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+Project Gutenberg's Self-Determining Haiti, by James Weldon Johnson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Self-Determining Haiti
+       Four articles reprinted from The Nation embodying a report
+       of an investigation made for the National Association for
+       the Advancement of Colored People.
+
+Author: James Weldon Johnson
+
+Release Date: January 21, 2011 [EBook #35025]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SELF-DETERMINING HAITI ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Gary Rees and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Self-Determining Haiti
+
+BY
+
+JAMES WELDON JOHNSON
+
+
+Four articles reprinted from _The Nation_ embodying a report of an
+investigation made for
+
+THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE
+
+
+_Together with Official Documents_
+
+25 cents a copy
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1920
+
+By THE NATION, Inc.
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+The articles and documents in this pamphlet were printed in _The Nation_
+during the summer of 1920. They revealed for the first time to the world
+the nature of the United States' imperialistic venture in Haiti. While,
+owing to the censorship, the full story of this fundamental departure
+from American traditions has not yet been told, it appears at the time
+of this writing, October, 1920, that "pitiless publicity" for our
+sandbagging of a friendly and inoffensive neighbor has been achieved.
+The report of Major-General George Barnett, commandant of the Marine
+Corps during the first four years of the Haitian occupation, just
+issued, strikingly confirms the facts set forth by _The Nation_ and
+refutes the denials of administration officials and their newspaper
+apologists. It is in the hope that by spreading broadly the truth about
+what has happened in Haiti under five years of American occupation _The
+Nation_ may further contribute toward removing a dark blot from the
+American escutcheon, that this pamphlet is issued.
+
+
+
+
+Self-Determining Haiti
+
+By JAMES WELDON JOHNSON
+
+
+
+
+I. THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION
+
+
+To know the reasons for the present political situation in Haiti, to
+understand why the United States landed and has for five years
+maintained military forces in that country, why some three thousand
+Haitian men, women, and children have been shot down by American rifles
+and machine guns, it is necessary, among other things, to know that the
+National City Bank of New York is very much interested in Haiti. It is
+necessary to know that the National City Bank controls the National Bank
+of Haiti and is the depository for all of the Haitian national funds
+that are being collected by American officials, and that Mr. R. L.
+Farnham, vice-president of the National City Bank, is virtually the
+representative of the State Department in matters relating to the island
+republic. Most Americans have the opinion--if they have any opinion at
+all on the subject--that the United States was forced, on purely humane
+grounds, to intervene in the black republic because of the tragic coup
+d'etat which resulted in the overthrow and death of President Vilbrun
+Guillaume Sam and the execution of the political prisoners confined at
+Port-au-Prince, July 27-28, 1915; and that this government has been
+compelled to keep a military force in Haiti since that time to pacify
+the country and maintain order.
+
+The fact is that for nearly a year before forcible intervention on the
+part of the United States this government was seeking to compel Haiti to
+submit to "peaceable" intervention. Toward the close of 1914 the United
+States notified the government of Haiti that it was disposed to
+recognize the newly-elected president, Theodore Davilmar, as soon as a
+Haitian commission would sign at Washington "satisfactory protocols"
+relative to a convention with the United States on the model of the
+Dominican-American Convention. On December 15, 1914, the Haitian
+government, through its Secretary of Foreign Affairs, replied: "The
+Government of the Republic of Haiti would consider itself lax in its
+duty to the United States and to itself if it allowed the least doubt
+to exist of its irrevocable intention not to accept any control of the
+administration of Haitian affairs by a foreign Power." On December 19,
+the United States, through its legation at Port-au-Prince, replied, that
+in expressing its willingness to do in Haiti what had been done in Santo
+Domingo it "was actuated entirely by a disinterested desire to give
+assistance."
+
+Two months later, the Theodore government was overthrown by a revolution
+and Vilbrun Guillaume was elected president. Immediately afterwards
+there arrived at Port-au-Prince an American commission from
+Washington--the Ford mission. The commissioners were received at the
+National Palace and attempted to take up the discussion of the
+convention that had been broken off in December, 1914. However, they
+lacked full powers and no negotiations were entered into. After several
+days, the Ford mission sailed for the United States. But soon after, in
+May, the United States sent to Haiti Mr. Paul Fuller, Jr., with the
+title Envoy Extraordinary, on a special mission to apprise the Haitian
+government that the Guillaume administration would not be recognized by
+the American government unless Haiti accepted and signed the project of
+a convention which he was authorized to present. After examining the
+project the Haitian government submitted to the American commission a
+counter-project, formulating the conditions under which it would be
+possible to accept the assistance of the United States. To this
+counter-project Mr. Fuller proposed certain modifications, some of which
+were accepted by the Haitian government. On June 5, 1915, Mr. Fuller
+acknowledged the receipt of the Haitian communication regarding these
+modifications, and sailed from Port-au-Prince.
+
+Before any further discussion of the Fuller project between the two
+governments, political incidents in Haiti led rapidly to the events of
+July, 27 and 28. On July 27 President Guillaume fled to the French
+Legation, and on the same day took place a massacre of the political
+prisoners in the prison at Port-au-Prince. On the morning of July 28
+President Guillaume was forcibly taken from French Legation and killed.
+On the afternoon of July 28 an American man-of-war dropped anchor in the
+harbor of Port-au-Prince and landed American forces. It should be borne
+in mind that through all of this the life of not a single American
+citizen had been taken or jeopardized.
+
+The overthrow of Guillaume and its attending consequences did not
+constitute the cause of American intervention in Haiti, but merely
+furnished the awaited opportunity. Since July 28, 1915, American
+military forces have been in control of Haiti. These forces have been
+increased until there are now somewhere near three thousand Americans
+under arms in the republic. From the very first, the attitude of the
+Occupation has been that it was dealing with a conquered territory.
+Haitian forces were disarmed, military posts and barracks were occupied,
+and the National Palace was taken as headquarters for the Occupation.
+After selecting a new and acceptable president for the country, steps
+were at once taken to compel the Haitian government to sign a convention
+in which it virtually foreswore its independence. This was accomplished
+by September 16, 1915; and although the terms of this convention
+provided for the administration of the Haitian customs by American
+civilian officials, all the principal custom houses of the country had
+been seized by military force and placed in charge of American Marine
+officers before the end of August. The disposition of the funds
+collected in duties from the time of the military seizure of the custom
+houses to the time of their administration by civilian officials is
+still a question concerning which the established censorship in Haiti
+allows no discussion.
+
+It is interesting to note the wide difference between the convention
+which Haiti was forced to sign and the convention which was in course of
+diplomatic negotiation at the moment of intervention. The Fuller
+convention asked little of Haiti and gave something, the Occupation
+convention demands everything of Haiti and gives nothing. The Occupation
+convention is really the same convention which the Haitian government
+peremptorily refused to discuss in December, 1914, except that in
+addition to American control of Haitian finances it also provides for
+American control of the Haitian military forces. The Fuller convention
+contained neither of these provisions. When the United States found
+itself in a position to take what it had not even dared to ask, it used
+brute force and took it. But even a convention which practically
+deprived Haiti of its independence was found not wholly adequate for
+the accomplishment of all that was contemplated. The Haitian
+constitution still offered some embarrassments, so it was decided that
+Haiti must have a new constitution. It was drafted and presented to the
+Haitian assembly for adoption. The assembly balked--chiefly at the
+article in the proposed document removing the constitutional disability
+which prevented aliens from owning land in Haiti. Haiti had long
+considered the denial of this right to aliens as her main bulwark
+against overwhelming economic exploitation; and it must be admitted that
+she had better reasons than the several states of the United States that
+have similar provisions.
+
+The balking of the assembly resulted in its being dissolved by actual
+military force and the locking of doors of the Chamber. There has been
+no Haitian legislative body since. The desired constitution was
+submitted to a plebiscite by a decree of the President, although such a
+method of constitutional revision was clearly unconstitutional. Under
+the circumstances of the Occupation the plebiscite was, of course,
+almost unanimous for the desired change, and the new constitution was
+promulgated on June 18, 1918. Thus Haiti was given a new constitution by
+a flagrantly unconstitutional method. The new document contains several
+fundamental changes and includes a "Special Article" which declares:
+
+     All the acts of the Government of the United States during its
+     military Occupation in Haiti are ratified and confirmed.
+
+     No Haitian shall be liable to civil or criminal prosecution for
+     any act done by order of the Occupation or under its authority.
+
+     The acts of the courts martial of the Occupation, without,
+     however, infringing on the right to pardon, shall not be
+     subject to revision.
+
+     The acts of the Executive Power (the President) up to the
+     promulgation of the present constitution are likewise ratified
+     and confirmed.
+
+The above is the chronological order of the principal steps by which the
+independence of a neighboring republic has been taken away, the people
+placed under foreign military domination from which they have no appeal,
+and exposed to foreign economic exploitation against which they are
+defenseless. All of this has been done in the name of the Government of
+the United States; however, without any act by Congress and without any
+knowledge of the American people.
+
+The law by which Haiti is ruled today is martial law dispensed by
+Americans. There is a form of Haitian civil government, but it is
+entirely dominated by the military Occupation. President Dartiguenave,
+bitterly rebellious at heart as is every good Haitian, confessed to me
+the powerlessness of himself and his cabinet. He told me that the
+American authorities give no heed to recommendations made by him or his
+officers; that they would not even discuss matters about which the
+Haitian officials have superior knowledge. The provisions of both the
+old and the new constitutions are ignored in that there is no Haitian
+legislative body, and there has been none since the dissolution of the
+Assembly in April, 1916. In its stead there is a Council of State
+composed of twenty-one members appointed by the president, which
+functions effectively only when carrying out the will of the Occupation.
+Indeed the Occupation often overrides the civil courts. A prisoner
+brought before the proper court, exonerated, and discharged, is,
+nevertheless, frequently held by the military. All government funds are
+collected by the Occupation and are dispensed at its will and pleasure.
+The greater part of these funds is expended for the maintenance of the
+military forces. There is the strictest censorship of the press. No
+Haitian newspaper is allowed to publish anything in criticism of the
+Occupation or the Haitian government. Each newspaper in Haiti received
+an order to that effect from the Occupation, _and the same order carried
+the injunction not to print the order_. Nothing that might reflect upon
+the Occupation administration in Haiti is allowed to reach the
+newspapers of the United States.
+
+The Haitian people justly complain that not only is the convention
+inimical to the best interests of their country, but that the
+convention, such as it is, is not being carried out in accordance with
+the letter, nor in accordance with the spirit in which they were led to
+believe it would be carried out. Except one, all of the obligations in
+the convention which the United States undertakes in favor of Haiti are
+contained in the first article of that document, the other fourteen
+articles being made up substantially of obligations to the United States
+assumed by Haiti. But nowhere in those fourteen articles is there
+anything to indicate that Haiti would be subjected to military
+domination. In Article I the United States promises to "aid the Haitian
+government in the proper and efficient development of its agricultural,
+mineral, and commercial resources and in the establishment of the
+finances of Haiti on a firm and solid basis." And the whole convention
+and, especially, the protestations of the United States before the
+signing of the instrument can be construed only to mean that that aid
+would be extended through the supervision of civilian officials.
+
+The one promise of the United States to Haiti not contained in the first
+article of the convention is that clause of Article XIV which says,
+"and, should the necessity occur, the United States will lend an
+efficient aid for the preservation of Haitian independence and the
+maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life,
+property, and individual liberty." It is the extreme of irony that this
+clause which the Haitians had a right to interpret as a guarantee to
+them against foreign invasion should first of all be invoked against the
+Haitian people themselves, and offer the only peg on which any pretense
+to a right of military domination can be hung.
+
+There are several distinct forces--financial, military, bureaucratic--at
+work in Haiti which, tending to aggravate the conditions they themselves
+have created, are largely self-perpetuating. The most sinister of these,
+the financial engulfment of Haiti by the National City Bank of New York,
+already alluded to, will be discussed in detail in a subsequent article.
+The military Occupation has made and continues to make military
+Occupation necessary. The justification given is that it is necessary
+for the pacification of the country. Pacification would never have been
+necessary had not American policies been filled with so many stupid and
+brutal blunders; and it will never be effective so long as
+"pacification" means merely the hunting of ragged Haitians in the hills
+with machine guns.
+
+Then there is the force which the several hundred American civilian
+place-holders constitute. They have found in Haiti the veritable
+promised land of "jobs for deserving democrats" and naturally do not
+wish to see the present status discontinued. Most of these deserving
+democrats are Southerners. The head of the customs service of Haiti was
+a clerk of one of the parishes of Louisiana. Second in charge of the
+customs service of Haiti is a man who was Deputy Collector of Customs at
+Pascagoula, Mississippi [population, 3,379, 1910 Census]. The
+Superintendent of Public Instruction was a school teacher in
+Louisiana--a State which has not good schools even for white children;
+the financial advisor, Mr. McIlhenny, is also from Louisiana.
+
+Many of the Occupation officers are in the same category with the
+civilian place-holders. These men have taken their wives and families to
+Haiti. Those at Port-au-Prince live in beautiful villas. Families that
+could not keep a hired girl in the United States have a half-dozen
+servants. They ride in automobiles--not their own. Every American head
+of a department in Haiti has an automobile furnished at the expense of
+the Haitian Government, whereas members of the Haitian cabinet, who are
+theoretically above them, have no such convenience or luxury. While I
+was there, the President himself was obliged to borrow an automobile
+from the Occupation for a trip through the interior. The Louisiana
+school-teacher Superintendent of Instruction has an automobile furnished
+at government expense, whereas the Haitian Minister of Public
+Instruction, his supposed superior officer, has none. These automobiles
+seem to be chiefly employed in giving the women and children an airing
+each afternoon. It must be amusing, when it is not maddening to the
+Haitians, to see with what disdainful air these people look upon them as
+they ride by.
+
+The platform adopted by the Democratic party at San Francisco said of
+the Wilson policy in Mexico:
+
+     The Administration, remembering always that Mexico is an
+     independent nation and that permanent stability in her
+     government and her institutions could come only from the
+     consent of her own people to a government of her own making,
+     has been unwilling either to profit by the misfortunes of the
+     people of Mexico or to enfeeble their future by imposing from
+     the outside a rule upon their temporarily distracted councils.
+
+Haiti has never been so distracted in its councils as Mexico. And even
+in its moments of greatest distraction it never slaughtered an American
+citizen, it never molested an American woman, it never injured a
+dollar's worth of American property. And yet, the Administration whose
+lofty purpose was proclaimed as above--with less justification than
+Austria's invasion of Serbia, or Germany's rape of Belgium, without
+warrant other than the doctrine that "might makes right," has conquered
+Haiti. It has done this through the very period when, in the words of
+its chief spokesman, our sons were laying down their lives overseas "for
+democracy, for the rights of those who submit to authority to have a
+voice in their own government, for the rights and liberties of small
+nations." By command of the author of "pitiless publicity" and
+originator of "open covenants openly arrived at," it has enforced by the
+bayonet a covenant whose secret has been well guarded by a rigid
+censorship from the American nation, and kept a people enslaved by the
+military tyranny which it was his avowed purpose to destroy throughout
+the world.
+
+_From The Nation of August 25, 1920._
+
+
+
+
+II. WHAT THE UNITED STATES HAS ACCOMPLISHED
+
+
+When the truth about the conquest of Haiti--the slaughter of three
+thousand and practically unarmed Haitians, with the incidentally
+needless death of a score of American boys--begins to filter through the
+rigid Administration censorship to the American people, the apologists
+will become active. Their justification of what has been done will be
+grouped under two heads: one, the necessity, and two, the results. Under
+the first, much stress will be laid upon the "anarchy" which existed in
+Haiti, upon the backwardness of the Haitians and their absolute
+unfitness to govern themselves. The pretext which caused the
+intervention was taken up in the first article of this series. The
+characteristics, alleged and real, of the Haitian people will be taken
+up in a subsequent article. Now as to results: The apologists will
+attempt to show that material improvements in Haiti justify American
+intervention. Let us see what they are.
+
+Diligent inquiry reveals just three: The building of the road from
+Port-au-Prince to Cape Haitien; the enforcement of certain sanitary
+regulations in the larger cities; and the improvement of the public
+hospital at Port-au-Prince. The enforcement of certain sanitary
+regulations is not so important as it may sound, for even under
+exclusive native rule, Haiti has been a remarkably healthy country and
+had never suffered from such epidemics as used to sweep Cuba and the
+Panama Canal region. The regulations, moreover, were of a purely minor
+character--the sort that might be issued by a board of health in any
+American city or town--and were in no wise fundamental, because there
+was no need. The same applies to the improvement of the hospital, long
+before the American Occupation, an effectively conducted institution but
+which, it is only fair to say, benefited considerably by the regulations
+and more up-to-date methods of American army surgeons--the best in the
+world. Neither of these accomplishments, however, creditable as they
+are, can well be put forward as a justification for military domination.
+The building of the great highway from Port-au-Prince to Cape Haitien is
+a monumental piece of work, but it is doubtful whether the object in
+building it was to supply the Haitians with a great highway or to
+construct a military road which would facilitate the transportation of
+troops and supplies from one end of the island to the other. And this
+represents the sum total of the constructive accomplishment after five
+years of American Occupation.
+
+Now, the highway, while doubtless the most important achievement of the
+three, involved the most brutal of all the blunders of the Occupation.
+The work was in charge of an officer of Marines who stands out even in
+that organization for his "treat 'em rough" methods. He discovered the
+obsolete Haitian _corvée_ and decided to enforce it with the most modern
+Marine efficiency. The _corvée_, or road law, in Haiti provided that
+each citizen should work a certain number of days on the public roads to
+keep them in condition, or pay a certain sum of money. In the days when
+this law was in force the Haitian government never required the men to
+work the roads except in their respective communities, and the number of
+days was usually limited to three a year. But the Occupation seized men
+wherever it could find them, and no able-bodied Haitian was safe from
+such raids, which most closely resembled the African slave raids of past
+centuries. And slavery it was--though temporary. By day or by night,
+from the bosom of their families, from their little farms or while
+trudging peacefully on the country roads, Haitians were seized and
+forcibly taken to toil for months in far sections of the country. Those
+who protested or resisted were beaten into submission. At night, after
+long hours of unremitting labor under armed taskmasters, who swiftly
+discouraged any slackening of effort with boot or rifle butt, the
+victims were herded in compounds. Those attempting to escape were shot.
+Their terror-stricken families meanwhile were often in total ignorance
+of the fate of their husbands, fathers, brothers.
+
+It is chiefly out of these methods that arose the need for
+"pacification." Many men of the rural districts became panic-stricken
+and fled to the hills and mountains. Others rebelled and did likewise,
+preferring death to slavery. These refugees largely make up the "caco"
+forces, to hunt down which has become the duty and the sport of American
+Marines, who were privileged to shoot a "caco" on sight. If anyone
+doubts that "caco" hunting is the sport of American Marines in Haiti,
+let him learn the facts about the death of Charlemagne. Charlemagne
+Peralte was a Haitian of education and culture and of great influence in
+his district. He was tried by an American courtmartial on the charge of
+aiding "cacos." He was sentenced, not to prison, however, but to five
+years of hard labor on the roads, and was forced to work in convict garb
+on the streets of Cape Haitien. He made his escape and put himself at
+the head of several hundred followers in a valiant though hopeless
+attempt to free Haiti. The America of the Revolution, indeed the America
+of the Civil War, would have regarded Charlemagne not as a criminal but
+a patriot. He met his death not in open fight, not in an attempt at his
+capture, but through a dastard deed. While standing over his camp fire,
+he was shot in cold blood by an American Marine officer who stood
+concealed by the darkness, and who had reached the camp through bribery
+and trickery. This deed, which was nothing short of assassination, has
+been heralded as an example of American heroism. Of this deed, Harry
+Franck, writing in the June Century of "The Death of Charlemagne," says:
+"Indeed it is fit to rank with any of the stirring warrior tales with
+which history is seasoned from the days of the Greeks down to the recent
+world war." America should read "The Death of Charlemagne" which
+attempts to glorify a black smirch on American arms and tradition.
+
+There is a reason why the methods employed in road building affected the
+Haitian country folk in a way in which it might not have affected the
+people of any other Latin-American country. Not since the independence
+of the country has there been any such thing as a peon in Haiti. The
+revolution by which Haiti gained her independence was not merely a
+political revolution, it was also a social revolution. Among the many
+radical changes wrought was that of cutting up the large slave estates
+into small parcels and allotting them among former slaves. And so it was
+that every Haitian in the rural districts lived on his own plot of land,
+a plot on which his family has lived for perhaps more than a hundred
+years. No matter how small or how large that plot is, and whether he
+raises much or little on it, it is his and he is an independent farmer.
+
+The completed highway, moreover, continued to be a barb in the Haitian
+wound. Automobiles on this road, running without any speed limit, are a
+constant inconvenience or danger to the natives carrying their market
+produce to town on their heads or loaded on the backs of animals. I have
+seen these people scramble in terror often up the side or down the
+declivity of the mountain for places of safety for themselves and their
+animals as the machines snorted by. I have seen a market woman's horse
+take flight and scatter the produce loaded on his back all over the road
+for several hundred yards. I have heard an American commercial traveler
+laughingly tell how on the trip from Cape Haitien to Port-au-Prince the
+automobile he was in killed a donkey and two pigs. It had not occurred
+to him that the donkey might be the chief capital of the small Haitian
+farmer and that the loss of it might entirely bankrupt him. It is all
+very humorous, of course, unless you happen to be the Haitian
+pedestrian.
+
+The majority of visitors on arriving at Port-au-Prince and noticing the
+well-paved, well-kept streets, will at once jump to the conclusion that
+this work was done by the American Occupation. The Occupation goes to no
+trouble to refute this conclusion, and in fact it will by implication
+corroborate it. If one should exclaim, "Why, I am surprised to see what
+a well-paved city Port-au-Prince is!" he would be almost certain to
+receive the answer, "Yes, but you should have seen it before the
+Occupation." The implication here is that Port-au-Prince was a mudhole
+and that the Occupation is responsible for its clean and well-paved
+streets. It is true that at the time of the intervention, five years
+ago, there were only one or two paved streets in the Haitian capital,
+but the contracts for paving the entire city had been let by the Haitian
+Government, and the work had already been begun. This work was completed
+during the Occupation, _but the Occupation did not pave, and had nothing
+to do with the paving of a single street in Port-au-Prince_.
+
+One accomplishment I did expect to find--that the American Occupation,
+in its five years of absolute rule, had developed and improved the
+Haitian system of public education. The United States has made some
+efforts in this direction in other countries where it has taken control.
+In Porto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines, the attempt, at least, was
+made to establish modern school systems. Selected youths from these
+countries were taken and sent to the United States for training in order
+that they might return and be better teachers, and American teachers
+were sent to those islands in exchange. The American Occupation in Haiti
+has not advanced public education a single step. No new buildings have
+been erected. Not a single Haitian youth has been sent to the United
+States for training as a teacher, nor has a single American teacher,
+white or colored, been sent to Haiti. According to the general budget of
+Haiti, 1919-1920, there are teachers in the rural schools receiving as
+little as six dollars a month. Some of these teachers may not be worth
+more than six dollars a month. But after five years of American rule,
+there ought not to be a single teacher in the country who is not worth
+more than that paltry sum.
+
+Another source of discontent is the Gendarmerie. When the Occupation
+took possession of the island, it disarmed all Haitians, including the
+various local police forces. To remedy this situation the Convention
+(Article X), provided that there should be created,--
+
+     without delay, an efficient constabulary, urban and rural,
+     composed of native Haitians. This constabulary shall be
+     organized and officered by Americans, appointed by the
+     President of Haiti upon nomination by the President of the
+     United States.... These officers shall be replaced by Haitians
+     as they, by examination conducted under direction of a board to
+     be selected by the Senior American Officer of this constabulary
+     in the presence of a representative of the Haitian Government,
+     are found to be qualified to assume such duties.
+
+During the first months of the Occupation officers of the Haitian
+Gendarmerie were commissioned officers of the marines, but the war took
+all these officers to Europe. Five years have passed and the
+constabulary is still officered entirely by marines, but almost without
+exception they are ex-privates or non-commissioned officers of the
+United States Marine Corps commissioned in the gendarmerie. Many of
+these men are rough, uncouth, and uneducated, and a great number from
+the South, are violently steeped in color prejudice. They direct all
+policing of city and town. It falls to them, ignorant of Haitian ways
+and language, to enforce every minor police regulation. Needless to say,
+this is a grave source of continued irritation. Where the genial
+American "cop" could, with a wave of his hand or club, convey the full
+majesty of the law to the small boy transgressor or to some equally
+innocuous offender, the strong-arm tactics for which the marines are
+famous, are apt to be promptly evoked. The pledge in the Convention that
+"these officers be replaced by Haitians" who could qualify, has, like
+other pledges, become a mere scrap of paper. Graduates of the famous
+French military academy of St. Cyr, men who have actually qualified for
+commissions in the French army, are denied the opportunity to fill even
+a lesser commission in the Haitian Gendarmerie, although such men, in
+addition to their pre-eminent qualifications of training, would, because
+of their understanding of local conditions and their complete
+familiarity with the ways of their own country, make ideal guardians of
+the peace.
+
+The American Occupation of Haiti is not only guilty of sins of omission,
+it is guilty of sins of commission in addition to those committed in the
+building of the great road across the island. Brutalities and atrocities
+on the part of American marines have occurred with sufficient frequency
+to be the cause of deep resentment and terror. Marines talk freely of
+what they "did" to some Haitians in the outlying districts. Familiar
+methods of torture to make captives reveal what they often do not know
+are nonchalantly discussed. Just before I left Port-au-Prince an
+American Marine had caught a Haitian boy stealing sugar off the wharf
+and instead of arresting him he battered his brains out with the butt of
+his rifle. I learned from the lips of American Marines themselves of a
+number of cases of rape of Haitian women by marines. I often sat at
+tables in the hotels and cafes in company with marine officers and they
+talked before me without restraint. I remember the description of a
+"caco" hunt by one of them; he told how they finally came upon a crowd
+of natives engaged in the popular pastime of cock-fighting and how they
+"let them have it" with machine guns and rifle fire. I heard another, a
+captain of marines, relate how he at a fire in Port-au-Prince ordered a
+"rather dressed up Haitian," standing on the sidewalk, to "get in there"
+and take a hand at the pumps. It appeared that the Haitian merely
+shrugged his shoulders. The captain of marines then laughingly said: "I
+had on a pretty heavy pair of boots and I let him have a kick that
+landed him in the middle of the street. Someone ran up and told me that
+the man was an ex-member of the Haitian Assembly." The fact that the man
+had been a member of the Haitian Assembly made the whole incident more
+laughable to the captain of marines.
+
+Perhaps the most serious aspect of American brutality in Haiti is not to
+be found in individual cases of cruelty, numerous and inexcusable though
+they are, but rather in the American attitude, well illustrated by the
+diagnosis of an American officer discussing the situation and its
+difficulty: "The trouble with this whole business is that some of these
+people with a little money and education think they are as good as we
+are," and this is the keynote of the attitude of every American to every
+Haitian. Americans have carried American hatred to Haiti. They have
+planted the feeling of caste and color prejudice where it never before
+existed.
+
+And such are the "accomplishments" of the United States in Haiti. The
+Occupation has not only failed to achieve anything worth while, but has
+made it impossible to do so because of the distrust and bitterness that
+it has engendered in the Haitian people. Through the present
+instrumentalities no matter how earnestly the United States may desire
+to be fair to Haiti and make intervention a success, it will not
+succeed. An entirely new deal is necessary. This Government forced the
+Haitian leaders to accept the promise of American aid and American
+supervision. With that American aid the Haitian Government defaulted its
+external and internal debt, an obligation, which under self-government
+the Haitians had scrupulously observed. And American supervision turned
+out to be a military tyranny supporting a program of economic
+exploitation. The United States had an opportunity to gain the
+confidence of the Haitian people. That opportunity has been destroyed.
+When American troops first landed, although the Haitian people were
+outraged, there was a feeling nevertheless which might well have
+developed into cooperation. There were those who had hopes that the
+United States, guided by its traditional policy of nearly a century and
+a half, pursuing its fine stand in Cuba, under McKinley, Roosevelt, and
+Taft, would extend aid that would be mutually beneficial to both
+countries. Those Haitians who indulged this hope are disappointed and
+bitter. Those members of the Haitian Assembly who, while acting under
+coercion were nevertheless hopeful of American promises, incurred
+unpopularity by voting for the Convention, are today bitterly
+disappointed and utterly disillusioned.
+
+If the United States should leave Haiti today, it would leave more than
+a thousand widows and orphans of its own making, more banditry than has
+existed for a century, resentment, hatred and despair in the heart of a
+whole people, to say nothing of the irreparable injury to its own
+tradition as the defender of the rights of man.
+
+_From The Nation of September 4, 1920._
+
+
+
+
+III. GOVERNMENT OF, BY, AND FOR THE NATIONAL CITY BANK
+
+
+Former articles of this series described the Military Occupation of
+Haiti and the crowd of civilian place holders as among the forces at
+work in Haiti to maintain the present status in that country. But more
+powerful though less obvious, and more sinister, because of its deep and
+varied radications, is the force exercised by the National City Bank of
+New York. It seeks more than the mere maintenance of the present status
+in Haiti; it is constantly working to bring about a condition more
+suitable and profitable to itself. Behind the Occupation, working
+conjointly with the Department of State, stands this great banking
+institution of New York and elsewhere. The financial potentates allied
+with it are the ones who will profit by the control of Haiti. The
+United States Marine Corps and the various office-holding "deserving
+Democrats," who help maintain the status quo there, are in reality
+working for great financial interests in this country, although Uncle
+Sam and Haiti pay their salaries.
+
+Mr. Roger L. Farnham, vice-president of the National City Bank, was
+effectively instrumental in bringing about American intervention in
+Haiti. With the administration at Washington, the word of Mr. Farnham
+supersedes that of anybody else on the island. While Mr.
+Bailly-Blanchard, with the title of minister, is its representative in
+name, Mr. Farnham is its representative in fact. His goings and comings
+are aboard vessels of the United States Navy. His bank, the National
+City, has been in charge of the Banque Nationale d'Haiti throughout the
+Occupation.[1] Only a few weeks ago he was appointed receiver of the
+National Railroad of Haiti, controlling practically the entire railway
+system in the island with valuable territorial concessions in all
+parts.[2] The $5,000,000 sugar plant at Port-au-Prince, it is commonly
+reported, is about to fall into his hands.
+
+[Footnote 1: The National City Bank originally (about 1911) purchased
+2,000 shares of the stock of the Banque Nationale d'Haiti. After the
+Occupation it purchased 6,000 additional shares in the hands of three
+New York banking firms. Since then it has been negotiating for the
+complete control of the stock, the balance of which is held in France.
+The contract for this transfer of the Bank and the granting of a new
+charter under the laws of Haiti were agreed upon and signed at
+Washington last February. But the delay in completing these arrangements
+is caused by the impasse between the State Department and the National
+City Bank, on the one hand, and the Haitian Government on the other, due
+to the fact that the State Department and the National City Bank
+insisted upon including in the contract a clause prohibiting the
+importation and exportation of foreign money into Haiti subject only to
+the control of the financial adviser. To this new power the Haitian
+Government refuses to consent.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Originally, Mr. James P. McDonald secured from the Haitian
+Government the concession to build the railroads under the charter of
+the National Railways of Haiti. He arranged with W. R. Grace & Company
+to finance the concession. Grace and Company formed a syndicate under
+the aegis of the National City Bank which issued $2,500,000 bonds, sold
+in France. These bonds were guaranteed by the Haitian Government at an
+interest of 6 per cent on $32,500 for each mile. A short while after the
+floating of these bonds, Mr. Farnham became President of the company.
+The syndicate advanced another $2,000,000 for the completion of the
+railroad in accordance with the concession granted by the Haitian
+Government. This money was used, but the work was not completed in
+accordance with the contract made by the Haitian Government in the
+concession. The Haitian Government then refused any longer to pay the
+interest on the mileage. These happenings were prior to 1915.]
+
+Now, of all the various responsibilities, expressed, implied, or assumed
+by the United States in Haiti, it would naturally be supposed that the
+financial obligation would be foremost. Indeed, the sister republic of
+Santo Domingo was taken over by the United States Navy for no other
+reason than failure to pay its internal debt. But Haiti for over one
+hundred years scrupulously paid its external and internal debt--a fact
+worth remembering when one hears of "anarchy and disorder" in that
+land--until five years ago when under the financial guardianship of the
+United States interest on both the internal and, with one exception,
+external debt was defaulted; and this in spite of the fact that
+specified revenues were pledged for the payment of this interest. Apart
+from the distinct injury to the honor and reputation of the country, the
+hardship on individuals has been great. For while the foreign debt is
+held particularly in France which, being under great financial
+obligations to the United States since the beginning of the war, has not
+been able to protest effectively, the interior debt is held almost
+entirely by Haitian citizens. Haitian Government bonds have long been
+the recognized substantial investment for the well-to-do and middle
+class people, considered as are in this country, United States, state,
+and municipal bonds. Non-payment on these securities has placed many
+families in absolute want.
+
+What has happened to these bonds? They are being sold for a song, for
+the little cash they will bring. Individuals closely connected with the
+National Bank of Haiti are ready purchasers. When the new Haitian loan
+is floated it will, of course, contain ample provisions for redeeming
+these old bonds at par. The profits will be more than handsome. Not that
+the National Bank has not already made hay in the sunshine of American
+Occupation. From the beginning it has been sole depositary of all
+revenues collected in the name of the Haitian Government by the American
+Occupation, receiving in addition to the interest rate a commission on
+all funds deposited. The bank is the sole agent in the transmission of
+these funds. It has also the exclusive note-issuing privilege in the
+republic. At the same time complaint is widespread among the Haitian
+business men that the Bank no longer as of old accommodates them with
+credit and that its interests are now entirely in developments of its
+own.
+
+Now, one of the promises that was made to the Haitian Government, partly
+to allay its doubts and fears as to the purpose and character of the
+American intervention, was that the United States would put the
+country's finances on a solid and substantial basis. A loan for
+$30,000,000 or more was one of the features of this promised assistance.
+Pursuant, supposedly, to this plan, a Financial Adviser for Haiti was
+appointed in the person of Mr. John Avery McIlhenny. Who is Mr.
+McIlhenny? That he has the cordial backing and direction of so able a
+financier as Mr. Farnham is comforting when one reviews the past record
+and experience in finance of Haiti's Financial Adviser as given by him
+in "Who's Who in America," for 1918-1919. He was born in Avery Island,
+Iberia Parish, La.; went to Tulane University for one year; was a
+private in the Louisiana State militia for five years; trooper in the
+U.S. Cavalry in 1898; promoted to second lieutenancy for gallantry in
+action at San Juan; has been member of the Louisiana House of
+Representatives and Senate; was a member of the U. S. Civil Service
+Commission in 1906 and president of the same in 1913; Democrat. It is
+under his Financial Advisership that the Haitian interest has been
+continued in default with the one exception above noted, when several
+months ago $3,000,000 was converted into francs to meet the accumulated
+interest payments on the foreign debt. Dissatisfaction on the part of
+the Haitians developed over the lack of financial perspicacity in this
+transaction of Mr. McIlhenny because the sum was converted into francs
+at the rate of nine to a dollar while shortly after the rate of exchange
+on French francs dropped to fourteen to a dollar. Indeed, Mr.
+McIlhenny's unfitness by training and experience for the delicate and
+important position which he is filling was one of the most generally
+admitted facts which I gathered in Haiti.
+
+At the present writing, however, Mr. McIlhenny has become a conspicuous
+figure in the history of the Occupation of Haiti as the instrument by
+which the National City Bank is striving to complete the riveting,
+double-locking and bolting of its financial control of the island. For
+although it would appear that the absolute military domination under
+which Haiti is held would enable the financial powers to accomplish
+almost anything they desire, they are wise enough to realize that a day
+of reckoning, such as, for instance, a change in the Administration in
+the United States, may be coming. So they are eager and anxious to have
+everything they want signed, sealed, and delivered. Anything, of course,
+that the Haitians have fully "consented to" no one else can reasonably
+object to.
+
+A little recent history: in February of the present year, the ministers
+of the different departments, in order to conform to the letter of the
+law (Article 116 of the Constitution of Haiti, which was saddled upon
+her in 1918 by the Occupation[3] and Article 2 of the Haitian-American
+Convention[4]) began work on the preparation of the accounts for
+1918-1919 and the budget for 1920-1921. On March 22 a draft of the
+budget was sent to Mr. A. J. Maumus, Acting Financial Adviser, in the
+absence of Mr. McIlhenny who had at that time been in the United States
+for seven months. Mr. Maumus replied on March 29, suggesting
+postponement of all discussion of the budget until Mr. McIlhenny's
+return. Nevertheless, the Legislative body, in pursuance of the law,
+opened on its constitutional date, Monday, April 5. Despite the great
+urgency of the matter in hand, the Haitian administration was obliged to
+mark time until June 1, when Mr. McIlhenny returned to Haiti. Several
+conferences with the various ministers were then undertaken. On June 12,
+at one of these conferences, there arrived in the place of the Financial
+Adviser a note stating that he would be obliged to stop all study of the
+budget "until the time when certain affairs of considerable importance
+to the well-being of the country shall be finally settled according to
+recommendations made by me to the Haitian Government." As he did not
+give in his note the slightest idea what these important affairs were,
+the Haitian Secretary wrote asking for information, at the same time
+calling attention to the already great and embarrassing delay, and
+reminding Mr. McIlhenny that the preparation of the accounts and budget
+was one of his legal duties as an official attached to the Haitian
+Government, of which he could not divest himself.
+
+[Footnote 3: "The general accounts and the budgets prescribed by the
+preceding article must be submitted to the Legislative Body by the
+Secretary of Finance not later than eight days after the opening of the
+Legislative Session."]
+
+[Footnote 4: "The President of Haiti shall appoint, on the nomination of
+the President of the United States, a Financial Adviser who shall be
+attached to the Ministry of Finance, to whom the Secretary (of Finance)
+shall lend effective aid in the prosecution of his work. The Financial
+Adviser shall work out a system of public accounting, shall aid in
+increasing the revenues and in their adjustment to expenditures...."]
+
+On July 19 Mr. McIlhenny supplied his previous omission in a memorandum
+which he transmitted to the Haitian Department of Finance, in which he
+said: "I had instructions from the Department of State of the United
+States just before my departure for Haiti, in a part of a letter of May
+20, to declare to the Haitian Government that it was necessary to give
+its immediate and formal approval to:
+
+     1. A modification of the Bank Contract agreed upon by the
+     Department of State and the National City Bank of New York.
+
+     2. Transfer of the National Bank of the Republic of Haiti to a
+     new bank registered under the laws of Haiti, to be known as the
+     National Bank of the Republic of Haiti.
+
+     3. The execution of Article 15 of the Contract of Withdrawal
+     prohibiting the importation and exportation of non-Haitian
+     money except that which might be necessary for the needs of
+     commerce in the opinion of the Financial Adviser."
+
+Now, what is the meaning and significance of these proposals? The full
+details have not been given out, but it is known that they are part of a
+new monetary law for Haiti involving the complete transfer of the Banque
+Nationale d'Haiti to the National City Bank of New York. The document
+embodying the agreements, with the exception of the clause prohibiting
+the importation of foreign money, was signed at Washington, February 6,
+1920, by Mr. McIlhenny, the Haitian Minister at Washington and the
+Haitian Secretary of Finance. _The Haitian Government has officially
+declared that the clause prohibiting the importation and exportation of
+foreign money, except as it may be deemed necessary in the opinion of
+the Financial Adviser, was added to the original agreement by some
+unknown party._ It is for the purpose of compelling the Haitian
+Government to approve the agreements, including the "prohibition
+clause," that pressure is now being applied. Efforts on the part of
+business interests in Haiti to learn the character and scope of what was
+done at Washington have been thwarted by close secrecy. However,
+sufficient of its import has become known to understand the reasons for
+the unqualified and definite refusal of President Dartiguenave and the
+Government to give their approval. Those reasons are that the agreements
+would give to the National Bank of Haiti, and thereby to the National
+City Bank of New York, exclusive monopoly upon the right of importing
+and exporting American and other foreign money to and from Haiti, a
+monopoly which would carry unprecedented and extraordinarily lucrative
+privileges.
+
+The proposal involved in this agreement has called forth a vigorous
+protest on the part of every important banking and business concern in
+Haiti with the exception, of course, of the National Bank of Haiti. This
+protest was transmitted to the Haitian Minister of Finance on July 30
+past. The protest is signed not only by Haitians and Europeans doing
+business in that country but also by the leading American business
+concerns, among which are The American Foreign Banking Corporation, The
+Haitian-American Sugar Company, The Panama Railroad Steamship Line, The
+Clyde Steamship Line, and The West Indies Trading Company. Among the
+foreign signers are the Royal Bank of Canada, Le Comptoir Français, Le
+Comptoir Commercial, and besides a number of business firms.
+
+We have now in Haiti a triangular situation with the National City Bank
+and our Department of State in two corners and the Haitian government in
+the third. Pressure is being brought on the Haitian government to compel
+it to grant a monopoly which on its face appears designed to give the
+National City Bank a strangle hold on the financial life of that
+country. With the Haitian government refusing to yield, we have the
+Financial Adviser who is, according to the Haitian-American Convention,
+a Haitian official charged with certain duties (in this case the
+approval of the budget and accounts), refusing to carry out those duties
+until the government yields to the pressure which is being brought.
+
+Haiti is now experiencing the "third degree." Ever since the Bank
+Contract was drawn and signed at Washington increasing pressure has been
+applied to make the Haitian government accept the clause prohibiting the
+importation of foreign money. Mr. McIlhenny is now holding up the
+salaries of the President, ministers of departments, members of the
+Council of State, and the official interpreter. [These salaries have not
+been paid since July 1.] And there the matter now stands.
+
+Several things may happen. The Administration, finding present methods
+insufficient, may decide to act as in Santo Domingo, to abolish the
+President, cabinet, and all civil government--as they have already
+abolished the Haitian Assembly--and put into effect, by purely military
+force, what, in the face of the unflinching Haitian refusal to sign away
+their birthright, the combined military, civil, and financial pressure
+has been unable to accomplish. Or, with an election and a probable
+change of Administration in this country pending, with a Congressional
+investigation foreshadowed, it may be decided that matters are "too
+difficult" and the National City Bank may find that it can be more
+profitably engaged elsewhere. Indications of such a course are not
+lacking. From the point of view of the National City Bank, of course,
+the institution has not only done nothing which is not wholly
+legitimate, proper, and according to the canons of big business
+throughout the world, but has actually performed constructive and
+generous service to a backward and uncivilized people in attempting to
+promote their railways, to develop their country, and to shape soundly
+their finance. That Mr. Farnham and those associated with him hold these
+views sincerely, there is no doubt. But that the Haitians, after over
+one hundred years of self-government and liberty, contemplating the
+slaughter of three thousand of their sons, the loss of their political
+and economic freedom, without compensating advantages which they can
+appreciate, feel very differently, is equally true.
+
+_From The Nation of September 11, 1920._
+
+
+
+
+IV. THE HAITIAN PEOPLE
+
+
+The first sight of Port-au-Prince is perhaps most startling to the
+experienced Latin-American traveler. Caribbean cities are of the
+Spanish-American type--buildings square and squat, built generally
+around a court, with residences and business houses scarcely
+interdistinguishable. Port-au-Prince is rather a city of the French or
+Italian Riviera. Across the bay of deepest blue the purple mountains of
+Gonave loom against the Western sky, rivaling the bay's azure depths.
+Back of the business section, spreading around the bay's great sweep and
+well into the plain beyond, rise the green hills with their white
+residences. The residential section spreads over the slopes and into the
+mountain tiers. High up are the homes of the well-to-do, beautiful
+villas set in green gardens relieved by the flaming crimson of the
+poinsettia. Despite the imposing mountains a man-made edifice dominates
+the scene. From the center of the city the great Gothic cathedral lifts
+its spires above the tranquil city. Well-paved and clean, the city
+prolongs the thrill of its first unfolding. Cosmopolitan yet quaint,
+with an old-world atmosphere yet a charm of its own, one gets throughout
+the feeling of continental European life. In the hotels and cafes the
+affairs of the world are heard discussed in several languages. The
+cuisine and service are not only excellent but inexpensive. At the Café
+Dereix, cool and scrupulously clean, dinner from _hors d'oeuvres_ to
+_glacés_, with wine, of course, recalling the famous antebellum
+hostelries of New York and Paris, may be had for six gourdes [$1.25].
+
+A drive of two hours around Port-au-Prince, through the newer section of
+brick and concrete buildings, past the cathedral erected from 1903 to
+1912, along the Champ de Mars where the new presidential palace stands,
+up into the Peu de Choses section where the hundreds of beautiful villas
+and grounds of the well-to-do are situated, permanently dispels any
+lingering question that the Haitians have been retrograding during the
+116 years of their independence.
+
+In the lower city, along the water's edge, around the market and in the
+Rue Républicaine, is the "local color." The long rows of wooden
+shanties, the curious little booths around the market, filled with
+jabbering venders and with scantily clad children, magnificent in body,
+running in and out, are no less picturesque and no more primitive, no
+humbler, yet cleaner, than similar quarters in Naples, in Lisbon, in
+Marseilles, and more justifiable than the great slums of civilization's
+centers--London and New York, which are totally without aesthetic
+redemption. But it is only the modernists in history who are willing to
+look at the masses as factors in the life and development of the
+country, and in its history. For Haitian history, like history the world
+over, has for the last century been that of cultured and educated
+groups. To know Haitian life one must have the privilege of being
+received as a guest in the houses of these latter, and they live in
+beautiful houses. The majority have been educated in France; they are
+cultured, brilliant conversationally, and thoroughly enjoy their social
+life. The women dress well. Many are beautiful and all vivacious and
+chic. Cultivated people from any part of the world would feel at home in
+the best Haitian society. If our guest were to enter to the Cercle
+Bellevue, the leading club of Port-au-Prince, he would find the
+courteous, friendly atmosphere of a men's club; he would hear varying
+shades of opinion on public questions, and could scarcely fail to be
+impressed by the thorough knowledge of world affairs possessed by the
+intelligent Haitian. Nor would his encounters be only with people who
+have culture and savoir vivre; he would meet the Haitian
+intellectuals--poets, essayists, novelists, historians, critics. Take
+for example such a writer as Fernand Hibbert. An English authority says
+of him, "His essays are worthy of the pen of Anatole France or Pierre
+Loti." And there is Georges Sylvaine, poet and essayist, conférencier at
+the Sorbonne, where his address was received with acclaim, author of
+books crowned by the French Academy, and an Officer of the Légion
+d'Honneur. Hibbert and Sylvaine are only two among a dozen or more
+contemporary Haitian men of letters whose work may be measured by world
+standards. Two names that stand out preeminently in Haitian literature
+are Oswald Durand, the national poet, who died a few years ago, and
+Damocles Vieux. These people, educated, cultured, and intellectual, are
+not accidental and sporadic offshoots of the Haitian people; they _are_
+the Haitian people and they are a demonstration of its inherent
+potentialities.
+
+However, Port-au-Prince is not all of Haiti. Other cities are smaller
+replicas, and fully as interesting are the people of the country
+districts. Perhaps the deepest impression on the observant visitor is
+made by the country women. Magnificent as they file along the country
+roads by scores and by hundreds on their way to the town markets, with
+white or colored turbaned heads, gold-looped-ringed ears, they stride
+along straight and lithe, almost haughtily, carrying themselves like so
+many Queens of Sheba. The Haitian country people are kind-hearted,
+hospitable, and polite, seldom stupid but rather, quick-witted and
+imaginative. Fond of music, with a profound sense of beauty and harmony,
+they live simply but wholesomely. Their cabins rarely consist of only
+one room, the humblest having two or three, with a little shed front and
+back, a front and rear entrance, and plenty of windows. An aesthetic
+touch is never lacking--a flowering hedge or an arbor with trained vines
+bearing gorgeous colored blossoms. There is no comparison between the
+neat plastered-wall, thatched-roof cabin of the Haitian peasant and the
+traditional log hut of the South or the shanty of the more wretched
+American suburbs. The most notable feature about the Haitian cabin is
+its invariable cleanliness. At daylight the country people are up and
+about, the women begin their sweeping till the earthen or pebble-paved
+floor of the cabin is clean as can be. Then the yards around the cabin
+are vigorously attacked. In fact, nowhere in the country districts of
+Haiti does one find the filth and squalor which may be seen in any
+backwoods town in our own South. Cleanliness is a habit and a dirty
+Haitian is a rare exception. The garments even of the men who work on
+the wharves, mended and patched until little of the original cloth is
+visible, give evidence of periodical washing. The writer recalls a
+remark made by Mr. E. P. Pawley, an American, who conducts one of the
+largest business enterprises in Haiti. He said that the Haitians were an
+exceptionally clean people, that statistics showed that Haiti imported
+more soap per capita than any country in the world, and added, "They use
+it, too." Three of the largest soap manufactories in the United States
+maintain headquarters at Port-au-Prince.
+
+The masses of the Haitian people are splendid material for the building
+of a nation. They are not lazy; on the contrary, they are industrious
+and thrifty. Some observers mistakenly confound primitive methods with
+indolence. Anyone who travels Haitian roads is struck by the hundreds
+and even thousands of women, boys, and girls filing along mile after
+mile with their farm and garden produce on their heads or loaded on the
+backs of animals. With modern facilities, they could market their
+produce much more efficiently and with far less effort. But lacking them
+they are willing to walk and carry. For a woman to walk five to ten
+miles with a great load of produce on her head which may barely realize
+her a dollar is doubtless primitive, and a wasteful expenditure of
+energy, but it is not a sign of laziness. Haiti's great handicap has
+been not that her masses are degraded or lazy or immoral. It is that
+they are ignorant, due not so much to mental limitations as to enforced
+illiteracy. There is a specific reason for this. Somehow the French
+language, in the French-American colonial settlements containing a Negro
+population, divided itself into two branches, French and Creole. This is
+true of Louisiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and also of Haiti. Creole is
+an Africanized French and must not be thought of as a mere dialect. The
+French-speaking person cannot understand Creole, excepting a few words,
+unless he learns it. Creole is a distinct tongue, a graphic and very
+expressive language. Many of its constructions follow closely the
+African idioms. For example, in forming the superlative of greatness,
+one says in Creole, "He is great among great men," and a merchant woman,
+following the native idiom, will say, "You do not wish anything
+beautiful if you do not buy this." The upper Haitian class,
+approximately 500,000, speak and know French, while the masses, probably
+more than 2,000,000 speak only Creole. Haitian Creole is grammatically
+constructed, but has not to any general extent been reduced to writing.
+Therefore, these masses have no means of receiving or communicating
+thoughts through the written word. They have no books to read. They
+cannot read the newspapers. The children of the masses study French for
+a few years in school, but it never becomes their every-day language. In
+order to abolish Haitian illiteracy, Creole must be made a printed as
+well as a spoken language. The failure to undertake this problem is the
+worst indictment against the Haitian Government.
+
+This matter of language proves a handicap to Haiti in another manner. It
+isolates her from her sister republics. All of the Latin-American
+republics except Brazil speak Spanish and enjoy an intercourse with the
+outside world denied Haiti. Dramatic and musical companies from Spain,
+from Mexico and from the Argentine annually tour all of the
+Spanish-speaking republics. Haiti is deprived of all such instruction
+and entertainment from the outside world because it is not profitable
+for French companies to visit the three or four French-speaking islands
+in the Western Hemisphere.
+
+Much stress has been laid on the bloody history of Haiti and its
+numerous revolutions. Haitian history has been all too bloody, but so
+has that of every other country, and the bloodiness of the Haitian
+revolutions has of late been unduly magnified. A writer might visit our
+own country and clip from our daily press accounts of murders, robberies
+on the principal streets of our larger cities, strike violence, race
+riots, lynchings, and burnings at the stake of human beings, and write a
+book to prove that life is absolutely unsafe in the United States. The
+seriousness of the frequent Latin-American revolutions has been greatly
+over-emphasized. The writer has been in the midst of three of these
+revolutions and must confess that the treatment given them on our comic
+opera stage is very little farther removed from the truth than the
+treatment which is given in the daily newspapers. Not nearly so bloody
+as reported, their interference with people not in politics is almost
+negligible. Nor should it be forgotten that in almost every instance the
+revolution is due to the plotting of foreigners backed up by their
+Governments. No less an authority than Mr. John H. Allen, vice-president
+of the National City Bank of New York, writing on Haiti in the May
+number of _The Americas_, the National City Bank organ, who says, "It is
+no secret that the revolutions were financed by foreigners and were
+profitable speculations."
+
+In this matter of change of government by revolution, Haiti must not be
+compared with the United States or with England; it must be compared
+with other Latin American republics. When it is compared with our next
+door neighbor, Mexico, it will be found that the Government of Haiti has
+been more stable and that the country has experienced less bloodshed and
+anarchy. And it must never be forgotten that throughout not an American
+or other foreigner has been killed, injured or, as far as can be
+ascertained, even molested. In Haiti's 116 years of independence, there
+have been twenty-five presidents and twenty-five different
+administrations. In Mexico, during its 99 years of independence, there
+have been forty-seven rulers and eighty-seven administrations. "Graft"
+has been plentiful, shocking at times, but who in America, where the
+Tammany machines and the municipal rings are notorious, will dare to
+point the finger of scorn at Haiti in this connection.
+
+And this is the people whose "inferiority," whose "retrogression," whose
+"savagery," is advanced as a justification for intervention--for the
+ruthless slaughter of three thousand of its practically defenseless
+sons, with the death of a score of our own boys, for the utterly selfish
+exploitation of the country by American big finance, for the destruction
+of America's most precious heritage--her traditional fair play, her
+sense of justice, her aid to the oppressed. "Inferiority" always was the
+excuse of ruthless imperialism until the Germans invaded Belgium, when
+it became "military necessity." In the case of Haiti there is not the
+slightest vestige of any of the traditional justifications, unwarranted
+as these generally are, and no amount of misrepresentation in an era
+when propaganda and censorship have had their heyday, no amount of
+slander, even in a country deeply prejudiced where color is involved,
+will longer serve to obscure to the conscience of America the eternal
+shame of its last five years in Haiti. _Fiat justitia, ruat coelum!_
+
+_From The Nation of September 25, 1920._
+
+
+
+
+Documents
+
+_The following are from The Nation of August 28, 1920_
+
+The Proposed Convention with Haiti
+
+
+The Fuller Convention, submitted to the Haitian Minister of Foreign
+Affairs on May 22, 1915, by Mr. Paul Fuller, Jr., Envoy Extraordinary of
+the United States to Haiti, read as follows, the preliminary and
+concluding paragraphs being omitted:
+
+     1. The Government of the United States of America will protect
+     the Republic of Haiti from outside attack and from the
+     aggression of any foreign Power, and to that end will employ
+     such forces of the army and navy of the United States as may be
+     necessary.
+
+     2. The Government of the United States of America will aid the
+     Government of Haiti to suppress insurrection from within and
+     will give effective support by the employment of the armed
+     forces of the United States army and navy to the extent needed.
+
+     3. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants that no
+     rights, privileges, or facilities of any description whatsoever
+     will be granted, sold, leased, or otherwise accorded directly
+     or indirectly by the Government of Haiti concerning the
+     occupation or use of the Mole Saint-Nicolas to any foreign
+     government or to a national or the nationals of any other
+     foreign government.
+
+     4. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants that within
+     six months from the signing of this convention, the Government
+     will enter into an arbitration agreement for the settlement of
+     such claims as American citizens or other foreigners may have
+     against the Government of Haiti, such arbitration agreement to
+     provide for the equal treatment of all foreigners to the end
+     that the people of Haiti may have the benefit of competition
+     between the nationals of all countries.
+
+
+
+
+The Haitian Counter-Project
+
+
+The counter-project of the Haitian Government, of June 4, 1915, with
+such of the modifications suggested by Mr. Fuller as the Haitian
+Government was willing to accept, read as follows:
+
+     I. The Government of the United States of America will lend its
+     assistance to the Republic of Haiti for the preservation of its
+     independence. For that purpose it agrees to intervene to
+     prevent the intrusion of any Power and to repulse any act of
+     aggression against the Republic of Haiti. To that end it will
+     employ such forces of the army and navy of the United States as
+     may be necessary.
+
+     II. The Government of the United States will facilitate the
+     entry into Haiti of sufficient capital to assure the full
+     economic development of that country, and to improve, within
+     the immediate future, its financial situation, especially to
+     bring about the unification of its debt in such fashion as to
+     reduce the customs guaranties now required, and to lead to a
+     fundamental money reform.
+
+     In order to give such capital all desirable guaranties the
+     Government of Haiti agrees to employ in the customs service
+     only officials whose ability and character are well known, and
+     to replace those who in practice are found not to fill these
+     conditions.
+
+     The Government of Haiti will also assure the protection of
+     capital and in general of all foreign interests by the
+     organization of a mounted rural constabulary trained in the
+     most modern methods.
+
+     In the meantime if it be necessary the Government of the United
+     States, after consultation with the Government of Haiti, will
+     give its aid in the repression of serious disorders or troubles
+     which might compromise these foreign interests.
+
+     The American forces which have in the given circumstances
+     cooperated with the Haitian troops in the restoration of order,
+     should be retired from Haitian territory at the first request
+     of the constitutional authority.
+
+     III. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants that no
+     rights, privileges, or facilities of any description whatsoever
+     will be granted, sold, leased, or otherwise accorded directly
+     or indirectly by the Government of Haiti concerning the
+     occupation or use of the Mole Saint-Nicolas to any foreign
+     government or to a national or the nationals of any other
+     foreign government.
+
+     IV. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants within six
+     months of the signing of this convention to sign a convention
+     of arbitration with the Powers concerned for the settlement of
+     the diplomatic claims pending, which arbitration convention
+     will provide for the equal treatment of all claimants, no
+     special privileges being granted to any of them.
+
+     V. In case of difficulties regarding the interpretation of the
+     clauses of the present convention, the high contracting parties
+     agree to submit the difference to the Permanent Court of
+     Arbitration at The Hague.
+
+Mr. Fuller had suggested a further modification which the Haitian
+Government refused. It changed the final paragraph of Article II to
+read: "The American forces which have in the given circumstance
+cooperated with the Haitian troops, shall, when order has been
+reestablished, be retired," etc. His other suggestions were accepted
+with unimportant verbal changes.
+
+
+
+
+The Haitian-United States Convention
+
+
+The convention between the United States and Haiti was ratified on
+September 16, 1915, after the occupation of the country by American
+troops. In its final form it is in interesting contrast with the
+suggested agreements printed above.
+
+     The United States and the Republic of Haiti, desiring to
+     confirm and strengthen the amity existing between them by the
+     most cordial cooperation in measures for their common
+     advantage, and the Republic of Haiti desiring to remedy the
+     present condition of its revenues and finances, to maintain the
+     tranquillity of the Republic, to carry out plans for the
+     economic development and prosperity of the Republic and its
+     people, and the United States being in full sympathy with all
+     of these aims and objects and desiring to contribute in all
+     proper ways to their accomplishment;
+
+     The United States and the Republic of Haiti have resolved to
+     conclude a convention with these objects in view, and have
+     appointed for that purpose plenipotentiaries:
+
+     The President of the Republic of Haiti, Mr. Louis Borno,
+     Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Public Instruction,
+
+     The President of the United States, Mr. Robert Beale Davis,
+     Jr., Chargé d'Affaires of the United States of America;
+
+     Who, having exhibited to each other their respective powers,
+     which are seen to be full in good and true form, have agreed as
+     follows:
+
+     ARTICLE I. The Government of the United States will, by its
+     good offices, aid the Haitian Government in the proper and
+     efficient development of its agricultural, mineral, and
+     commercial resources and in the establishment of the finances
+     of Haiti on a firm and solid basis.
+
+     ARTICLE II. The President of Haiti shall appoint, upon
+     nomination by the President of the United States, a General
+     Receiver and such aids and employees as may be necessary, who
+     shall collect, receive, and apply all customs duties on imports
+     and exports accruing at the several customs-houses and ports of
+     entry of the Republic of Haiti.
+
+     The President of Haiti shall appoint, upon nomination by the
+     President of the United States, a Financial Adviser who shall
+     be an officer attached to the Ministry of Finance, to give
+     effect to whose proposals and labors the Minister will lend
+     efficient aid. The Financial Adviser shall devise an adequate
+     system of public accounting, aid in increasing the revenues and
+     adjusting them to the expenses, inquire into the validity of
+     the debts of the Republic, enlighten both governments with
+     reference to all eventual debts, recommend improved methods of
+     collecting and applying the revenues, and make such other
+     recommendations to the Minister of Finance as may be deemed
+     necessary for the welfare and prosperity of Haiti.
+
+     ARTICLE III. The Government of the Republic of Haiti will
+     provide by law or appropriate decrees for the payment of all
+     customs duties to the General Receiver, and will extend to the
+     Receivership, and to the Financial Adviser, all needful aid and
+     full protection in the execution of the powers conferred and
+     duties imposed herein; and the United States on its part will
+     extend like aid and protection.
+
+     ARTICLE IV. Upon the appointment of the Financial Adviser, the
+     Government of the Republic of Haiti in cooperation with the
+     Financial Adviser, shall collate, classify, arrange, and make
+     full statement of all the debts of the Republic, the amounts,
+     character, maturity, and condition thereof, and the interest
+     accruing and the sinking fund requisite to their final
+     discharge.
+
+     ARTICLE V. All sums collected and received by the General
+     Receiver shall be applied, first to the payment of the salaries
+     and allowances of the General Receiver, his assistants, and
+     employees and expenses of the Receivership, including the
+     salary and expenses of the Financial Adviser, which salaries
+     will be determined by the previous agreement; second, to the
+     interest and sinking fund of the public debt of the Republic of
+     Haiti; and third, to the maintenance of the constabulary
+     referred to in Article X, and then the remainder to the Haitian
+     Government for the purposes of current expenses.
+
+     In making these applications the General Receiver will proceed
+     to pay salaries and allowances monthly and expenses as they
+     arise, and on the first of each calendar month will set aside
+     in a separate fund the quantum of the collections and receipts
+     of the previous month.
+
+     ARTICLE VI. The expenses of the Receivership, including
+     salaries and allowances of the General Receiver, his
+     assistants, and employees, and the salary and expenses of the
+     Financial Adviser, shall not exceed 5 per cent of the
+     collections and receipts from customs duties, unless by
+     agreement by the two governments.
+
+     ARTICLE VII. The General Receiver shall make monthly reports of
+     all collections, receipts, and disbursements to the appropriate
+     officers of the Republic of Haiti and to the Department of
+     State of the United States, which reports shall be open to
+     inspection and verification at all times by the appropriate
+     authorities of each of the said governments.
+
+     ARTICLE VIII. The Republic of Haiti shall not increase its
+     public debt, except by previous agreement with the President of
+     the United States, and shall not contract any debt or assume
+     any financial obligation unless the ordinary revenues of the
+     Republic available for that purpose, after defraying the
+     expenses of the Government, shall be adequate to pay the
+     interest and provide a sinking fund for the final discharge of
+     such debt.
+
+     ARTICLE IX. The Republic of Haiti will not, without the assent
+     of the President of the United States, modify the customs
+     duties in a manner to reduce the revenues therefrom; and in
+     order that the revenues of the Republic may be adequate to meet
+     the public debt and the expenses of the Government, to preserve
+     tranquillity, and to promote material prosperity, the Republic
+     of Haiti will cooperate with the Financial Adviser in his
+     recommendations for improvement in the methods of collecting
+     and disbursing the revenues and for new sources of needed
+     income.
+
+     ARTICLE X. The Haitian Government obligates itself, for the
+     preservation of domestic peace, the security of individual
+     rights, and the full observance of the provisions of this
+     treaty, to create without delay an efficient constabulary,
+     urban and rural, composed of native Haitians. This constabulary
+     shall be organized and officered by Americans appointed by the
+     President of Haiti, upon nomination by the President of the
+     United States. The Haitian Government shall clothe these
+     officers with the proper and necessary authority and uphold
+     them in the performance of their functions. These officers will
+     be replaced by Haitians as they, by examination conducted under
+     direction of a board to be selected by the senior American
+     officer of this constabulary in the presence of a
+     representative of the Haitian Government, are found to be
+     qualified to assume such duties. The constabulary herein
+     provided for shall, under the direction of the Haitian
+     Government, have supervision and control of arms and
+     ammunition, military supplies and traffic therein, throughout
+     the country. The high contracting parties agree that the
+     stipulations in this article are necessary to prevent factional
+     strife and disturbances.
+
+     ARTICLE XI. The Government of Haiti agrees not to surrender any
+     of the territory of the Republic of Haiti by sale, lease, or
+     otherwise, or jurisdiction over such territory, to any foreign
+     government or Power, nor to enter into any treaty or contract
+     with any foreign Power or Powers that will impair or tend to
+     impair the independence of Haiti.
+
+     ARTICLE XII. The Haitian Government agrees to execute with the
+     United States a protocol for the settlement, by arbitration or
+     otherwise, of all pending pecuniary claims of foreign
+     corporations, companies, citizens, or subjects against Haiti.
+
+     ARTICLE XIII. The Republic of Haiti, being desirous to further
+     the development of its natural resources, agrees to undertake
+     and execute such measures as, in the opinion of the high
+     contracting parties, may be necessary for the sanitation and
+     public improvement of the Republic under the supervision and
+     direction of an engineer or engineers, to be appointed by the
+     President of Haiti upon nomination of the President of the
+     United States, and authorized for that purpose by the
+     Government of Haiti.
+
+     ARTICLE XIV. The high contracting parties shall have authority
+     to take such steps as may be necessary to insure the complete
+     attainment of any of the objects comprehended in this treaty;
+     and should the necessity occur, the United States will lend an
+     efficient aid for the preservation of Haitian independence and
+     the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of
+     life, property, and individual liberty.
+
+     ARTICLE XV. The present treaty shall be approved and ratified
+     by the high contracting parties in conformity with their
+     respective laws, and the ratifications thereof shall be
+     exchanged in the City of Washington as soon as may be possible.
+
+     ARTICLE XVI. The present treaty shall remain in full force and
+     virtue for the term of ten years, to be counted from the day of
+     exchange of ratifications, and further for another term of ten
+     years if, for specific reasons presented by either of the high
+     contracting parties, the purpose of this treaty has not been
+     fully accomplished.
+
+     In faith whereof, the respective plenipotentiaries have signed
+     the present convention in duplicate, in the English and French
+     languages, and have thereunto affixed their seals.
+
+     Done at Port-au-Prince (Haiti), the 16th day of September
+     in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and fifteen.
+
+     ROBERT BEALE DAVIS, JR.,
+     Chargé d'Affaires of the United States
+
+     LOUIS BORNO,
+     Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
+     and Public Instruction
+
+
+
+
+The New Constitution of Haiti
+
+
+The new Constitution of the Republic of Haiti, ratified under the
+American Occupation, altered the former Constitution in regard to the
+important subject of the right of foreigners to hold land. Article 6 of
+the old Constitution reads:
+
+     No one, unless he is a Haitian, may be a holder of land in
+     Haiti, regardless of what his title may be, nor acquire any
+     real estate.
+
+Article 5 of the Constitution of 1918 makes the following provision:
+
+     The right to hold property is given to foreigners residing in
+     Haiti, and to societies formed by foreigners, for dwelling
+     purposes and for agricultural, commercial, industrial, or
+     educational enterprises. This right shall be discontinued five
+     years after the foreigner shall have ceased to reside in the
+     country, or when the activities of these companies shall have
+     ceased.
+
+
+
+
+The Haitian President's Proclamation
+
+
+In the _Moniteur_, official organ of the Republic of Haiti, for
+September 4, 1915, in a column headed "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,"
+the president of Haiti published a proclamation on the situation arising
+from the occupation by American troops of the customs-house at
+Port-au-Prince.
+
+     Haitians! At the very moment when the Government, engaged in
+     negotiations to settle the question of the presence of American
+     military forces on Haitian territory, was looking forward to a
+     prompt solution in accordance with law and justice, it finds
+     itself faced with the simple seizure of possession of the
+     customs administration of the capital.
+
+     Previously the customs-houses of several other cities of the
+     republic had been occupied in like fashion, and whenever the
+     news of such occupation reached the National Palace or the
+     Department of Finances, it was followed by an energetic
+     protest, demanding that the diplomatic representative of the
+     American Government residing at Port-au-Prince restore the
+     customs-houses and put an end to acts so contrary to the
+     relations at present existing between the Government of Haiti
+     and the Government of the United States of North America.
+
+     Haitians! In bringing these facts officially to the attention
+     of the country, I owe it to myself to declare further, in the
+     most formal fashion, to you and to the entire civilized world,
+     that the order to carry out these acts so destructive of the
+     interests, rights, and sovereignty of the Haitian people is not
+     due to anything which can be cited against the patriotism,
+     devotion, spirit of sacrifice, and loyalty of those to whom the
+     destinies of the country have been intrusted. You are the
+     judges of that.
+
+     Nor will I conceal the fact that my astonishment is greater
+     because the negotiations, which had been undertaken in the hope
+     of an agreement upon the basis of propositions presented by the
+     American Government itself, after having passed through the
+     ordinary phases of diplomatic discussion, with frankness and
+     courtesy on both sides, have now been relieved of the only
+     obstacles which had hitherto appeared to stand in their way.
+
+     Haitians! In this agonizing situation, more than tragic for
+     every truly Haitian soul, the Government, which intends to
+     preserve full national sovereignty, will be able to maintain
+     the necessary resolution only if all are united in exercising
+     their intelligence and energy with it in the present task of
+     saving the nation....
+
+     SUDRE DARTIGUENAVE
+
+     Given at the National Palace, September 2, 1915, in the 112th
+     year of our independence.
+
+
+
+
+_The following are from the Nation of September 11, 1920_
+
+Why Haiti Has No Budget
+
+
+At the session of the Haitian National Assembly on August 4, the
+President of the Republic of Haiti and the Haitian Minister of Finance
+laid before that body the course of the American Financial Adviser which
+had made it impossible to submit to the Assembly accounts and budgets in
+accordance with the Constitution of Haiti and the Haiti-American
+Convention. The statement which follows is taken from the official
+Haitian gazette, the _Moniteur_ of August 7.
+
+     MESSAGE OF THE PRESIDENT
+
+     Gentlemen of the Council of State: On account of unforeseen
+     circumstances it has not been possible for the Government of
+     the Republic to present to you in the course of the session of
+     your high assembly which closes today (August 4) the general
+     accounts of the receipts and expenditures for 1918-1919 and the
+     budget for 1920-1921, in accordance with the Constitution.
+
+     It is certainly an exceptional case, the gravity of which will
+     not escape you. You will learn the full details from the report
+     which the Secretary of Finance and Commerce will submit to you,
+     in which it will be shown that the responsibility for it does
+     not fall on the Executive Power....
+
+     In the life of every people there come moments when it must
+     know how to be resigned and to suffer. Are we facing one of
+     those moments? The attitude of the Haitian people, calm and
+     dignified, persuades me that, marching closely with the
+     Government of the Republic, there is no suffering which it is
+     not disposed to undergo to safeguard and secure the triumph of
+     its rights.
+
+     DARTIGUENAVE
+
+
+     REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF FINANCE AND COMMERCE
+
+     Gentlemen of the Council of State: Article 116 of the
+     Constitution prescribes in its first paragraph: "The general
+     accounts and the budgets prescribed by the preceding article
+     must be submitted to the legislative body by the Secretary of
+     Finance not later than eight days after the opening of the
+     legislative session."
+
+     And Article 2 of the American-Haitian Convention of September
+     16, 1915, stipulates in its second paragraph: "The President of
+     Haiti shall appoint, on the nomination of the President of the
+     United States, a Financial Adviser, _who shall be a civil
+     servant attached to the Ministry of Finance_, to whom the
+     Secretary shall lend effective aid in the prosecution of his
+     work. The Financial Adviser shall work out a system of public
+     accounting, shall aid in increasing the revenues and in their
+     adjustment to expenditures...."
+
+     Since February of this year (1920) the secretaries of the
+     various departments, in order to conform to the letter of
+     Article 116 of the Constitution, and to assure continuity of
+     public service in the matter of receipts and expenditures, set
+     to work at the preparation of the budgets for their departments
+     for 1920-21.
+
+     By a dispatch dated March 22, 1920, the Department of Finance
+     sent the draft budgets to Mr. A. J. Maumus, Acting Financial
+     Adviser, for preliminary study by that official. But the Acting
+     Adviser replied to the Department by a letter, of March 29: "I
+     suggest that, in view of the early return of Mr. John
+     McIlhenny, the Financial Adviser, measures be taken to postpone
+     all discussion regarding the said draft budgets between the
+     different departments and the Office [of the Financial Adviser]
+     to permit him to take part in the discussions."
+
+     Nevertheless, the regular session was opened on the
+     constitutional date, Monday, April 5, 1920. Mr. John McIlhenny,
+     the titular Financial Adviser, absent in the United States
+     since October, 1919, on a financial mission for the Government,
+     prolonged his stay in America, detained no doubt by the
+     insurmountable difficulties in the accomplishment of his
+     mission (the placing of a Haitian loan on the New York market).
+     Since on the one hand the Adviser could not overcome these
+     difficulties, and on the other hand his presence at
+     Port-au-Prince was absolutely necessary for the preparation of
+     the budget in conformity with the Constitution and the
+     Haitian-American Convention, the Government deemed it essential
+     to ask him to return to Port-au-Prince for that purpose. The
+     Government in so doing secured the good offices of the American
+     Legation, and Mr. McIlhenny returned from the United States
+     about the first of June. The Legislature had already been in
+     session almost two months.
+
+     About June 15 the Adviser began the study of the budget with
+     the secretaries. The conferences lasted about twelve days, and
+     in that time, after courteous discussions, after some cuts,
+     modifications, and additions, plans for the following budgets
+     were agreed upon:
+
+       1. Ways and Means
+       2. Foreign Relations
+       3. Finance and Commerce
+       4. Interior
+
+     On Monday, July 12, at 3.30, the hour agreed upon between the
+     ministers and the Adviser, the ministers met to continue the
+     study of the budget which they wanted to finish quickly....
+     Between 4 and 4:30 the Secretary of Finance received a letter
+     from the Adviser which reads as follows:
+
+     "I find myself obliged to stop all study of the budget until
+     certain affairs of considerable importance for the welfare of
+     the country shall have been finally settled according to the
+     recommendations made by me to the Haitian Government.
+
+     "Please accept, Mr. Secretary, the assurance of my highest
+     consideration,
+         JOHN MCILHENNY"
+
+     Such an unanticipated and unjustifiable decision on the part of
+     Mr. McIlhenny, an official attached to the Ministry of Finance,
+     caused the whole Government profound surprise and warranted
+     dissatisfaction....
+
+     On July 13 the Department of Finance replied to the Financial
+     Adviser as follows:
+
+     "I beg to acknowledge your letter of July 12, in which you say,
+     'I find myself obliged, etc....'
+
+     "In taking note of this declaration, the importance and gravity
+     of which certainly cannot escape you, I can only regret in the
+     name of the Government:
+
+     "1. That you omitted to tell me with the precision which such
+     an emergency demands what are the affairs of an importance so
+     considerable for the welfare of the country and the settlement
+     of which, according to the recommendations made by you, is of
+     such great moment that you can subordinate to that settlement
+     the continuation of the work on the budget?
+
+     "2. That you have taken such a serious step without considering
+     that in so doing you have divested yourself of one of the
+     essential functions which devolves upon you as Financial
+     Adviser attached to the Department of Finance.
+
+     "The preparation of the budget of the state constitutes one of
+     the principal obligations of those intrusted with it by law,
+     because the very life of the nation depends upon its
+     elaboration. The Legislature has been in session since April 5
+     last. By the Constitution the draft budgets and the general
+     accounts should be submitted to the legislative body within
+     eight days after the opening of the session, that is to say by
+     April 13. The draft budgets were sent to your office on March
+     22.
+
+     "By reason of your absence from the country, the examination of
+     these drafts was postponed, the acting Financial Adviser not
+     being willing to shoulder the responsibility; we refer you to
+     his letters of March 29 and of April 17 and 24. Finally ... you
+     came back to Port-au-Prince, and after some two weeks, you
+     began with the secretaries to study the draft budgets.
+
+     "The Government therefore experiences a very disagreeable
+     surprise on reading your letter of July 12. It becomes my duty
+     to inform you of that disagreeable surprise, to formulate the
+     legal reservations in the case, and to inform you finally that
+     you bear the sole responsibility for the failure to present the
+     budget in due time.
+         "FLEURY FEQUIERE, Secretary of Finance"
+
+     On July 19, Mr. Bailly-Blanchard, the American Minister, placed
+     in the hands of the President of the Republic a memorandum
+     emanating from Mr. McIlhenny, in which the latter formulates
+     against the Government complaints sufficient, according to him,
+     to explain and justify the discontinuance of the preparation of
+     the budget, announced in his letter of July 12.
+
+
+     _Memorandum of Mr. McIlhenny_
+
+     I had instructions from the Department of State of the United
+     States just before my departure for Haiti, in a passage of a
+     letter of May 20, to declare to the Haitian Government that it
+     was necessary to give its immediate and formal approval:
+
+     1. To a modification of the Bank Contract agreed upon by the
+     Department of State and the National City Bank of New York.
+
+     2. To the transfer of the National Bank of the Republic of
+     Haiti to a new bank registered under the laws of Haiti to be
+     known as the National Bank of the Republic of Haiti.
+
+     3. To the execution of Article 15 of the Contract of
+     Withdrawal, prohibiting the importation and exportation of
+     non-Haitian money, except that which might be necessary for the
+     needs of commerce in the opinion of the Financial Adviser.
+
+     4. To the immediate vote of a territorial law which has been
+     submitted to the Department of State of the United States and
+     which has its approval.
+
+     On my arrival in Haiti I visited the President with the
+     American Minister and learned that the modifications of the
+     bank contract and the transfer of the bank had been agreed to
+     and the only reason why the measure had not been made official
+     was because the National City Bank and the National Bank of
+     Haiti had not yet presented to the Government their full
+     powers. He declared that the Government did not agree to the
+     publication of a decree executing the Contract of Withdrawal
+     because it did not consider that the economic condition of the
+     country justified it at that time. To which I replied that the
+     Government of the United States expected the execution of
+     Article 15 of the Contract of Withdrawal as a direct and solemn
+     engagement of the Haitian Government, to which it was a party,
+     and I had instructions to insist upon its being put into
+     execution at once....
+
+
+     _The Counter Memoir_
+
+     To this memorandum the Executive Authority replied by a counter
+     memoir which read in part as follows:
+
+     "The modifications proposed by the Department of State [of the
+     United States] to the bank contract, studied by the Haitian
+     Government, gave rise to counter propositions on the part of
+     the latter, which the Department of State would not accept. The
+     Haitian Government then accepted these modifications in nine
+     articles in the form in which they had been concluded and
+     signed at Washington, on Friday, February 6, 1920, by the
+     Financial Adviser, the Haitian Minister, and the [Haitian]
+     Secretary of Finance. But when Messrs. Scarpa and Williams,
+     representing respectively and officially the National Bank of
+     Haiti and the National City Bank of New York, came before the
+     Secretary of Finance for his signature to the papers relative
+     to the transfer of the National Bank of Haiti to the National
+     City Bank of New York, the Secretary of Finance experienced a
+     disagreeable surprise in finding out that to Article 9 of the
+     document signed at Washington, February 6, 1920, and closed as
+     stated above, there had been added an amendment bearing on the
+     prohibition of non-Haitian money. The Secretary could only
+     decline the responsibility of this added paragraph of which he
+     had not the slightest knowledge and which consequently had not
+     been submitted to the Government for its agreement. It is for
+     this reason alone that the agreement is not signed up to this
+     time. The Government does not even yet know who was the author
+     of this addition to the document to which its consent had never
+     been asked."
+
+     Today, gentlemen, you have come to the end of the regular
+     session for this year. Four months have run by without the
+     Government being able to present to you the budget for
+     1920-1921.... Such are the facts, in brief, that have marked
+     our relations recently with Mr. McIlhenny....
+
+     FLEURY FEQUIERE, Secretary of Finance
+
+
+
+
+The Businessmen's Protest
+
+
+The protest printed below, against Article 15 of the Contract of
+Withdrawal, was sent to the Haitian Secretary of Finance on July 30.
+
+     The undersigned bankers, merchants, and representatives of the
+     various branches of the financial and commercial activities in
+     Haiti have the honor to submit to the high appreciation of the
+     Secretary of State for Finance the following consideration:
+
+     They have been advised from certain sources that pressing
+     recommendations have been made to the Government of Haiti.
+
+     1. That a law be immediately voted by which would be prohibited
+     the importation or exportation of all money not Haitian, except
+     that quantity of foreign money which, in the opinion of the
+     Financial Adviser, would be sufficient for the needs of
+     commerce.
+
+     2. That in the charter of the Banque Nationale de la Republique
+     d'Haiti there be inserted an article giving power to the
+     Financial Adviser together with the Banque Nationale de la
+     Republique d'Haiti to take all measures concerning the
+     importation or exportation of non-Haitian monies.
+
+     The undersigned declare that the adoption of such a measure,
+     under whatever form it may be, would be of a nature generally
+     contrary to the collective interests of the Haitian people and
+     the industry of Haiti. It would be dangerous to substitute the
+     will of a single man, however eminent he might be, however
+     honorable, however infallible, for a natural law which
+     regulates the movements of the monetary circulation in a
+     country.
+
+     It would be more dangerous yet to introduce in the contract of
+     the Banque Nationale de la Republique d'Haiti a clause which
+     would assure this establishment a sort of monopoly in the
+     foreign money market, which constitutes the principal base of
+     the operations of high commerce, when it has already the
+     exclusive privilege of emission of bank notes. Such a clause
+     would make of all other bankers and merchants its humble
+     tributaries, obeying its law and its caprices....
+
+     (Signed) THE ROYAL BANK OF CANADA; AMERICAN FOREIGN BANKING
+     CORPORATION; HAITIAN AMERICAN SUGAR CO.; RAPOREL S.S. LINE;
+     P. C. S.; ELECTRIC LIGHT CO.; PANAMA LINE; ED. ESTEVE & CO.;
+     CLYDE LINE; COMPTOIR COMMERCIAL; GEBARA & CO.; ALFRED VIEUX;
+     V. G. MAKHLOUF; N. SILVERA; SIMMONDS FRERES; ROBERTS, DUTTON &
+     CO.; WEST INDIES TRADING CO.; J. FADOUL & CO.; R. BROUARD; A. DE
+     MATTEIS & CO.; J. M. RICHARDSON & CO.; COMPTOIR FRANCAIS; H.
+     DEREIX; E. ROBELIN; F. CHERIEZ; I. J. BIGIO, AND GEO. H.
+     MACFADDEN.
+
+
+
+
+"By Order of the American Minister"
+
+
+Correspondence regarding the refusal of the Financial Adviser of Haiti,
+an American, but an official of the Haitian Department of Finance, to
+pay the salaries for the month of July, 1920, of the President and
+certain other officials of the Haitian Republic, revealing that the
+action was taken by order of the American Minister to Haiti, without
+explanation and without authority in the Haitian Constitution or in the
+Haiti-American Convention, was printed in the _Moniteur_ for August 14.
+
+
+     I.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 2, 1920.
+
+     MR. A. J. MAUMUS, Receiver General of Customs
+
+     In accordance with the suggestion made to the Financial Adviser
+     on July 24, your office began on the morning of July 30 to pay
+     the salaries for that month to the officials and public
+     employees at Port-au-Prince.
+
+     Nevertheless up to this morning, August 2, no checks have been
+     delivered to His Excellency the President of the Republic, the
+     secretaries of the various departments, the state councilors,
+     and the palace interpreter.
+
+     In calling your attention to this fact I ask that you will
+     please inform me of the reasons for it.
+
+     FLEURY FEQUIERE, Secretary of Finance.
+
+
+     II.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 2, 1920.
+
+     TO THE SECRETARY OF FINANCE AND COMMERCE
+
+     I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note of
+     August 2 in which you ask this office to inform you regarding
+     the reasons for the non-delivery, up to the present time, of
+     the checks for His Excellency the President of the Republic,
+     for the departmental secretaries, the state councilors, and
+     the palace interpreter, for the month of July.
+
+     In reply this office hastens to inform you that up to the
+     present time it has not been put in possession of the mandates
+     and orders regarding these payments.
+
+     A. J. MAUMUS, Receiver General.
+
+
+     III.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 2, 1920.
+
+     TO THE FINANCIAL ADVISER
+
+     The Department of Finance, informed that checks for His
+     Excellency the President of the Republic, the departmental
+     secretaries, the state councilors, and the palace interpreter
+     had not been delivered up to this morning, August 2, reported
+     the fact to the Receiver General of Customs asking to be
+     informed regarding the reasons. The Receiver General replied
+     immediately that the delay was due to his failure to receive
+     the necessary mandates and orders. But these papers were sent
+     to you by the Department of Finance on July 21, and were
+     returned by the payment service of the Department of the
+     Interior on July 26, a week ago.
+
+     I inclose copies of the note from the Department of Finance to
+     the Receiver General, and of Mr. Maumus's reply.
+
+     I should like to believe that bringing this matter to your
+     attention would be sufficient to remedy it.
+
+     FLEURY FEQUIERE, Secretary of Finance.
+
+
+     IV.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 5, 1920.
+
+     TO THE SECRETARY OF FINANCE AND COMMERCE
+
+     I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note of
+     August 2, regarding the delay in payment of the salaries of the
+     President of the Republic, secretaries, and state councilors.
+
+     In reply I have the honor to inform you that the payment of
+     these salaries has been suspended by order of the American
+     Minister until further orders are received from him.
+
+     J. MCILHENNY, Financial Adviser.
+
+
+     V.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 10, 1920.
+
+     TO THE FINANCIAL ADVISER
+
+     I acknowledge receipt of your note of August 5 in reply to mine
+     of August 2 asking information regarding the reasons for your
+     non-payment of the salaries for last July due to His Excellency
+     the President of the Republic, the secretaries, and state
+     councilors, and the palace interpreter.
+
+     I note the second paragraph of your letter, in which you say,
+     "In reply, etc."
+
+     I do not know by what authority the American Minister can have
+     given you such instructions or by what authority you
+     acquiesced. The non-payment of the salaries due the members of
+     the Government constitutes a confiscation vexatious for them
+     and for the entire country. It is not the function of this
+     department to judge the motives which led the American Minister
+     to take so exceptionally serious a step; but it is the opinion
+     of the Government that the Financial Adviser, a Haitian
+     official, was not authorized to acquiesce.
+
+     FLEURY FEQUIERE, Secretary of Finance.
+
+
+     VI.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 5, 1920.
+
+     MR. A. BAILLY-BLANCHARD, American Minister
+
+     I have the honor to inform Your Excellency that the offices of
+     the Financial Adviser and of the Receiver General have not yet
+     delivered the checks for the July salaries of His Excellency
+     the President of the Republic, of the secretaries, state
+     councilors, and palace interpreter, although all other
+     officials were paid on July 30.
+
+     The Secretary of Finance wrote to the Receiver General asking
+     information on the subject, and was informed that he had not
+     received the necessary mandates and orders. The fact of the
+     non-delivery of the checks and the reply of the Receiver
+     General were then brought to the attention of the Financial
+     Adviser, who has not yet replied.
+
+     In informing your Legation of this situation, I call the
+     attention of Your Excellency to this new attitude of the
+     Financial Adviser, a Haitian official, to the President of the
+     Republic and the other members of the Government, an attitude
+     which is an insult to the entire nation.
+
+     J. BARAU, Secretary of Foreign Affairs.
+
+
+     VII.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 6, 1920.
+
+     MR. A. BAILLY-BLANCHARD, American Minister
+
+     I have the honor to inclose a copy of a note from the Financial
+     Adviser to the Secretary of Finance, replying to a request for
+     information regarding the non-payment of checks....
+
+     In his reply the Financial Adviser informs the Department of
+     Finance that "the payment of these salaries has been suspended
+     by order of the American Minister until further orders are
+     received from him."
+
+     My Government protests against this act of violence which is an
+     attack upon the dignity of the people and Government of Haiti.
+
+     J. BARAU, Secretary of Foreign Affairs.
+
+
+     VIII.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 6, 1920.
+
+     MR. J. BARAU, Secretary of Foreign Affairs
+
+     I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of Your
+     Excellency's note under date of August 5.
+
+     In reply I have to state that the action of the Financial
+     Adviser therein referred to was taken by direction of this
+     Legation.
+
+     A. BAILLY-BLANCHARD, American Minister.
+
+
+     IX.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 7, 1920.
+
+     MR. A. BAILLY-BLANCHARD, American Minister
+
+     In reply to my letter of August 5 in which I had the honor to
+     inform Your Excellency of the non-payment of checks, ... Your
+     Excellency informs me that it is by direction of the Legation
+     of the United States that the Financial Adviser acted.
+
+     My Government takes note of your declaration.
+
+     J. BARAU, Secretary of Foreign Affairs.
+
+
+
+
+The Concession of the National City Bank
+
+
+Simultaneously with the non-payment of the July salaries of the
+President and other officials of the Haitian Republic, the Haitian
+Minister of Finance received from the Financial Adviser, an American,
+nominally a Haitian official, but acting under instructions from the
+American Government, the following letter urging immediate ratification
+of a modified form of agreement between the United States Department of
+State and the National City Bank of New York. It was widely assumed in
+Haiti that this letter supplied the key to the unexplained non-payment
+of salaries, ordered by Mr. A. Bailly-Blanchard, the American Minister.
+The letter was printed in the _Moniteur_ for August 14.
+
+    PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 2, 1920
+
+    TO THE SECRETARY OF FINANCE
+
+    I have the honor to inform you that I have been instructed by my
+    Government that in view of the continual delay in obtaining the
+    consent of the Haitian Government to the transfer to the new bank of
+    the modified concession as agreed upon between the Government of the
+    United States and the National City Bank, the Government of the
+    United States has agreed to let the operations of the National Bank
+    of the Republic of Haiti continue indefinitely on the French
+    contract at present existing, without amendment.
+
+    I desire urgently to draw your attention to the fact that it would
+    be most desirable in the interest of the Haitian people that the
+    Government of Haiti should give its immediate consent to the
+    proposed modifications of the contract and to accept the transfer of
+    the bank rather than see the present contract continue with its
+    present clauses.
+
+    JOHN MCILHENNY, Financial Adviser
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Spelling, punctuation and capitalization has been retained as in the
+original publication except as follows:
+
+Page 27: Changed "glaces" to "glacés"
+
+Page 40: Added closing quotation mark to paragraph opening with the
+words: "And Article 2 of the American-Haitian Convention"
+
+Page 44: Added period to end of sentence "It is for this reason alone
+that the agreement is not signed up to this time"]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Self-Determining Haiti, by James Weldon Johnson
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+
+Project Gutenberg's Self-Determining Haiti, by James Weldon Johnson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Self-Determining Haiti
+       Four articles reprinted from The Nation embodying a report
+              of an investigation made for the National Association for
+              the Advancement of Colored People.
+
+Author: James Weldon Johnson
+
+Release Date: January 21, 2011 [EBook #35025]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SELF-DETERMINING HAITI ***
+
+
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+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Gary Rees and the Online
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+</pre>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 1]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h1>Self-Determining Haiti</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>JAMES WELDON JOHNSON</h2>
+
+<div class="center">Four articles reprinted from <i>The Nation</i> embodying
+a report of an investigation made for<br /><br />
+
+THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE<br /><br /><br /><br />
+
+<i>Together with Official Documents</i><br /><br /><br /><br />
+
+25 cents a copy<br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[2]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">Copyright, 1920<br />
+<br />
+By <span class="smcap">The Nation</span>, Inc.<br /></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[3]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>FOREWORD</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>he articles and documents in this pamphlet were
+printed in <i>The Nation</i> during the summer of 1920.
+They revealed for the first time to the world the nature of
+the United States' imperialistic venture in Haiti. While,
+owing to the censorship, the full story of this fundamental
+departure from American traditions has not yet been told,
+it appears at the time of this writing, October, 1920, that
+"pitiless publicity" for our sandbagging of a friendly and
+inoffensive neighbor has been achieved. The report of
+Major-General George Barnett, commandant of the Marine
+Corps during the first four years of the Haitian occupation,
+just issued, strikingly confirms the facts set forth by <i>The
+Nation</i> and refutes the denials of administration officials
+and their newspaper apologists. It is in the hope that by
+spreading broadly the truth about what has happened in
+Haiti under five years of American occupation <i>The Nation</i>
+may further contribute toward removing a dark blot from
+the American escutcheon, that this pamphlet is issued.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>Self-Determining Haiti</h1>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[5]</span></p>
+<div class="center">By JAMES WELDON JOHNSON</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>I. THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>O know the reasons for the present political situation
+in Haiti, to understand why the United States landed
+and has for five years maintained military forces in that
+country, why some three thousand Haitian men, women, and
+children have been shot down by American rifles and machine
+guns, it is necessary, among other things, to know
+that the National City Bank of New York is very much
+interested in Haiti. It is necessary to know that the National
+City Bank controls the National Bank of Haiti and
+is the depository for all of the Haitian national funds that
+are being collected by American officials, and that Mr. R. L.
+Farnham, vice-president of the National City Bank, is virtually
+the representative of the State Department in matters
+relating to the island republic. Most Americans have the
+opinion&mdash;if they have any opinion at all on the subject&mdash;that
+the United States was forced, on purely humane
+grounds, to intervene in the black republic because of the
+tragic coup d'etat which resulted in the overthrow and death
+of President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam and the execution of
+the political prisoners confined at Port-au-Prince, July 27-28,
+1915; and that this government has been compelled to
+keep a military force in Haiti since that time to pacify the
+country and maintain order.</p>
+
+<p>The fact is that for nearly a year before forcible intervention
+on the part of the United States this government
+was seeking to compel Haiti to submit to "peaceable" intervention.
+Toward the close of 1914 the United States notified
+the government of Haiti that it was disposed to recognize
+the newly-elected president, Theodore Davilmar, as soon
+as a Haitian commission would sign at Washington "satisfactory
+protocols" relative to a convention with the United
+States on the model of the Dominican-American Convention.
+On December 15, 1914, the Haitian government, through
+its Secretary of Foreign Affairs, replied: "The Government
+of the Republic of Haiti would consider itself lax in its duty<span class="pagenum">[6]</span>
+to the United States and to itself if it allowed the least
+doubt to exist of its irrevocable intention not to accept any
+control of the administration of Haitian affairs by a foreign
+Power." On December 19, the United States, through its legation
+at Port-au-Prince, replied, that in expressing its
+willingness to do in Haiti what had been done in Santo
+Domingo it "was actuated entirely by a disinterested desire
+to give assistance."</p>
+
+<p>Two months later, the Theodore government was overthrown
+by a revolution and Vilbrun Guillaume was elected
+president. Immediately afterwards there arrived at Port-au-Prince
+an American commission from Washington&mdash;the
+Ford mission. The commissioners were received at the
+National Palace and attempted to take up the discussion of
+the convention that had been broken off in December, 1914.
+However, they lacked full powers and no negotiations were
+entered into. After several days, the Ford mission sailed
+for the United States. But soon after, in May, the United
+States sent to Haiti Mr. Paul Fuller, Jr., with the title
+Envoy Extraordinary, on a special mission to apprise the
+Haitian government that the Guillaume administration
+would not be recognized by the American government unless
+Haiti accepted and signed the project of a convention which
+he was authorized to present. After examining the project
+the Haitian government submitted to the American
+commission a counter-project, formulating the conditions
+under which it would be possible to accept the assistance of
+the United States. To this counter-project Mr. Fuller proposed
+certain modifications, some of which were accepted by
+the Haitian government. On June 5, 1915, Mr. Fuller acknowledged
+the receipt of the Haitian communication regarding
+these modifications, and sailed from Port-au-Prince.</p>
+
+<p>Before any further discussion of the Fuller project between
+the two governments, political incidents in Haiti led
+rapidly to the events of July, 27 and 28. On July 27 President
+Guillaume fled to the French Legation, and on the same
+day took place a massacre of the political prisoners in the
+prison at Port-au-Prince. On the morning of July 28 President
+Guillaume was forcibly taken from French Legation
+and killed. On the afternoon of July 28 an American man-of-war
+dropped anchor in the harbor of Port-au-Prince and
+landed American forces. It should be borne in mind that<span class="pagenum">[7]</span>
+through all of this the life of not a single American citizen
+had been taken or jeopardized.</p>
+
+<p>The overthrow of Guillaume and its attending consequences
+did not constitute the cause of American intervention
+in Haiti, but merely furnished the awaited opportunity.
+Since July 28, 1915, American military forces have been in
+control of Haiti. These forces have been increased until
+there are now somewhere near three thousand Americans
+under arms in the republic. From the very first, the attitude
+of the Occupation has been that it was dealing with a
+conquered territory. Haitian forces were disarmed, military
+posts and barracks were occupied, and the National
+Palace was taken as headquarters for the Occupation. After
+selecting a new and acceptable president for the country,
+steps were at once taken to compel the Haitian government
+to sign a convention in which it virtually foreswore its independence.
+This was accomplished by September 16, 1915;
+and although the terms of this convention provided for the
+administration of the Haitian customs by American civilian
+officials, all the principal custom houses of the country had
+been seized by military force and placed in charge of American
+Marine officers before the end of August. The disposition
+of the funds collected in duties from the time of the
+military seizure of the custom houses to the time of their
+administration by civilian officials is still a question concerning
+which the established censorship in Haiti allows no discussion.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note the wide difference between the
+convention which Haiti was forced to sign and the convention
+which was in course of diplomatic negotiation at
+the moment of intervention. The Fuller convention asked
+little of Haiti and gave something, the Occupation convention
+demands everything of Haiti and gives nothing. The
+Occupation convention is really the same convention which
+the Haitian government peremptorily refused to discuss in
+December, 1914, except that in addition to American control
+of Haitian finances it also provides for American control of
+the Haitian military forces. The Fuller convention contained
+neither of these provisions. When the United States
+found itself in a position to take what it had not even dared
+to ask, it used brute force and took it. But even a convention
+which practically deprived Haiti of its independence<span class="pagenum">[8]</span>
+was found not wholly adequate for the accomplishment of
+all that was contemplated. The Haitian constitution still
+offered some embarrassments, so it was decided that Haiti
+must have a new constitution. It was drafted and presented
+to the Haitian assembly for adoption. The assembly balked&mdash;chiefly
+at the article in the proposed document removing
+the constitutional disability which prevented aliens from
+owning land in Haiti. Haiti had long considered the denial
+of this right to aliens as her main bulwark against overwhelming
+economic exploitation; and it must be admitted
+that she had better reasons than the several states of the
+United States that have similar provisions.</p>
+
+<p>The balking of the assembly resulted in its being dissolved
+by actual military force and the locking of doors of
+the Chamber. There has been no Haitian legislative body
+since. The desired constitution was submitted to a plebiscite
+by a decree of the President, although such a method
+of constitutional revision was clearly unconstitutional. Under
+the circumstances of the Occupation the plebiscite was,
+of course, almost unanimous for the desired change, and the
+new constitution was promulgated on June 18, 1918. Thus
+Haiti was given a new constitution by a flagrantly unconstitutional
+method. The new document contains several fundamental
+changes and includes a "Special Article" which declares:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>All the acts of the Government of the United States during
+its military Occupation in Haiti are ratified and confirmed.</p>
+
+<p>No Haitian shall be liable to civil or criminal prosecution for
+any act done by order of the Occupation or under its authority.</p>
+
+<p>The acts of the courts martial of the Occupation, without,
+however, infringing on the right to pardon, shall not be subject
+to revision.</p>
+
+<p>The acts of the Executive Power (the President) up to the
+promulgation of the present constitution are likewise ratified
+and confirmed.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The above is the chronological order of the principal steps
+by which the independence of a neighboring republic has
+been taken away, the people placed under foreign military
+domination from which they have no appeal, and exposed to
+foreign economic exploitation against which they are defenseless.
+All of this has been done in the name of the
+Government of the United States; however, without any act<span class="pagenum">[9]</span>
+by Congress and without any knowledge of the American
+people.</p>
+
+<p>The law by which Haiti is ruled today is martial law dispensed
+by Americans. There is a form of Haitian civil government,
+but it is entirely dominated by the military Occupation.
+President Dartiguenave, bitterly rebellious at heart
+as is every good Haitian, confessed to me the powerlessness
+of himself and his cabinet. He told me that the
+American authorities give no heed to recommendations made
+by him or his officers; that they would not even discuss matters
+about which the Haitian officials have superior knowledge.
+The provisions of both the old and the new constitutions
+are ignored in that there is no Haitian legislative
+body, and there has been none since the dissolution of the
+Assembly in April, 1916. In its stead there is a Council of
+State composed of twenty-one members appointed by the
+president, which functions effectively only when carrying
+out the will of the Occupation. Indeed the Occupation often
+overrides the civil courts. A prisoner brought before the
+proper court, exonerated, and discharged, is, nevertheless,
+frequently held by the military. All government funds are
+collected by the Occupation and are dispensed at its will and
+pleasure. The greater part of these funds is expended for
+the maintenance of the military forces. There is the strictest
+censorship of the press. No Haitian newspaper is allowed
+to publish anything in criticism of the Occupation or
+the Haitian government. Each newspaper in Haiti received
+an order to that effect from the Occupation, <i>and the same
+order carried the injunction not to print the order</i>. Nothing
+that might reflect upon the Occupation administration in
+Haiti is allowed to reach the newspapers of the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>The Haitian people justly complain that not only is the
+convention inimical to the best interests of their country,
+but that the convention, such as it is, is not being carried
+out in accordance with the letter, nor in accordance with
+the spirit in which they were led to believe it would be carried
+out. Except one, all of the obligations in the convention
+which the United States undertakes in favor of Haiti
+are contained in the first article of that document, the other
+fourteen articles being made up substantially of obligations
+to the United States assumed by Haiti. But nowhere in<span class="pagenum">[10]</span>
+those fourteen articles is there anything to indicate that
+Haiti would be subjected to military domination. In Article
+I the United States promises to "aid the Haitian government
+in the proper and efficient development of its agricultural,
+mineral, and commercial resources and in the establishment
+of the finances of Haiti on a firm and solid basis."
+And the whole convention and, especially, the protestations
+of the United States before the signing of the instrument
+can be construed only to mean that that aid would be extended
+through the supervision of civilian officials.</p>
+
+<p>The one promise of the United States to Haiti not contained
+in the first article of the convention is that clause of
+Article XIV which says, "and, should the necessity occur,
+the United States will lend an efficient aid for the preservation
+of Haitian independence and the maintenance of a government
+adequate for the protection of life, property, and
+individual liberty." It is the extreme of irony that this
+clause which the Haitians had a right to interpret as a
+guarantee to them against foreign invasion should first of
+all be invoked against the Haitian people themselves, and
+offer the only peg on which any pretense to a right of military
+domination can be hung.</p>
+
+<p>There are several distinct forces&mdash;financial, military,
+bureaucratic&mdash;at work in Haiti which, tending to aggravate
+the conditions they themselves have created, are largely
+self-perpetuating. The most sinister of these, the financial
+engulfment of Haiti by the National City Bank of New
+York, already alluded to, will be discussed in detail in a
+subsequent article. The military Occupation has made and
+continues to make military Occupation necessary. The justification
+given is that it is necessary for the pacification of
+the country. Pacification would never have been necessary
+had not American policies been filled with so many stupid
+and brutal blunders; and it will never be effective so long
+as "pacification" means merely the hunting of ragged
+Haitians in the hills with machine guns.</p>
+
+<p>Then there is the force which the several hundred American
+civilian place-holders constitute. They have found in
+Haiti the veritable promised land of "jobs for deserving
+democrats" and naturally do not wish to see the present
+status discontinued. Most of these deserving democrats
+are Southerners. The head of the customs service of Haiti<span class="pagenum">[11]</span>
+was a clerk of one of the parishes of Louisiana. Second
+in charge of the customs service of Haiti is a man who was
+Deputy Collector of Customs at Pascagoula, Mississippi
+[population, 3,379, 1910 Census]. The Superintendent of
+Public Instruction was a school teacher in Louisiana&mdash;a
+State which has not good schools even for white children;
+the financial advisor, Mr. McIlhenny, is also from Louisiana.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Occupation officers are in the same category
+with the civilian place-holders. These men have taken their
+wives and families to Haiti. Those at Port-au-Prince live
+in beautiful villas. Families that could not keep a hired girl
+in the United States have a half-dozen servants. They ride
+in automobiles&mdash;not their own. Every American head of a
+department in Haiti has an automobile furnished at the
+expense of the Haitian Government, whereas members of
+the Haitian cabinet, who are theoretically above them, have
+no such convenience or luxury. While I was there, the
+President himself was obliged to borrow an automobile from
+the Occupation for a trip through the interior. The
+Louisiana school-teacher Superintendent of Instruction has
+an automobile furnished at government expense, whereas
+the Haitian Minister of Public Instruction, his supposed superior
+officer, has none. These automobiles seem to be
+chiefly employed in giving the women and children an airing
+each afternoon. It must be amusing, when it is not maddening
+to the Haitians, to see with what disdainful air these
+people look upon them as they ride by.</p>
+
+<p>The platform adopted by the Democratic party at San
+Francisco said of the Wilson policy in Mexico:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Administration, remembering always that Mexico is an
+independent nation and that permanent stability in her government
+and her institutions could come only from the consent of
+her own people to a government of her own making, has been
+unwilling either to profit by the misfortunes of the people of
+Mexico or to enfeeble their future by imposing from the outside
+a rule upon their temporarily distracted councils.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Haiti has never been so distracted in its councils as
+Mexico. And even in its moments of greatest distraction it
+never slaughtered an American citizen, it never molested an
+American woman, it never injured a dollar's worth of
+American property. And yet, the Administration whose
+lofty purpose was proclaimed as above&mdash;with less justification
+than Austria's invasion of Serbia, or Germany's rape<span class="pagenum">[12]</span>
+of Belgium, without warrant other than the doctrine that
+"might makes right," has conquered Haiti. It has done this
+through the very period when, in the words of its chief
+spokesman, our sons were laying down their lives overseas
+"for democracy, for the rights of those who submit to authority
+to have a voice in their own government, for the
+rights and liberties of small nations." By command of the
+author of "pitiless publicity" and originator of "open
+covenants openly arrived at," it has enforced by the bayonet
+a covenant whose secret has been well guarded by a rigid
+censorship from the American nation, and kept a people
+enslaved by the military tyranny which it was his avowed
+purpose to destroy throughout the world.</p>
+
+<p><i>From The Nation of August 25, 1920.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>II. WHAT THE UNITED STATES HAS ACCOMPLISHED</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">W</span>HEN the truth about the conquest of Haiti&mdash;the
+slaughter of three thousand and practically unarmed
+Haitians, with the incidentally needless death of a score of
+American boys&mdash;begins to filter through the rigid Administration
+censorship to the American people, the apologists will
+become active. Their justification of what has been done
+will be grouped under two heads: one, the necessity, and
+two, the results. Under the first, much stress will be laid
+upon the "anarchy" which existed in Haiti, upon the backwardness
+of the Haitians and their absolute unfitness to
+govern themselves. The pretext which caused the intervention
+was taken up in the first article of this series. The
+characteristics, alleged and real, of the Haitian people will
+be taken up in a subsequent article. Now as to results:
+The apologists will attempt to show that material improvements
+in Haiti justify American intervention. Let us see
+what they are.</p>
+
+<p>Diligent inquiry reveals just three: The building of the
+road from Port-au-Prince to Cape Haitien; the enforcement
+of certain sanitary regulations in the larger cities; and the
+improvement of the public hospital at Port-au-Prince. The
+enforcement of certain sanitary regulations is not so important
+as it may sound, for even under exclusive native
+rule, Haiti has been a remarkably healthy country and had
+never suffered from such epidemics as used to sweep Cuba<span class="pagenum">[13]</span>
+and the Panama Canal region. The regulations, moreover,
+were of a purely minor character&mdash;the sort that might be
+issued by a board of health in any American city or town&mdash;and
+were in no wise fundamental, because there was no
+need. The same applies to the improvement of the hospital,
+long before the American Occupation, an effectively conducted
+institution but which, it is only fair to say, benefited
+considerably by the regulations and more up-to-date
+methods of American army surgeons&mdash;the best in the world.
+Neither of these accomplishments, however, creditable as
+they are, can well be put forward as a justification for military
+domination. The building of the great highway from
+Port-au-Prince to Cape Haitien is a monumental piece of
+work, but it is doubtful whether the object in building it
+was to supply the Haitians with a great highway or to construct
+a military road which would facilitate the transportation
+of troops and supplies from one end of the island to
+the other. And this represents the sum total of the constructive
+accomplishment after five years of American
+Occupation.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the highway, while doubtless the most important
+achievement of the three, involved the most brutal of all
+the blunders of the Occupation. The work was in charge of
+an officer of Marines who stands out even in that organization
+for his "treat 'em rough" methods. He discovered the
+obsolete Haitian <i>corvée</i> and decided to enforce it with the
+most modern Marine efficiency. The <i>corvée</i>, or road law, in
+Haiti provided that each citizen should work a certain number
+of days on the public roads to keep them in condition,
+or pay a certain sum of money. In the days when this law
+was in force the Haitian government never required the
+men to work the roads except in their respective communities,
+and the number of days was usually limited to three a
+year. But the Occupation seized men wherever it could find
+them, and no able-bodied Haitian was safe from such raids,
+which most closely resembled the African slave raids of past
+centuries. And slavery it was&mdash;though temporary. By day
+or by night, from the bosom of their families, from their
+little farms or while trudging peacefully on the country
+roads, Haitians were seized and forcibly taken to toil for
+months in far sections of the country. Those who protested
+or resisted were beaten into submission. At night, after<span class="pagenum">[14]</span>
+long hours of unremitting labor under armed taskmasters,
+who swiftly discouraged any slackening of effort with boot
+or rifle butt, the victims were herded in compounds. Those
+attempting to escape were shot. Their terror-stricken families
+meanwhile were often in total ignorance of the fate of
+their husbands, fathers, brothers.</p>
+
+<p>It is chiefly out of these methods that arose the need for
+"pacification." Many men of the rural districts became
+panic-stricken and fled to the hills and mountains. Others
+rebelled and did likewise, preferring death to slavery. These
+refugees largely make up the "caco" forces, to hunt down
+which has become the duty and the sport of American
+Marines, who were privileged to shoot a "caco" on sight. If
+anyone doubts that "caco" hunting is the sport of American
+Marines in Haiti, let him learn the facts about the death of
+Charlemagne. Charlemagne Peralte was a Haitian of education
+and culture and of great influence in his district. He
+was tried by an American courtmartial on the charge of
+aiding "cacos." He was sentenced, not to prison, however,
+but to five years of hard labor on the roads, and was forced
+to work in convict garb on the streets of Cape Haitien. He
+made his escape and put himself at the head of several hundred
+followers in a valiant though hopeless attempt to free
+Haiti. The America of the Revolution, indeed the America
+of the Civil War, would have regarded Charlemagne not as
+a criminal but a patriot. He met his death not in open
+fight, not in an attempt at his capture, but through a dastard
+deed. While standing over his camp fire, he was shot
+in cold blood by an American Marine officer who stood concealed
+by the darkness, and who had reached the camp
+through bribery and trickery. This deed, which was nothing
+short of assassination, has been heralded as an example
+of American heroism. Of this deed, Harry Franck, writing
+in the June Century of "The Death of Charlemagne," says:
+"Indeed it is fit to rank with any of the stirring warrior
+tales with which history is seasoned from the days of the
+Greeks down to the recent world war." America should read
+"The Death of Charlemagne" which attempts to glorify a
+black smirch on American arms and tradition.</p>
+
+<p>There is a reason why the methods employed in road
+building affected the Haitian country folk in a way in which
+it might not have affected the people of any other Latin-<span class="pagenum">[15]</span>American
+country. Not since the independence of the country
+has there been any such thing as a peon in Haiti. The
+revolution by which Haiti gained her independence was not
+merely a political revolution, it was also a social revolution.
+Among the many radical changes wrought was that of cutting
+up the large slave estates into small parcels and allotting
+them among former slaves. And so it was that every
+Haitian in the rural districts lived on his own plot of land,
+a plot on which his family has lived for perhaps more than
+a hundred years. No matter how small or how large that
+plot is, and whether he raises much or little on it, it is his
+and he is an independent farmer.</p>
+
+<p>The completed highway, moreover, continued to be a barb
+in the Haitian wound. Automobiles on this road, running
+without any speed limit, are a constant inconvenience or
+danger to the natives carrying their market produce to town
+on their heads or loaded on the backs of animals. I have
+seen these people scramble in terror often up the side or
+down the declivity of the mountain for places of safety for
+themselves and their animals as the machines snorted by. I
+have seen a market woman's horse take flight and scatter
+the produce loaded on his back all over the road for several
+hundred yards. I have heard an American commercial traveler
+laughingly tell how on the trip from Cape Haitien to
+Port-au-Prince the automobile he was in killed a donkey and
+two pigs. It had not occurred to him that the donkey might
+be the chief capital of the small Haitian farmer and that
+the loss of it might entirely bankrupt him. It is all very
+humorous, of course, unless you happen to be the Haitian
+pedestrian.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of visitors on arriving at Port-au-Prince
+and noticing the well-paved, well-kept streets, will at once
+jump to the conclusion that this work was done by the American
+Occupation. The Occupation goes to no trouble to
+refute this conclusion, and in fact it will by implication corroborate
+it. If one should exclaim, "Why, I am surprised to
+see what a well-paved city Port-au-Prince is!" he would be
+almost certain to receive the answer, "Yes, but you should
+have seen it before the Occupation." The implication here
+is that Port-au-Prince was a mudhole and that the Occupation
+is responsible for its clean and well-paved streets. It
+is true that at the time of the intervention, five years ago,<span class="pagenum">[16]</span>
+there were only one or two paved streets in the Haitian
+capital, but the contracts for paving the entire city had
+been let by the Haitian Government, and the work had
+already been begun. This work was completed during the
+Occupation, <i>but the Occupation did not pave, and had nothing
+to do with the paving of a single street in Port-au-Prince</i>.</p>
+
+<p>One accomplishment I did expect to find&mdash;that the American
+Occupation, in its five years of absolute rule, had
+developed and improved the Haitian system of public education.
+The United States has made some efforts in this
+direction in other countries where it has taken control. In
+Porto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines, the attempt, at least,
+was made to establish modern school systems. Selected
+youths from these countries were taken and sent to the
+United States for training in order that they might return
+and be better teachers, and American teachers were sent to
+those islands in exchange. The American Occupation in
+Haiti has not advanced public education a single step. No
+new buildings have been erected. Not a single Haitian youth
+has been sent to the United States for training as a teacher,
+nor has a single American teacher, white or colored, been
+sent to Haiti. According to the general budget of Haiti,
+1919-1920, there are teachers in the rural schools receiving
+as little as six dollars a month. Some of these teachers may
+not be worth more than six dollars a month. But after five
+years of American rule, there ought not to be a single
+teacher in the country who is not worth more than that
+paltry sum.</p>
+
+<p>Another source of discontent is the Gendarmerie. When
+the Occupation took possession of the island, it disarmed all
+Haitians, including the various local police forces. To
+remedy this situation the Convention (Article X), provided
+that there should be created,&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>without delay, an efficient constabulary, urban and rural, composed
+of native Haitians. This constabulary shall be organized
+and officered by Americans, appointed by the President of Haiti
+upon nomination by the President of the United States....
+These officers shall be replaced by Haitians as they, by examination
+conducted under direction of a board to be selected by the
+Senior American Officer of this constabulary in the presence of
+a representative of the Haitian Government, are found to be
+qualified to assume such duties.</p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum">[17]</span></p>
+
+<p>During the first months of the Occupation officers of the
+Haitian Gendarmerie were commissioned officers of the
+marines, but the war took all these officers to Europe. Five
+years have passed and the constabulary is still officered
+entirely by marines, but almost without exception they are
+ex-privates or non-commissioned officers of the United
+States Marine Corps commissioned in the gendarmerie.
+Many of these men are rough, uncouth, and uneducated, and
+a great number from the South, are violently steeped in
+color prejudice. They direct all policing of city and town.
+It falls to them, ignorant of Haitian ways and language, to
+enforce every minor police regulation. Needless to say,
+this is a grave source of continued irritation. Where the
+genial American "cop" could, with a wave of his hand or
+club, convey the full majesty of the law to the small boy
+transgressor or to some equally innocuous offender, the
+strong-arm tactics for which the marines are famous, are
+apt to be promptly evoked. The pledge in the Convention
+that "these officers be replaced by Haitians" who could
+qualify, has, like other pledges, become a mere scrap of
+paper. Graduates of the famous French military academy
+of St. Cyr, men who have actually qualified for commissions
+in the French army, are denied the opportunity to fill even a
+lesser commission in the Haitian Gendarmerie, although
+such men, in addition to their pre-eminent qualifications of
+training, would, because of their understanding of local conditions
+and their complete familiarity with the ways of their
+own country, make ideal guardians of the peace.</p>
+
+<p>The American Occupation of Haiti is not only guilty of
+sins of omission, it is guilty of sins of commission in addition
+to those committed in the building of the great road
+across the island. Brutalities and atrocities on the part of
+American marines have occurred with sufficient frequency
+to be the cause of deep resentment and terror. Marines talk
+freely of what they "did" to some Haitians in the outlying
+districts. Familiar methods of torture to make captives
+reveal what they often do not know are nonchalantly discussed.
+Just before I left Port-au-Prince an American
+Marine had caught a Haitian boy stealing sugar off the
+wharf and instead of arresting him he battered his brains
+out with the butt of his rifle. I learned from the lips of
+American Marines themselves of a number of cases of rape<span class="pagenum">[18]</span>
+of Haitian women by marines. I often sat at tables in the
+hotels and cafes in company with marine officers and they
+talked before me without restraint. I remember the description
+of a "caco" hunt by one of them; he told how they
+finally came upon a crowd of natives engaged in the popular
+pastime of cock-fighting and how they "let them have it"
+with machine guns and rifle fire. I heard another, a captain
+of marines, relate how he at a fire in Port-au-Prince ordered
+a "rather dressed up Haitian," standing on the sidewalk, to
+"get in there" and take a hand at the pumps. It appeared
+that the Haitian merely shrugged his shoulders. The captain
+of marines then laughingly said: "I had on a pretty
+heavy pair of boots and I let him have a kick that landed
+him in the middle of the street. Someone ran up and told
+me that the man was an ex-member of the Haitian Assembly."
+The fact that the man had been a member of the
+Haitian Assembly made the whole incident more laughable
+to the captain of marines.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most serious aspect of American brutality in
+Haiti is not to be found in individual cases of cruelty,
+numerous and inexcusable though they are, but rather in
+the American attitude, well illustrated by the diagnosis of
+an American officer discussing the situation and its difficulty:
+"The trouble with this whole business is that some
+of these people with a little money and education think they
+are as good as we are," and this is the keynote of the attitude
+of every American to every Haitian. Americans have
+carried American hatred to Haiti. They have planted the
+feeling of caste and color prejudice where it never before
+existed.</p>
+
+<p>And such are the "accomplishments" of the United States
+in Haiti. The Occupation has not only failed to achieve
+anything worth while, but has made it impossible to do so
+because of the distrust and bitterness that it has engendered
+in the Haitian people. Through the present instrumentalities
+no matter how earnestly the United States may desire
+to be fair to Haiti and make intervention a success, it will
+not succeed. An entirely new deal is necessary. This Government
+forced the Haitian leaders to accept the promise of
+American aid and American supervision. With that American
+aid the Haitian Government defaulted its external and
+internal debt, an obligation, which under self-government<span class="pagenum">[19]</span>
+the Haitians had scrupulously observed. And American
+supervision turned out to be a military tyranny supporting
+a program of economic exploitation. The United States had
+an opportunity to gain the confidence of the Haitian people.
+That opportunity has been destroyed. When American
+troops first landed, although the Haitian people were outraged,
+there was a feeling nevertheless which might well
+have developed into cooperation. There were those who had
+hopes that the United States, guided by its traditional policy
+of nearly a century and a half, pursuing its fine stand in
+Cuba, under McKinley, Roosevelt, and Taft, would extend
+aid that would be mutually beneficial to both countries.
+Those Haitians who indulged this hope are disappointed and
+bitter. Those members of the Haitian Assembly who, while
+acting under coercion were nevertheless hopeful of
+American promises, incurred unpopularity by voting for the
+Convention, are today bitterly disappointed and utterly disillusioned.</p>
+
+<p>If the United States should leave Haiti today, it would
+leave more than a thousand widows and orphans of its own
+making, more banditry than has existed for a century,
+resentment, hatred and despair in the heart of a whole
+people, to say nothing of the irreparable injury to its own
+tradition as the defender of the rights of man.</p>
+
+<p><i>From The Nation of September 4, 1920.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>III. GOVERNMENT OF, BY, AND FOR THE<br />
+NATIONAL CITY BANK</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">F</span>ORMER articles of this series described the Military
+Occupation of Haiti and the crowd of civilian place
+holders as among the forces at work in Haiti to maintain the
+present status in that country. But more powerful though
+less obvious, and more sinister, because of its deep and varied
+radications, is the force exercised by the National City Bank
+of New York. It seeks more than the mere maintenance of
+the present status in Haiti; it is constantly working to bring
+about a condition more suitable and profitable to itself. Behind
+the Occupation, working conjointly with the Department
+of State, stands this great banking institution of New
+York and elsewhere. The financial potentates allied with it
+are the ones who will profit by the control of Haiti. The<span class="pagenum">[20]</span>
+United States Marine Corps and the various office-holding
+"deserving Democrats," who help maintain the status quo
+there, are in reality working for great financial interests in
+this country, although Uncle Sam and Haiti pay their
+salaries.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Roger L. Farnham, vice-president of the National City
+Bank, was effectively instrumental in bringing about
+American intervention in Haiti. With the administration at Washington,
+the word of Mr. Farnham supersedes that of anybody
+else on the island. While Mr. Bailly-Blanchard, with
+the title of minister, is its representative in name, Mr. Farnham
+is its representative in fact. His goings and comings
+are aboard vessels of the United States Navy. His bank, the
+National City, has been in charge of the Banque Nationale
+d'Haiti throughout the Occupation.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Only a few weeks ago
+he was appointed receiver of the National Railroad of Haiti,
+controlling practically the entire railway system in the island
+with valuable territorial concessions in all parts.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The
+$5,000,000 sugar plant at Port-au-Prince, it is commonly reported,
+is about to fall into his hands.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The National City Bank originally (about 1911) purchased 2,000 shares
+of the stock of the Banque Nationale d'Haiti. After the Occupation it purchased
+6,000 additional shares in the hands of three New York banking firms.
+Since then it has been negotiating for the complete control of the stock, the
+balance of which is held in France. The contract for this transfer of the
+Bank and the granting of a new charter under the laws of Haiti were agreed
+upon and signed at Washington last February. But the delay in completing
+these arrangements is caused by the impasse between the State Department
+and the National City Bank, on the one hand, and the Haitian Government
+on the other, due to the fact that the State Department and the National
+City Bank insisted upon including in the contract a clause prohibiting the
+importation and exportation of foreign money into Haiti subject only to the
+control of the financial adviser. To this new power the Haitian Government
+refuses to consent.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Originally, Mr. James P. McDonald secured from the Haitian Government
+the concession to build the railroads under the charter of the National
+Railways of Haiti. He arranged with W. R. Grace &amp; Company to finance
+the concession. Grace and Company formed a syndicate under the aegis of
+the National City Bank which issued $2,500,000 bonds, sold in France. These
+bonds were guaranteed by the Haitian Government at an interest of 6 per
+cent on $32,500 for each mile. A short while after the floating of these bonds,
+Mr. Farnham became President of the company. The syndicate advanced another
+$2,000,000 for the completion of the railroad in accordance with the
+concession granted by the Haitian Government. This money was used, but
+the work was not completed in accordance with the contract made by the
+Haitian Government in the concession. The Haitian Government then refused
+any longer to pay the interest on the mileage. These happenings were
+prior to 1915.</p></div>
+
+<p>Now, of all the various responsibilities, expressed, implied,
+or assumed by the United States in Haiti, it would
+naturally be supposed that the financial obligation would be
+foremost. Indeed, the sister republic of Santo Domingo was
+taken over by the United States Navy for no other reason
+than failure to pay its internal debt. But Haiti for over one<span class="pagenum">[21]</span>
+hundred years scrupulously paid its external and internal
+debt&mdash;a fact worth remembering when one hears of "anarchy
+and disorder" in that land&mdash;until five years ago when under
+the financial guardianship of the United States interest on
+both the internal and, with one exception, external debt was
+defaulted; and this in spite of the fact that specified revenues
+were pledged for the payment of this interest. Apart
+from the distinct injury to the honor and reputation of the
+country, the hardship on individuals has been great. For
+while the foreign debt is held particularly in France which,
+being under great financial obligations to the United States
+since the beginning of the war, has not been able to protest
+effectively, the interior debt is held almost entirely by
+Haitian citizens. Haitian Government bonds have long been
+the recognized substantial investment for the well-to-do and
+middle class people, considered as are in this country, United
+States, state, and municipal bonds. Non-payment on these
+securities has placed many families in absolute want.</p>
+
+<p>What has happened to these bonds? They are being sold
+for a song, for the little cash they will bring. Individuals
+closely connected with the National Bank of Haiti are ready
+purchasers. When the new Haitian loan is floated it will,
+of course, contain ample provisions for redeeming these old
+bonds at par. The profits will be more than handsome. Not
+that the National Bank has not already made hay in the
+sunshine of American Occupation. From the beginning it
+has been sole depositary of all revenues collected in the name
+of the Haitian Government by the American Occupation, receiving
+in addition to the interest rate a commission on all
+funds deposited. The bank is the sole agent in the transmission
+of these funds. It has also the exclusive note-issuing
+privilege in the republic. At the same time complaint is
+widespread among the Haitian business men that the Bank
+no longer as of old accommodates them with credit and that
+its interests are now entirely in developments of its own.</p>
+
+<p>Now, one of the promises that was made to the Haitian
+Government, partly to allay its doubts and fears as to the
+purpose and character of the American intervention, was
+that the United States would put the country's finances on a
+solid and substantial basis. A loan for $30,000,000 or more
+was one of the features of this promised assistance. Pursuant,
+supposedly, to this plan, a Financial Adviser for<span class="pagenum">[22]</span>
+Haiti was appointed in the person of Mr. John Avery McIlhenny.
+Who is Mr. McIlhenny? That he has the cordial
+backing and direction of so able a financier as Mr. Farnham
+is comforting when one reviews the past record and experience
+in finance of Haiti's Financial Adviser as given by him
+in "Who's Who in America," for 1918-1919. He was born in
+Avery Island, Iberia Parish, La.; went to Tulane University
+for one year; was a private in the Louisiana State militia
+for five years; trooper in the U. S. Cavalry in 1898; promoted
+to second lieutenancy for gallantry in action at San
+Juan; has been member of the Louisiana House of Representatives
+and Senate; was a member of the U. S. Civil
+Service Commission in 1906 and president of the same in
+1913; Democrat. It is under his Financial Advisership that
+the Haitian interest has been continued in default with the
+one exception above noted, when several months ago $3,000,000
+was converted into francs to meet the accumulated interest
+payments on the foreign debt. Dissatisfaction on the
+part of the Haitians developed over the lack of financial perspicacity
+in this transaction of Mr. McIlhenny because the
+sum was converted into francs at the rate of nine to a dollar
+while shortly after the rate of exchange on French francs
+dropped to fourteen to a dollar. Indeed, Mr. McIlhenny's
+unfitness by training and experience for the delicate and important
+position which he is filling was one of the most generally
+admitted facts which I gathered in Haiti.</p>
+
+<p>At the present writing, however, Mr. McIlhenny has become
+a conspicuous figure in the history of the Occupation
+of Haiti as the instrument by which the National City Bank
+is striving to complete the riveting, double-locking and bolting
+of its financial control of the island. For although it
+would appear that the absolute military domination under
+which Haiti is held would enable the financial powers to
+accomplish almost anything they desire, they are wise
+enough to realize that a day of reckoning, such as, for instance,
+a change in the Administration in the United States,
+may be coming. So they are eager and anxious to have
+everything they want signed, sealed, and delivered. Anything,
+of course, that the Haitians have fully "consented to"
+no one else can reasonably object to.</p>
+
+<p>A little recent history: in February of the present year,
+the ministers of the different departments, in order to con<span class="pagenum">[23]</span>form
+to the letter of the law (Article 116 of the Constitution
+of Haiti, which was saddled upon her in 1918 by the Occupation<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+and Article 2 of the Haitian-American Convention<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>)
+began work on the preparation of the accounts for
+1918-1919 and the budget for 1920-1921. On March 22 a
+draft of the budget was sent to Mr. A. J. Maumus, Acting
+Financial Adviser, in the absence of Mr. McIlhenny who had
+at that time been in the United States for seven months.
+Mr. Maumus replied on March 29, suggesting postponement
+of all discussion of the budget until Mr. McIlhenny's return.
+Nevertheless, the Legislative body, in pursuance of the law,
+opened on its constitutional date, Monday, April 5. Despite
+the great urgency of the matter in hand, the Haitian administration
+was obliged to mark time until June 1, when
+Mr. McIlhenny returned to Haiti. Several conferences with
+the various ministers were then undertaken. On June 12, at
+one of these conferences, there arrived in the place of the
+Financial Adviser a note stating that he would be obliged to
+stop all study of the budget "until the time when certain
+affairs of considerable importance to the well-being of the
+country shall be finally settled according to recommendations
+made by me to the Haitian Government." As he did not
+give in his note the slightest idea what these important
+affairs were, the Haitian Secretary wrote asking for information,
+at the same time calling attention to the already
+great and embarrassing delay, and reminding Mr. McIlhenny
+that the preparation of the accounts and budget was one of
+his legal duties as an official attached to the Haitian Government,
+of which he could not divest himself.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> "The general accounts and the budgets prescribed by the preceding article
+must be submitted to the Legislative Body by the Secretary of Finance not
+later than eight days after the opening of the Legislative Session."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> "The President of Haiti shall appoint, on the nomination of the President
+of the United States, a Financial Adviser who shall be attached to the
+Ministry of Finance, to whom the Secretary (of Finance) shall lend effective
+aid in the prosecution of his work. The Financial Adviser shall work out a
+system of public accounting, shall aid in increasing the revenues and in their
+adjustment to expenditures...."</p></div>
+
+<p>On July 19 Mr. McIlhenny supplied his previous omission
+in a memorandum which he transmitted to the Haitian Department
+of Finance, in which he said: "I had instructions
+from the Department of State of the United States just before
+my departure for Haiti, in a part of a letter of May 20,
+to declare to the Haitian Government that it was necessary
+to give its immediate and formal approval to:<span class="pagenum">[24]</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>1. A modification of the Bank Contract agreed upon by the
+Department of State and the National City Bank of New York.</p>
+
+<p>2. Transfer of the National Bank of the Republic of Haiti
+to a new bank registered under the laws of Haiti, to be known
+as the National Bank of the Republic of Haiti.</p>
+
+<p>3. The execution of Article 15 of the Contract of Withdrawal
+prohibiting the importation and exportation of non-Haitian
+money except that which might be necessary for the needs of
+commerce in the opinion of the Financial Adviser."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Now, what is the meaning and significance of these proposals?
+The full details have not been given out, but it is
+known that they are part of a new monetary law for Haiti
+involving the complete transfer of the Banque Nationale
+d'Haiti to the National City Bank of New York. The document
+embodying the agreements, with the exception of the
+clause prohibiting the importation of foreign money, was
+signed at Washington, February 6, 1920, by Mr. McIlhenny,
+the Haitian Minister at Washington and the Haitian Secretary
+of Finance. <i>The Haitian Government has officially declared
+that the clause prohibiting the importation and exportation
+of foreign money, except as it may be deemed
+necessary in the opinion of the Financial Adviser, was added
+to the original agreement by some unknown party.</i> It is for
+the purpose of compelling the Haitian Government to approve
+the agreements, including the "prohibition clause,"
+that pressure is now being applied. Efforts on the part of
+business interests in Haiti to learn the character and scope
+of what was done at Washington have been thwarted by
+close secrecy. However, sufficient of its import has become
+known to understand the reasons for the unqualified and
+definite refusal of President Dartiguenave and the Government
+to give their approval. Those reasons are that the
+agreements would give to the National Bank of Haiti, and
+thereby to the National City Bank of New York, exclusive
+monopoly upon the right of importing and exporting American
+and other foreign money to and from Haiti, a monopoly
+which would carry unprecedented and extraordinarily lucrative
+privileges.</p>
+
+<p>The proposal involved in this agreement has called forth
+a vigorous protest on the part of every important banking
+and business concern in Haiti with the exception, of course,
+of the National Bank of Haiti. This protest was transmitted
+to the Haitian Minister of Finance on July 30 past.<span class="pagenum">[25]</span>
+The protest is signed not only by Haitians and Europeans
+doing business in that country but also by the leading
+American business concerns, among which are The American
+Foreign Banking Corporation, The Haitian-American
+Sugar Company, The Panama Railroad Steamship Line,
+The Clyde Steamship Line, and The West Indies Trading
+Company. Among the foreign signers are the Royal Bank of
+Canada, Le Comptoir Français, Le Comptoir Commercial,
+and besides a number of business firms.</p>
+
+<p>We have now in Haiti a triangular situation with the
+National City Bank and our Department of State in two
+corners and the Haitian government in the third. Pressure
+is being brought on the Haitian government to compel
+it to grant a monopoly which on its face appears designed
+to give the National City Bank a strangle hold on the
+financial life of that country. With the Haitian government
+refusing to yield, we have the Financial Adviser who
+is, according to the Haitian-American Convention, a Haitian
+official charged with certain duties (in this case the
+approval of the budget and accounts), refusing to carry out
+those duties until the government yields to the pressure
+which is being brought.</p>
+
+<p>Haiti is now experiencing the "third degree." Ever since
+the Bank Contract was drawn and signed at Washington
+increasing pressure has been applied to make the Haitian
+government accept the clause prohibiting the importation
+of foreign money. Mr. McIlhenny is now holding up the
+salaries of the President, ministers of departments, members
+of the Council of State, and the official interpreter.
+[These salaries have not been paid since July 1.] And
+there the matter now stands.</p>
+
+<p>Several things may happen. The Administration, finding
+present methods insufficient, may decide to act as in Santo
+Domingo, to abolish the President, cabinet, and all civil
+government&mdash;as they have already abolished the Haitian
+Assembly&mdash;and put into effect, by purely military force,
+what, in the face of the unflinching Haitian refusal to sign
+away their birthright, the combined military, civil, and
+financial pressure has been unable to accomplish. Or, with
+an election and a probable change of Administration in
+this country pending, with a Congressional investigation
+foreshadowed, it may be decided that matters are "too diffi<span class="pagenum">[26]</span>cult"
+and the National City Bank may find that it can be
+more profitably engaged elsewhere. Indications of such a
+course are not lacking. From the point of view of the
+National City Bank, of course, the institution has not only
+done nothing which is not wholly legitimate, proper, and
+according to the canons of big business throughout the
+world, but has actually performed constructive and generous
+service to a backward and uncivilized people in attempting
+to promote their railways, to develop their country,
+and to shape soundly their finance. That Mr. Farnham and
+those associated with him hold these views sincerely, there
+is no doubt. But that the Haitians, after over one hundred
+years of self-government and liberty, contemplating the
+slaughter of three thousand of their sons, the loss of their
+political and economic freedom, without compensating advantages
+which they can appreciate, feel very differently,
+is equally true.</p>
+
+<p><i>From The Nation of September 11, 1920.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>IV. THE HAITIAN PEOPLE</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE first sight of Port-au-Prince is perhaps most startling
+to the experienced Latin-American traveler.
+Caribbean cities are of the Spanish-American type&mdash;buildings
+square and squat, built generally around a court, with
+residences and business houses scarcely interdistinguishable.
+Port-au-Prince is rather a city of the French or Italian
+Riviera. Across the bay of deepest blue the purple mountains
+of Gonave loom against the Western sky, rivaling the
+bay's azure depths. Back of the business section, spreading
+around the bay's great sweep and well into the plain
+beyond, rise the green hills with their white residences.
+The residential section spreads over the slopes and into the
+mountain tiers. High up are the homes of the well-to-do,
+beautiful villas set in green gardens relieved by the flaming
+crimson of the poinsettia. Despite the imposing mountains
+a man-made edifice dominates the scene. From the center of
+the city the great Gothic cathedral lifts its spires above the
+tranquil city. Well-paved and clean, the city prolongs the
+thrill of its first unfolding. Cosmopolitan yet quaint, with
+an old-world atmosphere yet a charm of its own, one gets
+throughout the feeling of continental European life. In<span class="pagenum">[27]</span>
+the hotels and cafes the affairs of the world are heard discussed
+in several languages. The cuisine and service are
+not only excellent but inexpensive. At the Café Dereix,
+cool and scrupulously clean, dinner from <i>hors d'&oelig;uvres</i> to
+<i>glacés</i>, with wine, of course, recalling the famous antebellum
+hostelries of New York and Paris, may be had for
+six gourdes [$1.25].</p>
+
+<p>A drive of two hours around Port-au-Prince, through the
+newer section of brick and concrete buildings, past the
+cathedral erected from 1903 to 1912, along the Champ de
+Mars where the new presidential palace stands, up into the
+Peu de Choses section where the hundreds of beautiful villas
+and grounds of the well-to-do are situated, permanently
+dispels any lingering question that the Haitians have been
+retrograding during the 116 years of their independence.</p>
+
+<p>In the lower city, along the water's edge, around the
+market and in the Rue Républicaine, is the "local color."
+The long rows of wooden shanties, the curious little booths
+around the market, filled with jabbering venders and with
+scantily clad children, magnificent in body, running in and
+out, are no less picturesque and no more primitive, no
+humbler, yet cleaner, than similar quarters in Naples, in
+Lisbon, in Marseilles, and more justifiable than the great
+slums of civilization's centers&mdash;London and New York,
+which are totally without aesthetic redemption. But it is
+only the modernists in history who are willing to look at
+the masses as factors in the life and development of the
+country, and in its history. For Haitian history, like history
+the world over, has for the last century been that of
+cultured and educated groups. To know Haitian life one
+must have the privilege of being received as a guest in the
+houses of these latter, and they live in beautiful houses.
+The majority have been educated in France; they are cultured,
+brilliant conversationally, and thoroughly enjoy their
+social life. The women dress well. Many are beautiful
+and all vivacious and chic. Cultivated people from any
+part of the world would feel at home in the best Haitian
+society. If our guest were to enter to the Cercle Bellevue,
+the leading club of Port-au-Prince, he would find the
+courteous, friendly atmosphere of a men's club; he would
+hear varying shades of opinion on public questions, and
+could scarcely fail to be impressed by the thorough knowl<span class="pagenum">[28]</span>edge
+of world affairs possessed by the intelligent Haitian.
+Nor would his encounters be only with people who have
+culture and savoir vivre; he would meet the Haitian intellectuals&mdash;poets,
+essayists, novelists, historians, critics. Take
+for example such a writer as Fernand Hibbert. An English
+authority says of him, "His essays are worthy of the pen of
+Anatole France or Pierre Loti." And there is Georges
+Sylvaine, poet and essayist, conférencier at the Sorbonne,
+where his address was received with acclaim, author of
+books crowned by the French Academy, and an Officer of
+the Légion d'Honneur. Hibbert and Sylvaine are only two
+among a dozen or more contemporary Haitian men of letters
+whose work may be measured by world standards. Two
+names that stand out preeminently in Haitian literature are
+Oswald Durand, the national poet, who died a few years ago,
+and Damocles Vieux. These people, educated, cultured, and
+intellectual, are not accidental and sporadic offshoots of the
+Haitian people; they <i>are</i> the Haitian people and they are a
+demonstration of its inherent potentialities.</p>
+
+<p>However, Port-au-Prince is not all of Haiti. Other cities
+are smaller replicas, and fully as interesting are the people
+of the country districts. Perhaps the deepest impression
+on the observant visitor is made by the country women.
+Magnificent as they file along the country roads by scores
+and by hundreds on their way to the town markets, with
+white or colored turbaned heads, gold-looped-ringed ears,
+they stride along straight and lithe, almost haughtily, carrying
+themselves like so many Queens of Sheba. The Haitian
+country people are kind-hearted, hospitable, and polite, seldom
+stupid but rather, quick-witted and imaginative. Fond
+of music, with a profound sense of beauty and harmony,
+they live simply but wholesomely. Their cabins rarely consist
+of only one room, the humblest having two or three,
+with a little shed front and back, a front and rear entrance,
+and plenty of windows. An aesthetic touch is never lacking&mdash;a
+flowering hedge or an arbor with trained vines bearing
+gorgeous colored blossoms. There is no comparison between
+the neat plastered-wall, thatched-roof cabin of the Haitian
+peasant and the traditional log hut of the South or the
+shanty of the more wretched American suburbs. The most
+notable feature about the Haitian cabin is its invariable
+cleanliness. At daylight the country people are up and<span class="pagenum">[29]</span>
+about, the women begin their sweeping till the earthen or
+pebble-paved floor of the cabin is clean as can be. Then the
+yards around the cabin are vigorously attacked. In fact,
+nowhere in the country districts of Haiti does one find the
+filth and squalor which may be seen in any backwoods town
+in our own South. Cleanliness is a habit and a dirty
+Haitian is a rare exception. The garments even of the men
+who work on the wharves, mended and patched until little
+of the original cloth is visible, give evidence of periodical
+washing. The writer recalls a remark made by Mr. E. P.
+Pawley, an American, who conducts one of the largest business
+enterprises in Haiti. He said that the Haitians were
+an exceptionally clean people, that statistics showed that
+Haiti imported more soap per capita than any country in
+the world, and added, "They use it, too." Three of the
+largest soap manufactories in the United States maintain
+headquarters at Port-au-Prince.</p>
+
+<p>The masses of the Haitian people are splendid material
+for the building of a nation. They are not lazy; on the
+contrary, they are industrious and thrifty. Some observers
+mistakenly confound primitive methods with indolence.
+Anyone who travels Haitian roads is struck by the hundreds
+and even thousands of women, boys, and girls filing along
+mile after mile with their farm and garden produce on
+their heads or loaded on the backs of animals. With modern
+facilities, they could market their produce much more efficiently
+and with far less effort. But lacking them they are
+willing to walk and carry. For a woman to walk five to ten
+miles with a great load of produce on her head which may
+barely realize her a dollar is doubtless primitive, and a
+wasteful expenditure of energy, but it is not a sign of
+laziness. Haiti's great handicap has been not that her
+masses are degraded or lazy or immoral. It is that they are
+ignorant, due not so much to mental limitations as to enforced
+illiteracy. There is a specific reason for this. Somehow
+the French language, in the French-American colonial
+settlements containing a Negro population, divided itself
+into two branches, French and Creole. This is true of
+Louisiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and also of Haiti.
+Creole is an Africanized French and must not be thought of
+as a mere dialect. The French-speaking person cannot understand
+Creole, excepting a few words, unless he learns it.<span class="pagenum">[30]</span>
+Creole is a distinct tongue, a graphic and very expressive
+language. Many of its constructions follow closely the
+African idioms. For example, in forming the superlative of
+greatness, one says in Creole, "He is great among great
+men," and a merchant woman, following the native idiom,
+will say, "You do not wish anything beautiful if you
+do not buy this." The upper Haitian class, approximately
+500,000, speak and know French, while the masses, probably
+more than 2,000,000 speak only Creole. Haitian Creole
+is grammatically constructed, but has not to any general
+extent been reduced to writing. Therefore, these masses
+have no means of receiving or communicating thoughts
+through the written word. They have no books to read.
+They cannot read the newspapers. The children of the
+masses study French for a few years in school, but it never
+becomes their every-day language. In order to abolish
+Haitian illiteracy, Creole must be made a printed as well as
+a spoken language. The failure to undertake this problem
+is the worst indictment against the Haitian Government.</p>
+
+<p>This matter of language proves a handicap to Haiti in
+another manner. It isolates her from her sister republics.
+All of the Latin-American republics except Brazil speak
+Spanish and enjoy an intercourse with the outside world
+denied Haiti. Dramatic and musical companies from Spain,
+from Mexico and from the Argentine annually tour all of
+the Spanish-speaking republics. Haiti is deprived of all
+such instruction and entertainment from the outside world
+because it is not profitable for French companies to visit
+the three or four French-speaking islands in the Western
+Hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>Much stress has been laid on the bloody history of Haiti
+and its numerous revolutions. Haitian history has been all
+too bloody, but so has that of every other country, and the
+bloodiness of the Haitian revolutions has of late been unduly
+magnified. A writer might visit our own country and clip
+from our daily press accounts of murders, robberies on
+the principal streets of our larger cities, strike violence,
+race riots, lynchings, and burnings at the stake of human
+beings, and write a book to prove that life is absolutely
+unsafe in the United States. The seriousness of the frequent
+Latin-American revolutions has been greatly over-emphasized.
+The writer has been in the midst of three of<span class="pagenum">[31]</span>
+these revolutions and must confess that the treatment given
+them on our comic opera stage is very little farther removed
+from the truth than the treatment which is given in the
+daily newspapers. Not nearly so bloody as reported, their
+interference with people not in politics is almost negligible.
+Nor should it be forgotten that in almost every instance the
+revolution is due to the plotting of foreigners backed up by
+their Governments. No less an authority than Mr. John H.
+Allen, vice-president of the National City Bank of New
+York, writing on Haiti in the May number of <i>The Americas</i>,
+the National City Bank organ, who says, "It is no secret
+that the revolutions were financed by foreigners and were
+profitable speculations."</p>
+
+<p>In this matter of change of government by revolution,
+Haiti must not be compared with the United States or with
+England; it must be compared with other Latin American
+republics. When it is compared with our next door neighbor,
+Mexico, it will be found that the Government of Haiti
+has been more stable and that the country has experienced
+less bloodshed and anarchy. And it must never be forgotten
+that throughout not an American or other foreigner has
+been killed, injured or, as far as can be ascertained, even
+molested. In Haiti's 116 years of independence, there have
+been twenty-five presidents and twenty-five different administrations.
+In Mexico, during its 99 years of independence,
+there have been forty-seven rulers and eighty-seven
+administrations. "Graft" has been plentiful, shocking at
+times, but who in America, where the Tammany machines
+and the municipal rings are notorious, will dare to point the
+finger of scorn at Haiti in this connection.</p>
+
+<p>And this is the people whose "inferiority," whose "retrogression,"
+whose "savagery," is advanced as a justification
+for intervention&mdash;for the ruthless slaughter of three thousand
+of its practically defenseless sons, with the death of a
+score of our own boys, for the utterly selfish exploitation
+of the country by American big finance, for the destruction
+of America's most precious heritage&mdash;her traditional fair
+play, her sense of justice, her aid to the oppressed. "Inferiority"
+always was the excuse of ruthless imperialism
+until the Germans invaded Belgium, when it became "military
+necessity." In the case of Haiti there is not the slightest
+vestige of any of the traditional justifications, unwar<span class="pagenum">[32]</span>ranted
+as these generally are, and no amount of misrepresentation
+in an era when propaganda and censorship have
+had their heyday, no amount of slander, even in a country
+deeply prejudiced where color is involved, will longer serve
+to obscure to the conscience of America the eternal shame
+of its last five years in Haiti. <i>Fiat justitia, ruat coelum!</i></p>
+
+<p><i>From The Nation of September 25, 1920.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>Documents</h1>
+
+<div class="center"><i>The following are from The Nation of August 28, 1920</i></div>
+
+<h2>The Proposed Convention with Haiti</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE Fuller Convention, submitted to the Haitian Minister
+of Foreign Affairs on May 22, 1915, by Mr. Paul
+Fuller, Jr., Envoy Extraordinary of the United States to
+Haiti, read as follows, the preliminary and concluding paragraphs
+being omitted:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>1. The Government of the United States of America will protect
+the Republic of Haiti from outside attack and from the aggression
+of any foreign Power, and to that end will employ such
+forces of the army and navy of the United States as may be
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Government of the United States of America will aid
+the Government of Haiti to suppress insurrection from within
+and will give effective support by the employment of the armed
+forces of the United States army and navy to the extent needed.</p>
+
+<p>3. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants that no
+rights, privileges, or facilities of any description whatsoever
+will be granted, sold, leased, or otherwise accorded directly or
+indirectly by the Government of Haiti concerning the occupation
+or use of the Mole Saint-Nicolas to any foreign government or
+to a national or the nationals of any other foreign government.</p>
+
+<p>4. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants that
+within six months from the signing of this convention, the Government
+will enter into an arbitration agreement for the settlement
+of such claims as American citizens or other foreigners
+may have against the Government of Haiti, such arbitration
+agreement to provide for the equal treatment of all foreigners
+to the end that the people of Haiti may have the benefit of competition
+between the nationals of all countries.</p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum">[33]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>The Haitian Counter-Project</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE counter-project of the Haitian Government, of
+June 4, 1915, with such of the modifications suggested
+by Mr. Fuller as the Haitian Government was willing to
+accept, read as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>I. The Government of the United States of America will lend
+its assistance to the Republic of Haiti for the preservation of its
+independence. For that purpose it agrees to intervene to prevent
+the intrusion of any Power and to repulse any act of
+aggression against the Republic of Haiti. To that end it will
+employ such forces of the army and navy of the United States
+as may be necessary.</p>
+
+<p>II. The Government of the United States will facilitate the
+entry into Haiti of sufficient capital to assure the full economic
+development of that country, and to improve, within the immediate
+future, its financial situation, especially to bring about
+the unification of its debt in such fashion as to reduce the customs
+guaranties now required, and to lead to a fundamental
+money reform.</p>
+
+<p>In order to give such capital all desirable guaranties the
+Government of Haiti agrees to employ in the customs service
+only officials whose ability and character are well known, and
+to replace those who in practice are found not to fill these conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The Government of Haiti will also assure the protection of
+capital and in general of all foreign interests by the organization
+of a mounted rural constabulary trained in the most modern
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime if it be necessary the Government of the
+United States, after consultation with the Government of Haiti,
+will give its aid in the repression of serious disorders or troubles
+which might compromise these foreign interests.</p>
+
+<p>The American forces which have in the given circumstances
+cooperated with the Haitian troops in the restoration of order,
+should be retired from Haitian territory at the first request of
+the constitutional authority.</p>
+
+<p>III. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants that
+no rights, privileges, or facilities of any description whatsoever
+will be granted, sold, leased, or otherwise accorded directly or
+indirectly by the Government of Haiti concerning the occupation
+or use of the Mole Saint-Nicolas to any foreign government or
+to a national or the nationals of any other foreign government.</p>
+
+<p>IV. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants
+within six months of the signing of this convention to sign a
+convention of arbitration with the Powers concerned for the<span class="pagenum">[34]</span>
+settlement of the diplomatic claims pending, which arbitration
+convention will provide for the equal treatment of all claimants,
+no special privileges being granted to any of them.</p>
+
+<p>V. In case of difficulties regarding the interpretation of the
+clauses of the present convention, the high contracting parties
+agree to submit the difference to the Permanent Court of Arbitration
+at The Hague.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. Fuller had suggested a further modification which
+the Haitian Government refused. It changed the final paragraph
+of Article II to read: "The American forces which
+have in the given circumstance cooperated with the Haitian
+troops, shall, when order has been reestablished, be retired,"
+etc. His other suggestions were accepted with unimportant
+verbal changes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>The Haitian-United States Convention</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE convention between the United States and Haiti
+was ratified on September 16, 1915, after the occupation
+of the country by American troops. In its final form
+it is in interesting contrast with the suggested agreements
+printed above.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The United States and the Republic of Haiti, desiring to
+confirm and strengthen the amity existing between them by
+the most cordial cooperation in measures for their common
+advantage, and the Republic of Haiti desiring to remedy the
+present condition of its revenues and finances, to maintain
+the tranquillity of the Republic, to carry out plans for the
+economic development and prosperity of the Republic and its
+people, and the United States being in full sympathy with all
+of these aims and objects and desiring to contribute in all
+proper ways to their accomplishment;</p>
+
+<p>The United States and the Republic of Haiti have resolved
+to conclude a convention with these objects in view, and have
+appointed for that purpose plenipotentiaries:</p>
+
+<p>The President of the Republic of Haiti, Mr. Louis Borno,
+Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Public Instruction,</p>
+
+<p>The President of the United States, Mr. Robert Beale Davis,
+Jr., Chargé d'Affaires of the United States of America;</p>
+
+<p>Who, having exhibited to each other their respective powers,
+which are seen to be full in good and true form, have agreed
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article I.</span> The Government of the United States will, by
+its good offices, aid the Haitian Government in the proper and<span class="pagenum">[35]</span>
+efficient development of its agricultural, mineral, and commercial
+resources and in the establishment of the finances of
+Haiti on a firm and solid basis.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article II.</span> The President of Haiti shall appoint, upon
+nomination by the President of the United States, a General
+Receiver and such aids and employees as may be necessary, who
+shall collect, receive, and apply all customs duties on imports
+and exports accruing at the several customs-houses and ports of
+entry of the Republic of Haiti.</p>
+
+<p>The President of Haiti shall appoint, upon nomination by the
+President of the United States, a Financial Adviser who shall
+be an officer attached to the Ministry of Finance, to give effect
+to whose proposals and labors the Minister will lend efficient
+aid. The Financial Adviser shall devise an adequate system of
+public accounting, aid in increasing the revenues and adjusting
+them to the expenses, inquire into the validity of the debts of
+the Republic, enlighten both governments with reference to all
+eventual debts, recommend improved methods of collecting and
+applying the revenues, and make such other recommendations
+to the Minister of Finance as may be deemed necessary for the
+welfare and prosperity of Haiti.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article III.</span> The Government of the Republic of Haiti will
+provide by law or appropriate decrees for the payment of all
+customs duties to the General Receiver, and will extend to the
+Receivership, and to the Financial Adviser, all needful aid and
+full protection in the execution of the powers conferred and
+duties imposed herein; and the United States on its part will
+extend like aid and protection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article IV.</span> Upon the appointment of the Financial Adviser,
+the Government of the Republic of Haiti in cooperation
+with the Financial Adviser, shall collate, classify, arrange, and
+make full statement of all the debts of the Republic, the
+amounts, character, maturity, and condition thereof, and the
+interest accruing and the sinking fund requisite to their final
+discharge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article V.</span> All sums collected and received by the General
+Receiver shall be applied, first to the payment of the salaries
+and allowances of the General Receiver, his assistants, and employees
+and expenses of the Receivership, including the salary
+and expenses of the Financial Adviser, which salaries will be
+determined by the previous agreement; second, to the interest
+and sinking fund of the public debt of the Republic of Haiti;
+and third, to the maintenance of the constabulary referred to
+in Article X, and then the remainder to the Haitian Government
+for the purposes of current expenses.</p>
+
+<p>In making these applications the General Receiver will proceed
+to pay salaries and allowances monthly and expenses as<span class="pagenum">[36]</span>
+they arise, and on the first of each calendar month will set
+aside in a separate fund the quantum of the collections and
+receipts of the previous month.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article VI.</span> The expenses of the Receivership, including
+salaries and allowances of the General Receiver, his assistants,
+and employees, and the salary and expenses of the Financial
+Adviser, shall not exceed 5 per cent of the collections and receipts
+from customs duties, unless by agreement by the two
+governments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article VII.</span> The General Receiver shall make monthly
+reports of all collections, receipts, and disbursements to the
+appropriate officers of the Republic of Haiti and to the Department
+of State of the United States, which reports shall be open
+to inspection and verification at all times by the appropriate
+authorities of each of the said governments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article VIII.</span> The Republic of Haiti shall not increase its
+public debt, except by previous agreement with the President
+of the United States, and shall not contract any debt or assume
+any financial obligation unless the ordinary revenues of the
+Republic available for that purpose, after defraying the expenses
+of the Government, shall be adequate to pay the interest
+and provide a sinking fund for the final discharge of such
+debt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article IX.</span> The Republic of Haiti will not, without the
+assent of the President of the United States, modify the customs
+duties in a manner to reduce the revenues therefrom; and in
+order that the revenues of the Republic may be adequate to
+meet the public debt and the expenses of the Government, to
+preserve tranquillity, and to promote material prosperity, the
+Republic of Haiti will cooperate with the Financial Adviser in
+his recommendations for improvement in the methods of collecting
+and disbursing the revenues and for new sources of needed
+income.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article X.</span> The Haitian Government obligates itself, for
+the preservation of domestic peace, the security of individual
+rights, and the full observance of the provisions of this treaty,
+to create without delay an efficient constabulary, urban and
+rural, composed of native Haitians. This constabulary shall be
+organized and officered by Americans appointed by the President
+of Haiti, upon nomination by the President of the United States.
+The Haitian Government shall clothe these officers with the
+proper and necessary authority and uphold them in the performance
+of their functions. These officers will be replaced by
+Haitians as they, by examination conducted under direction of a
+board to be selected by the senior American officer of this constabulary
+in the presence of a representative of the Haitian
+Government, are found to be qualified to assume such duties.<span class="pagenum">[37]</span>
+The constabulary herein provided for shall, under the direction
+of the Haitian Government, have supervision and control of
+arms and ammunition, military supplies and traffic therein,
+throughout the country. The high contracting parties agree
+that the stipulations in this article are necessary to prevent
+factional strife and disturbances.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article XI.</span> The Government of Haiti agrees not to surrender
+any of the territory of the Republic of Haiti by sale,
+lease, or otherwise, or jurisdiction over such territory, to any
+foreign government or Power, nor to enter into any treaty or
+contract with any foreign Power or Powers that will impair or
+tend to impair the independence of Haiti.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article XII.</span> The Haitian Government agrees to execute
+with the United States a protocol for the settlement, by arbitration
+or otherwise, of all pending pecuniary claims of foreign
+corporations, companies, citizens, or subjects against Haiti.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article XIII.</span> The Republic of Haiti, being desirous to
+further the development of its natural resources, agrees to undertake
+and execute such measures as, in the opinion of the
+high contracting parties, may be necessary for the sanitation
+and public improvement of the Republic under the supervision
+and direction of an engineer or engineers, to be appointed by
+the President of Haiti upon nomination of the President of the
+United States, and authorized for that purpose by the Government
+of Haiti.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article XIV.</span> The high contracting parties shall have
+authority to take such steps as may be necessary to insure the
+complete attainment of any of the objects comprehended in this
+treaty; and should the necessity occur, the United States will
+lend an efficient aid for the preservation of Haitian independence
+and the maintenance of a government adequate for the
+protection of life, property, and individual liberty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article XV.</span> The present treaty shall be approved and
+ratified by the high contracting parties in conformity with their
+respective laws, and the ratifications thereof shall be exchanged
+in the City of Washington as soon as may be possible.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article XVI.</span> The present treaty shall remain in full force
+and virtue for the term of ten years, to be counted from the day
+of exchange of ratifications, and further for another term of
+ten years if, for specific reasons presented by either of the high
+contracting parties, the purpose of this treaty has not been fully
+accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>In faith whereof, the respective plenipotentiaries have signed
+the present convention in duplicate, in the English and French
+languages, and have thereunto affixed their seals.</p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum">[38]</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Done at Port-au-Prince (Haiti), the 16th day of September
+in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and fifteen.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Robert Beale Davis, Jr.</span>,
+Chargé d'Affaires of the United States<br /><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Louis Borno</span>,
+Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
+and Public Instruction
+</div></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>The New Constitution of Haiti</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE new Constitution of the Republic of Haiti, ratified
+under the American Occupation, altered the former
+Constitution in regard to the important subject of the right
+of foreigners to hold land. Article 6 of the old Constitution
+reads:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>No one, unless he is a Haitian, may be a holder of land in
+Haiti, regardless of what his title may be, nor acquire any real
+estate.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Article 5 of the Constitution of 1918 makes the following
+provision:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The right to hold property is given to foreigners residing in
+Haiti, and to societies formed by foreigners, for dwelling purposes
+and for agricultural, commercial, industrial, or educational
+enterprises. This right shall be discontinued five years
+after the foreigner shall have ceased to reside in the country, or
+when the activities of these companies shall have ceased.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>The Haitian President's Proclamation</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">I</span>N the <i>Moniteur</i>, official organ of the Republic of Haiti,
+for September 4, 1915, in a column headed "Liberty,
+Equality, Fraternity," the president of Haiti published a
+proclamation on the situation arising from the occupation
+by American troops of the customs-house at Port-au-Prince.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Haitians! At the very moment when the Government, engaged
+in negotiations to settle the question of the presence of
+American military forces on Haitian territory, was looking forward
+to a prompt solution in accordance with law and justice,
+it finds itself faced with the simple seizure of possession of the
+customs administration of the capital.</p>
+
+<p>Previously the customs-houses of several other cities of the
+republic had been occupied in like fashion, and whenever the
+news of such occupation reached the National Palace or the
+Department of Finances, it was followed by an energetic pro<span class="pagenum">[39]</span>test,
+demanding that the diplomatic representative of the American
+Government residing at Port-au-Prince restore the customs-houses
+and put an end to acts so contrary to the relations
+at present existing between the Government of Haiti and the
+Government of the United States of North America.</p>
+
+<p>Haitians! In bringing these facts officially to the attention
+of the country, I owe it to myself to declare further, in the most
+formal fashion, to you and to the entire civilized world, that the
+order to carry out these acts so destructive of the interests,
+rights, and sovereignty of the Haitian people is not due to anything
+which can be cited against the patriotism, devotion, spirit
+of sacrifice, and loyalty of those to whom the destinies of the
+country have been intrusted. You are the judges of that.</p>
+
+<p>Nor will I conceal the fact that my astonishment is greater
+because the negotiations, which had been undertaken in the
+hope of an agreement upon the basis of propositions presented
+by the American Government itself, after having passed through
+the ordinary phases of diplomatic discussion, with frankness and
+courtesy on both sides, have now been relieved of the only obstacles
+which had hitherto appeared to stand in their way.</p>
+
+<p>Haitians! In this agonizing situation, more than tragic for
+every truly Haitian soul, the Government, which intends to
+preserve full national sovereignty, will be able to maintain the
+necessary resolution only if all are united in exercising their
+intelligence and energy with it in the present task of saving the
+nation....</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Sudre Dartiguenave</span><br /></div>
+
+
+<p>Given at the National Palace, September 2, 1915, in the 112th
+year of our independence.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="center"><i>The following are from the Nation of September 11, 1920</i></div>
+
+<h2>Why Haiti Has No Budget</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">A</span>T the session of the Haitian National Assembly on
+August 4, the President of the Republic of Haiti and
+the Haitian Minister of Finance laid before that body the
+course of the American Financial Adviser which had made
+it impossible to submit to the Assembly accounts and
+budgets in accordance with the Constitution of Haiti and
+the Haiti-American Convention. The statement which
+follows is taken from the official Haitian gazette, the
+<i>Moniteur</i> of August 7.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Message of the President</span></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>Gentlemen of the Council of State: On account of unforeseen
+circumstances it has not been possible for the Government of<span class="pagenum">[40]</span>
+the Republic to present to you in the course of the session of
+your high assembly which closes today (August 4) the general
+accounts of the receipts and expenditures for 1918-1919 and
+the budget for 1920-1921, in accordance with the Constitution.</p>
+
+<p>It is certainly an exceptional case, the gravity of which will
+not escape you. You will learn the full details from the report
+which the Secretary of Finance and Commerce will submit to
+you, in which it will be shown that the responsibility for it does
+not fall on the Executive Power....</p>
+
+<p>In the life of every people there come moments when it must
+know how to be resigned and to suffer. Are we facing one of
+those moments? The attitude of the Haitian people, calm and
+dignified, persuades me that, marching closely with the Government
+of the Republic, there is no suffering which it is not
+disposed to undergo to safeguard and secure the triumph of its
+rights.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Dartiguenave</span><br />
+</div></blockquote>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Report of the Secretary of Finance and Commerce</span></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>Gentlemen of the Council of State: Article 116 of the Constitution
+prescribes in its first paragraph: "The general accounts
+and the budgets prescribed by the preceding article must
+be submitted to the legislative body by the Secretary of Finance
+not later than eight days after the opening of the legislative
+session."</p>
+
+<p>And Article 2 of the American-Haitian Convention of September
+16, 1915, stipulates in its second paragraph: "The President
+of Haiti shall appoint, on the nomination of the President
+of the United States, a Financial Adviser, <i>who shall be a civil
+servant attached to the Ministry of Finance</i>, to whom the Secretary
+shall lend effective aid in the prosecution of his work.
+The Financial Adviser shall work out a system of public accounting,
+shall aid in increasing the revenues and in their
+adjustment to expenditures...."</p>
+
+<p>Since February of this year (1920) the secretaries of the
+various departments, in order to conform to the letter of Article
+116 of the Constitution, and to assure continuity of public service
+in the matter of receipts and expenditures, set to work
+at the preparation of the budgets for their departments for
+1920-21.</p>
+
+<p>By a dispatch dated March 22, 1920, the Department of
+Finance sent the draft budgets to Mr. A. J. Maumus, Acting
+Financial Adviser, for preliminary study by that official. But
+the Acting Adviser replied to the Department by a letter, of
+March 29: "I suggest that, in view of the early return of Mr.
+John McIlhenny, the Financial Adviser, measures be taken to
+postpone all discussion regarding the said draft budgets between<span class="pagenum">[41]</span>
+the different departments and the Office [of the Financial
+Adviser] to permit him to take part in the discussions."</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the regular session was opened on the constitutional
+date, Monday, April 5, 1920. Mr. John McIlhenny,
+the titular Financial Adviser, absent in the United States since
+October, 1919, on a financial mission for the Government, prolonged
+his stay in America, detained no doubt by the insurmountable
+difficulties in the accomplishment of his mission (the
+placing of a Haitian loan on the New York market). Since
+on the one hand the Adviser could not overcome these difficulties,
+and on the other hand his presence at Port-au-Prince was
+absolutely necessary for the preparation of the budget in conformity
+with the Constitution and the Haitian-American Convention,
+the Government deemed it essential to ask him to return
+to Port-au-Prince for that purpose. The Government in
+so doing secured the good offices of the American Legation, and
+Mr. McIlhenny returned from the United States about the first
+of June. The Legislature had already been in session almost
+two months.</p>
+
+<p>About June 15 the Adviser began the study of the budget
+with the secretaries. The conferences lasted about twelve days,
+and in that time, after courteous discussions, after some cuts,
+modifications, and additions, plans for the following budgets
+were agreed upon:</p>
+
+<p>
+1. Ways and Means<br />
+2. Foreign Relations<br />
+3. Finance and Commerce<br />
+4. Interior<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>On Monday, July 12, at 3.30, the hour agreed upon between
+the ministers and the Adviser, the ministers met to continue
+the study of the budget which they wanted to finish quickly....
+Between 4 and 4:30 the Secretary of Finance received
+a letter from the Adviser which reads as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"I find myself obliged to stop all study of the budget until
+certain affairs of considerable importance for the welfare of the
+country shall have been finally settled according to the recommendations
+made by me to the Haitian Government.</p>
+
+<p>"Please accept, Mr. Secretary, the assurance of my highest
+consideration,</p>
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">John McIlhenny"</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Such an unanticipated and unjustifiable decision on the part
+of Mr. McIlhenny, an official attached to the Ministry of
+Finance, caused the whole Government profound surprise and
+warranted dissatisfaction....</p>
+
+<p>On July 13 the Department of Finance replied to the Financial
+Adviser as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"I beg to acknowledge your letter of July 12, in which you
+say, 'I find myself obliged, etc....'</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[42]</span></p>
+<p>"In taking note of this declaration, the importance and gravity
+of which certainly cannot escape you, I can only regret in the
+name of the Government:</p>
+
+<p>"1. That you omitted to tell me with the precision which such
+an emergency demands what are the affairs of an importance
+so considerable for the welfare of the country and the settlement
+of which, according to the recommendations made by you,
+is of such great moment that you can subordinate to that settlement
+the continuation of the work on the budget?</p>
+
+<p>"2. That you have taken such a serious step without considering
+that in so doing you have divested yourself of one of the
+essential functions which devolves upon you as Financial Adviser
+attached to the Department of Finance.</p>
+
+<p>"The preparation of the budget of the state constitutes one
+of the principal obligations of those intrusted with it by law,
+because the very life of the nation depends upon its elaboration.
+The Legislature has been in session since April 5 last.
+By the Constitution the draft budgets and the general accounts
+should be submitted to the legislative body within eight days
+after the opening of the session, that is to say by April 13.
+The draft budgets were sent to your office on March 22.</p>
+
+<p>"By reason of your absence from the country, the examination
+of these drafts was postponed, the acting Financial Adviser
+not being willing to shoulder the responsibility; we refer
+you to his letters of March 29 and of April 17 and 24. Finally
+... you came back to Port-au-Prince, and after some two
+weeks, you began with the secretaries to study the draft budgets.</p>
+
+<p>"The Government therefore experiences a very disagreeable
+surprise on reading your letter of July 12. It becomes my
+duty to inform you of that disagreeable surprise, to formulate
+the legal reservations in the case, and to inform you finally that
+you bear the sole responsibility for the failure to present the
+budget in due time.</p>
+
+<div class="right">"<span class="smcap">Fleury Fequiere</span>, Secretary of Finance"<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>On July 19, Mr. Bailly-Blanchard, the American Minister,
+placed in the hands of the President of the Republic a memorandum
+emanating from Mr. McIlhenny, in which the latter
+formulates against the Government complaints sufficient, according
+to him, to explain and justify the discontinuance of the
+preparation of the budget, announced in his letter of July 12.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><i>Memorandum of Mr. McIlhenny</i></div>
+
+<p>I had instructions from the Department of State of the United
+States just before my departure for Haiti, in a passage of a
+letter of May 20, to declare to the Haitian Government that it
+was necessary to give its immediate and formal approval:</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[43]</span></p>
+<p>1. To a modification of the Bank Contract agreed upon by
+the Department of State and the National City Bank of New
+York.</p>
+
+<p>2. To the transfer of the National Bank of the Republic of
+Haiti to a new bank registered under the laws of Haiti to be
+known as the National Bank of the Republic of Haiti.</p>
+
+<p>3. To the execution of Article 15 of the Contract of Withdrawal,
+prohibiting the importation and exportation of non-Haitian
+money, except that which might be necessary for the
+needs of commerce in the opinion of the Financial Adviser.</p>
+
+<p>4. To the immediate vote of a territorial law which has been
+submitted to the Department of State of the United States and
+which has its approval.</p>
+
+<p>On my arrival in Haiti I visited the President with the American
+Minister and learned that the modifications of the bank contract
+and the transfer of the bank had been agreed to and the only
+reason why the measure had not been made official was because
+the National City Bank and the National Bank of Haiti had
+not yet presented to the Government their full powers. He
+declared that the Government did not agree to the publication of
+a decree executing the Contract of Withdrawal because it did
+not consider that the economic condition of the country justified
+it at that time. To which I replied that the Government of the
+United States expected the execution of Article 15 of the Contract
+of Withdrawal as a direct and solemn engagement of the
+Haitian Government, to which it was a party, and I had instructions
+to insist upon its being put into execution at once....</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><i>The Counter Memoir</i></div>
+
+<p>To this memorandum the Executive Authority replied by a
+counter memoir which read in part as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"The modifications proposed by the Department of
+State [of the United States] to the bank contract, studied by
+the Haitian Government, gave rise to counter propositions on
+the part of the latter, which the Department of State would not
+accept. The Haitian Government then accepted these modifications
+in nine articles in the form in which they had been concluded
+and signed at Washington, on Friday, February 6, 1920,
+by the Financial Adviser, the Haitian Minister, and the
+[Haitian] Secretary of Finance. But when Messrs. Scarpa and
+Williams, representing respectively and officially the National
+Bank of Haiti and the National City Bank of New York, came
+before the Secretary of Finance for his signature to the papers
+relative to the transfer of the National Bank of Haiti to the
+National City Bank of New York, the Secretary of Finance
+experienced a disagreeable surprise in finding out that to Article
+9 of the document signed at Washington, February 6,
+1920, and closed as stated above, there had been added an<span class="pagenum">[44]</span>
+amendment bearing on the prohibition of non-Haitian money.
+The Secretary could only decline the responsibility of this added
+paragraph of which he had not the slightest knowledge and
+which consequently had not been submitted to the Government
+for its agreement. It is for this reason alone that the agreement
+is not signed up to this time. The Government does not
+even yet know who was the author of this addition to the
+document to which its consent had never been asked."</p>
+
+<p>Today, gentlemen, you have come to the end of the regular
+session for this year. Four months have run by without the
+Government being able to present to you the budget for 1920-1921....
+Such are the facts, in brief, that have marked
+our relations recently with Mr. McIlhenny....</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Fleury Fequiere</span>, Secretary of Finance<br />
+</div></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>The Businessmen's Protest</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE protest printed below, against Article 15 of the Contract
+of Withdrawal, was sent to the Haitian Secretary
+of Finance on July 30.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The undersigned bankers, merchants, and representatives of
+the various branches of the financial and commercial activities
+in Haiti have the honor to submit to the high appreciation of
+the Secretary of State for Finance the following consideration:</p>
+
+<p>They have been advised from certain sources that pressing
+recommendations have been made to the Government of Haiti.</p>
+
+<p>1. That a law be immediately voted by which would be prohibited
+the importation or exportation of all money not Haitian,
+except that quantity of foreign money which, in the opinion of
+the Financial Adviser, would be sufficient for the needs of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>2. That in the charter of the Banque Nationale de la Republique
+d'Haiti there be inserted an article giving power to the
+Financial Adviser together with the Banque Nationale de la
+Republique d'Haiti to take all measures concerning the importation
+or exportation of non-Haitian monies.</p>
+
+<p>The undersigned declare that the adoption of such a measure,
+under whatever form it may be, would be of a nature generally
+contrary to the collective interests of the Haitian people and
+the industry of Haiti. It would be dangerous to substitute the
+will of a single man, however eminent he might be, however
+honorable, however infallible, for a natural law which regulates
+the movements of the monetary circulation in a country.</p>
+
+<p>It would be more dangerous yet to introduce in the contract of
+the Banque Nationale de la Republique d'Haiti a clause which
+would assure this establishment a sort of monopoly in the
+foreign money market, which constitutes the principal base of<span class="pagenum">[45]</span>
+the operations of high commerce, when it has already the exclusive
+privilege of emission of bank notes. Such a clause would
+make of all other bankers and merchants its humble tributaries,
+obeying its law and its caprices....</p>
+
+<p>(Signed) <span class="smcap">The Royal Bank of Canada; American Foreign
+Banking Corporation; Haitian American Sugar Co.;
+Raporel S.S. Line; P. C. S.; Electric Light Co.; Panama
+Line; Ed. Esteve &amp; Co.; Clyde Line; Comptoir Commercial;
+Gebara &amp; Co.; Alfred Vieux; V. G. Makhlouf; N. Silvera;
+Simmonds Freres; Roberts, Dutton &amp; Co.; West Indies Trading
+Co.; J. Fadoul &amp; Co.; R. Brouard; A. de Matteis &amp; Co.;
+J. M. Richardson &amp; Co.; Comptoir Francais; H. Dereix; E.
+Robelin; F. Cheriez; I. J. Bigio, and Geo. H. MacFadden.</span></p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>"By Order of the American Minister"</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">C</span>ORRESPONDENCE regarding the refusal of the
+Financial Adviser of Haiti, an American, but an official
+of the Haitian Department of Finance, to pay the salaries
+for the month of July, 1920, of the President and certain
+other officials of the Haitian Republic, revealing that the
+action was taken by order of the American Minister to
+Haiti, without explanation and without authority in the
+Haitian Constitution or in the Haiti-American Convention,
+was printed in the <i>Moniteur</i> for August 14.</p>
+
+
+<blockquote><div class="center">I.</div>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Port-au-Prince</span>, August 2, 1920.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mr. A. J. Maumus</span>, Receiver General of Customs</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with the suggestion made to the Financial
+Adviser on July 24, your office began on the morning of July 30
+to pay the salaries for that month to the officials and public
+employees at Port-au-Prince.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless up to this morning, August 2, no checks have
+been delivered to His Excellency the President of the Republic,
+the secretaries of the various departments, the state councilors,
+and the palace interpreter.</p>
+
+<p>In calling your attention to this fact I ask that you will please
+inform me of the reasons for it.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Fleury Fequiere</span>, Secretary of Finance.
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center">II.</div>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Port-au-Prince</span>, August 2, 1920.</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To the Secretary of Finance and Commerce</span></p>
+
+<p>I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note of
+August 2 in which you ask this office to inform you regarding
+the reasons for the non-delivery, up to the present time, of the
+checks for His Excellency the President of the Republic, for<span class="pagenum">[46]</span>
+the departmental secretaries, the state councilors, and the
+palace interpreter, for the month of July.</p>
+
+<p>In reply this office hastens to inform you that up to the present
+time it has not been put in possession of the mandates and
+orders regarding these payments.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">A. J. Maumus</span>, Receiver General.
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center">III.</div>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Port-au-Prince</span>, August 2, 1920.<br /></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To the Financial Adviser</span></p>
+
+<p>The Department of Finance, informed that checks for His
+Excellency the President of the Republic, the departmental
+secretaries, the state councilors, and the palace interpreter had
+not been delivered up to this morning, August 2, reported the
+fact to the Receiver General of Customs asking to be informed
+regarding the reasons. The Receiver General replied immediately
+that the delay was due to his failure to receive the necessary
+mandates and orders. But these papers were sent to you
+by the Department of Finance on July 21, and were returned
+by the payment service of the Department of the Interior on
+July 26, a week ago.</p>
+
+<p>I inclose copies of the note from the Department of Finance
+to the Receiver General, and of Mr. Maumus's reply.</p>
+
+<p>I should like to believe that bringing this matter to your
+attention would be sufficient to remedy it.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Fleury Fequiere</span>, Secretary of Finance.
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center">IV.</div>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Port-au-Prince</span>, August 5, 1920.<br /></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To the Secretary of Finance and Commerce</span></p>
+
+<p>I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note of
+August 2, regarding the delay in payment of the salaries of
+the President of the Republic, secretaries, and state councilors.</p>
+
+<p>In reply I have the honor to inform you that the payment
+of these salaries has been suspended by order of the American
+Minister until further orders are received from him.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">J. McIlhenny</span>, Financial Adviser.
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center">V.</div>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Port-au-Prince</span>, August 10, 1920.<br /></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To the Financial Adviser</span></p>
+
+<p>I acknowledge receipt of your note of August 5 in reply to
+mine of August 2 asking information regarding the reasons
+for your non-payment of the salaries for last July due to His
+Excellency the President of the Republic, the secretaries, and
+state councilors, and the palace interpreter.</p>
+
+<p>I note the second paragraph of your letter, in which you
+say, "In reply, etc."</p>
+
+<p>I do not know by what authority the American Minister can
+have given you such instructions or by what authority you<span class="pagenum">[47]</span>
+acquiesced. The non-payment of the salaries due the members
+of the Government constitutes a confiscation vexatious for them
+and for the entire country. It is not the function of this department
+to judge the motives which led the American Minister
+to take so exceptionally serious a step; but it is the opinion
+of the Government that the Financial Adviser, a Haitian official,
+was not authorized to acquiesce.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Fleury Fequiere</span>, Secretary of Finance.
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center">VI.</div>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Port-au-Prince</span>, August 5, 1920.<br /></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mr. A. Bailly-Blanchard</span>, American Minister</p>
+
+<p>I have the honor to inform Your Excellency that the offices
+of the Financial Adviser and of the Receiver General have not
+yet delivered the checks for the July salaries of His Excellency
+the President of the Republic, of the secretaries, state councilors,
+and palace interpreter, although all other officials were
+paid on July 30.</p>
+
+<p>The Secretary of Finance wrote to the Receiver General asking
+information on the subject, and was informed that he had
+not received the necessary mandates and orders. The fact of
+the non-delivery of the checks and the reply of the Receiver
+General were then brought to the attention of the Financial
+Adviser, who has not yet replied.</p>
+
+<p>In informing your Legation of this situation, I call the attention
+of Your Excellency to this new attitude of the Financial
+Adviser, a Haitian official, to the President of the Republic and
+the other members of the Government, an attitude which is an
+insult to the entire nation.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">J. Barau</span>, Secretary of Foreign Affairs.
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center">VII.</div>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Port-au-Prince</span>, August 6, 1920.<br /></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mr. A. Bailly-Blanchard</span>, American Minister</p>
+
+<p>I have the honor to inclose a copy of a note from the Financial
+Adviser to the Secretary of Finance, replying to a request for
+information regarding the non-payment of checks....</p>
+
+<p>In his reply the Financial Adviser informs the Department
+of Finance that "the payment of these salaries has been suspended
+by order of the American Minister until further orders
+are received from him."</p>
+
+<p>My Government protests against this act of violence which is
+an attack upon the dignity of the people and Government of
+Haiti.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">J. Barau</span>, Secretary of Foreign Affairs.
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center">VIII.</div>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Port-au-Prince</span>, August 6, 1920.<br /></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mr. J. Barau</span>, Secretary of Foreign Affairs</p>
+
+<p>I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's
+note under date of August 5.</p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum">[48]</span></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>In reply I have to state that the action of the Financial
+Adviser therein referred to was taken by direction of this
+Legation.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">A. Bailly-Blanchard</span>, American Minister.
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center">IX.</div>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Port-au-Prince</span>, August 7, 1920.<br /></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mr. A. Bailly-Blanchard</span>, American Minister</p>
+
+<p>In reply to my letter of August 5 in which I had the honor
+to inform Your Excellency of the non-payment of checks, ...
+Your Excellency informs me that it is by direction of the
+Legation of the United States that the Financial Adviser acted.</p>
+
+<p>My Government takes note of your declaration.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">J. Barau</span>, Secretary of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+</div></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>The Concession of the National City Bank</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">S</span>IMULTANEOUSLY with the non-payment of the July
+salaries of the President and other officials of the
+Haitian Republic, the Haitian Minister of Finance received
+from the Financial Adviser, an American, nominally a
+Haitian official, but acting under instructions from the
+American Government, the following letter urging immediate
+ratification of a modified form of agreement between
+the United States Department of State and the National
+City Bank of New York. It was widely assumed in Haiti
+that this letter supplied the key to the unexplained non-payment
+of salaries, ordered by Mr. A. Bailly-Blanchard,
+the American Minister. The letter was printed in the
+<i>Moniteur</i> for August 14.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Port-au-Prince</span>, August 2, 1920</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To the Secretary of Finance</span></p>
+
+<p>I have the honor to inform you that I have been instructed
+by my Government that in view of the continual delay in obtaining
+the consent of the Haitian Government to the transfer to the
+new bank of the modified concession as agreed upon between
+the Government of the United States and the National City
+Bank, the Government of the United States has agreed to let the
+operations of the National Bank of the Republic of Haiti continue
+indefinitely on the French contract at present existing,
+without amendment.</p>
+
+<p>I desire urgently to draw your attention to the fact that it
+would be most desirable in the interest of the Haitian people
+that the Government of Haiti should give its immediate consent
+to the proposed modifications of the contract and to accept
+the transfer of the bank rather than see the present contract
+continue with its present clauses.</p>
+
+<div class="right"><span class="smcap">John McIlhenny</span>, Financial Adviser<br />
+</div></blockquote>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="notes">
+<h2>Transcriber's Notes:</h2>
+
+<p>Page numbers have been removed for blank pages in the text.</p>
+
+<p>Spelling, punctuation and capitalization has been retained as in the
+original publication except as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Page 27: Changed "glaces" to "glacés"</p>
+
+<p>Page 40: Added closing quotation mark to paragraph opening with the
+words: "And Article 2 of the American-Haitian Convention"</p>
+
+<p>Page 44: Added period to end of sentence, "It is for this reason alone that the agreement
+is not signed up to this time"</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Self-Determining Haiti, by James Weldon Johnson
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+Project Gutenberg's Self-Determining Haiti, by James Weldon Johnson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Self-Determining Haiti
+       Four articles reprinted from The Nation embodying a report
+       of an investigation made for the National Association for
+       the Advancement of Colored People.
+
+Author: James Weldon Johnson
+
+Release Date: January 21, 2011 [EBook #35025]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SELF-DETERMINING HAITI ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Gary Rees and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Self-Determining Haiti
+
+BY
+
+JAMES WELDON JOHNSON
+
+
+Four articles reprinted from _The Nation_ embodying a report of an
+investigation made for
+
+THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE
+
+
+_Together with Official Documents_
+
+25 cents a copy
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1920
+
+By THE NATION, Inc.
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+The articles and documents in this pamphlet were printed in _The Nation_
+during the summer of 1920. They revealed for the first time to the world
+the nature of the United States' imperialistic venture in Haiti. While,
+owing to the censorship, the full story of this fundamental departure
+from American traditions has not yet been told, it appears at the time
+of this writing, October, 1920, that "pitiless publicity" for our
+sandbagging of a friendly and inoffensive neighbor has been achieved.
+The report of Major-General George Barnett, commandant of the Marine
+Corps during the first four years of the Haitian occupation, just
+issued, strikingly confirms the facts set forth by _The Nation_ and
+refutes the denials of administration officials and their newspaper
+apologists. It is in the hope that by spreading broadly the truth about
+what has happened in Haiti under five years of American occupation _The
+Nation_ may further contribute toward removing a dark blot from the
+American escutcheon, that this pamphlet is issued.
+
+
+
+
+Self-Determining Haiti
+
+By JAMES WELDON JOHNSON
+
+
+
+
+I. THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION
+
+
+To know the reasons for the present political situation in Haiti, to
+understand why the United States landed and has for five years
+maintained military forces in that country, why some three thousand
+Haitian men, women, and children have been shot down by American rifles
+and machine guns, it is necessary, among other things, to know that the
+National City Bank of New York is very much interested in Haiti. It is
+necessary to know that the National City Bank controls the National Bank
+of Haiti and is the depository for all of the Haitian national funds
+that are being collected by American officials, and that Mr. R. L.
+Farnham, vice-president of the National City Bank, is virtually the
+representative of the State Department in matters relating to the island
+republic. Most Americans have the opinion--if they have any opinion at
+all on the subject--that the United States was forced, on purely humane
+grounds, to intervene in the black republic because of the tragic coup
+d'etat which resulted in the overthrow and death of President Vilbrun
+Guillaume Sam and the execution of the political prisoners confined at
+Port-au-Prince, July 27-28, 1915; and that this government has been
+compelled to keep a military force in Haiti since that time to pacify
+the country and maintain order.
+
+The fact is that for nearly a year before forcible intervention on the
+part of the United States this government was seeking to compel Haiti to
+submit to "peaceable" intervention. Toward the close of 1914 the United
+States notified the government of Haiti that it was disposed to
+recognize the newly-elected president, Theodore Davilmar, as soon as a
+Haitian commission would sign at Washington "satisfactory protocols"
+relative to a convention with the United States on the model of the
+Dominican-American Convention. On December 15, 1914, the Haitian
+government, through its Secretary of Foreign Affairs, replied: "The
+Government of the Republic of Haiti would consider itself lax in its
+duty to the United States and to itself if it allowed the least doubt
+to exist of its irrevocable intention not to accept any control of the
+administration of Haitian affairs by a foreign Power." On December 19,
+the United States, through its legation at Port-au-Prince, replied, that
+in expressing its willingness to do in Haiti what had been done in Santo
+Domingo it "was actuated entirely by a disinterested desire to give
+assistance."
+
+Two months later, the Theodore government was overthrown by a revolution
+and Vilbrun Guillaume was elected president. Immediately afterwards
+there arrived at Port-au-Prince an American commission from
+Washington--the Ford mission. The commissioners were received at the
+National Palace and attempted to take up the discussion of the
+convention that had been broken off in December, 1914. However, they
+lacked full powers and no negotiations were entered into. After several
+days, the Ford mission sailed for the United States. But soon after, in
+May, the United States sent to Haiti Mr. Paul Fuller, Jr., with the
+title Envoy Extraordinary, on a special mission to apprise the Haitian
+government that the Guillaume administration would not be recognized by
+the American government unless Haiti accepted and signed the project of
+a convention which he was authorized to present. After examining the
+project the Haitian government submitted to the American commission a
+counter-project, formulating the conditions under which it would be
+possible to accept the assistance of the United States. To this
+counter-project Mr. Fuller proposed certain modifications, some of which
+were accepted by the Haitian government. On June 5, 1915, Mr. Fuller
+acknowledged the receipt of the Haitian communication regarding these
+modifications, and sailed from Port-au-Prince.
+
+Before any further discussion of the Fuller project between the two
+governments, political incidents in Haiti led rapidly to the events of
+July, 27 and 28. On July 27 President Guillaume fled to the French
+Legation, and on the same day took place a massacre of the political
+prisoners in the prison at Port-au-Prince. On the morning of July 28
+President Guillaume was forcibly taken from French Legation and killed.
+On the afternoon of July 28 an American man-of-war dropped anchor in the
+harbor of Port-au-Prince and landed American forces. It should be borne
+in mind that through all of this the life of not a single American
+citizen had been taken or jeopardized.
+
+The overthrow of Guillaume and its attending consequences did not
+constitute the cause of American intervention in Haiti, but merely
+furnished the awaited opportunity. Since July 28, 1915, American
+military forces have been in control of Haiti. These forces have been
+increased until there are now somewhere near three thousand Americans
+under arms in the republic. From the very first, the attitude of the
+Occupation has been that it was dealing with a conquered territory.
+Haitian forces were disarmed, military posts and barracks were occupied,
+and the National Palace was taken as headquarters for the Occupation.
+After selecting a new and acceptable president for the country, steps
+were at once taken to compel the Haitian government to sign a convention
+in which it virtually foreswore its independence. This was accomplished
+by September 16, 1915; and although the terms of this convention
+provided for the administration of the Haitian customs by American
+civilian officials, all the principal custom houses of the country had
+been seized by military force and placed in charge of American Marine
+officers before the end of August. The disposition of the funds
+collected in duties from the time of the military seizure of the custom
+houses to the time of their administration by civilian officials is
+still a question concerning which the established censorship in Haiti
+allows no discussion.
+
+It is interesting to note the wide difference between the convention
+which Haiti was forced to sign and the convention which was in course of
+diplomatic negotiation at the moment of intervention. The Fuller
+convention asked little of Haiti and gave something, the Occupation
+convention demands everything of Haiti and gives nothing. The Occupation
+convention is really the same convention which the Haitian government
+peremptorily refused to discuss in December, 1914, except that in
+addition to American control of Haitian finances it also provides for
+American control of the Haitian military forces. The Fuller convention
+contained neither of these provisions. When the United States found
+itself in a position to take what it had not even dared to ask, it used
+brute force and took it. But even a convention which practically
+deprived Haiti of its independence was found not wholly adequate for
+the accomplishment of all that was contemplated. The Haitian
+constitution still offered some embarrassments, so it was decided that
+Haiti must have a new constitution. It was drafted and presented to the
+Haitian assembly for adoption. The assembly balked--chiefly at the
+article in the proposed document removing the constitutional disability
+which prevented aliens from owning land in Haiti. Haiti had long
+considered the denial of this right to aliens as her main bulwark
+against overwhelming economic exploitation; and it must be admitted that
+she had better reasons than the several states of the United States that
+have similar provisions.
+
+The balking of the assembly resulted in its being dissolved by actual
+military force and the locking of doors of the Chamber. There has been
+no Haitian legislative body since. The desired constitution was
+submitted to a plebiscite by a decree of the President, although such a
+method of constitutional revision was clearly unconstitutional. Under
+the circumstances of the Occupation the plebiscite was, of course,
+almost unanimous for the desired change, and the new constitution was
+promulgated on June 18, 1918. Thus Haiti was given a new constitution by
+a flagrantly unconstitutional method. The new document contains several
+fundamental changes and includes a "Special Article" which declares:
+
+     All the acts of the Government of the United States during its
+     military Occupation in Haiti are ratified and confirmed.
+
+     No Haitian shall be liable to civil or criminal prosecution for
+     any act done by order of the Occupation or under its authority.
+
+     The acts of the courts martial of the Occupation, without,
+     however, infringing on the right to pardon, shall not be
+     subject to revision.
+
+     The acts of the Executive Power (the President) up to the
+     promulgation of the present constitution are likewise ratified
+     and confirmed.
+
+The above is the chronological order of the principal steps by which the
+independence of a neighboring republic has been taken away, the people
+placed under foreign military domination from which they have no appeal,
+and exposed to foreign economic exploitation against which they are
+defenseless. All of this has been done in the name of the Government of
+the United States; however, without any act by Congress and without any
+knowledge of the American people.
+
+The law by which Haiti is ruled today is martial law dispensed by
+Americans. There is a form of Haitian civil government, but it is
+entirely dominated by the military Occupation. President Dartiguenave,
+bitterly rebellious at heart as is every good Haitian, confessed to me
+the powerlessness of himself and his cabinet. He told me that the
+American authorities give no heed to recommendations made by him or his
+officers; that they would not even discuss matters about which the
+Haitian officials have superior knowledge. The provisions of both the
+old and the new constitutions are ignored in that there is no Haitian
+legislative body, and there has been none since the dissolution of the
+Assembly in April, 1916. In its stead there is a Council of State
+composed of twenty-one members appointed by the president, which
+functions effectively only when carrying out the will of the Occupation.
+Indeed the Occupation often overrides the civil courts. A prisoner
+brought before the proper court, exonerated, and discharged, is,
+nevertheless, frequently held by the military. All government funds are
+collected by the Occupation and are dispensed at its will and pleasure.
+The greater part of these funds is expended for the maintenance of the
+military forces. There is the strictest censorship of the press. No
+Haitian newspaper is allowed to publish anything in criticism of the
+Occupation or the Haitian government. Each newspaper in Haiti received
+an order to that effect from the Occupation, _and the same order carried
+the injunction not to print the order_. Nothing that might reflect upon
+the Occupation administration in Haiti is allowed to reach the
+newspapers of the United States.
+
+The Haitian people justly complain that not only is the convention
+inimical to the best interests of their country, but that the
+convention, such as it is, is not being carried out in accordance with
+the letter, nor in accordance with the spirit in which they were led to
+believe it would be carried out. Except one, all of the obligations in
+the convention which the United States undertakes in favor of Haiti are
+contained in the first article of that document, the other fourteen
+articles being made up substantially of obligations to the United States
+assumed by Haiti. But nowhere in those fourteen articles is there
+anything to indicate that Haiti would be subjected to military
+domination. In Article I the United States promises to "aid the Haitian
+government in the proper and efficient development of its agricultural,
+mineral, and commercial resources and in the establishment of the
+finances of Haiti on a firm and solid basis." And the whole convention
+and, especially, the protestations of the United States before the
+signing of the instrument can be construed only to mean that that aid
+would be extended through the supervision of civilian officials.
+
+The one promise of the United States to Haiti not contained in the first
+article of the convention is that clause of Article XIV which says,
+"and, should the necessity occur, the United States will lend an
+efficient aid for the preservation of Haitian independence and the
+maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life,
+property, and individual liberty." It is the extreme of irony that this
+clause which the Haitians had a right to interpret as a guarantee to
+them against foreign invasion should first of all be invoked against the
+Haitian people themselves, and offer the only peg on which any pretense
+to a right of military domination can be hung.
+
+There are several distinct forces--financial, military, bureaucratic--at
+work in Haiti which, tending to aggravate the conditions they themselves
+have created, are largely self-perpetuating. The most sinister of these,
+the financial engulfment of Haiti by the National City Bank of New York,
+already alluded to, will be discussed in detail in a subsequent article.
+The military Occupation has made and continues to make military
+Occupation necessary. The justification given is that it is necessary
+for the pacification of the country. Pacification would never have been
+necessary had not American policies been filled with so many stupid and
+brutal blunders; and it will never be effective so long as
+"pacification" means merely the hunting of ragged Haitians in the hills
+with machine guns.
+
+Then there is the force which the several hundred American civilian
+place-holders constitute. They have found in Haiti the veritable
+promised land of "jobs for deserving democrats" and naturally do not
+wish to see the present status discontinued. Most of these deserving
+democrats are Southerners. The head of the customs service of Haiti was
+a clerk of one of the parishes of Louisiana. Second in charge of the
+customs service of Haiti is a man who was Deputy Collector of Customs at
+Pascagoula, Mississippi [population, 3,379, 1910 Census]. The
+Superintendent of Public Instruction was a school teacher in
+Louisiana--a State which has not good schools even for white children;
+the financial advisor, Mr. McIlhenny, is also from Louisiana.
+
+Many of the Occupation officers are in the same category with the
+civilian place-holders. These men have taken their wives and families to
+Haiti. Those at Port-au-Prince live in beautiful villas. Families that
+could not keep a hired girl in the United States have a half-dozen
+servants. They ride in automobiles--not their own. Every American head
+of a department in Haiti has an automobile furnished at the expense of
+the Haitian Government, whereas members of the Haitian cabinet, who are
+theoretically above them, have no such convenience or luxury. While I
+was there, the President himself was obliged to borrow an automobile
+from the Occupation for a trip through the interior. The Louisiana
+school-teacher Superintendent of Instruction has an automobile furnished
+at government expense, whereas the Haitian Minister of Public
+Instruction, his supposed superior officer, has none. These automobiles
+seem to be chiefly employed in giving the women and children an airing
+each afternoon. It must be amusing, when it is not maddening to the
+Haitians, to see with what disdainful air these people look upon them as
+they ride by.
+
+The platform adopted by the Democratic party at San Francisco said of
+the Wilson policy in Mexico:
+
+     The Administration, remembering always that Mexico is an
+     independent nation and that permanent stability in her
+     government and her institutions could come only from the
+     consent of her own people to a government of her own making,
+     has been unwilling either to profit by the misfortunes of the
+     people of Mexico or to enfeeble their future by imposing from
+     the outside a rule upon their temporarily distracted councils.
+
+Haiti has never been so distracted in its councils as Mexico. And even
+in its moments of greatest distraction it never slaughtered an American
+citizen, it never molested an American woman, it never injured a
+dollar's worth of American property. And yet, the Administration whose
+lofty purpose was proclaimed as above--with less justification than
+Austria's invasion of Serbia, or Germany's rape of Belgium, without
+warrant other than the doctrine that "might makes right," has conquered
+Haiti. It has done this through the very period when, in the words of
+its chief spokesman, our sons were laying down their lives overseas "for
+democracy, for the rights of those who submit to authority to have a
+voice in their own government, for the rights and liberties of small
+nations." By command of the author of "pitiless publicity" and
+originator of "open covenants openly arrived at," it has enforced by the
+bayonet a covenant whose secret has been well guarded by a rigid
+censorship from the American nation, and kept a people enslaved by the
+military tyranny which it was his avowed purpose to destroy throughout
+the world.
+
+_From The Nation of August 25, 1920._
+
+
+
+
+II. WHAT THE UNITED STATES HAS ACCOMPLISHED
+
+
+When the truth about the conquest of Haiti--the slaughter of three
+thousand and practically unarmed Haitians, with the incidentally
+needless death of a score of American boys--begins to filter through the
+rigid Administration censorship to the American people, the apologists
+will become active. Their justification of what has been done will be
+grouped under two heads: one, the necessity, and two, the results. Under
+the first, much stress will be laid upon the "anarchy" which existed in
+Haiti, upon the backwardness of the Haitians and their absolute
+unfitness to govern themselves. The pretext which caused the
+intervention was taken up in the first article of this series. The
+characteristics, alleged and real, of the Haitian people will be taken
+up in a subsequent article. Now as to results: The apologists will
+attempt to show that material improvements in Haiti justify American
+intervention. Let us see what they are.
+
+Diligent inquiry reveals just three: The building of the road from
+Port-au-Prince to Cape Haitien; the enforcement of certain sanitary
+regulations in the larger cities; and the improvement of the public
+hospital at Port-au-Prince. The enforcement of certain sanitary
+regulations is not so important as it may sound, for even under
+exclusive native rule, Haiti has been a remarkably healthy country and
+had never suffered from such epidemics as used to sweep Cuba and the
+Panama Canal region. The regulations, moreover, were of a purely minor
+character--the sort that might be issued by a board of health in any
+American city or town--and were in no wise fundamental, because there
+was no need. The same applies to the improvement of the hospital, long
+before the American Occupation, an effectively conducted institution but
+which, it is only fair to say, benefited considerably by the regulations
+and more up-to-date methods of American army surgeons--the best in the
+world. Neither of these accomplishments, however, creditable as they
+are, can well be put forward as a justification for military domination.
+The building of the great highway from Port-au-Prince to Cape Haitien is
+a monumental piece of work, but it is doubtful whether the object in
+building it was to supply the Haitians with a great highway or to
+construct a military road which would facilitate the transportation of
+troops and supplies from one end of the island to the other. And this
+represents the sum total of the constructive accomplishment after five
+years of American Occupation.
+
+Now, the highway, while doubtless the most important achievement of the
+three, involved the most brutal of all the blunders of the Occupation.
+The work was in charge of an officer of Marines who stands out even in
+that organization for his "treat 'em rough" methods. He discovered the
+obsolete Haitian _corvee_ and decided to enforce it with the most modern
+Marine efficiency. The _corvee_, or road law, in Haiti provided that
+each citizen should work a certain number of days on the public roads to
+keep them in condition, or pay a certain sum of money. In the days when
+this law was in force the Haitian government never required the men to
+work the roads except in their respective communities, and the number of
+days was usually limited to three a year. But the Occupation seized men
+wherever it could find them, and no able-bodied Haitian was safe from
+such raids, which most closely resembled the African slave raids of past
+centuries. And slavery it was--though temporary. By day or by night,
+from the bosom of their families, from their little farms or while
+trudging peacefully on the country roads, Haitians were seized and
+forcibly taken to toil for months in far sections of the country. Those
+who protested or resisted were beaten into submission. At night, after
+long hours of unremitting labor under armed taskmasters, who swiftly
+discouraged any slackening of effort with boot or rifle butt, the
+victims were herded in compounds. Those attempting to escape were shot.
+Their terror-stricken families meanwhile were often in total ignorance
+of the fate of their husbands, fathers, brothers.
+
+It is chiefly out of these methods that arose the need for
+"pacification." Many men of the rural districts became panic-stricken
+and fled to the hills and mountains. Others rebelled and did likewise,
+preferring death to slavery. These refugees largely make up the "caco"
+forces, to hunt down which has become the duty and the sport of American
+Marines, who were privileged to shoot a "caco" on sight. If anyone
+doubts that "caco" hunting is the sport of American Marines in Haiti,
+let him learn the facts about the death of Charlemagne. Charlemagne
+Peralte was a Haitian of education and culture and of great influence in
+his district. He was tried by an American courtmartial on the charge of
+aiding "cacos." He was sentenced, not to prison, however, but to five
+years of hard labor on the roads, and was forced to work in convict garb
+on the streets of Cape Haitien. He made his escape and put himself at
+the head of several hundred followers in a valiant though hopeless
+attempt to free Haiti. The America of the Revolution, indeed the America
+of the Civil War, would have regarded Charlemagne not as a criminal but
+a patriot. He met his death not in open fight, not in an attempt at his
+capture, but through a dastard deed. While standing over his camp fire,
+he was shot in cold blood by an American Marine officer who stood
+concealed by the darkness, and who had reached the camp through bribery
+and trickery. This deed, which was nothing short of assassination, has
+been heralded as an example of American heroism. Of this deed, Harry
+Franck, writing in the June Century of "The Death of Charlemagne," says:
+"Indeed it is fit to rank with any of the stirring warrior tales with
+which history is seasoned from the days of the Greeks down to the recent
+world war." America should read "The Death of Charlemagne" which
+attempts to glorify a black smirch on American arms and tradition.
+
+There is a reason why the methods employed in road building affected the
+Haitian country folk in a way in which it might not have affected the
+people of any other Latin-American country. Not since the independence
+of the country has there been any such thing as a peon in Haiti. The
+revolution by which Haiti gained her independence was not merely a
+political revolution, it was also a social revolution. Among the many
+radical changes wrought was that of cutting up the large slave estates
+into small parcels and allotting them among former slaves. And so it was
+that every Haitian in the rural districts lived on his own plot of land,
+a plot on which his family has lived for perhaps more than a hundred
+years. No matter how small or how large that plot is, and whether he
+raises much or little on it, it is his and he is an independent farmer.
+
+The completed highway, moreover, continued to be a barb in the Haitian
+wound. Automobiles on this road, running without any speed limit, are a
+constant inconvenience or danger to the natives carrying their market
+produce to town on their heads or loaded on the backs of animals. I have
+seen these people scramble in terror often up the side or down the
+declivity of the mountain for places of safety for themselves and their
+animals as the machines snorted by. I have seen a market woman's horse
+take flight and scatter the produce loaded on his back all over the road
+for several hundred yards. I have heard an American commercial traveler
+laughingly tell how on the trip from Cape Haitien to Port-au-Prince the
+automobile he was in killed a donkey and two pigs. It had not occurred
+to him that the donkey might be the chief capital of the small Haitian
+farmer and that the loss of it might entirely bankrupt him. It is all
+very humorous, of course, unless you happen to be the Haitian
+pedestrian.
+
+The majority of visitors on arriving at Port-au-Prince and noticing the
+well-paved, well-kept streets, will at once jump to the conclusion that
+this work was done by the American Occupation. The Occupation goes to no
+trouble to refute this conclusion, and in fact it will by implication
+corroborate it. If one should exclaim, "Why, I am surprised to see what
+a well-paved city Port-au-Prince is!" he would be almost certain to
+receive the answer, "Yes, but you should have seen it before the
+Occupation." The implication here is that Port-au-Prince was a mudhole
+and that the Occupation is responsible for its clean and well-paved
+streets. It is true that at the time of the intervention, five years
+ago, there were only one or two paved streets in the Haitian capital,
+but the contracts for paving the entire city had been let by the Haitian
+Government, and the work had already been begun. This work was completed
+during the Occupation, _but the Occupation did not pave, and had nothing
+to do with the paving of a single street in Port-au-Prince_.
+
+One accomplishment I did expect to find--that the American Occupation,
+in its five years of absolute rule, had developed and improved the
+Haitian system of public education. The United States has made some
+efforts in this direction in other countries where it has taken control.
+In Porto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines, the attempt, at least, was
+made to establish modern school systems. Selected youths from these
+countries were taken and sent to the United States for training in order
+that they might return and be better teachers, and American teachers
+were sent to those islands in exchange. The American Occupation in Haiti
+has not advanced public education a single step. No new buildings have
+been erected. Not a single Haitian youth has been sent to the United
+States for training as a teacher, nor has a single American teacher,
+white or colored, been sent to Haiti. According to the general budget of
+Haiti, 1919-1920, there are teachers in the rural schools receiving as
+little as six dollars a month. Some of these teachers may not be worth
+more than six dollars a month. But after five years of American rule,
+there ought not to be a single teacher in the country who is not worth
+more than that paltry sum.
+
+Another source of discontent is the Gendarmerie. When the Occupation
+took possession of the island, it disarmed all Haitians, including the
+various local police forces. To remedy this situation the Convention
+(Article X), provided that there should be created,--
+
+     without delay, an efficient constabulary, urban and rural,
+     composed of native Haitians. This constabulary shall be
+     organized and officered by Americans, appointed by the
+     President of Haiti upon nomination by the President of the
+     United States.... These officers shall be replaced by Haitians
+     as they, by examination conducted under direction of a board to
+     be selected by the Senior American Officer of this constabulary
+     in the presence of a representative of the Haitian Government,
+     are found to be qualified to assume such duties.
+
+During the first months of the Occupation officers of the Haitian
+Gendarmerie were commissioned officers of the marines, but the war took
+all these officers to Europe. Five years have passed and the
+constabulary is still officered entirely by marines, but almost without
+exception they are ex-privates or non-commissioned officers of the
+United States Marine Corps commissioned in the gendarmerie. Many of
+these men are rough, uncouth, and uneducated, and a great number from
+the South, are violently steeped in color prejudice. They direct all
+policing of city and town. It falls to them, ignorant of Haitian ways
+and language, to enforce every minor police regulation. Needless to say,
+this is a grave source of continued irritation. Where the genial
+American "cop" could, with a wave of his hand or club, convey the full
+majesty of the law to the small boy transgressor or to some equally
+innocuous offender, the strong-arm tactics for which the marines are
+famous, are apt to be promptly evoked. The pledge in the Convention that
+"these officers be replaced by Haitians" who could qualify, has, like
+other pledges, become a mere scrap of paper. Graduates of the famous
+French military academy of St. Cyr, men who have actually qualified for
+commissions in the French army, are denied the opportunity to fill even
+a lesser commission in the Haitian Gendarmerie, although such men, in
+addition to their pre-eminent qualifications of training, would, because
+of their understanding of local conditions and their complete
+familiarity with the ways of their own country, make ideal guardians of
+the peace.
+
+The American Occupation of Haiti is not only guilty of sins of omission,
+it is guilty of sins of commission in addition to those committed in the
+building of the great road across the island. Brutalities and atrocities
+on the part of American marines have occurred with sufficient frequency
+to be the cause of deep resentment and terror. Marines talk freely of
+what they "did" to some Haitians in the outlying districts. Familiar
+methods of torture to make captives reveal what they often do not know
+are nonchalantly discussed. Just before I left Port-au-Prince an
+American Marine had caught a Haitian boy stealing sugar off the wharf
+and instead of arresting him he battered his brains out with the butt of
+his rifle. I learned from the lips of American Marines themselves of a
+number of cases of rape of Haitian women by marines. I often sat at
+tables in the hotels and cafes in company with marine officers and they
+talked before me without restraint. I remember the description of a
+"caco" hunt by one of them; he told how they finally came upon a crowd
+of natives engaged in the popular pastime of cock-fighting and how they
+"let them have it" with machine guns and rifle fire. I heard another, a
+captain of marines, relate how he at a fire in Port-au-Prince ordered a
+"rather dressed up Haitian," standing on the sidewalk, to "get in there"
+and take a hand at the pumps. It appeared that the Haitian merely
+shrugged his shoulders. The captain of marines then laughingly said: "I
+had on a pretty heavy pair of boots and I let him have a kick that
+landed him in the middle of the street. Someone ran up and told me that
+the man was an ex-member of the Haitian Assembly." The fact that the man
+had been a member of the Haitian Assembly made the whole incident more
+laughable to the captain of marines.
+
+Perhaps the most serious aspect of American brutality in Haiti is not to
+be found in individual cases of cruelty, numerous and inexcusable though
+they are, but rather in the American attitude, well illustrated by the
+diagnosis of an American officer discussing the situation and its
+difficulty: "The trouble with this whole business is that some of these
+people with a little money and education think they are as good as we
+are," and this is the keynote of the attitude of every American to every
+Haitian. Americans have carried American hatred to Haiti. They have
+planted the feeling of caste and color prejudice where it never before
+existed.
+
+And such are the "accomplishments" of the United States in Haiti. The
+Occupation has not only failed to achieve anything worth while, but has
+made it impossible to do so because of the distrust and bitterness that
+it has engendered in the Haitian people. Through the present
+instrumentalities no matter how earnestly the United States may desire
+to be fair to Haiti and make intervention a success, it will not
+succeed. An entirely new deal is necessary. This Government forced the
+Haitian leaders to accept the promise of American aid and American
+supervision. With that American aid the Haitian Government defaulted its
+external and internal debt, an obligation, which under self-government
+the Haitians had scrupulously observed. And American supervision turned
+out to be a military tyranny supporting a program of economic
+exploitation. The United States had an opportunity to gain the
+confidence of the Haitian people. That opportunity has been destroyed.
+When American troops first landed, although the Haitian people were
+outraged, there was a feeling nevertheless which might well have
+developed into cooperation. There were those who had hopes that the
+United States, guided by its traditional policy of nearly a century and
+a half, pursuing its fine stand in Cuba, under McKinley, Roosevelt, and
+Taft, would extend aid that would be mutually beneficial to both
+countries. Those Haitians who indulged this hope are disappointed and
+bitter. Those members of the Haitian Assembly who, while acting under
+coercion were nevertheless hopeful of American promises, incurred
+unpopularity by voting for the Convention, are today bitterly
+disappointed and utterly disillusioned.
+
+If the United States should leave Haiti today, it would leave more than
+a thousand widows and orphans of its own making, more banditry than has
+existed for a century, resentment, hatred and despair in the heart of a
+whole people, to say nothing of the irreparable injury to its own
+tradition as the defender of the rights of man.
+
+_From The Nation of September 4, 1920._
+
+
+
+
+III. GOVERNMENT OF, BY, AND FOR THE NATIONAL CITY BANK
+
+
+Former articles of this series described the Military Occupation of
+Haiti and the crowd of civilian place holders as among the forces at
+work in Haiti to maintain the present status in that country. But more
+powerful though less obvious, and more sinister, because of its deep and
+varied radications, is the force exercised by the National City Bank of
+New York. It seeks more than the mere maintenance of the present status
+in Haiti; it is constantly working to bring about a condition more
+suitable and profitable to itself. Behind the Occupation, working
+conjointly with the Department of State, stands this great banking
+institution of New York and elsewhere. The financial potentates allied
+with it are the ones who will profit by the control of Haiti. The
+United States Marine Corps and the various office-holding "deserving
+Democrats," who help maintain the status quo there, are in reality
+working for great financial interests in this country, although Uncle
+Sam and Haiti pay their salaries.
+
+Mr. Roger L. Farnham, vice-president of the National City Bank, was
+effectively instrumental in bringing about American intervention in
+Haiti. With the administration at Washington, the word of Mr. Farnham
+supersedes that of anybody else on the island. While Mr.
+Bailly-Blanchard, with the title of minister, is its representative in
+name, Mr. Farnham is its representative in fact. His goings and comings
+are aboard vessels of the United States Navy. His bank, the National
+City, has been in charge of the Banque Nationale d'Haiti throughout the
+Occupation.[1] Only a few weeks ago he was appointed receiver of the
+National Railroad of Haiti, controlling practically the entire railway
+system in the island with valuable territorial concessions in all
+parts.[2] The $5,000,000 sugar plant at Port-au-Prince, it is commonly
+reported, is about to fall into his hands.
+
+[Footnote 1: The National City Bank originally (about 1911) purchased
+2,000 shares of the stock of the Banque Nationale d'Haiti. After the
+Occupation it purchased 6,000 additional shares in the hands of three
+New York banking firms. Since then it has been negotiating for the
+complete control of the stock, the balance of which is held in France.
+The contract for this transfer of the Bank and the granting of a new
+charter under the laws of Haiti were agreed upon and signed at
+Washington last February. But the delay in completing these arrangements
+is caused by the impasse between the State Department and the National
+City Bank, on the one hand, and the Haitian Government on the other, due
+to the fact that the State Department and the National City Bank
+insisted upon including in the contract a clause prohibiting the
+importation and exportation of foreign money into Haiti subject only to
+the control of the financial adviser. To this new power the Haitian
+Government refuses to consent.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Originally, Mr. James P. McDonald secured from the Haitian
+Government the concession to build the railroads under the charter of
+the National Railways of Haiti. He arranged with W. R. Grace & Company
+to finance the concession. Grace and Company formed a syndicate under
+the aegis of the National City Bank which issued $2,500,000 bonds, sold
+in France. These bonds were guaranteed by the Haitian Government at an
+interest of 6 per cent on $32,500 for each mile. A short while after the
+floating of these bonds, Mr. Farnham became President of the company.
+The syndicate advanced another $2,000,000 for the completion of the
+railroad in accordance with the concession granted by the Haitian
+Government. This money was used, but the work was not completed in
+accordance with the contract made by the Haitian Government in the
+concession. The Haitian Government then refused any longer to pay the
+interest on the mileage. These happenings were prior to 1915.]
+
+Now, of all the various responsibilities, expressed, implied, or assumed
+by the United States in Haiti, it would naturally be supposed that the
+financial obligation would be foremost. Indeed, the sister republic of
+Santo Domingo was taken over by the United States Navy for no other
+reason than failure to pay its internal debt. But Haiti for over one
+hundred years scrupulously paid its external and internal debt--a fact
+worth remembering when one hears of "anarchy and disorder" in that
+land--until five years ago when under the financial guardianship of the
+United States interest on both the internal and, with one exception,
+external debt was defaulted; and this in spite of the fact that
+specified revenues were pledged for the payment of this interest. Apart
+from the distinct injury to the honor and reputation of the country, the
+hardship on individuals has been great. For while the foreign debt is
+held particularly in France which, being under great financial
+obligations to the United States since the beginning of the war, has not
+been able to protest effectively, the interior debt is held almost
+entirely by Haitian citizens. Haitian Government bonds have long been
+the recognized substantial investment for the well-to-do and middle
+class people, considered as are in this country, United States, state,
+and municipal bonds. Non-payment on these securities has placed many
+families in absolute want.
+
+What has happened to these bonds? They are being sold for a song, for
+the little cash they will bring. Individuals closely connected with the
+National Bank of Haiti are ready purchasers. When the new Haitian loan
+is floated it will, of course, contain ample provisions for redeeming
+these old bonds at par. The profits will be more than handsome. Not that
+the National Bank has not already made hay in the sunshine of American
+Occupation. From the beginning it has been sole depositary of all
+revenues collected in the name of the Haitian Government by the American
+Occupation, receiving in addition to the interest rate a commission on
+all funds deposited. The bank is the sole agent in the transmission of
+these funds. It has also the exclusive note-issuing privilege in the
+republic. At the same time complaint is widespread among the Haitian
+business men that the Bank no longer as of old accommodates them with
+credit and that its interests are now entirely in developments of its
+own.
+
+Now, one of the promises that was made to the Haitian Government, partly
+to allay its doubts and fears as to the purpose and character of the
+American intervention, was that the United States would put the
+country's finances on a solid and substantial basis. A loan for
+$30,000,000 or more was one of the features of this promised assistance.
+Pursuant, supposedly, to this plan, a Financial Adviser for Haiti was
+appointed in the person of Mr. John Avery McIlhenny. Who is Mr.
+McIlhenny? That he has the cordial backing and direction of so able a
+financier as Mr. Farnham is comforting when one reviews the past record
+and experience in finance of Haiti's Financial Adviser as given by him
+in "Who's Who in America," for 1918-1919. He was born in Avery Island,
+Iberia Parish, La.; went to Tulane University for one year; was a
+private in the Louisiana State militia for five years; trooper in the
+U.S. Cavalry in 1898; promoted to second lieutenancy for gallantry in
+action at San Juan; has been member of the Louisiana House of
+Representatives and Senate; was a member of the U. S. Civil Service
+Commission in 1906 and president of the same in 1913; Democrat. It is
+under his Financial Advisership that the Haitian interest has been
+continued in default with the one exception above noted, when several
+months ago $3,000,000 was converted into francs to meet the accumulated
+interest payments on the foreign debt. Dissatisfaction on the part of
+the Haitians developed over the lack of financial perspicacity in this
+transaction of Mr. McIlhenny because the sum was converted into francs
+at the rate of nine to a dollar while shortly after the rate of exchange
+on French francs dropped to fourteen to a dollar. Indeed, Mr.
+McIlhenny's unfitness by training and experience for the delicate and
+important position which he is filling was one of the most generally
+admitted facts which I gathered in Haiti.
+
+At the present writing, however, Mr. McIlhenny has become a conspicuous
+figure in the history of the Occupation of Haiti as the instrument by
+which the National City Bank is striving to complete the riveting,
+double-locking and bolting of its financial control of the island. For
+although it would appear that the absolute military domination under
+which Haiti is held would enable the financial powers to accomplish
+almost anything they desire, they are wise enough to realize that a day
+of reckoning, such as, for instance, a change in the Administration in
+the United States, may be coming. So they are eager and anxious to have
+everything they want signed, sealed, and delivered. Anything, of course,
+that the Haitians have fully "consented to" no one else can reasonably
+object to.
+
+A little recent history: in February of the present year, the ministers
+of the different departments, in order to conform to the letter of the
+law (Article 116 of the Constitution of Haiti, which was saddled upon
+her in 1918 by the Occupation[3] and Article 2 of the Haitian-American
+Convention[4]) began work on the preparation of the accounts for
+1918-1919 and the budget for 1920-1921. On March 22 a draft of the
+budget was sent to Mr. A. J. Maumus, Acting Financial Adviser, in the
+absence of Mr. McIlhenny who had at that time been in the United States
+for seven months. Mr. Maumus replied on March 29, suggesting
+postponement of all discussion of the budget until Mr. McIlhenny's
+return. Nevertheless, the Legislative body, in pursuance of the law,
+opened on its constitutional date, Monday, April 5. Despite the great
+urgency of the matter in hand, the Haitian administration was obliged to
+mark time until June 1, when Mr. McIlhenny returned to Haiti. Several
+conferences with the various ministers were then undertaken. On June 12,
+at one of these conferences, there arrived in the place of the Financial
+Adviser a note stating that he would be obliged to stop all study of the
+budget "until the time when certain affairs of considerable importance
+to the well-being of the country shall be finally settled according to
+recommendations made by me to the Haitian Government." As he did not
+give in his note the slightest idea what these important affairs were,
+the Haitian Secretary wrote asking for information, at the same time
+calling attention to the already great and embarrassing delay, and
+reminding Mr. McIlhenny that the preparation of the accounts and budget
+was one of his legal duties as an official attached to the Haitian
+Government, of which he could not divest himself.
+
+[Footnote 3: "The general accounts and the budgets prescribed by the
+preceding article must be submitted to the Legislative Body by the
+Secretary of Finance not later than eight days after the opening of the
+Legislative Session."]
+
+[Footnote 4: "The President of Haiti shall appoint, on the nomination of
+the President of the United States, a Financial Adviser who shall be
+attached to the Ministry of Finance, to whom the Secretary (of Finance)
+shall lend effective aid in the prosecution of his work. The Financial
+Adviser shall work out a system of public accounting, shall aid in
+increasing the revenues and in their adjustment to expenditures...."]
+
+On July 19 Mr. McIlhenny supplied his previous omission in a memorandum
+which he transmitted to the Haitian Department of Finance, in which he
+said: "I had instructions from the Department of State of the United
+States just before my departure for Haiti, in a part of a letter of May
+20, to declare to the Haitian Government that it was necessary to give
+its immediate and formal approval to:
+
+     1. A modification of the Bank Contract agreed upon by the
+     Department of State and the National City Bank of New York.
+
+     2. Transfer of the National Bank of the Republic of Haiti to a
+     new bank registered under the laws of Haiti, to be known as the
+     National Bank of the Republic of Haiti.
+
+     3. The execution of Article 15 of the Contract of Withdrawal
+     prohibiting the importation and exportation of non-Haitian
+     money except that which might be necessary for the needs of
+     commerce in the opinion of the Financial Adviser."
+
+Now, what is the meaning and significance of these proposals? The full
+details have not been given out, but it is known that they are part of a
+new monetary law for Haiti involving the complete transfer of the Banque
+Nationale d'Haiti to the National City Bank of New York. The document
+embodying the agreements, with the exception of the clause prohibiting
+the importation of foreign money, was signed at Washington, February 6,
+1920, by Mr. McIlhenny, the Haitian Minister at Washington and the
+Haitian Secretary of Finance. _The Haitian Government has officially
+declared that the clause prohibiting the importation and exportation of
+foreign money, except as it may be deemed necessary in the opinion of
+the Financial Adviser, was added to the original agreement by some
+unknown party._ It is for the purpose of compelling the Haitian
+Government to approve the agreements, including the "prohibition
+clause," that pressure is now being applied. Efforts on the part of
+business interests in Haiti to learn the character and scope of what was
+done at Washington have been thwarted by close secrecy. However,
+sufficient of its import has become known to understand the reasons for
+the unqualified and definite refusal of President Dartiguenave and the
+Government to give their approval. Those reasons are that the agreements
+would give to the National Bank of Haiti, and thereby to the National
+City Bank of New York, exclusive monopoly upon the right of importing
+and exporting American and other foreign money to and from Haiti, a
+monopoly which would carry unprecedented and extraordinarily lucrative
+privileges.
+
+The proposal involved in this agreement has called forth a vigorous
+protest on the part of every important banking and business concern in
+Haiti with the exception, of course, of the National Bank of Haiti. This
+protest was transmitted to the Haitian Minister of Finance on July 30
+past. The protest is signed not only by Haitians and Europeans doing
+business in that country but also by the leading American business
+concerns, among which are The American Foreign Banking Corporation, The
+Haitian-American Sugar Company, The Panama Railroad Steamship Line, The
+Clyde Steamship Line, and The West Indies Trading Company. Among the
+foreign signers are the Royal Bank of Canada, Le Comptoir Francais, Le
+Comptoir Commercial, and besides a number of business firms.
+
+We have now in Haiti a triangular situation with the National City Bank
+and our Department of State in two corners and the Haitian government in
+the third. Pressure is being brought on the Haitian government to compel
+it to grant a monopoly which on its face appears designed to give the
+National City Bank a strangle hold on the financial life of that
+country. With the Haitian government refusing to yield, we have the
+Financial Adviser who is, according to the Haitian-American Convention,
+a Haitian official charged with certain duties (in this case the
+approval of the budget and accounts), refusing to carry out those duties
+until the government yields to the pressure which is being brought.
+
+Haiti is now experiencing the "third degree." Ever since the Bank
+Contract was drawn and signed at Washington increasing pressure has been
+applied to make the Haitian government accept the clause prohibiting the
+importation of foreign money. Mr. McIlhenny is now holding up the
+salaries of the President, ministers of departments, members of the
+Council of State, and the official interpreter. [These salaries have not
+been paid since July 1.] And there the matter now stands.
+
+Several things may happen. The Administration, finding present methods
+insufficient, may decide to act as in Santo Domingo, to abolish the
+President, cabinet, and all civil government--as they have already
+abolished the Haitian Assembly--and put into effect, by purely military
+force, what, in the face of the unflinching Haitian refusal to sign away
+their birthright, the combined military, civil, and financial pressure
+has been unable to accomplish. Or, with an election and a probable
+change of Administration in this country pending, with a Congressional
+investigation foreshadowed, it may be decided that matters are "too
+difficult" and the National City Bank may find that it can be more
+profitably engaged elsewhere. Indications of such a course are not
+lacking. From the point of view of the National City Bank, of course,
+the institution has not only done nothing which is not wholly
+legitimate, proper, and according to the canons of big business
+throughout the world, but has actually performed constructive and
+generous service to a backward and uncivilized people in attempting to
+promote their railways, to develop their country, and to shape soundly
+their finance. That Mr. Farnham and those associated with him hold these
+views sincerely, there is no doubt. But that the Haitians, after over
+one hundred years of self-government and liberty, contemplating the
+slaughter of three thousand of their sons, the loss of their political
+and economic freedom, without compensating advantages which they can
+appreciate, feel very differently, is equally true.
+
+_From The Nation of September 11, 1920._
+
+
+
+
+IV. THE HAITIAN PEOPLE
+
+
+The first sight of Port-au-Prince is perhaps most startling to the
+experienced Latin-American traveler. Caribbean cities are of the
+Spanish-American type--buildings square and squat, built generally
+around a court, with residences and business houses scarcely
+interdistinguishable. Port-au-Prince is rather a city of the French or
+Italian Riviera. Across the bay of deepest blue the purple mountains of
+Gonave loom against the Western sky, rivaling the bay's azure depths.
+Back of the business section, spreading around the bay's great sweep and
+well into the plain beyond, rise the green hills with their white
+residences. The residential section spreads over the slopes and into the
+mountain tiers. High up are the homes of the well-to-do, beautiful
+villas set in green gardens relieved by the flaming crimson of the
+poinsettia. Despite the imposing mountains a man-made edifice dominates
+the scene. From the center of the city the great Gothic cathedral lifts
+its spires above the tranquil city. Well-paved and clean, the city
+prolongs the thrill of its first unfolding. Cosmopolitan yet quaint,
+with an old-world atmosphere yet a charm of its own, one gets throughout
+the feeling of continental European life. In the hotels and cafes the
+affairs of the world are heard discussed in several languages. The
+cuisine and service are not only excellent but inexpensive. At the Cafe
+Dereix, cool and scrupulously clean, dinner from _hors d'oeuvres_ to
+_glaces_, with wine, of course, recalling the famous antebellum
+hostelries of New York and Paris, may be had for six gourdes [$1.25].
+
+A drive of two hours around Port-au-Prince, through the newer section of
+brick and concrete buildings, past the cathedral erected from 1903 to
+1912, along the Champ de Mars where the new presidential palace stands,
+up into the Peu de Choses section where the hundreds of beautiful villas
+and grounds of the well-to-do are situated, permanently dispels any
+lingering question that the Haitians have been retrograding during the
+116 years of their independence.
+
+In the lower city, along the water's edge, around the market and in the
+Rue Republicaine, is the "local color." The long rows of wooden
+shanties, the curious little booths around the market, filled with
+jabbering venders and with scantily clad children, magnificent in body,
+running in and out, are no less picturesque and no more primitive, no
+humbler, yet cleaner, than similar quarters in Naples, in Lisbon, in
+Marseilles, and more justifiable than the great slums of civilization's
+centers--London and New York, which are totally without aesthetic
+redemption. But it is only the modernists in history who are willing to
+look at the masses as factors in the life and development of the
+country, and in its history. For Haitian history, like history the world
+over, has for the last century been that of cultured and educated
+groups. To know Haitian life one must have the privilege of being
+received as a guest in the houses of these latter, and they live in
+beautiful houses. The majority have been educated in France; they are
+cultured, brilliant conversationally, and thoroughly enjoy their social
+life. The women dress well. Many are beautiful and all vivacious and
+chic. Cultivated people from any part of the world would feel at home in
+the best Haitian society. If our guest were to enter to the Cercle
+Bellevue, the leading club of Port-au-Prince, he would find the
+courteous, friendly atmosphere of a men's club; he would hear varying
+shades of opinion on public questions, and could scarcely fail to be
+impressed by the thorough knowledge of world affairs possessed by the
+intelligent Haitian. Nor would his encounters be only with people who
+have culture and savoir vivre; he would meet the Haitian
+intellectuals--poets, essayists, novelists, historians, critics. Take
+for example such a writer as Fernand Hibbert. An English authority says
+of him, "His essays are worthy of the pen of Anatole France or Pierre
+Loti." And there is Georges Sylvaine, poet and essayist, conferencier at
+the Sorbonne, where his address was received with acclaim, author of
+books crowned by the French Academy, and an Officer of the Legion
+d'Honneur. Hibbert and Sylvaine are only two among a dozen or more
+contemporary Haitian men of letters whose work may be measured by world
+standards. Two names that stand out preeminently in Haitian literature
+are Oswald Durand, the national poet, who died a few years ago, and
+Damocles Vieux. These people, educated, cultured, and intellectual, are
+not accidental and sporadic offshoots of the Haitian people; they _are_
+the Haitian people and they are a demonstration of its inherent
+potentialities.
+
+However, Port-au-Prince is not all of Haiti. Other cities are smaller
+replicas, and fully as interesting are the people of the country
+districts. Perhaps the deepest impression on the observant visitor is
+made by the country women. Magnificent as they file along the country
+roads by scores and by hundreds on their way to the town markets, with
+white or colored turbaned heads, gold-looped-ringed ears, they stride
+along straight and lithe, almost haughtily, carrying themselves like so
+many Queens of Sheba. The Haitian country people are kind-hearted,
+hospitable, and polite, seldom stupid but rather, quick-witted and
+imaginative. Fond of music, with a profound sense of beauty and harmony,
+they live simply but wholesomely. Their cabins rarely consist of only
+one room, the humblest having two or three, with a little shed front and
+back, a front and rear entrance, and plenty of windows. An aesthetic
+touch is never lacking--a flowering hedge or an arbor with trained vines
+bearing gorgeous colored blossoms. There is no comparison between the
+neat plastered-wall, thatched-roof cabin of the Haitian peasant and the
+traditional log hut of the South or the shanty of the more wretched
+American suburbs. The most notable feature about the Haitian cabin is
+its invariable cleanliness. At daylight the country people are up and
+about, the women begin their sweeping till the earthen or pebble-paved
+floor of the cabin is clean as can be. Then the yards around the cabin
+are vigorously attacked. In fact, nowhere in the country districts of
+Haiti does one find the filth and squalor which may be seen in any
+backwoods town in our own South. Cleanliness is a habit and a dirty
+Haitian is a rare exception. The garments even of the men who work on
+the wharves, mended and patched until little of the original cloth is
+visible, give evidence of periodical washing. The writer recalls a
+remark made by Mr. E. P. Pawley, an American, who conducts one of the
+largest business enterprises in Haiti. He said that the Haitians were an
+exceptionally clean people, that statistics showed that Haiti imported
+more soap per capita than any country in the world, and added, "They use
+it, too." Three of the largest soap manufactories in the United States
+maintain headquarters at Port-au-Prince.
+
+The masses of the Haitian people are splendid material for the building
+of a nation. They are not lazy; on the contrary, they are industrious
+and thrifty. Some observers mistakenly confound primitive methods with
+indolence. Anyone who travels Haitian roads is struck by the hundreds
+and even thousands of women, boys, and girls filing along mile after
+mile with their farm and garden produce on their heads or loaded on the
+backs of animals. With modern facilities, they could market their
+produce much more efficiently and with far less effort. But lacking them
+they are willing to walk and carry. For a woman to walk five to ten
+miles with a great load of produce on her head which may barely realize
+her a dollar is doubtless primitive, and a wasteful expenditure of
+energy, but it is not a sign of laziness. Haiti's great handicap has
+been not that her masses are degraded or lazy or immoral. It is that
+they are ignorant, due not so much to mental limitations as to enforced
+illiteracy. There is a specific reason for this. Somehow the French
+language, in the French-American colonial settlements containing a Negro
+population, divided itself into two branches, French and Creole. This is
+true of Louisiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and also of Haiti. Creole is
+an Africanized French and must not be thought of as a mere dialect. The
+French-speaking person cannot understand Creole, excepting a few words,
+unless he learns it. Creole is a distinct tongue, a graphic and very
+expressive language. Many of its constructions follow closely the
+African idioms. For example, in forming the superlative of greatness,
+one says in Creole, "He is great among great men," and a merchant woman,
+following the native idiom, will say, "You do not wish anything
+beautiful if you do not buy this." The upper Haitian class,
+approximately 500,000, speak and know French, while the masses, probably
+more than 2,000,000 speak only Creole. Haitian Creole is grammatically
+constructed, but has not to any general extent been reduced to writing.
+Therefore, these masses have no means of receiving or communicating
+thoughts through the written word. They have no books to read. They
+cannot read the newspapers. The children of the masses study French for
+a few years in school, but it never becomes their every-day language. In
+order to abolish Haitian illiteracy, Creole must be made a printed as
+well as a spoken language. The failure to undertake this problem is the
+worst indictment against the Haitian Government.
+
+This matter of language proves a handicap to Haiti in another manner. It
+isolates her from her sister republics. All of the Latin-American
+republics except Brazil speak Spanish and enjoy an intercourse with the
+outside world denied Haiti. Dramatic and musical companies from Spain,
+from Mexico and from the Argentine annually tour all of the
+Spanish-speaking republics. Haiti is deprived of all such instruction
+and entertainment from the outside world because it is not profitable
+for French companies to visit the three or four French-speaking islands
+in the Western Hemisphere.
+
+Much stress has been laid on the bloody history of Haiti and its
+numerous revolutions. Haitian history has been all too bloody, but so
+has that of every other country, and the bloodiness of the Haitian
+revolutions has of late been unduly magnified. A writer might visit our
+own country and clip from our daily press accounts of murders, robberies
+on the principal streets of our larger cities, strike violence, race
+riots, lynchings, and burnings at the stake of human beings, and write a
+book to prove that life is absolutely unsafe in the United States. The
+seriousness of the frequent Latin-American revolutions has been greatly
+over-emphasized. The writer has been in the midst of three of these
+revolutions and must confess that the treatment given them on our comic
+opera stage is very little farther removed from the truth than the
+treatment which is given in the daily newspapers. Not nearly so bloody
+as reported, their interference with people not in politics is almost
+negligible. Nor should it be forgotten that in almost every instance the
+revolution is due to the plotting of foreigners backed up by their
+Governments. No less an authority than Mr. John H. Allen, vice-president
+of the National City Bank of New York, writing on Haiti in the May
+number of _The Americas_, the National City Bank organ, who says, "It is
+no secret that the revolutions were financed by foreigners and were
+profitable speculations."
+
+In this matter of change of government by revolution, Haiti must not be
+compared with the United States or with England; it must be compared
+with other Latin American republics. When it is compared with our next
+door neighbor, Mexico, it will be found that the Government of Haiti has
+been more stable and that the country has experienced less bloodshed and
+anarchy. And it must never be forgotten that throughout not an American
+or other foreigner has been killed, injured or, as far as can be
+ascertained, even molested. In Haiti's 116 years of independence, there
+have been twenty-five presidents and twenty-five different
+administrations. In Mexico, during its 99 years of independence, there
+have been forty-seven rulers and eighty-seven administrations. "Graft"
+has been plentiful, shocking at times, but who in America, where the
+Tammany machines and the municipal rings are notorious, will dare to
+point the finger of scorn at Haiti in this connection.
+
+And this is the people whose "inferiority," whose "retrogression," whose
+"savagery," is advanced as a justification for intervention--for the
+ruthless slaughter of three thousand of its practically defenseless
+sons, with the death of a score of our own boys, for the utterly selfish
+exploitation of the country by American big finance, for the destruction
+of America's most precious heritage--her traditional fair play, her
+sense of justice, her aid to the oppressed. "Inferiority" always was the
+excuse of ruthless imperialism until the Germans invaded Belgium, when
+it became "military necessity." In the case of Haiti there is not the
+slightest vestige of any of the traditional justifications, unwarranted
+as these generally are, and no amount of misrepresentation in an era
+when propaganda and censorship have had their heyday, no amount of
+slander, even in a country deeply prejudiced where color is involved,
+will longer serve to obscure to the conscience of America the eternal
+shame of its last five years in Haiti. _Fiat justitia, ruat coelum!_
+
+_From The Nation of September 25, 1920._
+
+
+
+
+Documents
+
+_The following are from The Nation of August 28, 1920_
+
+The Proposed Convention with Haiti
+
+
+The Fuller Convention, submitted to the Haitian Minister of Foreign
+Affairs on May 22, 1915, by Mr. Paul Fuller, Jr., Envoy Extraordinary of
+the United States to Haiti, read as follows, the preliminary and
+concluding paragraphs being omitted:
+
+     1. The Government of the United States of America will protect
+     the Republic of Haiti from outside attack and from the
+     aggression of any foreign Power, and to that end will employ
+     such forces of the army and navy of the United States as may be
+     necessary.
+
+     2. The Government of the United States of America will aid the
+     Government of Haiti to suppress insurrection from within and
+     will give effective support by the employment of the armed
+     forces of the United States army and navy to the extent needed.
+
+     3. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants that no
+     rights, privileges, or facilities of any description whatsoever
+     will be granted, sold, leased, or otherwise accorded directly
+     or indirectly by the Government of Haiti concerning the
+     occupation or use of the Mole Saint-Nicolas to any foreign
+     government or to a national or the nationals of any other
+     foreign government.
+
+     4. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants that within
+     six months from the signing of this convention, the Government
+     will enter into an arbitration agreement for the settlement of
+     such claims as American citizens or other foreigners may have
+     against the Government of Haiti, such arbitration agreement to
+     provide for the equal treatment of all foreigners to the end
+     that the people of Haiti may have the benefit of competition
+     between the nationals of all countries.
+
+
+
+
+The Haitian Counter-Project
+
+
+The counter-project of the Haitian Government, of June 4, 1915, with
+such of the modifications suggested by Mr. Fuller as the Haitian
+Government was willing to accept, read as follows:
+
+     I. The Government of the United States of America will lend its
+     assistance to the Republic of Haiti for the preservation of its
+     independence. For that purpose it agrees to intervene to
+     prevent the intrusion of any Power and to repulse any act of
+     aggression against the Republic of Haiti. To that end it will
+     employ such forces of the army and navy of the United States as
+     may be necessary.
+
+     II. The Government of the United States will facilitate the
+     entry into Haiti of sufficient capital to assure the full
+     economic development of that country, and to improve, within
+     the immediate future, its financial situation, especially to
+     bring about the unification of its debt in such fashion as to
+     reduce the customs guaranties now required, and to lead to a
+     fundamental money reform.
+
+     In order to give such capital all desirable guaranties the
+     Government of Haiti agrees to employ in the customs service
+     only officials whose ability and character are well known, and
+     to replace those who in practice are found not to fill these
+     conditions.
+
+     The Government of Haiti will also assure the protection of
+     capital and in general of all foreign interests by the
+     organization of a mounted rural constabulary trained in the
+     most modern methods.
+
+     In the meantime if it be necessary the Government of the United
+     States, after consultation with the Government of Haiti, will
+     give its aid in the repression of serious disorders or troubles
+     which might compromise these foreign interests.
+
+     The American forces which have in the given circumstances
+     cooperated with the Haitian troops in the restoration of order,
+     should be retired from Haitian territory at the first request
+     of the constitutional authority.
+
+     III. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants that no
+     rights, privileges, or facilities of any description whatsoever
+     will be granted, sold, leased, or otherwise accorded directly
+     or indirectly by the Government of Haiti concerning the
+     occupation or use of the Mole Saint-Nicolas to any foreign
+     government or to a national or the nationals of any other
+     foreign government.
+
+     IV. The President of the Republic of Haiti covenants within six
+     months of the signing of this convention to sign a convention
+     of arbitration with the Powers concerned for the settlement of
+     the diplomatic claims pending, which arbitration convention
+     will provide for the equal treatment of all claimants, no
+     special privileges being granted to any of them.
+
+     V. In case of difficulties regarding the interpretation of the
+     clauses of the present convention, the high contracting parties
+     agree to submit the difference to the Permanent Court of
+     Arbitration at The Hague.
+
+Mr. Fuller had suggested a further modification which the Haitian
+Government refused. It changed the final paragraph of Article II to
+read: "The American forces which have in the given circumstance
+cooperated with the Haitian troops, shall, when order has been
+reestablished, be retired," etc. His other suggestions were accepted
+with unimportant verbal changes.
+
+
+
+
+The Haitian-United States Convention
+
+
+The convention between the United States and Haiti was ratified on
+September 16, 1915, after the occupation of the country by American
+troops. In its final form it is in interesting contrast with the
+suggested agreements printed above.
+
+     The United States and the Republic of Haiti, desiring to
+     confirm and strengthen the amity existing between them by the
+     most cordial cooperation in measures for their common
+     advantage, and the Republic of Haiti desiring to remedy the
+     present condition of its revenues and finances, to maintain the
+     tranquillity of the Republic, to carry out plans for the
+     economic development and prosperity of the Republic and its
+     people, and the United States being in full sympathy with all
+     of these aims and objects and desiring to contribute in all
+     proper ways to their accomplishment;
+
+     The United States and the Republic of Haiti have resolved to
+     conclude a convention with these objects in view, and have
+     appointed for that purpose plenipotentiaries:
+
+     The President of the Republic of Haiti, Mr. Louis Borno,
+     Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Public Instruction,
+
+     The President of the United States, Mr. Robert Beale Davis,
+     Jr., Charge d'Affaires of the United States of America;
+
+     Who, having exhibited to each other their respective powers,
+     which are seen to be full in good and true form, have agreed as
+     follows:
+
+     ARTICLE I. The Government of the United States will, by its
+     good offices, aid the Haitian Government in the proper and
+     efficient development of its agricultural, mineral, and
+     commercial resources and in the establishment of the finances
+     of Haiti on a firm and solid basis.
+
+     ARTICLE II. The President of Haiti shall appoint, upon
+     nomination by the President of the United States, a General
+     Receiver and such aids and employees as may be necessary, who
+     shall collect, receive, and apply all customs duties on imports
+     and exports accruing at the several customs-houses and ports of
+     entry of the Republic of Haiti.
+
+     The President of Haiti shall appoint, upon nomination by the
+     President of the United States, a Financial Adviser who shall
+     be an officer attached to the Ministry of Finance, to give
+     effect to whose proposals and labors the Minister will lend
+     efficient aid. The Financial Adviser shall devise an adequate
+     system of public accounting, aid in increasing the revenues and
+     adjusting them to the expenses, inquire into the validity of
+     the debts of the Republic, enlighten both governments with
+     reference to all eventual debts, recommend improved methods of
+     collecting and applying the revenues, and make such other
+     recommendations to the Minister of Finance as may be deemed
+     necessary for the welfare and prosperity of Haiti.
+
+     ARTICLE III. The Government of the Republic of Haiti will
+     provide by law or appropriate decrees for the payment of all
+     customs duties to the General Receiver, and will extend to the
+     Receivership, and to the Financial Adviser, all needful aid and
+     full protection in the execution of the powers conferred and
+     duties imposed herein; and the United States on its part will
+     extend like aid and protection.
+
+     ARTICLE IV. Upon the appointment of the Financial Adviser, the
+     Government of the Republic of Haiti in cooperation with the
+     Financial Adviser, shall collate, classify, arrange, and make
+     full statement of all the debts of the Republic, the amounts,
+     character, maturity, and condition thereof, and the interest
+     accruing and the sinking fund requisite to their final
+     discharge.
+
+     ARTICLE V. All sums collected and received by the General
+     Receiver shall be applied, first to the payment of the salaries
+     and allowances of the General Receiver, his assistants, and
+     employees and expenses of the Receivership, including the
+     salary and expenses of the Financial Adviser, which salaries
+     will be determined by the previous agreement; second, to the
+     interest and sinking fund of the public debt of the Republic of
+     Haiti; and third, to the maintenance of the constabulary
+     referred to in Article X, and then the remainder to the Haitian
+     Government for the purposes of current expenses.
+
+     In making these applications the General Receiver will proceed
+     to pay salaries and allowances monthly and expenses as they
+     arise, and on the first of each calendar month will set aside
+     in a separate fund the quantum of the collections and receipts
+     of the previous month.
+
+     ARTICLE VI. The expenses of the Receivership, including
+     salaries and allowances of the General Receiver, his
+     assistants, and employees, and the salary and expenses of the
+     Financial Adviser, shall not exceed 5 per cent of the
+     collections and receipts from customs duties, unless by
+     agreement by the two governments.
+
+     ARTICLE VII. The General Receiver shall make monthly reports of
+     all collections, receipts, and disbursements to the appropriate
+     officers of the Republic of Haiti and to the Department of
+     State of the United States, which reports shall be open to
+     inspection and verification at all times by the appropriate
+     authorities of each of the said governments.
+
+     ARTICLE VIII. The Republic of Haiti shall not increase its
+     public debt, except by previous agreement with the President of
+     the United States, and shall not contract any debt or assume
+     any financial obligation unless the ordinary revenues of the
+     Republic available for that purpose, after defraying the
+     expenses of the Government, shall be adequate to pay the
+     interest and provide a sinking fund for the final discharge of
+     such debt.
+
+     ARTICLE IX. The Republic of Haiti will not, without the assent
+     of the President of the United States, modify the customs
+     duties in a manner to reduce the revenues therefrom; and in
+     order that the revenues of the Republic may be adequate to meet
+     the public debt and the expenses of the Government, to preserve
+     tranquillity, and to promote material prosperity, the Republic
+     of Haiti will cooperate with the Financial Adviser in his
+     recommendations for improvement in the methods of collecting
+     and disbursing the revenues and for new sources of needed
+     income.
+
+     ARTICLE X. The Haitian Government obligates itself, for the
+     preservation of domestic peace, the security of individual
+     rights, and the full observance of the provisions of this
+     treaty, to create without delay an efficient constabulary,
+     urban and rural, composed of native Haitians. This constabulary
+     shall be organized and officered by Americans appointed by the
+     President of Haiti, upon nomination by the President of the
+     United States. The Haitian Government shall clothe these
+     officers with the proper and necessary authority and uphold
+     them in the performance of their functions. These officers will
+     be replaced by Haitians as they, by examination conducted under
+     direction of a board to be selected by the senior American
+     officer of this constabulary in the presence of a
+     representative of the Haitian Government, are found to be
+     qualified to assume such duties. The constabulary herein
+     provided for shall, under the direction of the Haitian
+     Government, have supervision and control of arms and
+     ammunition, military supplies and traffic therein, throughout
+     the country. The high contracting parties agree that the
+     stipulations in this article are necessary to prevent factional
+     strife and disturbances.
+
+     ARTICLE XI. The Government of Haiti agrees not to surrender any
+     of the territory of the Republic of Haiti by sale, lease, or
+     otherwise, or jurisdiction over such territory, to any foreign
+     government or Power, nor to enter into any treaty or contract
+     with any foreign Power or Powers that will impair or tend to
+     impair the independence of Haiti.
+
+     ARTICLE XII. The Haitian Government agrees to execute with the
+     United States a protocol for the settlement, by arbitration or
+     otherwise, of all pending pecuniary claims of foreign
+     corporations, companies, citizens, or subjects against Haiti.
+
+     ARTICLE XIII. The Republic of Haiti, being desirous to further
+     the development of its natural resources, agrees to undertake
+     and execute such measures as, in the opinion of the high
+     contracting parties, may be necessary for the sanitation and
+     public improvement of the Republic under the supervision and
+     direction of an engineer or engineers, to be appointed by the
+     President of Haiti upon nomination of the President of the
+     United States, and authorized for that purpose by the
+     Government of Haiti.
+
+     ARTICLE XIV. The high contracting parties shall have authority
+     to take such steps as may be necessary to insure the complete
+     attainment of any of the objects comprehended in this treaty;
+     and should the necessity occur, the United States will lend an
+     efficient aid for the preservation of Haitian independence and
+     the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of
+     life, property, and individual liberty.
+
+     ARTICLE XV. The present treaty shall be approved and ratified
+     by the high contracting parties in conformity with their
+     respective laws, and the ratifications thereof shall be
+     exchanged in the City of Washington as soon as may be possible.
+
+     ARTICLE XVI. The present treaty shall remain in full force and
+     virtue for the term of ten years, to be counted from the day of
+     exchange of ratifications, and further for another term of ten
+     years if, for specific reasons presented by either of the high
+     contracting parties, the purpose of this treaty has not been
+     fully accomplished.
+
+     In faith whereof, the respective plenipotentiaries have signed
+     the present convention in duplicate, in the English and French
+     languages, and have thereunto affixed their seals.
+
+     Done at Port-au-Prince (Haiti), the 16th day of September
+     in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and fifteen.
+
+     ROBERT BEALE DAVIS, JR.,
+     Charge d'Affaires of the United States
+
+     LOUIS BORNO,
+     Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
+     and Public Instruction
+
+
+
+
+The New Constitution of Haiti
+
+
+The new Constitution of the Republic of Haiti, ratified under the
+American Occupation, altered the former Constitution in regard to the
+important subject of the right of foreigners to hold land. Article 6 of
+the old Constitution reads:
+
+     No one, unless he is a Haitian, may be a holder of land in
+     Haiti, regardless of what his title may be, nor acquire any
+     real estate.
+
+Article 5 of the Constitution of 1918 makes the following provision:
+
+     The right to hold property is given to foreigners residing in
+     Haiti, and to societies formed by foreigners, for dwelling
+     purposes and for agricultural, commercial, industrial, or
+     educational enterprises. This right shall be discontinued five
+     years after the foreigner shall have ceased to reside in the
+     country, or when the activities of these companies shall have
+     ceased.
+
+
+
+
+The Haitian President's Proclamation
+
+
+In the _Moniteur_, official organ of the Republic of Haiti, for
+September 4, 1915, in a column headed "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,"
+the president of Haiti published a proclamation on the situation arising
+from the occupation by American troops of the customs-house at
+Port-au-Prince.
+
+     Haitians! At the very moment when the Government, engaged in
+     negotiations to settle the question of the presence of American
+     military forces on Haitian territory, was looking forward to a
+     prompt solution in accordance with law and justice, it finds
+     itself faced with the simple seizure of possession of the
+     customs administration of the capital.
+
+     Previously the customs-houses of several other cities of the
+     republic had been occupied in like fashion, and whenever the
+     news of such occupation reached the National Palace or the
+     Department of Finances, it was followed by an energetic
+     protest, demanding that the diplomatic representative of the
+     American Government residing at Port-au-Prince restore the
+     customs-houses and put an end to acts so contrary to the
+     relations at present existing between the Government of Haiti
+     and the Government of the United States of North America.
+
+     Haitians! In bringing these facts officially to the attention
+     of the country, I owe it to myself to declare further, in the
+     most formal fashion, to you and to the entire civilized world,
+     that the order to carry out these acts so destructive of the
+     interests, rights, and sovereignty of the Haitian people is not
+     due to anything which can be cited against the patriotism,
+     devotion, spirit of sacrifice, and loyalty of those to whom the
+     destinies of the country have been intrusted. You are the
+     judges of that.
+
+     Nor will I conceal the fact that my astonishment is greater
+     because the negotiations, which had been undertaken in the hope
+     of an agreement upon the basis of propositions presented by the
+     American Government itself, after having passed through the
+     ordinary phases of diplomatic discussion, with frankness and
+     courtesy on both sides, have now been relieved of the only
+     obstacles which had hitherto appeared to stand in their way.
+
+     Haitians! In this agonizing situation, more than tragic for
+     every truly Haitian soul, the Government, which intends to
+     preserve full national sovereignty, will be able to maintain
+     the necessary resolution only if all are united in exercising
+     their intelligence and energy with it in the present task of
+     saving the nation....
+
+     SUDRE DARTIGUENAVE
+
+     Given at the National Palace, September 2, 1915, in the 112th
+     year of our independence.
+
+
+
+
+_The following are from the Nation of September 11, 1920_
+
+Why Haiti Has No Budget
+
+
+At the session of the Haitian National Assembly on August 4, the
+President of the Republic of Haiti and the Haitian Minister of Finance
+laid before that body the course of the American Financial Adviser which
+had made it impossible to submit to the Assembly accounts and budgets in
+accordance with the Constitution of Haiti and the Haiti-American
+Convention. The statement which follows is taken from the official
+Haitian gazette, the _Moniteur_ of August 7.
+
+     MESSAGE OF THE PRESIDENT
+
+     Gentlemen of the Council of State: On account of unforeseen
+     circumstances it has not been possible for the Government of
+     the Republic to present to you in the course of the session of
+     your high assembly which closes today (August 4) the general
+     accounts of the receipts and expenditures for 1918-1919 and the
+     budget for 1920-1921, in accordance with the Constitution.
+
+     It is certainly an exceptional case, the gravity of which will
+     not escape you. You will learn the full details from the report
+     which the Secretary of Finance and Commerce will submit to you,
+     in which it will be shown that the responsibility for it does
+     not fall on the Executive Power....
+
+     In the life of every people there come moments when it must
+     know how to be resigned and to suffer. Are we facing one of
+     those moments? The attitude of the Haitian people, calm and
+     dignified, persuades me that, marching closely with the
+     Government of the Republic, there is no suffering which it is
+     not disposed to undergo to safeguard and secure the triumph of
+     its rights.
+
+     DARTIGUENAVE
+
+
+     REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF FINANCE AND COMMERCE
+
+     Gentlemen of the Council of State: Article 116 of the
+     Constitution prescribes in its first paragraph: "The general
+     accounts and the budgets prescribed by the preceding article
+     must be submitted to the legislative body by the Secretary of
+     Finance not later than eight days after the opening of the
+     legislative session."
+
+     And Article 2 of the American-Haitian Convention of September
+     16, 1915, stipulates in its second paragraph: "The President of
+     Haiti shall appoint, on the nomination of the President of the
+     United States, a Financial Adviser, _who shall be a civil
+     servant attached to the Ministry of Finance_, to whom the
+     Secretary shall lend effective aid in the prosecution of his
+     work. The Financial Adviser shall work out a system of public
+     accounting, shall aid in increasing the revenues and in their
+     adjustment to expenditures...."
+
+     Since February of this year (1920) the secretaries of the
+     various departments, in order to conform to the letter of
+     Article 116 of the Constitution, and to assure continuity of
+     public service in the matter of receipts and expenditures, set
+     to work at the preparation of the budgets for their departments
+     for 1920-21.
+
+     By a dispatch dated March 22, 1920, the Department of Finance
+     sent the draft budgets to Mr. A. J. Maumus, Acting Financial
+     Adviser, for preliminary study by that official. But the Acting
+     Adviser replied to the Department by a letter, of March 29: "I
+     suggest that, in view of the early return of Mr. John
+     McIlhenny, the Financial Adviser, measures be taken to postpone
+     all discussion regarding the said draft budgets between the
+     different departments and the Office [of the Financial Adviser]
+     to permit him to take part in the discussions."
+
+     Nevertheless, the regular session was opened on the
+     constitutional date, Monday, April 5, 1920. Mr. John McIlhenny,
+     the titular Financial Adviser, absent in the United States
+     since October, 1919, on a financial mission for the Government,
+     prolonged his stay in America, detained no doubt by the
+     insurmountable difficulties in the accomplishment of his
+     mission (the placing of a Haitian loan on the New York market).
+     Since on the one hand the Adviser could not overcome these
+     difficulties, and on the other hand his presence at
+     Port-au-Prince was absolutely necessary for the preparation of
+     the budget in conformity with the Constitution and the
+     Haitian-American Convention, the Government deemed it essential
+     to ask him to return to Port-au-Prince for that purpose. The
+     Government in so doing secured the good offices of the American
+     Legation, and Mr. McIlhenny returned from the United States
+     about the first of June. The Legislature had already been in
+     session almost two months.
+
+     About June 15 the Adviser began the study of the budget with
+     the secretaries. The conferences lasted about twelve days, and
+     in that time, after courteous discussions, after some cuts,
+     modifications, and additions, plans for the following budgets
+     were agreed upon:
+
+       1. Ways and Means
+       2. Foreign Relations
+       3. Finance and Commerce
+       4. Interior
+
+     On Monday, July 12, at 3.30, the hour agreed upon between the
+     ministers and the Adviser, the ministers met to continue the
+     study of the budget which they wanted to finish quickly....
+     Between 4 and 4:30 the Secretary of Finance received a letter
+     from the Adviser which reads as follows:
+
+     "I find myself obliged to stop all study of the budget until
+     certain affairs of considerable importance for the welfare of
+     the country shall have been finally settled according to the
+     recommendations made by me to the Haitian Government.
+
+     "Please accept, Mr. Secretary, the assurance of my highest
+     consideration,
+         JOHN MCILHENNY"
+
+     Such an unanticipated and unjustifiable decision on the part of
+     Mr. McIlhenny, an official attached to the Ministry of Finance,
+     caused the whole Government profound surprise and warranted
+     dissatisfaction....
+
+     On July 13 the Department of Finance replied to the Financial
+     Adviser as follows:
+
+     "I beg to acknowledge your letter of July 12, in which you say,
+     'I find myself obliged, etc....'
+
+     "In taking note of this declaration, the importance and gravity
+     of which certainly cannot escape you, I can only regret in the
+     name of the Government:
+
+     "1. That you omitted to tell me with the precision which such
+     an emergency demands what are the affairs of an importance so
+     considerable for the welfare of the country and the settlement
+     of which, according to the recommendations made by you, is of
+     such great moment that you can subordinate to that settlement
+     the continuation of the work on the budget?
+
+     "2. That you have taken such a serious step without considering
+     that in so doing you have divested yourself of one of the
+     essential functions which devolves upon you as Financial
+     Adviser attached to the Department of Finance.
+
+     "The preparation of the budget of the state constitutes one of
+     the principal obligations of those intrusted with it by law,
+     because the very life of the nation depends upon its
+     elaboration. The Legislature has been in session since April 5
+     last. By the Constitution the draft budgets and the general
+     accounts should be submitted to the legislative body within
+     eight days after the opening of the session, that is to say by
+     April 13. The draft budgets were sent to your office on March
+     22.
+
+     "By reason of your absence from the country, the examination of
+     these drafts was postponed, the acting Financial Adviser not
+     being willing to shoulder the responsibility; we refer you to
+     his letters of March 29 and of April 17 and 24. Finally ... you
+     came back to Port-au-Prince, and after some two weeks, you
+     began with the secretaries to study the draft budgets.
+
+     "The Government therefore experiences a very disagreeable
+     surprise on reading your letter of July 12. It becomes my duty
+     to inform you of that disagreeable surprise, to formulate the
+     legal reservations in the case, and to inform you finally that
+     you bear the sole responsibility for the failure to present the
+     budget in due time.
+         "FLEURY FEQUIERE, Secretary of Finance"
+
+     On July 19, Mr. Bailly-Blanchard, the American Minister, placed
+     in the hands of the President of the Republic a memorandum
+     emanating from Mr. McIlhenny, in which the latter formulates
+     against the Government complaints sufficient, according to him,
+     to explain and justify the discontinuance of the preparation of
+     the budget, announced in his letter of July 12.
+
+
+     _Memorandum of Mr. McIlhenny_
+
+     I had instructions from the Department of State of the United
+     States just before my departure for Haiti, in a passage of a
+     letter of May 20, to declare to the Haitian Government that it
+     was necessary to give its immediate and formal approval:
+
+     1. To a modification of the Bank Contract agreed upon by the
+     Department of State and the National City Bank of New York.
+
+     2. To the transfer of the National Bank of the Republic of
+     Haiti to a new bank registered under the laws of Haiti to be
+     known as the National Bank of the Republic of Haiti.
+
+     3. To the execution of Article 15 of the Contract of
+     Withdrawal, prohibiting the importation and exportation of
+     non-Haitian money, except that which might be necessary for the
+     needs of commerce in the opinion of the Financial Adviser.
+
+     4. To the immediate vote of a territorial law which has been
+     submitted to the Department of State of the United States and
+     which has its approval.
+
+     On my arrival in Haiti I visited the President with the
+     American Minister and learned that the modifications of the
+     bank contract and the transfer of the bank had been agreed to
+     and the only reason why the measure had not been made official
+     was because the National City Bank and the National Bank of
+     Haiti had not yet presented to the Government their full
+     powers. He declared that the Government did not agree to the
+     publication of a decree executing the Contract of Withdrawal
+     because it did not consider that the economic condition of the
+     country justified it at that time. To which I replied that the
+     Government of the United States expected the execution of
+     Article 15 of the Contract of Withdrawal as a direct and solemn
+     engagement of the Haitian Government, to which it was a party,
+     and I had instructions to insist upon its being put into
+     execution at once....
+
+
+     _The Counter Memoir_
+
+     To this memorandum the Executive Authority replied by a counter
+     memoir which read in part as follows:
+
+     "The modifications proposed by the Department of State [of the
+     United States] to the bank contract, studied by the Haitian
+     Government, gave rise to counter propositions on the part of
+     the latter, which the Department of State would not accept. The
+     Haitian Government then accepted these modifications in nine
+     articles in the form in which they had been concluded and
+     signed at Washington, on Friday, February 6, 1920, by the
+     Financial Adviser, the Haitian Minister, and the [Haitian]
+     Secretary of Finance. But when Messrs. Scarpa and Williams,
+     representing respectively and officially the National Bank of
+     Haiti and the National City Bank of New York, came before the
+     Secretary of Finance for his signature to the papers relative
+     to the transfer of the National Bank of Haiti to the National
+     City Bank of New York, the Secretary of Finance experienced a
+     disagreeable surprise in finding out that to Article 9 of the
+     document signed at Washington, February 6, 1920, and closed as
+     stated above, there had been added an amendment bearing on the
+     prohibition of non-Haitian money. The Secretary could only
+     decline the responsibility of this added paragraph of which he
+     had not the slightest knowledge and which consequently had not
+     been submitted to the Government for its agreement. It is for
+     this reason alone that the agreement is not signed up to this
+     time. The Government does not even yet know who was the author
+     of this addition to the document to which its consent had never
+     been asked."
+
+     Today, gentlemen, you have come to the end of the regular
+     session for this year. Four months have run by without the
+     Government being able to present to you the budget for
+     1920-1921.... Such are the facts, in brief, that have marked
+     our relations recently with Mr. McIlhenny....
+
+     FLEURY FEQUIERE, Secretary of Finance
+
+
+
+
+The Businessmen's Protest
+
+
+The protest printed below, against Article 15 of the Contract of
+Withdrawal, was sent to the Haitian Secretary of Finance on July 30.
+
+     The undersigned bankers, merchants, and representatives of the
+     various branches of the financial and commercial activities in
+     Haiti have the honor to submit to the high appreciation of the
+     Secretary of State for Finance the following consideration:
+
+     They have been advised from certain sources that pressing
+     recommendations have been made to the Government of Haiti.
+
+     1. That a law be immediately voted by which would be prohibited
+     the importation or exportation of all money not Haitian, except
+     that quantity of foreign money which, in the opinion of the
+     Financial Adviser, would be sufficient for the needs of
+     commerce.
+
+     2. That in the charter of the Banque Nationale de la Republique
+     d'Haiti there be inserted an article giving power to the
+     Financial Adviser together with the Banque Nationale de la
+     Republique d'Haiti to take all measures concerning the
+     importation or exportation of non-Haitian monies.
+
+     The undersigned declare that the adoption of such a measure,
+     under whatever form it may be, would be of a nature generally
+     contrary to the collective interests of the Haitian people and
+     the industry of Haiti. It would be dangerous to substitute the
+     will of a single man, however eminent he might be, however
+     honorable, however infallible, for a natural law which
+     regulates the movements of the monetary circulation in a
+     country.
+
+     It would be more dangerous yet to introduce in the contract of
+     the Banque Nationale de la Republique d'Haiti a clause which
+     would assure this establishment a sort of monopoly in the
+     foreign money market, which constitutes the principal base of
+     the operations of high commerce, when it has already the
+     exclusive privilege of emission of bank notes. Such a clause
+     would make of all other bankers and merchants its humble
+     tributaries, obeying its law and its caprices....
+
+     (Signed) THE ROYAL BANK OF CANADA; AMERICAN FOREIGN BANKING
+     CORPORATION; HAITIAN AMERICAN SUGAR CO.; RAPOREL S.S. LINE;
+     P. C. S.; ELECTRIC LIGHT CO.; PANAMA LINE; ED. ESTEVE & CO.;
+     CLYDE LINE; COMPTOIR COMMERCIAL; GEBARA & CO.; ALFRED VIEUX;
+     V. G. MAKHLOUF; N. SILVERA; SIMMONDS FRERES; ROBERTS, DUTTON &
+     CO.; WEST INDIES TRADING CO.; J. FADOUL & CO.; R. BROUARD; A. DE
+     MATTEIS & CO.; J. M. RICHARDSON & CO.; COMPTOIR FRANCAIS; H.
+     DEREIX; E. ROBELIN; F. CHERIEZ; I. J. BIGIO, AND GEO. H.
+     MACFADDEN.
+
+
+
+
+"By Order of the American Minister"
+
+
+Correspondence regarding the refusal of the Financial Adviser of Haiti,
+an American, but an official of the Haitian Department of Finance, to
+pay the salaries for the month of July, 1920, of the President and
+certain other officials of the Haitian Republic, revealing that the
+action was taken by order of the American Minister to Haiti, without
+explanation and without authority in the Haitian Constitution or in the
+Haiti-American Convention, was printed in the _Moniteur_ for August 14.
+
+
+     I.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 2, 1920.
+
+     MR. A. J. MAUMUS, Receiver General of Customs
+
+     In accordance with the suggestion made to the Financial Adviser
+     on July 24, your office began on the morning of July 30 to pay
+     the salaries for that month to the officials and public
+     employees at Port-au-Prince.
+
+     Nevertheless up to this morning, August 2, no checks have been
+     delivered to His Excellency the President of the Republic, the
+     secretaries of the various departments, the state councilors,
+     and the palace interpreter.
+
+     In calling your attention to this fact I ask that you will
+     please inform me of the reasons for it.
+
+     FLEURY FEQUIERE, Secretary of Finance.
+
+
+     II.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 2, 1920.
+
+     TO THE SECRETARY OF FINANCE AND COMMERCE
+
+     I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note of
+     August 2 in which you ask this office to inform you regarding
+     the reasons for the non-delivery, up to the present time, of
+     the checks for His Excellency the President of the Republic,
+     for the departmental secretaries, the state councilors, and
+     the palace interpreter, for the month of July.
+
+     In reply this office hastens to inform you that up to the
+     present time it has not been put in possession of the mandates
+     and orders regarding these payments.
+
+     A. J. MAUMUS, Receiver General.
+
+
+     III.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 2, 1920.
+
+     TO THE FINANCIAL ADVISER
+
+     The Department of Finance, informed that checks for His
+     Excellency the President of the Republic, the departmental
+     secretaries, the state councilors, and the palace interpreter
+     had not been delivered up to this morning, August 2, reported
+     the fact to the Receiver General of Customs asking to be
+     informed regarding the reasons. The Receiver General replied
+     immediately that the delay was due to his failure to receive
+     the necessary mandates and orders. But these papers were sent
+     to you by the Department of Finance on July 21, and were
+     returned by the payment service of the Department of the
+     Interior on July 26, a week ago.
+
+     I inclose copies of the note from the Department of Finance to
+     the Receiver General, and of Mr. Maumus's reply.
+
+     I should like to believe that bringing this matter to your
+     attention would be sufficient to remedy it.
+
+     FLEURY FEQUIERE, Secretary of Finance.
+
+
+     IV.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 5, 1920.
+
+     TO THE SECRETARY OF FINANCE AND COMMERCE
+
+     I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note of
+     August 2, regarding the delay in payment of the salaries of the
+     President of the Republic, secretaries, and state councilors.
+
+     In reply I have the honor to inform you that the payment of
+     these salaries has been suspended by order of the American
+     Minister until further orders are received from him.
+
+     J. MCILHENNY, Financial Adviser.
+
+
+     V.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 10, 1920.
+
+     TO THE FINANCIAL ADVISER
+
+     I acknowledge receipt of your note of August 5 in reply to mine
+     of August 2 asking information regarding the reasons for your
+     non-payment of the salaries for last July due to His Excellency
+     the President of the Republic, the secretaries, and state
+     councilors, and the palace interpreter.
+
+     I note the second paragraph of your letter, in which you say,
+     "In reply, etc."
+
+     I do not know by what authority the American Minister can have
+     given you such instructions or by what authority you
+     acquiesced. The non-payment of the salaries due the members of
+     the Government constitutes a confiscation vexatious for them
+     and for the entire country. It is not the function of this
+     department to judge the motives which led the American Minister
+     to take so exceptionally serious a step; but it is the opinion
+     of the Government that the Financial Adviser, a Haitian
+     official, was not authorized to acquiesce.
+
+     FLEURY FEQUIERE, Secretary of Finance.
+
+
+     VI.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 5, 1920.
+
+     MR. A. BAILLY-BLANCHARD, American Minister
+
+     I have the honor to inform Your Excellency that the offices of
+     the Financial Adviser and of the Receiver General have not yet
+     delivered the checks for the July salaries of His Excellency
+     the President of the Republic, of the secretaries, state
+     councilors, and palace interpreter, although all other
+     officials were paid on July 30.
+
+     The Secretary of Finance wrote to the Receiver General asking
+     information on the subject, and was informed that he had not
+     received the necessary mandates and orders. The fact of the
+     non-delivery of the checks and the reply of the Receiver
+     General were then brought to the attention of the Financial
+     Adviser, who has not yet replied.
+
+     In informing your Legation of this situation, I call the
+     attention of Your Excellency to this new attitude of the
+     Financial Adviser, a Haitian official, to the President of the
+     Republic and the other members of the Government, an attitude
+     which is an insult to the entire nation.
+
+     J. BARAU, Secretary of Foreign Affairs.
+
+
+     VII.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 6, 1920.
+
+     MR. A. BAILLY-BLANCHARD, American Minister
+
+     I have the honor to inclose a copy of a note from the Financial
+     Adviser to the Secretary of Finance, replying to a request for
+     information regarding the non-payment of checks....
+
+     In his reply the Financial Adviser informs the Department of
+     Finance that "the payment of these salaries has been suspended
+     by order of the American Minister until further orders are
+     received from him."
+
+     My Government protests against this act of violence which is an
+     attack upon the dignity of the people and Government of Haiti.
+
+     J. BARAU, Secretary of Foreign Affairs.
+
+
+     VIII.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 6, 1920.
+
+     MR. J. BARAU, Secretary of Foreign Affairs
+
+     I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of Your
+     Excellency's note under date of August 5.
+
+     In reply I have to state that the action of the Financial
+     Adviser therein referred to was taken by direction of this
+     Legation.
+
+     A. BAILLY-BLANCHARD, American Minister.
+
+
+     IX.
+
+     PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 7, 1920.
+
+     MR. A. BAILLY-BLANCHARD, American Minister
+
+     In reply to my letter of August 5 in which I had the honor to
+     inform Your Excellency of the non-payment of checks, ... Your
+     Excellency informs me that it is by direction of the Legation
+     of the United States that the Financial Adviser acted.
+
+     My Government takes note of your declaration.
+
+     J. BARAU, Secretary of Foreign Affairs.
+
+
+
+
+The Concession of the National City Bank
+
+
+Simultaneously with the non-payment of the July salaries of the
+President and other officials of the Haitian Republic, the Haitian
+Minister of Finance received from the Financial Adviser, an American,
+nominally a Haitian official, but acting under instructions from the
+American Government, the following letter urging immediate ratification
+of a modified form of agreement between the United States Department of
+State and the National City Bank of New York. It was widely assumed in
+Haiti that this letter supplied the key to the unexplained non-payment
+of salaries, ordered by Mr. A. Bailly-Blanchard, the American Minister.
+The letter was printed in the _Moniteur_ for August 14.
+
+    PORT-AU-PRINCE, August 2, 1920
+
+    TO THE SECRETARY OF FINANCE
+
+    I have the honor to inform you that I have been instructed by my
+    Government that in view of the continual delay in obtaining the
+    consent of the Haitian Government to the transfer to the new bank of
+    the modified concession as agreed upon between the Government of the
+    United States and the National City Bank, the Government of the
+    United States has agreed to let the operations of the National Bank
+    of the Republic of Haiti continue indefinitely on the French
+    contract at present existing, without amendment.
+
+    I desire urgently to draw your attention to the fact that it would
+    be most desirable in the interest of the Haitian people that the
+    Government of Haiti should give its immediate consent to the
+    proposed modifications of the contract and to accept the transfer of
+    the bank rather than see the present contract continue with its
+    present clauses.
+
+    JOHN MCILHENNY, Financial Adviser
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Spelling, punctuation and capitalization has been retained as in the
+original publication except as follows:
+
+Page 27: Changed "glaces" to "glaces"
+
+Page 40: Added closing quotation mark to paragraph opening with the
+words: "And Article 2 of the American-Haitian Convention"
+
+Page 44: Added period to end of sentence "It is for this reason alone
+that the agreement is not signed up to this time"]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Self-Determining Haiti, by James Weldon Johnson
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