It is odd that for "the Apparition of the
+Lord" the lection Matt. ii. 1-15 is assigned, although the lections for
+Advent belong to a scheme which identified Epiphany with the Baptism.
+This anomaly we account for below. The old editor of the Mozarabic
+Liturgy, Fr. Antonio Lorenzano, notes in his preface S 28 that the
+Spaniards anciently terminated the Advent season with the Epiphany
+Feast. In Rome also the earliest fixed system of the ecclesiastical
+year, which may go back to 300, makes Epiphany the _caput festorum_ or
+chief of feasts. The Sundays of Advent lead up to it, and the first
+Sundays of the year are "The Sunday within the octave of Epiphany," "the
+first Sunday after," and so forth. December 25 is no critical date at
+all. In Armenia as early as 450 a month of fasting prepared for the
+Advent of the Lord at Epiphany, and the fast was interpreted as a
+reiteration of John the Baptist's season of Repentance.
+
+In Antioch as late as about 386 Epiphany and Easter were the two great
+feasts, and the physical Birth of Christ was not yet feasted. On the eve
+of Epiphany after nightfall the springs and rivers were blessed, and
+water was drawn from them and stored for the whole year to be used in
+lustrations and baptisms. Such water, says Chrysostom, to whose orations
+we owe the information, kept pure and fresh for one, two and three
+years, and like good wine actually improved the longer it was kept. Note
+that Chrysostom speaks of the Feast of the _Epiphanies_, implying two,
+one of the Baptism, the other of the Second Advent, when Christ will be
+manifested afresh, and we with him in glory. This Second Epiphany
+inspired, as we saw, the choice of Pauline lections in the _Liber
+comicus_. But the salient event commemorated was the Baptism, and
+Chrysostom almost insists on this as the exclusive significance of the
+feast:--"It was not when he was born that he became manifest to all, but
+when he was baptized." In his commentary on Ezekiel Jerome employs the
+same language _absconditus est et non apparuit_, by way of protest
+against an interpretation of the Feast as that of the Birth of Jesus in
+Bethlehem, which was essayed as early as 375 by Epiphanius in Cyprus,
+and was being enforced in Jerome's day by John, bishop of Jerusalem.
+Epiphanius boldly removed the date of the Baptism to the 8th of
+November. "January 6" (= Tobi 11), he writes, "is the day of Christ's
+Birth, that is, of the Epiphanies." He uses the plural, because he adds
+on January 6 the commemoration of the water miracle of Cana. Although in
+375 he thus protested that January 6 was the day "of the Birth after the
+Flesh," he became before the end of the century a convert, according to
+John of Nice, to the new opinion that December 25 was the real day of
+this Birth. That as early as about 385, January 6 was kept as the
+physical birthday in Jerusalem, or rather in Bethlehem, we know from a
+contemporary witness of it, the lady pilgrim of Gaul, whose
+_peregrinatio_, recently discovered by Gamurrini, is confirmed by the
+old Jerusalem Lectionary preserved in Armenian.[3] Ephraem the Syrian
+father is attested already by Epiphanius (c. 375) to have celebrated the
+physical birth on January 6. His genuine Syriac hymns confirm this, but
+prove that the Baptism, the Star of the Magi, and the Marriage at Cana
+were also commemorated on the same day. That the same union prevailed in
+Rome up to the year 354 may be inferred from Ambrose. Philastrius (_De
+haer._ ch. 140) notes that some abolished the Epiphany feast and
+substituted a Birth feast. This was between 370 and 390.
+
+In 385 Pope Siricius[4] calls January 6 _Natalicia_, "the Birthday of
+Christ or of Apparition," and protests against the Spanish custom (at
+Tarragona) of baptizing on that day--another proof that in Spain in the
+4th century it commemorated the Baptism. In Gaul at Vienna in 360 Julian
+the Apostate, out of deference to Christian feeling, went to church "on
+the festival which they keep in January and call Epiphania." So
+Ammianus; but Zonaras in his Greek account of the event calls it the day
+of the Saviour's Birth.
+
+Why the feast of the Baptism was called the feast or day of the
+Saviour's Birth, and why fathers of that age when they call Christmas
+the birthday constantly qualify and add the words "in the flesh," we are
+able to divine from Pope Leo's (c. 447) 18th Epistle to the bishops of
+Sicily. For here we learn that in Sicily they held that in His Baptism
+the Saviour was reborn through the Holy Spirit. "The Lord," protests
+Leo, "needed no remission of sins, no remedy of rebirth." The Sicilians
+also baptized neophytes on January 6, "because baptism conveyed to Jesus
+and to them one and the same grace." Not so, argues Leo, the Lord
+sanctioned and hallowed the power of regeneration, not when He was
+baptized, but "when the blood of redemption and the water of baptism
+flowed forth from his side." Neophytes should therefore be baptized at
+Easter and Pentecost alone, never at Epiphany.
+
+Fortune has preserved to us among the _Spuria_ of several Latin fathers,
+Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome and Maximus of Turin, various homilies for
+Sundays of the Advent fast and for Epiphany. The Advent lections of
+these homilists were much the same as those of the Spanish _Liber
+comicus_; and they insist on Advent being kept as a strict fast, without
+marriage celebrations. Their Epiphany lection is however Matt. iii.
+1-17, which must therefore have once on a time been assigned in the
+_Liber comicus_ also in harmony with its general scheme. The psalms used
+on the day are, cxiii. (cxiv.) "When Israel went forth," xxviii. (xxix.)
+"Give unto the Lord," and xxii. (xxiii.) "the Lord is my Shepherd." The
+same lection of Matthew and also Ps. xxix. are noted for Epiphany in the
+Greek oration for the day ascribed to Hippolytus, which is at least
+earlier than 300, and also in special old Epiphany rites for the
+Benediction of the waters found in Latin, Greek, Armenian, Coptic,
+Syriac, &c. Now by these homilists as by Chrysostom,[5] the Baptism is
+regarded as the occasion on which "the Saviour first _appeared_ after
+the flesh in the world or on earth." These words were classical to the
+homilists, who explain them as best they can. The baptism is also
+declared to have been "the consecration of Christ," and "regeneration of
+Christ and a strengthening of our faith," to have been "Christ's second
+nativity." "This _second birth_ hath more renown than his first ... for
+now the God of majesty is inscribed (as his father), but then (at his
+first birth) Joseph the Carpenter was assumed to be his father ... he
+hath more honour who cries aloud from Heaven (viz. God the Father), than
+he who labours upon earth" (viz. Joseph).[6]
+
+Similarly the old _ordo Romanus_ of the age of Pepin (given by
+Montfaulcon in his preface to the Mozarabic missal in Migne, _Patr.
+Latina_, 85, col. 46), under the rubric of the Vigil of the Theophany,
+insists that "the _second birth_ of Christ (in Baptism) being
+distinguished by so many mysteries (e.g. the miracle of Cana) is more
+honoured than the first" (birth from Mary).
+
+These homilies mostly belong to an age (? 300-400) when the commemoration
+of the physical Birth had not yet found its own day (Dec. 25), and was
+therefore added alongside of the Baptism on January 6. Thus the two
+Births, the physical and the spiritual, of Jesus were celebrated on one
+and the same day, and one homily contains the words: "Not yet is the feast
+of his origin fully completed, and already we have to celebrate the solemn
+commemoration of his Baptism. He has hardly been born humanwise, and
+already he is being _reborn_ in sacramental wise. For to-day, though after
+a lapse of many annual cycles, he was hallowed (or consecrated) in Jordan.
+So the Lord arranged as to link rite with rite; I mean, in such wise as to
+be brought forth through the Virgin and to be begotten through the mystery
+(i.e. sacrament) in one and the same season." Another homily preserved in
+a MS. of the 7th or 8th century and assigned to Maximus of Turin declares
+that the Epiphany was known as the Birthday of Jesus, either because He
+was then born of the Virgin or _reborn in baptism_. This also was the
+classical defence made by Armenian fathers of their custom of keeping the
+feast of the Birth and Baptism together on January 6. They argued from
+Luke's gospel that the Annunciation took place on April 6, and therefore
+the Birth on January 6. The Baptism was on Christ's thirtieth birthday,
+and should therefore be also kept on January 6. Cosmas Indicopleustes (c.
+550) relates that on the same grounds believers of Jerusalem joined the
+feasts. All such reasoning was of course _apres coup_. As late as the 9th
+century the Armenians had at least three discrepant dates for the
+Annunciation--January 5, January 9, April 6; and of these January 5 and 9
+were older than April 6, which they perhaps borrowed from Epiphanius's
+commentary on the Gospels. The old Latin homilist, above quoted, hits the
+mark when he declares that the innate logic of things required the Baptism
+(which must, he says, be any how called a natal or birth festival) to fall
+on the same day as Christmas--_Ratio enim exigit_. Of the argument from
+the 6th of April as the date of the Annunciation he knows nothing. The
+12th century Armenian Patriarch Nerses, like this homilist, merely rests
+his case against the Greeks, who incessantly reproached the Armenians for
+ignoring their Christmas on December 25, on the inherent logic of things,
+as follows:
+
+  "Just as he was born after the flesh from the holy virgin, so he was
+  _born_ through baptism and from the Jordan, by way of example unto us.
+  And since there are here _two births_, albeit differing one from the
+  other in mystic import and in point of time, therefore it was
+  appointed that we should feast them together, as the first, so also
+  the second birth."
+
+The Epiphany feast had therefore in its own right acquired the name of
+_natalis dies_ or birthday, as commemorating the spiritual rebirth of
+Jesus in Jordan, before the _natalis in carne_, the Birthday _in the
+flesh_, as Jerome and others call it, was associated with it. This idea
+was condemned as Ebionite in the 3rd century, yet it influences
+Christian writers long before and long afterwards. So Tertullian says:
+"We little fishes (_pisciculi_), after the example of our great fish
+([Greek: ichthyn]) Jesus Christ the Lord, are born (_gignimur_) in the
+water, nor except by abiding in the water are we in a state of
+salvation." And Hilary, like the Latin homilists cited above, writes of
+Jesus that "he was _born again_ through baptism, and then became Son of
+God," adding that the Father cried, when he had gone up out of the
+water, "My Son art thou, I have this day begotten thee" (Luke iii. 22).
+"But this," he adds, "was with the begetting of a man who is being
+reborn; on that occasion too he himself was being reborn unto God to be
+perfect son; as he was son of man, so in baptism, he was constituted son
+of God as well." The idea frequently meets us in Hilary; it occurs in
+the Epiphany hymn of the orthodox Greek church, and in the Epiphany
+hymns and homilies of the Armenians.
+
+A letter is preserved by John of Nice of a bishop of Jerusalem to the
+bishop of Rome which attests a temporary union of both feasts on January
+6 in the holy places. The faithful, it says, met before dawn at
+Bethlehem to celebrate the Birth from the Virgin in the cave; but before
+their hymns and lections were finished they had to hurry off to Jordan,
+13 m. the other side of Jerusalem, to celebrate the Baptism, and by
+consequence neither commemoration could be kept fully and reverently.
+The writer therefore begs the pope to look in the archives of the Jews
+brought to Rome after the destruction of Jerusalem, and to ascertain
+from them the real date of Christ's birth. The pope looked in the works
+of Josephus and found it to be December 25. The letter's genuineness has
+been called in question; but revealing as it does the Church's ignorance
+of the date of the Birth, the inconvenience and precariousness of its
+association with the Baptism, the recency of its separate institution,
+it could not have been invented. It is too tell-tale a document. Not the
+least significant fact about it is that it views the Baptism as an
+established feast which cannot be altered and set on another date. Not
+it but the physical birth must be removed from January 6 to another
+date. It has been shown above that perhaps as early as 380 the
+difficulty was got over in Jerusalem by making the Epiphany wholly and
+solely a commemoration of the miraculous birth, and suppressing the
+commemoration of the Baptism. Therefore this letter must have been
+written--or, if invented, then invented before that date. Chrysostom
+seems to have known of it, for in his Epiphany homily preached at
+Antioch, c. 392 (op. vol. ii. 354, ed. Montf.), he refers to the
+archives at Rome as the source from which the date December 25 could be
+confirmed, and declares that he had obtained it from those who dwell
+there, and who observing it from the beginning and by old tradition, had
+communicated it to the East. The question arises why the feast of the
+Baptism was set on January 6 by the sect of Basilides? And why the great
+church adopted the date? Now we know what sort of considerations
+influenced this sect in fixing other feasts, so we have a clue. They
+fixed the Birth of Jesus on Pachon 25 (= May 20), the day of the Niloa,
+or feast of the descent of the Nile from heaven. We should thus expect
+January 6 to be equally a Nile festival. And this from various sources
+we know it was. On Tobi 11, says Epiphanius[7] (c. 370), every one draws
+up water from the river and stores it up, not only in Egypt itself, but
+in many other countries. In many places, he adds, springs and rivers
+turn into wine on this day, e.g. at Cibyra in Caria and Gerasa in
+Arabia. Aristides Rhetor (c. 160) also relates how in the winter, which
+began with Tobi, the Nile water was at its purest. Its water, he says,
+if drawn at the right time conquers time, for it does not go bad,
+whether you keep it on the spot or export it. Galleys were waiting on a
+certain night to take it on board and transport it to Italy and
+elsewhere for libations and lustrations in the Temples of Isis. "Such
+water," he adds, "remained fresh, long after other water supplies had
+gone bad. The Egyptians filled their pitchers with this water, as others
+did with wine; they stored it in their houses for three or four years or
+more, and recommended it the more, the older it grew, just as the Greeks
+did their wines."
+
+Two centuries later Chrysostom, as we have seen, commends in identical
+terms the water blessed and drawn from the rivers at the Baptismal
+feast. It is therefore probable that the Basilidian feast was a
+Christianized form of the blessing of the Nile, called by Chabas in his
+Coptic calendar _Hydreusis_. Mas'udi the Arab historian of the 10th
+century, in his _Prairies d'or_ (French trans. Paris, 1863, ii. 364),
+enlarges on the splendours of this feast as he saw it still celebrated
+in Egypt.
+
+Epiphanius also (_Haer._ 51) relates a curious celebration held at
+Alexandria of the Birth of the Aeon. On January 5 or 6 the votaries met
+in the holy compound or Temple of the Maiden (Kore), and sang hymns to
+the music of the flute till dawn, when they went down with torches into
+a shrine under ground, and fetched up a wooden idol on a bier
+representing Kore, seated and naked, with crosses marked on her brow,
+her hands and her knees. Then with flute-playing, hymns and dances they
+carried the image seven times round the central shrine, before restoring
+it again to its dwelling-place below. He adds: "And the votaries say
+that to-day at this hour _Kore_, that is, the Virgin, gave birth to the
+Aeon."
+
+Epiphanius says this was a heathen rite, but it rather resembles some
+Basilidian or Gnostic commemoration of the spiritual birth of the Divine
+life in Jesus of the Christhood, from the older creation the Ecclesia.
+
+The earliest extant Greek text of the Epiphany rite is in a Euchologion
+of about the year 795, now in the Vatican. The prayers recite that at
+His baptism Christ hallowed the waters by His presence in Jordan,[8] and
+ask that they may now be blessed by the Holy Spirit visiting them, by
+its power and inworking, as the streams of Jordan were blessed. So they
+will be able to purify soul and body of all who draw up and partake of
+them. The hymn sung contains such clauses as these:
+
+  "To-day the grace of the Holy Spirit hallowing the waters appears
+  ([Greek: epiphainetai], cf. Epiphany).... To-day the systems of waters
+  spread out their backs under the Lord's footsteps. To-day the unseen
+  is seen, that he may reveal himself to us. To-day the Increate is of
+  his own will ordained (lit. hath hands laid on him) by his own
+  creature. To-day the Unbending bends his neck to his own servant, in
+  order to free us from servitude. To-day we were liberated from
+  darkness and are illumined by light of divine knowledge. To-day for us
+  the Lord by means of rebirth (lit. palingenesy) of the Image reshapes
+  the Archetype."
+
+This last clause is obscure. In the Armenian hymns the ideas of the
+rebirth not only of believers, but of Jesus, and of the latter's
+ordination by John, are very prominent.
+
+The history of the Epiphany feast may be summed up thus:--
+
+From the Jews the Church took over the feasts of Pascha and Pentecost;
+and Sunday was a weekly commemoration of the Resurrection. It was
+inevitable, however, that believers should before long desire to
+commemorate the Baptism, with which the oldest form of evangelical
+tradition began, and which was widely regarded as the occasion when the
+divine life began in Jesus; when the Logos or Holy Spirit appeared and
+rested on Him, conferring upon Him spiritual unction as the promised
+Messiah; when, according to an old reading of Luke iii. 22, He was
+begotten of God. Perhaps the Ebionite Christians of Palestine first
+instituted the feast, and this, if a fact, must underlie the statement
+of John of Nice, a late but well-informed writer (c. 950), that it was
+fixed by the disciples of John the Baptist who were present at Jesus'
+Baptism. The Egyptian gnostics anyhow had the feast and set it on
+January 6, a day of the blessing of the Nile. It was a feast of
+Adoptionist complexion, as one of its names, viz. the Birthday (Greek
+[Greek: genethlia], Latin _Natalicia_ or _Natalis dies_), implies. This
+explains why in east and west the feast of the physical Birth was for a
+time associated with it; and to justify this association it was
+suggested that Jesus was baptized just on His thirtieth birthday. In
+Jerusalem and Syria it was perhaps the Ebionite or Adoptionist, we may
+add also the Gnostic, associations of the Baptism that caused this
+aspect of Epiphany to be relegated to the background, so that it became
+wholly a feast of the miraculous birth. At the same time other
+epiphanies of Christ were superadded, e.g. of Cana where Christ began
+His miracles by turning water into wine and _manifested_ forth His
+glory, and of the Star of the Magi. Hence it is often called the Feast
+of _Epiphanies_ (in the plural). In the West the day is commonly called
+the Feast of the three kings, and its early significance as a
+commemoration of the Baptism and season of blessing the waters has been
+obscured; the Eastern churches, however, of Greece, Russia, Georgia,
+Armenia, Egypt, Syria have been more conservative. In the far East it is
+still the season of seasons for baptisms, and in Armenia children born
+long before are baptized at it. Long ago it was a baptismal feast in
+Sicily, Spain, Italy (see Pope Gelasius to the Lucanian Bishops), Africa
+and Ireland. In the Manx prayer-book of Bishop Phillips of the year 1610
+Epiphany is called the "little Nativity" (_La nolicky bigge_), and the
+Sunday which comes between December 25 and January 6 is "the Sunday
+between _the two Nativities_," or _Jih duni oedyr 'a Nolick_; Epiphany
+itself is the "feast of the water vessel," _lail ymmyrt uyskey_, or "of
+the well of water," _Chibbyrt uysky_.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Gregory Nazianz., Orat. xli.; Suicer, _Thesaurus_, s.v.
+  [Greek: epiphaneia]; Cotelerius _In constit. Apost._ (Antwerp, 1698),
+  lib. v. cap. 13; R. Bingham, _Antiquities_ (London, 1834), bk. xx.;
+  Ad. Jacoby, _Bericht uber die Taufe Jesu_ (Strassburg, 1902); H.
+  Blumenbach, _Antiquitates Epiphaniorum_ (Leipzig, 1737); J.L. Schulze,
+  _De festo Sanctorum Luminum_, ed. J.E. Volbeding (Leipzig, 1841); and
+  K.A.H. Kellner, _Heortologie_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906). (See also
+  the works enumerated under CHRISTMAS.)     (F. C. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For its text see _The Key of Truth_, translated by F.C.
+    Conybeare, Oxford, and the article ARMENIAN CHURCH.
+
+  [2] These are Matt. iii. 1-11, xi. 2-15, xxi. 1-9; Mark i. 1-8; Luke
+    iii. 1-18. The Pauline lections regard the Epiphany of the Second
+    Advent, of the prophetic or Messianic kingdom.
+
+  [3] Translated in _Rituale Armenorum_ (Oxford, 1905).
+
+  [4] Epist. ad Himerium, c. 2.
+
+  [5] Hom. I. in Pentec. _op._ tom. ii. 458; "With us the Epiphanies is
+    the first festival. What is this festival's significance? This, that
+    God was seen upon earth and consorted with men." For this idea there
+    had soon to be substituted that of the manifestation of Christ to the
+    Gentiles.
+
+  [6] See the Paris edition of Augustine (1838), tom. v., Appendix,
+    _Sermons_ cxvi., cxxv., cxxxv., cxxxvi., cxxxvii.; cf. tom. vi.
+    _dial. quaestionum_, xlvi.; Maximus of Turin, Homily xxx.
+
+  [7] Perhaps Epiphanius is here, after his wont, transcribing an
+    earlier source.
+
+  [8] The same idea is frequent in Epiphany homilies of Chrysostom and
+    other 4th-century fathers.
+
+
+
+
+EPIRUS, or EPEIRUS, an ancient district of Northern Greece extending
+along the Ionian Sea from the Acroceraunian promontory on the N. to the
+Ambracian gulf on the S. It was conterminous on the landward side with
+Illyria, Macedonia and Thessaly, and thus corresponds to the southern
+portion of Albania (q.v.). The name Epirus ([Greek: Epeiros]) signified
+"mainland," and was originally applied to the whole coast southward to
+the Corinthian Gulf, in contradistinction to the neighbouring islands,
+Corcyra, Leucas, &c. The country is all mountainous, especially towards
+the east, where the great rivers of north-western Greece--Achelous,
+Arachthus and Aous--rise in Mt Lacmon, the back-bone of the Pindus
+chain. In ancient times Epirus did not produce corn sufficient for the
+wants of its inhabitants; but it was celebrated, as it has been almost
+to the present day, for its cattle and its horses. According to
+Theopompus (4th cent. B.C.), the Epirots were divided into fourteen
+independent tribes, of which the principal were the Chaones, the
+Thesproti and the Molossi. The Chaones (perhaps akin to the Chones who
+dwelt in the heel of Italy) inhabited the Acroceraunian shore, the
+Molossians the inland districts round the lake of Pambotis (mod.
+Jannina), and the Thesprotians the region to the north of the Ambracian
+gulf. In spite of its distance from the chief centres of Greek thought
+and action, and the barbarian repute of its inhabitants, Epirus was
+believed to have exerted at an early period no small influence on
+Greece, by means more especially of the oracle of Dodona. Aristotle even
+placed in Epirus the original home of the Hellenes. But in historic
+times its part in Greek history is mainly passive. The states of Greece
+proper founded a number of colonies on its coast, which formed
+stepping-stones towards the Adriatic and the West. Of these one of the
+earliest and most flourishing was the Corinthian colony of Ambracia,
+which gives its name to the neighbouring gulf. Elatria, Bucheta and
+Pandosia, in Thesprotia, originated from Elis. Among the other towns in
+the country the following were of some importance. In Chaonia: Palaeste
+and Chimaera, fortified posts to which the dwellers in the open country
+could retire in time of war; Onchesmus or Anchiasmus, opposite Corcyra
+(Corfu), now represented by Santi Quarante; Phoenice, still so called,
+the wealthiest of all the native cities of Epirus, and after the fall of
+the Molossian kingdom the centre of an Epirotic League; Buthrotum, the
+modern Butrinto; Phanote, important in the Roman campaigns in Epirus;
+and Adrianopolis, founded by the emperor whose name it bore. In
+Thesprotia: Cassope, the chief town of the most powerful of the
+Thesprotian clans; and Ephyra, afterwards Cichyrus, identified by W.M.
+Leake with the monastery of St John 3 or 4 m. from Phanari, and by C.
+Bursian with Kastri at the northern end of the Acherusian Lake. In
+Molossia: Passaron, where the kings were wont to take the oath of the
+constitution and receive their people's allegiance; and Tecmon, Phylace
+and Horreum, all of doubtful identification. The Byzantine town of Rogus
+is probably the same as the modern Luro, the Greek Oropus.
+
+_History._--The kings, or rather chieftains, of the Molossians, who
+ultimately extended their power over all Epirus, claimed to be descended
+from Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, who, according to legend, settled in the
+country after the sack of Troy, and transmitted his kingdom to Molossus,
+his son by Andromache. The early history of the dynasty is very obscure;
+but Admetus, who lived in the 5th century B.C., is remembered for his
+hospitable reception of the banished Themistocles, in spite of the fact
+that the great Athenian had persuaded his countrymen to refuse the
+alliance tardily offered by the Molossians when victory against the
+Persians was already secured. Admetus was succeeded, about 429 B.C., by
+his son or grandson, Tharymbas or Arymbas I., who being placed by a
+decree of the people under the guardianship of Sabylinthus, chief of the
+Atintanes, was educated at Athens, and at a later date introduced a
+higher civilization among his subjects. Alcetas, the next king mentioned
+in history, was restored to his throne by Dionysius of Syracuse about
+385 B.C. His son Arymbas II. (who succeeded by the death of his brother
+Neoptolemus) ruled with prudence and equity, and gave encouragement to
+literature and the arts. To him Xenocrates of Chalcedon dedicated his
+four books on the art of governing; and it is specially mentioned that
+he bestowed great care on the education of his brother's children. One
+of them, Troas, he married; Olympias, the other niece, was married to
+Philip II. of Macedon and became the mother of Alexander the Great. On
+the death of Arymbas, Alexander the brother of Olympias, was put on the
+throne by Philip and married his daughter Cleopatra. Alexander assumed
+the new title of king of Epirus, and raised the reputation of his
+country abroad. Asked by the Tarentines for aid against the Samnites and
+Lucanians, he made a descent at Paestum in 332 B.C., and reduced several
+cities of the Lucani and Bruttii; but in a second attack he was
+surrounded, defeated and slain near Pandosia in Bruttium.
+
+Aeacides, the son of Arymbas II., succeeded Alexander. He espoused the
+cause of Olympias against Cassander, but was dethroned by his own
+soldiers, and had hardly regained his position when he fell in battle
+(313 B.C.) against Philip, brother of Cassander. He had, by his wife
+Phthia, a son, the celebrated Pyrrhus, and two daughters, Deidamia and
+Troas, of whom the former married Demetrius Poliorcetes. His brother
+Alcetas, who succeeded him, continued unsuccessfully the war with
+Cassander; he was put to death by his rebellious subjects in 295 B.C.,
+and was succeeded by Pyrrhus (q.v.), who for six years fought against
+the Romans in south Italy and Sicily, and gave to Epirus a momentary
+importance which it never again possessed.
+
+Alexander, his son, who succeeded in 272 B.C., attempted to seize
+Macedonia, and defeated Antigonus Gonatas, but was himself shortly
+afterwards driven from his kingdom by Demetrius. He recovered it,
+however, and spent the rest of his days in peace. Two other
+insignificant reigns brought the family of Pyrrhus to its close, and
+Epirus was thenceforward governed by a magistrate, elected annually in a
+general assembly of the nation held at Passaron. Having imprudently
+espoused the cause of Perseus (q.v.) in his ill-fated war against the
+Romans, 168 B.C., it was exposed to the fury of the conquerors, who
+destroyed, it is said, seventy towns, and carried into slavery 150,000
+of the inhabitants. From this blow it never recovered. At the
+dissolution of the Achaean League (q.v.), 146 B.C., it became part of
+the province of Macedonia, receiving the name Epirus Vetus, to
+distinguish it from Epirus Nova, which lay to the east.
+
+On the division of the empire it fell to the East, and so remained
+until the taking of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, when Michel
+Angelus Comnenus seized Aetolia and Epirus. On the death of Michel in
+1216, these countries fell into the hands of his brother Theodore.
+Thomas, the last of the direct line, was murdered in 1318 by his nephew
+Thomas, lord of Zante and Cephalonia, and his dominions were
+dismembered. Not long after, Epirus was overrun by the Samians and
+Albanians, and the confusion which had been growing since the division
+of the empire was worse confounded still. Charles II. Tocco, lord of
+Cephalonia and Zante, obtained the recognition of his title of Despot of
+Epirus from the emperor Manuel Comnenus in the beginning of the 15th
+century; but his family was deprived of their possession in 1431 by
+Murad (Amurath) II. In 1443, Scanderbeg, king of Albania, made himself
+master of a considerable part of Epirus; but on his death it fell into
+the power of the Venetians. From these it passed again to the Turks,
+under whose dominion it still remains. For modern history see ALBANIA.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Nauze, "Rech. hist. sur les peuples qui s'etablirent en
+  Epire," in _Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr._ (1729); Pouqueville, _Voyage
+  en Moree, &c, en Albanie_ (Paris, 1805); Hobhouse, _A Journey through
+  Albania, &c._ (2 vols., London, 1813); Wolfe, "Observations on the
+  Gulf of Arta" in _Journ. Royal Geog. Soc._, 1834; W.M. Leake, Travels
+  in Northern Greece (London, 1835): Merleker, Darstellung des _Landes
+  und der Bewohner von Epeiros_ (Konigsberg, 1841); J.H. Skene,
+  "Remarkable Localities on the Coast of Epirus," in _Journ. Roy. Geog.
+  Soc._, 1848; Bowen, _Mount Athos, Thessaly and Epirus_ (London, 1852);
+  von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854); Bursian, _Geog. von
+  Griechenland_ (vol. i., Leipzig, 1862); Schafli, "Versuch einer
+  Klimatologie des Thales von Jannina," _Neue Denkschr. d. allgem.
+  schweizer. Ges. f. Naturw._ xix. (Zurich, 1862); Major R. Stuart, "On
+  Phys. Geogr. and Natural Resources of Epirus," in _Journ. R.G.S._,
+  1869; Guido Cora, in _Cosmos_; Dumont, "Souvenirs de l'Adriatique, de
+  l'Epire, &c." in _Rev. des deux mondes_ (Paris, 1872); de Gubernatis,
+  "L'Epiro," _Bull. Soc. Geogr. Ital._ viii. (Rome, 1872); Dozon,
+  "Excursion en Albanie," _Bull. Soc. Geogr._, 6th series; Karapanos,
+  _Dodone et ses ruines_ (Paris, 1878); von Heldreich, "Ein Beitrag zur
+  Flora von Epirus," _Verh. Bot. Vereins Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1880);
+  Kiepert, "Zur Ethnographie von Epirus," _Ges. Erdk._ xvii. (Berlin,
+  1879); Zompolides, "Das Land und die Bewohner von Epirus," _Ausland_
+  (Berlin, 1880); A. Philippson, _Thessalien und Epirus_ (Berlin, 1897).
+       (J. L. M.)
+
+
+
+
+EPISCOPACY (from Late Lat. _episcopatus_, the office of a bishop,
+_episcopus_), the general term technically applied to that system of
+church organization in which the chief ecclesiastical authority within a
+defined district, or diocese, is vested in a bishop. As such it is
+distinguished on the one hand from Presbyterianism, government by
+elders, and Congregationalism, in which the individual church or
+community of worshippers is autonomous, and on the other from Papalism.
+The origin and development of episcopacy in the Christian Church, and
+the functions and attributes of bishops in the various churches, are
+dealt with elsewhere (see CHURCH HISTORY and BISHOP). Under the present
+heading it is proposed only to discuss briefly the various types of
+episcopacy actually existing, and the different principles that they
+represent.
+
+The deepest line of cleavage is naturally between the view that
+episcopacy is a divinely ordained institution essential to the effective
+existence of a church as a channel of grace, and the view that it is
+merely a convenient form of church order, evolved as the result of a
+variety of historical causes, and not necessary to the proper
+constitution of a church. The first of these views is closely connected
+with the doctrine of the Apostolical Succession. According to this,
+Christ committed to his apostles certain powers of order and
+jurisdiction in the Church, among others that of transmitting these
+powers to others through "the laying on of hands"; and this power,
+whatever obscurity may surround the practice of the primitive Church
+(see APOSTLE, ad fin.) was very early confined to the order of bishops,
+who by virtue of a special consecration became the successors of the
+apostles in the function of handing on the powers and graces of the
+ministry.[1] A valid episcopate, then, is one derived in an unbroken
+series of "layings on of hands" by bishops from the time of the apostles
+(see ORDER, HOLY). This is the Catholic view, common to all the ancient
+Churches whether of the West or East, and it is one that necessarily
+excludes from the union of Christendom all those Christian communities
+which possess no such apostolically derived ministry.
+
+Apart altogether, however, from the question of orders, episcopacy
+represents a very special conception of the Christian Church. In the
+fully developed episcopal system the bishop sums up in his own person
+the collective powers of the Church in his diocese, not by delegation of
+these powers from below, but by divinely bestowed authority from above.
+"Ecclesia est in episcopo," wrote St Cyprian (Cyp. iv. _Ep._ 9); the
+bishop, as the successor of the apostles, is the centre of unity in his
+diocese, the unity of the Church as a whole is maintained by the
+intercommunion of the bishops, who for this purpose represent their
+dioceses. The bishops, individually and collectively, are thus the
+essential ties of Catholic unity; they alone, as the depositories of the
+apostolic traditions, establish the norm of Catholic orthodoxy in the
+general councils of the Church. This high theory of episcopacy which, if
+certain of the Ignatian letters be genuine, has a very early origin,
+has, of course, fallen upon evil days. The power of the collective
+episcopate to maintain Catholic unity was disproved long before it was
+overshadowed by the centralized authority of Rome; before the
+Reformation, its last efforts to assert its supremacy in the Western
+Church, at the councils of Basel and Constance, had broken down; and the
+religious revolution of the 16th century left it largely discredited and
+exposed to a double attack, by the papal monarchy on the one hand and
+the democratic Presbyterian model on the other. Within the Roman
+Catholic Church the high doctrine of episcopacy continued to be
+maintained by the Gallicans and Febronians (see GALLICANISM and
+FEBRONIANISM) as against the claims of the Papacy, and for a while with
+success; but a system which had failed to preserve the unity of the
+Church even when the world was united under the Roman empire could not
+be expected to do so in a world split up into a series of rival states,
+of which many had already reorganized their churches on a national
+basis. "Febronius," indeed, was in favour of a frank recognition of this
+national basis of ecclesiastical organization, and saw in Episcopacy the
+best means of reuniting the dissidents to the Catholic Church, which was
+to consist, as it were, of a free federation of episcopal churches under
+the presidency of the bishop of Rome. The idea had considerable success;
+for it happened to march with the views of the secular princes. But
+religious people could hardly be expected to see in the worldly
+prince-bishops of the Empire, or the wealthy courtier-prelates of
+France, the trustees of the apostolical tradition. The Revolution
+intervened; and when, during the religious reaction that followed, men
+sought for an ultimate authority, they found it in the papal monarch,
+exalted now by ultramontane zeal into the sole depositary of the
+apostolical tradition (see ULTRAMONTANISM). At the Vatican Council of
+1870 episcopacy made its last stand against papalism, and was vanquished
+(see VATICAN COUNCIL). The pope still addresses his fellow-bishops as
+"venerable brothers"; but from the Roman Catholic Church the fraternal
+union of coequal authorities, which is of the essence of episcopacy, has
+vanished; and in its place is set the autocracy of one. The modern Roman
+Catholic Church is episcopal, for it preserves the bishops, whose
+_potestas ordinis_ not even the pope can exercise until he has been duly
+consecrated; but the bishops as such are now but subordinate elements in
+a system for which "Episcopacy" is certainly no longer an appropriate
+term.
+
+The word Episcopacy has, in fact, since the Reformation, been more
+especially associated with those churches which, while ceasing to be in
+communion with Rome, have preserved the episcopal model. Of these by far
+the most important is the Church of England, which has preserved its
+ecclesiastical organization essentially unchanged since its foundation
+by St Augustine, and its daughter churches (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF, and
+ANGLICAN COMMUNION). The Church of England since the Reformation has
+been the chief champion of the principle of Episcopacy against the papal
+pretensions on the one hand and Presbyterianism and Congregationalism on
+the other. As to the divine origin of Episcopacy and, consequently, of
+its universal obligation in the Christian Church, Anglican opinion has
+been, and still is, considerably divided.[2] The "High Church" view, now
+predominant, is practically identical with that of the Gallicans and
+Febronians, and is based on Catholic practice in those ages of the
+Church to which, as well as to the Bible, the formularies of the Church
+of England make appeal. So far as this view, however, is the outcome of
+the general Catholic movement of the 19th century, it can hardly be
+taken as typical of Anglican tradition in this matter. Certainly, in the
+16th and 17th centuries, the Church of England, while rigorously
+enforcing the episcopal model at home, and even endeavouring to extend
+it to Presbyterian Scotland, did not regard foreign non-episcopal
+Churches otherwise than as sister communions. The whole issue had, in
+fact, become confused with the confusion of functions of the Church and
+State. In the view of the Church of England the ultimate governance of
+the Christian community, in things spiritual and temporal, was vested
+not in the clergy but in the "Christian prince" as the vicegerent of
+God.[3] It was the transference to the territorial sovereigns of modern
+Europe of the theocratic character of the Christian heads of the Roman
+world-empire; with the result that for the reformed Churches the unit of
+church organization was no longer the diocese, or the group of dioceses,
+but the Christian state. Thus in England the bishops, while retaining
+their _potestas ordinis_ in virtue of their consecration as successors
+of the apostles, came to be regarded not as representing their dioceses
+in the state, but the state in their dioceses. Forced on their dioceses
+by the royal _Conge d'elire_ (q.v.), and enthusiastic apostles of the
+High Church doctrine of non-resistance, the bishops were looked upon as
+no more than lieutenants of the crown;[4] and Episcopacy was ultimately
+resisted by Presbyterians and Independents as an expression and
+instrument of arbitrary government, "Prelacy" being confounded with
+"Popery" in a common condemnation. With the constitutional changes of
+the 18th and 19th centuries, however, a corresponding modification took
+place in the character of the English episcopate; and a still further
+change resulted from the multiplication of colonial and missionary sees
+having no connexion with the state (see ANGLICAN COMMUNION). The
+consciousness of being in the line of apostolic succession helped the
+English clergy to revert to the principle _Ecclesia est in episcopo_,
+and the great periodical conferences of Anglican bishops from all parts
+of the world have something of the character, though they do not claim
+the ecumenical authority, of the general councils of the early Church
+(see LAMBETH CONFERENCES).
+
+Of the reformed Churches of the continent of Europe only the Lutheran
+Churches of Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Finland preserve the
+episcopal system in anything of its historical sense; and of these only
+the two last can lay claim to the possession of bishops in the unbroken
+line of episcopal succession.[5] The superintendents (variously entitled
+also arch-priests, deans, provosts, ephors) of the Evangelical
+(Lutheran) Church, as established in the several states of Germany and
+in Austria, are not bishops in any canonical sense, though their
+jurisdictions are known as dioceses and they exercise many episcopal
+functions. They have no special powers of order, being presbyters, and
+their legal status is admittedly merely that of officials of the
+territorial sovereign in his capacity as head of the territorial church
+(see SUPERINTENDENT). The "bishops" of the Lutheran Church in
+Transylvania are equivalent to the superintendents.
+
+Episcopacy in a stricter sense is the system of the Moravian Brethren
+(q.v.) and the Methodist Episcopal Church of America (see METHODISM). In
+the case of the former, claim is laid to the unbroken episcopal
+succession through the Waldenses, and the question of their eventual
+intercommunion with the Anglican Church was accordingly mooted at the
+Lambeth Conference of 1908. The bishops of the Methodist Episcopal
+Church, on the other hand, derive their orders from Thomas Coke, a
+presbyter of the Church of England, who in 1784 was ordained by John
+Wesley, assisted by two other presbyters, "superintendent" of the
+Methodist Society in America. Methodist episcopacy is therefore based on
+the denial of any special _potestas ordinis_ in the degree of bishop,
+and is fundamentally distinct from that of the Catholic Church--using
+this term in its narrow sense as applied to the ancient churches of the
+East and West.
+
+In all of these ancient churches episcopacy is regarded as of divine
+origin; and in those of them which reject the papal supremacy the
+bishops are still regarded as the guardians of the tradition of
+apostolic orthodoxy and the stewards of the gifts of the Holy Ghost to
+men (see ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH; ARMENIAN CHURCH; COPTS: _Coptic
+Church_, &c). In the West, Gallican and Febronian Episcopacy are
+represented by two ecclesiastical bodies: the Jansenist Church under the
+archbishop of Utrecht (see JANSENISM and UTRECHT), and the Old Catholics
+(q.v.). Of these the latter, who separated from the Roman communion
+after the promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility, represent a
+pure revolt of the system of Episcopacy against that of Papalism.
+     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Bishop C. Gore, _The Church and the Ministry_ (1887).
+
+  [2] Neither the Articles nor the authoritative Homilies of the Church
+    of England speak of episcopacy as essential to the constitution of a
+    church. The latter make "the three notes or marks" by which a true
+    church is known "pure and sound doctrine, the sacraments administered
+    according to Christ's holy institution, and the right use of
+    ecclesiastical discipline." These marks are perhaps ambiguous, but
+    they certainly do not depend on the possession of the Apostolic
+    Succession; for it is further stated that "the bishops of Rome and
+    their adherents are not the true Church of Christ" (Homily
+    "concerning the Holy Ghost," ed. Oxford, 1683, p. 292).
+
+  [3] "He and his holy apostles likewise, namely Peter and Paul, did
+    forbid unto all Ecclesiastical Ministers, dominion over the Church of
+    Christ" (_Homilies appointed to be read in Churches_, "The V. part of
+    the Sermon against Wilful Rebellion," ed. Oxford, 1683, p. 378).
+    Princes are "God's lieutenants, God's presidents, God's officers,
+    God's commissioners, God's judges ... God's vicegerents" ("The II.
+    part of the Sermon of Obedience," ib. p. 64).
+
+  [4] Juridically they were, of course, never this in the strict sense
+    in which the term could be used of the Lutheran superintendents (see
+    below). They were never mere royal officials, but peers of
+    parliament, holding their temporalities as baronies under the crown.
+
+  [5] During the crisis of the Reformation all the Swedish sees became
+    vacant but two, and the bishops of these two soon left the kingdom.
+    The episcopate, however, was preserved by Peter Magnusson, who, when
+    residing as warden of the Swedish hospital of St Bridget in Rome, had
+    been duly elected bishop of the see of Westeraes, and consecrated, c.
+    1524. No official record of his consecration can be discovered, but
+    there is no sufficient reason to doubt the fact; and it is certain
+    that during his lifetime he was acknowledged as a canonical bishop
+    both by Roman Catholics and by Protestants. In 1528 Magnusson
+    consecrated bishops to fill the vacant sees, and, assisted by one of
+    these, Magnus Sommar, bishop of Strengness, he afterwards consecrated
+    the Reformer, Lawrence Peterson, as archbishop of Upsala, Sept. 22,
+    1531. Some doubt has been raised as to the validity of the
+    consecration of Peterson's successor, also named Lawrence Peterson,
+    in 1575, from the insufficiency of the documentary evidence of the
+    consecration of his consecrator, Paul Justin, bishop of Abo. The
+    integrity of the succession has, however, been accepted after
+    searching investigation by men of such learning as Grabe and Routh,
+    and has been formally recognized by the convention of the American
+    Episcopal Church. The succession to the daughter church of Finland,
+    now independent, stands or falls with that of Sweden.
+
+
+
+
+EPISCOPIUS, SIMON (1583-1643), the Latin form of the name of Simon
+Bischop, Dutch theologian, was born at Amsterdam on the 1st of January
+1583. In 1600 he entered the university of Leiden, where he studied
+theology under Jacobus Arminius, whose teaching he followed. In 1610,
+the year in which the Arminians presented the famous Remonstrance to the
+states of Holland, he became pastor at Bleyswick, a small village near
+Rotterdam; in the following year he advocated the cause of the
+Remonstrants (q.v.) at the Hague conference. In 1612 he succeeded
+Francis Gomarus as professor of theology at Leiden, an appointment which
+awakened the bitter enmity of the Calvinists, and, on account of the
+influence lent by it to the spread of Arminian opinions, was doubtless
+an ultimate cause of the meeting of the synod of Dort in 1618.
+Episcopius was chosen as the spokesman of the thirteen representatives
+of the Remonstrants before the synod; but he was refused a hearing, and
+the Remonstrant doctrines were condemned without any explanation or
+defence of them being permitted. At the end of the synod's sittings in
+1619, Episcopius and the other twelve Arminian representatives were
+deprived of their offices and expelled from the country (see DORT, SYNOD
+OF). Episcopius retired to Antwerp and ultimately to France, where he
+lived partly at Paris, partly at Rouen. He devoted most of his time to
+writings in support of the Arminian cause; but the attempt of Luke
+Wadding (1588-1657) to win him over to the Romish faith involved him
+also in a controversy with that famous Jesuit. After the death (1625) of
+Maurice, prince of Orange, the violence of the Arminian controversy
+began to abate, and Episcopius was permitted in 1626 to return to his
+own country. He was appointed preacher at the Remonstrant church in
+Rotterdam and afterwards rector of the Remonstrant college in Amsterdam.
+Here he died in 1643. Episcopius may be regarded as in great part the
+theological founder of Arminianism, since he developed and systematized
+the principles tentatively enunciated by Arminius. Besides opposing at
+all points the peculiar doctrines of Calvinism, Episcopius protested
+against the tendency of Calvinists to lay so much stress on abstract
+dogma, and argued that Christianity was practical rather than
+theoretical--not so much a system of intellectual belief as a moral
+power--and that an orthodox faith did not necessarily imply the
+knowledge of and assent to a system of doctrine which included the whole
+range of Christian truth, but only the knowledge and acceptance of so
+much of Christianity as was necessary to effect a real change on the
+heart and life.
+
+  The principal works of Episcopius are his _Confessio s. declaratio
+  sententiae pastorum qui in foederato Belgio Remonstrantes vocantur
+  super praecipuis articulis religionis Christianae_ (1621), his
+  _Apologia pro confessione_ (1629), his _Verus theologus remonstrans_,
+  and his uncompleted work _Institutiones theologicae_. A life of
+  Episcopius was written by Philip Limborch, and one was also prefixed
+  by his successor, Etienne de Courcelles (Curcellaeus) (1586-1659), to
+  an edition of his collected works published in 2 vols. (1650-1665).
+  See also article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+EPISODE, an incident occurring in the history of a nation, an
+institution or an individual, especially with the significance of being
+an interruption of an ordered course of events, an irrelevance. The word
+is derived from a word ([Greek: epeisodos]) with a technical meaning in
+the ancient Greek tragedy. It is defined by Aristotle (_Poetics_, 12) as
+[Greek: meros holon tragodias to metaxy holon chorikon melon], all the
+scenes, that is, which fall between the choric songs. [Greek: eisodos],
+or entrance, is generally applied to the entrance of the chorus, but the
+reference may be to that of the actors at the close of the choric songs.
+In the early Greek tragedy the parts which were spoken by the actors
+were considered of subsidiary importance to those sung by the chorus,
+and it is from this aspect that the meaning of the word, as something
+which breaks off the course of events, is derived (see A.E. Haigh, _The
+Tragic Drama of the Greeks_, 1896, at p. 353).
+
+
+
+
+EPISTAXIS (Gr. [Greek: epi], upon, and [Greek: stazein], to drop), the
+medical term for bleeding from the nose, whether resulting from local
+injury or some constitutional condition. In persistent cases of
+nose-bleeding, various measures are adopted, such as holding the arms
+over the head, the application of ice, or of such astringents as zinc or
+alum, or plugging the nostrils.
+
+
+
+
+EPISTEMOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: episteme], knowledge, and [Greek: logos],
+theory, account; Germ. _Erkenntnistheorie_), in philosophy, a term
+applied, probably first by J.F. Ferrier, to that department of thought
+whose subject matter is the nature and origin of knowledge. It is thus
+contrasted with metaphysics, which considers the nature of reality, and
+with psychology, which deals with the objective part of cognition, and,
+as Prof. James Ward said, "is essentially genetic in its method"
+(_Mind_, April 1883, pp. 166-167). Epistemology is concerned rather with
+the possibility of knowledge in the abstract (_sub specie aeternitatis_,
+Ward, ibid.). In the evolution of thought epistemological inquiry
+succeeded the speculations of the early thinkers, who concerned
+themselves primarily with attempts to explain existence. The differences
+of opinion which arose on this problem naturally led to the inquiry as
+to whether any universally valid statement was possible. The Sophists
+and the Sceptics, Plato and Aristotle, the Stoics and the Epicureans
+took up the question, and from the time of Locke and Kant it has been
+prominent in modern philosophy. It is extremely difficult, if not
+impossible, to draw a hard and fast line between epistemology and other
+branches of philosophy. If, for example, philosophy is divided into the
+theory of knowing and the theory of being, it is impossible entirely to
+separate the latter (Ontology) from the analysis of knowledge
+(Epistemology), so close is the connexion between the two. Again, the
+relation between logic in its widest sense and the theory of knowledge
+is extremely close. Some thinkers have identified the two, while others
+regard Epistemology as a subdivision of logic; others demarcate their
+relative spheres by confining logic to the science of the laws of
+thought, i.e. to formal logic. An attempt has been made by some
+philosophers to substitute "Gnosiology" (Gr. [Greek: gnosis]) for
+"Epistemology" as a special term for that part of Epistemology which is
+confined to "systematic analysis of the conceptions employed by ordinary
+and scientific thought in interpreting the world, and including an
+investigation of the art of knowledge, or the nature of knowledge as
+such." "Epistemology" would thus be reserved for the broad questions of
+"the origin, nature and limits of knowledge" (Baldwin's _Dict. of
+Philos._ i. pp. 333 and 414). The term Gnosiology has not, however, come
+into general use. (See PHILOSOPHY.)
+
+
+
+
+EPISTLE, in its primary sense any letter addressed to an absent person;
+from the Greek word [Greek: epistole], a thing sent on a particular
+occasion. Strictly speaking, any such communication is an epistle, but
+at the present day the term has become archaic, and is used only for
+letters of an ancient time, or for elaborate literary productions which
+take an epistolary form, that is to say, are, or affect to be, written
+to a person at a distance.
+
+1. _Epistles and Letters._--The student of literary history soon
+discovers that a broad distinction exists between the letter and the
+epistle. The letter is essentially a spontaneous, non-literary
+production, ephemeral, intimate, personal and private, a substitute for
+a spoken conversation. The epistle, on the other hand, rather takes the
+place of a public speech, it is written with an audience in view, it is
+a literary form, a distinctly artistic effort aiming at permanence; and
+it bears much the same relation to a letter as a Platonic dialogue does
+to a private talk between two friends. The posthumous value placed on a
+great man's letters would naturally lead to the production of epistles,
+which might be written to set forth the views of a person or a school,
+either genuinely or as forgeries under some eminent name. Pseudonymous
+epistles were especially numerous under the early Roman empire, and
+mainly attached themselves to the names of Plato, Demosthenes, Aristotle
+and Cicero.
+
+Both letters and epistles have come down to us in considerable variety
+and extent from the ancient world. Babylonia and Assyria, Egypt, Greece
+and Rome alike contribute to our inheritance of letters. Those of
+Aristotle are of questionable genuineness, but we can rely, at any rate
+in part, on those of Isocrates and Epicurus. Some of the letters of
+Cicero are rather epistles, since they were meant ultimately for the
+general eye. The papyrus discoveries in Egypt have a peculiar interest,
+for they are mainly the letters of people unknown to fame, and having no
+thought of publicity. It is less to be wondered at that we have a large
+collection of ancient epistles, especially in the realm of magic and
+religion, for epistles were meant to live, were published in several
+copies, and were not a difficult form of literary effort. The Tell
+el-Amarna tablets found in Upper Egypt in 1887 are a series of
+despatches in cuneiform script from Babylonian kings and Phoenician and
+Palestinian governors to the Pharaohs (c. 1400 B.C.). The epistles of
+Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plutarch, Seneca and the Younger Pliny claim
+mention at this point. In the later Roman period and into the middle
+ages, formal epistles were almost a distinct branch of literature. The
+ten books of Symmachus' _Epistolae_, so highly esteemed in the cultured
+circles of the 4th century, may be contrasted with the less elegant but
+more forceful epistles of Jerome.
+
+The distinction between letters and epistles has particular interest
+for the student of early Christian literature. G.A. Deissmann (_Bible
+Studies_) assigns to the category of letters all the Pauline writings as
+well as 2 and 3 John. The books bearing the names of James, Peter and
+Jude, together with the Pastorals (though these may contain fragments of
+genuine Pauline letters) and the Apocalypse, he regards as epistles. The
+first epistle of John he calls less a letter or an epistle than a
+religious tract. It is doubtful, however, whether we can thus reduce all
+the letters of the New Testament to one or other of these categories;
+and W.M. Ramsay (Hastings' _Dict. Bib._ Extra vol. p. 401) has pointed
+out with some force that "in the new conditions a new category had been
+developed--the general letter addressed to a whole class of persons or
+to the entire Church of Christ." Such writings have affinities with both
+the letter and the epistle, and they may further be compared with the
+"edicts and rescripts by which Roman law grew, documents arising out of
+special circumstances but treating them on general principles." Most of
+the literature of the sub-apostolic age is epistolary, and we have a
+particularly interesting form of epistle in the communications between
+churches (as distinct from individuals) known as the _First Epistle of
+Clement_ (Rome to Corinth), the _Martyrdom of Polycarp_ (Smyrna to
+Philomelium), and the _Letters of the Churches of Vienne and Lyons_ (to
+the congregations of Asia Minor and Phrygia) describing the Gallican
+martyrdoms of A.D. 177. In the following centuries we have the valuable
+epistles of Cyprian, of Gregory Nazianzen (to Cledonius on the
+Apollinarian controversy), of Basil (to be classed rather as letters),
+of Ambrose, Chrysostom, Augustine and Jerome. The encyclical letters of
+the Roman Catholic Church are epistles, even more so than bulls, which
+are usually more special in their destination. In the Renaissance one of
+the most common forms of literary production was that modelled upon
+Cicero's letters. From Petrarch to the _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_
+there is a whole epistolary literature. The _Epistolae obscurorum
+virorum_ have to some extent a counterpart in the Epistles of Martin
+Marprelate. Later satires in an epistolary form are Pascal's _Provincial
+Letters_, Swift's _Drapier Letters_, and the _Letters of Junius_. The
+"open letter" of modern journalism is really an epistle. (A. J. G.)
+
+2. _Epistles in Poetry._--A branch of poetry bears the name of the
+Epistle, and is modelled on those pieces of Horace which are almost
+essays (_sermones_) on moral or philosophical subjects, and are chiefly
+distinguished from other poems by being addressed to particular patrons
+or friends. The epistle of Horace to his agent (or _villicus_) is of a
+more familiar order, and is at once a masterpiece and a model of what an
+epistle should be. Examples of the work in this direction of Ovid,
+Claudian, Ausonius and other late Latin poets have been preserved, but
+it is particularly those of Horace which have given this character to
+the epistles in verse which form so very characteristic a section of
+French poetry. The graceful precision and dignified familiarity of the
+epistle are particularly attractive to the temperament of France.
+Clement Marot, in the 16th century, first made the epistle popular in
+France, with his brief and spirited specimens. We pass the witty
+epistles of Scarron and Voiture, to reach those of Boileau, whose
+epistles, twelve in number, are the classic examples of this form of
+verse in French literature; they were composed at different dates
+between 1668 and 1695. In the 18th century Voltaire enjoyed a supremacy
+in this graceful and sparkling species of writing; the _Epitre a Uranie_
+is perhaps the most famous of his verse-letters. Gresset, Bernis,
+Sedaine, Dorat, Gentil-Bernard, all excelled in the epistle. The curious
+"Epitres" of J.P.G. Viennet (1777-1868) were not easy and mundane like
+their predecessors, but violently polemical. Viennet, a hot defender of
+lost causes, may be considered the latest of the epistolary poets of
+France.
+
+In England the verse-epistle was first prominently employed by Samuel
+Daniel in his "Letter from Octavia to Marcus Antonius" (1599), and later
+on, more legitimately, in his "Certain Epistles" (1601-1603). His
+letter, in _terza rima_, to Lucy, Countess of Bristol, is one of the
+finest examples of this form in English literature. It was Daniel's
+deliberate intention to introduce the Epistle into English poetry,
+"after the manner of Horace." He was supported by Ben Jonson, who has
+some fine Horatian epistles in his _Forests_ (1616) and his
+_Underwoods_. _Letters to Several Persons of Honour_ form an important
+section in the poetry of John Donne. Habington's _Epistle to a Friend_
+is one of his most finished pieces. Henry Vaughan (1622-1695) addressed
+a fine epistle in verse to the French romance-writer Gombauld
+(1570-1666). Such "letters" were not unfrequent down to the Restoration,
+but they did not create a department of literature such as Daniel had
+proposed. At the close of the 17th century Dryden greatly excelled in
+this class of poetry, and his epistles to Congreve (1694) and to the
+duchess of Ormond (1700) are among the most graceful and eloquent that
+we possess. During the age of Anne various Augustan poets in whom the
+lyrical faculty was slight, from Congreve and Richard Duke down to
+Ambrose Philips and William Somerville, essayed the epistle with more or
+less success, and it was employed by Gay for several exercises in his
+elegant persiflage. Among the epistles of Gay, one rises to an eminence
+of merit, that called "Mr Pope's welcome from Greece," written in 1720.
+But the great writer of epistles in English is Pope himself, to whom the
+glory of this kind of verse belongs. His "Eloisa to Abelard" (1717) is
+carefully modelled on the form of Ovid's "Heroides," while in his _Moral
+Essays_ he adopts the Horatian formula for the epistle. In either case
+his success was brilliant and complete. The "Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot"
+has not been surpassed, if it has been equalled, in Latin or French
+poetry of the same class. But Pope excelled, not only in the voluptuous
+and in the didactic epistle, but in that of compliment as well, and
+there is no more graceful example of this in literature than is afforded
+by the letter about the poems of Parnell addressed, in 1721, to Robert,
+earl of Oxford. After the day of Pope the epistle again fell into
+desuetude, or occasional use, in England. It revived in the charming
+naivete of Cowper's lyrical letters in octosyllabics to his friends,
+such as William Bull and Lady Austin (1782). At the close of the century
+Samuel Rogers endeavoured to resuscitate the neglected form in his
+"Epistle to a Friend" (1798). The formality and conventional grace of
+the epistle were elements with which the leaders of romantic revival
+were out of sympathy, and it was not cultivated to any important degree
+in the 19th century. It is, however, to be noted that Shelley's "Letter
+to Maria Gisborne" (1820), Keats's "Epistle to Charles Clarke" (1816),
+and Landor's "To Julius Hare" (1836), in spite of their romantic
+colouring, are genuine Horatian epistles and of the pure Augustan type.
+This type, in English literature, is commonly, though not at all
+universally, cast in heroic verse. But Daniel employs _rime royal_ and
+_terza rima_, while some modern epistles have been cast in short iambic
+rhymed measures or in blank verse. It is sometimes not easy to
+distinguish the epistle from the elegy and from the dedication. (E. G.)
+
+  For St Paul's Epistles see PAUL, for St Peter's see PETER, for
+  Apocryphal Epistles see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, for Plato's see PLATO,
+  &c.
+
+
+
+
+EPISTYLE (Gr. [Greek: epi], upon, and [Greek: stylos], column), the
+Greek architectural term for architrave, the lower member of the
+entablature of the classic orders (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+EPISTYLIS (C.G. Ehrenberg), in zoology, a genus of peritrichous
+Infusoria with a short oral disc and collar, and a rigid stalk, often
+branching to form a colony.
+
+
+
+
+EPITAPH (Gr. [Greek: epitaphios], sc. [Greek: logos], from [Greek: epi],
+upon, and [Greek: taphos], a tomb), strictly, an inscription upon a
+tomb, though by a natural extension of usage the name is applied to
+anything written ostensibly for that purpose whether actually inscribed
+upon a tomb or not. When the word was introduced into English in the
+14th century it took the form _epitaphy_, as well as _epitaphe_, which
+latter word is used both by Gower and Lydgate. Many of the best-known
+epitaphs, both ancient and modern, are merely literary memorials, and
+find no place on sepulchral monuments. Sometimes the intention of the
+writer to have his production placed upon the grave of the person he has
+commemorated may have been frustrated, sometimes it may never have
+existed; what he has written is still entitled to be called an epitaph
+if it be suitable for the purpose, whether the purpose has been carried
+out or not. The most obvious external condition that suitability for
+mural inscription imposes is one of rigid limitation as to length. An
+epitaph cannot in the nature of things extend to the proportions that
+may be required in an elegy.
+
+The desire to perpetuate the memory of the dead being natural to man,
+the practice of placing epitaphs upon their graves has been common among
+all nations and in all ages. And the similarity, amounting sometimes
+almost to identity, of thought and expression that often exists between
+epitaphs written more than two thousand years ago and epitaphs written
+only yesterday is as striking an evidence as literature affords of the
+close kinship of human nature under the most varying conditions where
+the same primary elemental feelings are stirred. The grief and hope of
+the Roman mother as expressed in the touching lines--
+
+  "Lagge fili bene quiescas;
+   Mater tua rogat te,
+   Ut me ad te recipias:
+     Vale!"
+
+find their echo in similar inscriptions in many a modern cemetery.
+
+Probably the earliest epitaphial inscriptions that have come down to us
+are those of the ancient Egyptians, written, as their mode of sepulture
+necessitated, upon the sarcophagi and coffins. Those that have been
+deciphered are all very much in the same form, commencing with a prayer
+to a deity, generally Osiris or Anubis, on behalf of the deceased, whose
+name, descent and office are usually specified. There is, however, no
+attempt to delineate individual character, and the feelings of the
+survivors are not expressed otherwise than in the fact of a prayer being
+offered. Ancient Greek epitaphs, unlike the Egyptian, are of great
+literary interest, deep and often tender in feeling, rich and varied in
+expression, and generally epigrammatic in form. They are written usually
+in elegiac verse, though many of the later epitaphs are in prose. Among
+the gems of the Greek anthology familiar to English readers through
+translations are the epitaphs upon those who had fallen in battle. There
+are several ascribed to Simonides on the heroes of Thermopylae, of which
+the most celebrated is the epigram--
+
+  "Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by,
+   That here, obedient to their laws, we lie."
+
+A hymn of Simonides on the same subject contains some lines of great
+beauty in praise of those who were buried at Thermopylae, and these may
+be regarded as forming a literary epitaph. In Sparta epitaphs were
+inscribed only upon the graves of those who had been especially
+distinguished in war; in Athens they were applied more indiscriminately.
+They generally contained the name, the descent, the demise, and some
+account of the life of the person commemorated. It must be remembered,
+however, that many of the so-called Greek epitaphs are merely literary
+memorials not intended for monumental inscription, and that in these
+freer scope is naturally given to general reflections, while less
+attention is paid to biographical details. Many of them, even some of
+the monumental, do not contain any personal name, as in the one ascribed
+to Plato--
+
+  "I am a shipwrecked sailor's tomb; a peasant's there doth stand:
+   Thus the same world of Hades lies beneath both sea and land."
+
+Others again are so entirely of the nature of general reflections upon
+death that they contain no indication of the particular case that called
+them forth. It may be questioned, indeed, whether several of this
+character quoted in ordinary collections are epitaphs at all, in the
+sense of being intended for a particular occasion.
+
+Roman epitaphs, in contrast to those of the Greeks, contained, as a
+rule, nothing beyond a record of facts. The inscriptions on the urns, of
+which numerous specimens are to be found in the British Museum, present
+but little variation. The letters D.M. or D.M.S. (_Diis Manibus_ or
+_Diis Manibus Sacrum_) are followed by the name of the person whose
+ashes are enclosed, his age at death, and sometimes one or two other
+particulars. The inscription closes with the name of the person who
+caused the urn to be made, and his relationship to the deceased. It is a
+curious illustration of the survival of traces of an old faith after it
+has been formally discarded to find that the letters D.M. are not
+uncommon on the Christian inscriptions in the catacombs. It has been
+suggested that in this case they mean _Deo Maximo_ and not _Diis
+Manibus_, but the explanation would be quite untenable, even if there
+were not many other undeniable instances of the survival of pagan
+superstitions in the thought and life of the early Christians. In these
+very catacomb inscriptions there are many illustrations to be found,
+apart from the use of the letters D.M., of the union of heathen with
+Christian sentiment, (see Maitland's _Church in the Catacombs_). The
+private burial-places for the ashes of the dead were usually by the side
+of the various roads leading into Rome, the Via Appia, the Via Flaminia,
+&c. The traveller to or from the city thus passed for miles an almost
+uninterrupted succession of tombstones, whose inscriptions usually began
+with the appropriate words _Siste Viator_ or _Aspice Viator_, the origin
+doubtless of the "Stop Passenger," which still meets the eye in many
+parish churchyards of Britain. Another phrase of very common occurrence
+on ancient Roman tombstones, _Sit tibi terra levis_ ("Light lie the
+earth upon thee"), has continued in frequent use, as conveying an
+appropriate sentiment, down to modern times. A remarkable feature of
+many of the Roman epitaphs was the terrible denunciation they often
+pronounced upon those who violated the sepulchre. Such denunciations
+were not uncommon in later times. A well-known instance is furnished in
+the lines on Shakespeare's tomb at Stratford-on-Avon, said to have been
+written by the poet himself--
+
+  "Good frend, for Jesus' sake forbeare
+   To digg the dust enclosed heare;
+   Bleste be y^e man y^t spares thes stones.
+   And curst be he y^t moves my bones."
+
+The earliest existing British epitaphs belonged to the Roman period,
+and are written in Latin after the Roman form. Specimens are to be seen
+in various antiquarian museums throughout the country; some of the
+inscriptions are given in Bruce's _Roman Wall_, and the seventh volume
+of the _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_ edited by Hubner, containing the
+British inscriptions, is a valuable repertory for the earlier Roman
+epitaphs in Britain. The earliest, of course, are commemorative of
+soldiers, belonging to the legions of occupation, but the Roman form was
+afterwards adopted for native Britons. Long after the Roman form was
+discarded, the Latin language continued to be used, especially for
+inscriptions of a more public character, as being from its supposed
+permanence the most suitable medium of communication to distant ages. It
+is only, in fact, within recent years that Latin has become unusual, and
+the more natural practice has been adopted of writing the epitaphs of
+distinguished men in the language of the country in which they lived.
+While Latin was the chief if not the sole literary language, it was, as
+a matter of course, almost exclusively used for epitaphial inscriptions.
+The comparatively few English epitaphs that remain of the 11th and 12th
+centuries are all in Latin. They are generally confined to a mere
+statement of the name and rank of the deceased following the words "Hic
+jacet." Two noteworthy exceptions to this general brevity are, however,
+to be found in most of the collections. One is the epitaph to Gundrada,
+daughter of the Conqueror (d. 1085), which still exists at Lewes, though
+in an imperfect state, two of the lines having been lost; another is
+that to William de Warren, earl of Surrey (d. 1089), believed to have
+been inscribed in the abbey of St Pancras, near Lewes, founded by him.
+Both are encomiastic, and describe the character and work of the
+deceased with considerable fulness and beauty of expression. They are
+written in leonine verse. In the 13th century French began to be used in
+writing epitaphs, and most of the inscriptions to celebrated historical
+personages between 1200 and 1400 are in that language. Mention may be
+made of those to Robert, the 3rd earl of Oxford (d. 1221), as given in
+Weever, to Henry III. (d. 1272) at Westminster Abbey, and to Edward the
+Black Prince (d. 1376) at Canterbury. In most of the inscriptions of
+this period the deceased addresses the reader in the first person,
+describes his rank and position while alive, and, as in the case of the
+Black Prince, contrasts it with his wasted and loathsome state in the
+grave, and warns the reader to prepare for the same inevitable change.
+The epitaph almost invariably closes with a request, sometimes very
+urgently worded, for the prayers of the reader that the soul of the
+deceased may pass to glory, and an invocation of blessing, general or
+specific, upon all who comply. Epitaphs preserved much of the same
+character after English began to be used towards the close of the 14th
+century. The following, to a member of the Savile family at Thornhill,
+is probably even earlier, though its precise date cannot be fixed:--
+
+  "Bonys emongg stonys lys ful
+   steyl gwylste the sawle wan-
+   deris were that God wylethe"--
+
+that is, Bones among stones lie full still, whilst the soul wanders
+whither God willeth. It may be noted here that the majority of the
+inscriptions, Latin and English, from 1300 to the period of the
+Reformation, that have been preserved, are upon brasses (see BRASSES,
+MONUMENTAL). The very curious epitaph on St Bernard, probably written by
+a monk of Clairvaux, has the peculiarity of being a dialogue in Latin
+verse.
+
+It was in the reign of Elizabeth that epitaphs in English began to
+assume a distinct literary character and value, entitling them to rank
+with those that had hitherto been composed in Latin. We learn from Nash
+that at the close of the 16th century it had become a trade to supply
+epitaphs in English verse. There is one on the dowager countess of
+Pembroke (d. 1621), remarkable for its successful use of a somewhat
+daring hyperbole. It was written by William Browne, author of
+_Britannia's Pastorals_:--
+
+  "Underneath this sable hearse
+   Lies the subject of all verse;
+   Sydney's sister, Pembroke's mother;
+   Death, ere thou hast slain another
+   Fair and learn'd and good as she,
+   Time will throw his dart at thee.
+   Marble piles let no man raise
+   To her name for after days;
+   Some kind woman, born as she,
+   Reading this, like Niobe,
+   Shall turn marble, and become
+   Both her mourner and her tomb."
+
+If there be something of the exaggeration of a conceit in the second
+stanza, it needs scarcely to be pointed out that epitaphs, like every
+other form of composition, necessarily reflect the literary
+characteristics of the age in which they were written. The deprecation
+of marble as unnecessary suggests one of the finest literary epitaphs in
+the English language, that by Milton upon Shakespeare.
+
+The epitaphs of Pope are still considered to possess very great literary
+merit, though they were rated higher by Johnson and critics of his
+period than they are now.
+
+Dr Johnson, who thought so highly of Pope's epitaphs, was himself a
+great authority on both the theory and practice of this species of
+composition. His essay on epitaphs is one of the few existing monographs
+on the subject, and his opinion as to the use of Latin had great
+influence. The manner in which he met the delicately insinuated request
+of a number of eminent men that English should be employed in the case
+of Oliver Goldsmith was characteristic, and showed the strength of his
+conviction on the subject. His arguments in favour of Latin were chiefly
+drawn from its inherent fitness for epitaphial inscriptions and its
+classical stability. The first of these has a very considerable force,
+it being admitted on all hands that few languages are in themselves so
+suitable for the purpose; the second is outweighed by considerations
+that had considerable force in Dr Johnson's time, and have acquired more
+since. Even to the learned Latin is no longer the language of daily
+thought and life as it was at the period of the Reformation, and the
+great body of those who may fairly claim to be called the well-educated
+classes can only read it with difficulty, if at all. It seems,
+therefore, little less than absurd, for the sake of a stability which is
+itself in great part delusive, to write epitaphs in a language
+unintelligible to the vast majority of those for whose information
+presumably they are intended. Though a stickler for Latin, Dr Johnson
+wrote some very beautiful English epitaphs, as, for example, the
+following on Philips, a musician:--
+
+  "Philips, whose touch harmonious could remove
+   The pangs of guilty power or hapless love;
+   Rest here, distressed by poverty no more,
+   Here find that calm thou gav'st so oft before;
+   Sleep undisturbed within this peaceful shrine
+   Till angels wake thee with a note like thine!"
+
+In classifying epitaphs various principles of division may be adopted.
+Arranged according to nationality they indicate distinctions of race
+less clearly perhaps than any other form of literature does,--and this
+obviously because when under the influence of the deepest feeling men
+think and speak very much in the same way whatever be their country. At
+the same time the influence of nationality may to some extent be traced
+in epitaphs. The characteristics of the French style, its grace,
+clearness, wit and epigrammatic point, are all recognizable in French
+epitaphs. In the 16th century those of Etienne Pasquier were universally
+admired. Instances such as "La premiere au rendez-vous," inscribed on
+the grave of a mother, Piron's epitaph, written for himself after his
+rejection by the French Academy--
+
+  "Ci-git Piron, qui ne fut rien,
+   Pas meme academicien"--
+
+and one by a relieved husband, to be seen at Pere la Chaise--
+
+  "Ci-git ma femme. Ah! qu'elle est bien
+   Pour son repos et pour le mien"--
+
+might be multiplied indefinitely. One can hardly look through a
+collection of English epitaphs without being struck with the fact that
+these represent a greater variety of intellectual and emotional states
+than those of any other nation, ranging through every style of thought
+from the sublime to the commonplace, every mood of feeling from the most
+delicate and touching to the coarse and even brutal. Few subordinate
+illustrations of the complex nature of the English nationality are more
+striking.
+
+Epitaphs are sometimes classified according to their authorship and
+sometimes according to their subject, but neither division is so
+interesting as that which arranges them according to their
+characteristic features. What has just been said of English epitaphs is,
+of course, more true of epitaphs generally. They exemplify every variety
+of sentiment and taste, from lofty pathos and dignified eulogy to coarse
+buffoonery and the vilest scurrility. The extent to which the humorous
+and even the low comic element prevails among them is a noteworthy
+circumstance. It is curious that the most solemn of all subjects should
+have been frequently treated, intentionally or unintentionally, in a
+style so ludicrous that a collection of epitaphs is generally one of the
+most amusing books that can be picked up. In this as in other cases,
+too, it is to be observed that the unintended humour is generally of a
+much more entertaining kind than that which has been deliberately
+perpetrated.
+
+  See Weever, _Ancient Funerall Monuments_ (1631, 1661, Tooke's edit.,
+  1767); Philippe Labbe, _Thesaurus epitaphiorum_ (Paris, 1666);
+  _Theatrum funebre extructum a Dodone Richea seu Ottone Aicher_ (1675);
+  Hackett, _Select and Remarkable Epitaphs_ (1757); de Laplace,
+  _Epitaphes serieuses, badines, satiriques et burlesques_ (3 vols.,
+  Paris, 1782); Pulleyn, _Churchyard Gleanings_ (c. 1830); L. Lewysohn,
+  _Sechzig Epitaphien von Grabsteinen d. israelit. Friedhofes zu Worms_
+  (1855); Pettigrew, _Chronicles of the Tombs_ (1857); S. Tissington,
+  _Epitaphs_ (1857); Robinson, _Epitaphs from Cemeteries in London,
+  Edinburgh, &c._ (1859); le Blant, _Inscriptions chretiennes de la
+  Gaule anterieures au VIII^e siecle_ (1856, 1865); Blommaert, Galliard,
+  &c, _Inscriptions funeraires et monumentales de la prov. de Flandre
+  Orient_ (Ghent, 1857, 1860); _Inscriptions fun. et mon. de la prov.
+  d'Anvers_ (Antwerp, 1857-1860); Chwolson, _Achtzehn hebraische
+  Grabschriften aus der Krim_ (1859); J. Brown, _Epitaphs, &c, in
+  Greyfriars Churchyard, Edinburgh_ (1867); H.J. Loaring, _Quaint,
+  Curious, and Elegant Epitaphs_ (1872); J.K. Kippax, _Churchyard
+  Literature, a Choice Collection of American Epitaphs_ (Chicago, 1876);
+  also the poet William Wordsworth's _Essay on Epitaphs_.
+
+
+
+
+EPITHALAMIUM (Gr. [Greek: epi], at or upon, and [Greek: thalamos], a
+nuptial chamber), originally among the Greeks a song in praise of bride
+and bridegroom, which was sung by a number of boys and girls at the door
+of the nuptial chamber. According to the scholiast on Theocritus, one
+form, the [Greek: katakoimetikon], was employed at night, and another,
+the [Greek: diegertikon], to arouse the bride and bridegroom on the
+following morning. In either case, as was natural, the main burden of
+the song consisted of invocations of blessing and predictions of
+happiness, interrupted from time to time by the ancient chorus of _Hymen
+hymenaee_. Among the Romans a similar custom was in vogue, but the song
+was sung by girls only, after the marriage guests had gone, and it
+contained much more of what modern morality would condemn as obscene. In
+the hands of the poets the epithalamium was developed into a special
+literary form, and received considerable cultivation. Sappho, Anacreon,
+Stesichorus and Pindar are all regarded as masters of the species, but
+the finest example preserved in Greek literature is the 18th Idyll of
+Theocritus, which celebrates the marriage of Menelaus and Helen. In
+Latin, the epithalamium, imitated from Fescennine Greek models, was a
+base form of literature, when Catullus redeemed it and gave it dignity
+by modelling his _Marriage of Thetis and Peleus_ on a lost ode of
+Sappho. In later times Statius, Ausonius, Sidonius Apollinaris and
+Claudian are the authors of the best-known epithalamia in classical
+Latin; and they have been imitated by Buchanan, Scaliger, Sannazaro, and
+a whole host of modern Latin poets, with whom, indeed, the form was at
+one time in great favour. The names of Ronsard, Malherbe and Scarron are
+especially associated with the species in French literature, and Marini
+and Metastasio in Italian. Perhaps no poem of this class has been more
+universally admired than the _Epithalamium_ of Spenser (1595), though he
+has found no unworthy rivals in Ben Jonson, Donne and Quarles. At the
+close of _In Memoriam_ Tennyson has appended a poem, on the nuptials of
+his sister, which is strictly an epithalamium.
+
+
+
+
+EPITHELIAL, ENDOTHELIAL and GLANDULAR TISSUES,
+
+  Epithelium.
+
+in anatomy. Every surface of the body which may come into contact with
+foreign substances is covered with a protecting layer of cells closely
+bound to one another to form continuous sheets. These are epithelial
+cells (from [Greek: thele], a nipple). By the formation of outgrowths or
+ingrowths from these surfaces further structures, consisting largely or
+entirely of cells directly derived from the surface epithelium, may be
+formed. In this way originate the central nervous system, the sensitive
+surfaces of the special sense organs, the glands, and the hairs, nails,
+&c. The epithelial cells possess typical microscopical characters which
+enable them to be readily distinguished from all others. Thus the cell
+outline is clearly marked, the nucleus large and spherical or
+ellipsoidal. The protoplasm of the cell is usually large in amount and
+often contains large numbers of granules.
+
+
+  Varieties.
+
+The individual cells forming an epithelial membrane are classified
+according to their shape. Thus we find _flattened_, or _squamous_,
+_cubical_, _columnar_, _irregular_, _ciliated_ or _flagellated_ cells.
+Many of the membranes formed by these cells are only one cell thick, as
+for instance is the case for the major part of the alimentary canal. In
+other instances the epithelial membrane may consist of a number of
+layers of cells, as in the case of the epidermis of the skin.
+Considering in the first place those membranes of which the cells are in
+a single layer we may distinguish the following:--
+
+1. _Columnar Epithelium_ (figs. 1 and 2).--This variety covers the main
+part of the intestinal tract, i.e. from the end of the oesophagus to the
+commencement of the rectum. It is also found lining the ducts of many
+glands. In a highly typical form it is found covering the villi of the
+small intestine (fig. 1). The external layer of the cell is commonly
+modified to form a thin membrane showing a number of very fine radially
+arranged lines, which are probably the expression of very minute tubular
+perforations through the membrane.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Isolated Epithelial Cells from the Small
+Intestine of the Frog.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Columnar Epithelial Cells resting upon a
+Basement Membrane.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Mosaic appearance of a Columnar Epithelial
+Surface as seen from above.]
+
+The close apposition of these cells to form a closed membrane is well
+seen when a surface covered by them is examined from above (fig. 3). The
+surfaces of the cells are then seen to form a mosaic, each cell area
+having a polyhedral shape.
+
+2. _Cubical Epithelium._--This differs from the former in that the cells
+are less in height. It is found in many glands and ducts (e.g. the
+kidney), in the middle ear, choroid plexuses of the brain, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Squamous Epithelial Cells from the Mucous
+Membrane of the Mouth.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Isolated ciliated Epithelial Cells from the
+Trachea.]
+
+3. _Squamous or Flattened Epithelium_ (fig. 4).--In this variety the
+cell is flattened, very thin and irregular in outline. It occurs as the
+covering epithelium of the alveoli of the lung, of the kidney glomerules
+and capsule, &c. The surface epithelial cells of a stratified epithelium
+are also of this type (fig. 4). Closely resembling these cells are those
+known as endothelial (see later).
+
+4. _Ciliated Epithelium_ (fig. 5).--The surface cells of many
+epithelial membranes are often provided with a number of very fine
+protoplasmic processes or _cilia_. Most commonly the cells are columnar,
+but other shapes are also found. During life the cilia are always in
+movement, and set up a current tending to drive fluid or other material
+on the surface in one direction along the membrane or tube lined by such
+epithelium. It is found lining the trachea, bronchi, parts of the nasal
+cavities and the uterus, oviduct, vas deferens, epididymis, a portion of
+the renal tubule, &c.
+
+In the instance of some cells there may be but a single process from the
+exposed surface of the cell, and then the process is usually of large
+size and length. It is then known as a _flagellum_. Such cells are
+common among the surface cells of many of the simple animal organisms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--A Stratified Epithelium from a Mucous Membrane.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Stratified Epithelium from the Skin.
+
+  c, Columnar cells resting on the fibrous true skin.
+  p, The so-called prickle cells.
+  g, Stratum granulosum.
+  h, Horny cells.
+  s, Squamous horny cells.]
+
+When the cells of an epithelial surface are arranged several layers
+deep, we can again distinguish various types:--
+
+1. _Stratified Epithelium_ (figs. 6 and 7).--This is found in the
+epithelium of the skin and of many mucous membranes (mouth, oesophagus,
+rectum, conjunctiva, vagina, &c.). Here the surface cells are very much
+flattened (squamous epithelium), those of the middle layer are
+polyhedral and those of the lowest layer are cubical or columnar. This
+type of epithelium is found covering surfaces commonly exposed to
+friction. The surface may be dry as in the skin, or moist, e.g. the
+mouth. The surface cells are constantly being rubbed off, and are then
+replaced by new cells growing up from below. Hence the deepest layer,
+that nearest the blood supply, is a formative layer, and in successive
+stages from this we can trace the gradual transformation of these
+protoplasmic cells into scaly cells, which no longer show any sign of
+being alive. In the moist mucous surfaces the number of cells forming
+the epithelial layer is usually much smaller than in a dry stratified
+epithelium.
+
+2. _Stratified Ciliated Epithelium._--In this variety the superficial
+cells are ciliated and columnar, between the bases of these are found
+fusiform cells and the lowest cells are cubical or pyramidal. This
+epithelium is found lining parts of the respiratory passages, the vas
+deferens and the epididymis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Transitional Epithelium from the Urinary
+Bladder, showing the outlines of the cells only.]
+
+3. _Transitional Epithelium_ (fig. 8).--This variety of epithelium is
+found lining the bladder, and the appearance observed depends upon the
+contracted or distended state of the bladder from which the preparation
+was made. If the bladder was contracted the form seen in fig. 8 is
+obtained. The epithelium is in three or more layers, the superficial one
+being very characteristic. The cells are cubical and fit over the
+rounded ends of the cells of the next layer. These are pear-shaped, the
+points of the pear resting on the basement membrane. Between the bases
+of these cells lie those of the lowermost layer. These are irregularly
+columnar. If the bladder is distended before the preparation is made,
+the cells are then found stretched out transversely. This is especially
+the case with the surface cells, which may then become very flattened.
+
+Considering epithelium from the point of view of function, it may be
+classified as protective, absorptive or secretory. It may produce
+special outgrowths for protective or ornamental purposes, such are
+hairs, nails, horns, &c., and for such purposes it may manufacture
+within itself chemical material best suited for that purpose, e.g.
+keratin; here the whole cell becomes modified. In other instances may be
+seen in the interior of the cells many chemical substances which
+indicate the nature of their work, e.g. fat droplets, granules of
+various kinds, protein, mucin, watery granules, glycogen, &c. In a
+typical absorbing cell granules of material being absorbed may be seen.
+A secreting cell of normal type forming specific substances stores these
+in its interior until wanted, e.g. fat as in sebaceous and mammary
+glands, ferment precursors (salivary, gastric glands, &c.), and various
+excretory substances, as in the renal epithelium.
+
+Initially the epithelium cell might have all these functions, but later
+came specialization and therefore to most cells a specific work. Some of
+that work does not require the cell to be at the surface, while for
+other work this is indispensable, and hence when the surface becomes
+limited those of the former category are removed from the surface to the
+deeper parts. This is seen typically in secretory and excretory cells,
+which usually lie below the surface on to which they pour their
+secretions. If the secretion required at any one point is considerable,
+then the secreting cells are numerous in proportion and a typical gland
+is formed. The secretion is then conducted to the surface by a duct, and
+this duct is also lined with epithelium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A Compound Tubular Gland. One of the pyloric
+glands of the stomach of the dog.]
+
+
+  Glands.
+
+_Glandular Tissues._--Every gland is formed by an ingrowth from an
+epithelial surface. This ingrowth may from the beginning possess a
+tubular structure, but in other instances may start as a solid column of
+cells which subsequently becomes tubulated. As growth proceeds, the
+column of cells may divide or give off offshoots, in which case a
+compound gland is formed. In many glands the number of branches is
+limited, in others (salivary, pancreas) a very large structure is
+finally formed by repeated growth and subdivision. As a rule the
+branches do not unite with one another, but in one instance, the liver,
+this does occur when a reticulated compound gland is produced. In
+compound glands the more typical or secretory epithelium is found
+forming the terminal portion of each branch, and the uniting portions
+form ducts and are lined with a less modified type of epithelial cell.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--A Tubulo-alveolar Gland. One of the mucous
+salivary glands of the dog. On the left the alveoli are unfolded to show
+their general arrangement. d, Small duct of gland subdividing into
+branches; e, f and g, terminal tubular alveoli of gland.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--A Compound Alveolar Gland. One of the terminal
+lobules of the pancreas, showing the spherical form of the alveoli.]
+
+Glands are classified according to their shape. If the gland retains its
+shape as a tube throughout it is termed a _tubular_ gland, simple
+tubular if there is no division (large intestine), _compound_ tubular
+(fig. 9) if branching occurs (pyloric glands of stomach). In the simple
+tubular glands the gland may be coiled without losing its tubular form,
+e.g. in sweat glands. In the second main variety of gland the secretory
+portion is enlarged and the lumen variously increased in size. These are
+termed _alveolar_ or _saccular_ glands. They are again subdivided into
+simple or compound alveolar glands, as in the case of the tubular glands
+(fig. 10). A further complication in the case of the alveolar glands may
+occur in the form of still smaller saccular diverticuli growing out from
+the main sacculi (fig. 11). These are termed _alveoli_.
+
+The typical secretory cells of the glands are found lining the terminal
+portions of the ramifications and extend upwards to varying degrees.
+Thus in a typical acinous gland the cells are restricted to the final
+alveoli. The remaining tubes are to be considered mainly as ducts. In
+tubulo-alveolar glands the secreting epithelium lines the alveus as well
+as the terminal tubule.
+
+The gland cells are all placed upon a basement membrane. In many
+instances this membrane is formed of very thin flattened cells, in other
+instances it is apparently a homogeneous membrane, and according to some
+observers is simply a modified part of the basal surface of the cell,
+while according to others it is a definite structure distinct from the
+epithelium.
+
+In the secretory portion of the gland and in the smaller ducts the
+epithelial layer is one cell thick only. In the larger ducts there are
+two layers of cells, but even here the surface cell usually extends by a
+thinned-out stalk down to the basement membrane.
+
+The detailed characters of the epithelium of the different glands of the
+body are given in separate articles (see ALIMENTARY CANAL, &c.). It will
+be sufficient here to give the more general characters possessed by
+these cells. They are cubical or conical cells with distinct oval nuclei
+and granular protoplasm. Within the protoplasm is accumulated a large
+number of spherical granules arranged in diverse manners in different
+cells. The granules vary much in size in different glands, and in
+chemical composition, but in all cases represent a store of material
+ready to be discharged from the cell as its secretion. Hence the general
+appearance of the cell is found to vary according to the previous degree
+of activity of the cell. If it has been at rest for some time the cell
+contains very many granules which swell it out and increase its size.
+The nucleus is then largely hidden by the granules. In the opposite
+condition, i.e. when the cell has been actively secreting, the
+protoplasm is much clearer, the nucleus obvious and the cell shrunken in
+size, all these changes being due to the extrusion of the granules.
+
+
+  Endothelium and mesothelium.
+
+_Endothelium and Mesothelium._--Lining the blood vessels, lymph vessels
+and lymph spaces are found flattened cells apposed to one another by
+their edges to form an extremely thin membrane. These cells are
+developed from the middle embryonic layer and are termed endothelium. A
+very similar type of cells is also found, formed into a very thin
+continuous sheet, lining the body-cavity, i.e. pleural pericardial, and
+peritoneal cavities. These cells develop from that portion of the
+mesoderm known as the mesothelium, and are therefore frequently termed
+mesothelial, though by many they are also included as endothelial cells.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Mesothelial Cells forming the Peritoneal Serous
+Membrane. Three stomata are seen surrounded by cubical cells. One of
+these is closed. The light band marks the position of a lymphatic.
+(After Klein.)]
+
+A mesothelial cell is very flattened, thus resembling a squamous
+epithelial cell. It possesses a protoplasm with faint granules and an
+oval or round nucleus (fig. 12). The outline of the cell is irregularly
+polyhedral, and the borders may be finely serrated. The cells are united
+to one another by an intercellular cement substance which, however, is
+very scanty in amount, but can be made apparent by staining with silver
+nitrate when the appearance reproduced in the figure is seen. By being
+thus united together, the cells form a continuous layer. This layer is
+pierced by a number of small openings, known as stomata, which bring the
+cavity into direct communication with lymph spaces or vessels lying
+beneath the membrane. The stomata are surrounded by a special layer of
+cubical and granular cells. Through these stomata fluids and other
+materials present in the body-cavity can be removed into the lymph
+spaces.
+
+_Endothelial membranes_ (fig. 13) are quite similar in structure to
+mesothelial. They are usually elongated cells of irregular outline and
+serrated borders.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Endothelial Cells from the Interior of an
+Artery.]
+
+By means of endothelial or mesothelial membranes the surfaces of the
+parts covered by them are rendered very smooth, so that movement over
+the surface is greatly facilitated. Thus the abdominal organs can glide
+easily over one another within the peritoneal cavity; the blood or lymph
+experiences the least amount of friction; or again the friction is
+reduced to a minimum between a tendon and its sheath or in the joint
+cavities. The cells forming these membranes also possess further
+physiological properties. Thus it is most probable that they play an
+active part in the blood capillaries in transmitting substances from the
+blood into the tissue spaces, or conversely in preventing the passage of
+materials from blood to tissue space or from tissue space to blood.
+Hence the fluid of the blood and that of the tissue space need not be of
+the same chemical composition.     (T. G. Br.)
+
+
+
+
+EPITOME (Gr. [Greek: epitome], from [Greek: epitemnein], to cut short),
+an abridgment, abstract or summary giving the salient points of a book,
+law case, &c., a short and concise account of any particular subject or
+event. By transference _epitome_ is also used to express the
+representation of a larger thing, concrete or abstract, reproduced in
+miniature. Thus St Mark's was called by Ruskin the "epitome of Venice,"
+as it embraces examples of all the periods of architecture from the 10th
+to the 19th centuries.
+
+
+
+
+EPOCH (Gr. [Greek: epoche], holding in suspense, a pause, from [Greek:
+epechein], to hold up, to stop), a term for a stated period of time, and
+so used of a date accepted as the starting-point of an era or of a new
+period in chronology, such as the birth of Christ. It is hence
+transferred to a period which marks a great change, whether in the
+history of a country or a science, such as a great discovery or
+invention. Thus an event may be spoken of as "epoch-making." The word is
+also used, synonymously with "period," for any space of time marked by a
+distinctive condition or by a particular series of events.
+
+In astronomy the word is used for a moment from which time is measured,
+or at which a definite position of a body or a definite relation of two
+bodies occurs. For example, the position of a body moving in an orbit
+cannot be determined unless its position at some given time is known.
+The given time is then the epoch; but the term is often applied to the
+mean longitude of the body at the given time.
+
+
+
+
+EPODE, in verse, the third part in an ode, which followed the strophe
+and the antistrophe, and completed the movement; it was called [Greek:
+epodos periodos] by the Greeks. At a certain moment the choirs, which
+had chanted to right of the altar or stage and then to left of it,
+combined and sang in unison, or permitted the coryphaeus to sing for
+them all, standing in the centre. When, with the appearance of
+Stesichorus and the evolution of choral lyric, a learned and artificial
+kind of poetry began to be cultivated in Greece, a new form, the [Greek:
+eidos epodikon], or epode-song, came into existence. It consisted of a
+verse of trimeter iambic, followed by a dimeter iambic, and it is
+reported that, although the epode was carried to its highest perfection
+by Stesichorus, an earlier poet, Archilochus, was really the inventor of
+this form. The epode soon took a firm place in choral poetry, which it
+lost when that branch of literature declined. But it extended beyond the
+ode, and in the early dramatists we find numerous examples of monologues
+and dialogues framed on the epodical system. In Latin poetry the epode
+was cultivated, in conscious archaism, both as a part of the ode and as
+an independent branch of poetry. Of the former class, the epithalamia of
+Catullus, founded on an imitation of Pindar, present us with examples of
+strophe, antistrophe and epode; and it has been observed that the
+celebrated ode of Horace, beginning _Quem virum aut heroa lyra vel
+acri_, possesses this triple character. But the word is now mainly
+familiar from an experiment of Horace in the second class, for he
+entitled his fifth book of odes _Epodon liber_ or the Book of Epodes. He
+says in the course of these poems, that in composing them he was
+introducing a new form, at least in Latin literature, and that he was
+imitating the effect of the iambic distichs invented by Archilochus.
+Accordingly we find the first ten of these epodes composed in alternate
+verses of iambic trimeter and iambic dimeter, thus:--
+
+  "At o Deorum quicquid in coelo regit
+     Terras et humanum genus."
+
+In the seven remaining epodes Horace has diversified the measures, while
+retaining the general character of the distich. This group of poems
+belongs in the main to the early youth of the poet, and displays a
+truculence and a controversial heat which are absent from his more
+mature writings. As he was imitating Archilochus in form, he believed
+himself justified, no doubt, in repeating the sarcastic violence of his
+fierce model. The curious thing is that these particular poems of
+Horace, which are really short lyrical satires, have appropriated almost
+exclusively the name of epodes, although they bear little enough
+resemblance to the genuine epode of early Greek literature.
+
+
+
+
+EPONA, a goddess of horses, asses and mules, worshipped by the Romans,
+though of foreign, probably Gallic, origin. The majority of inscriptions
+and images bearing her name have been found in Gaul, Germany and the
+Danube countries; of the few that occur in Rome itself most were exhumed
+on the site of the barracks of the _equites singulares_, a foreign
+imperial body-guard mainly recruited from the Batavians. Her name does
+not appear in Tertullian's list of the _indigetes di_, and Juvenal
+contrasts her worship unfavourably with the old Roman Numa ritual. Her
+cult does not appear to have been introduced before imperial times, when
+she is often called Augusta and invoked on behalf of the emperor and the
+imperial house. Her chief function, however, was to see that the beasts
+of burden were duly fed, and to protect them against accidents and
+malicious influence. In the countries in which the worship of Epona was
+said to have had its origin it was a common belief that certain beings
+were in the habit of casting a spell over stables during the night. The
+Romans used to place the image of the goddess, crowned with flowers on
+festive occasions, in a sort of shrine in the centre of the architrave
+of the stable. In art she is generally represented seated, with her hand
+on the head of the accompanying horse or animal.
+
+  See Tertullian, Apol. 16; Juvenal viii. 157; Prudentius, _Apoth._ 197;
+  Apuleius, _Metam._ iii. 27; articles in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dict,
+  des antiquites_ and Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+EPONYMOUS, that which gives a name to anything (Gr. [Greek: eponymos],
+from [Greek: onoma], a name), a term especially applied to the mythical
+or semi-mythical personages, heroes, deities, &c. from whom a country or
+city took its name. Thus Pelops is the giver of the name to the
+Peloponnese. At Athens the chief archon of the year was known as the
+[Greek: archon eponymos], as the year was known by his name. There was a
+similar official in ancient Assyria. In ancient times, as in historical
+and modern cases, a country or a city has been named after a real
+personage, but in many cases the person has been invented to account for
+the name.
+
+
+
+
+EPPING, a market town in the Epping parliamentary division of Essex,
+England, 17 m. N.N.E. from London by a branch of the Great Eastern
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 3789. The town lies high and
+picturesquely, at the northern outskirts of Epping Forest. The modern
+church of St John the Baptist replaces the old parish church of All
+Saints in the village of Epping Upland 2 m. N.W. This is in part Norman.
+There is considerable trade in butter, cheese and sausages.
+
+Epping Forest forms part of the ancient Waltham Forest, which covered
+the greater part of the county. All the "London Basin," within which the
+Forest lies, was densely wooded. The Forest became one of the commonable
+lands of Royal Chases or hunting-grounds. It was threatened with total
+disafforestation, when under the Epping Forest Act of 1871 a board of
+commissioners was appointed for the better management of the lands. The
+corporation of the city of London then acquired the freehold interest of
+waste land belonging to the lords of the manor, and finally secured
+5559-1/2 acres, magnificently timbered, to the use of the public for
+ever, the tract being declared open by Queen Victoria in 1882. The
+Ancient Court of Verderers was also revived, consisting of an hereditary
+lord warden together with four verderers elected by freeholders of the
+county. The present forest lies between the valleys of the Roding and
+the Lea, and extends southward from Epping to the vicinity of Woodford
+and Walthamstow, a distance of about 7 m. It is readily accessible from
+the villages on its outskirts, such as Woodford, Chingford and Loughton,
+which are served by branches of the Great Eastern railway. These are
+centres of residential districts, and, especially on public holidays in
+the summer, receive large numbers of visitors.
+
+
+
+
+EPPS, the name of an English family, well known in commerce and
+medicine. In the second half of the 18th century they had been settled
+near Ashford, Kent, for some generations, claiming descent from an
+equerry of Charles II., but were reduced in circumstances, when JOHN
+EPPS rose to prosperity as a provision merchant in London, and restored
+the family fortunes. He had four sons, of whom JOHN EPPS (1805-1869),
+GEORGE NAPOLEON EPPS (1815-1874), and JAMES EPPS (1821-1907) were
+notable men of their day, the two former as prominent doctors who were
+ardent converts to homoeopathy, and James as a homoeopathic chemist and
+the founder of the great cocoa business associated with his name. Among
+Dr G.N. Epps's children were Dr Washington Epps, a well-known
+homoeopathist, Lady Alma-Tadema, and Mrs Edmund Gosse.
+
+
+
+
+EPREMESNIL (ESPREMESNIL or EPREMENIL), JEAN JACQUES DUVAL D'
+(1745-1794), French magistrate and politician, was born in India on the
+5th of December 1745 at Pondicherry, his father being a colleague of
+Dupleix. Returning to France in 1750 he was educated in Paris for the
+law, and became in 1775 _conseiller_ in the parlement of Paris, where he
+soon distinguished himself by his zealous defence of its rights against
+the royal prerogative. He showed bitter enmity to Marie Antoinette in
+the matter of the diamond necklace, and on the 19th of November 1787 he
+was the spokesman of the parlement in demanding the convocation of the
+states-general. When the court retaliated by an edict depriving the
+parlement of its functions, Epremesnil bribed the printers to supply him
+with a copy before its promulgation, and this he read to the assembled
+parlement. A royal officer was sent to the palais de justice to arrest
+Epremesnil and his chief supporter Goislard de Montsabert, but the
+parlement (5th of May 1788) declared that they were all Epremesnils, and
+the arrest was only effected on the next day on the voluntary surrender
+of the two members. After four months' imprisonment on the island of Ste
+Marguerite, Epremesnil found himself a popular hero, and was returned to
+the states-general as deputy of the nobility of the outlying districts
+of Paris. But with the rapid advance towards revolution his views
+changed; in his _Reflexions impartiales_ ... (January 1789) he defended
+the monarchy, and he led the party among the nobility that refused to
+meet with the third estate until summoned to do so by royal command. In
+the Constituent Assembly he opposed every step towards the destruction
+of the monarchy. After a narrow escape from the fury of the Parisian
+populace in July 1792 he was imprisoned in the Abbaye, but was set at
+liberty before the September massacres. In September 1793, however, he
+was arrested at Le Havre, taken to Paris, and denounced to the
+Convention as an agent of Pitt. He was brought to trial before the
+revolutionary tribunal on the 21st of April 1794, and was guillotined
+the next day.
+
+  D'Epremesnil's speeches were collected in a small volume in 1823. See
+  also H. Carre, _Un Precurseur inconscient de la Revolution_ (Paris,
+  1897).
+
+
+
+
+EPSOM, a market town in the Epsom parliamentary division of Surrey,
+England, 14 m. S.W. by S. of London Bridge. Pop. of urban district
+(1901), 10,915. It is served by the London & South-Western and the
+London, Brighton & South Coast railways, and on the racecourse on the
+neighbouring Downs there is a station (Tattenham Corner) of the
+South-Eastern & Chatham railway. The principal building is the parish
+church of St Martin, a good example of modern Gothic, the interior of
+which contains some fine sculptures by Flaxman and Chantrey. Epsom (a
+contraction of Ebbisham, still the name of the manor) first came into
+notice when mineral springs were discovered there about 1618. For some
+time after their discovery the town enjoyed a wonderful degree of
+prosperity. After the Restoration it was often visited by Charles II.,
+and when Queen Anne came to the throne, her husband, Prince George of
+Denmark, made it his frequent resort. Epsom gradually lost its celebrity
+as a spa, but the annual races held on its downs arrested the decay of
+the town. Races appear to have been established here as early as James
+I's residence at Nonsuch, but they did not assume a permanent character
+until 1730. The principal races--the Derby and Oaks--are named after one
+of the earls of Derby and his seat, the Oaks, which is in the
+neighbourhood. The latter race was established in 1779, and the former
+in the following year. The spring races are held on a Thursday and
+Friday towards the close of April; and the great Epsom meeting takes
+place on the Tuesday and three following days immediately before
+Whitsuntide,--the Derby on the Wednesday, and the Oaks on the Friday
+(see HORSE-RACING). The grand stand was erected in 1829, and
+subsequently enlarged; and there are numerous training stables in the
+vicinity. Close to the town are the extensive buildings of the Royal
+Medical Benevolent College, commonly called Epsom College, founded in
+1855. Scholars on the foundation must be the sons of medical men, but in
+other respects the school is open. In the neighbourhood is the Durdans,
+a seat of the earl of Rosebery.
+
+
+
+
+EPSOM SALTS, heptohydrated magnesium sulphate, MgSO4.7H2O, the _magnesii
+sulphas_ of pharmacy (Ger. _Bittersalz_). It occurs dissolved in sea
+water and in most mineral waters, especially in those at Epsom (from
+which place it takes its name), Seidlitz, Saidschutz and Pullna. It also
+occurs in nature in fibrous excrescences, constituting the mineral
+epsomite or hair-salt; and as compact masses (reichardite), as in the
+Stassfurt mines. It is also found associated with limestone, as in the
+Mammoth Caves, Kentucky, and with gypsum, as at Montmartre. Epsom salts
+crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, being isomorphous with the
+corresponding zinc and nickel sulphates, and also with magnesium
+chromate. Occasionally monoclinic crystals are obtained by crystallizing
+from a strong solution. It is used in the arts for weighting cotton
+fabrics, as a top-dressing for clover hay in agriculture, and in dyeing.
+In medicine it is frequently employed as a hydragogue purgative,
+specially valuable in febrile diseases, in congestion of the portal
+system, and in the obstinate constipation of painters' colic. In the
+last case it is combined with potassium iodide, the two salts being
+exceedingly effective in causing the elimination of lead from the
+system. It is also very useful as a supplement to mercury, which needs a
+saline aperient to complete its action. The salt should be given a few
+hours after the mercury, e.g. in the early morning, the mercury having
+been given at night. It possesses the advantage of exercising but little
+irritant effect upon the bowels. Its nauseous bitter taste may to some
+extent be concealed by acidifying the solution with dilute sulphuric
+acid, and in some cases where full doses have failed the repeated
+administration of small ones has proved effectual.
+
+  For the manufacture of Epsom salts and for other hydrated magnesium
+  sulphates see MAGNESIUM.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 9, Slice 6, by Various
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