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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Old Furniture, by Arthur Hayden
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chats on Old Furniture
+       A Practical Guide for Collectors
+
+Author: Arthur Hayden
+
+Release Date: January 8, 2011 [EBook #34877]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Delphine Lettau, Susan Skinner and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
+
+
+[Illustration: _Jacobean Chair._]
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
+
+_Press Notices, First Edition._
+
+"Mr. Hayden knows his subject intimately."--_Pall Mall Gazette._
+
+"The hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen; so that
+altogether this is a model book of its kind."--_Athenæum._
+
+"A useful and instructive volume."--_Spectator._
+
+"An abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and
+well-constructed history."--_Daily News._
+
+"Mr. Hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough."--_Scotsman._
+
+"A book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than usual
+merit."--_Vanity Fair._
+
+"Mr. Hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines, and has made
+his book what it purports to be--a practical guide for the
+collector."--_Saturday Review._
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD CHINA
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+_Second Edition._
+
+_Price_ 5s. _net._
+
+_With Coloured Frontispiece and Reproductions of 156 Marks and 89
+Specimens of China._
+
+A List of SALE PRICES and a full INDEX increase the usefulness of the
+Volume.
+
+This is a handy book of reference to enable Amateur Collectors to
+distinguish between the productions of the various factories.
+
+_Press Notices, First Edition._
+
+"A handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful, and the
+china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations, and for the author's
+obvious love and understanding of his subject."--_St. James's Gazette._
+
+"All lovers of china will find much entertainment in this
+volume."--_Daily News._
+
+"It gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to know
+about the principal varieties of English ware. We can warmly commend the
+book to the china collector."--_Pall Mall Gazette._
+
+"One of the best points about the book is the clear way in which the
+characteristics of each factory are noted down separately, so that the
+veriest tyro ought to be able to judge for himself if he has a piece or
+pieces which would come under this heading, and the marks are very
+accurately given."--_Queen._
+
+
+IN PREPARATION.
+
+CHATS ON OLD PRINTS
+
+_Price_ 5s. _net._
+
+_Illustrated with Coloured Frontispiece and 70 Full-page Reproductions
+from Engravings._
+
+With GLOSSARY of Technical Terms, BIBLIOGRAPHY, full INDEX and TABLE of
+more than 350 of the principal English and Continental Engravers from
+the XVIth to the XIXth centuries, together with copious notes as to
+PRICES and values of old prints.
+
+LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN, ADELPHI TERRACE.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+Chats on Old Furniture
+
+A Practical Guide for Collectors
+
+By Arthur Hayden
+
+Author of "Chats on English China"
+
+LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN
+1 ADELPHI TERRACE. MCMVI
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_First Edition, 1905._
+_Second   "     1906._
+
+_All rights reserved._
+
+
+[Illustration: _Portion of Carved Walnut Virginal._]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This volume has been written to enable those who have a taste for the
+furniture of a bygone day to arrive at some conclusion as to the
+essential points of the various styles made in England.
+
+An attempt has been made to give some lucid historical account of the
+progress and development in the art of making domestic furniture, with
+especial reference to its evolution in this country.
+
+Inasmuch as many of the finest specimens of old English woodwork and
+furniture have left the country of their origin and crossed the
+Atlantic, it is time that the public should awaken to the fact that the
+heritages of their forefathers are objects of envy to all lovers of art.
+It is a painful reflection to know that the temptation of money will
+shortly denude the old farmhouses and manor houses of England of their
+unappreciated treasures. Before the hand of the despoiler shall have
+snatched everything within reach, it is the hope of the writer that this
+little volume may not fall on stony ground, and that the possessors of
+fine old English furniture may realise their responsibilities.
+
+It has been thought advisable to touch upon French furniture as
+exemplified in the national collections of such importance as the Jones
+Bequest at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the Wallace Collection,
+to show the influence of foreign art upon our own designers. Similarly,
+Italian, Spanish, and Dutch furniture, of which many remarkable examples
+are in private collections in this country, has been dealt with in
+passing, to enable the reader to estimate the relation of English art to
+contemporary foreign schools of decoration and design.
+
+The authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum have willingly
+extended their assistance in regard to photographs, and by the special
+permission of the Board of Education the frontispiece and other
+representative examples in the national collection appear as
+illustrations to this volume.
+
+I have to acknowledge generous assistance and courteous permission from
+owners of fine specimens in allowing me facilities for reproducing
+illustrations of them in this volume.
+
+I am especially indebted to the Right Honourable Sir Spencer
+Ponsonby-Fane, G.C.B., I.S.O., and to the Rev. Canon Haig Brown, Master
+of the Charterhouse, for the inclusion of illustrations of furniture of
+exceptional interest.
+
+The proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ have generously furnished me with
+lists of prices obtained at auction from their useful monthly
+publication, _Auction Sale Prices_, and have allowed the reproduction of
+illustrations which have appeared in the pages of the _Connoisseur_.
+
+My thanks are due to Messrs. Hampton, of Pall Mall, for their kind
+permission to include as illustrations several fine pieces from their
+collection of antique furniture. I am under a similar obligation to
+Messrs. Waring, who have kindly allowed me to select some of their
+typical examples.
+
+To my other friends, without whose kind advice and valuable aid this
+volume could never have appeared, I tender a grateful and appreciative
+acknowledgment of my indebtedness.
+
+    ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+[Illustration: _Italian Chair about 1620_]
+
+[Illustration: _Spanish Chest._]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+PREFACE                                                                7
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS                                                 13
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                          19
+
+GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED                                                23
+
+CHAPTER
+
+   I. THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT                                31
+
+  II. THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE                                         57
+
+ III. STUART OR JACOBEAN (SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)                        79
+
+  IV. STUART OR JACOBEAN (LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)                  109
+
+   V. QUEEN ANNE STYLE                                               133
+
+  VI. FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.                     155
+
+ VII. FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XV.                      169
+
+VIII. FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI.                     189
+
+  IX. FRENCH FURNITURE. THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE                       201
+
+   X. CHIPPENDALE AND HIS STYLE                                      211
+
+  XI. SHERATON, ADAM, AND HEPPELWHITE STYLES                         239
+
+ XII. HINTS TO COLLECTORS                                            257
+
+INDEX                                                                275
+
+[Illustration: _Chippendale Bureau Bookcase._]
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+JACOBEAN OAK CABINET; decorated with mother-of-pearl, ebony, and ivory.
+Dated 1653. (By permission of the Board of Education)     _Frontispiece_
+
+CARVED WOOD FRAME; decorated with gold stucco. Sixteenth Century.
+Italian                                                     _Title page_
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+CHAPTER I.--THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT.
+
+   PORTION OF CARVED CORNICE, Italian, Sixteenth Century              33
+
+   FRAME OF WOOD, with female terminal figures, Italian,
+      late Sixteenth Century                                          35
+
+   FRONT OF COFFER, Italian, late Fifteenth Century                   38
+
+   BRIDAL CHEST, Gothic design, middle of Fifteenth Century           39
+
+   FRONT OF OAK CHEST, French, Fifteenth Century                      44
+
+   WALNUT SIDEBOARD, French, middle of Sixteenth Century              45
+
+   CABINET, FRENCH (LYONS), second half of Sixteenth Century          48
+
+   EBONY AND IVORY MARQUETRY CABINET, French, middle of
+      Sixteenth Century                                               50
+
+   SPANISH CABINET AND STAND, carved chestnut, first half
+      of Sixteenth Century                                            51
+
+   SPANISH CHEST, carved walnut, Sixteenth Century                    52
+
+CHAPTER II.--THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE.
+
+   CARVED OAK CHEST, English, Sixteenth Century                       59
+
+   BENCH OF OAK, French, about 1500                                   60
+
+   PORTION OF CARVED WALNUT VIRGINAL, Flemish, Sixteenth Century      61
+
+   CARVED OAK COFFER, French, showing interlaced ribbon-work          61
+
+   FIREPLACE AND OAK PANELLING, "Old Palace," Bromley-by-Bow.
+     Built in 1606                                                    64
+
+   ELIZABETHAN BEDSTEAD, dated 1593                                   66
+
+   PANEL OF CARVED OAK, English, early Sixteenth Century              68
+
+   MIRROR, in oak frame, English, dated 1603                          71
+
+   COURT CUPBOARD, carved oak, English, dated 1603                    73
+
+         "      "    carved oak, early Seventeenth Century            74
+
+         "      "    about 1580                                       75
+
+   ELIZABETHAN OAK TABLE                                              78
+
+CHAPTER III.--STUART OR JACOBEAN. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+   GATE-LEG TABLE                                                     81
+
+   OAK CHAIR, made from Sir Francis Drake's ship, the _Golden Hind_   83
+
+   OAK TABLE, dated 1616, bearing arms of Thomas Sutton               85
+
+   CHAIR USED BY JAMES I.                                             87
+
+   JACOBEAN CHAIR, at Knole                                           89
+
+   JACOBEAN STOOL, at Knole                                           90
+
+   CARVED WALNUT DOOR (UPPER HALF), French, showing ribbon-work       91
+
+   OAK CHAIR, with arms of first Earl of Strafford                    93
+
+   ITALIAN CHAIR, about 1620                                          94
+
+   HIGH-BACK OAK CHAIR, Early Jacobean, formerly in
+      possession of Charles I.                                        95
+
+   JACOBEAN CHAIRS, various types                                     97
+
+   EBONY CABINET, formerly the property of Oliver Cromwell            99
+
+   JACOBEAN CARVED OAK CHAIRS, Yorkshire and Derbyshire types        101
+
+   JACOBEAN OAK CUPBOARD, about 1620                                 101
+
+   JACOBEAN OAK CHAIRS                                               105
+
+   CARVED OAK CRADLE, time of Charles I., dated 1641                 107
+
+CHAPTER IV.--STUART OR JACOBEAN. LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+   INTERIOR OF DUTCH HOUSE, latter half of Seventeenth Century       111
+
+   CABINET OF TIME OF CHARLES II., showing exterior                  112
+
+      "    "   "                   showing interior                  113
+
+   PORTUGUESE HIGH-BACK CHAIR                                        115
+
+   OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS, late Jacobean                               117
+
+    "    "   panelled front, late Jacobean                           119
+
+   CHARLES II. OAK CHAIR                                             120
+
+   CHARLES II. OPEN HIGH-BACK OAK CHAIR                              121
+
+   CHARLES II. CHAIR, cane back and seat                             122
+
+   JAMES II. CHAIR, cane back and seat                               123
+
+   WILLIAM AND MARY CHAIR                                            125
+
+   PORTUGUESE CHAIR-BACK (UPPER PORTION), cut leather work           128
+
+CHAPTER V.--QUEEN ANNE STYLE.
+
+   QUEEN ANNE OAK SETTLE                                             135
+
+   QUEEN ANNE MIRROR FRAME, carved walnut, gilded                    137
+
+   OAK DESK, dated 1696                                              139
+
+   OAK CUPBOARD                                                      140
+
+   QUEEN ANNE CABINET, burr-walnut panel                             141
+
+   QUEEN ANNE CHAIRS, various types                                  143
+
+   DUTCH MARQUETRY CABINET                                           147
+
+   QUEEN ANNE CLOCK                                                  148
+
+   QUEEN ANNE SETTLE, oak, dated 1705                                149
+
+   OLD LAC CABINET                                                   150
+
+   LAC CABINET, middle of Eighteenth Century                         151
+
+    "     "     showing doors closed                                 152
+
+    "     "     chased brass escutcheon                              154
+
+CHAPTER VI.--FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.
+
+   CASSETTE, French, Seventeenth Century                             157
+
+   CHAIR OF PERIOD OF LOUIS XIII.                                    159
+
+   PEDESTALS, showing boule and counter-boule work                   163
+
+   BOULE CABINET, OR ARMOIRE                                         165
+
+CHAPTER VII.--FRENCH FURNITURE. LOUIS XV.
+
+   COMMODE, by Cressent                                              171
+
+   COMMODE, formerly in the Hamilton Collection                      173
+
+   COMMODE, by Caffieri                                              175
+
+   ESCRITOIRE À TOILETTE, formerly in possession of Marie Antoinette 179
+
+   SECRÉTAIRE, by Riesener                                           181
+
+   "BUREAU DU ROI," the masterpiece of Riesener                      183
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--FRENCH FURNITURE. LOUIS XVI.
+
+   JEWEL CABINET, "J. H. Riesener," Mounts by Gouthière              193
+
+   COMMODE, by Riesener                                              197
+
+CHAPTER IX.--FRENCH FURNITURE. THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE.
+
+   PORTRAIT OF MADAME RÉCAMIER, after David                          203
+
+   DETAIL OF TRIPOD TABLE found at Pompeii                           205
+
+   SERVANTE, French, late Eighteenth Century                         206
+
+   JEWEL CABINET OF THE EMPRESS MARIE LOUISE                         207
+
+   ARMCHAIR, rosewood, showing Empire influence                      210
+
+CHAPTER X.--CHIPPENDALE AND HIS STYLE.
+
+   TABLE MADE BY CHIPPENDALE                                         213
+
+   OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR                                          215
+
+   CHIPPENDALE SETTEE, walnut, about 1740                            217
+
+       "          "    oak, about 1740                               219
+
+   CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK, ribbon pattern                            222
+
+   RIBBON-BACKED CHIPPENDALE CHAIR, formerly at Blenheim             223
+
+   CHIPPENDALE CORNER CHAIR, about 1780                              224
+
+   GOTHIC CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK                                     225
+
+   MAHOGANY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR, about 1740                            226
+
+      "         "         "    about 1770                            227
+
+   CHIPPENDALE MIRROR                                                229
+
+   CHIPPENDALE BUREAU BOOKCASE                                       231
+
+   MAHOGANY CHAIR, Chippendale Style                                 232
+
+   COTTAGE CHAIRS, beechwood, Chippendale style                      233
+
+   INTERIOR OF ROOM OF ABOUT 1782, after Stothard                    235
+
+CHAPTER XI.--SHERATON, ADAM, AND HEPPELWHITE STYLES.
+
+   HEPPELWHITE SETTEE, mahogany                                      241
+
+   SHERATON, Adam, and Heppelwhite Chairs                            243
+
+   OLD ENGLISH SECRÉTAIRE                                            250
+
+   SHIELD-BACK CHAIR, late Eighteenth Century                        251
+
+CHAPTER XII.--HINTS TO COLLECTORS.
+
+   DESIGN FOR SPURIOUS MARQUETRY WORK                                259
+
+   "MADE-UP" BUFFET                                                  261
+
+   CABINET OF OLD OAK, "made-up"                                     267
+
+   DESIGN FOR SPURIOUS MARQUETRY WORK                                273
+
+   PIECE OF SPANISH CHESTNUT, showing ravages of worms               274
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+GENERAL.
+
+    Ancient Furniture, Specimens of. H. Shaw. Quaritch. 1836. £10
+    10s., now worth £3 3s.
+
+    Ancient and Modern Furniture. B. J. Talbert. Batsford. 1876. 32s.
+
+    Antique Furniture, Sketches of. W. S. Ogden. Batsford. 1889. 12s.
+    6d.
+
+    Carved Furniture and Woodwork. M. Marshall. W. H. Allen. 1888.
+    £3.
+
+    Carved Oak in Woodwork and Furniture from Ancient Houses. W. B.
+    Sanders. 1883. 31s. 6d.
+
+    Decorative Furniture, English and French, of the Sixteenth,
+    Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. W. H. Hackett. 7s. 6d.
+
+    Ecclesiastical Woodwork, Remains of. T. T. Bury. Lockwood. 1847.
+    21s.
+
+    French and English Furniture. E. Singleton. Hodder. 1904.
+
+    Furniture, Ancient and Modern. J. W. Small. Batsford. 1883. 21s.
+
+    Furniture and Decoration. J. A. Heaton. 1890-92.
+
+    Furniture and Woodwork, Ancient and Modern. J. H. Pollen.
+    Chapman. 1874-5. 21s. and 2s. 6d.
+
+    Furniture and Woodwork. J. H. Pollen. Stanford. 1876. 3s. 6d.
+
+    Furniture of the Olden Time. F. C. Morse. Macmillan. 12s. 6d.
+
+    Gothic Furniture, _Connoisseur_. May, 1903.
+
+    History of Furniture Illustrated. F. Litchfield. Truslove. 25s.
+
+    Marquetry, Parquetry, Boulle and other Inlay Work. W. Bemrose.
+    1872 and 1882.
+
+    Old Furniture, English and Foreign. A. E. Chancellor. Batsford.
+    £1 5s.
+
+    Old Furniture from Twelfth to Eighteenth Century. Wyman. 1883.
+    10s. 6d.
+
+    Style in Furniture and Woodwork. R. Brook. Privately printed.
+    1889. 21s.
+
+
+PARTICULAR.
+
+    ENGLISH.--Adam R. & J., The Architecture, Decoration an
+    Furniture of R. & J. Adam, selected from works published
+    1778-1822. London. 1880.
+
+    Adam, The Brothers. _Connoisseur._ May, June and August, 1904.
+
+    Ancient Wood and Iron Work in Cambridge. W. B. Redfern. Spalding.
+    1887. 31s. 6d.
+
+    Chippendale, T. Cabinet Makers' Directory. Published in 1754,
+    1755 and 1762. (The best edition is the last as it contains 200
+    plates as against 161 in the earlier editions. Its value is about
+    £12.)
+
+    Chippendale and His Work. _Connoisseur_, January, July, August,
+    September, October, November, December, 1903, January, 1904.
+
+    Chippendale, Sheraton and Heppelwhite, The Designs of. Arranged
+    by J. M. Bell. 1900. Worth £2 2s.
+
+    Chippendale's Contemporaries. _Connoisseur_, March, 1904.
+
+    Chippendale and Sheraton. _Connoisseur_, May, 1902.
+
+    Coffers and Cupboards, Ancient. Fred Roe. Methuen & Co. 1903. £3
+    3s.
+
+    English Furniture, History of. Percy Macquoid. Published by
+    Lawrence & Bullen in 7s. 6d. parts, the first of which appeared
+    in November, 1904.
+
+    English Furniture and Woodwork during the Eighteenth Century. T.
+    A. Strange. 12s. 6d.
+
+    Furniture of our Forefathers. E. Singleton. Batsford. £3 15s.
+
+    Hatfield House, History of. Q. F. Robinson. 1883.
+
+    Hardwicke Hall, History of. Q. F. Robinson. 1835.
+
+    Heppelwhite, A., Cabinet Maker. Published 1788, 1789, and 1794,
+    and contains about 130 plates. Value £8 to £12. Reprint issued in
+    1897. Worth £2 10s.
+
+    Ince and Mayhew. Household Furniture. N.d. (1770). Worth £20.
+
+    Jacobean Furniture. _Connoisseur_, September, 1902.
+
+    Knole House, Its State Rooms, &c. (Elizabethan and other
+    Furniture.) S. J. Mackie. 1858.
+
+    Manwaring, R., Cabinet and Chairmaker's Real Friend. London.
+    1765.
+
+    Mansions of England in the Olden Time. J. Nash. 1839-49.
+
+    Old English Houses and Furniture. M. B. Adam. Batsford. 1889.
+    25s.
+
+    Old English Oak Furniture. J. W. Hurrell. Batsford. £2 2s.
+
+    Old English Furniture. Frederick Fenn and B. Wyllie. Newnes. 7s.
+    6d. net.
+
+    Old Oak, The Art of Collecting. _Connoisseur_, September, 1901.
+
+    Sheraton, T. Cabinet Maker's Drawing Book. 1791-3 edition
+    contains 111 plates. Value £13. 1794 edition contains 119 plates.
+    Value £10.
+
+    Sheraton T. Cabinet Directory. 1803.
+
+    Staircases and Handrails of the Age of Elizabeth. J. Weale. 1860.
+
+    Upholsterer's Repository. Ackermann. N.d. Worth £5.
+
+    FRENCH.--_Dictionnaire de l'Ameublement._ H. Havard. Paris. N.d.
+    Worth £5.
+
+    _Dictionnaire Raisonné._ M. Viollet-le-Duc. 1858-75. 6 vols.
+    Worth £10.
+
+    French Furniture. Lady Dilke. Bell. 1901.
+
+    French Eighteenth Century Furniture, Handbook to the. Jones
+    Collection Catalogue. 1881.
+
+    French Eighteenth Century Furniture, Handbook to the. Wallace
+    Collection Catalogue. 1904.
+
+    History of Furniture. A. Jacquemart. Chapman. 1878. 31s. 6d.
+    Issued in Paris in 1876, under the title _Histoire du Mobilier_.
+
+    _Le Meuble en France au XVI Siècle._ E. Bonnaffe. Paris. 1887.
+    Worth 10s.
+
+    JAPANESE.--Lacquer Industry of Japan. Report of Her Majesty's
+    Acting-Consul at Hakodate. J. J. Quin. Parliamentary Paper. 8vo.
+    London. 1882.
+
+    SCOTTISH.--Scottish Woodwork of Sixteenth and Seventeenth
+    Centuries. J. W. Small. Waterston. 1878. £4 4s.
+
+    SPANISH.--Spanish and Portuguese. Catalogue of Special Loan
+    Exhibition of Spanish and Portuguese Ornamental Art. 1881.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED
+
+
+    _Armoire._--A large cupboard of French design of the dimensions
+    of the modern wardrobe. In the days of Louis XIV. these pieces
+    were made in magnificent style. The Jones Collection at the
+    Victoria and Albert Museum has several fine examples. (See
+    illustration, p. 165.)
+
+    _Baroque._--Used in connection with over ornate and incongruous
+    decoration as in _rococo_ style.
+
+    _Bombé._--A term applied to pieces of furniture which swell out
+    at the sides.
+
+    _Boule._--A special form of marquetry of brass and tortoiseshell
+    perfected by André Charles Boule in the reign of Louis XIV. (See
+    Chapter VI., where specimens of this kind of work are
+    illustrated.) The name has been corrupted into a trade term
+    _Buhl_, to denote this style of marquetry. Boule or _Première
+    partie_ is a metal inlay, usually brass, applied to a
+    tortoiseshell background. See also _Counter-boule_.
+
+    _Bureau._--A cabinet with drawers, and having a drop-down front
+    for use as a writing-table. Bureaux are of many forms. (See
+    illustration, p. 231.)
+
+    _Cabriole._--Used in connection with the legs of tables and
+    chairs which are curved in form, having a sudden arch outwards
+    from the seat. (See illustration, p. 143.)
+
+    _Caryatides._--Carved female figures applied to columns in Greek
+    architecture, as at the Erectheum at Athens. They were employed
+    by woodcarvers, and largely introduced into Renaissance
+    furniture of an architectural character. Elizabethan craftsmen
+    were especially fond of their use as terminals, and in the
+    florid decoration of elaborate furniture.
+
+    _Cassone._--An Italian marriage coffer. In Chapter I. will be
+    found a full description of these _cassoni_.
+
+    _Commode._--A chest of drawers of French style. In the chapters
+    dealing with the styles of Louis XIV., Louis XV., and Louis
+    XVI., these are fully described and illustrations are given.
+
+    _Counter-Boule._ _Contre partie._--See Chapter VI., where
+    specimens of this work are illustrated. It consists of a brass
+    groundwork with tortoiseshell inlay.
+
+    _French Polish._--A cheap and nasty method used since 1851 to
+    varnish poor-looking wood to disguise its inferiority. It is
+    quicker than the old method of rubbing in oil and turpentine
+    and beeswax. It is composed of shellac dissolved in methylated
+    spirits with colouring matter added.
+
+    _Gate-leg table._--This term is self-explanatory. The legs of
+    this class of table open like a gate. They belong to Jacobean
+    days, and are sometimes spoken of as Cromwellian tables. An
+    illustration of one appears on the cover.
+
+    _Gothic._--This term was originally applied to the mediæval
+    styles of architecture. It was used as a term of reproach and
+    contempt at a time when it was the fashion to write Latin and to
+    expect it to become the universal language. In woodcarving the
+    Gothic style followed the architecture. A fine example of the
+    transition between Gothic and the oncoming Renaissance is given
+    (p. 44).
+
+    _Inlay._--A term used for the practice of decorating surfaces
+    and panels of furniture with wood of various colours,
+    mother-of-pearl, or ivory. The inlay is let into the wood of
+    which the piece inlaid is composed.
+
+    _Jacobean._--Strictly speaking, only furniture of the days of
+    James I. should be termed Jacobean. But by some collectors the
+    period is held to extend to James II.--that is from 1603 to
+    1688. Other collectors prefer the term Carolean for a portion of
+    the above period, which is equally misleading. Jacobean is only
+    a rough generalisation of seventeenth-century furniture.
+
+    _Lacquer._ _Lac._--A transparent varnish used in its perfection
+    by the Chinese and Japanese. (See "Consular Report on Japanese
+    Lacquered Work," in Bibliography.) Introduced into Holland and
+    France, it was imitated with great success. Under Louis XV.
+    Vernis-Martin became the rage (_q.v._).
+
+    _Linen Pattern._--A form of carving panels to represent a folded
+    napkin. This particular design was largely used in France and
+    Germany prior to its adoption here. (See illustration, p. 60.)
+
+    _Marquetry._--Inlays of coloured woods, arranged with some
+    design, geometric, floral, or otherwise, are classed under this
+    style. (See also _Parquetry_.)
+
+    _Mortise._--A term in carpentry used to denote the hole made in
+    a piece of wood to receive the end of another piece to be joined
+    to it. The portion which fits into the mortise is called the
+    tenon.
+
+    _Oil Polish._--Old furniture, before the introduction of
+    varnishes and French polish and other inartistic effects, was
+    polished by rubbing the surface with a stone, if it was a large
+    area as in the case of a table, and then applying linseed oil
+    and polishing with beeswax and turpentine. The fine tone after
+    centuries of this treatment is evident in old pieces which have
+    a metallic lustre that cannot be imitated.
+
+    _Parquetry._--Inlays of woods of the same colour are termed
+    parquetry work in contradistinction to marquetry, which is in
+    different colour. Geometric designs are mainly used as in
+    parquetry floors.
+
+    _Reeded._--This term is applied to the style of decoration by
+    which thin narrow strips of wood are placed side by side on the
+    surface of furniture.
+
+    _Renaissance._--The style which was originated in Italy in the
+    fifteenth century, supplanting the Mediæval styles which
+    embraced Byzantine and Gothic art; the new-birth was in origin a
+    literary movement, but quickly affected art, and grew with
+    surprising rapidity, and affected every country in Europe. It is
+    based on Classic types, and its influence on furniture and
+    woodwork followed its adoption in architecture.
+
+    _Restored._--This word is the fly in the pot of ointment to all
+    who possess antiquarian tastes. It ought to mean, in furniture,
+    that only the most necessary repairs have been made in order to
+    preserve the object. It more often means that a considerable
+    amount of misapplied ingenuity has gone to the remaking of a
+    badly-preserved specimen. Restorations are only permissible at
+    the hands of most conscientious craftsmen.
+
+    _Rococo._--A style which was most markedly offensive in the time
+    of Louis XV. Meaningless elaborations of scroll and shell work,
+    with rocky backgrounds and incongruous ornamentations, are its
+    chief features. _Baroque_ is another term applied to this
+    overloaded style.
+
+    _Settee._--An upholstered form of the settle.
+
+    _Settle._--A wooden seat with back and arms, capable of seating
+    three or four persons side by side.
+
+    _Splat._--The wooden portion in the back of a chair connecting
+    the top rail with the seat.
+
+    _Strapwork._--This is applied to the form of decoration employed
+    by the Elizabethan woodcarvers in imitation of Flemish
+    originals. (See p. 68.)
+
+    _Stretcher._--The rail which connects the legs of a chair or a
+    table with one another. In earlier forms it was used as a
+    footrest to keep the feet from the damp or draughty rush floor.
+
+    _Tenon._--"Mortise and Tenon joint." (See _Mortise_.)
+
+    _Turned Work._--The spiral rails and uprights of chairs were
+    turned with the lathe in Jacobean days. Prior to the
+    introduction of the lathe all work was carved without the use of
+    this tool. Pieces of furniture have been found where the maker
+    has carved the turned work in all its details of form, either
+    from caprice or from ignorance of the existence of the quicker
+    method.
+
+    _Veneer._--A method of using thin layers of wood and laying them
+    on a piece of furniture, either as marquetry in different
+    colours, or in one wood only. It was an invention in order to
+    employ finer specimens of wood carefully selected in the parts
+    of a piece of furniture most noticeable. It has been since used
+    to hide inferior wood.
+
+    _Vernis-Martin_ (Martin's Varnish).--The lacquered work of a
+    French carriage-painter named Martin, who claimed to have
+    discovered the secret of the Japanese lac, and who, in 1774, was
+    granted a monopoly for its use. He applied it successfully to
+    all kinds of furniture, and to fan-guards and sticks. In the
+    days of Madame du Pompadour Vernis-Martin had a great vogue, and
+    panels prepared by Martin were elaborately painted upon by
+    Lancret and Boucher. To this day his varnish retains its lustre
+    undimmed, and specimens command high prices.
+
+
+Woods used in Furniture.
+
+    _High-class Work._--Brazil wood, Coromandel, Mahogany, Maple,
+    Oak (various kinds), Olive, Rosewood, Satinwood, Sandalwood,
+    Sweet Cedar, Sweet Chestnut, Teak, Walnut.
+
+    _Commoner Work._--Ash, Beech, Birch, Cedars (various), Deals,
+    Mahogany (various kinds), Pine, Walnut.
+
+    _Marquetry and Veneers._--Selected specimens for fine figuring
+    are used as veneers, and for marquetry of various colours the
+    following are used as being more easily stained: Holly,
+    Horsechestnut, Sycamore, Pear, Plum Tree.
+
+    _Woods with Fancy Names._
+
+    King Wood, Partridge Wood, Pheasant Wood, Purple Wood,
+    Snakewood, Tulip Wood.
+
+These are more rare and finely-marked foreign woods used sparingly in
+the most expensive furniture. To arrive at the botanical names of these
+is not an easy matter. To those interested a list of woods used by
+cabinet-makers with their botanical names is given in Mr. J. Hungerford
+Pollen's "Introduction to the South Kensington Collection of Furniture."
+At the Museum at Kew Gardens and in the Imperial Institute are
+collections of rare woods worth examination.
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT
+
+
+[Illustration: Portion of carved cornice of pinewood, from the Palazzo
+Bensi Ceccini, Venice.
+
+Italian; middle of sixteenth century.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT
+
+    ITALY. Flight of Greek scholars to Italy upon capture of
+    Constantinople by the Turks--1453.
+
+    Rediscovery of Greek art.
+
+    Florence the centre of the Renaissance.
+
+    Leo X., Pope (1475-1521).
+
+    Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1520). Raphael (1483-1520). Michael
+    Angelo (1474-1564).
+
+    FRANCE. Francis I. (1515-1547).
+
+    Henry IV. (1589-1610).
+
+    SPAIN. The crown united under Ferdinand and Isabella
+    (1452-1516).
+
+    Granada taken from the Moors--1492.
+
+    Charles V. (1519-1555).
+
+    Philip II. (1555-1598).
+
+    GERMANY. Maximilian I., Emperor of Germany (1459-1519).
+
+    Holbein (1498-1543).
+
+
+In attempting to deal with the subject of old furniture in a manner not
+too technical, certain broad divisions have to be made for convenience
+in classification. The general reader does not want information
+concerning the iron bed of Og, King of Bashan, nor of Cicero's table of
+citrus-wood, which cost £9,000; nor are details of the chair of Dagobert
+and of the jewel-chest of Richard of Cornwall of much worth to the
+modern collector.
+
+It will be found convenient to eliminate much extraneous matter, such as
+the early origins of furniture and its development in the Middle Ages,
+and to commence in this country with the Tudor period. Broadly speaking,
+English furniture falls under three heads--the Oak Period, embracing the
+furniture of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries; the Walnut
+Period, including the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries;
+the Mahogany Period, beginning with the reign of George III. It may be
+observed that the names of kings and of queens have been applied to
+various styles of furniture as belonging to their reign. Early Victorian
+is certainly a more expressive term than early nineteenth century.
+Cromwellian tables, Queen Anne chairs, or Louis Seize commodes all have
+an especial meaning as referring to styles more or less prevalent when
+those personages lived. As there is no record of the makers of most of
+the old English furniture, and as a piece of furniture cannot be judged
+as can a picture, the date of manufacture cannot be precisely laid down,
+hence the vagueness of much of the classification of old furniture.
+Roughly it may in England be dealt with under the Tudor, the Stuart, and
+the Georgian ages. These three divisions do not coincide exactly with
+the periods of oak, of walnut, and of mahogany, inasmuch as the oak
+furniture extended well into the Stuart days, and walnut was prevalent
+in the reigns of George I. and George II. In any case, these broad
+divisions are further divided into sub-heads embracing styles which
+arose out of the natural development in taste, or which came and went at
+the caprice of fashion.
+
+[Illustration: Frame of wood, carved with floral scrollwork, with female
+terminal figures.
+
+Italian; late sixteenth century.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The formation of a definite English character in the furniture of the
+three periods must be examined in conjunction with the prevailing styles
+in foreign furniture showing what influences were at work. Many
+conditions governed the introduction of foreign furniture into England.
+Renaissance art made a change in architecture, and a corresponding
+change took place in furniture. Ecclesiastical buildings followed the
+continental architecture in form and design, and foreign workmen were
+employed by the Church and by the nobility in decorating and
+embellishing cathedrals and abbeys and feudal castles. The early Tudor
+days under Henry VII. saw the dawn of the Renaissance in England. Jean
+de Mabuse and Torrigiano were invited over the sea by Henry VII., and
+under the sturdy impulse of Henry VIII. classical learning and love of
+the fine arts were encouraged. His palaces were furnished with
+splendour. He wished to emulate the château of Francis at Fontainebleau.
+He tried to entice the French king's artists with more tempting terms.
+Holbein, the great master of the German school, came to England, and his
+influence over Tudor art was very pronounced. The florid manner of the
+Renaissance was tempered with the broader treatment of the northern
+school. The art, too, of the Flemish woodcarvers found sympathetic
+reception in this country, and the harmonious blending of the designs of
+the Renaissance craftsmen of the Italian with those of the Flemish
+school resulted in the growth in England of the beautiful and
+characteristic style known as Tudor.
+
+[Illustration: FRONT OF COFFER. CHESTNUT WOOD. ITALIAN; LATE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY.
+
+With shield of arms supported by two male demi figures terminating in
+floral scrollwork.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The term Renaissance is used in regard to that period in the history of
+art which marked the return to the classic forms employed by the Greeks
+and Romans. The change from the Gothic or Mediæval work to the classic
+feeling had its origin in Italy, and spread, at first gradually but
+later with amazing rapidity and growing strength, into Germany, Spain,
+the Netherlands, France, and finally to England.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+BRIDAL CHEST. GOTHIC DESIGN.
+
+MIDDLE OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_Munich National Museum._)]
+
+The Renaissance was in origin a literary movement, and its influence in
+art came through literature. The enthusiasm of the new learning acting
+on craftsmen already trained to the highest degree of technical skill
+produced work of great brilliance.
+
+Never did the fine arts rise to such transcendent heights as in Italy
+from the fourteenth to the middle of the seventeenth centuries. The late
+John Addington Symonds, in his work on "The Renaissance in Italy," deals
+in a comprehensive manner with this memorable period, during which every
+city in Italy, great or small, was producing wonderful works of art, in
+painting, in sculpture, in goldsmiths' work, in woodcarving, in
+furniture, of which now every civilised country struggles to obtain for
+its art collections the scattered fragments of these great days. "During
+that period of prodigious activity," he says, "the entire nation seemed
+to be endowed with an instinct for the beautiful and with the capacity
+for producing it in every conceivable form."
+
+In the middle of the fourteenth century the Renaissance style in
+woodwork was at first more evident in the churches and in the palaces of
+the nobility in the Italian states. Some of the most magnificent
+examples of carved woodwork are preserved in the choir-stalls, doorways
+and panelling of the churches and cathedrals of Italy. The great artists
+of the day gave their talents to the production of woodwork and
+furniture in various materials. Wood was chiefly employed in making
+furniture, usually oak, cypress, ebony, walnut, or chestnut, which last
+wood is very similar in appearance to oak. These were decorated with
+gilding and paintings, and were inlaid with other woods, or agate,
+lapis-lazuli, and marbles of various tints, with ivory, tortoiseshell,
+mother-of-pearl, or with ornaments of hammered silver.
+
+The Victoria and Albert Museum contains some splendid examples of
+fourteenth and fifteenth century Italian Renaissance furniture, which
+illustrate well the magnificence and virility of the great art movement
+which influenced the remainder of Europe. In particular, carved and
+gilded frames, and marriage coffers (_cassoni_) given to brides as part
+of their dowry to hold the bridal trousseau, are richly and effectively
+decorated. The frame of carved wood (illustrated p. 35), with fine
+scroll work and female terminal figures, is enriched with painting and
+gilding. The frame on the title-page of this volume is of carved wood,
+decorated with gold stucco. Both these are sixteenth-century Italian
+work. In fact, the study of the various types and the different kinds of
+ornamentation given to these _cassoni_ would be an interesting subject
+for the student, who would find enough material in the collection at the
+Victoria and Albert Museum to enable him to follow the Renaissance
+movement from its early days down to the time when crowded design,
+over-elaboration, and inharmonious details grew apace like so many weeds
+to choke the ideals of the master spirits of the Renaissance.
+
+The front of the late fifteenth-century coffer (illustrated p. 38) is of
+chestnut wood, carved with a shield of arms supported by two male
+demi-figures, terminating in floral scroll work. There are still traces
+of gilding on the wood.
+
+At first the lines followed architecture in character. Cabinets had
+pilasters, columns, and arches resembling the old Roman temples. The
+illustration of a portion of a cornice of carved pinewood appearing as
+the headpiece to this chapter shows this tendency. The marriage coffers
+had classic heads upon them, but gradually this chaste style gave place
+to rich ornamentation with designs of griffins and grotesque masks. The
+chairs, too, were at first very severe in outline, usually with a high
+back and fitted with a stretcher between the legs, which was carved, as
+was also the back of the chair.
+
+In the middle of the fifteenth century Gothic art had attained its
+high-water mark in Germany before the new art from Italy had crossed the
+Alps. We reproduce a bridal chest, of the middle of the fifteenth
+century, from the collection in the Munich National Museum, which shows
+the basis of Gothic art in England prior to the revival and before
+further foreign influences were brought to bear on English art (p. 39).
+
+The influence of Italian art upon France soon made itself felt. Italian
+architects and craftsmen were invited by Francis I. and by the
+Princesses of the House of Medici, of which Pope Leo X. was the
+illustrious head, to build palaces and châteaux in the Renaissance
+style. The Tuileries, Fontainebleau, and the Louvre were the result of
+this importation. Primaticcio and Cellini founded a school of sculptors
+and wood-carvers in France, of which Jean Goujon stands pre-eminent. The
+furniture began gradually to depart from the old Gothic traditions, as
+is shown in the design of the oak chest of the late fifteenth century
+preserved in the Dublin Museum, which we illustrate, and commenced to
+emulate the gorgeousness of Italy. This is a particularly instructive
+example, showing the transition between the Gothic and the Renaissance
+styles.
+
+[Illustration: FRONT OF OAK CHEST. FRENCH; FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_Dublin Museum._)]
+
+The French Renaissance sideboard in the illustration (p. 45) is a fine
+example of the middle of the sixteenth century. It is carved in walnut.
+The moulded top is supported in front by an arcading decorated with two
+male and two female terminal figures, which are enriched with masks and
+floral ornament. Behind the arcading is a table supporting a cupboard
+and resting in front on four turned columns; it is fitted with three
+drawers, the fronts of which, as well as that of the cupboard, are
+decorated with monsters, grotesque masks, and scroll work.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of T. Foster Shattock, Esq._
+
+WALNUT SIDEBOARD.
+
+FRENCH; MIDDLE OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+The impulse given by Francis I. was responsible for much decorative work
+in the early period of the French Renaissance, and many beautiful
+examples exist in the churches and châteaux of France to which his name
+has been given. It is noticeable that the chief difference between the
+Italian and the French Renaissance lies in the foundation of Gothic
+influence underlying the newer Renaissance ornament in French work of
+the period. Flamboyant arches and Gothic canopies were frequently
+retained and mingled with classic decoration. The French clung to their
+older characteristics with more tenacity, inasmuch as the Renaissance
+was a sudden importation rather than a natural development of slower
+growth.
+
+The French Renaissance cabinet of walnut illustrated (p. 48) is from
+Lyons, and is of the later part of the sixteenth century. It is finely
+carved with terminal figures, masks, trophies of ornaments, and other
+ornament. In comparison with the sixteenth-century ebony cabinet of the
+period of Henry IV., finely inlaid with ivory in most refined style, it
+is obvious that a great variety of sumptuous furniture was being made by
+the production of such diverse types as these, and that the craftsmen
+were possessed of a wealth of invention. The range of English
+craftsmen's designs during the Renaissance in this country was never so
+extensive, as can be seen on a detailed examination of English work.
+
+[Illustration: CABINET OF WALNUT
+
+FRENCH (LYONS); SECOND HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Carved with terminal figures, masks, and trophies of arms.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+In Spain the Italian feeling became acclimatised more readily than in
+France. In the sixteenth century the wood carving of Spain is of
+exceeding beauty. The decoration of the choir of the cathedral at
+Toledo is held to be one of the finest examples of the Spanish
+Renaissance. In furniture the cabinets and buffets of the Spanish
+craftsmen are of perfect grace and of characteristic design. The older
+Spanish cabinets are decorated externally with delicate ironwork and
+with columns of ivory or bone painted and richly gilded, exhibiting
+Moorish influence in their character. Many of the more magnificent
+specimens are richly inlaid with silver, and are the work of the artists
+of Seville, of Toledo, or of Valladolid. The first illustration of a
+cabinet and stand is a typically Spanish design, and the second
+illustration of the carved walnut chest in the National Archælogical
+Museum at Madrid is of the sixteenth century, when the Spanish
+wood-carvers had developed the Renaissance spirit and reached a very
+high level in their art.
+
+Simultaneously with the Italianising of French art a similar wave of
+novelty was spreading over the Netherlands and Germany. The Flemish
+Renaissance approaches more nearly to the English in the adaptation of
+the Italian style, or it would be more accurate to say that the English
+is more closely allied to the art of the Netherlands, as it drew much of
+its inspiration from the Flemish wood-carvers. The spiral turned legs
+and columns, the strap frets cut out and applied to various parts, the
+squares between turnings often left blank to admit of a little ebony
+diamond, are all of the same family as the English styles. Ebony inlay
+was frequently used, but the Flemish work of this period was nearly all
+in oak. Marqueterie of rich design was made, the inlay being of various
+coloured woods and shaded. Mother-of-pearl and ivory were also employed
+to heighten the effect.
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH CABINET.
+
+Ebony and ivory marquetry work.
+
+MIDDLE OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_From the collection of M. Emile Peyre._)]
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH CABINET AND STAND. CARVED CHESTNUT;
+
+FIRST HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Width of cabinet, 3 ft. 2 in.; depth, 1 ft. 4 in.; height, 4 ft. 10 in.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The Italian Renaissance laid a light hand upon the Flemish artists, who,
+while unavoidably coming under its influence, at first copied its
+ornateness but subsequently proceeded on their own lines. Much quaint
+figure work, in which they greatly excelled, was used by the Flemish
+wood-carvers in their joinery. It is grotesque in character, and, like
+all their work, boldly executed. The influx of foreign influences upon
+the Netherlands was in the main as successfully resisted as is the
+encroachment of the sea across their land-locked dykes. The growth of
+the Spanish power made Charles V. the most powerful prince in Europe.
+Ferdinand of Spain held the whole Spanish peninsula except Portugal,
+with Sardinia and the island of Sicily, and he won the kingdom of
+Naples. His daughter Joanna married Philip, the son of Maximilian of
+Austria, and of Mary the daughter of Charles the Bold. Their son Charles
+thus inherited kingdoms and duchies from each of his parents and
+grandparents, and besides the dominions of Ferdinand and Isabella, he
+held Burgundy and the Netherlands. In 1519 he was chosen Emperor as
+Charles V. Flooded with Italian artists and Austrian and Spanish rulers,
+it is interesting to note how the national spirit in art was kept alive,
+and was of such strong growth that it influenced in marked manner the
+English furniture of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century,
+as will be shown in a subsequent chapter.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH CHEST; CARVED WALNUT.
+
+SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_In the National Museum, Madrid._)]
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                              £  s. d.
+Chest, Gothic, carved with parchemin panels, with a
+    wrought-iron lock, from Nuremburg Castle, German, about
+    1500. Christie, January 29, 1904                         31 10  0
+
+Cabinet, walnut wood, of architectural design, with folding
+    doors above and below and small drawers, carved with
+    arabesque foliage and scrolls in relief, and with
+    columns at the angles, 69 in. high, 38 in. wide,
+    French, middle of the sixteenth century. Christie,
+    April 12, 1904                                           21  0  0
+
+Coffer, oak, the front divided by six buttresses, the steel
+    lock pierced with tracery, 65 in. long, 46 in. high,
+    French, late fifteenth century. Christie, May 6, 1904
+                                                            126  0  0
+
+Coffer, large walnut wood, the whole of the front and sides
+    carved in low relief, the lock is rectangular, and
+    pierced with flamboyant tracery, French (provincial),
+    early part of the fifteenth century, 84 in. wide, 36 in.
+    high. Christie, May 6, 1904                              50  8  0
+
+Coffer, walnut wood, the front and sides divided into
+    arch-shaped panels containing Gothic tracery, 86 in.
+    wide, 32 in. high, French, fifteenth century. Christie,
+    May 6, 1904                                              52 10  0
+
+Chair, walnut wood, with semicircular seat, the back
+    composed of six upright rectangular panels, each
+    containing various forms of Gothic tracery; below is a
+    longitudinal panel of tracery, 27 in. wide, 29 in. high,
+    French or Flemish, fifteenth century. Christie, May 6,
+    1904                                                     91  7  0
+
+Credence, oak, with folding doors and drawers above and
+    shelf beneath, the corners are returned, the various
+    door panels, &c., carved in low relief; at the back
+    below is linen fold panelling, 54 in. wide, 62 in. high,
+    probably French, early sixteenth century. Christie, May
+    6, 1904                                                 336  0  0
+
+Cabinet, walnut-wood, in two parts, of rectangular form,
+    with folding doors above and below, and two drawers in
+    the centre, carved with grotesque terminal figure and
+    gadrooned mouldings, strapwork and duplicated rosettes,
+    French work, early seventeenth century, 78 in. high, 48
+    in. wide. Christie, May 6, 1904                         110  5  0
+
+Cabinet, walnut-wood, in two parts, of rectangular form,
+    with folding doors below and door above; at the sides
+    are terminal male and female figures, the centres of the
+    doors carved, 92 in. high, 49 in. wide, French work
+    (Lyons School), second quarter of sixteenth century.
+    Christie, May 6, 1904                                    99 15  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
+
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+CARVED OAK CHEST.
+
+ENGLISH; SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Panels finely carved with Gothic tracery.]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
+
+    Henry VIII.      1509-1547.
+    Edward VI.       1547-1553.
+    Mary             1553-1558.
+    Elizabeth        1558-1603.
+
+    1525. Hampton Court built.
+
+    1566. Increased commercial prosperity. Foundation of Royal
+    Exchange by Sir Thomas Gresham.
+
+    1580. Drake comes home from the New World with plunder worth
+    half a million.
+
+    1585. Antwerp captured by the Duke of Parma; flight of merchants
+    to London. Transfer of commercial supremacy from Antwerp to
+    London. Beginning of carrying trade, especially with Flanders.
+
+[Illustration: BENCH OF OAK. FRENCH; ABOUT 1500.
+
+With panels of linen ornament. Seat arranged as a coffer.
+
+(Formerly in the collection of M. Emile Peyre.)
+
+(_Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh._)]
+
+
+The opening years of the sixteenth century saw the beginnings of the
+Renaissance movement in England. The oak chest had become a settle with
+high back and arms. The fine example of an early sixteenth-century oak
+chest illustrated (p. 59) shows how the Gothic style had impressed
+itself on articles of domestic furniture. The credence, or tasting
+buffet, had developed into the Tudor sideboard, where a cloth was spread
+and candles placed. With more peaceful times a growth of domestic
+refinement required comfortable and even luxurious surroundings. The
+royal palaces at Richmond and Windsor were filled with costly foreign
+furniture. The mansions which were taking the place of the old feudal
+castles found employment for foreign artists and craftsmen who taught
+the English woodcarver. In the early days of Henry VIII. the classical
+style supplanted the Gothic, or was in great measure mingled with it.
+Many fine structures exist which belong to this transition period,
+during which the mixed style was predominant. The woodwork of King's
+College Chapel at Cambridge is held to be an especially notable example.
+
+[Illustration: PORTION OF CARVED WALNUT VIRGINAL.
+
+FLEMISH; SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH CARVED OAK COFFER.
+
+Showing interlaced ribbon work.
+
+SECOND HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(Height, 2 ft. 1 in.; width, 3 ft. 1 in.)
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The Great Hall at Hampton Court dates from 1531, or five years after
+Cardinal Wolsey had given up his palace to Henry VIII. Its grand
+proportions, its high-pitched roof and pendants, display the art of the
+woodcarver in great excellence. This hall, like others of the same
+period, had an open hearth in the centre, on which logs of wood were
+placed, and the smoke found its way out through a cupola, or louvre, in
+the roof.
+
+The roofs of the Early Tudor mansions were magnificent specimens of
+woodwork. But the old style of king-post, queen-post, or hammer-beam
+roof was prevalent. The panelling, too, of halls and rooms retained the
+formal character in its mouldings, and various "linen" patterns were
+used, so called from their resemblance to a folded napkin, an
+ornamentation largely used towards the end of the Perpendicular style,
+which was characteristic of English domestic architecture in the
+fifteenth century. To this period belongs the superb woodcarving of the
+renowned choir stalls of Henry VII.'s Chapel in Westminster Abbey.
+
+The bench of oak illustrated (p. 60) shows a common form of panel with
+linen ornament, and is French, of about the year 1500. The seat, as will
+be seen, is arranged as a locked coffer.
+
+[Illustration: FIREPLACE AND OAK PANELLING FROM THE "OLD PALACE" AT
+BROMLEY-BY-BOW. BUILT IN 1606.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The Elizabethan woodcarver revelled in grotesque figure work, in
+intricate interlacings of strapwork, borrowed from the Flemish, and
+ribbon ornamentation, adapted from the French. He delighted in massive
+embellishment of magnificent proportions. Among Tudor woodwork the
+carved oak screen of the Middle Temple Hall is a noteworthy example of
+the sumptuousness and splendour of interior decoration of the English
+Renaissance. These screens supporting the minstrels' gallery in old
+halls are usually exceptionally rich in detail. Gray's Inn (dated 1560)
+and the Charterhouse (dated 1571) are other examples of the best period
+of sixteenth-century woodwork in England.
+
+Christ Church at Oxford, Grimsthorp in Lincolnshire, Kenninghall in
+Norfolk, Layer Marney Towers in Essex, and Sutton Place at Guildford,
+are all representative structures typical of the halls and manor houses
+being built at the time of the English Renaissance.
+
+In the Victoria and Albert Museum has been re-erected a room having the
+oak panelling from the "Old Palace" at Bromley-by-Bow, which was built
+in 1606. The massive fireplace with the royal coat of arms above, with
+the niches in which stand carved figures of two saints, together with
+the contemporary iron fire-dogs standing in the hearth, give a picture
+of what an old Elizabethan hall was like.
+
+[Illustration: ELIZABETHAN BEDSTEAD. DATED 1593.
+
+Carved oak, ornamented in marquetry.
+
+(Height, 7 ft. 4 in.; length, 7 ft. 11 in.; width, 5 ft. 8 in.)
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+Under Queen Elizabeth new impulses stirred the nation, and a sumptuous
+Court set the fashion in greater luxury of living. Gloriana, with her
+merchant-princes, her fleet of adventurers on the high seas, and the
+pomp and circumstance of her troop of foreign lovers, brought foreign
+fashions and foreign art into commoner usage. The growth of luxurious
+habits in the people was eyed askance by her statesmen; "England
+spendeth more in wines in one year," complained Cecil, "than it did in
+ancient times in four years." The chimney-corner took the place of the
+open hearth; chimneys were for the first time familiar features in
+middle-class houses. The insanitary rush-floor was superseded by wood,
+and carpets came into general use. Even pillows, deemed by the hardy
+yeomanry as only fit "for women in child-bed," found a place in the
+massive and elaborately carved Elizabethan bedstead.
+
+The illustration of the fine Elizabethan bedstead (on p. 66) gives a
+very good idea of what the domestic furniture was like in the days
+immediately succeeding the Spanish Armada. It is carved in oak; with
+columns, tester, and headboard showing the classic influence. It is
+ornamented in marquetry, and bears the date 1593.
+
+All over England were springing up town halls and fine houses of the
+trading-classes, and manor houses and palaces of the nobility worthy of
+the people about to establish a formidable position in European
+politics. Hatfield House, Hardwick Hall, Audley End, Burleigh, Knole,
+and Longleat, all testify to the Renaissance which swept over England at
+this time. Stately terraces with Italian gardens, long galleries hung
+with tapestries, and lined with carved oak chairs and elaborate cabinets
+were marked features in the days of the new splendour. Men's minds, led
+by Raleigh, the Prince of Company Promoters, and fired by Drake's
+buccaneering exploits, turned to the New World, hitherto under the heel
+of Spain. Dreams of galleons laden with gold and jewels stimulated the
+ambition of adventurous gallants, and quickened the nation's pulse. The
+love of travel became a portion of the Englishman's heritage. The
+Italian spirit had reached England in full force. The poetry and
+romances of Italy affected all the Elizabethan men of letters.
+Shakespeare, in his "Merchant of Venice" and his other plays, plainly
+shows the Italian influence. In costume, in speech, and in furniture, it
+became the fashion to follow Italy. To Ascham it seemed like "the
+enchantment of Circe brought out of Italy to mar men's manners in
+England."
+
+[Illustration: PANEL OF CARVED OAK.
+
+ENGLISH; EARLY SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Showing interlaced strapwork.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The result of this wave of fashion on the domestic furniture of England
+was to impart to it the elegance of Italian art combined with a national
+sturdiness of character seemingly inseparable from English art at all
+periods. As the reign of Queen Elizabeth extended from the year 1558 to
+the year 1603, it is usual to speak of architecture and furniture of
+the latter half of the sixteenth century as Elizabethan.
+
+A favourite design in Elizabethan woodwork is the interlaced strapwork
+(see illustration p. 68), which was derived from similar designs
+employed by the contemporary stonecarver, and is found on Flemish
+woodwork of the same period. The panel of a sixteenth-century Flemish
+virginal, carved in walnut, illustrated, shows this form of decoration.
+Grotesque terminal figures, half-human, half-monster, supported the
+front of the buffets, or were the supporting terminals of cornices. This
+feature is an adaptation from the Caryatides, the supporting figures
+used instead of columns in architecture, which in Renaissance days
+extended to woodwork. Table-legs and bed-posts swelled into heavy,
+acorn-shaped supports of massive dimensions. Cabinets were sometimes
+inlaid, as was also the room panelling, but it cannot be said that at
+this period the art of marquetry had arrived at a great state of
+perfection in this country.
+
+It is noticeable that in the rare pieces that are inlaid in the Late
+Tudor and Early Jacobean period the inlay itself is a sixteenth of an
+inch thick, whereas in later inlays of more modern days the inlay is
+thinner and flimsier. In the Flemish examples ivory was often used, and
+holly and sycamore and box seem to have been the favourite woods
+selected for inlay.
+
+Take, for example, the mirror with the frame of carved oak, with scroll
+outline and narrow bands inlaid with small squares of wood, alternately
+light and dark. This inlay is very coarsely done, and unworthy to
+compare with Italian marquetry of contemporary date, or of an earlier
+period. The uprights and feet of the frame, it will be noticed, are
+baluster-shaped. The glass mirror is of nineteenth-century manufacture.
+The date carved upon the frame is 1603, the first year of the reign of
+James I., and it is stated to have come from Derby Old Hall.
+
+The Court cupboard, also of the same date, begins to show the coming
+style of Jacobean ornamentation in the turning in the upright pillars
+and supports and the square baluster termination. The massive carving
+and elaborate richness of the early Elizabethan period have given place
+to a more restrained decoration. Between the drawers is the design of a
+tulip in marquetry, and narrow bands of inlay are used to decorate the
+piece. In place of the chimerical monsters we have a portrait in wood of
+a lady, for which Arabella Stuart might have sat as model. The days were
+approaching when furniture was designed for use, and ornament was put
+aside if it interfered with the structural utility of the piece. The
+wrought-iron handle to the drawer should be noted, and in connection
+with the observation brought to bear by the beginner on genuine
+specimens in the Victoria and Albert Museum and other collections, it is
+well not to let any detail escape minute attention. Hinges and lock
+escutcheons and handles to drawers must not be neglected in order to
+acquire a sound working knowledge of the peculiarities of the different
+periods.
+
+[Illustration: MIRROR.
+
+Glass in oak frame with carved scroll outline and narrow bands inlaid
+with small squares of wood. The glass nineteenth century.
+
+ENGLISH. DATED 1603.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+[Illustration: COURT CUPBOARD, CARVED OAK.
+
+ENGLISH. DATED 1603.
+
+Decorated with narrow bands inlaid, and having inlaid tulip between
+drawers.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+In contrast with this specimen, the elaborately carved Court cupboard of
+a slightly earlier period should be examined. It bears carving on
+every available surface. It has been "restored," and restored pieces
+have an unpleasant fashion of suggesting that sundry improvements have
+been carried out in the process. At any rate, as it stands it is
+over-laboured, and entirely lacking in reticence. The elaboration of
+enrichment, while executed in a perfectly harmonious manner, should
+convey a lesson to the student of furniture. There is an absence of
+contrast; had portions of it been left uncarved how much more effective
+would have been the result! As it is it stands, wonderful as is the
+technique, somewhat of a warning to the designer to cultivate a studied
+simplicity rather than to run riot in a profusion of detail.
+
+[Illustration: COURT CUPBOARD, CARVED OAK.
+
+ABOUT 1580. (RESTORED.)
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+Another interesting Court cupboard, of the early seventeenth century,
+shows the more restrained style that was rapidly succeeding the earlier
+work. This piece is essentially English in spirit, and is untouched save
+the legs, which have been restored.
+
+[Illustration: _By kind permission of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq._
+
+COURT CUPBOARD, EARLY SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+With secret hiding-place at top.]
+
+The table which is illustrated (p. 78) is a typical example of the table
+in ordinary use in Elizabethan days. This table replaced a stone altar
+in a church in Shropshire at the time of the Reformation.
+
+It was late in the reign of Queen Elizabeth that upholstered chairs
+became more general. Sir John Harrington, writing in 1597, gives
+evidence of this in the assertion that "the fashion of cushioned chayrs
+is taken up in every merchant's house." Wooden seats had hitherto not
+been thought too hard, and chairs imported from Spain had leather seats
+and backs of fine tooled work richly gilded and decorated. In the latter
+days of Elizabeth loose cushions were used for chairs and for window
+seats, and were elaborately wrought in velvet, or were of satin
+embroidered in colours, with pearls as ornamentation, and edged with
+gold or silver lace.
+
+The upholstered chair belongs more properly to the Jacobean period, and
+in the next chapter will be shown several specimens of those used by
+James I.
+
+In Elizabethan panelling to rooms, in chimneypieces, doorways, screens
+such as those built across the end of a hall and supporting the
+minstrels' gallery, the wood used was nearly always English oak, and
+most of the thinner parts, such as that designed for panels and smaller
+surfaces, was obtained by splitting the timber, thus exhibiting the
+beautiful figure of the wood so noticeable in old examples.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                             £   s. d.
+Chest, oak, with inlaid panels under arches, with caryatid
+    figures carved in box-wood, English, temp. Elizabeth.
+    Christie, January 29, 1904.                              40  9  0
+
+Tudor mantelpiece, with elaborately carved jambs, panels,  }
+    brackets, sides, and cornice, 6 ft. by 7 ft. 3 in. high.}
+    Herbert Wright, Ipswich, February 19, 1904             }
+                                                           } 155  0 0
+Old oak panelling, in all about 60 ft. run and 6 ft. 6 in. }
+    high, with 17 carved panels and 3 fluted pilasters     }
+    fitted in same, part being surmounted by a cornice.    }
+    Herbert Wright, Ipswich, February 19, 1904             }
+
+Credence, walnut-wood, with a cupboard and drawer above and
+    shelf beneath, the corners are returned, the central
+    panel has carved upon it, in low relief, circular
+    medallions, pierced steel hinges and lock, 36 in. wide,
+    50 in. high, early sixteenth century. Christie, May 6,
+    1904                                                    346  0  0
+
+Bedstead, Elizabethan, with panelled and carved canopy top,
+    supported by fluted and carved pillars, inlaid and
+    panelled back, with raised figures and flowers in
+    relief, also having a carved panelled footboard. C. W.
+    Provis & Son, Manchester, May 9, 1904                    22 10  0
+
+Bedstead, oak Elizabethan, with carved back, dated 1560, and
+    small cupboard fitted with secret sliding panel, and
+    further having carved and inlaid panelled top with
+    inlaid panels, the whole surmounted with heavy cornice.
+    C. W. Provis & Son, Manchester, May 9, 1904              33  0  0
+
+Sideboard, Elizabethan old oak, 6 ft. 2 in. wide by 7 ft. 6
+    in. high, with carved canopy top; also fitted with
+    gallery shelf, supported by lions rampant. C. W. Provis
+    & Son, Manchester. May 9, 1904                           60  0  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+[Illustration: _By kindness of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq._
+
+ELIZABETHAN OAK TABLE.]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+STUART OR JACOBEAN. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring._
+
+GATE-LEG TABLE.]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+STUART OR JACOBEAN. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+    James I.          1603-1625.
+    Charles I.        1625-1649.
+    The Commonwealth  1649-1660.
+
+    1619. Tapestry factory established at Mortlake, under Sir
+    Francis Crane.
+
+    ---- Banqueting Hall added to Whitehall by Inigo Jones.
+
+    1632. Vandyck settled in London on invitation of Charles I.
+
+    1651. Navigation Act passed; aimed blow (1572-1652) at Dutch
+    carrying trade. All goods to be imported in English ships or in
+    ships of country producing goods.
+
+
+With the advent of the House of Stuart the England under James I. saw
+new fashions introduced in furniture. It has already been mentioned that
+the greater number of old houses which are now termed Tudor or
+Elizabethan were erected in the days of James I. At the beginning of a
+new monarchy fashion in art rarely changes suddenly, so that the early
+pieces of Jacobean furniture differ very little from Elizabethan in
+character. Consequently the Court cupboard, dated 1603, and mirror of
+the same year (illustrated on p. 70), though bearing the date of the
+first year of the reign of James, more properly belong to Tudor days.
+
+In the Bodleian Library at Oxford there is preserved a chair of fine
+workmanship and of historic memory. It was made from the oak timbers of
+the _Golden Hind_, the ship in which Sir Francis Drake made his
+adventurous voyage of discovery round the world. In spite of many secret
+enemies "deaming him the master thiefe of the unknowne world," Queen
+Elizabeth came to Deptford and came aboard the _Golden Hind_ and "there
+she did make Captain Drake knight, in the same ship, for reward of his
+services; his armes were given him, a ship on the world, which ship, by
+Her Majestie's commandment, is lodged in a dock at Deptford, for a
+monument to all posterity."
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+OAK CHAIR MADE FROM THE TIMBER OF THE _GOLDEN HIND_. COMMONLY CALLED
+"SIR FRANCIS DRAKE'S CHAIR."
+
+(_At the Bodleian Library._)]
+
+It remained for many years at Deptford dockyard, and became the resort
+of holiday folk, who made merry in the cabin, which was converted into a
+miniature banqueting hall; but when it was too far decayed to be
+repaired it was broken up, and a sufficient quantity of sound wood was
+selected from it and made into a chair, which was presented to the
+University of Oxford. This was in the time of Charles II., and the poet
+Cowley has written some lines on it, in which he says that Drake and
+his _Golden Hind_ could not have wished a more blessed fate, since to
+"this Pythagorean ship"
+
+          "... a seat of endless rest is given
+    To her in Oxford, and to him in heaven--"
+
+which, though quite unintentional on the part of the poet, is curiously
+satiric.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the Master of the Charterhouse._
+
+OAK TABLE, DATED 1616, BEARING ARMS OF THOMAS SUTTON, FOUNDER OF THE
+CHARTERHOUSE HOSPITAL.]
+
+The piece is highly instructive as showing the prevailing design for a
+sumptuous chair in the late seventeenth century. The middle arch in the
+back of the chair is disfigured by a tablet with an inscription, which
+has been placed there.
+
+Of the early days of James I. is a finely carved oak table, dated 1616.
+This table is heavily moulded and carved with garlands between cherubs'
+heads, and shields bearing the arms of Thomas Sutton, the founder of the
+Charterhouse Hospital. The upper part of the table is supported on
+thirteen columns, with quasi-Corinthian columns and enriched shafts,
+standing on a moulded H-shaped base. It will be seen that the designers
+had not yet thrown off the trammels of architecture which dominated much
+of the Renaissance woodwork. The garlands are not the garlands of
+Grinling Gibbons, and although falling within the Jacobean period, it
+lacks the charm which belong to typical Jacobean pieces.
+
+At Knole, in the possession of Lord Sackville, there are some fine
+specimens of early Jacobean furniture, illustrations of which are
+included in this volume. The chair used by King James I. when sitting to
+the painter Mytens is of peculiar interest. The cushion, worn and
+threadbare with age, is in all probability the same cushion used by
+James. The upper part of the chair is trimmed with a band of gold
+thread. The upholstering is red velvet, and the frame, which is of oak,
+bears traces of gilding upon it, and is studded with copper nails. The
+chair in design, with the half circular supports, follows old Venetian
+patterns. The smaller chair is of the same date, and equally interesting
+as a fine specimen; the old embroidery, discoloured and worn though it
+be, is of striking design and must have been brilliant and distinctive
+three hundred years ago. The date of these pieces is about 1620, the
+year when the "Pilgrim Fathers" landed in America.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CHAIR USED BY JAMES I.
+
+In the possession of Lord Sackville.]
+
+From the wealth of Jacobean furniture at Knole it is difficult to
+make a representative selection, but the stool we reproduce (p. 90) is
+interesting, inasmuch as it was a piece of furniture in common use. The
+chairs evidently were State chairs, but the footstool was used in all
+likelihood by those who sat below the salt, and were of less
+significance. The stuffed settee which finds a place in the
+billiard-room at Knole and the sumptuous sofa in the Long Gallery, with
+its mechanical arrangement for altering the angle at the head, are
+objects of furniture difficult to equal. The silk and gold thread
+coverings are faded, and the knotted fringe and gold braid have
+tarnished under the hand of Time, but their structural design is so
+effective that the modern craftsman has made luxurious furniture after
+these models.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+JACOBEAN CHAIR AT KNOLE.
+
+In the possession of Lord Sackville.]
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+JACOBEAN STOOL AT KNOLE.
+
+In the possession of Lord Sackville.]
+
+[Illustration: UPPER HALF OF CARVED WALNUT DOOR.
+
+Showing ribbon work.
+
+FRENCH; LATTER PART OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(Height of door, 4 ft. 7 in.; width, 1 ft. 11 in.)
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+Carved oak chests were not largely made in Jacobean days--not, at any
+rate, for the same purpose as they were in Tudor or earlier times. As
+church coffers they doubtless continued to be required, but for
+articles of domestic furniture other than as linen chests their
+multifarious uses had vanished. Early Jacobean coffers clearly show the
+departure from Elizabethan models. They become more distinctly English
+in feeling, though the interlaced ribbon decoration, so frequently used,
+is an adaptation from French work, which pattern was now becoming
+acclimatised. The French carved oak coffer of the second half of the
+sixteenth century (illustrated p. 61) shows from what source some of the
+English designs were derived.
+
+In the portion of the French door which we give as an illustration (on
+p. 91), it will be seen with what grace and artistic excellence of
+design and with what restraint the French woodcarvers utilised the
+running ribbon. The ribbon pattern has been variously used by designers
+of furniture; it appears in Chippendale's chair-backs, where it almost
+exceeds the limitations of the technique of woodcarving.
+
+Art in the early days of Charles I. was undimmed. The tapestry factory
+at Mortlake, established by James I., was further encouraged by the
+"White King." He took a great and a personal interest in all matters
+relating to art. Under his auspices the cartoons of Raphael were brought
+to England to foster the manufacture of tapestry. He gave his patronage
+to foreign artists and to foreign craftsmen, and in every way attempted
+to bring English art workers into line with their contemporaries on the
+Continent. Vandyck came over to become "Principal painter of Their
+Majesties at St. James's," keeping open table at Blackfriars and living
+in almost regal style. His grace and distinction and the happy
+circumstance of his particular style being coincident with the most
+picturesque period in English costume, have won him a place among the
+world's great painters. Fine portraits, at Windsor and at Madrid, at
+Dresden and at the Pitti Palace, at the Louvre and in the Hermitage at
+Petersburg, testify to the European fame of the painter's brilliant
+gallery representing the finest flower of the English aristocracy,
+prelates, statesmen, courtiers and beautiful women that were gathered
+together at the Court of Charles I. and his Queen Henrietta Maria.
+
+[Illustration: OAK CHAIR.
+
+CHARLES I. PERIOD.
+
+With arms of Thomas Wentworth, first Earl of Strafford (1593-1641).
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+In Early Stuart days the influence of Inigo Jones, the Surveyor of Works
+to Charles I., made itself felt in woodwork and interior decorations. He
+was possessed with a great love and reverence for the classicism of
+Italy, and introduced into his banqueting hall at Whitehall (now the
+United Service Museum), and St. Paul's, Covent Garden, a chaster style,
+which was taken up by the designers of furniture, who began to abandon
+the misguided use of ornament of later Elizabethan days. In the
+Victoria and Albert Museum is an oak chair with the arms of Thomas
+Wentworth, first Earl of Strafford, which, in addition to its historic
+interest, is a fine example of the chair of the period of Charles I.
+(illustrated p. 93).
+
+[Illustration: ITALIAN CHAIR, ABOUT 1620.
+
+Thence introduced into England.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+It is certain that the best specimens of Jacobean furniture of this
+period, with their refined lines and well-balanced proportions, are
+suggestive of the stately diction of Clarendon or the well-turned lyrics
+of Herrick.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Son_
+
+HIGH-BACK OAK CHAIR. EARLY JACOBEAN.
+
+Elaborately carved with shell and scroll foliage.
+
+(Formerly in the Stuart MacDonald family, and originally in the
+possession of King Charles I.)]
+
+In the illustration of a sixteenth-century chair in common use in Italy,
+it will be seen to what source the Jacobean woodworkers looked for
+inspiration. The fine, high-backed oak Stuart chair, elaborately carved
+with bold shell and scroll foliage, having carved supports, stuffed
+upholstered seats, and loose cushion covered in old Spanish silk damask,
+is a highly interesting example. It was long in the possession of the
+Stuart MacDonald family, and is believed to have belonged to Charles I.
+
+The gate-leg table, sometimes spoken of as Cromwellian, belongs to this
+Middle Jacobean style. It cannot be said with any degree of accuracy
+that in the Commonwealth days a special style of furniture was
+developed. From all evidence it would seem that the manufacture of
+domestic furniture went on in much the same manner under Cromwell as
+under Charles. Iconoclasts as were the Puritans, it is doubtful whether
+they extended their work of destruction to articles in general use. The
+bigot had "no starch in his linen, no gay furniture in his house."
+Obviously the Civil War very largely interfered with the encouragement
+and growth of the fine arts, but when furniture had to be made there is
+no doubt the Roundhead cabinetmaker and the Anabaptist carpenter
+produced as good joinery and turning as they did before Charles made his
+historic descent upon the House in his attempt to arrest the five
+members.
+
+There is a style of chair, probably imported from Holland, with leather
+back and leather seat which is termed "Cromwellian," probably on account
+of its severe lines, but there is no direct evidence that this style was
+peculiarly of Commonwealth usage. The illustration (p. 97) gives the
+type of chair, but the covering is modern.
+
+That Cromwell himself had no dislike for the fine arts is proved by his
+care of the Raphael cartoons, and we are enabled to reproduce an
+illustration of a fine old ebony cabinet with moulded front, fitted with
+numerous drawers, which was formerly the property of Oliver Cromwell. It
+was at Olivers Stanway, once the residence of the Eldred family. The
+stand is carved with shells and scrolls, and the scroll-shaped legs are
+enriched with carved female figures, the entire stand being gilded. This
+piece is most probably of Italian workmanship, and was of course made
+long before the Protector's day, showing marked characteristics of
+Renaissance style.
+
+[Illustration: JACOBEAN CHAIR, CANE BACK CROMWELLIAN CHAIR.
+
+ARMCHAIR. DATED 1623. ARMCHAIR. WITH INLAID BACK.
+
+JACOBEAN CHAIRS.
+
+(_By permission of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq._)]
+
+The carved oak cradle (p. 107), with the letters "G. B. M. B." on one
+side, and "October, 14 dai," on the other, and bearing the date 1641,
+shows the type of piece in common use. It is interesting to the
+collector to make a note of the turned knob of wood so often found on
+doors and as drawer handles on untouched old specimens of this period,
+but very frequently removed by dealers and replaced by metal handles of
+varying styles, all of which may be procured by the dozen in Tottenham
+Court Road, coarse replicas of old designs. Another point worthy of
+attention is the wooden peg in the joinery, securing the tenon into the
+mortice, which is visible in old pieces. It will be noticed in several
+places in this cradle. In modern imitations, unless very thoughtfully
+reproduced, these oaken pegs are not visible.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+EBONY CABINET.
+
+On stand gilded and richly carved.
+
+FORMERLY THE PROPERTY OF OLIVER CROMWELL.
+
+(From Olivers Stanway, at one time the seat of the Eldred family.)]
+
+In the page of Jacobean chairs showing the various styles, the more
+severe piece, dated 1623, is Early Jacobean, and the fine unrestored
+armchair of slightly later date shows in the stretcher the wear given by
+the feet of the sitters. It is an interesting piece; the stiles in the
+back are inlaid with pearwood and ebony. The other armchair with its
+cane panels in back is of later Stuart days. It shows the transitional
+stage between the scrolled-arm type of chair, wholly of wood, and the
+more elaborate type (illustrated p. 123) of the James II. period.
+
+[Illustration: JACOBEAN CARVED OAK CHAIRS.
+
+Yorkshire, about 1640.
+
+Derbyshire; early seventeenth century.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the Rt. Hon. Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane,
+G.C.B, I.S.O._
+
+JACOBEAN OAK CUPBOARD. ABOUT 1620.]
+
+In addition to the finer pieces of seventeenth-century furniture to be
+found in the seats of the nobility, such as at Penshurst, or in the
+manor houses and homes of the squires and smaller landowners, there was
+much furniture of a particularly good design in use at farmsteads from
+one end of the country to the other, in days when a prosperous class of
+yeoman followed the tastes of their richer neighbours. This farmhouse
+furniture is nowadays much sought after. It was of local manufacture,
+and is distinctly English in its character. Oak dressers either plain or
+carved, were made not only in Wales--"Welsh Dressers" having become
+almost a trade term--but in various parts of England, in Yorkshire,
+in Derbyshire, in Sussex, and in Suffolk. They are usually fitted with
+two or three open shelves, and sometimes with cupboards on each side.
+The better preserved specimens have still their old drop-handles and
+hinges of brass. It is not easy to procure fine examples nowadays, as it
+became fashionable two or three years ago to collect these, and in
+addition to oak dressers from the farmhouses of Normandy, equally old
+and quaint, which were imported to supply a popular demand, a great
+number of modern imitations were made up from old wood--church pews
+largely forming the framework of the dressers, which were not difficult
+to imitate successfully.
+
+The particular form of chair known as the "Yorkshire chair" is of the
+same period. Certain localities seem to have produced peculiar types of
+chairs which local makers made in great numbers. It will be noticed that
+even in these conditions, with a continuous manufacture going on, the
+patterns were not exact duplicates of each other, as are the
+machine-made chairs turned out of a modern factory, where the maker has
+no opportunity to introduce any personal touches, but has to obey the
+iron law of his machine.
+
+As a passing hint to collectors of old oak furniture, it may be observed
+that it very rarely happens that two chairs can be found together of the
+same design. There may be a great similarity of ornament and a
+particularly striking resemblance, but the chair with its twin companion
+beside it suggests that one, if not both, are spurious. The same
+peculiarity is exhibited in old brass candlesticks, and especially the
+old Dutch brass with circular platform in middle of candlestick. One
+may handle fifty without finding two that are turned with precisely the
+same form of ornament.
+
+The usual feature of the chair which is termed "Yorkshire" is that it
+has an open back in the form of an arcade, or a back formed with two
+crescent-shaped cross-rails, the decorations of the back usually bearing
+acorn-shaped knobs either at the top of the rail or as pendants. This
+type is not confined to Yorkshire, as they have frequently been found in
+Derbyshire, in Oxfordshire, and in Worcestershire, and a similar variety
+may be found in old farmhouses in East Anglia.
+
+In the illustration of the two oak chairs (p. 105), the one with arms is
+of the Charles I. period, the other is later and belongs to the latter
+half of the seventeenth century.
+
+The Jacobean oak cupboard (illustrated p. 101) is in date about 1620. At
+the side there are perforations to admit air, which shows that it was
+used as a butter cupboard. The doors have an incised decoration of
+conventional design. The lower part is carved in style unmistakably
+Jacobean in nature. The pattern on the two uprights at the top is
+repeatedly found in pieces evidently designed locally for use in
+farmhouses.
+
+It is not too much to hope that enough has been said concerning Jacobean
+furniture of the early and middle seventeenth century to show that it
+possesses a peculiar charm and simplicity in the lines of its
+construction, which make it a very pleasing study to the earnest
+collector who wishes to procure a few genuine specimens of old
+furniture, which, while being excellent in artistic feeling, are not
+unprocurable by reason of their rarity and excessive cost. It should be
+within the power of the careful collector, after following the hints in
+this volume, and after examining well-selected examples in such a
+collection as that at the Victoria and Albert Museum, to obtain, without
+unreasonable expenditure, after patient search, one or two Jacobean
+pieces of undoubted authenticity.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Fenton & Sons._
+
+JACOBEAN OAK CHAIRS.
+
+Armchair, time of Charles I.
+
+Yorkshire chair. Late seventeenth century.]
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                              £  s. d.
+Cabinet, Jacobean oak, with two drawers, and folding doors
+    below enclosing drawers, decorated with rectangular
+    panels in relief, inlaid in ebony and ivory, and with
+    baluster columns at the side--48 in. high, 46 in. wide.
+    Christie, November 27, 1903                              44  2  0
+
+Cabinet, Jacobean black oak, 5 ft. wide by 6 ft. 2 in. high,
+    fitted with cupboards above and below, with sunk
+    panelled folding doors, carved with busts of warriors in
+    high relief, the pilasters carved with mask heads and
+    caryatid figures, the whole carved with floral scrolls
+    and other devices. Capes, Dunn & Pilcher, Manchester,
+    December 9, 1903                                         57  0  0
+
+Chairs, set of three Jacobean oak, with canework seats, and
+    panels in the backs, the borders carved with scrolls,
+    and on scroll legs with stretchers. Christie, January
+    29, 1904                                                 52 10  0
+
+Table, Cromwell, oak, on spiral legs. Dowell, Edinburgh,
+    March 12, 1904                                           11  0  6
+
+Elbow-chair, oak, Scotch, back having carved wheel, "A. R.,
+    1663." Dowell, Edinburgh, March 12, 1904                 60 18  0
+
+Cabinet, Jacobean oak, with drawer and folding doors below,
+    with moulded rectangular panels and balusters in relief,
+    50 in. high, 46 in. wide. Christie, July 1, 1904         35 14  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+[Illustration: CRADLE, TIME OF CHARLES I.
+
+CARVED OAK; WITH LETTERS G. B. M. B. DATED 1641.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+STUART OR JACOBEAN.
+
+LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+[Illustration: (_After picture by Caspar Netscher_)
+
+INTERIOR OF DUTCH HOUSE.
+
+LATTER HALF OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+STUART OR JACOBEAN. LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+    Charles II.            1660-1685.
+    James II.              1685-1688.
+    William and Mary.      1689-1694.
+    William                1694-1702.
+
+    Sir Christopher Wren  (1632-1723).
+    Grinling Gibbons      (1648-1726).
+
+    1660. Bombay became a British possession. Importation of
+    Indo-Portuguese furniture.
+
+    1666. Great Fire in London. Much valuable furniture destroyed.
+
+    1675-1710. St. Paul's Cathedral built under Wren's direction.
+
+    1685. Edict of Nantes revoked. Spitalfields' silk industry
+    founded by French refugees.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CABINET OF THE TIME OF CHARLES II.
+
+With exterior finely decorated with needlework.]
+
+
+After the Civil War, when Charles II. came into his own again, the
+furniture of the Restoration period most certainly took its colour from
+the gay Court with which the Merry Monarch surrounded himself. The
+cabinet which we reproduce has the royal arms embroidered on the cover,
+and is a beautiful example of intricate cabinetmaking. The surface of
+the piece is entirely covered with needlework. On the front stand a
+cavalier and lady, hand-in-hand. On the side panel a cavalier is leading
+a lady on horseback. On the back a man drives a laden camel, and on
+another panel is shown the traveller being received by an old man in the
+grounds of the same castle which appears all through the scenes. This
+suggests the love-story of some cavalier and his lady. The casket is
+worthy to have held the love-letters of the Chevalier Grammont to La
+Belle Hamilton.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CABINET OF THE TIME OF CHARLES II.
+
+Showing interior and nest of drawers.]
+
+As is usual in pieces of this nature, the cabinet contains many artfully
+devised hiding places. A tiny spring behind the lock reveals one secret
+drawer, and another is hidden beneath the inkwell. There are in all five
+of such secret compartments--or rather five of them have been at present
+discovered--there may be more. The illustration of the cabinet open
+shows what a nest of drawers it holds.
+
+In the days of plots, when Titus Oates set half the nation by the ears,
+when James solemnly warned the merry Charles of plots against his life,
+provoking the cynical retort, "They will never kill me, James, to make
+you king," secret drawers were no doubt a necessity to a fashionable
+cabinet.
+
+Catherine of Braganza, his queen, brought with her from Portugal many
+sumptuous fashions in furniture, notably cabinets and chairs of Spanish
+and Portuguese workmanship. The cavaliers scattered by the Civil War
+returned, and as in their enforced exile on the Continent they had
+cultivated foreign tastes, it was only natural that Dutch, French, and
+Italian work found its way to this country and effected the character of
+the early furniture of the Charles II. period. From Portugal came the
+high-backed chair, having the back and the seat of leather cut with
+fine design, and coloured or gilded. This leather work is of exquisite
+character, and we reproduce a portion of a Portuguese chair-back of this
+period to show the artistic excellence of the design. With Catherine of
+Braganza came the marriage dower of Bombay, and from India, where the
+settlement of Goa had been Portuguese for centuries, were sent to Europe
+the carved chairs in ebony, inlaid in ivory, made by the native workmen
+from Portuguese and Italian models, but enriched with pierced carving
+and intricate inlay of ivory in a manner which only an Oriental
+craftsman can produce. Having become fashionable in Portugal, they made
+their appearance in England, and rapidly became popular. At Penshurst
+Place there are several fine specimens of this Indo-Portuguese work,
+with the spindles of the chair-backs of carved ivory; and in the
+Ashmolean Museum at Oxford there is the well-known chair which was
+presented by Charles II. to Elias Ashmole.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+PORTUGUESE HIGH-BACK CHAIR.
+
+Seat and back formed of two panels of old stamped leather, studded with
+brass bosses.]
+
+Both in this later Stuart period and in the days of the first Charles
+inlay was considerably used to heighten the carved designs on oak
+tables, chairs, and cabinets. The growth of commerce was responsible for
+the introduction of many varieties of foreign woods, which were used to
+produce finer effects in marquetry than the rude inlay of Elizabethan
+days.
+
+The Frontispiece to this volume represents a very handsome cabinet of
+English workmanship, inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl. It is an
+unusually fine example of the middle seventeenth century, and bears the
+date 1653, the year when Cromwell forcibly dissolved the Rump Parliament
+and was declared "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth."
+
+Up till now oak--the hard, tough, English variety, and not the more
+modern Baltic oak or American varieties now used--was the material for
+the tool of the carver to work upon. With the introduction of more
+flowing lines and curves, a wealth of detail, it is not unnatural to
+find that softer woods began to find favour as more suitable to the new
+decorations. The age of walnut was approaching when, under William the
+Dutchman, and in the days of Queen Anne, a newer style of furniture was
+to arise, made by craftsmen trained in the precepts of Grinling Gibbons
+and following the conceptions of Sir Christopher Wren. It must be borne
+in mind that in Italy the softer woods, such as lime, willow, sycamore,
+chestnut, walnut, and cypress, had long been used for the delicate
+carving during the height of the Renaissance and succeeding period, and
+in France and Spain chestnut and walnut were favourite woods.
+
+In the central panel of the Restoration chair-back, canework began to be
+used instead of the Early Jacobean carving. Cane seats were frequent,
+and loose cushions, attached by means of strings, covered these cane
+panels and seats. The illustration (p. 122) shows a Jacobean chair of
+this period.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring_
+
+OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS. LATE JACOBEAN.
+
+(Height, 3 ft. 3 in.; width, 3 ft.; depth, 1 ft. 10 in.)]
+
+Belonging to these later Jacobean days are chests of drawers of oak with
+finely panelled fronts. We illustrate two specimens, showing the old
+brass metal work and the drop-handles. They are usually in two parts,
+and are very deep from back to front. These are two typical examples of
+this kind of furniture, which was in general use up to the days of Queen
+Anne, when pieces are frequently found supported on a stand.
+
+In the picture by Caspar Netscher, showing a Dutch lady at her toilet, a
+good idea is conveyed of the kind of chair in use in Holland in the
+latter half of the seventeenth century, upholstered in brocade, and the
+rich tapestry tablecloth is a noticeable feature.
+
+Before entering upon the last phase of Stuart furniture, and leaving the
+days of Jacobean oak with its fine carving and handsome appearance--the
+careful result of selecting the timber and splitting it to show the fine
+figure of the wood--the attention of the reader should be drawn to the
+fact that the appearance of the surface of furniture made subsequent to
+this period begins to approach the results of the modern cabinetmaker
+with his polishes and spirit varnishes and highly glazed panels and
+table tops. The lover of old oak abominates varnish. The Elizabethan and
+Jacobean carved oak furniture received only a preliminary coat of dark
+varnish in its early days, mixed with oil and not spirit, which sank
+into the wood and was not a surface polish, and was probably used to
+preserve the wood. These old pieces, which have received centuries of
+rubbing with beeswax and oil, have resulted in producing a rich, warm
+tone which it is impossible to copy by any of the subtle arts known to
+the modern forger. The collector should make himself thoroughly
+familiar with the appearance of this old oak by a careful examination of
+museum pieces, which, when once seen, cannot easily be forgotten.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring._
+
+CHEST OF DRAWERS. PANELLED FRONT; LATE JACOBEAN.
+
+(Height, 3 ft. 4 in.; width, 3 ft. 10 in.; depth, 1 ft. 10 in.)]
+
+The Italian Renaissance furniture probably received an oil varnish, the
+composition of which, like the varnish employed for old violins, has
+been lost, but after centuries of careful usage and polishing, the
+result, as seen in the fine specimens in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum, is to give to them the appearance of bronze.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+CHARLES II. OAK CHAIR.
+
+Open back carved with shell and scrolled foliage. Stuffed seat covered
+with old damask.]
+
+There is little doubt that the Great Fire, which did such immense
+destruction in London in 1666, in which some eighty-nine churches and
+thirteen thousand houses were demolished, gave a considerable impetus to
+the manufacture of furniture in the new style. It is not a pleasing
+reflection to think how many fine pieces of Elizabethan and early
+Jacobean furniture were consumed in the flames, including much of Inigo
+Jones's work.
+
+Under the genius of Sir Christopher Wren many of the city churches were
+rebuilt, including St. Paul's Cathedral; and Greenwich Hospital and
+Hampton Court were enlarged according to Wren's designs, with the
+co-operation of the master woodcarver, Grinling Gibbons. In later
+Jacobean days a splendour of style and an excellence of workmanship were
+the outcome of the fine achievements in interior woodwork by Grinling
+Gibbons and the school he founded.
+
+The work of Grinling Gibbons consisted of most natural chains of flowers
+and foliage, fruit, or birds or cherubs' heads, all faithfully
+reproduced untrammelled by convention. St. Paul's Cathedral, Hampton
+Court, Chatsworth, and Petworth House all contain work by him of
+singular beauty. He trained many assistants to help him to carry on his
+work, and one of them, Selden, lost his life in endeavouring to save the
+carved room at Petworth from a destructive fire. The soft wood of the
+lime was his favourite for detailed carving; for church panelling or
+choir stalls, such as at St. Pauls, he employed oak; in his medallion
+portraits or figure work he preferred pear or close-grained boxwood.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+CHARLES II. OPEN HIGH-BACK OAK CHAIR.
+
+Finely carved legs and stretcher. Stuffed seat covered in old Spanish
+silk damask.]
+
+The gradual development of the chair in the later Stuart days in the
+direction of upholstered seat will be noticed in the specimens which are
+given as illustrations. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 by
+Louis XIV. drove some thousands of French workmen--weavers,
+glass-workers, and cabinetmakers--to this country. The silk-weaving
+industry established by them at Spitalfields was one of the results, and
+silk stuffs and brocades were used for covering the seats and backs of
+furniture. At Hampton Court the crystal glass chandeliers were made by
+French workmen, whom Wren was glad to employ to assist him to make that
+palace a worthy rival to Versailles.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+CHARLES II. CHAIR.
+
+Cane back and seat, finely carved legs and stretcher.]
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Fenton & Sons._
+
+JAMES II. CHAIR.
+
+With cane back and seat, and finely turned legs and stretcher.]
+
+The chair here illustrated shows the commencement of the use of cane
+work in place of wood for the panel in back and for the seat. The James
+II. chair illustrated shows the later development of the cane-back. The
+William and Mary chair (illustrated p. 125) shows how the cane-back was
+retained later than the cane-seat, and how rich damask was employed for
+the upholstered seat. It is interesting to see how the stretcher, which
+in earlier days was of use to keep the feet raised from a wet or
+draughty floor, has now become capable of elaborate ornamentation.
+Genuine examples of chairs of Elizabethan and Early Stuart days show the
+wear of the feet of the sitters. The same wear is observable in the
+lower rail of old tables. In later Stuart days the stretcher has left
+its place at the bottom, between the two front legs. Since its use as a
+foot-rest, owing to carpeted floors, is gone, it is found either joining
+the legs diagonally, or higher up as an ornament with carved front. In
+the eighteenth century it has almost disappeared altogether.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+WILLIAM AND MARY CHAIR.
+
+Cane back. Seat upholstered in damask. Finely carved legs and
+stretcher.]
+
+Mirrors began to take a prominent place in interior decoration. The
+house of Nell Gwynne in St. James's Square had one room entirely lined
+with glass mirrors. Hampton Court is full of mirrors, and they are
+arranged with considerable skill. By an artful arrangement the mirror in
+the King's Writing Closet is placed at such an angle that the reflection
+of the whole suite of rooms may be seen in it. The looking glasses made
+in this country in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries
+were the work of Venetian and French workmen. The plates had a bevel of
+an inch in width, and these bevels followed the shape of the frame,
+whether square or oval. A factory was established near Battersea which
+produced some fine work of this nature. It will be noticed by the
+collector who is observant that the bevels differ considerably from
+modern bevels. The angle is not such an acute one, and sometimes the
+edges are double bevelled. Many of the mirrors of the time of William
+and Mary had an ornamented border of blue glass. Sometimes the mirror
+was painted with festoons of flowers and with birds in French manner. In
+imitation of Italian style the back of the mirror, in examples a little
+later, was worked upon in the style of intaglio, or gem cutting, this
+presenting a dull silver surface when seen from the front.
+
+In picture frames, in chimneypieces, or in mirror frames the school of
+Grinling Gibbons was still pre-eminent in carving. Now and again are
+found traces of Italian or Louis XIV. influence, but as a whole the
+English carver held his own, and the traditions of Grinling Gibbons were
+maintained, and he did not easily allow himself to be carried away by
+foreign elaborations.
+
+When William of Orange came over in 1688 he brought with him many of his
+own countrymen as military and civil advisers, and in their train came
+artists and craftsmen, who introduced Dutch art into England, and
+prepared the way for the more homely style of Queen Anne. Walnut
+cabinets inlaid with various woods, and with ivory squares representing
+miniature Dutch courtyards in the recesses of cabinets, had found their
+way into England. With the period of William and Mary the cabriole leg
+in chairs and in tables became popular--at first an English adaptation
+of Dutch models--but later to develop into the glorious creations of the
+age of walnut.
+
+Blue delft jars and bowls, some especially made for William and Mary and
+bearing the Royal arms and the cypher "W. M. R." and the Nassau motto,
+"_Je main tien-dray_," still to be seen in the Queen's Gallery at
+Hampton Court, were introduced, and it became fashionable to collect
+china. Consequently the furniture in rooms had to be adapted for the
+arrangement of this new class of ornament, and cabinets were largely
+made with accommodation to receive vases and beakers and blue bowls on
+their shelves. The earlier form have straight sides; but later,
+especially in the next reign, they follow French designs, and are
+swollen or _bombé_ at the sides.
+
+[Illustration: UPPER PORTION OF CHAIR BACK OF CUT LEATHER.
+
+PORTUGUESE. LATTER PART OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+With William, too, came over the plain walnut card-table. Clock cases of
+the style termed "Grandfather" were of Dutch origin. The seats of chairs
+were shaped and removable. The Dutch trade with the East Indies had
+brought Oriental china and lac cabinets into Holland, and these, with
+the coming of William, found their way into this country. Bureaux with a
+number of secret recesses were introduced, and another Dutch importation
+from the East was the now celebrated chair or table leg with claw and
+ball foot. This came directly from China, and as in the case of delft,
+which is the earthenware replica by the Dutch potter of fine blue
+porcelain vases, from Nankin and Canton, where the Oriental perspective
+and design have been slavishly copied, so with the furniture, the old
+Chinese symbol of a dragon's foot holding a pearl, was repeated in the
+furniture by Dutch cabinetmakers. Dutch marquetry made an early
+appearance with simple ornamentation, sometimes enriched by ivory or
+mother-of-pearl inlay, but later it developed into flowing floral
+designs with figures, vases, fruit, butterflies, and elaborate scrolls
+in various coloured woods, of which yellow was the predominant colour.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                              £  s. d.
+
+Armchair, Charles II., oak, carved with cherubs supporting
+    crowns, and with turned column supports. Christie,
+    November 20, 1903                                        15  4  6
+
+Chairs, pair, Charles II., oak, with cane seats and oval
+    cane panels in the backs, spirally turned legs,
+    stretchers and rails at the back. Christie, March 4,
+    1904                                                     63  0  0
+
+Armchair, Charles II., oak, with high back carved with
+    arabesque foliage, with lions' masks and claw legs.
+    Christie, March 29, 1904                                 63  0  0
+
+Chairs, pair, nearly similar, carved with foliage. Christie,
+    March 29, 1904                                           39 18  0
+
+Armchair, Charles II., walnut-wood, of Italian design,
+    carved with masks, cane seat and panel in back; and
+    cushion, covered with old Flemish tapestry. Christie,
+    March 4, 1904                                            77 14  0
+
+Chairs, three, Charles II., oak, with oval panels of
+    canework in the backs, the borders carved with foliage,
+    flowers, and Amorini, and surmounted by busts. Christie,
+    April 12, 1904                                           42  0  0
+
+Chairs, set of twelve, Charles II., of chestnut-wood, with
+    high backs carved with rosette ornaments, scroll
+    foliage, and formal blossoms, on cabriole legs carved
+    with flowers and shaped stretchers. Christie, July 1,
+    1904                                                    462  0  0
+
+Chairs, pair of chestnut-wood, with high backs slightly
+    curved, pierced and carved at the top, and each inlaid
+    with two cane panels, on carved cabriole legs and shaped
+    stretchers, _temp._ James II. Christie, June 2,
+    1904                                                     36 15  0
+
+Cabinet, English marquetry, with folding doors, enclosing
+    twelve drawers and small cupboard, and with four drawers
+    below, the whole elaborately inlaid with vases of
+    tulips, roses, and other flowers, small figures, birds,
+    and insects, on a walnut-wood ground, 69 in. high, 47
+    in. wide, _temp._ William III. Christie, February 12,
+    1904                                                    105  0  0
+
+Mirror, in case of old English marquetry, inlaid with large
+    flowers and foliage in coloured woods and ivory on
+    walnut-wood ground, 32 in. by 28 in., _temp._ William
+    III. Christie, February 19, 1904                         43  3  0
+
+Chairs, set of six, walnut-wood, with high, open backs,
+    carved with foliage, the centre inlaid in marquetry, on
+    carved cabriole legs and eagles' claw-and-ball feet,
+    _temp._ William and Mary. Christie, June 2, 1904        315  0  0
+
+Chairs, set of four, of similar form, open backs, carved
+    with shell, and gadroon ornament, and on carved cabriole
+    legs with hoof feet, the stretcher carved with a shell,
+    _temp._ William and Mary. Christie, June 2, 1904        105  0  0
+
+Cabinet, William and Mary, marquetry, veneered with
+    walnut-wood, decorated with oval and shaped panels,
+    inlaid, upon ebony field, 42 in. wide. Christie, March
+    18, 1904                                                 65  2  0
+
+Cabinet on stand, ebony, Dutch, seventeenth century,
+    supported by six beaded columns with stage under and
+    mirror panels at back, the upper part composed of doors
+    carved in medallions; the centre doors enclose an
+    architectural hall, inlaid in ivory, &c., with gilt
+    columns and mirror panels, and fitted with secret
+    drawers, 5 ft. 3 in. wide, 6 ft. 6 in. high and 22 in.
+    deep. Jenner & Dell, Brighton, May 3, 1904              100  0  0
+
+Corner cupboard, Dutch marquetry, 8 ft. high, having carved
+    crown-shaped cornice, with centre vase, four doors, with
+    bow fronts, inlaid with flowers and carved raised
+    beadings, the interior fitted. C. W. Provis & Son,
+    Manchester, May 9, 1904                                  32  0  0
+
+Table, Dutch marquetry, with shaped front and two drawers
+    inlaid with sprays of flowers in coloured woods and
+    ivory, on cabriole legs, 32 in. wide. Christie, March 4,
+    1904                                                     37 16  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+QUEEN ANNE STYLE
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons_
+
+QUEEN ANNE OAK SETTLE.
+
+Scrolled arms, panelled back and loose cushioned seat. Width 6 feet.]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+QUEEN ANNE STYLE
+
+    Anne  1702-1714.
+
+    1707. Act of Union between England and Scotland. First United
+    Parliament of Great Britain met.
+
+    1713. The National Debt had risen to £38,000,000.
+
+
+With the age of Queen Anne domestic furniture departed from the ornate
+characteristics which had marked previous epochs. The tendency in
+English furniture seems to have made towards comfort and homeliness. The
+English home may not have contained so many articles of luxury then as
+does the modern house with its artistic embellishments, and a popular
+taste rapidly ripening into a genuine love of the fine arts. "A modern
+shopkeeper's house," says Lord Macaulay, "is as well furnished as the
+house of a considerable merchant in Anne's reign." It is very doubtful
+whether this statement holds good with regard to the days of Elizabeth
+or the days of the early Stuarts, but there certainly seems to have been
+in the dawn of the walnut period a curtailment of luxurious effects that
+might well tempt a casual observer to generalise in the belief that the
+days of Anne spelt dulness in art.
+
+The settle, the illustration of which is given (p. 149), bearing the
+date 1705, the year after Blenheim, shows that Jacobean models of early
+days were not forgotten. The inlaid borders are very effective, and
+there is nothing vulgar or offensive in the carving. It is simple in
+style and the joinery is good. A walnut mirror, carved and gilded
+(illustrated p. 137), exhibits the same solidity. There is nothing to
+show that the glorious age of Louis XIV. had produced the most sumptuous
+and richly decorated furniture the modern world had seen. The simplicity
+of this carved mirror frame is as though art had begun and ended in
+England, and probably it is this insularity of the furniture of this
+period, and the almost stubborn neglect of the important movements going
+on in France that makes the Queen Anne style of peculiar interest.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+QUEEN ANNE MIRROR FRAME.
+
+WALNUT, CARVED AND GILDED.]
+
+The oak desk illustrated (p. 139), dated 1696, is similar to the one at
+Abbotsford, in which Sir Walter Scott mislaid his manuscript of
+"Waverley," where it lay among his fishing-tackle for eleven years.
+
+Another piece of the same period is the cupboard with carved doors and
+drawers beneath (illustrated p. 140).
+
+[Illustration: OAK DESK.
+
+WITH INITIALS "L. G." AND DATED 1696.
+
+(_From the collection of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq._)]
+
+Some pretty effects were now obtained by veneering, which was largely
+coming into practice. The pieces with the burr-walnut panels, marked in
+a series of knot-like rings, are especially sought after. This pattern
+was obtained from the gnarled roots of the walnut-tree, and applied in a
+decorative manner with excellent result.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq._
+
+OAK CUPBOARD. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Metal handles of drawers, eighteenth century.
+
+(Height 6 ft. 7 in.; width, 4 ft. 6 in.)]
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Brown & Bool._
+
+Cabinet closed; showing fine mottled figure of burr walnut.
+
+Cabinet open; showing drop-down front and nest of drawers.
+
+QUEEN ANNE WALNUT CABINET.]
+
+[Illustration: DUTCH MARQUETRY CHAIR. QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.
+
+_By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._]
+
+[Illustration: QUEEN ANNE WALNUT ARMCHAIR. BLACK AND GOLD LAC CHAIR.
+
+_By permission of Messrs. Waring._]
+
+In the fine cabinet, the illustration of which is given (p. 141), the
+style is typical of this period. The panels of the doors are of
+exquisite finish, and show a beautiful walnut grain of peculiarly-pleasing
+mottled appearance, and the mellow effect which time has given to this
+specimen cannot be imitated with any degree of success in modern
+replicas. In the illustration showing this piece when open, the rich
+effect of the walnut in the middle panel may be noticed; the
+contemporary brass handles to the nest of drawers are typical of this
+style.
+
+In chairs and in tables the elegant cabriole and colt's-foot legs were
+now commonly adopted, and apparently, simple as is the construction, it
+is only when Queen Anne pieces come to be repaired that it is found how
+expensive an undertaking it is, owing to their ingenious construction
+and the patient labour that was expended upon them, to produce
+unpretentious and harmonious effects.
+
+The assertively English spirit which was the dominant note of the
+furniture of the early eighteenth century continued up till the early
+years of the reign of George II. During this period, which covers half a
+century, walnut was the wood mostly used in the manufacture of
+furniture, and this walnut period shows a quiet dignity of style and a
+simple proportion, reticently elegant and inornate without being severe.
+
+The Queen Anne oak settle, with shaped panelled back and scroll arms,
+which appears as the headpiece to this chapter, is especially
+representative of the kind of piece in common use at the time; oak was
+still employed in furniture of this nature. The legs show the newer
+design, which was already departing from the elegant turning of earlier
+Jacobean days.
+
+In the Queen Anne chair which is illustrated in the group of chairs of
+this period (p. 143), with open back and carved scroll foliage, the
+cabriole legs are finely carved with lion masks and acanthus leaf
+ornament, on lion's claw-and-ball feet. The seat is removable, and is
+stuffed. Queen Anne chairs had high carved or plain splat backs. The
+armchair in the same group shows this type of back. The Dutch
+shell-pattern often appears either on back or at the juncture of the leg
+with the seat. Chairs decorated in marquetry, in Dutch fashion, were in
+use at this period. The one illustrated with the two above-mentioned
+chairs is inlaid with birds and flowers, and the legs are cabriole. The
+seat follows the growing usage of being loose and stuffed.
+
+Dutch marquetry cabinets on stands, with straight uprights, were
+imported and became a feature in the early eighteenth century
+drawing-room (see illustration, p. 147). The earlier forms had straight
+sides, but later, as the fashion grew, bureaux and large cabinets, with
+the dimensions of a modern wardrobe, had taken their place, with _bombé_
+or swelled sides, and profusely decorated in marquetry, with vases and
+tulips and unnamed flowers of the cabinetmaker's invention, birds,
+butterflies, and elaborate scrollwork, in which ivory and
+mother-of-pearl were often employed as an inlay.
+
+The stands on which the smaller cabinets stood were turned with the
+spiral leg of Jacobean days, and later they have the cabriole leg, with
+ball-and-claw or club feet. Cabinets and stands are frequently found
+together, in which the one is much earlier than the other.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+DUTCH MARQUETRY CABINET.
+
+Fitted with shelves. Door richly inlaid with flowers and scrolled
+foliage. On stand with turned legs and stretcher.]
+
+Rich damask began to be used in the furnishing of hangings, and in some
+of the palatial furniture of the period the looms of Spitalfields
+produced the coverings. In Queen Anne's bedroom the hangings were of
+rich silk velvet.
+
+Clocks of the variety termed "Grandfather," either with fine walnut
+cases or inlaid with marquetry, came into more general use in the days
+of Queen Anne. An elaboration of carving on grandfather clock cases as
+a rule is to be regarded with suspicion. Plain panels are not so
+saleable as carved ones; the want is supplied, and many fine old clock
+cases are spoiled by having the touch of a modern hand. The clock
+illustrated is an untouched specimen. The walnut case is a fine example
+of Queen Anne marquetry work. The works are by Sam Barrow, Hermitage
+Bridge, London. The steel dial is richly mounted with cupids, masks, and
+scrolls in chased brass.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+QUEEN ANNE CLOCK.
+
+Walnut case with marquetry work.]
+
+Towards the middle of the eighteenth century and later, cabinets of
+Dutch importation, and Japanese or Chinese in origin, were extensively
+in use. In smaller numbers they had, without doubt, in the days of
+William and Mary, been introduced, but it was not until the commerce
+with the East had been well established that they became popular. In the
+cabinet illustrated (p. 150) the cabinet-work is English, the drawers
+are all dovetailed in the English manner, but the lacquered doors come
+from the East. It is an especially interesting example, as the
+pagoda-like superstructure is not often found complete.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring._
+
+QUEEN ANNE OAK SETTLE. DATED 1705.
+
+With borders in marquetry.
+
+(Width, 5 ft.)]
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Brown & Bool._
+
+OLD LAC CABINET.
+
+ENGLISH; EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+Lacquered boxes had been sent home from the East by English, French,
+and Dutch merchants, for many years, and with characteristic ingenuity
+the French cabinetmakers had employed these as panels for their
+furniture, but the supply not being sufficient they had attempted a
+lacquer of their own, which is dealt with in a subsequent chapter on
+Louis XIV. furniture. Dutch lacquer-work was a similar attempt on the
+part of the craftsman of Holland to equal the Oriental originals.
+
+[Illustration: LAC CABINET. MIDDLE OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(Height, 2 ft. 5 in.; width, 2 ft. 8-1/2 in.; depth, 1 ft. 6-1/2 in.;
+height of stand, 2 ft. 9 in.)
+
+(_From the collection of W. G. Honey, Esq., Cork._)]
+
+[Illustration: _W. G. Honey, Esq., Cork._
+
+FRONT OF LAC CABINET (ILLUSTRATED), WITH DOORS CLOSED.]
+
+In the early eighteenth century the English craftsman tried his skill at
+lacquered furniture, it is true not with very successful results, but it
+is interesting to see what he has left as attempts. The illustration (p.
+143) of a chair in black and gold lac is of English manufacture. The
+splat back and the cabriole leg give the date, and the specimen is a
+noteworthy example. Another piece of the first half of the eighteenth
+century period is the lac cabinet illustrated (p. 151). The metal hinges
+and corners of this are of chased brass and of English or Dutch
+workmanship. The shape and design of the drawer handles are frequently
+found in nests of drawers of this period, and there was a singular
+fondness shown at this time for numbers of small drawers and
+pigeon-holes in furniture. The now familiar bureau with bookcase above,
+and drop-down, sloping front covering drawers and recesses, dates from
+this time. The escutcheon of the lac cabinet is illustrated in detail as
+a tailpiece to this chapter to show the particular style of work found
+on the locks and hinges and drawer-handles of pieces of this nature. As
+has been said before, it is especially useful to the collector to make
+himself thoroughly familiar with these details of the various periods.
+
+It may be readily imagined that at a time when cards were the passion of
+everybody in society, the card-table became a necessary piece of
+furniture in eighteenth-century days, just before the dawn of the great
+age of mahogany, when Chippendale, and the school that followed him,
+eagerly worked in the wood which Raleigh discovered. They produced
+countless forms, both original and adapted from the French, which have
+enriched the _répertoire_ of the cabinetmaker and which have brought
+fame to the man whose designs added lustre to the reputation of English
+furniture.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                              £  s. d.
+Chairs, six, mahogany, single, and one armchair to match,
+    with shaped legs and openwork backs (early eighteenth
+    century). F. W. Kidd, & Neale & Son, Nottingham,
+    November 11, 1903                                        25  4  0
+
+Chairs, eight Queen Anne, walnut-wood, with high backs, on
+    slightly cabriole legs, with stretchers. Christie,
+    December 11, 1903                                        33 12  0
+
+Armchair, Queen Anne, large walnut-wood, carved with
+    foliage, the arms terminating in masks, on carved
+    cabriole legs and lion's-claw feet. Christie, March 29,
+    1904                                                     50  8  0
+
+Cabinet, Queen Anne, the lower part fitted with escritoire,
+    the upper part with numerous drawers, shaped cornice
+    above, 3 ft. 6 in. by 7 ft. 6 in. Puttick & Simpson,
+    April 12, 1904                                           34  0  0
+
+Chairs, four Queen Anne, walnut-wood, with interlaced backs
+    carved with rosettes and a shell at the top, on cabriole
+    legs carved with shells and foliage; and a pair of
+    chairs made to match. Christie, July 8, 1904             44  2  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_, these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+[Illustration: _W. G. Honey Esq., Cork._
+
+CHASED BRASS ESCUTCHEON OF LAC CABINET (ILLUSTRATED).
+
+(Width, 10-1/2 in.)]
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE.
+
+THE PERIOD OF
+
+LOUIS XIV
+
+
+[Illustration: _By kind permission, from the collection of Dr. Sigerson,
+Dublin._
+
+CASSETTE. FRENCH; SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Containing many secret drawers.]
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV
+
+    LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715), covering English periods of Civil War,
+    Commonwealth, Charles II., James II., William and Mary, and
+    Anne.
+
+    1619-1683. Colbert, Minister of Finance and patron of the arts.
+
+    1661-1687. Versailles built.
+
+    1662. Gobelins Tapestry Works started by Colbert; Le Brun first
+    director (1662-1690).
+
+    1664. Royal Academy of Painting, Architecture, and Sculpture
+    founded by Colbert, to which designs of furniture were admitted.
+
+
+In order to arrive at a sense of proportion as to the value of English
+furniture and its relation to contemporary art in Europe, it is
+necessary to pass under hasty examination the movements that were
+taking place in France in the creation of a new style in furniture under
+the impulses of the epoch of the _Grande Monarque_. To estimate more
+correctly the styles of the Early Jacobean and of the later English
+furniture extending to the days of Chippendale and Sheraton, it must be
+borne in mind that England was not always so insular in art as the days
+of Queen Anne would seem to indicate. It is impossible for the
+cabinetmakers and the craftsmen to have utterly ignored the splendours
+of France. Louis XIV. had a long and eventful reign, which extended from
+the days when Charles I. was marshalling his forces to engage in civil
+war with the Parliament down to the closing years of Queen Anne. During
+his minority it cannot be said that Louis XIV. influenced art in
+furniture, but from 1661, contemporary with Charles II., when he assumed
+the despotic power that he exercised for half a century, his love of
+sumptuousness, and his personal supervision of the etiquette of a formal
+Court, in which no detail was omitted to surround royalty with
+magnificence, made him the patron of the fine arts, and gave his Court
+the most splendid prestige in Europe.
+
+As a headpiece to this chapter we give a very fine example of a
+_cassette_, or strong box, of the time of Louis XIV. It is securely
+bound with metal bands of exquisite design. The interior is fitted with
+a number of secret drawers.
+
+In the illustration (p. 159) it will be seen that the chair of the
+period of Louis Treize differed in no great respects from the furniture
+under the early Stuarts in this country. This design is by the
+celebrated Crispin de Passe, and the date is when Charles I. raised his
+standard at Nottingham, a year prior to the birth of Louis XIV.
+
+[Illustration: CHAIR OF PERIOD OF LOUIS XIII.
+
+DESIGNED BY CRISPIN DE PASSE, 1642.]
+
+During the reign of Louis XIV., tables, armoires, and cabinets were
+designed on architectural principles. Under the guiding influence of
+Colbert, Minister of Finance, architects and cabinetmakers were selected
+to design furniture for the Tuileries, the Louvre, and Fontainebleau. In
+the early years of the reign furniture was made with severe lines, but
+gradually it became the practice to fashion larger pieces. Immense
+tables with sumptuous decoration, on gilded claw-feet, and having tops
+inlaid with _pietra-dura_ intended to carry bronze groups and porphyry
+vases, were made at the Gobelins factory, under the direction of the
+celebrated Le Brun. This artist loved grandeur and gorgeousness in
+decoration, and in accord with the personal ideas of Louis XIV., who
+had an inordinate love for perfect symmetry, huge pieces of furniture
+were built in magnificent manner to please the taste of the _Grande
+Monarque_. Men of genius were employed in the manufacture of tapestries,
+of furniture, and of metal mountings, and the interior decorations of
+the palaces were designed in harmony with the furniture intended for use
+therein.
+
+The most illustrious among the cabinetmakers was André Charles Boule,
+who was made, in 1673, by letters patent, _Premier ébéniste de la maison
+royale_. The work of this artist in wood has attained a worldwide
+celebrity, and his name even has been corrupted into "buhl" to denote a
+particular class of work which he perfected. His most notable
+productions are the finely chased ormolu, in which he was an
+accomplished worker, and the inlay of tortoiseshell and brass, sometimes
+varied with ebony or silver, which have remained the wonder of
+succeeding generations.
+
+Boule was born in 1642, and lived till 1732. The first Boule, termed
+"_Le Père_," he was succeeded by no less than four sons and nephews of
+the same name, in addition to his pupils who carried on his traditions
+at the Boule _atelier_, and a crowd of later imitators, even up to the
+present day, have followed his style in lavish decoration without being
+possessed of his skill.
+
+In Italy and in France marquetry of considerable delicacy and of fine
+effect had been produced long before the epoch of Louis XIV., but it was
+Boule who introduced a novelty into marquetry by his veneered work,
+which rapidly grew into favour till it developed into cruder colouring
+in inlays and unbridled licence in ornamentation, to which its
+originator would never have given countenance.
+
+The pieces of furniture usually associated with him are massive
+structures of ebony with their surfaces covered with tortoiseshell, in
+which are inlaid arabesques, scrolls, and foliage in thin brass or other
+metal. Upon the surface of this metal inlay further ornamentation was
+chased with the burin. This alternation of tortoiseshell and brass forms
+a brilliant marquetry. Into the chased designs on the metal a black
+enamel was introduced to heighten the effect, which was further
+increased by portions of the wood beneath the semi-transparent
+tortoiseshell being coloured black or brown or red; sometimes a
+bluish-green was used. Later imitators, not content with the beautiful
+effect of tortoiseshell, used horn in parts, which is more transparent,
+and they did not fear the garish effect of blue or vermilion underneath.
+Boule's creations, set in massive mounts and adornments of masks and
+bas-reliefs, cast in gilt-bronze and chased, were pieces of furniture of
+unsurpassed magnificence, and especially designed for the mirrored
+splendours of the _salons_ of Versailles.
+
+In boule-work all parts of the marquetry are held down by glue to the
+bed, usually of oak, the metal being occasionally fastened down by small
+brass pins, which are hammered flat and chased over so as to be
+imperceptible.
+
+In order to economise the material, Boule, when his marquetry became in
+demand, employed a process which led to the use of the technical terms,
+_boule_ and _counter-boule_. The brass and the tortoiseshell were cut
+into thin sheets. A number of sheets of brass were clamped together with
+the same number of sheets of tortoiseshell. The design was then cut out,
+the result being that each sheet of tortoiseshell had a design cut out
+of it, into which the same design from one of the sheets of brass would
+exactly fit. Similarly each sheet of brass had a design cut out of it
+into which a corresponding piece of tortoiseshell would fit. That in
+which the ground is of tortoiseshell and the inlaid portion is brass, is
+considered the better, and is called _boule_, or the _première partie_.
+That in which the groundwork is brass and the design inlaid is of
+tortoiseshell, is called _counter-boule_ or _contre-partie_. This latter
+is used for side panels.
+
+An examination of the specimens preserved in the Louvre, at the Jones
+Bequest at the Victoria and Albert Museum, or in the Wallace Collection
+will enable the student to see more readily how this practice works out
+in the finished result. In the illustration (p. 163) of the two
+pedestals the effect of the employment of _boule_ and _counter-boule_ is
+shown.
+
+[Illustration: (_a._) (_b._)
+
+PEDESTALS SHOWING BOULE AND COUNTER-BOULE WORK.
+
+(_Wallace Collection._)
+
+(_a_) Boule or _première partie_.
+
+(_b_) Counter-boule or _contre-partie_.]
+
+Associated with Boule is Jean Bérain, who had a fondness for the Italian
+style; his designs are more symmetrically correct, both in ornamental
+detail and in architectural proportion. His conceptions are remarkable
+for their fanciful elaboration, and their wealth of profuse scrollwork.
+In the French national collections at the Louvre, at Versailles, and
+elsewhere there are many beautiful examples of his chandeliers of
+magnificent carved and gilded work. The freedom of the spiral arms and
+complex coils he introduced into his candelabra have never been
+equalled as harmonious portions of a grandly conceived scheme of
+magnificent interior decoration, to which, in the days of Louis XIV., so
+much artistic talent was devoted.
+
+[Illustration: BOULE CABINET, OR ARMOIRE.
+
+Valued at nearly £15,000.
+
+_Jones Bequest._
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+With regard to the value of some of the specimens in the national
+collections, it is difficult to form an estimate. The Boule cabinet,
+probably designed by Bérain, executed by Boule for Louis XIV.
+(illustrated p. 165) would, if put up for sale at Christie's, probably
+fetch £15,000. This piece is held to be grander in style than any in the
+galleries in France. At the Wallace Collection there are examples which
+would bring fabulous sums if sold. A cabinet by Boule, in the Jones
+Bequest, purchased by Mr. Jones for £3,000 in 1881, is now worth three
+times that sum.
+
+Upon the building, decorating, and furnishing of Versailles Louis XIV.
+spent over five hundred million francs, in addition to which there was
+the army of workmen liable to statute labour. Some twenty thousand men
+and six thousand horses were employed in 1684 at the different parts of
+the château and park. In May, 1685, there were no less than thirty-six
+thousand employed.
+
+The illustrious craftsmen who were employed upon the magnificent
+artistic interior decorations have transmitted their names to posterity.
+Bérain, Lepautre, Henri de Gissey, are the best known of the designers.
+Among the painters are the names of Audran, Baptiste, Jouvenet, Mignard,
+and the best known of the sculptors are Coustou and Van Clève. Of the
+woodcarvers, metal-chasers, locksmiths, and gilders Pierre Taupin,
+Ambroise Duval, Delobel, and Goy are names of specialists in their own
+craft who transformed Versailles from a royal hunting-box into one of
+the most splendid palaces in Europe.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                              £  s. d.
+Commode, Louis XIV., of inlaid king-wood, with two drawers,
+    mounted with handles and masks at the corners of chased
+    ormolu, and surmounted by a fleur violette marble slab,
+    52 in. wide. Christie, January 22, 1904                  31 10  0
+
+Show-cabinet, of Louis XIV. design, inlaid king-wood, with
+    glazed folding doors, ormolu mounts, chased and
+    surmounted by vases, 73 in. high, 46 in. wide. Christie,
+    April 12, 1904                                           30  9  0
+
+Casket, Louis XIV., black Boule, inlaid with Cupids, vases
+    of flowers and scrolls, and fitted with four
+    tortoiseshell and gold picqué shell-shaped snuff boxes.
+    Christie, April 19, 1904                                 73 10  0
+
+Commode, Louis XIV., Boule, of sarcophagus form, containing
+    two drawers, at either corners are detached cabriole
+    legs, the various panels are inlaid with brass and
+    tortoiseshell, the whole is mounted with ormolu,
+    surmounted by a slab of veined marble, 49 in. wide.
+    Christie, May 27, 1904                                   57 15  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_, these items
+are reproduced from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale
+Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XV
+
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Foley & Eassie._
+
+COMMODE, BY CRESSENT.
+
+(From a drawing by Walter Eassie.)
+
+(_Wallace Collection._)]
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XV
+
+    Louis XV.        1715-1774
+
+    Petit Trianon built at Versailles.
+
+    Meissonier, Director of Royal Factories (1723-1774).
+
+    Watteau (1684-1721). Pater (1695-1736).
+
+    Lancret (1690-1743). Boucher (1704-1770).
+
+    1751. The leading ébénistes compelled to stamp their work with
+    their names.
+
+
+Louis XIV. died in the year following the death of Queen Anne, so that
+it will be readily seen that English art was uninfluenced by France in
+the days of William and Mary, and how insular it had become under Anne.
+The English craftsman was not fired by new impulses from France during
+such an outburst of decorative splendour. The reign of Louis XV. extends
+from George I. down to the eleventh year of the reign of George III.,
+which year saw the cargoes of tea flung into Boston harbour and the
+beginning of the war with America.
+
+In glancing at the Louis Quinze style it will be observed how readily it
+departed from the studied magnificence of Louis XIV. In attempting
+elegance of construction and the elimination of much that was massive
+and cumbersome in the former style, it developed in its later days into
+meaningless ornament and trivial construction. At first it possessed
+considerable grace, but towards the end of the reign the designs ran
+riot in rococo details, displaying incongruous decoration.
+
+It was the age of the elegant boudoir, and the bedroom became a place
+for more intimate guests than those received in the large
+reception-room. In the days of Louis XIV. the bed was a massive
+structure, but in the succeeding reign it became an elegant appendage to
+a room. At Versailles the splendid galleries of magnificent proportion
+were transformed by the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France (1715-1723)
+during the king's minority, into smaller _salons_ covered in
+wainscoting, painted white and ornamented with gilded statues. In like
+manner the Louis Quinze decorations were ruthlessly destroyed by
+Louis-Philippe.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring._
+
+LOUIS XV. PARQUETERY COMMODE.
+
+With chased and bronze-gilt mounts.
+
+(_Formerly in the Hamilton Palace Collection._)]
+
+[Illustration: LOUIS XV. COMMODE.
+
+BY CAFFIERI.]
+
+The commode in the Wallace Collection (illustrated p. 171) is of the
+time when Louis XV. was in his minority, and of the days of the Regency.
+It is by Charles Cressent (1685-1768), who was cabinetmaker to Philippe
+d'Orleans, Regent of France. This is an especially typical specimen of
+the class to which it belongs as showing the transition style between
+Louis XIV. and the succeeding reign.
+
+To establish Louis the Fifteenth's _petits appartements_ the gallery
+painted by Mignard was demolished, and later, in 1752, the Ambassadors'
+Staircase was destroyed, the masterpiece of the architects Levau and
+Dorbay, and the marvel of Louis the Fourteenth's Versailles.
+
+It is necessary to bear these facts in mind in order to see how a new
+French monarch set ruthlessly new fashions in furniture and created a
+taste for his personal style in art. In the first part of the Louis
+Quinze period the metal mountings by Caffieri and Cressent are of
+exquisite style; they are always of excellent workmanship, but later
+they betrayed the tendency of the time for fantastic curves, which had
+affected the furniture to such an extent that no straight lines were
+employed, and the sides of commodes and other pieces were swelled into
+unwieldy proportions, and instead of symmetrical and harmonious results
+the florid style, known as the "rococo," choked all that was beautiful
+in design. Meissonier, Director of the Royal Factories (1723-1774), was
+mainly responsible for this unnatural development. He revelled in
+elaborate combinations of shellwork and impossible foliage.
+
+In the Louis XV. commodes illustrated (pp. 173, 175) it will be seen how
+far superior is the design and treatment of the one which was formerly
+in the celebrated Hamilton Collection. Its chased and gilt mounts are
+harmoniously arranged, and though the ornamentation is superbly rich, it
+breaks no canons of art by overloaded detail or coarse profusion. Not so
+much can be said for the other commode of the rococo style, even though
+the mounts be by Caffieri and executed in masterly manner. There is a
+wanton abandonment and an offensive tone in the florid treatment which
+point clearly to the decline of taste in art.
+
+The highest art of concealment was not a prominent feature in a Court
+which adopted its style from the caprices of Madame du Pompadour or the
+whims of Madame du Barry. But among the finest productions are the
+splendid pieces of reticent cabinetmaking by the celebrated Jean
+François Oeben, who came from Holland. His preference was for
+geometrical patterns, varied only with the sparing use of flowers, in
+producing his most delicate marquetry. In the pieces by Boule and
+others, not in tortoiseshell but in wood inlay, the wood was so
+displayed as to exhibit in the panels the grain radiating from the
+centre. Oeben did not forget this principle, and placed his bouquets of
+flowers, when, on occasion, he used them, in the centre of his panels,
+and filled up the panel with geometric design.
+
+[Illustration: LOUIS XV. _ESCRITOIRE À TOILETTE_.
+
+Of tulip-wood and sycamore, inlaid with landscapes in coloured woods.
+
+Formerly in the possession of Queen Marie Antoinette.
+
+(_Jones Bequest: Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The well-known maker, Charles Cressent (1685-1768), used rosewood,
+violet, and amaranth woods in his marquetry, and at this time many new
+foreign woods were employed by the cabinetmakers in France and Italy.
+In addition to woods of a natural colour, it was the practice
+artificially to colour light woods, and inlay work was attempted in
+which trophies of war, musical instruments, or the shepherd's crook
+hung with ribbon, were all worked out in marquetry. Pictures, in
+coloured woods, in imitation of oil paintings on canvas, were foolishly
+attempted, and altogether the art of inlay, ingenious and wonderful in
+its construction, began to affect trivialities and surprising effects
+most unsuited to the range of its technique.
+
+In the toilet-table illustrated (p. 179), this misapplication of inlay
+to reproduce pictures is seen on the three front panels and on the
+middle panel above. The chief woods employed are tulip and sycamore,
+inlaid with tinted lime, holly, and cherry-woods. The mountings of the
+table are chased ormolu. The cylindrical front encloses drawers with
+inlaid fronts. Beneath this is a sliding shelf, under which is a drawer
+with three compartments, fitted with toilet requisites and having inlaid
+lids. This specimen of Louis Quinze work is in the Jones Collection at
+the Victoria and Albert Museum. It was formerly in the possession of
+Queen Marie Antoinette. It is attributed to Oeben, though from
+comparison with some of the chaster work known to have come from his
+hand it would seem to be of too fanciful marquetry for his restrained
+and sober style.
+
+It is especially true of the furniture of this great French period that
+it requires harmonious surroundings. The slightest false touch throws
+everything out of balance at once. Of this fact the inventors were well
+aware. If Dutch furniture requires the quiet, restful art of Cuyp or Van
+der Neer, or Metzu or Jan Steen on the surrounding walls, the interiors
+of Louis Quinze demand the works of contemporary French genre-painters.
+
+[Illustration: LOUIS XV. SECRÉTAIRE.
+
+By Riesener, in his earlier manner.
+
+IN TRANSITIONAL STYLE, APPROACHING LOUIS SEIZE PERIOD.
+
+(_Wallace Collection._)]
+
+All things worked together to produce a harmonious _ensemble_ in this
+brilliant period. The royal tapestry and Sèvres porcelain factories
+turned out their most beautiful productions to decorate rooms,
+furniture, and for the table. Tapestries from Beauvais, Gobelins, and
+Aubusson, rich silks from the looms of Lyons, or from Lucca, Genoa, or
+Venice were made for wall-hangings, for chair-backs, for seats, and for
+sofas.
+
+Fragonard, Natoire, and Boucher painted lunettes over chimney-fronts, or
+panels of ceilings. Of great cabinetmakers, Riesener and David Roentgen,
+princes among _ébénistes_, worked in wonderful manner in tulip-wood, in
+holly, in rosewood, purple wood, and laburnum to produce marquetry, the
+like of which has never been seen before nor since.
+
+Associated with the period of Louis XV. is the love for the lacquered
+panel. Huygens, a Dutchman, had achieved good results in imitations of
+Oriental lacquer, which in France, under the hand of Martin, a
+carriage-painter, born about 1706, rivalled the importations from Japan.
+It is stated that the secret of the fine, transparent lac polish that he
+used was obtained from the missionaries who resided in Japan before the
+date of the massacres and foreign expulsion of all except the Dutch
+traders. Vernis-Martin, as his varnish was termed, became in general
+request. From 1744 for twenty years, Sieur Simon Etienne Martin was
+granted a monopoly to manufacture this lacquered work in the Oriental
+style. Although he declared that his secret would die with him, other
+members of his family continued the style, which was taken up by many
+imitators in the next reign. His varnish had a peculiar limpid
+transparency, and he obtained the wavy network of gold groundwork so
+successfully produced by Japanese and Chinese craftsmen. On this were
+delicately painted, by Boucher and other artists, Arcadian subjects,
+framed in rocaille style with gold thickly laid on, and so pure that in
+the bronze gilding and in the woodwork it maintains its fine lustre to
+the present day.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Foley & Eassie._
+
+THE "BUREAU DU ROI."
+
+THE MASTERPIECE OF RIESENER.
+
+(From a drawing by Walter Eassie.)
+
+(_Wallace Collection._)]
+
+Towards the close of the reign of Louis XV. a new style set in, which
+reverted to simpler tastes, to which the name "_À la reine_" was given,
+in deference to the taste which is supposed to have emanated from Marie
+Leczinska, the queen, but is said to have been due to Madame du
+Pompadour.
+
+At the Wallace Collection is a fine secrétaire, with the mounts and
+ornaments of gilt bronze cast and chased, which is illustrated (p. 181).
+The central panel of marquetry shows, in life size, a cock, with the
+caduceus, a snake, a banner, and symbolical instruments. It is by Jean
+François Riesener, and in his earliest manner, made in the later years
+of Louis Quinze in the Transitional style approaching the Louis Seize
+period.
+
+Among the wonderful creations of Riesener, probably his masterpiece is
+the celebrated "Bureau du Roi," begun in 1760 by Oeben, and completed in
+1769 by Riesener--who married the widow of Oeben, by the way. Its
+bronzes are by Duplesis, Winant, and Hervieux. The design and details
+show the transition between the Louis Quinze and the Louis Seize styles.
+
+The original, which is at the Louvre, is in marquetry of various
+coloured woods and adorned by plaques of gilt bronze, cast and chased.
+The copy from which our illustration is taken (p. 183) is in the Wallace
+Collection, and is by Dasson, and follows the original in proportions,
+design, and technique.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                             £  s.  d.
+Table, Louis XV., oblong, the legs are cabriole, it
+    contains one drawer and a writing-slide; around the
+    sides are inlaid panels of old Japanese lacquer, each
+    panel bordered by elaborate scrollwork of chased
+    ormolu, signed with "B. V. R. B.," surmounted by a slab
+    of white marble, 39 in. wide. Christie, December 18,
+    1903                                                   1900  0  0
+
+Writing-table, Louis XV., marquetry, with sliding top and
+    drawer, fitted with movable writing slab, compartment
+    for ink-vases, &c., signed "L. Doudin," Louis XV. form,
+    with cabriole legs, the top decorated with scrolls
+    forming panels, the centre one containing a Teniers
+    figure subject, parquetry and inlays of flowers round
+    the sides, corner mounts, &c., of ormolu, cast and
+    chased, 30 in. wide. Christie, March 18, 1904           630  0  0
+
+Cartonnière, Louis XV., of inlaid tulip-wood, containing a
+    clock by Palanson, à Paris, mounted with Chinese
+    figures, masks, foliage and scrolls of chased ormolu,
+    48 in. high, 36 in. wide. Christie, April 22, 1904      409 10  0
+
+Secrétaires, pair, Louis XV., small marquetry, with
+    fall-down front, drawer above and door below, inlaid
+    with branches of flowers, and mounted with chased
+    ormolu, surmounted by white marble slabs, 46 in. high,
+    22 in. wide. Christie, April 29, 1904                    46  4  0
+
+Cabinet, Louis XV., parquetry, with folding doors enclosing
+    drawers, mounted with ormolu, surmounted by a Brescia
+    marble slab, 30 in. high, 44 in. wide. Christie, April
+    29, 1904                                                 31 10  0
+
+Bergères, pair of Louis XV., corner-shaped, the frames of
+    carved and gilt wood, the seats and backs covered with
+    old Beauvais tapestry. Christie, May 18, 1904           420  0  0
+
+Settee, Louis XV., oblong, of carved and gilt-wood, covered
+    with panels of old Beauvais tapestry, 3 ft. 8 in. wide.
+    Christie, May 18, 1904                                  231  0  0
+
+Canapé, Louis XV., of carved and gilt wood, the borders
+    carved with acanthus scrolls, the seat and back covered
+    with old Beauvais silk tapestry, decorated, 4 ft. 6 in.
+    wide. Christie, May 18, 1904                            420  0  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE.
+THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE.
+THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI
+
+    Louis XVI.      1774-1793.
+
+    1730-1806. Riesener, _ébéniste_ to Marie Antoinette (born near
+    Cologne).
+
+    1789. Commencement of the French Revolution.
+
+
+The so-called Louis Seize period embraces much that is good from the
+later days of the previous reign. The same designers were employed with
+the addition of a few younger men. Caffieri and Riesener were producing
+excellent work, and above all was Gouthière, whose renown as a founder
+and chaser of gilded bronze ornaments is unrivalled. Elegance and
+simplicity are again the prevailing notes. Straight lines took the place
+of the twisted contortions of the rococo style. Thin scrolls, garlands,
+ribbons and knots, classical cameo-shaped panels, and Sèvres plaques
+form the characteristic ornamentation.
+
+The acanthus-leaf, distorted into unnatural proportions in the middle
+Louis Quinze period, returned to its normal shape, the egg-and-tongue
+moulding came into use, and the delicacy of the laurel-leaf was
+employed in design in Louis Seize decorations.
+
+In the jewel cabinet illustrated (p. 193), the new style is shown at its
+best. The cabinet is inlaid in rosewood and sycamore, and bears the name
+of "J. H. Riesener" stamped on it. The chased ormolu mounts are by
+Gouthière. The geometrical inlay is a tradition which Oeben left to his
+successors. The upper portion has a rising lid with internal trays. In
+the lower part is a drawer and a shelf. This piece is at the Victoria
+and Albert Museum in the Jones Bequest, and it is well worth detailed
+examination as being a representative specimen of the most artistic work
+produced at this period.
+
+Pierre Gouthière had a complete mastery over his technique. The
+estimation with which his work is regarded has made furniture which he
+mounted bring extraordinary prices. In 1882, at the dispersal of the
+celebrated Hamilton Palace Collection, three specimens with his
+workmanship realised £30,000.
+
+The Vernis-Martin panels were decorated by Watteau and Pater. The age of
+artificialities with its _fêtes-galantes_ in the royal gardens of the
+Luxembourg and in the pleasure parks of the Court, with the ill-starred
+Marie Antoinette playing at shepherds and shepherdesses, had its
+influence upon art. Watteau employed his brush to daintily paint the
+attitudes of _Le Lorgneur_ upon a fan-mount, or to depict elegantly
+dressed noblemen and ladies of the Court dancing elaborate minuets in
+satin shoes, or feasting from exquisite Sèvres porcelain dishes in the
+damp corner of some park or old château.
+
+[Illustration: LOUIS XVI. JEWEL CABINET.
+
+Inlaid in rose and sycamore woods. Stamped "J. H. Riesener." Chased
+Ormolu mountings by Gouthière.
+
+(_Jones Bequest. Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The artificial pretence at Arcadian simplicity adopted by the Queen, in
+the intervals between her attendance at public _bals-masqué_, when she
+almost wantonly outraged the susceptibilities of the French people by
+her frivolities, found a more permanent form in interior decorations.
+Riesener and David designed a great deal of furniture for her. Dainty
+work-tables and writing-tables and other furniture of an elegant
+description are preserved in the national collection in the Louvre and
+at Fontainebleau, in the Victoria and Albert Museum in the Jones
+Bequest, and in the Wallace Collection. Tables of this nature are most
+eagerly sought after. A small table with plaques of porcelain in the
+side panels, which is said to have belonged to Marie Antoinette, was
+sold at Christie's for £6,000 (Hamilton Collection). There is a similar
+writing-table in the Jones Collection, given by Marie Antoinette to Mrs.
+Eden, afterwards Lady Auckland.
+
+During the period under Louis Seize, when Fragonard and Natoire deftly
+painted the panels of rooms and filled ceilings with flying cupids and
+chains of roses, when Boucher was Director of the Academy, the interior
+of rooms assumed a boudoir-like appearance. The walls were decorated in
+a scheme of colour. Handsome fluted pillars with fine classic feeling
+were the framework of panelling painted in delicate and subdued tones.
+Oval mirrors, avoiding all massive construction, lightened the effect,
+and mantelpieces of white marble, and furniture evidently designed for
+use, completed the interiors of the homes of the _grands seigneurs_.
+Sometimes the walls were painted, giving a lustrous appearance
+resembling silk, and this style is the forerunner of the modern
+abomination known as wall-paper.
+
+Before leaving this period of French furniture, when so much marquetry
+work was done of unsurpassed beauty and of unrivalled technique, a word
+may be said as to the number of woods used. Oeben and Riesener and their
+contemporaries used many foreign woods, of which the names are
+unfamiliar. Mr. Pollen, in his "South Kensington Museum Handbook to
+Furniture and Woodwork," has given the names of some of them, which are
+interesting as showing the number of woods especially selected for this
+artistic cabinetmaking. Tulip-wood is the variety known as _Liriodendron
+tulipifera_. Rosewood was extensively used, and holly (_ilex
+aquifolium_), maple (_acer campestre_), laburnum (_cytisus Alpinus_),
+and purple wood (_copaifera pubiflora_). Snake-wood was frequently used,
+and other kinds of light-brown wood in which the natural grain is waved
+or curled, presenting a pleasant appearance, and obviating the use of
+marquetry (_see_ "Woods used," p. 29).
+
+In the great collections to which reference has been made, in well-known
+pieces made by Riesener his name is found stamped on the panel itself,
+or sometimes on the oak lining. The large bureau in the Wallace
+Collection (Gallery xvi., No. 66) is both signed and dated "20th
+February, 1769." This piece, it is said, was ordered by Stanislas
+Leczinski, King of Poland, and was once one of the possessions of the
+Crown of France.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring._
+
+LOUIS XVI. RIESENER COMMODE.]
+
+With regard to the cost of pieces of furniture by the great master
+_ébénistes_, it is on record that a secrétaire which was exhibited at
+Gore House in 1853, and made originally for Beaumarchais by Riesener,
+cost 85,000 francs, a sum not much less than £4,000. Celebrated copies
+have been made from these old models. The famous cabinet with mounts by
+Gouthière, now in the possession of the King, was copied about
+twenty-five years ago for the Marquis of Hertford, by permission of
+Queen Victoria. The piece took years to complete, and it is interesting
+to have the evidence of its copyists that the most difficult parts to
+imitate were the metal mounts. This replica cost some £3,000, and is now
+in the Wallace Collection. The copy of the famous bureau or escritoire
+in the Louvre, known as the "Bureau de St. Cloud," was made by
+permission of the Emperor Napoleon III., and cost £2,000. Another copy
+of the same piece exhibited at the French International Exhibition was
+sold for £3,500 to an English peeress. Many fine copies of Riesener's
+work exist, and in the illustration (p. 197) a copy is given of a
+handsome commode, which exhibits his best style under the influence of
+his master, Oeben.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                             £ s.  d.
+Cabinets, pair of Louis XVI., dwarf ebony, the panels inlaid
+    with black and gold lacquer, decorated with birds and
+    trees in the Chinese taste, mounted with foliage borders
+    of chased ormolu, and surmounted by veined black marble
+    slabs, 45 in. high, 35 in. wide. Christie, November 20,
+    1903                                                    39 18  0
+
+Suite of Louis XVI. furniture, with fluted borders and legs,
+    painted white and pale green, the seats, backs, and arms
+    covered with old Beauvais tapestry, with vases and
+    festoons of flowers and conventional arabesques in
+    poly-chrome, on white ground in pale green borders,
+    consisting of an oblong settee, 72 in. wide, eight
+    fauteuils. Christie, December 18, 1903                1470  0  0
+
+Secrétaire, Louis XVI., upright marquetry, with fall-down   }
+    front, drawer above, and folding doors below, inlaid    }
+    with hunting trophies on trellis-pattern ground, mounted}
+    with foliage, friezes, and corner mounts of chased      }
+    ormolu, and surmounted by a Breccia marble slab, stamped}
+    "J. Stumpff. 315 0 0 Me.," 56 in. high, 40 in. wide.    }
+    Christie, February 12, 1904 Commode, _en suite_, with   }
+    five drawers, 58 in. wide. Christie, February 12, 1904  }
+                                                            } 714  0  0
+Work-table, Louis XVI., oval, in two tiers, upon a tripod   }
+    stand, with double candle branches above; the top tier  }
+    is composed of a Sèvres plaque, painted with sprays of  }
+    roses; around this is a gallery of chased ormolu; the   }
+    second tier is of parquetry, this has also a balcony;   }
+    the tripod base is of mahogany, with mounts of ormolu,  }
+    cast and chased; the nozzles for the two candles above  }
+    are similar in material and decoration, width of top    }
+    tier, 13 in. Christie, March 18, 1904
+
+Table, Louis XVI., marquetry, signed "N. Petit," top inlaid
+    with musical trophy, &c., mounts, &c., of ormolu, cast
+    and chased, 30 in. wide. Christie, March 18, 1904       99 15  0
+
+Fauteuils, pair, Louis XVI. (stamped "J. Leglartier"),
+    tapered oblong backs and curved arms, turned legs, white
+    and gilt, covered with Beauvais tapestry, with subjects
+    from "Fables de la Fontaine," and other designs.
+    Flashman & Co., Dover, April 26, 1904                   75  0  0
+
+Console-table, Louis XVI., carved and painted wood, with
+    fluted legs and stretchers, and open frieze in front,
+    surmounted by a slab of white marble, 5 ft. 4 in. wide.
+    Christie, May 6, 1904                                   46  0  0
+
+Commode, Louis XVI., containing three drawers, in front it
+    is divided into three rectangular sunk panels of
+    parquetry, each bordered with mahogany, with ormolu
+    mounts, surmounted by a slab of fleur-de-pêche marble,
+    57 in. wide. Christie, May 27, 1904                    357  0  0
+
+Commode, Louis XVI., stamped with the name of "J. H.
+    Reisener," with tambour panels in front and drawers at
+    the top; it is chiefly composed of mahogany, the central
+    panel inlaid in a coloured marquetry; on either side,
+    and at the ends, are panels of tulip-wood parquetery,
+    the whole is mounted with ormolu, surmounted by a slab
+    of veined marble, 34 in. wide. Christie, May 27, 1904
+                                                          3150  0  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE. THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE
+
+
+[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF MADAME RÉCAMIER.
+
+(After David.)
+
+Showing Empire settee and footstool.
+
+(_In the Louvre._)]
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE--THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE
+
+    1789. Commencement of French Revolution.
+
+    1798. Napoleon's campaign in Egypt.
+
+    1805. Napoleon prepares to invade England; Battle of Trafalgar;
+    French naval power destroyed.
+
+    1806. Napoleon issued Berlin Decree to destroy trade of England.
+
+    1812. Napoleon invaded Russia, with disastrous retreat from
+    Moscow.
+
+    1814. Napoleon abdicated.
+
+    1815. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
+
+
+When Louis XVI. called together the States-General in 1789, which had
+not met since 1614, the first stone was laid of the French Republic.
+After the king was beheaded in 1793, the Reign of Terror followed,
+during which the wildest licence prevailed. Under the Directory, for
+four years from 1795, the country settled down until the rise of
+Napoleon Bonaparte, who took the government in his own hands with the
+title of Consul, and in 1804 called himself Emperor of the French.
+
+During the Reign of Terror the ruthless fury of a nation under mob-law
+did not spare the most beautiful objects of art which were associated
+with a hated aristocracy. Furniture especially suffered, and it is a
+matter for wonderment that so much escaped destruction. Most of the
+furniture of the royal palaces was consigned to the spoliation of "the
+Black Committee," who trafficked in works of great price, and sold to
+foreign dealers the gems of French art for less than a quarter of their
+real value. So wanton had become the destruction of magnificent
+furniture that the Convention, with an eye on the possibilities of
+raising money in the future, ordered the furniture to be safely stored
+in the museums of Paris.
+
+After so great a social upheaval, art in her turn was subjected to
+revolutionary notions. Men cast about to find something new. Art, more
+than ever, attempted to absorb the old classic spirit. The Revolution
+was the deathblow to Rococo ornament. With the classic influences came
+ideas from Egypt, and the excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii
+provided a further source of design. A detail of a portion of a tripod
+table found at Pompeii shows the nature of the beautiful furniture
+discovered.
+
+As early as 1763, Grimm wrote: "For some years past we are beginning to
+inquire for antique ornaments and forms. The interior and exterior
+decorations of houses, furniture, materials of dress, work of the
+goldsmiths, all bear alike the stamp of the Greeks. The fashion passes
+from architecture to millinery; our ladies have their hair dressed _à la
+Grecque_." A French translation of Winckelmann appeared in 1765, and
+Diderot lent his powerful aid in heralding the dawn of the revival of
+the antique long before the curtain went up on the events of 1789.
+
+Paris in Revolution days assumed the atmosphere of ancient Rome.
+Children were given Greek and Roman names. Classical things got rather
+mixed. People called themselves "Romans." Others had Athenian notions.
+Madame Vigée-Lebrun gave _soupers à la Grecque_. Madame Lebrun was
+Aspasia, and M. l'Abbé Barthélemy, in a Greek dress with a laurel wreath
+on his head, recited a Greek poem.
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL OF TRIPOD TABLE FOUND AT POMPEII.
+
+(_At Naples Museum._)]
+
+These, among a thousand other signs of the extraordinary spirit of
+classicism which possessed France, show how deep rooted had become the
+idea of a modern Republic that should emulate the fame of Athens and of
+Rome. The First Consul favoured these ideas, and his portraits
+represent him with a laurel wreath around his head posing as a Cæsar.
+
+[Illustration: _By kind permission from the collection of Dr. Sigerson,
+Dublin._
+
+SERVANTE.
+
+Marble top; supported on two ormolu legs elaborately chased with figures
+of Isis. Panelled at back with glass mirror.
+
+FRENCH; LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+In transition days before the style known as Empire had become fixed
+there is exhibited in art a feeling which suggests the deliberate search
+after new forms and new ideas. To this period belongs the _servante_,
+which, by the kindness of Dr. Sigerson, of Dublin, is reproduced from
+his collection. The claw-foot, the ram's head, the bay-leaf, and a
+frequent use of caryatides and animal forms, is a common ornamentation
+in furniture of the Empire period. In this specimen the two legs of
+ormolu have these characteristics, and it is noticeable that the shape
+of the leg and its details of ornament bear a striking resemblance to
+the leg of the Pompeiian table illustrated (p. 205). But the deities of
+Egypt have contributed a new feature in the seated figure of the goddess
+Isis.
+
+[Illustration: JEWEL CABINET OF THE EMPRESS MARIE LOUISE.
+
+Made on the occasion of her marriage with the Emperor Napoleon
+Bonaparte, in 1810.
+
+(_At Fontainebleau._)]
+
+Napoleon himself encouraged the classic spirit which killed all memories
+of an _ancien régime_. He would have been pleased to see all the relics
+of the former glories of France demolished. He had at one time a project
+to rebuild Versailles as a classic temple.
+
+At the height of his splendour he became the patron of the fine arts,
+and attempted to leave his impression upon art as he did upon everything
+else. New furniture was designed for the Imperial palaces. Riesener was
+alive, but it does not appear that he took any part in the new
+creations. David, the great French painter, an ardent Republican, was
+won over to become a Court painter. At Malmaison and at Fontainebleau
+there are many fine examples of the First Empire period which, however,
+cannot be regarded as the most artistic in French furniture. Preserved
+at Fontainebleau is the jewel cabinet, made by Thomire and Odiot, at the
+Emperor's orders as a wedding gift, in 1810, to the Empress Marie
+Louise, in emulation of the celebrated Riesener cabinet at the Trianon.
+The wood used for this, and for most of the Empire cabinets, is rich
+mahogany, which affords a splendid ground for the bronze gilt mounts
+(_see_ p. 207).
+
+The portrait of Madame Récamier, by David, which is in the Louvre, given
+as headpiece to this chapter, shows the severe style of furniture in use
+at the zenith of the Empire period. The couch follows classic models,
+and the tall candelabrum is a suggestion from Herculaneum models.
+
+The influence that this classic revival had upon furniture in this
+country is told in a subsequent chapter. In regard to costume, the gowns
+of the First Empire period have become quite fashionable in recent
+years.
+
+Although this style of furniture degenerated into commonplace designs
+with affectedly hard outlines, it had a considerable vogue. In addition
+to the influence it had upon the brothers Adam and upon Sheraton, it
+left its trace on English furniture up till the first quarter of the
+nineteenth century. The chair illustrated (p. 210) is about the year
+1800 in date. There is presumptive evidence that this chair was made in
+Bombay after European design. It is of rosewood, carved in relief with
+honeysuckle and floral design. The scrolled ends of the top rail show at
+once its French derivation.
+
+In the national collections in this country there are very few specimens
+of Empire furniture. The Duke of Wellington has some fine examples at
+Apsley House, treasured relics of its historic associations with the
+victor of Waterloo. The demand in France, for furniture of the First
+Empire style has in all probability denuded the open market of many fine
+specimens. Owing to the fact that this country was at war with France
+when the style was at its height, the number of Empire pieces imported
+was very limited, nor does First Empire furniture seem to have greatly
+captivated the taste of English collectors, as among the records of
+sales of furniture by public auction very little has come under the
+hammer.
+
+[Illustration: _By kind permission of the Rev. H. V. Le Bas._
+
+ARMCHAIR, ROSEWOOD.
+
+Carved in relief with honeysuckle pattern Formerly in possession of the
+Duke of Newcastle.
+
+ENGLISH; LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+CHIPPENDALE
+
+AND
+
+HIS STYLE
+
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+TABLE MADE BY CHIPPENDALE.
+
+(Height, 29-3/8 in.; width, 32-3/8 in.; depth, 21-5/8 in.)]
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+CHIPPENDALE AND HIS STYLE
+
+    George I.      1714-1727.
+    George II.      1727-1760.
+    George III.      1760-1820.
+
+    Horace Walpole built Strawberry Hill (1750)
+
+    Sir William Chambers (1726-1796) built Pagoda at Kew about 1760.
+
+    Chippendale's _Director_ published (1754).
+
+
+Thomas Chippendale, the master cabinetmaker of St. Martin's Lane, has
+left a name which, like that of Boule, has become a trade term to mark
+a certain style in furniture. With the dawn of the age of mahogany,
+Chippendale produced designs that were especially adapted to the new
+wood; he relied solely upon the delicate carving for ornament, and
+rejected all inlay.
+
+Discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh, who brought specimens home with him,
+mahogany did not come into general use till about 1720. The material
+then used by Chippendale and his school was the splendid mahogany from
+the great untouched forests, producing at that time timber the like of
+which, in dimension and in quality, is now unprocurable. The cheaper
+"Honduras stuff" was then unknown, and English crews landed and cut
+timber from the Spanish possessions in spite of the protests of the
+owners. Many a stiff fight occurred, and many lives were lost in
+shipping this stolen mahogany to England to supply the demand for
+furniture. These nefarious proceedings more than once threatened to
+bring about war between England and Spain.
+
+The furniture of France, during the four great periods treated in the
+previous chapters, was designed for the use of the nobility. One wonders
+what furniture was in common use by the peasantry in France. In England,
+too, much of the furniture left for the examination of posterity was
+made for the use of the wealthy classes. In Jacobean days, settles and
+chairs, especially the Yorkshire and Derbyshire types, were in more
+common use, and the homely pieces of Queen Anne suggest less luxurious
+surroundings, but it was left for Chippendale to impress his taste upon
+all classes. In the title-page of his great work, the _Director_,
+published in 1754, he says that his designs are "calculated to improve
+and refine the present taste, and suited to the fancy and circumstances
+of persons in all degrees of life."
+
+[Illustration: OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR.
+
+Wood, painted green, with circular seat, carved arms, and high back.
+Bequeathed by Oliver Goldsmith in 1774 to his friend, Dr. Hawes.
+
+(_Bethnal Green Museum._)]
+
+His book of designs, as may naturally be supposed, was not greatly
+bought by the working classes, but fifteen copies of the _Director_ went
+to Yorkshire, and many other copies were subscribed for in other parts
+of the country, so that local cabinetmakers began at once to fashion
+their furniture after his styles.
+
+The common form of chair at the time was similar to the specimen
+illustrated (p. 215), which formerly belonged to Oliver Goldsmith, and
+was bequeathed by him to his friend, Dr. Hawes. This is of soft wood,
+probably beech, painted green, with circular seat, curved arms, and high
+back. Chippendale revolutionised this inartistic style, and for the
+first time in the history of the manufacture of furniture in England,
+continental makers turned their eyes to this country in admiration of
+the style in vogue here, and in search of new designs.
+
+It might appear, on a hasty glance at some of Chippendale's work, that
+originality was not his strong point. His claw-and-ball feet were not
+his own, and he borrowed them and the wide, spacious seats of his chairs
+from the Dutch, or from earlier English furniture under Dutch influence.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CHIPPENDALE SETTEE; WALNUT. ABOUT 1740.
+
+(_From the collection of Sir W. E. Welby-Gregory, Bart._)]
+
+Sir William Chambers, the architect of Somerset House, whose fondness
+for Chinese ornament produced quite a craze, and who built the Pagoda in
+Kew Gardens, gave Chippendale another source of inspiration. In his
+later days he came under the influence of the Gothic revival and
+was tempted to misuse Gothic ornament.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CHIPPENDALE SETTEE, OAK. ABOUT 1740.
+
+(_By courtesy of V. J. Robinson, Esq., C.I.E._)]
+
+His second style shows the Louis XIV. French decoration in subjection.
+In his ribbon-back chairs he employed the Louis XVI. ornamentation.
+
+But Chippendale was the most masterly adapter that England has ever
+produced. His adaptions became original under his hand, and his
+creations are sturdy and robust, tempered by French subtleties, and
+having, here and there, as in the fretwork in the chair-legs and angles,
+a suggestion of the East. He is the prince of chair-makers. His chairs
+are never unsymmetrical. He knew the exact proportion of ornament that
+the structure would gracefully bear. The splats in the chairs he made
+himself are of such accurate dimensions in relation to the open spaces
+on each side that this touch alone betrays the hand of the master, which
+is absent in the imitations of his followers.
+
+The illustration given of the Chippendale table in Chinese style (p.
+213), is a beautiful and perfect piece of a type rarely met with. It was
+made by Chippendale for the great-grandmother of the present owner. A
+similar table was in the possession of the Princess Josephine. In
+chairs, the back was sometimes of fret-cut work, as was also the design
+of the legs, with fretwork in the angles, which betray his fondness for
+the Chinese models. The Gothic style influenced Chippendale only to a
+slight degree. Horace Walpole at Strawberry Hill set the fashion in
+England, which fortunately was short-lived.
+
+Collectors divide Chippendale's work into three periods. To the first
+they assign the more solid chairs or settees with cabriole legs and
+Louis XIV. ornament, harmoniously blended with Queen Anne style. These
+chairs and settees are often found with claw-and-ball feet, and are
+frequently of walnut. Two fine examples of settees, the one of oak, the
+other of walnut, are illustrated.
+
+[Illustration: RIBBON PATTERN. CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK.
+
+(_From the "Director."_)]
+
+The second period embraces the fine creations which have the celebrated
+Louis XVI. ribbon ornamentation in the backs. From one of the designs in
+Chippendale's book, here illustrated, the elegance of the style is
+shown. It is exuberant enough, but the author complains in his volume
+that "In executing many of these drawings, my pencil has but faintly
+carved out those images my fancy suggested; but in this failure I
+console myself by reflecting that the greatest masters of every art have
+laboured under the same difficulties." The ribbon-backed chair
+illustrated (p. 223) is one of the two given to an ancestor of the
+present owner by the fourth Duke of Marlborough in 1790. They were
+formerly at Blenheim, and there is an added interest in them owing to
+the fact that the seats were worked by Sarah, the great Duchess of
+Marlborough.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+RIBBON-BACKED CHIPPENDALE CHAIR, FORMERLY AT BLENHEIM, THE SEAT WORKED
+BY SARAH, DUCHESS OF MARLBOROUGH.]
+
+The latest style of Chippendale's work is the Gothic. There are many
+pieces in existence which he probably had to produce to satisfy the
+taste of his fashionable clients, but the style is atrocious, and the
+less said about them the better. The illustration (p. 225) of a
+chair-back from his design-book shows how offensive it could be.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CHIPPENDALE CORNER CHAIR, ABOUT 1780.
+
+(_Reproduced by kindness of the Hon. Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane, G.C.B.,
+I.S.O._)]
+
+The fine corner-chair, here illustrated, exhibits the strength and
+solidity he could impart to his work. His chairs were meant to sit upon,
+and are of excellent carpentry. The square, straight legs are a feature
+of much of his work. The examples belonging to the India Office and the
+Governors of the Charterhouse illustrated (pp. 226, 227) show the type
+that he made his own and with which his name has been associated.
+
+[Illustration: GOTHIC CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK.
+
+(_From the "Director."_)]
+
+Although his chairs are sought after as especially beautiful in design
+(his father was a maker of chairs before him) he made many other objects
+of furniture. The mirrors he designed are exquisite examples of fine
+woodcarving. The one illustrated (p. 229) shows the mastery he had over
+graceful outline. Bureau bookcases with drop-down fronts have been
+successfully produced since his day after his models. The one
+illustrated (p. 231) shows a secret drawer, which is reached by removing
+the left-hand panel. Card-tables, settees, knife-boxes, tea-caddies,
+sideboards, and overmantles were made by him, which show by their
+diversity of technique that there was more than one pair of hands at
+work in carrying out his designs.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+MAHOGANY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR. ABOUT 1740.
+
+(_Property of the India Office._)]
+
+The collecting of Chippendale furniture has become so fashionable of
+late years that genuine old pieces are difficult to procure. It is true
+that two old chairs were discovered in a workhouse last year, but when
+specimens come into the market they usually bring large prices. Two
+elbow state-chairs, with openwork backs, were sold a little while ago
+for seven hundred and eighty guineas, and a set of six small chairs
+brought ninety-three guineas about the same time. But even this is not
+the top price reached, for two chairs at Christie's realised eleven
+hundred pounds!
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+MAHOGANY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR. 1770.
+
+(_By permission of the Master of the Charterhouse._)]
+
+Chippendale, the shopkeeper, of St Martin's Lane, who took orders for
+furniture, which he or his sons, or workmen under their direct
+supervision, executed, was one person, and Chippendale, who had
+quarrelled with the Society of Upholsterers, and published a book of
+designs on his own account, which quickly ran through three editions,
+was another person. In the one case he was a furniture maker whose
+pieces bring enormous prices. In the other he was the pioneer of popular
+taste and high-priest to the cabinetmakers scattered up and down
+England, who quickly realised the possibilities of his style, and
+rapidly produced good work on his lines.
+
+These pieces are by unknown men, and no doubt much of their work has
+been accredited to Chippendale himself. The illustration (p. 232) shows
+a mahogany chair well constructed, of a time contemporary with
+Chippendale and made by some smaller maker. This type of chair has been
+copied over and over again till it has become a recognised pattern. It
+finds its counterpart in china in the old willow-pattern, which
+originated at Coalport and has been adopted as a stock design.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CHIPPENDALE MIRROR.]
+
+Furniture is not like silver, where the mark of the maker was almost as
+obligatory as the hall mark. Artists, both great and small, have signed
+their pictures, and in the glorious days of the great French _ébénistes_
+and metal-chasers, signed work is frequently found. But in England, at a
+time when furniture of excellent design, of original conception, and
+of thoroughly good workmanship was produced in great quantities, the
+only surviving names are those of designers or cabinetmakers who have
+published books.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+CHIPPENDALE BUREAU BOOKCASE.
+
+With drop-down front, showing secret drawer.]
+
+So great was the influence of the style of Chippendale that it permeated
+all classes of society. An interesting engraving by Stothard (p. 235)
+shows the interior of a room, and is dated 1782, the year that Rodney
+gained a splendid victory over the French fleet in the West Indies, and
+the year that saw the independence of the United States recognised.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+MAHOGANY CHAIR.
+
+IN THE CHIPPENDALE STYLE. LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: COTTAGE CHAIRS, BEECHWOOD. LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, IN
+STYLE OF CHIPPENDALE.]
+
+Kitchen furniture or cottage furniture was made on the same lines by
+makers all over the country. The wood used was not mahogany; it was most
+frequently beech. Chairs of this make are not museum examples, but they
+are not devoid of a strong artistic feeling, and are especially English
+in character. More often than not the soft wood of this class of chair
+is found to be badly worm-eaten. Two chairs of this type, of beech,
+are illustrated (p. 233), and it is interesting to note that, as in the
+instance of the Yorkshire and Derbyshire chairs of Jacobean days made by
+local makers, it is not common to find many of exactly the same design.
+The craftsman gave a personal character to his handiwork, which makes
+such pieces of original and artistic interest, and cabinetmaking and
+joinery was not then so machine-made as it is now.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ROOM, ABOUT 1782.
+
+(_From engraving after Stothard._)]
+
+It may be here remarked that the earlier pieces of the eighteenth
+century were polished much in the same manner as was old oak previously
+described. Highly polished surfaces and veneers, and that abomination
+"French polish," which is a cheap and nasty method of disguising poor
+wood, bring furniture within the early nineteenth-century days, when a
+wave of Philistine banalities swept over Europe.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                             £  s. d.
+Side table, Chippendale, with gadrooned border, the front
+    boldly carved with a grotesque mask, festoons of
+    flowers and foliage, on carved legs with claw feet, 64
+    in. long. Christie, February 14, 1902                  126  0  0
+
+Tea-caddy, Chippendale mahogany, square, with four
+    divisions, the borders carved with rosettes and
+    interlaced riband ornament, the sides inlaid with four
+    old Worcester oblong plaques painted with exotic birds,
+    insects, fruit, flowers, and festoons in colours on
+    white ground, 10 in. square. Christie, February 6, 1903 52 10  0
+
+Fire-screen, Chippendale mahogany, containing a panel of old
+    English petit-point needlework, worked with a basket of
+    flowers in coloured silks, on pillar and tripod carved
+    with foliage and ball-and-claw feet. Christie, December
+    4, 1903                                                 17 17  0
+
+Armchairs, pair large Chippendale mahogany, with interlaced
+    backs carved with foliage, the arms terminating in
+    carved and gilt eagles' heads. Christie, January 22,
+    1904                                                    88  4  0
+
+Cabinet, Chippendale mahogany, with glazed folding doors
+    enclosing shelves, and with cupboards and eight small
+    drawers below, the borders fluted, 8 ft. high, 8 ft.
+    wide. Christie, January 22, 1904                        67  4  0
+
+Chairs, set of six Chippendale mahogany, with open
+    interlaced backs, with scroll tops, carved with foliage
+    and shell ornament, on carved cabriole legs and
+    ball-and-claw feet. Christie, January 22, 1904         102 18  0
+
+Table, Chippendale, oblong, cabriole legs, carved with
+    shells, &c., on claw feet, surmounted by a veined white
+    marble slab, 53 in. wide. Christie, March 4, 1904       73  0  0
+
+Settee, Chippendale mahogany, with double back with scroll
+    top, carved with arabesque foliage, the arms terminating
+    in masks, on legs carved with lions' masks and claw
+    feet, 54 in. wide. Christie, April 12, 1904            278  5  0
+
+Mirror, Chippendale, carved with gilt, 88 in. high, 50 in.
+    wide. Christie, May 18, 1904                            94 10  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+SHERATON, ADAM,
+
+AND HEPPELWHITE
+
+STYLES
+
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+HEPPELWHITE SETTEE, MAHOGANY.]
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+SHERATON, ADAM, AND HEPPELWHITE STYLES
+
+    Robert Adam     1728-1792.
+    Thomas Sheraton 1751-1806.
+
+    1752. Loch and Copeland's designs published.
+
+    1765. Manwaring's designs published.
+
+    1770. Ince and Mayhew's designs published.
+
+    1788. Heppelwhite's designs published.
+
+
+In the popular conception of the furniture of the three Georges the
+honours are divided between Chippendale and Sheraton. Up till recently
+all that was not Chippendale was Sheraton, and all that was not
+Sheraton must be Chippendale. The one is represented by the
+straight-legged mahogany chairs or cabriole legs with claw-and-ball feet
+and the backs elaborately carved; the other with finely tapered legs,
+built on elegant lines, and of satinwood, having marquetry decoration or
+painted panels.
+
+This is the rough generalisation that obtained in the earlier days of
+the craze for collecting eighteenth-century furniture. Heppelwhite and
+Adam (more often than not alluded to as Adams), are now added to the
+list, and auction catalogues attempt to differentiate accordingly. But
+these four names do not represent a quarter of the well-known makers who
+were producing good furniture in the days between the South Sea Bubble
+in 1720 and the battle of Waterloo in 1815.
+
+In this chapter it will be impossible to give more than a passing
+allusion to the less-known makers of the eighteenth century, but to
+those who wish to pursue the matter in more detailed manner the
+Bibliography annexed (p. 19) gives ample material for a closer study of
+the period.
+
+The four brothers Adam, sons of a well-known Scottish architect, were
+exponents of the classic style. Robert Adam was the architect of the
+fine houses in the Adelphi, and he designed the screen and gateway at
+the entrance to the Admiralty in 1758. James is credited with the
+designing of interior decorations and furniture. Carriages,
+sedan-chairs, and even plate were amongst the artistic objects to which
+these brothers gave their stamp. The classical capitals, mouldings and
+niches, the shell flutings and the light garlands in the Adam style,
+are welcome sights in many otherwise dreary streets in London. Robert,
+the eldest brother, lived from 1728 to 1792, and during that time
+exercised a great influence on English art.
+
+[Illustration: SHERATON ARMCHAIR; MAHOGANY, ABOUT 1780.
+
+ADAM ARMCHAIR; MAHOGANY, ABOUT 1790.
+
+ARMCHAIR OF WALNUT, SHIELD-BACK CARVED WITH THREE OSTRICH FEATHERS.
+IN HEPPELWHITE STYLE. LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+CHAIR OF WALNUT, SHIELD-BACK; IN THE STYLE OF HEPPELWHITE.
+LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+In 1790, a set of designs of English furniture were published by A.
+Heppelwhite. In these chairs with pierced backs, bookcases with
+fancifully framed glass doors, and mahogany bureaux, the influence of
+Chippendale is evident, but the robustness of the master and the
+individuality of his style become transformed into a lighter and more
+elegant fashion, to which French _finesse_ and the Adam spirit have
+contributed their influence.
+
+In the illustration (p. 243) various types of chairs of the period are
+given. A chair termed the "ladder-back" was in use in France at the same
+time. In Chardin's celebrated picture of "_Le jeu de l'oye_," showing
+the interior of a parlour of the middle eighteenth century, a chair of
+this type is shown.
+
+The Heppelwhite settee illustrated as the headpiece to this chapter
+shows the delicate fluting in the woodwork, and the elaborated turned
+legs which were beginning to be fashionable at the close of the
+eighteenth century. The two chairs by Heppelwhite & Co., illustrated (p.
+243), are typical examples of the elegance of the style which has an
+individuality of its own--a fact that collectors are beginning to
+recognise.
+
+The shield-back chair with wheat-ear and openwork decoration, and legs
+in which the lathe has been freely used, are characteristic types. The
+elegance of the legs in Heppelwhite chairs is especially noticeable. The
+designers departed from Chippendale with results exquisitely
+symmetrical, and of most graceful ornamentation.
+
+Hogarth, in his biting satires on the absurdities of Kent, the
+architect, painter, sculptor, and ornamental gardener, whose claims to
+be any one of the four rest on slender foundations, did not prevent
+fashionable ladies consulting him for designs for furniture, picture
+frames, chairs, tables, for cradles, for silver plate, and even for the
+construction of a barge. It is recorded by Walpole that two great ladies
+who implored him to design birthday gowns for them were decked out in
+incongruous devices: "the one he dressed in a petticoat decorated in
+columns of the five orders, and the other like a bronze, in a
+copper-coloured satin, with ornaments of gold."
+
+Heppelwhite learned the lesson of Hogarth, that "the line of beauty is a
+curve," and straight lines were studiously avoided in his designs. Of
+the varieties of chairs that he made, many have the Prince of Wales's
+feathers either carved upon them in the centre of the open-work back or
+japanned upon the splat, a method of decoration largely employed in
+France, which has not always stood the test of time, for when examples
+are found they often want restoration. Of satin-wood, with paintings
+upon the panels, Heppelwhite produced some good examples, and when he
+attempted greater elaboration his style in pieces of involved design and
+intricacy of detail became less original, and came into contact with
+Sheraton. His painted furniture commands high prices, and the name of
+Heppelwhite will stand as high as Chippendale or Sheraton for graceful
+interpretations of the spirit which invested the late eighteenth
+century.
+
+Before dealing with Sheraton in detail, the names of some lesser known
+makers contemporary with him may be mentioned. Matthias Lock, together
+with a cabinetmaker named Copeland, published in 1752 designs of
+furniture which derived their inspiration from the brothers Adam, which
+classic feeling later, in conjunction with the Egyptian and Pompeian
+spirit, dominated the style of the First Empire. Josiah Wedgewood, with
+his Etruscan vases, and Flaxman, his designer, filled with the new
+classic spirit, are examples in the world of pottery of the influences
+which were transmitted through the French Revolution to all forms of art
+when men cast about in every direction to find new ideas for design.
+
+Ince and Mayhew, two other furniture designers, published a book in
+1770, and Johnson outdid Chippendale's florid styles in a series of
+designs he brought out, which, with their twisted abortions, look almost
+like a parody of Thomas Chippendale's worst features. There is a
+"Chairmaker's Guide," by Manwaring and others in 1766, which contains
+designs mainly adapted from all that was being produced at the time. It
+is not easy to tell the difference between chairs made by Manwaring and
+those made by Chippendale, as he certainly stands next to the great
+master in producing types which have outlived ephemeral tastes, and
+taken their stand as fine artistic creations.
+
+Among other names are those of Shearer, Darly, and Gillow, all of whom
+were notable designers and makers of furniture in the period immediately
+preceding the nineteenth century.
+
+Thomas Sheraton, contemporary with William Blake the dreamer, shares
+with him the unfortunate posthumous honour of reaching sensational
+prices in auction rooms. There is much in common between the two men.
+Sheraton was born in 1751 at Stockton-on-Tees, and came to London to
+starve. Baptist preacher, cabinetmaker, author, teacher of drawing, he
+passed his life in poverty, and died in distressed circumstances. He
+was, before he brought out his book of designs, the author of several
+religious works. Often without capital to pursue his cabinetmaking he
+fell back on his aptitude for drawing, and gave lessons in design. He
+paid young Black, who afterwards became Lord Provost of Edinburgh, half
+a guinea a week as workman in his cabinetmaker's shop in Soho. In a
+pathetic picture of those days the Lord Provost, in his _Memoirs_, tells
+how Sheraton and his wife and child had only two cups and saucers and
+the child had a mug, and when the writer took tea with them the wife's
+cup and saucer were given up to the guest, and she drank her tea from a
+common mug. This reads like Blake's struggles when he had not money
+enough to procure copper-plates on which to engrave his wonderful
+visions.
+
+That the styles of Chippendale and Sheraton represent two distinct
+schools is borne out by what Sheraton himself thought of his great
+predecessor. Speaking in his own book of Chippendale's previous work he
+says: "As for the designs themselves they are wholly antiquated, and
+laid aside, though possessed of great merit according to the times in
+which they were executed." From this it would appear that the
+Chippendale style, at the time of Sheraton's "Cabinetmaker's and
+Upholsterer's Drawing Book," published in 1793, had gone out of fashion.
+
+The woods mostly employed by Sheraton were satinwood, tulip-wood,
+rosewood, and apple-wood, and occasionally mahogany. In place of carved
+scrollwork he used marquetry, and on the cabinets and larger pieces
+panels were painted by Cipriani and Angelica Kauffman. There is a fine
+example of the latter's work in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+Sheraton borrowed largely from the French style under Louis XVI., when
+the lines had become severer; he came, too, under the influence of the
+Adam designs. He commonly used turned legs, and often turned backs, in
+his chairs. His later examples had a hollowed or spoon back to fit the
+body of the sitter. When he used mahogany he realised the beauty of
+effect the dark wood would give to inlay of lighter coloured woods, or
+even of brass. The splats and balusters, and even the legs of some of
+his chairs, are inlaid with delicate marquetry work.
+
+Ornament for its own sake was scrupulously eschewed by Sheraton. The
+essential supports and uprights and stretcher-rails and other component
+parts of a piece of furniture were only decorated as portions of a
+preconceived whole. The legs were tapered, the plain surfaces were
+inlaid with marquetry, but nothing meaningless was added. In France
+Sheraton's style was termed "_Louis Seize à l'Anglaise_."
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton &. Sons._
+
+OLD ENGLISH SECRÉTAIRE.
+
+Rosewood and satinwood. Drop-down front.]
+
+It was the firm of Heppelwhite that first introduced the painted
+furniture into England, and under Sheraton it developed into an
+emulation of the fine work done by Watteau and Greuze in the days of
+Marie Antoinette.
+
+Among the varied pieces that Sheraton produced are a number of ingenious
+inventions in furniture, such as the library-steps he made for George
+III. to rise perpendicularly from the top of a table frame, and when
+folded up to be concealed within it. His bureau-bookcases and
+writing-cabinets have sliding flaps and secret drawers and devices
+intended to make them serve a number of purposes.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+SHIELD-BACK CHAIR. MAHOGANY.
+
+LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+On the front of his chairs is frequently found the inverted bell
+flower, and another of his favourite forms of decoration is the acanthus
+ornament, which he puts to graceful use.
+
+The influence of his work, and of that of Heppelwhite & Co., was
+lasting, and much of the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth
+century cabinetmaking owes its origin to their designs. The old English
+secrétaire illustrated (p. 250), of rose and satinwood, with drawer
+above and fall-down front, having cupboard beneath with doors finely
+inlaid with plaques of old lac, is of the date when Heppelwhite was
+successfully introducing this class of French work into England. It is
+especially interesting to note that the drawer-handles are mounted with
+old Battersea enamel.
+
+The difficulty of definitely pronouncing as to the maker of many of the
+pieces of furniture of the late eighteenth century is recognised by
+experts. The chair illustrated (p. 251) cannot be assigned to any
+particular designer, though its genuine old feeling is indisputable. In
+the fine collection of old furniture of this period at the Victoria and
+Albert Museum will be found many examples of chairs with no other title
+assigned to them than "late eighteenth century." This fact speaks for
+itself. A great and growing school had followed the precepts of
+Chippendale and Heppelwhite and Sheraton. This glorious period of little
+more than half a century might have been developed into a new
+Renaissance in furniture. Unfortunately, the early days of the
+nineteenth century and the dreary Early Victorian period, both before
+and after the great Exhibition of 1851, display the most tasteless
+ineptitude in nearly every branch of art. From the days of Elizabeth
+down to the last of the Georges, English craftsmen, under various
+influences, have produced domestic furniture of great beauty. It is
+impossible to feel any interest in the Windsor chair, the saddle-bag
+couch, or the red mahogany cheffonière. The specimens of misapplied work
+shown at the Bethnal Green Museum, relics of the English exhibits at the
+first Exhibition, are unworthy of great traditions.
+
+The awakened interest shown by all classes in old furniture will do much
+to carry the designers back to the best periods in order to study the
+inheritance the masters have left, and it is to be hoped that the
+message of the old craftsmen dead and gone will not fall on deaf ears.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                             £  s. d.
+Chairs, wheel back, set of seven (including armchair), Adam,
+    carved, mahogany. Good condition. Brady & Sons, Perth,
+    September 1, 1902                                       27  2  6
+
+Mirror, Adam, in gilt frame, Corinthian pillar sides,
+    ornamental glass panel at top, surmounted by a carved
+    wood eagle figure. Gudgeon & Sons, Winchester, November
+    11, 1903                                                 7 10  0
+
+Mantelpiece, Adam, carved wood, with Corinthian column
+    supports, carved and figures and festoons. France &
+    Sons, December 16, 1903                                 20  0  0
+
+Mirrors, pair, oval, Adam, carved and gilt wood frame.
+    Christie, March 18, 1904                                46  4  0
+
+Cabinet or enclosed buffet, Adam, on Empire lines, veneered
+    on oak with grained Spanish mahogany, in the frieze is a
+    long drawer, and below a cupboard, the whole on square
+    feet, doors inlaid, handles, &c., of ormolu, 3 ft. 9 in.
+    wide. Flashman & Co., Dover, April 26, 1904             15  0  0
+
+Side-tables, pair hare-wood, by Adam, with rounded corners,
+    on square-shaped tapering legs, the sides and borders
+    inlaid with marquetry, in coloured woods, 53 in. wide.
+    Christie, June 2, 1904                                 105  0  0
+
+Bookcase, 4 ft. 8 in., mahogany, Heppelwhite, inlaid
+    tulip-wood with box and ebony lines, fitted shelves and
+    drawers, enclosed by doors. Phillips, Son and Neale,
+    November 17, 1903                                       44  0  0
+
+Settee, Heppelwhite, square-shaped, 6 ft., and three elbow
+    chairs. Gudgeon & Sons, Winchester, March 9, 1904       38  0  0
+
+Console-table, Heppelwhite satinwood, the top shaped as a
+    broken ellipse, and of hare-wood with inlays of husks
+    and flowers round a fan-pattern centre with borderings
+    in ebony and other woods on a filling of satinwood; the
+    edge is bound with ormolu, reeded and cross banded,
+    below is the frieze of satin-wood inlaid with
+    honeysuckle, pateræ, and other ornament in holly, &c.,
+    and supported on a pair of carved square tapered legs
+    painted and gilt, and with pendants of husks and
+    acanthus capitals, 4 ft. 3 in. wide. Flashman & Co.,
+    Dover, April 26, 1904                                   40  0  0
+
+Suite of Heppelwhite mahogany furniture, with open shield
+    backs, with vase-shaped centres carved, the back, arms
+    and legs widely fluted, consisting of a settee, 74 in.
+    wide, and ten armchairs. Christie, June 2, 1904        325 10  0
+
+Knife-box, oblong, Sheraton mahogany, with revolving front,
+    inlaid with Prince-of-Wales's feathers and borders in
+    satinwood, 19-1/2 in. wide. Christie, November 21, 1902  7 17  6
+
+Sideboard, Sheraton, mahogany, satinwood inlaid, fitted with
+    brass rails. Dowell, Edinburgh, November 14, 1903       30  9  0
+
+Wardrobe, Sheraton mahogany, banded with satinwood, with
+    folding doors above and below, and five drawers in the
+    centre, 7 ft. high, 8 ft. wide. Christie, January 22,
+    1904                                                    60 18  0
+
+Chairs, set of eighteen Sheraton, with oval backs with rail
+    centres, fluted and slightly carved with foliage and
+    beading, the seats covered with flowered crimson damask;
+    and a pair of settees, _en suite_, 6 ft. wide. Christie,
+    February 26, 1904                                      126  0  0
+
+Armchairs, pair, Sheraton, with shield-shaped backs, painted
+    with Prince of Wales feathers, and pearl ornament on
+    black ground. Christie, March 28, 1904                  28  7  0
+
+Cabinet, Sheraton satinwood, with glazed folding doors
+    enclosing shelves, drawer in the centre forming
+    secretary, and folding-doors below, painted with baskets
+    of flowers, &c., 7 ft. 9 in. high, 41 in. wide.
+    Christie, March 28, 1904                               189  0  0
+
+Secrétaire, Sheraton small satinwood, with revolving tambour
+    front, drawer and folding doors below, inlaid with
+    arabesque foliage, 23 in. wide. Christie, April 29, 1904
+                                                            47  5  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+HINTS TO COLLECTORS
+
+
+[Illustration: DESIGN FOR SPURIOUS MARQUETRY WORK.]
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+HINTS TO COLLECTORS
+
+
+The demand for old furniture has become so great that there is an
+increasing difficulty in supplying it. In order to satisfy the collector
+many artifices have been practised which in varying degree are difficult
+to detect, according to the skill and ingenuity of the present-day
+manufacturer of "antique" furniture.
+
+Replicas of old pieces are frequently made, and the workmanship is so
+excellent, and the copy of the old craftsman's style so perfect, that it
+only requires a century or two of wear to give to the specimen the
+necessary tone which genuine old furniture has naturally acquired.
+
+In particular, French ornate furniture from the days of Boule to the
+Empire period has received the flattering attention of the fabricator by
+being imitated in all its details. These high-class French pieces are
+fine examples of cabinetmaking, and it is not easy for anybody who has
+not a special expert knowledge to pronounce definitely upon their
+authenticity. Doubts have even been expressed regarding certain pieces
+in the great national collections; in fact the art of the forger in
+regard to old French furniture, of which specimens change hands at
+anything from £1,000 to £10,000, has reached a very high level of
+excellence, having almost been elevated to one of the fine arts. If a
+clever workman possessed of great artistic feeling turns his attention
+to forging works of art, it is obvious that his triumph is complete over
+amateurs possessed of less artistic taste and knowledge than himself.
+
+Many secret processes are employed to impart an appearance of age to the
+wood and to the metal mountings. The cruder methods are to eat off the
+sharper edges of the metal mountings by means of acid, and to discolour
+the newer surfaces by the aid of tobacco juice, both of which are not
+difficult to detect. The steady manufacture of these finer pieces goes
+on in France, and it has been found that the foggy atmosphere of London
+is especially useful in producing the effect of age upon the finer work,
+consequently many forged pieces are shipped to London to be stored in
+order to ripen until considered fit for the American market, where so
+many forgeries have been planted. The reward is great, and even
+considering the amount of trouble bestowed upon such pieces and the
+excellence of the artistic work where the highest skilled labour is
+employed, the profit is enormous. The parvenu buys his Louis XIV. or
+Louis XV. suite, and pays an immense sum for pieces which are stated to
+have come from some French nobleman's château, whose name must not be
+divulged, and so the interesting deal is brought to a successful
+termination.
+
+[Illustration: "MADE-UP" BUFFET.
+
+The middle portion, consisting of the two drawers and three panelled
+cupboards above, is genuine old carved oak. The stand, with the finely
+turned legs and rails, and the whole of the upper portion, is modern.]
+
+As an object-lesson as to the truth of the above remarks, the Wallace
+Collection contains a modern French copy in facsimile, by Dasson, of the
+celebrated "Bureau du Roi" of the Louis XV. period, the original being
+in the Louvre. The original is fully described in the chapter on Louis
+XV. style, and it is not too much to assert that ninety-nine per cent.
+of the visitors to the Collection could not say that this copy was not
+an old French specimen of over a century and a quarter ago, and the
+remaining one, unless he happened to be an expert, would not question
+its genuineness.
+
+Old oak has always been a favourite with the public, and from the modern
+Flemish monstrosities, carved in evil manner and displaying proportions
+in the worst possible taste, to the equally vulgar home production in
+buffet or sideboard, and stocked by many dealers in so-called "antique"
+furniture, the number of grotesque styles foisted upon the public within
+the last fifteen years has been remarkable. One wonders what has become
+of the high-backed oak chairs, nearly black with repeated applications
+of permanganate of potash, having flaming red-leather seats. They seem
+to have mysteriously disappeared from up-to-date "antique" stores of
+late. The public has taken to inquiring into art matters a little more
+closely. Nowadays the latest thing is "fumed" oak, which is modern oak
+discoloured by means of ammonia, which darkens the surface of the wood
+to a depth of a sixteenth of an inch. It is not infrequent to find an
+attempt made to represent this as old oak after an elaborate treatment
+with linseed oil, turpentine, and beeswax, though an examination of the
+interior edges of the wood will discover its modernity at once.
+
+Of course, such tricks as these are not practised by any firm of
+standing, who cannot afford to damage their reputation by any
+misrepresentation. As a general rule a dealer will readily point out the
+details of workmanship and offer technical information of much value to
+a beginner, if he discovers that his customer is a collector desirous of
+acquiring only fine specimens. It is more often than not the folly of
+the public, and not the dishonesty of the dealer, which results in trade
+frauds being committed in the attempt to execute some impossible and
+imperative order, which the moneyed collector has given. The difference
+between the genuine and the replica is most clearly made by
+old-fashioned firms of high standing. It is only when the collector
+enters into the arena and endeavours to set forth in quest of bargains,
+where he pits his skill against that of the dealer in the hope of
+outwitting the latter, that he is obviously on dangerous ground. In the
+one case he pays a higher price and obtains the benefit of the
+experience of a firm with expert knowledge, in the other he relies on
+his own judgment in picking up a bargain from some one whom he believes
+to be possessed of less knowledge than himself. If he is successful he
+is not slow to brag about his cleverness; but if he is worsted in the
+encounter, and pays, let us say, five pounds for an object which he
+fondly believed was worth fifty, if genuine, and which he subsequently
+discovers is worth less than he gave, there is nothing too bad to say
+concerning his antagonist.
+
+It is chiefly by the character of carved work that old pieces can be
+recognised. There are three classes of pitfalls to avoid.
+
+1. Fraudulent pieces throughout, of modern wood and of modern carving.
+
+2. "Made-up" pieces which often consist of genuine old pieces of carved
+wood pieced together ingeniously from fragments of carvings, with modern
+additions.
+
+3. "Restored" pieces which are mainly old and should have received, if
+admitted to a collection, only the necessary repairs to make them
+serviceable.
+
+With regard to the first class, fraudulent throughout, it is the hope of
+the writer that enough has already been written in this volume to point
+the way to the reader and to assist him to follow his natural
+inclinations in developing the necessary critical taste to readily
+detect pieces wholly false in character and feeling.
+
+"Made-up" pieces present a greater difficulty. Considerable skill has
+been exercised in combining certain parts of old furniture into a whole
+which is, however, mostly inharmonious. In pieces of this nature there
+is an absence of feeling in style and carving. It is difficult to define
+the exact meaning of the word "feeling" as applied to art objects, it is
+a subtle expression of skill and poetry which communicates itself to the
+lover of art. It is so subtle and elusive that experts will tell one
+that such and such a piece requires to be "lived with" to test its
+authenticity. Mr. Frederick Roe, whose volume on "Ancient Coffers and
+Cupboards" displays a profound knowledge of his subject, writes, "it
+occasionally happens that pieces are so artfully made up that only
+living with them will enable the collector to detect the truth. In
+dealing with pieces of this suspicious kind one often has to fall back
+on a sort of instinct. With critical collectors of every sort this
+innate sense plays a very important part."
+
+Two specimens of "made-up" furniture are reproduced, which will bear
+close study in order to appreciate the difficulty of collecting old oak.
+
+The illustration of the buffet (p. 261) has many points of interest. The
+general appearance of the piece is not inharmonious. It has been
+carefully thought out and no less carefully put into effect. The middle
+portion, consisting of the three drawers and the three cupboards above,
+up to and including the shelf partition at the top, is the only old
+part. The handles, locks, and escutcheons of the two drawers are old,
+but the hinges above are modern copies of old designs, and the handles
+of the cupboards are modern replicas.
+
+[Illustration: CABINET OF OLD OAK.
+
+MADE UP FROM SEVERAL PIECES OF GENUINE OLD CARVED OAK.]
+
+The massive stand with artistically turned rails in Jacobean style,
+is soft wood artfully fumed and generously beeswaxed. The whole of the
+top portion has been added and is soft wood very well carved. The
+carving of the panels is also well executed, and is evidently a copy of
+some old design.
+
+The older portion is a fine piece of early Jacobean work, and it is not
+difficult to distinguish between the feeling of this and the expression
+conveyed by the modern woodwork. The patina of the wood after two
+centuries of exposure and polishing has that peculiarly pleasing
+appearance which accompanies genuine old woodwork. The edges of the
+carving have lost their sharp angles, and the mellowness of the middle
+panels are in strong contrast to the harsher tone of those of the upper
+portion.
+
+Such a piece as this would not deceive an expert, nor, perhaps, is it
+intended to, or greater care would have been bestowed upon it, but it is
+sufficiently harmonious in composition not to offend in a glaring
+manner, and might easily deceive a tyro.
+
+The next piece illustrated (p. 267) is interesting from another point of
+view. It is a more elaborate attempt to produce a piece of old furniture
+in which the details themselves have all the mellowness of fine old oak.
+In fact, with the exception of one portion, some eight inches by three,
+to which allusion will be made later, the whole of it is genuine old
+oak.
+
+The three panels at the top are finely carved and are Jacobean work. The
+two outside panels at the bottom, though of a later period, are good
+work. The middle panel at the bottom is evidently a portion of a larger
+piece of carving, because the pattern abruptly breaks off, and it was
+most certainly not designed by the old carver to lie on its side in this
+fashion.
+
+The two heads at the top corners have been cut from some old specimen,
+and artfully laid on. The carving on both sides, running below each head
+from top to bottom, is of two distinct designs joined in each case in a
+line level with the upper line of the lower panels. The two uprights on
+each side of the middle lower panel are exquisite pieces of carved work,
+but certainly never intended to be upright. They are evidently portions
+of a long, flowing ornament, as their cut-off appearance too plainly
+shows.
+
+The top panels have done duty elsewhere, as part of the ornamental
+carving at the top and bottom of each lozenge is lost. The long line of
+scrolled carving above them is distinctly of interest. On the left hand,
+from the head to the middle of the panel, a piece of newer carving has
+been inserted, some eight inches long. The wood, at one time darkened to
+correspond with the adjacent carving, has become lighter, which is
+always the case when wood is stained to match other portions. The
+carving in this new portion follows in every detail the lines of the
+older design, and is a very pretty piece of "faking."
+
+The cross-piece running from left to right, dividing the lower panels
+from the upper, is in three parts. An examination of the design shows
+that the last three circles on the right, and the last four on the left,
+are of smaller size than the others. The design evidently belonged to
+some other piece of furniture, and has been removed to do service in
+this "made-up" production.
+
+In all probability the two uprights enclosing the top middle panel, and
+the two uprights on the outside at the bottom were once portions of a
+carved bedstead, as they are all of the same size and design. It is a
+notorious trick to slice an old carved bedpost into four pieces,
+skilfully fitting the pieces into "made-up" furniture.
+
+There is a prevalent idea that worm-holes are actually produced in
+furniture, in order to give a new piece a more realistic appearance.
+There are traditions of duck-shot having been used, and there is little
+doubt that holes were drilled by makers who knew their public. But it is
+improbable that such artifices would be of much use for deceptive
+purposes nowadays. As a matter of fact, worm-holes are avoided by any
+one who gives a moment's thought to the matter. To get rid of worm in
+furniture is no easy task, and they eventually ruin any pieces they
+tenant.
+
+The illustration (p. 274) shows a piece of Spanish chestnut badly
+honeycombed by furniture worms. In chairs, especially, their havoc is
+almost irreparable, and in the softer woods the legs become too rotten
+to be repaired or even strengthened. Metal plates are often screwed on
+the sides to prevent the chairs falling to pieces, but they become
+useless to sit upon without fear of disaster.
+
+The insect is really the boring wood-beetle, which is armed with
+formidable forceps, to enable it to burrow through the wood. The worm,
+the larva of this beetle, is also provided with boring apparatus, and
+this insect, whether as beetle or as worm, is a deadly enemy to all
+furniture. The "death-watch" is also accused of being a depredator of
+books and of furniture of soft wood.
+
+To remove worms from furniture is a costly undertaking, requiring the
+greatest skill. Large pieces of furniture have actually to be taken to
+pieces and the whole of the damaged parts removed with a chisel. In
+cases where the legs, or slender supports, have been attacked, the
+difficulty is one requiring the specialist's most delicate attention.
+Various applications are recommended, but cannot be stated to be
+reliable. Injecting paraffin is said to be the best remedy, and putting
+the pieces in a chamber where all the openings have been sealed, and
+lighting pans of sulphur underneath the furniture, allowing the
+specimens to remain in this fumigating bath for some days is another
+method resorted to.
+
+With regard to Chippendale furniture, a word of caution is necessary. It
+is as impossible for Chippendale and his workmen to have produced all
+the furniture attributed to them as it is for the small factory at
+Lowestoft to have made all the china with which it is credited. As has
+been shown in the chapter on Thomas Chippendale, his styles were most
+extensively copied by his contemporaries all over the country and by
+many makers after him, and modern makers produce a great quantity of
+"Chippendale" every year. Only a careful examination of museum pieces
+will train the eye of the collector. The fine sense of proportion, at
+once noticeable in the genuine Chippendale chair, is absent in the
+modern copy, and, above all, the carving in the latter is thin and poor.
+In the old days the wastage of wood was not a thing which the master had
+in his mind. In modern copies the curl of the arm, or the swell at the
+top of the back, shows a regard for economy. There is a thin, flat look
+about the result, which ought not to be mistaken. Scrolls and
+ribbon-work are often added to later pieces made in the style of
+Chippendale, which have enough wood in their surfaces to bear carving
+away.
+
+An ingenious device is adopted in cases of inlaid pieces of a small
+nature, such as imitation Sheraton clock-cases and knife-boxes and the
+frames of mirrors. Old engravings are procured of scrollwork, usually
+from the end of some book. The illustration (p. 259) shows the class of
+engravings selected. These engravings are coated with a very thin layer
+of vellum, which is boiled down to a liquid, and carefully spread over
+them. After this treatment they are ready to be glued on to the panels
+to be "faked," and, when coated over with transparent varnish, they
+present the appearance of an ivory and ebony inlay.
+
+[Illustration: DESIGN FOR SPURIOUS MARQUETRY WORK.]
+
+The frauds practised in satinwood and painted pieces are many and are
+exceedingly difficult to detect. Much of Sheraton's furniture was
+veneered with finely selected specimens of West India satinwood. These
+carefully chosen panels were painted by Cipriani and others. The modern
+"faker" has not the material to select from, as the satinwood imported
+is not so beautiful nor so richly varied in grain as in the old days. He
+removes a side panel from an old piece, and substitutes another where
+its obnoxious presence is not so noticeable. To this old panel he
+affixes a modern coloured print after one of Sheraton's artists, which,
+when carefully varnished over and skilfully treated so as to represent
+the cracks in the supposed old painting, is ready for insertion in the
+"made-up" sideboard, to catch the fancy of the unwary collector.
+
+FINIS.
+
+[Illustration: PIECE OF SPANISH CHESTNUT SHOWING RAVAGES OF WORMS.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+A
+
+Adam, the brothers, and their style, 209, 241-256
+
+Adam armchair (illustrated), 243
+
+Admiralty, screen and gateway, designed by Robert Adam, 242
+
+Anne, Queen, furniture of, prices realised at auction, 153
+  ---- insularity of furniture in reign of, 136
+  ---- well-constructed furniture of period of, 145
+
+Apsley House, collection of furniture at, 209
+
+Armoire, _see_ GLOSSARY, 23
+
+Ascham, quotation from, 68
+
+Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, chair at, 115
+
+
+B
+
+Baroque, _see_ GLOSSARY, 23
+
+Barrow, Sam, name of maker, on Queen Anne clock, 148
+
+Battersea enamel, its use on furniture, 252
+
+Bérain, Jean, 162
+
+Blenheim, chair from, 222
+
+Bodleian Library, Oxford, illustration of chair at, 82
+
+_Bombé_, _see_ GLOSSARY, 23
+
+Bookcase by Chippendale, 225, 231
+
+Boucher, 182, 195
+
+Boule, André Charles, and his marquetry, 160-162
+  ---- cabinet (illustrated), 165
+  ---- _see_ GLOSSARY, 23
+  ---- and counter-boule (illustrated), showing difference between, 163
+
+Bridal chest (German), 43
+
+Bromley-by-Bow, "Old Palace," oak panelling from, 65
+
+Brown and Bool, Messrs., specimens from collection of, 141, 150
+
+Buhl work, 160
+
+Bureau, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+Burr-walnut panels, 139
+
+Butter-cupboard, 104
+
+
+C
+
+Cabinet, ebony, formerly property of Oliver Cromwell, 99
+
+Cabriole, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+Cabriole-leg, introduction of into England, 127
+
+Caffieri, 177, 191
+
+Cambridge, King's College Chapel, woodwork of, 63
+
+Cane seats and backs of chairs, adoption of, 117
+  ---- work in chairs, later development of, 122
+
+Carolean, _see_ GLOSSARY, 25
+
+Carving supplanted by cane-work panels, 117
+
+Caryatides, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+_Cassette_, (strong box) of period of Louis XIV., 158
+
+_Cassone_, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+  ---- (marriage coffer), the Italian, 42
+
+Catherine of Braganza, fashions introduced by, 114
+
+Cecil, Lord Burleigh, quotation from, 66
+
+Chair, Charles I., 93, 95
+  ---- Chippendale, 223, 224, 226, 227, 232, 233
+  ---- "Cromwellian," 96
+  ---- high-backed, Portuguese, 114
+  ---- Italian (1620), 94
+  ---- Jacobean, made from timber of Drake's _Golden Hind_, 83
+  ---- James I., 87, 89
+  ---- James II., 123
+  ---- Louis XIII. period, 159
+  ---- ribbon-back, 222, 223
+  ---- Oliver Goldsmith's, 215
+  ---- with arms of first Earl of Strafford, 93
+
+Chairs, test as to age of, 100
+  ---- types of Jacobean (illustrated), 97, 100, 105, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124
+  ---- types of Queen Anne period (illustrated), 143
+  ---- upholstered, adopted in late Elizabethan days, 75
+
+Chambers, Sir William, 216
+
+Chardin, picture by, showing ladder-back chair, 245
+
+Charles I. furniture, prices realised at auction, 106
+  ---- II. furniture, prices realised at auction, 129
+  ---- II., repartee of, 114
+
+Charterhouse, specimen at, illustration of, 227
+
+Chatsworth, work of Grinling Gibbons at, 121
+
+Chests of drawers, Jacobean, 117
+
+China collecting, influence of, on furniture, 127
+
+Chinese and Japanese cabinets, 148
+
+"Chinese" Chippendale, 213, 221
+
+Chippendale, Thomas, and his style, 213-238;
+    his _Director_, 215
+  ---- bureau-bookcase, 225, 231
+  ---- furniture, tricks concerning, 272;
+    prices of, 227, 236
+
+Cipriani, 249
+
+Classic models paramount, 205
+
+Claw-and-ball feet adopted by Chippendale, 216
+  ---- feet (prior to Chippendale), 146
+  ---- foot, introduction of, 127
+
+Clock, "Grandfather," introduction of, 127
+
+Clocks, "Grandfather," 147
+
+Colbert, the guiding spirit of art under Louis XIV., 159
+
+Collectors, hints to, 259-274
+
+Commode, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+Commodes (illustrated), Cressent, 171;
+  Louis XIV., 173;
+  Caffieri, 175;
+  Riesener, 197
+
+_Contre partie_, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+Copeland, designs of, 247
+
+Copies of old furniture, 259, 263
+  ---- of fine French pieces, 185, 197
+
+Cottage furniture (Chippendale style), 232
+
+Counter-boule, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+  -----boule, 161
+
+Court cupboard, 70
+
+Cowley, quotation from, 85
+
+Cradle, with initials and date, 96
+
+Cressent, Charles, 177, 178
+
+Crispin de Passe, chair designed by, 159
+
+Cromwellian chair, 96
+
+Cromwell's ebony cabinet, 96
+
+Cushions for chairs when adopted, 75
+
+
+D
+
+Darly, 248
+
+Dated pieces--
+  1593, Elizabethan bedstead, 66
+  1603, Mirror, carved oak frame, 71
+  1603, Court cupboard, 73
+  1616, Oak table, 85
+  1623, Chair, 97
+  1641, Cradle, 96
+  1642, Chair, 159
+  1653, Cabinet, _frontispiece_
+  1760-69, "Bureau du roi," 185
+  1769, Bureau, 196
+  1810, Jewel cabinet, 207
+
+David, 195, 208, 209
+
+Derbyshire chairs, 103
+
+Diderot, 205
+
+_Director_, designs of chair-backs from, 222, 225
+
+Drake, Sir Francis, chair made from timber of _Golden Hind_, 82
+
+Drawers, chests of, Jacobean, 117
+
+Dressers, Normandy, 103
+  ---- "Welsh," 100
+
+Dublin Museum, illustration of oak chest at, 44
+
+Dutch art, introduction of, by William of Orange, 124
+  ---- house, interior of (illustrated), 111
+  ---- lacquer work, 151
+  ---- marquetry, 128, 146
+  ---- marquetry chair, illustrated, 143
+  ---- marquetry, prices realised at auction, 132
+
+
+E
+
+Eassie, Walter, illustrations from drawings by, 171, 183
+
+Egyptian design, influence of, 247
+
+Eighteenth century, early, well-constructed furniture of, 145
+  ---- interior of room (illustrated), 235
+
+Elizabethan mansions, some noteworthy, 67
+
+Elizabethan woodwork, fine example of, 65
+
+Empire style furniture, 202-210
+  ---- its influence on English makers, 209
+
+England, Renaissance in, 37, 59-78
+
+
+F
+
+Farmhouse furniture, 100
+
+Figure in wood, how obtained, 76, 118
+
+Fire of London, destruction of furniture by, 120
+
+First Empire style, 203-210
+
+Flemish wood-carving, its influence on English craftsmen, 49
+
+Fontainebleau, illustration of jewel cabinet at, 207
+
+Foreign workmen employed in England, 37
+
+Fragonard, 182, 195
+
+France, Renaissance in, 43
+
+Francis I., patron of the new art, 47
+
+Frauds perpetrated on collectors, 259-274
+
+French polish, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24, 236
+
+French Revolution, vandalism during, 204
+
+
+G
+
+Gate-leg table, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+  ---- table, 95
+
+Gibbons, Grinling, work of, 121
+
+Gillow, 248
+
+_Golden Hind_, chair made from timbers of, 82
+
+Goldsmith, Oliver, chair of, 215, 216
+
+Gothic, _see_ GLOSSARY, 25
+  ---- revival, its influence on Chippendale, 221
+
+Gouthière, Pierre, 191, 192, 197
+
+Grandfather clock, 147
+  ---- clock, introduction of, 127
+
+Great Hall at Hampton Court, 63
+
+Grimm, quotation from, 205
+
+Grotesque design prevalent in Elizabethan furniture, 69
+
+
+H
+
+Hall, Hampton Court, the Great, 63
+  ---- Middle Temple, carved screen at, 65
+
+Hampton Court, the Great Hall at, 63
+  ---- Court, work of Grinling Gibbons at, 121
+
+Hampton & Sons, Messrs., pieces from collection of, 59, 95, 99, 115,
+    120, 121, 135, 143, 147, 148, 250
+
+Harrington, Sir John, quotation from, 75
+
+Henry VII.'s chapel, Westminster Abbey, 63
+  ---- VIII., patron of the new art, 37
+
+Heppelwhite, the style of, 241-256
+  ---- chairs (illustrated), 243
+
+Herculaneum and Pompeii, influence of excavations at, 204, 209
+
+Hints to Collectors, 259-274
+
+Hogarth, William, 246
+
+Holbein in England, 37
+
+Honey, W. G., Esq., specimen from collection of, 151
+
+Huygens, Dutch lacquer of, 182
+
+
+I
+
+Ince & Mayhew's designs, 247
+
+India office, specimen at, illustration of, 226
+
+Ingenious contrivances of Sheraton's furniture, 251
+
+Inlay, _see_ GLOSSARY, 25
+  ---- in Elizabethan pieces, 69
+
+Italian art dominates Elizabethan fashion, 68
+
+Italy, Renaissance in, 41
+
+
+J
+
+Jacobean, _see_ GLOSSARY, 25
+  ---- furniture, its fine simplicity, 104
+
+Jacobean furniture, prices realised at auction, 106, 129
+
+James I., chair at Knole House, 86
+  ---- II. furniture, prices realised at auction, 130
+
+Japanese and Chinese cabinets, 148
+
+Japanese lac imitated, 182
+
+Jones Bequest, illustrations of specimens in, 165, 179, 193
+  ---- Inigo, his influence, 93
+
+
+K
+
+Kauffman, Angelica, 249
+
+Kent, eighteenth-century designer, 246
+
+Kew Gardens, pagoda at, 216
+
+King's College Chapel, Cambridge, woodwork of, 63
+
+Kitchen furniture (Chippendale style), 232
+
+Knole House, James I. furniture at, 86
+
+
+L
+
+Lac, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+  ---- Japanese and Chinese imitated, 182
+
+Lacquer, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+
+Lancaster & Co., Messrs. Harold G., specimens from collection of, 122, 123,
+    137, 231, 232, 241, 251
+
+Leather work, cut design, Portuguese chair-back, 128
+
+Le Bas, Rev. H. V., illustration of specimen in possession of, 210
+
+Lebrun, Madame, 205
+
+Leczinski, Stanislas, King of Poland, 196
+
+Linen pattern, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+
+Lock, Matthias, designs of, 247
+
+Louis XIII., chair of period of, 159
+  ---- XIV., period of, 157-167
+  ---- XV., period of, 171-187
+  ---- XVI., period of, 191-200
+
+Louvre, copy of picture in, 203
+  ---- illustration of portrait in, 209
+
+
+M
+
+Macaulay, Lord, quotation from, 96, 136
+
+"Made-up" pieces, 265
+
+Madrid National Museum, illustration of specimen at, 52
+
+Mahogany period, 34
+  ---- how procured by British captains, 214
+  ---- Sir Walter Raleigh's discovery of, 214
+
+Mansions built in Elizabethan days, 67
+
+Manwaring, designs of, 247
+
+Marie Antoinette, furniture belonging to, 179, 180, 195
+
+Marie Louise, jewel cabinet of, 208
+
+Marquetry, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+  ---- Dutch, 128
+  ---- Dutch, 146
+  ---- elaborate, 180, 182
+  ---- in Elizabethan pieces, 69
+  ---- work, spurious, 273
+
+Martin, Sieur Simon Etienne (_Vernis-Martin_), 182
+
+Martin's varnish (_Vernis-Martin_), _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+Meissonier, inspirer of rococo style, 177
+
+Middle Temple Hall, carved oak screen at, 65
+
+Mirrors, arrangement in Hampton Court galleries, 123
+  ---- at Nell Gwynne's house, 123
+  ---- Chippendale, 229
+  ---- made by French and Italian workmen, 124
+  ---- Queen Anne, 136
+  ---- various forms of, 124
+
+Mortise, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+
+Mother-of-pearl inlay, seventeenth century, 116
+
+Munich National Museum, illustration of specimen at, 39
+
+
+N
+
+Naples Museum, illustration of table at, 205
+
+Napoleon, his influence on art, 208
+
+Natoire, 182, 195
+
+Needlework decorated cabinet, Charles II. period, 112
+
+Netherlands, Renaissance in, 49
+
+Netscher, Caspar, illustration after picture by, 111
+
+Normandy dressers, 103
+
+Notable examples of sixteenth, century English woodwork, 65
+
+
+O
+
+Oak, collectors of, hints to, 103, 118
+  ---- furniture, the collector's polish for, 118
+  ---- period, 34
+  ---- polish, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+
+Oeben, Jean François, 178
+
+Old oak, polish for, 118
+
+
+P
+
+Parquetry, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+
+Passe Crispin de, chair designed by, 159
+
+Pater, 192
+
+Penshurst Place, Indo-Portuguese furniture at, 115
+
+Petworth House, work of Grinling Gibbons at, 121
+
+_Polish_, French, 24;
+  ---- oil, 26
+
+Pollen, J., Hungerford, quotation from, 196
+
+Pompeii, influence of excavations at, 204, 208, 247
+
+Ponsonby-Fane, Right Hon. Sir Spencer, specimens in collection of, 101, 224
+
+Portuguese furniture, late seventeenth century, in England, 114
+
+
+Q
+
+Queen Anne cabinet (illustrated), 141
+  ---- chairs (illustrated), 143
+  ---- furniture, prices realised at auction, 153
+  ---- mirror frame (illustrated), 137
+  ---- settle (illustrated), 149, 155
+
+
+R
+
+Raleigh, Sir Walter, mahogany first brought home by, 214
+
+Récamier, portrait of, by David, 209
+
+Reeded, _see_ GLOSSARY, 27
+
+Renaissance, _see_ GLOSSARY, 27
+  ---- in England, 37, 59-78
+  ---- in France, 43
+  ---- in Italy, 41
+  ---- in the Netherlands, 49
+  ---- in Spain, 48
+  ---- on the Continent, 33-55
+  ---- origin of, 38, 41
+
+Restored, _see_ GLOSSARY, 27
+  ---- cupboard showing over-elaboration, 73
+
+"Restored" pieces, 265
+
+Revolution in France, vandalism during, 204
+
+Ribbon-back chair (illustrated), 222
+  ---- ornamentation adapted from France, 64;
+    (illustrated) 60
+  ---- pattern, early use of, by French woodcarvers, 92
+
+Riesener, Jean François, 185, 191, 192, 195, 197, 208
+
+Robinson, V. J., Esq., C.I.E., furniture belonging to, 219
+
+Rococo, _see_ GLOSSARY, 27
+
+Roe, Mr. Frederick, quotation from, 266
+
+Roentgen, David, 182
+
+
+S
+
+Sackville, Lord, early Jacobean furniture in collection of, 86
+
+St. Paul's Cathedral, work of Grinling Gibbons at, 121
+
+Secret drawers, 114
+  ---- drawers, pieces with, 113, 157, 231
+  ---- drawers, Sheraton's love of, 251
+  ---- processes to impart age to spurious pieces, 260
+
+Settee, _see_ GLOSSARY, 27
+  ---- upholstered, early Jacobean, at Knole, 90
+
+Settle, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28, 60
+  ---- Queen Anne style, 145, 149
+
+Sèvres porcelain as decoration to furniture, 191
+  ---- porcelain in harmony with furniture, 181
+
+Shattock, Esq., T. Foster, specimens from collection of, 45
+
+Shearer, 248
+
+Sheraton, Thomas, and his style, 209, 241-256
+  ---- chair (illustrated), 243
+  ---- mechanical contrivances of his furniture, 251
+  ---- poverty of, 248;
+    his opinion of Chippendale, 248
+
+Sigerson, Dr., Dublin, specimens from collection of, 157, 206
+
+Sixteenth-century woodwork, fine example of, 65
+
+Spain, Renaissance in, 48
+
+Spanish furniture (illustrated), cabinet, 51;
+  chest, 52
+
+Spitalfields' velvet for furniture, 147
+  ---- weaving founded by aliens, 122
+
+Splat, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+Stothard, copy of engraving by, 231, 235
+
+Strafford, first Earl of, chair with arms of, 94
+
+Strapwork, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+  ---- borrowed from Flemish designers, 64;
+    illustrated, 61, 68
+  ---- Elizabethan, 69
+
+Stretche, Esq., T. E. Price, specimens from collection of, 75, 78, 97, 139, 140
+
+Stretcher, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+  ---- in chairs, evolution of the, 122
+  ---- wear given to, by feet of sitters, 100
+
+Sutton, Thomas, founder of Charterhouse Hospital, 86
+
+Symonds, John Addington, "The Renaissance in Italy," quoted, 41
+
+
+T
+
+Table, gate-leg, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+Tapestry factory established at Mortlake, 92
+  ---- in harmony with furniture, 181
+
+Tenon, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+Terror, Reign of, vandalism during, 204
+
+Timber split to give figure in surface, 76, 118
+
+Transition between Gothic and Renaissance, 44, 47, 63
+
+Turned work, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+
+U
+
+Upholstered chairs adopted in late Elizabethan days, 75
+  ---- seat (William and Mary), 122
+
+
+V
+
+Vandyck at the Court of Charles I., 92
+
+Varnish, oil, composition of, not now known, 119
+  ---- spirit, a modern invention, 118
+  ---- _Vernis-Martin_, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+Veneer, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+Veneered work, its adoption, 139
+
+Veneers, woods used as, _see_ GLOSSARY, 29
+
+_Vernis-Martin_ (Martin's varnish), _see_ GLOSSARY, 28, 182
+
+Versailles, sums spent upon building, 166;
+  vandalism at, 172, 177
+
+
+W
+
+Wallace Collection, illustrations of specimens, at, 163, 171, 181, 183
+
+Walnut period, 34
+
+Walnut veneer, Queen Anne period, 139
+
+Walpole, Horace, 221
+
+Waring, Messrs., specimens from collection of, 81, 117, 119, 143, 149, 197
+
+Watteau, 192
+
+Wedgwood, Josiah, 247
+
+Wellington, Duke of, collection in possession of, 209
+
+Welsh dresser, 100
+
+Westminster Abbey, Henry VII.'s chapel, 63
+
+William and Mary furniture, prices realised at auction, 130
+
+Winckelmann, 205
+
+Woods preferred by Grinling Gibbons, 121
+  ---- used for delicate carving by foreign schools, 116
+  ---- used in furniture, _see_ GLOSSARY, 29
+  ---- with fancy names, 29;
+    botanical names of, 196
+
+Woodwork, sixteenth century, fine examples of, 65
+
+Worms, ravages of furniture, 234, 271, 274
+
+Wren, Sir Christopher, 120
+
+
+Y
+
+Yorkshire chairs, 103
+
+
+    THE GRESHAM PRESS,
+    UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED,
+    WOKING AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Old Furniture, by Arthur Hayden
+
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Chats on Old Furniture, by Arthur Hayden.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Old Furniture, by Arthur Hayden
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chats on Old Furniture
+       A Practical Guide for Collectors
+
+Author: Arthur Hayden
+
+Release Date: January 8, 2011 [EBook #34877]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Delphine Lettau, Susan Skinner and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<h1>CHATS ON<br />
+OLD FURNITURE</h1>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;">
+<img src="images/img001.jpg" width="286" height="500" alt="Jacobean Chair." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Jacobean Chair.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h2>CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE</h2>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Press Notices, First Edition.</i></p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Hayden knows his subject intimately."&mdash;<i>Pall Mall Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p>"The hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen; so that altogether
+this is a model book of its kind."&mdash;<i>Athenæum.</i></p>
+
+<p>"A useful and instructive volume."&mdash;<i>Spectator.</i></p>
+
+<p>"An abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and well-constructed
+history."&mdash;<i>Daily News.</i></p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough."&mdash;<i>Scotsman.</i></p>
+
+<p>"A book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than usual merit."&mdash;<i>Vanity
+Fair.</i></p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines, and has made his book
+what it purports to be&mdash;a practical guide for the collector."&mdash;<i>Saturday Review.</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+
+<h2>CHATS ON OLD CHINA</h2>
+
+<p class='center'>BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Second Edition.</i></p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Price</i> <b>5s.</b> <i>net.</i></p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>With Coloured Frontispiece and Reproductions of 156 Marks and 89 Specimens of
+China.</i></p>
+
+<p class='center'>A List of SALE PRICES and a full INDEX increase the usefulness of the Volume.</p>
+
+<p>This is a handy book of reference to enable Amateur Collectors to distinguish
+between the productions of the various factories.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Press Notices, First Edition.</i></p>
+
+<p>"A handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful, and the
+china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations, and for the author's obvious love and
+understanding of his subject."&mdash;<i>St. James's Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p>"All lovers of china will find much entertainment in this volume."&mdash;<i>Daily News.</i></p>
+
+<p>"It gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to know about the
+principal varieties of English ware. We can warmly commend the book to the
+china collector."&mdash;<i>Pall Mall Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p>"One of the best points about the book is the clear way in which the characteristics
+of each factory are noted down separately, so that the veriest tyro ought
+to be able to judge for himself if he has a piece or pieces which would come under
+this heading, and the marks are very accurately given."&mdash;<i>Queen.</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+
+<p class='center'>IN PREPARATION.</p>
+
+<h2>CHATS ON OLD PRINTS</h2>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Price</i> <b>5s.</b> <i>net.</i></p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Illustrated with Coloured Frontispiece and 70 Full-page Reproductions from
+Engravings.</i></p>
+
+<p>With GLOSSARY of Technical Terms, BIBLIOGRAPHY, full INDEX and
+TABLE of more than 350 of the principal English and Continental Engravers
+from the XVIth to the XIXth centuries, together with copious notes as to PRICES
+and values of old prints.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">London: T. FISHER UNWIN, Adelphi Terrace</span>.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"><a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a>
+<img src="images/img004.jpg" width="402" height="500" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 405px;"><a name="title-page" id="title-page"></a>
+<img src="images/img005.jpg" width="405" height="500" alt="Chats on
+Old Furniture
+
+A Practical Guide for
+Collectors
+
+By
+
+Arthur Hayden
+
+Author of
+&quot;Chats on English China&quot;
+
+LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN
+1 ADELPHI TERRACE. MCMVI" title="" /></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+
+<h1>Chats on<br />
+Old Furniture</h1>
+
+<p style="font-size: large;" class='center'>A Practical Guide for
+Collectors</p>
+
+<p class='center'>By</p>
+
+<p style="font-size: large;" class='center'>Arthur Hayden</p>
+
+<p class='center'>Author of<br />
+&quot;Chats on English China&quot;</p>
+
+<p class='center'>LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN<br />
+1 ADELPHI TERRACE. MCMVI</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right"><i>First</i></td><td align="left"><i>Edition,</i></td><td align="left"><i>1905.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Second</i></td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left"><i>1906.</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class='center'><i>All rights reserved.</i></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">{7}</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img009.jpg" width="500" height="232" alt="Portion of Carved Walnut Virginal." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Portion of Carved Walnut Virginal.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 style="margin-top: 2em;"><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>This volume has been written to enable those who
+have a taste for the furniture of a bygone day to
+arrive at some conclusion as to the essential points of
+the various styles made in England.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt has been made to give some lucid
+historical account of the progress and development
+in the art of making domestic furniture, with especial
+reference to its evolution in this country.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as many of the finest specimens of old
+English woodwork and furniture have left the country
+of their origin and crossed the Atlantic, it is time
+that the public should awaken to the fact that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">{8}</a></span>
+heritages of their forefathers are objects of envy to
+all lovers of art. It is a painful reflection to know
+that the temptation of money will shortly denude the
+old farmhouses and manor houses of England of
+their unappreciated treasures. Before the hand of
+the despoiler shall have snatched everything within
+reach, it is the hope of the writer that this little
+volume may not fall on stony ground, and that the
+possessors of fine old English furniture may realise
+their responsibilities.</p>
+
+<p>It has been thought advisable to touch upon
+French furniture as exemplified in the national
+collections of such importance as the Jones Bequest
+at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the Wallace
+Collection, to show the influence of foreign art upon
+our own designers. Similarly, Italian, Spanish, and
+Dutch furniture, of which many remarkable examples
+are in private collections in this country,
+has been dealt with in passing, to enable the
+reader to estimate the relation of English art to
+contemporary foreign schools of decoration and
+design.</p>
+
+<p>The authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum
+have willingly extended their assistance in regard to
+photographs, and by the special permission of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">{9}</a></span>
+Board of Education the frontispiece and other representative
+examples in the national collection appear
+as illustrations to this volume.</p>
+
+<p>I have to acknowledge generous assistance and
+courteous permission from owners of fine specimens
+in allowing me facilities for reproducing illustrations
+of them in this volume.</p>
+
+<p>I am especially indebted to the Right Honourable
+Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane, G.C.B., I.S.O., and to
+the Rev. Canon Haig Brown, Master of the
+Charterhouse, for the inclusion of illustrations of
+furniture of exceptional interest.</p>
+
+<p>The proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i> have generously
+furnished me with lists of prices obtained at auction
+from their useful monthly publication, <i>Auction Sale
+Prices</i>, and have allowed the reproduction of illustrations
+which have appeared in the pages of the
+<i>Connoisseur</i>.</p>
+
+<p>My thanks are due to Messrs. Hampton, of Pall
+Mall, for their kind permission to include as illustrations
+several fine pieces from their collection of
+antique furniture. I am under a similar obligation
+to Messrs. Waring, who have kindly allowed me to
+select some of their typical examples.</p>
+
+<p>To my other friends, without whose kind advice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">{10}</a></span>
+and valuable aid this volume could never have
+appeared, I tender a grateful and appreciative
+acknowledgment of my indebtedness.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: right;">
+ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img012.jpg" width="200" height="300" alt="Italian Chair about 1620." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Italian Chair about 1620.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">{11}</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img013.jpg" width="400" height="214" alt="Spanish Chest." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Spanish Chest.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 style="margin-top: 2em;"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right" colspan="3">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">PREFACE</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">BIBLIOGRAPHY</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">CHAPTER</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td align="left">THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td align="left">THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td align="left">STUART OR JACOBEAN (SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td align="left">STUART OR JACOBEAN (LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td align="left">QUEEN ANNE STYLE</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VI.</td><td align="left">FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">{12}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"> VII.</td><td align="left">FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XV.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td><td align="left">FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IX.</td><td align="left"> FRENCH FURNITURE. THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">X.</td><td align="left"> CHIPPENDALE AND HIS STYLE</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XI.</td><td align="left">SHERATON, ADAM, AND HEPPELWHITE STYLES</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XII.</td><td align="left">HINTS TO COLLECTORS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">INDEX</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 298px;">
+<img src="images/img014.jpg" width="298" height="500" alt="Chippendale Bureau Bookcase." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Chippendale Bureau Bookcase.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">{13}</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" style="text-indent: -2em;">
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jacobean Oak Cabinet</span>; decorated with mother-of-pearl, ebony, and ivory.
+Dated 1653. (By permission of the Board of Education)</td><td align="right"><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Carved Wood Frame</span>; decorated with gold stucco. Sixteenth Century.
+Italian</td><td align="right"><a href="#title-page"><i>Title page</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td align="right"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter I.&mdash;The Renaissance on the Continent.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Portion of Carved Cornice</span>, Italian, Sixteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Frame of Wood</span>, with female terminal figures, Italian, Sixteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Front of Coffer</span>, Italian, late Fifteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Bridal Chest</span>, Gothic design, middle of Fifteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Front of Oak Chest</span>, French, Fifteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Walnut Sideboard</span>, French, middle of Sixteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a></span><span class="smcap toc">Cabinet, French (Lyons</span>), second half of Sixteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Ebony and Ivory Marquetry Cabinet</span>, French, middle of Sixteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Spanish Cabinet and Stand</span>, carved chestnut, first half of Sixteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Spanish Chest</span>, carved walnut, Sixteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter II.&mdash;The English Renaissance.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Carved Oak Chest</span>, English, Sixteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Bench of Oak</span>, French, about 1500</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Portion of Carved Walnut Virginal</span>, Flemish, Sixteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Carved Oak Coffer</span>, French, showing interlaced ribbon-work</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Fireplace and Oak Panelling</span>, "Old Palace," Bromley-by-Bow. Built in 1606</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Elizabethan Bedstead</span>, dated 1593</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Panel of Carved Oak</span>, English, early Sixteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Mirror</span>, in oak frame, English, dated 1603</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Court Cupboard</span>, carved oak, English, dated 1603</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="toc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;carved oak, early Seventeenth Century</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="toc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;about 1580</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Elizabethan Oak Table</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter III.&mdash;Stuart or Jacobean. Seventeenth Century.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Gate-leg Table</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Oak Chair</span>, made from Sir Francis Drake's ship, the <i>Golden Hind</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a></span><span class="smcap toc">Oak Table</span>, dated 1616, bearing arms of Thomas Sutton</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Chair used by James I.</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Jacobean Chair</span>, at Knole</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Jacobean Stool</span>, at Knole</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Carved Walnut Door</span> (<span class="smcap">upper half</span>), French, showing ribbon-work</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Oak Chair</span>, with arms of first Earl of Strafford</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Italian Chair</span>, about 1620</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">High-back Oak Chair</span>, Early Jacobean, formerly in possession of
+Charles I.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Jacobean Chairs</span>, various types</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Ebony Cabinet</span>, formerly the property of Oliver Cromwell</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Jacobean Carved Oak Chairs</span>, Yorkshire and Derbyshire types</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Jacobean Oak Cupboard</span>, about 1620</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Jacobean Oak Chairs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Carved Oak Cradle</span>, time of Charles I., dated 1641</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV.&mdash;Stuart or Jacobean. Late Seventeenth Century.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Interior of Dutch House</span>, latter half of Seventeenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Cabinet of time of Charles II.</span>, showing exterior</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="toc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;showing interior</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Portuguese High-back Chair</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Oak Chest of Drawers</span>, late Jacobean</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="toc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;panelled front, late Jacobean</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Charles II. Oak Chair</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Charles II. Open High-back Oak Chair</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a></span><span class="smcap toc">Charles II. Chair</span>, cane back and seat</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">James II. Chair</span>, cane back and seat</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">William and Mary Chair</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Portuguese Chair-back (upper portion)</span>, cut leather work</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter V.&mdash;Queen Anne Style.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Queen Anne Oak Settle</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Queen Anne Mirror Frame</span>, carved walnut, gilded</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Oak Desk</span>, dated 1696</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Oak Cupboard</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Queen Anne Cabinet</span>, burr-walnut panel</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Queen Anne Chairs</span>, various types</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Dutch Marquetry Cabinet</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Queen Anne Clock</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Queen Anne Settle</span>, oak, dated 1705</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Old Lac Cabinet</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Lac Cabinet</span>, middle of Eighteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="toc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;showing doors closed</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="toc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;chased brass escutcheon</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter VI.&mdash;French Furniture. The Period of Louis XIV.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Cassette</span>, French, Seventeenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Chair of Period of Louis XIII.</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Pedestals</span>, showing boule and counter-boule work</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Boule Cabinet, or Armoire</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter VII.&mdash;French Furniture. Louis XV.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Commode</span>, by Cressent</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a></span><span class="smcap toc">Commode</span>, formerly in the Hamilton Collection</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Commode</span>, by Caffieri</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Escritoire à Toilette</span>, formerly in possession of Marie Antoinette</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Secrétaire</span>, by Riesener</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">"Bureau du Roi</span>," the masterpiece of Riesener</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter VIII.&mdash;French Furniture. Louis XVI.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Jewel Cabinet</span>, "J. H. Riesener," Mounts by Gouthière</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Commode</span>, by Riesener</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter IX.&mdash;French Furniture. The First Empire Style.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Portrait of Madame Récamier</span>, after David</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Detail of Tripod Table</span> found at Pompeii</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Servante</span>, French, late Eighteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Jewel Cabinet of the Empress Marie Louise</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Armchair</span>, rosewood, showing Empire influence</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter X.&mdash;Chippendale and his Style.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Table made by Chippendale</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Oliver Goldsmith's Chair</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Chippendale Settee</span>, walnut, about 1740</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="toc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;oak, about 1740</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Chippendale Chair-back</span>, ribbon pattern</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Ribbon-backed Chippendale Chair</span>, formerly at Blenheim</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Chippendale Corner Chair</span>, about 1780</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Gothic Chippendale Chair-back</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Mahogany Chippendale Chair</span>, about 1740</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a></span><span class="toc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;about 1770</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Chippendale Mirror</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Chippendale Bureau Bookcase</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Mahogany Chair</span>, Chippendale Style</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Cottage Chairs</span>, beechwood, Chippendale style</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Interior of Room of about 1782</span>, after Stothard</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter XI.&mdash;Sheraton, Adam, and Heppelwhite Styles.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Heppelwhite Settee</span>, mahogany</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Sheraton</span>, Adam, and Heppelwhite Chairs</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Old English Secrétaire</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Shield-back Chair</span>, late Eighteenth Century</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chapter XII.&mdash;Hints to Collectors.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Design for Spurious Marquetry Work</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">"Made-up" Buffet</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Cabinet of Old Oak</span>, "made-up"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Design for Spurious Marquetry Work</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap toc">Piece of Spanish Chestnut</span>, showing ravages of worms</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">{19}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
+
+
+<h4 style="font-size: large; text-align: left; text-indent: 2em;">GENERAL.</h4>
+
+<div style="text-indent: -2em;">
+<p>Ancient Furniture, Specimens of. H. Shaw. Quaritch. 1836.
+£10 10s., now worth £3 3s.</p>
+
+<p>Ancient and Modern Furniture. B. J. Talbert. Batsford. 1876.
+32s.</p>
+
+<p>Antique Furniture, Sketches of. W. S. Ogden. Batsford. 1889.
+12s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p>Carved Furniture and Woodwork. M. Marshall. W. H. Allen.
+1888. £3.</p>
+
+<p>Carved Oak in Woodwork and Furniture from Ancient Houses.
+W. B. Sanders. 1883. 31s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p>Decorative Furniture, English and French, of the Sixteenth,
+Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. W. H. Hackett.
+7s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p>Ecclesiastical Woodwork, Remains of. T. T. Bury. Lockwood.
+1847. 21s.</p>
+
+<p>French and English Furniture. E. Singleton. Hodder. 1904.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture, Ancient and Modern. J. W. Small. Batsford. 1883.
+21s.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture and Decoration. J. A. Heaton. 1890-92.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture and Woodwork, Ancient and Modern. J. H. Pollen.
+Chapman. 1874-5. 21s. and 2s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture and Woodwork. J. H. Pollen. Stanford. 1876. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture of the Olden Time. F. C. Morse. Macmillan. 12s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p>Gothic Furniture, <i>Connoisseur</i>. May, 1903.</p>
+
+<p>History of Furniture Illustrated. F. Litchfield. Truslove. 25s.</p>
+
+<p>Marquetry, Parquetry, Boulle and other Inlay Work. W. Bemrose.
+1872 and 1882.</p>
+
+<p>Old Furniture, English and Foreign. A. E. Chancellor. Batsford.
+£1 5s.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">{20}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Old Furniture from Twelfth to Eighteenth Century. Wyman. 1883.
+10s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p>Style in Furniture and Woodwork. R. Brook. Privately printed.
+1889. 21s.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4 style="font-size: large; text-align: left; text-indent: 2em;">PARTICULAR.</h4>
+
+<div style="text-indent: -2em;">
+<p><b>ENGLISH.</b>&mdash;Adam R. &amp; J., The Architecture, Decoration and
+Furniture of R. &amp; J. Adam, selected from works published
+1778-1822. London. 1880.</p>
+
+<p>Adam, The Brothers. <i>Connoisseur.</i> May, June and August, 1904.</p>
+
+<p>Ancient Wood and Iron Work in Cambridge. W. B. Redfern.
+Spalding. 1887. 31s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p>Chippendale, T. Cabinet Makers' Directory. Published in 1754,
+1755 and 1762. (The best edition is the last as it contains 200
+plates as against 161 in the earlier editions. Its value is about
+£12.)</p>
+
+<p>Chippendale and His Work. <i>Connoisseur</i>, January, July, August,
+September, October, November, December, 1903, January, 1904.</p>
+
+<p>Chippendale, Sheraton and Heppelwhite, The Designs of.
+Arranged by J. M. Bell. 1900. Worth £2 2s.</p>
+
+<p>Chippendale's Contemporaries. <i>Connoisseur</i>, March, 1904.</p>
+
+<p>Chippendale and Sheraton. <i>Connoisseur</i>, May, 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Coffers and Cupboards, Ancient. Fred Roe. Methuen &amp; Co.
+1903. £3 3s.</p>
+
+<p>English Furniture, History of. Percy Macquoid. Published by
+Lawrence &amp; Bullen in 7s. 6d. parts, the first of which
+appeared in November, 1904.</p>
+
+<p>English Furniture and Woodwork during the Eighteenth Century.
+T. A. Strange. 12s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture of our Forefathers. E. Singleton. Batsford. £3 15s.</p>
+
+<p>Hatfield House, History of. Q. F. Robinson. 1883.</p>
+
+<p>Hardwicke Hall, History of. Q. F. Robinson. 1835.</p>
+
+<p>Heppelwhite, A., Cabinet Maker. Published 1788, 1789, and 1794,
+and contains about 130 plates. Value £8 to £12. Reprint
+issued in 1897. Worth £2 10s.</p>
+
+<p>Ince and Mayhew. Household Furniture. N.d. (1770). Worth
+£20.</p>
+
+<p>Jacobean Furniture. <i>Connoisseur</i>, September, 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Knole House, Its State Rooms, &amp;c. (Elizabethan and other Furniture.)
+S. J. Mackie. 1858.</p>
+
+<p>Manwaring, R., Cabinet and Chairmaker's Real Friend. London.
+1765.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">{21}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mansions of England in the Olden Time. J. Nash. 1839-49.</p>
+
+<p>Old English Houses and Furniture. M. B. Adam. Batsford.
+1889. 25s.</p>
+
+<p>Old English Oak Furniture. J. W. Hurrell. Batsford. £2 2s.</p>
+
+<p>Old English Furniture. Frederick Fenn and B. Wyllie. Newnes.
+7s. 6d. net.</p>
+
+<p>Old Oak, The Art of Collecting. <i>Connoisseur</i>, September, 1901.</p>
+
+<p>Sheraton, T. Cabinet Maker's Drawing Book. 1791-3 edition
+contains 111 plates. Value £13. 1794 edition contains 119
+plates. Value £10.</p>
+
+<p>Sheraton T. Cabinet Directory. 1803.</p>
+
+<p>Staircases and Handrails of the Age of Elizabeth. J. Weale. 1860.</p>
+
+<p>Upholsterer's Repository. Ackermann. N.d. Worth £5.</p>
+
+<p><b>FRENCH.</b>&mdash;<i>Dictionnaire de l'Ameublement.</i> H. Havard. Paris.
+N.d. Worth £5.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dictionnaire Raisonné.</i> M. Viollet-le-Duc. 1858-75. 6 vols.
+Worth £10.</p>
+
+<p>French Furniture. Lady Dilke. Bell. 1901.</p>
+
+<p>French Eighteenth Century Furniture, Handbook to the. Jones
+Collection Catalogue. 1881.</p>
+
+<p>French Eighteenth Century Furniture, Handbook to the. Wallace
+Collection Catalogue. 1904.</p>
+
+<p>History of Furniture. A. Jacquemart. Chapman. 1878. 31s. 6d.
+Issued in Paris in 1876, under the title <i>Histoire du Mobilier</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Le Meuble en France au XVI Siècle.</i> E. Bonnaffe. Paris. 1887.
+Worth 10s.</p>
+
+<p><b>JAPANESE.</b>&mdash;Lacquer Industry of Japan. Report of Her Majesty's
+Acting-Consul at Hakodate. J. J. Quin. Parliamentary Paper.
+8vo. London. 1882.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCOTTISH.</b>&mdash;Scottish Woodwork of Sixteenth and Seventeenth
+Centuries. J. W. Small. Waterston. 1878. £4 4s.</p>
+
+<p><b>SPANISH.</b>&mdash;Spanish and Portuguese. Catalogue of Special Loan
+Exhibition of Spanish and Portuguese Ornamental Art. 1881.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">{23}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED" id="GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED"></a>GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED</h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Armoire.</i>&mdash;A large cupboard of French design of the
+dimensions of the modern wardrobe. In the
+days of Louis XIV. these pieces were made in
+magnificent style. The Jones Collection at the
+Victoria and Albert Museum has several fine
+examples. (See illustration, p. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.)</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Baroque.</i>&mdash;Used in connection with over ornate and
+incongruous decoration as in <i>rococo</i> style.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Bombé.</i>&mdash;A term applied to pieces of furniture which
+swell out at the sides.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Boule.</i>&mdash;A special form of marquetry of brass and
+tortoiseshell perfected by André Charles Boule
+in the reign of Louis XIV. (See <a href="#VI">Chapter VI.</a>,
+where specimens of this kind of work are
+illustrated.) The name has been corrupted into
+a trade term <i>Buhl</i>, to denote this style of
+marquetry. Boule or <i>Première partie</i> is a metal
+inlay, usually brass, applied to a tortoiseshell
+background. See also <i><a href="#Counter-Boule">Counter-boule</a></i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">{24}</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Bureau.</i>&mdash;A cabinet with drawers, and having a drop-down
+front for use as a writing-table. Bureaux
+are of many forms. (See illustration, p. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.)</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Cabriole.</i>&mdash;Used in connection with the legs of tables
+and chairs which are curved in form, having a
+sudden arch outwards from the seat. (See
+illustration, p. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.)</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Caryatides.</i>&mdash;Carved female figures applied to columns
+in Greek architecture, as at the Erectheum at
+Athens. They were employed by woodcarvers,
+and largely introduced into Renaissance furniture
+of an architectural character. Elizabethan
+craftsmen were especially fond of their use as
+terminals, and in the florid decoration of elaborate
+furniture.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Cassone.</i>&mdash;An Italian marriage coffer. In <a href="#I">Chapter I.</a>
+will be found a full description of these <i>cassoni</i>.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Commode.</i>&mdash;A chest of drawers of French style. In
+the chapters dealing with the styles of Louis
+XIV., Louis XV., and Louis XVI., these are
+fully described and illustrations are given.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i><a name="Counter-Boule" id="Counter-Boule"></a>Counter-Boule.</i> <i>Contre partie.</i>&mdash;See <a href="#VI">Chapter VI.</a>,
+where specimens of this work are illustrated. It
+consists of a brass groundwork with tortoiseshell
+inlay.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>French Polish.</i>&mdash;A cheap and nasty method used
+since 1851 to varnish poor-looking wood to
+disguise its inferiority. It is quicker than the
+old method of rubbing in oil and turpentine and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">{25}</a></span>
+beeswax. It is composed of shellac dissolved
+in methylated spirits with colouring matter
+added.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Gate-leg table.</i>&mdash;This term is self-explanatory. The
+legs of this class of table open like a gate. They
+belong to Jacobean days, and are sometimes
+spoken of as Cromwellian tables. An illustration
+of one appears on the cover.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Gothic.</i>&mdash;This term was originally applied to the
+mediæval styles of architecture. It was used as
+a term of reproach and contempt at a time when
+it was the fashion to write Latin and to expect
+it to become the universal language. In woodcarving
+the Gothic style followed the architecture.
+A fine example of the transition between
+Gothic and the oncoming Renaissance is given
+(p. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Inlay.</i>&mdash;A term used for the practice of decorating
+surfaces and panels of furniture with wood of
+various colours, mother-of-pearl, or ivory. The
+inlay is let into the wood of which the piece
+inlaid is composed.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Jacobean.</i>&mdash;Strictly speaking, only furniture of the
+days of James I. should be termed Jacobean.
+But by some collectors the period is held to
+extend to James II.&mdash;that is from 1603 to 1688.
+Other collectors prefer the term Carolean for a
+portion of the above period, which is equally
+misleading. Jacobean is only a rough generalisation
+of seventeenth-century furniture.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">{26}</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Lacquer.</i> <i>Lac.</i>&mdash;A transparent varnish used in its
+perfection by the Chinese and Japanese. (See
+"Consular Report on Japanese Lacquered Work,"
+in <a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">Bibliography</a>.) Introduced into Holland
+and France, it was imitated with great success.
+Under Louis XV. Vernis-Martin became the
+rage (<a href="#Vernis-Martin"><i>q.v.</i></a>).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Linen Pattern.</i>&mdash;A form of carving panels to represent
+a folded napkin. This particular design was
+largely used in France and Germany prior to its
+adoption here. (See illustration, p. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.)</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Marquetry.</i>&mdash;Inlays of coloured woods, arranged with
+some design, geometric, floral, or otherwise, are
+classed under this style. (See also <i><a href="#Parquetry">Parquetry</a></i>.)</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i><a name="Mortise" id="Mortise"></a>Mortise.</i>&mdash;A term in carpentry used to denote the
+hole made in a piece of wood to receive the end
+of another piece to be joined to it. The portion
+which fits into the mortise is called the tenon.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Oil Polish.</i>&mdash;Old furniture, before the introduction of
+varnishes and French polish and other inartistic
+effects, was polished by rubbing the surface with
+a stone, if it was a large area as in the case of a
+table, and then applying linseed oil and polishing
+with beeswax and turpentine. The fine tone
+after centuries of this treatment is evident in old
+pieces which have a metallic lustre that cannot
+be imitated.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i><a name="Parquetry" id="Parquetry"></a>Parquetry.</i>&mdash;Inlays of woods of the same colour are
+termed parquetry work in contradistinction to
+marquetry, which is in different colour. Geometric<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">{27}</a></span>
+designs are mainly used as in parquetry
+floors.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Reeded.</i>&mdash;This term is applied to the style of decoration
+by which thin narrow strips of wood are
+placed side by side on the surface of furniture.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Renaissance.</i>&mdash;The style which was originated in Italy
+in the fifteenth century, supplanting the Mediæval
+styles which embraced Byzantine and Gothic
+art; the new-birth was in origin a literary movement,
+but quickly affected art, and grew with
+surprising rapidity, and affected every country in
+Europe. It is based on Classic types, and its
+influence on furniture and woodwork followed its
+adoption in architecture.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Restored.</i>&mdash;This word is the fly in the pot of ointment
+to all who possess antiquarian tastes. It ought
+to mean, in furniture, that only the most necessary
+repairs have been made in order to preserve
+the object. It more often means that a considerable
+amount of misapplied ingenuity has
+gone to the remaking of a badly-preserved
+specimen. Restorations are only permissible
+at the hands of most conscientious craftsmen.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Rococo.</i>&mdash;A style which was most markedly offensive
+in the time of Louis XV. Meaningless elaborations
+of scroll and shell work, with rocky backgrounds
+and incongruous ornamentations, are its
+chief features. <i>Baroque</i> is another term applied
+to this overloaded style.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Settee.</i>&mdash;An upholstered form of the settle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">{28}</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Settle.</i>&mdash;A wooden seat with back and arms, capable
+of seating three or four persons side by side.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Splat.</i>&mdash;The wooden portion in the back of a chair
+connecting the top rail with the seat.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Strapwork.</i>&mdash;This is applied to the form of decoration
+employed by the Elizabethan woodcarvers in
+imitation of Flemish originals. (See p. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.)</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Stretcher.</i>&mdash;The rail which connects the legs of a
+chair or a table with one another. In earlier
+forms it was used as a footrest to keep the feet
+from the damp or draughty rush floor.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Tenon.</i>&mdash;"Mortise and Tenon joint." (See <i><a href="#Mortise">Mortise</a></i>.)</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Turned Work.</i>&mdash;The spiral rails and uprights of
+chairs were turned with the lathe in Jacobean
+days. Prior to the introduction of the lathe all
+work was carved without the use of this tool.
+Pieces of furniture have been found where the
+maker has carved the turned work in all its
+details of form, either from caprice or from
+ignorance of the existence of the quicker method.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Veneer.</i>&mdash;A method of using thin layers of wood and
+laying them on a piece of furniture, either as
+marquetry in different colours, or in one wood
+only. It was an invention in order to employ
+finer specimens of wood carefully selected in the
+parts of a piece of furniture most noticeable. It
+has been since used to hide inferior wood.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i><a name="Vernis-Martin" id="Vernis-Martin"></a>Vernis-Martin</i> (Martin's Varnish).&mdash;The lacquered
+work of a French carriage-painter named Martin,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">{29}</a></span>
+who claimed to have discovered the secret of the
+Japanese lac, and who, in 1774, was granted a
+monopoly for its use. He applied it successfully
+to all kinds of furniture, and to fan-guards and
+sticks. In the days of Madame du Pompadour
+Vernis-Martin had a great vogue, and panels
+prepared by Martin were elaborately painted
+upon by Lancret and Boucher. To this day
+his varnish retains its lustre undimmed, and
+specimens command high prices.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>Woods used in Furniture.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>High-class Work.</i>&mdash;Brazil wood, Coromandel,
+Mahogany, Maple, Oak (various kinds),
+Olive, Rosewood, Satinwood, Sandalwood,
+Sweet Cedar, Sweet Chestnut, Teak, Walnut.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Commoner Work.</i>&mdash;Ash, Beech, Birch, Cedars
+(various), Deals, Mahogany (various kinds),
+Pine, Walnut.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Marquetry and Veneers.</i>&mdash;Selected specimens
+for fine figuring are used as veneers, and for
+marquetry of various colours the following
+are used as being more easily stained:
+Holly, Horsechestnut, Sycamore, Pear,
+Plum Tree.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Woods with Fancy Names.</i></p>
+
+<p>King Wood, Partridge Wood, Pheasant
+Wood, Purple Wood, Snakewood, Tulip
+Wood.</p></div>
+
+<p>These are more rare and finely-marked foreign
+woods used sparingly in the most expensive furniture.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">{30}</a></span>
+To arrive at the botanical names of these is
+not an easy matter. To those interested a list of
+woods used by cabinet-makers with their botanical
+names is given in Mr. J. Hungerford Pollen's
+"Introduction to the South Kensington Collection
+of Furniture." At the Museum at Kew Gardens and
+in the Imperial Institute are collections of rare woods
+worth examination.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">{31}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="I" id="I"></a>I<br />
+<br />
+THE RENAISSANCE<br />
+ON THE<br />
+CONTINENT</h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">{33}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img035.jpg" width="500" height="165" alt="Portion of carved cornice of pinewood." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Portion of carved cornice of pinewood, from the Palazzo Bensi Ceccini, Venice.<br />
+Italian; middle of sixteenth century.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="CHATS_ON_OLD_FURNITURE" id="CHATS_ON_OLD_FURNITURE"></a>CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h2>I<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT</span></h2>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>Italy.</b> Flight of Greek scholars
+to Italy upon capture of Constantinople by the Turks&mdash;1453.<br />
+Rediscovery of Greek art.<br />
+Florence the centre of the Renaissance.<br />
+Leo X., Pope (1475-1521).<br />
+Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1520). Raphael (1483-1520). Michael Angelo (1474-1564).</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>France.</b> Francis I. (1515-1547).<br />
+Henry IV. (1589-1610).</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>Spain.</b> The crown united under Ferdinand and Isabella
+(1452-1516).<br />
+Granada taken from the Moors&mdash;1492.<br />
+Charles V. (1519-1555).<br />
+Philip II. (1555-1598).</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>Germany.</b> Maximilian I., Emperor of Germany (1459-1519).<br />
+Holbein (1498-1543).</p>
+
+
+<p>In attempting to deal with the subject of old
+furniture in a manner not too technical, certain
+broad divisions have to be made for convenience<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">{34}</a></span>
+in classification. The general reader does not want
+information concerning the iron bed of Og, King
+of Bashan, nor of Cicero's table of citrus-wood,
+which cost £9,000; nor are details of the chair of
+Dagobert and of the jewel-chest of Richard of
+Cornwall of much worth to the modern collector.</p>
+
+<p>It will be found convenient to eliminate much
+extraneous matter, such as the early origins of
+furniture and its development in the Middle
+Ages, and to commence in this country with the
+Tudor period. Broadly speaking, English furniture
+falls under three heads&mdash;the Oak Period, embracing
+the furniture of the sixteenth and early seventeenth
+centuries; the Walnut Period, including the late
+seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries; the
+Mahogany Period, beginning with the reign of
+George III. It may be observed that the names of
+kings and of queens have been applied to various
+styles of furniture as belonging to their reign. Early
+Victorian is certainly a more expressive term than
+early nineteenth century. Cromwellian tables, Queen
+Anne chairs, or Louis Seize commodes all have an
+especial meaning as referring to styles more or less
+prevalent when those personages lived. As there is
+no record of the makers of most of the old English
+furniture, and as a piece of furniture cannot be judged
+as can a picture, the date of manufacture cannot be
+precisely laid down, hence the vagueness of much of
+the classification of old furniture. Roughly it may in
+England be dealt with under the Tudor, the Stuart,
+and the Georgian ages. These three divisions do
+not coincide exactly with the periods of oak, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">{37}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a></span>
+walnut, and of mahogany, inasmuch as the oak
+furniture extended well into the Stuart days, and
+walnut was prevalent in the reigns of George I.
+and George II. In any case, these broad divisions
+are further divided into sub-heads embracing styles
+which arose out of the natural development in taste,
+or which came and went at the caprice of fashion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 394px;">
+<img src="images/img037.jpg" width="394" height="500" alt="Frame of wood." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Frame of wood, carved with floral scrollwork, with female terminal figures.
+<br />
+Italian; late sixteenth century.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The formation of a definite English character in
+the furniture of the three periods must be examined
+in conjunction with the prevailing styles in foreign
+furniture showing what influences were at work.
+Many conditions governed the introduction of foreign
+furniture into England. Renaissance art made a
+change in architecture, and a corresponding change
+took place in furniture. Ecclesiastical buildings
+followed the continental architecture in form and
+design, and foreign workmen were employed by the
+Church and by the nobility in decorating and embellishing
+cathedrals and abbeys and feudal castles.
+The early Tudor days under Henry VII. saw the
+dawn of the Renaissance in England. Jean de
+Mabuse and Torrigiano were invited over the sea
+by Henry VII., and under the sturdy impulse of
+Henry VIII. classical learning and love of the fine
+arts were encouraged. His palaces were furnished
+with splendour. He wished to emulate the château
+of Francis at Fontainebleau. He tried to entice the
+French king's artists with more tempting terms.
+Holbein, the great master of the German school,
+came to England, and his influence over Tudor art
+was very pronounced. The florid manner of the
+Renaissance was tempered with the broader treatment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">{38}</a></span>
+of the northern school. The art, too, of the
+Flemish woodcarvers
+found sympathetic
+reception in this
+country, and the harmonious
+blending of
+the designs of the
+Renaissance craftsmen
+of the Italian
+with those of the
+Flemish school resulted
+in the growth
+in England of the
+beautiful and characteristic
+style known
+as Tudor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img040.jpg" width="500" height="146" alt="FRONT OF COFFER" title="" />
+<span class="caption">FRONT OF COFFER. CHESTNUT WOOD. ITALIAN; LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+<br />
+With shield of arms supported by two male demi figures terminating in floral scrollwork.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The term Renaissance
+is used in regard
+to that period
+in the history of art
+which marked the
+return to the classic
+forms employed by
+the Greeks and Romans.
+The change
+from the Gothic or
+Mediæval work to
+the classic feeling
+had its origin in
+Italy, and spread, at
+first gradually but later with amazing rapidity and
+growing strength, into Germany, Spain, the Netherlands,
+France, and finally to England.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">{39}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img041.jpg" width="500" height="253" alt="BRIDAL CHEST. GOTHIC DESIGN." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+BRIDAL CHEST. GOTHIC DESIGN.<br />
+MIDDLE OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Munich National Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">{41}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Renaissance was in origin a literary movement,
+and its influence in art came through literature.
+The enthusiasm of the new learning acting on craftsmen
+already trained to the highest degree of technical
+skill produced work of great brilliance.</p>
+
+<p>Never did the fine arts rise to such transcendent
+heights as in Italy from the fourteenth to the
+middle of the seventeenth centuries. The late John
+Addington Symonds, in his work on "The Renaissance
+in Italy," deals in a comprehensive manner with this
+memorable period, during which every city in Italy,
+great or small, was producing wonderful works of art,
+in painting, in sculpture, in goldsmiths' work, in woodcarving,
+in furniture, of which now every civilised
+country struggles to obtain for its art collections the
+scattered fragments of these great days. "During
+that period of prodigious activity," he says, "the
+entire nation seemed to be endowed with an instinct
+for the beautiful and with the capacity for producing
+it in every conceivable form."</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the fourteenth century the Renaissance
+style in woodwork was at first more evident
+in the churches and in the palaces of the nobility in
+the Italian states. Some of the most magnificent
+examples of carved woodwork are preserved in the
+choir-stalls, doorways and panelling of the churches
+and cathedrals of Italy. The great artists of the day
+gave their talents to the production of woodwork and
+furniture in various materials. Wood was chiefly
+employed in making furniture, usually oak, cypress,
+ebony, walnut, or chestnut, which last wood is very
+similar in appearance to oak. These were decorated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">{42}</a></span>
+with gilding and paintings, and were inlaid with other
+woods, or agate, lapis-lazuli, and marbles of various
+tints, with ivory, tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl, or with
+ornaments of hammered silver.</p>
+
+<p>The Victoria and Albert Museum contains some
+splendid examples of fourteenth and fifteenth century
+Italian Renaissance furniture, which illustrate well
+the magnificence and virility of the great art movement
+which influenced the remainder of Europe. In
+particular, carved and gilded frames, and marriage
+coffers (<i>cassoni</i>) given to brides as part of their
+dowry to hold the bridal trousseau, are richly and
+effectively decorated. The frame of carved wood
+(illustrated p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>), with fine scroll work and female
+terminal figures, is enriched with painting and
+gilding. The frame on the <a href="#title-page">title-page</a> of this volume
+is of carved wood, decorated with gold stucco. Both
+these are sixteenth-century Italian work. In fact, the
+study of the various types and the different kinds of
+ornamentation given to these <i>cassoni</i> would be an
+interesting subject for the student, who would find
+enough material in the collection at the Victoria and
+Albert Museum to enable him to follow the Renaissance
+movement from its early days down to the
+time when crowded design, over-elaboration, and
+inharmonious details grew apace like so many weeds
+to choke the ideals of the master spirits of the
+Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>The front of the late fifteenth-century coffer
+(illustrated p. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>) is of chestnut wood, carved with
+a shield of arms supported by two male demi-figures,
+terminating in floral scroll work. There are still
+traces of gilding on the wood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">{43}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At first the lines followed architecture in character.
+Cabinets had pilasters, columns, and arches resembling
+the old Roman temples. The illustration of a portion
+of a cornice of carved pinewood appearing as the
+headpiece to this chapter shows this tendency. The
+marriage coffers had classic heads upon them, but
+gradually this chaste style gave place to rich ornamentation
+with designs of griffins and grotesque
+masks. The chairs, too, were at first very severe in
+outline, usually with a high back and fitted with a
+stretcher between the legs, which was carved, as was
+also the back of the chair.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the fifteenth century Gothic art
+had attained its high-water mark in Germany before
+the new art from Italy had crossed the Alps. We reproduce
+a bridal chest, of the middle of the fifteenth
+century, from the collection in the Munich National
+Museum, which shows the basis of Gothic art in
+England prior to the revival and before further foreign
+influences were brought to bear on English art (p. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The influence of Italian art upon France soon
+made itself felt. Italian architects and craftsmen
+were invited by Francis I. and by the Princesses
+of the House of Medici, of which Pope Leo X.
+was the illustrious head, to build palaces and
+châteaux in the Renaissance style. The Tuileries,
+Fontainebleau, and the Louvre were the result of
+this importation. Primaticcio and Cellini founded
+a school of sculptors and wood-carvers in France, of
+which Jean Goujon stands pre-eminent. The furniture
+began gradually to depart from the old Gothic
+traditions, as is shown in the design of the oak chest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">{44}</a></span>
+of the late fifteenth century preserved in the Dublin
+Museum, which we illustrate, and commenced to
+emulate the gorgeousness of Italy. This is a particularly
+instructive example, showing the transition
+between the Gothic and the Renaissance styles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img046.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="FRONT OF OAK CHEST" title="" />
+<span class="caption">FRONT OF OAK CHEST. FRENCH; FIFTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Dublin Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The French Renaissance sideboard in the illustration
+(p. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>) is a fine example of the middle of the
+sixteenth century. It is carved in walnut. The
+moulded top is supported in front by an arcading
+decorated with two male and two female terminal
+figures, which are enriched with masks and floral
+ornament. Behind the arcading is a table supporting
+a cupboard and resting in front on four turned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">{47}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a></span>
+columns; it is fitted with three drawers, the fronts of
+which, as well as that of the cupboard, are decorated
+with monsters, grotesque masks, and scroll work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 386px;">
+<img src="images/img047.jpg" width="386" height="500" alt="WALNUT SIDEBOARD." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+T. Foster Shattock, Esq.</i><br />
+<br />
+WALNUT SIDEBOARD.<br />
+FRENCH; MIDDLE OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The impulse given by Francis I. was responsible
+for much decorative work in the early period of
+the French Renaissance, and many beautiful examples
+exist in the churches and châteaux of France
+to which his name has been given. It is noticeable
+that the chief difference between the Italian and
+the French Renaissance lies in the foundation of
+Gothic influence underlying the newer Renaissance
+ornament in French work of the period. Flamboyant
+arches and Gothic canopies were frequently retained
+and mingled with classic decoration. The French
+clung to their older characteristics with more
+tenacity, inasmuch as the Renaissance was a sudden
+importation rather than a natural development of
+slower growth.</p>
+
+<p>The French Renaissance cabinet of walnut illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>) is from Lyons, and is of the later
+part of the sixteenth century. It is finely carved
+with terminal figures, masks, trophies of ornaments,
+and other ornament. In comparison with the sixteenth-century
+ebony cabinet of the period of
+Henry IV., finely inlaid with ivory in most refined
+style, it is obvious that a great variety of sumptuous
+furniture was being made by the production of such
+diverse types as these, and that the craftsmen were
+possessed of a wealth of invention. The range of
+English craftsmen's designs during the Renaissance
+in this country was never so extensive, as can be
+seen on a detailed examination of English work.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">{48}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;">
+<img src="images/img050.jpg" width="363" height="500" alt="WALNUT SIDEBOARD." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CABINET OF WALNUT<br />
+
+FRENCH (LYONS); SECOND HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+Carved with terminal figures, masks, and trophies of arms.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Spain the Italian feeling became acclimatised
+more readily than in France. In the sixteenth
+century the wood carving of Spain is of exceeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">{49}</a></span>
+beauty. The decoration of the choir of the cathedral
+at Toledo is held to be one of the finest examples of
+the Spanish Renaissance. In furniture the cabinets
+and buffets of the Spanish craftsmen are of perfect
+grace and of characteristic design. The older Spanish
+cabinets are decorated externally with delicate ironwork
+and with columns of ivory or bone painted and
+richly gilded, exhibiting Moorish influence in their
+character. Many of the more magnificent specimens
+are richly inlaid with silver, and are the work of
+the artists of Seville, of Toledo, or of Valladolid.
+The first illustration of a cabinet and stand is a typically
+Spanish design, and the second illustration of the
+carved walnut chest in the National Archælogical
+Museum at Madrid is of the sixteenth century, when
+the Spanish wood-carvers had developed the Renaissance
+spirit and reached a very high level in
+their art.</p>
+
+<p>Simultaneously with the Italianising of French art
+a similar wave of novelty was spreading over the
+Netherlands and Germany. The Flemish Renaissance
+approaches more nearly to the English in the
+adaptation of the Italian style, or it would be more
+accurate to say that the English is more closely
+allied to the art of the Netherlands, as it drew much
+of its inspiration from the Flemish wood-carvers. The
+spiral turned legs and columns, the strap frets cut out
+and applied to various parts, the squares between
+turnings often left blank to admit of a little ebony
+diamond, are all of the same family as the English
+styles. Ebony inlay was frequently used, but the
+Flemish work of this period was nearly all in oak.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">{50}</a></span>
+Marqueterie of rich design was made, the inlay being
+of various coloured woods and shaded. Mother-of-pearl
+and ivory were also employed to heighten the
+effect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img052.jpg" width="500" height="360" alt="CABINET OF WALNUT." title="" />
+<span class="caption">FRENCH CABINET.<br />
+<br />
+Ebony and ivory marquetry work.<br />
+<br />
+MIDDLE OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>From the collection of M. Emile Peyre.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 342px;">
+<img src="images/img053.jpg" width="342" height="500" alt="FRENCH CABINET." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SPANISH CABINET AND STAND. CARVED CHESTNUT;
+FIRST HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+Width of cabinet, 3 ft. 2 in.; depth, 1 ft. 4 in.; height, 4 ft. 10 in.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Italian Renaissance laid a light hand upon the
+Flemish artists, who, while unavoidably coming under
+its influence, at first copied its ornateness but subsequently
+proceeded on their own lines. Much quaint
+figure work, in which they greatly excelled, was used
+by the Flemish wood-carvers in their joinery. It is
+grotesque in character, and, like all their work, boldly
+executed. The influx of foreign influences upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">{51}</a></span>
+Netherlands was in the main as successfully resisted
+as is the encroachment of the sea across their land-locked
+dykes. The growth of the Spanish power
+made Charles V. the most powerful prince in Europe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">{52}</a></span>
+Ferdinand of Spain held the whole Spanish peninsula
+except Portugal, with Sardinia and the island of
+Sicily, and he won the kingdom of Naples. His
+daughter Joanna married Philip, the son of Maximilian
+of Austria, and of Mary the daughter of
+Charles the Bold. Their son Charles thus inherited
+kingdoms and duchies from each of his parents and
+grandparents, and besides the dominions of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, he held Burgundy and the Netherlands.
+In 1519 he was chosen Emperor as Charles V.
+Flooded with Italian artists and Austrian and Spanish
+rulers, it is interesting to note how the national spirit
+in art was kept alive, and was of such strong growth
+that it influenced in marked manner the English
+furniture of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth
+century, as will be shown in a subsequent chapter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img054.jpg" width="400" height="217" alt="SPANISH CABINET AND STAND." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SPANISH CHEST; CARVED WALNUT.<br />
+
+SIXTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>In the National Museum, Madrid.</i>)</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">{53}</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2>RECENT SALE PRICES.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">£</td><td align="center">s.</td><td align="center">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Chest, Gothic, carved with parchemin panels, with a wrought-iron lock
+from Nuremburg Castle, German,
+about 1500. Christie, January 29,
+1904</td><td align="right">31</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet, walnut wood, of architectural design,
+with folding doors above and
+below and small drawers, carved with
+arabesque foliage and scrolls in relief,
+and with columns at the angles, 69 in.
+high, 38 in. wide, French, middle of
+the sixteenth century. Christie,
+April 12, 1904</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Coffer, oak, the front divided by six buttresses,
+the steel lock pierced with
+tracery, 65 in. long, 46 in. high,
+French, late fifteenth century. Christie,
+May 6, 1904</td><td align="right">126</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">{54}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Coffer, large walnut wood, the whole of
+the front and sides carved in low
+relief, the lock is rectangular, and
+pierced with flamboyant tracery,
+French (provincial), early part of the
+fifteenth century, 84 in. wide, 36 in.
+high. Christie, May 6, 1904</td><td align="right">50</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Coffer, walnut wood, the front and sides
+divided into arch-shaped panels containing
+Gothic tracery, 86 in. wide,
+32 in. high, French, fifteenth century.
+Christie, May 6, 1904</td><td align="right">52</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Chair, walnut wood, with semicircular
+seat, the back composed of six upright
+rectangular panels, each containing
+various forms of Gothic
+tracery; below is a longitudinal
+panel of tracery, 27 in. wide, 29 in.
+high, French or Flemish, fifteenth
+century. Christie, May 6, 1904</td><td align="right">91</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Credence, oak, with folding doors and
+drawers above and shelf beneath, the
+corners are returned, the various door
+panels, &amp;c., carved in low relief; at
+the back below is linen fold panelling,
+54 in. wide, 62 in. high, probably
+French, early sixteenth century.
+Christie, May 6, 1904</td><td align="right">336</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet, walnut-wood, in two parts, of
+rectangular form, with folding doors
+above and below, and two drawers in
+the centre, carved with grotesque
+terminal figure and gadrooned mouldings,
+strapwork and duplicated rosettes,
+French work, early seventeenth century,
+78 in. high, 48 in. wide. Christie,
+May 6, 1904</td><td align="right">110</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">{55}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet, walnut-wood, in two parts, of
+rectangular form, with folding doors
+below and door above; at the sides
+are terminal male and female figures,
+the centres of the doors carved, 92 in.
+high, 49 in. wide, French work (Lyons
+School), second quarter of sixteenth
+century. Christie, May 6, 1904</td><td align="right">99</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the kindness of the proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i>
+these items are given from their useful monthly publication,
+<i>Auction Sale Prices</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="II" id="II"></a>II<br />
+<br />
+THE ENGLISH<br />
+RENAISSANCE</h2>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">{59}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img061.jpg" width="400" height="276" alt="SPANISH CHEST." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Hampton &amp; Sons.</i><br />
+<br />
+CARVED OAK CHEST.<br />
+ENGLISH; SIXTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+Panels finely carved with Gothic tracery.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>II<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE</span></h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left" style="white-space: nowrap"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Henry VIII. 1509-1547.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Edward VI. 1547-1553.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Mary. 1553-1558.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Elizabeth. 1558-1603.</p></td>
+<td align="left" class="bl"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1525.</b> Hampton Court built.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1566.</b> Increased commercial prosperity. Foundation of
+Royal Exchange by Sir Thomas Gresham.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1580.</b> Drake comes home from the New World with plunder
+worth half a million.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1585.</b> Antwerp captured by the
+Duke of Parma; flight of merchants to London. Transfer of commercial
+supremacy from Antwerp to London. Beginning of
+carrying trade, especially with Flanders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">{60}</a></span></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img062.jpg" width="400" height="331" alt="BENCH OF OAK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BENCH OF OAK. FRENCH; ABOUT 1500.<br />
+<br />
+With panels of linen ornament. Seat arranged as a coffer.<br />
+(Formerly in the collection of M. Emile Peyre.)<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The opening years of the sixteenth century saw
+the beginnings of the Renaissance movement in
+England. The oak chest had become a settle with
+high back and arms. The fine example of an early
+sixteenth-century oak chest illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_59">59</a>) shows
+how the Gothic style had impressed itself on articles
+of domestic furniture. The credence, or tasting
+buffet, had developed into the Tudor sideboard,
+where a cloth was spread and candles placed. With
+more peaceful times a growth of domestic refinement
+required comfortable and even luxurious surroundings.
+The royal palaces at Richmond and Windsor were
+filled with costly foreign furniture. The mansions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">{63}</a></span>
+which were taking the place of the old feudal castles
+found employment for foreign artists and craftsmen
+who taught the English woodcarver. In the early
+days of Henry VIII. the classical style supplanted
+the Gothic, or was in great measure mingled with it.
+Many fine structures exist which belong to this
+transition period, during which the mixed style was
+predominant. The woodwork of King's College
+Chapel at Cambridge is held to be an especially
+notable example.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a></span>
+<img src="images/img063.jpg" width="500" height="237" alt="PORTION OF CARVED WALNUT VIRGINAL." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PORTION OF CARVED WALNUT VIRGINAL.<br />
+FLEMISH; SIXTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img063_2.jpg" width="500" height="338" alt="FRENCH CARVED OAK COFFER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">FRENCH CARVED OAK COFFER.<br />
+<br />
+Showing interlaced ribbon work.<br />
+<br />
+SECOND HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+(Height, 2 ft. 1 in.; width, 3 ft. 1 in.)<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Great Hall at Hampton Court dates from
+1531, or five years after Cardinal Wolsey had given
+up his palace to Henry VIII. Its grand proportions,
+its high-pitched roof and pendants, display the art of
+the woodcarver in great excellence. This hall, like
+others of the same period, had an open hearth in the
+centre, on which logs of wood were placed, and the
+smoke found its way out through a cupola, or louvre,
+in the roof.</p>
+
+<p>The roofs of the Early Tudor mansions were
+magnificent specimens of woodwork. But the old
+style of king-post, queen-post, or hammer-beam roof
+was prevalent. The panelling, too, of halls and
+rooms retained the formal character in its mouldings,
+and various "linen" patterns were used, so called
+from their resemblance to a folded napkin, an ornamentation
+largely used towards the end of the
+Perpendicular style, which was characteristic of
+English domestic architecture in the fifteenth
+century. To this period belongs the superb woodcarving
+of the renowned choir stalls of Henry VII.'s
+Chapel in Westminster Abbey.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">{64}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The bench of oak illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>) shows a
+common form of panel with linen ornament, and is
+French, of about the year 1500. The seat, as will
+be seen, is arranged as a locked coffer.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img066.jpg" width="500" height="481" alt="FIREPLACE AND OAK PANELLING." title="" />
+<span class="caption">FIREPLACE AND OAK PANELLING FROM THE &quot;OLD PALACE&quot;
+AT BROMLEY-BY-BOW. BUILT IN 1606.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Elizabethan woodcarver revelled in grotesque
+figure work, in intricate interlacings of strapwork,
+borrowed from the Flemish, and ribbon ornamentation,
+adapted from the French. He delighted in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">{65}</a></span>
+massive embellishment of magnificent proportions.
+Among Tudor woodwork the carved oak screen of
+the Middle Temple Hall is a noteworthy example of
+the sumptuousness and splendour of interior decoration
+of the English Renaissance. These screens
+supporting the minstrels' gallery in old halls are
+usually exceptionally rich in detail. Gray's Inn
+(dated 1560) and the Charterhouse (dated 1571) are
+other examples of the best period of sixteenth-century
+woodwork in England.</p>
+
+<p>Christ Church at Oxford, Grimsthorp in Lincolnshire,
+Kenninghall in Norfolk, Layer Marney Towers
+in Essex, and Sutton Place at Guildford, are all
+representative structures typical of the halls and
+manor houses being built at the time of the English
+Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>In the Victoria and Albert Museum has been
+re-erected a room having the oak panelling from the
+"Old Palace" at Bromley-by-Bow, which was built
+in 1606. The massive fireplace with the royal coat of
+arms above, with the niches in which stand carved
+figures of two saints, together with the contemporary
+iron fire-dogs standing in the hearth, give a picture of
+what an old Elizabethan hall was like.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">{66}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 435px;">
+<img src="images/img068.jpg" width="435" height="500" alt="ELIZABETHAN BEDSTEAD." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ELIZABETHAN BEDSTEAD. DATED 1593.<br />
+<br />
+Carved oak, ornamented in marquetry.<br />
+<br />
+(Height, 7 ft. 4 in.; length, 7 ft. 11 in.; width, 5 ft. 8 in.)<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under Queen Elizabeth new impulses stirred the
+nation, and a sumptuous Court set the fashion in
+greater luxury of living. Gloriana, with her merchant-princes,
+her fleet of adventurers on the high seas, and
+the pomp and circumstance of her troop of foreign
+lovers, brought foreign fashions and foreign art into
+commoner usage. The growth of luxurious habits in
+the people was eyed askance by her statesmen;
+"England spendeth more in wines in one year," complained
+Cecil, "than it did in ancient times in four
+years." The chimney-corner took the place of the
+open hearth; chimneys were for the first time familiar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">{67}</a></span>
+features in middle-class houses. The insanitary rush-floor
+was superseded by wood, and carpets came into
+general use. Even pillows, deemed by the hardy
+yeomanry as only fit "for women in child-bed," found
+a place in the massive and elaborately carved Elizabethan
+bedstead.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration of the fine Elizabethan bedstead (on
+p. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>) gives a very good idea of what the domestic
+furniture was like in the days immediately succeeding
+the Spanish Armada. It is carved in oak; with
+columns, tester, and headboard showing the classic
+influence. It is ornamented in marquetry, and bears
+the date 1593.</p>
+
+<p>All over England were springing up town halls and
+fine houses of the trading-classes, and manor houses
+and palaces of the nobility worthy of the people
+about to establish a formidable position in European
+politics. Hatfield House, Hardwick Hall, Audley
+End, Burleigh, Knole, and Longleat, all testify to the
+Renaissance which swept over England at this time.
+Stately terraces with Italian gardens, long galleries
+hung with tapestries, and lined with carved oak chairs
+and elaborate cabinets were marked features in the
+days of the new splendour. Men's minds, led by
+Raleigh, the Prince of Company Promoters, and fired
+by Drake's buccaneering exploits, turned to the New
+World, hitherto under the heel of Spain. Dreams of
+galleons laden with gold and jewels stimulated the
+ambition of adventurous gallants, and quickened the
+nation's pulse. The love of travel became a portion of
+the Englishman's heritage. The Italian spirit had
+reached England in full force. The poetry and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">{68}</a></span>
+romances of Italy affected all the Elizabethan men of
+letters. Shakespeare, in his "Merchant of Venice"
+and his other plays, plainly shows the Italian influence.
+In costume, in speech, and in furniture, it
+became the fashion to follow Italy. To Ascham it
+seemed like "the enchantment of Circe brought out
+of Italy to mar men's manners in England."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img070.jpg" width="450" height="330" alt="PANEL OF CARVED OAK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PANEL OF CARVED OAK.<br />
+ENGLISH; EARLY SIXTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+Showing interlaced strapwork.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The result of this wave of fashion on the domestic
+furniture of England was to impart to it the elegance
+of Italian art combined with a national sturdiness of
+character seemingly inseparable from English art at
+all periods. As the reign of Queen Elizabeth extended
+from the year 1558 to the year 1603, it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">{69}</a></span>
+usual to speak of architecture and furniture of the
+latter half of the sixteenth century as Elizabethan.</p>
+
+<p>A favourite design in Elizabethan woodwork is the
+interlaced strapwork (see illustration p. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>), which
+was derived from similar designs employed by the
+contemporary stonecarver, and is found on Flemish
+woodwork of the same period. The panel of a
+sixteenth-century Flemish virginal, carved in walnut,
+illustrated, shows this form of decoration. Grotesque
+terminal figures, half-human, half-monster, supported
+the front of the buffets, or were the supporting terminals
+of cornices. This feature is an adaptation from the
+Caryatides, the supporting figures used instead of
+columns in architecture, which in Renaissance days
+extended to woodwork. Table-legs and bed-posts
+swelled into heavy, acorn-shaped supports of massive
+dimensions. Cabinets were sometimes inlaid, as was
+also the room panelling, but it cannot be said that at
+this period the art of marquetry had arrived at a
+great state of perfection in this country.</p>
+
+<p>It is noticeable that in the rare pieces that are
+inlaid in the Late Tudor and Early Jacobean period
+the inlay itself is a sixteenth of an inch thick, whereas
+in later inlays of more modern days the inlay is
+thinner and flimsier. In the Flemish examples ivory
+was often used, and holly and sycamore and box
+seem to have been the favourite woods selected for
+inlay.</p>
+
+<p>Take, for example, the mirror with the frame of
+carved oak, with scroll outline and narrow bands
+inlaid with small squares of wood, alternately light
+and dark. This inlay is very coarsely done, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">{70}</a></span>
+unworthy to compare with Italian marquetry of contemporary
+date, or of an earlier period. The uprights
+and feet of the frame, it will be noticed, are baluster-shaped.
+The glass mirror is of nineteenth-century
+manufacture. The date carved upon the frame is
+1603, the first year of the reign of James I., and it is
+stated to have come from Derby Old Hall.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 426px;">
+<img src="images/img073.jpg" width="426" height="500" alt="MIRROR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">MIRROR.<br />
+<br />
+Glass in oak frame with carved scroll outline and narrow bands inlaid
+with small squares of wood. The glass nineteenth century.<br />
+<br />
+ENGLISH. DATED 1603.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Court cupboard, also of the same date, begins
+to show the coming style of Jacobean ornamentation
+in the turning in the upright pillars and supports and
+the square baluster termination. The massive carving
+and elaborate richness of the early Elizabethan period
+have given place to a more restrained decoration.
+Between the drawers is the design of a tulip in
+marquetry, and narrow bands of inlay are used to
+decorate the piece. In place of the chimerical
+monsters we have a portrait in wood of a lady, for
+which Arabella Stuart might have sat as model.
+The days were approaching when furniture was
+designed for use, and ornament was put aside if it
+interfered with the structural utility of the piece.
+The wrought-iron handle to the drawer should be
+noted, and in connection with the observation brought
+to bear by the beginner on genuine specimens in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum and other collections, it
+is well not to let any detail escape minute attention.
+Hinges and lock escutcheons and handles to drawers
+must not be neglected in order to acquire a sound
+working knowledge of the peculiarities of the different
+periods.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">{71}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 459px;">
+<img src="images/img075.jpg" width="459" height="500" alt="COURT CUPBOARD, CARVED OAK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COURT CUPBOARD, CARVED OAK.<br />
+ENGLISH. DATED 1603.<br />
+<br />
+Decorated with narrow bands inlaid, and having inlaid tulip
+between drawers.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In contrast with this specimen, the elaborately
+carved Court cupboard of a slightly earlier period<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">{73}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a></span>
+should be examined. It bears carving on every available
+surface. It has been "restored," and restored
+pieces have an unpleasant fashion of suggesting that
+sundry improvements have been carried out in the
+process. At any rate, as it stands it is over-laboured,
+and entirely lacking in reticence. The elaboration of
+enrichment, while executed in a perfectly harmonious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">{74}</a></span>
+manner, should convey a lesson to the student of
+furniture. There is an absence of contrast; had portions
+of it been left uncarved how much more
+effective would have been the result! As it is it
+stands, wonderful as is the technique, somewhat of a
+warning to the designer to cultivate a studied simplicity
+rather than to run riot in a profusion of
+detail.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">{75}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img076.jpg" width="500" height="497" alt="COURT CUPBOARD, CARVED OAK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COURT CUPBOARD, CARVED OAK.<br />
+ABOUT 1580. (RESTORED.)<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another interesting Court cupboard, of the early
+seventeenth century, shows the more restrained style
+that was rapidly succeeding the earlier work. This
+piece is essentially English in spirit, and is untouched
+save the legs, which have been restored.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;">
+<img src="images/img077.jpg" width="395" height="500" alt="COURT CUPBOARD, EARLY SEVENTEENTH CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By kind permission of
+T. E. Price Stretche, Esq.</i><br />
+<br />
+COURT CUPBOARD, EARLY SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+With secret hiding-place at top.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The table which is illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>) is a typical
+example of the table in ordinary use in Elizabethan
+days. This table replaced a stone altar in a church
+in Shropshire at the time of the Reformation.</p>
+
+<p>It was late in the reign of Queen Elizabeth that
+upholstered chairs became more general. Sir John
+Harrington, writing in 1597, gives evidence of this in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">{76}</a></span>
+the assertion that "the fashion of cushioned chayrs is
+taken up in every merchant's house." Wooden seats
+had hitherto not been thought too hard, and chairs
+imported from Spain had leather seats and backs of
+fine tooled work richly gilded and decorated. In the
+latter days of Elizabeth loose cushions were used for
+chairs and for window seats, and were elaborately
+wrought in velvet, or were of satin embroidered in
+colours, with pearls as ornamentation, and edged
+with gold or silver lace.</p>
+
+<p>The upholstered chair belongs more properly
+to the Jacobean period, and in the next chapter
+will be shown several specimens of those used by
+James I.</p>
+
+<p>In Elizabethan panelling to rooms, in chimneypieces,
+doorways, screens such as those built across
+the end of a hall and supporting the minstrels'
+gallery, the wood used was nearly always English
+oak, and most of the thinner parts, such as that
+designed for panels and smaller surfaces, was obtained
+by splitting the timber, thus exhibiting the beautiful
+figure of the wood so noticeable in old examples.</p>
+
+<h2>RECENT SALE PRICES.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td colspan="3"></td><td align="right">£</td><td align="center">s.</td><td align="center">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Chest, oak, with inlaid panels under arches, with caryatid figures carved
+in box-wood, English, temp. Elizabeth. Christie, January 29, 1904.</td><td align="right">40</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">{77}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="center" rowspan="3" valign="top" style="white-space: nowrap">
+     </td>
+   <td valign="bottom" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 110pt">
+     }</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Tudor mantelpiece, with elaborately carved jambs, panels, brackets, sides,
+and cornice, 6 ft. by 7 ft. 3 in. high. Herbert Wright, Ipswich, February
+19, 1904</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="2">155</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="2">0</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="2">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td  colspan="2" align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Old oak panelling, in all about 60 ft. run and 6 ft. 6 in. high, with 17 carved
+panels and 3 fluted pilasters fitted in same, part being surmounted by a
+cornice. Herbert Wright, Ipswich, February 19, 1904</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Credence, walnut-wood, with a cupboard and drawer above and shelf beneath,
+the corners are returned, the central panel has carved upon it, in low
+relief, circular medallions, pierced steel hinges and lock, 36 in. wide,
+50 in. high, early sixteenth century. Christie, May 6, 1904</td><td align="right">346</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3"  align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Bedstead, Elizabethan, with panelled and carved canopy top, supported by
+fluted and carved pillars, inlaid and panelled back, with raised figures and
+flowers in relief, also having a carved panelled footboard. C. W. Provis
+&amp; Son, Manchester, May 9, 1904</td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3"  align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Bedstead, oak Elizabethan, with carved
+back, dated 1560, and small cupboard fitted with secret sliding panel, and
+further having carved and inlaid panelled top with inlaid panels, the
+whole surmounted with heavy cornice. C. W. Provis &amp; Son, Manchester,
+May 9, 1904</td><td align="right">33</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">{78}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td  colspan="3" align="left" style="text-indent: -2em;">Sideboard, Elizabethan old oak, 6 ft. 2 in. wide by 7 ft. 6 in. high, with carved
+canopy top; also fitted with gallery shelf, supported by lions rampant.
+C. W. Provis &amp; Son, Manchester. May 9, 1904</td><td align="right">60</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img080.jpg" width="500" height="365" alt="ELIZABETHAN OAK TABLE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By kindness of
+T. E. Price Stretche, Esq.</i><br />
+<br />
+ELIZABETHAN OAK TABLE.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the kindness of the proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i>
+these items are given from their useful monthly publication,
+<i>Auction Sale Prices</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="III" id="III"></a>III<br />
+<br />
+STUART OR<br />
+JACOBEAN.<br />
+SEVENTEENTH CENTURY</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img083.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="GATE-LEG TABLE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Waring.</i><br />
+<br />
+GATE-LEG TABLE.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>III<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">STUART OR JACOBEAN. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left" style="white-space: nowrap;"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">James I. 1603-1625.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Charles I. 1625-1649.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">The Commonwealth. 1649-1660.</p></td>
+<td align="left" class="bl"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1619.</b> Tapestry factory established
+at Mortlake, under Sir Francis Crane.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">&mdash;&mdash; Banqueting Hall added to
+Whitehall by Inigo Jones.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1632.</b> Vandyck settled in London
+on invitation of Charles I.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1651.</b> Navigation Act passed;
+aimed blow (1572-1652) at Dutch carrying trade. All
+goods to be imported in English ships or in ships of country producing goods.</p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>With the advent of the House of Stuart the England
+under James I. saw new fashions introduced in
+furniture. It has already been mentioned that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">{82}</a></span>
+greater number of old houses which are now termed
+Tudor or Elizabethan were erected in the days of
+James I. At the beginning of a new monarchy
+fashion in art rarely changes suddenly, so that the
+early pieces of Jacobean furniture differ very little
+from Elizabethan in character. Consequently the
+Court cupboard, dated 1603, and mirror of the same
+year (illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>), though bearing the date
+of the first year of the reign of James, more properly
+belong to Tudor days.</p>
+
+<p>In the Bodleian Library at Oxford there is preserved
+a chair of fine workmanship and of historic
+memory. It was made from the oak timbers of the
+<i>Golden Hind</i>, the ship in which Sir Francis Drake
+made his adventurous voyage of discovery round the
+world. In spite of many secret enemies "deaming
+him the master thiefe of the unknowne world," Queen
+Elizabeth came to Deptford and came aboard the
+<i>Golden Hind</i> and "there she did make Captain Drake
+knight, in the same ship, for reward of his services;
+his armes were given him, a ship on the world, which
+ship, by Her Majestie's commandment, is lodged in a
+dock at Deptford, for a monument to all posterity."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 327px;"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a></span>
+<img src="images/img085.jpg" width="327" height="500" alt="OAK CHAIR MADE FROM THE TIMBER OF THE GOLDEN HIND." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+OAK CHAIR MADE FROM THE TIMBER OF THE GOLDEN HIND.
+COMMONLY CALLED &quot;SIR FRANCIS DRAKE&#39;S CHAIR.&quot;<br />
+<br />
+(<i>At the Bodleian Library.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It remained for many years at Deptford dockyard,
+and became the resort of holiday folk, who made
+merry in the cabin, which was converted into a
+miniature banqueting hall; but when it was too far
+decayed to be repaired it was broken up, and a
+sufficient quantity of sound wood was selected from
+it and made into a chair, which was presented to the
+University of Oxford. This was in the time of
+Charles II., and the poet Cowley has written some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">{85}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a></span>
+lines on it, in which he says that Drake and his
+<i>Golden Hind</i> could not have wished a more blessed
+fate, since to "this Pythagorean ship"</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">" ... a seat of endless rest is given<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To her in Oxford, and to him in heaven&mdash;"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>which, though quite unintentional on the part of the
+poet, is curiously satiric.</p>
+
+<p>The piece is highly instructive as showing the
+prevailing design for a sumptuous chair in the late
+seventeenth century. The middle arch in the back of
+the chair is disfigured by a tablet with an inscription,
+which has been placed there.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img087.jpg" width="500" height="348" alt="OAK TABLE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+Master of the Charterhouse.</i><br />
+<br />
+OAK TABLE, DATED 1616, BEARING ARMS OF THOMAS SUTTON,
+FOUNDER OF THE CHARTERHOUSE HOSPITAL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of the early days of James I. is a finely carved oak
+table, dated 1616. This table is heavily moulded and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">{86}</a></span>
+carved with garlands between cherubs' heads, and
+shields bearing the arms of Thomas Sutton, the
+founder of the Charterhouse Hospital. The upper
+part of the table is supported on thirteen columns,
+with quasi-Corinthian columns and enriched shafts,
+standing on a moulded <b>H</b>-shaped base. It will be
+seen that the designers had not yet thrown off the
+trammels of architecture which dominated much of
+the Renaissance woodwork. The garlands are not
+the garlands of Grinling Gibbons, and although
+falling within the Jacobean period, it lacks the charm
+which belong to typical Jacobean pieces.</p>
+
+<p>At Knole, in the possession of Lord Sackville, there
+are some fine specimens of early Jacobean furniture,
+illustrations of which are included in this volume.
+The chair used by King James I. when sitting to the
+painter Mytens is of peculiar interest. The cushion,
+worn and threadbare with age, is in all probability the
+same cushion used by James. The upper part of the
+chair is trimmed with a band of gold thread. The
+upholstering is red velvet, and the frame, which is of
+oak, bears traces of gilding upon it, and is studded
+with copper nails. The chair in design, with the
+half circular supports, follows old Venetian patterns.
+The smaller chair is of the same date, and equally
+interesting as a fine specimen; the old embroidery,
+discoloured and worn though it be, is of striking
+design and must have been brilliant and distinctive
+three hundred years ago. The date of these pieces
+is about 1620, the year when the "Pilgrim Fathers"
+landed in America.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">{87}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 341px;">
+<img src="images/img089.jpg" width="341" height="500" alt="CHAIR USED BY JAMES I." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+CHAIR USED BY JAMES I.<br />
+<br />
+In the possession of Lord Sackville.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the wealth of Jacobean furniture at Knole it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">{89}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a></span>
+is difficult to make a representative selection, but the
+stool we reproduce (p. <a href="#Page_90">90</a>) is interesting, inasmuch as
+it was a piece of furniture in common use. The
+chairs evidently were State chairs, but the footstool<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">{90}</a></span>
+was used in all likelihood by those who sat below the
+salt, and were of less significance. The stuffed settee
+which finds a place in the billiard-room at Knole
+and the sumptuous sofa in the Long Gallery, with its
+mechanical arrangement for altering the angle at the
+head, are objects of furniture difficult to equal. The
+silk and gold thread coverings are faded, and the
+knotted fringe and gold braid have tarnished under
+the hand of Time, but their structural design is so
+effective that the modern craftsman has made luxurious
+furniture after these models.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img091.jpg" width="350" height="500" alt="JACOBEAN CHAIR AT KNOLE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+JACOBEAN CHAIR AT KNOLE.<br />
+<br />
+In the possession of Lord Sackville.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img092.jpg" width="400" height="452" alt="JACOBEAN STOOL AT KNOLE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+JACOBEAN STOOL AT KNOLE.<br />
+<br />
+In the possession of Lord Sackville.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">{91}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<img src="images/img093.jpg" width="372" height="500" alt="UPPER HALF OF CARVED WALNUT DOOR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">UPPER HALF OF CARVED WALNUT DOOR.<br />
+<br />
+Showing ribbon work.<br />
+<br />
+FRENCH; LATTER PART OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+(Height of door, 4 ft. 7 in.; width, 1 ft. 11 in.)<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Carved oak chests were not largely made in
+Jacobean days&mdash;not, at any rate, for the same purpose
+as they were in Tudor or earlier times. As church<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">{92}</a></span>
+coffers they doubtless continued to be required, but for
+articles of domestic furniture other than as linen chests
+their multifarious uses had vanished. Early Jacobean
+coffers clearly show the departure from Elizabethan
+models. They become more distinctly English in
+feeling, though the interlaced ribbon decoration, so
+frequently used, is an adaptation from French work,
+which pattern was now becoming acclimatised. The
+French carved oak coffer of the second half of the
+sixteenth century (illustrated p. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>) shows from what
+source some of the English designs were derived.</p>
+
+<p>In the portion of the French door which we give as
+an illustration (on p. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>), it will be seen with what
+grace and artistic excellence of design and with what
+restraint the French woodcarvers utilised the running
+ribbon. The ribbon pattern has been variously used
+by designers of furniture; it appears in Chippendale's
+chair-backs, where it almost exceeds the limitations of
+the technique of woodcarving.</p>
+
+<p>Art in the early days of Charles I. was undimmed.
+The tapestry factory at Mortlake, established by
+James I., was further encouraged by the "White
+King." He took a great and a personal interest in
+all matters relating to art. Under his auspices the
+cartoons of Raphael were brought to England to
+foster the manufacture of tapestry. He gave his
+patronage to foreign artists and to foreign craftsmen,
+and in every way attempted to bring English art
+workers into line with their contemporaries on the
+Continent. Vandyck came over to become "Principal
+painter of Their Majesties at St. James's," keeping
+open table at Blackfriars and living in almost regal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">{93}</a></span>
+style. His grace and distinction and the happy
+circumstance of his particular style being coincident
+with the most picturesque period in English costume,
+have won him a place among
+the world's great painters. Fine
+portraits, at Windsor and at
+Madrid, at Dresden and at
+the Pitti Palace, at the Louvre
+and in the Hermitage at Petersburg,
+testify to the European
+fame of the painter's brilliant
+gallery representing the finest
+flower of the English aristocracy,
+prelates, statesmen, courtiers
+and beautiful women that
+were gathered together at the
+Court of Charles I. and his
+Queen Henrietta Maria.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 185px;">
+<img src="images/img095.jpg" width="185" height="450" alt="OAK CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">OAK CHAIR.<br />
+CHARLES I. PERIOD.<br />
+<br />
+With arms of Thomas Wentworth,
+first Earl of Strafford (1593-1641).<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert
+Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Early Stuart days the
+influence of Inigo Jones, the
+Surveyor of Works to Charles
+I., made itself felt in woodwork
+and interior decorations. He
+was possessed with a great love
+and reverence for the classicism
+of Italy, and introduced
+into his banqueting hall at
+Whitehall (now the United
+Service Museum), and St. Paul's,
+Covent Garden, a chaster style, which was taken up
+by the designers of furniture, who began to abandon
+the misguided use of ornament of later Elizabethan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">{94}</a></span>
+days. In the Victoria and Albert Museum is an oak
+chair with the arms of Thomas Wentworth, first
+Earl of Strafford, which, in addition to its historic
+interest, is a fine example of the chair of the period
+of Charles I. (illustrated p. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;">
+<img src="images/img096.jpg" width="326" height="500" alt="ITALIAN CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ITALIAN CHAIR, ABOUT 1620.<br />
+<br />
+Thence introduced into England.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is certain that the best specimens of Jacobean
+furniture of this period, with their refined lines and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">{95}</a></span>
+well-balanced proportions, are suggestive of the
+stately diction of Clarendon or the well-turned lyrics
+of Herrick.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 191px;">
+<img src="images/img097.jpg" width="191" height="350" alt="HIGH-BACK OAK CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Hampton &amp; Son</i><br />
+<br />
+HIGH-BACK OAK CHAIR.
+EARLY JACOBEAN.<br />
+<br />
+Elaborately carved with shell
+and scroll foliage.<br />
+<br />
+(Formerly in the Stuart MacDonald
+family, and originally in the possession
+of King Charles I.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the illustration of a sixteenth-century chair in
+common use in Italy, it will
+be seen to what source the
+Jacobean woodworkers looked
+for inspiration. The fine,
+high-backed oak Stuart chair,
+elaborately carved with bold
+shell and scroll foliage, having
+carved supports, stuffed
+upholstered seats, and loose
+cushion covered in old Spanish
+silk damask, is a highly interesting
+example. It was
+long in the possession of the
+Stuart MacDonald family, and
+is believed to have belonged
+to Charles I.</p>
+
+<p>The gate-leg table, sometimes
+spoken of as Cromwellian,
+belongs to this Middle
+Jacobean style. It cannot be
+said with any degree of accuracy
+that in the Commonwealth
+days a special style of furniture
+was developed. From all evidence it would seem
+that the manufacture of domestic furniture went on
+in much the same manner under Cromwell as under
+Charles. Iconoclasts as were the Puritans, it is
+doubtful whether they extended their work of destruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">{96}</a></span>
+to articles in general use. The bigot had
+"no starch in his linen, no gay furniture in his
+house." Obviously the Civil War very largely interfered
+with the encouragement and growth of the fine
+arts, but when furniture had to be made there is no
+doubt the Roundhead cabinetmaker and the Anabaptist
+carpenter produced as good joinery and
+turning as they did before Charles made his historic
+descent upon the House in his attempt to arrest the
+five members.</p>
+
+<p>There is a style of chair, probably imported from
+Holland, with leather back and leather seat which is
+termed "Cromwellian," probably on account of its
+severe lines, but there is no direct evidence that this
+style was peculiarly of Commonwealth usage. The
+illustration (p. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>) gives the type of chair, but the
+covering is modern.</p>
+
+<p>That Cromwell himself had no dislike for the fine
+arts is proved by his care of the Raphael cartoons,
+and we are enabled to reproduce an illustration of
+a fine old ebony cabinet with moulded front, fitted
+with numerous drawers, which was formerly the
+property of Oliver Cromwell. It was at Olivers
+Stanway, once the residence of the Eldred family.
+The stand is carved with shells and scrolls, and the
+scroll-shaped legs are enriched with carved female
+figures, the entire stand being gilded. This piece is
+most probably of Italian workmanship, and was of
+course made long before the Protector's day, showing
+marked characteristics of Renaissance style.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">{97}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img099.jpg" width="500" height="746" alt="JACOBEAN CHAIRS." title="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">JACOBEAN CHAIR, CANE BACK</td><td align="center">CROMWELLIAN CHAIR.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">ARMCHAIR. DATED 1623.</td><td align="center">ARMCHAIR. WITH INLAID BACK.</td></tr>
+</table>
+JACOBEAN CHAIRS.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>By permission of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The carved oak cradle (p. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>), with the letters
+"G. B. M. B." on one side, and "October, 14 dai," on
+the other, and bearing the date 1641, shows the type of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">{99}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a></span>
+piece in common use. It is interesting to the collector
+to make a note of the turned knob of wood so often
+found on doors and as drawer handles on untouched
+old specimens of this period, but very
+frequently removed by dealers and replaced by metal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">{100}</a></span>
+handles of varying styles, all of which may be procured
+by the dozen in Tottenham Court Road, coarse
+replicas of old designs. Another point worthy of
+attention is the wooden peg in the joinery, securing
+the tenon into the mortice, which is visible in old
+pieces. It will be noticed in several places in this
+cradle. In modern imitations, unless very thoughtfully
+reproduced, these oaken pegs are not visible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;">
+<img src="images/img101.jpg" width="403" height="500" alt="EBONY CABINET." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Hampton &amp; Sons.</i><br />
+<br />
+EBONY CABINET.<br />
+<br />
+On stand gilded and richly carved.<br />
+<br />
+FORMERLY THE PROPERTY OF OLIVER CROMWELL.<br />
+<br />
+(From Olivers Stanway, at one time the seat of the
+Eldred family.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the page of Jacobean chairs showing the various
+styles, the more severe piece, dated 1623, is Early
+Jacobean, and the fine unrestored armchair of slightly
+later date shows in the stretcher the wear given by
+the feet of the sitters. It is an interesting piece; the
+stiles in the back are inlaid with pearwood and ebony.
+The other armchair with its cane panels in back is of
+later Stuart days. It shows the transitional stage
+between the scrolled-arm type of chair, wholly of
+wood, and the more elaborate type (illustrated p. <a href="#Page_123">123</a>)
+of the James II. period.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">{101}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img103.jpg" width="350" height="280" alt="JACOBEAN CARVED OAK CHAIRS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">JACOBEAN CARVED OAK CHAIRS.<br />
+<br />
+Yorkshire, about 1640.<br />
+<br />
+Derbyshire; early
+seventeenth century.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img103_2.jpg" width="500" height="458" alt="JACOBEAN OAK CUPBOARD." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+Rt. Hon. Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane, G.C.B, I.S.O.</i><br />
+<br />
+JACOBEAN OAK CUPBOARD. ABOUT 1620.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In addition to the finer pieces of seventeenth-century
+furniture to be found in the seats of the
+nobility, such as at Penshurst, or in the manor houses
+and homes of the squires and smaller landowners,
+there was much furniture of a particularly good
+design in use at farmsteads from one end of the
+country to the other, in days when a prosperous
+class of yeoman followed the tastes of their richer
+neighbours. This farmhouse furniture is nowadays
+much sought after. It was of local manufacture, and
+is distinctly English in its character. Oak dressers
+either plain or carved, were made not only in Wales&mdash;"Welsh
+Dressers" having become almost a trade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">{103}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a></span>
+term&mdash;but in various parts of England, in Yorkshire,
+in Derbyshire, in Sussex, and in Suffolk. They are
+usually fitted with two or three open shelves, and
+sometimes with cupboards on each side. The better
+preserved specimens have still their old drop-handles
+and hinges of brass. It is not easy to procure fine
+examples nowadays, as it became fashionable two
+or three years ago to collect these, and in addition
+to oak dressers from the farmhouses of Normandy,
+equally old and quaint, which were imported to
+supply a popular demand, a great number of modern
+imitations were made up from old wood&mdash;church
+pews largely forming the framework of the dressers,
+which were not difficult to imitate successfully.</p>
+
+<p>The particular form of chair known as the "Yorkshire
+chair" is of the same period. Certain localities
+seem to have produced peculiar types of chairs which
+local makers made in great numbers. It will be
+noticed that even in these conditions, with a continuous
+manufacture going on, the patterns were not
+exact duplicates of each other, as are the machine-made
+chairs turned out of a modern factory, where the
+maker has no opportunity to introduce any personal
+touches, but has to obey the iron law of his machine.</p>
+
+<p>As a passing hint to collectors of old oak furniture,
+it may be observed that it very rarely happens that
+two chairs can be found together of the same design.
+There may be a great similarity of ornament and a
+particularly striking resemblance, but the chair with
+its twin companion beside it suggests that one, if not
+both, are spurious. The same peculiarity is exhibited
+in old brass candlesticks, and especially the old Dutch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">{104}</a></span>
+brass with circular platform in middle of candlestick.
+One may handle fifty without finding two that are
+turned with precisely the same form of ornament.</p>
+
+<p>The usual feature of the chair which is termed
+"Yorkshire" is that it has an open back in the form
+of an arcade, or a back formed with two crescent-shaped
+cross-rails, the decorations of the back usually
+bearing acorn-shaped knobs either at the top of the
+rail or as pendants. This type is not confined to
+Yorkshire, as they have frequently been found in
+Derbyshire, in Oxfordshire, and in Worcestershire,
+and a similar variety may be found in old farmhouses
+in East Anglia.</p>
+
+<p>In the illustration of the two oak chairs (p. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>), the
+one with arms is of the Charles I. period, the other is
+later and belongs to the latter half of the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The Jacobean oak cupboard (illustrated p. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>) is
+in date about 1620. At the side there are perforations
+to admit air, which shows that it was used
+as a butter cupboard. The doors have an incised
+decoration of conventional design. The lower part
+is carved in style unmistakably Jacobean in nature.
+The pattern on the two uprights at the top is repeatedly
+found in pieces evidently designed locally
+for use in farmhouses.</p>
+
+<p>It is not too much to hope that enough has been
+said concerning Jacobean furniture of the early and
+middle seventeenth century to show that it possesses
+a peculiar charm and simplicity in the lines of its
+construction, which make it a very pleasing study to
+the earnest collector who wishes to procure a few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">{105}</a></span>
+genuine specimens of old furniture, which, while
+being excellent in artistic feeling, are not unprocurable
+by reason of their rarity and excessive cost. It should
+be within the power of the careful collector, after
+following the hints in this volume, and after examining
+well-selected examples in such a collection as that
+at the Victoria and Albert Museum, to obtain, without
+unreasonable expenditure, after patient search, one
+or two Jacobean pieces of undoubted authenticity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img107.jpg" width="450" height="433" alt="JACOBEAN OAK CHAIRS." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Fenton &amp; Sons.</i><br />
+<br />
+JACOBEAN OAK CHAIRS.<br />
+<br />
+Armchair, time of Charles I.<br />
+<br />
+Yorkshire chair.<br />
+Late seventeenth century.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">{106}</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2>RECENT SALE PRICES.<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">£</td><td align="center">s.</td><td align="center">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet, Jacobean oak, with two drawers, and folding doors below enclosing
+drawers, decorated with rectangular panels in relief, inlaid in ebony and
+ivory, and with baluster columns at the side&mdash;48 in. high, 46 in. wide.
+Christie, November 27, 1903</td><td align="right">44</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet, Jacobean black oak, 5 ft. wide by
+6 ft. 2 in. high, fitted with cupboards above and below, with sunk panelled
+folding doors, carved with busts of warriors in high relief, the pilasters
+carved with mask heads and caryatid figures, the whole carved with floral
+scrolls and other devices. Capes, Dunn &amp; Pilcher, Manchester, December
+9, 1903</td><td align="right">57</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, set of three Jacobean oak, with canework seats, and panels in the
+backs, the borders carved with scrolls, and on scroll legs with stretchers.
+Christie, January 29, 1904</td><td align="right">52</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Table, Cromwell, oak, on spiral legs. Dowell, Edinburgh, March 12, 1904</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Elbow-chair, oak, Scotch, back having carved wheel, "A. R., 1663." Dowell,
+Edinburgh, March 12, 1904</td><td align="right">60</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">{107}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet, Jacobean oak, with drawer and folding doors below, with moulded
+rectangular panels and balusters in relief, 50 in. high, 46 in. wide.
+Christie, July 1, 1904</td><td align="right">35</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img109.jpg" width="500" height="393" alt="CRADLE, TIME OF CHARLES I." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CRADLE, TIME OF CHARLES I.<br />
+<br />
+CARVED OAK; WITH LETTERS G. B. M. B. DATED 1641.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the kindness of the proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i>
+these items are given from their useful monthly publication,
+<i>Auction Sale Prices</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV<br />
+<br />
+STUART OR<br />
+JACOBEAN.<br />
+LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">{111}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img113.jpg" width="500" height="484" alt="INTERIOR OF DUTCH HOUSE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>(After picture by
+Caspar Netscher)</i><br />
+<br />
+INTERIOR OF DUTCH HOUSE.<br />
+<br />
+LATTER HALF OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>IV<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;;">STUART OR JACOBEAN. LATE SEVENTEENTH
+CENTURY</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left" style="white-space: nowrap;"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Charles II. 1660-1685.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">James II. 1685-1688.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">William and Mary. 1689-1694.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">William. 1694-1702.</p>
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Sir Christopher Wren. (1632-1723).</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Grinling Gibbons. (1648-1726).</p></td>
+<td align="left" class="bl"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1660.</b> Bombay became a British
+possession. Importation of Indo-Portuguese furniture.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1666.</b> Great Fire in London.
+Much valuable furniture destroyed.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1675-1710.</b> St. Paul's Cathedral
+built under Wren's direction.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1685.</b> Edict of Nantes revoked.
+Spitalfields' silk industry founded by French refugees.</p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;">
+<img src="images/img114.jpg" width="428" height="500" alt="CABINET OF THE TIME OF CHARLES II." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+CABINET OF THE TIME OF CHARLES II.<br />
+<br />
+With exterior finely decorated with needlework.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>After the Civil War, when Charles II. came into his
+own again, the furniture of the Restoration period<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">{112}</a></span>
+most certainly took its colour from the gay Court with
+which the Merry Monarch surrounded himself. The
+cabinet which we reproduce has the royal arms
+embroidered on the cover, and is a beautiful example<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">{113}</a></span>
+of intricate cabinetmaking. The surface of the piece
+is entirely covered with needlework. On the front
+stand a cavalier and lady, hand-in-hand. On the
+side panel a cavalier is leading a lady on horseback.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">{114}</a></span>
+On the back a man drives a laden camel, and on
+another panel is shown the traveller being received
+by an old man in the grounds of the same castle
+which appears all through the scenes. This suggests
+the love-story of some cavalier and his lady. The
+casket is worthy to have held the love-letters of the
+Chevalier Grammont to La Belle Hamilton.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 426px;">
+<img src="images/img115.jpg" width="426" height="500" alt="CABINET OF THE TIME OF CHARLES II." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+CABINET OF THE TIME OF CHARLES II.<br />
+<br />
+Showing interior and nest of drawers.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As is usual in pieces of this nature, the cabinet
+contains many artfully devised hiding places. A
+tiny spring behind the lock reveals one secret drawer,
+and another is hidden beneath the inkwell. There
+are in all five of such secret compartments&mdash;or rather
+five of them have been at present discovered&mdash;there
+may be more. The illustration of the cabinet open
+shows what a nest of drawers it holds.</p>
+
+<p>In the days of plots, when Titus Oates set half the
+nation by the ears, when James solemnly warned
+the merry Charles of plots against his life, provoking
+the cynical retort, "They will never kill me,
+James, to make you king," secret drawers were no
+doubt a necessity to a fashionable cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>Catherine of Braganza, his queen, brought with her
+from Portugal many sumptuous fashions in furniture,
+notably cabinets and chairs of Spanish and Portuguese
+workmanship. The cavaliers scattered by the Civil
+War returned, and as in their enforced exile on the
+Continent they had cultivated foreign tastes, it was
+only natural that Dutch, French, and Italian work
+found its way to this country and effected the
+character of the early furniture of the Charles II.
+period. From Portugal came the high-backed chair,
+having the back and the seat of leather cut with fine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">{115}</a></span>
+design, and coloured or gilded. This leather work
+is of exquisite character, and we reproduce a portion
+of a Portuguese chair-back of this period to show the
+artistic excellence of the design. With Catherine of
+Braganza came the marriage dower of Bombay, and
+from India, where the settlement
+of Goa had been
+Portuguese for centuries,
+were sent to Europe the
+carved chairs in ebony,
+inlaid in ivory, made
+by the native workmen
+from Portuguese and
+Italian models, but enriched
+with pierced carving
+and intricate inlay
+of ivory in a manner
+which only an Oriental
+craftsman can produce.
+Having become fashionable
+in Portugal, they
+made their appearance
+in England, and rapidly
+became popular. At
+Penshurst Place there
+are several fine specimens
+of this Indo-Portuguese
+work, with the
+spindles of the chair-backs
+of carved ivory; and in the Ashmolean Museum
+at Oxford there is the well-known chair which was
+presented by Charles II. to Elias Ashmole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 268px;">
+<img src="images/img117.jpg" width="268" height="500" alt="PORTUGUESE HIGH-BACK CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Hampton &amp; Sons.</i><br />
+<br />
+PORTUGUESE HIGH-BACK CHAIR.<br />
+<br />
+Seat and back formed of two panels of old
+stamped leather, studded with brass bosses.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">{116}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Both in this later Stuart period and in the days of
+the first Charles inlay was considerably used to
+heighten the carved designs on oak tables, chairs,
+and cabinets. The growth of commerce was responsible
+for the introduction of many varieties of foreign
+woods, which were used to produce finer effects in
+marquetry than the rude inlay of Elizabethan days.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a> to this volume represents a very
+handsome cabinet of English workmanship, inlaid
+with ivory and mother-of-pearl. It is an unusually
+fine example of the middle seventeenth century, and
+bears the date 1653, the year when Cromwell forcibly
+dissolved the Rump Parliament and was declared
+"Lord Protector of the Commonwealth."</p>
+
+<p>Up till now oak&mdash;the hard, tough, English variety,
+and not the more modern Baltic oak or American
+varieties now used&mdash;was the material for the tool of
+the carver to work upon. With the introduction of
+more flowing lines and curves, a wealth of detail, it
+is not unnatural to find that softer woods began to
+find favour as more suitable to the new decorations.
+The age of walnut was approaching when, under
+William the Dutchman, and in the days of Queen
+Anne, a newer style of furniture was to arise, made by
+craftsmen trained in the precepts of Grinling Gibbons
+and following the conceptions of Sir Christopher
+Wren. It must be borne in mind that in Italy the
+softer woods, such as lime, willow, sycamore, chestnut,
+walnut, and cypress, had long been used for the
+delicate carving during the height of the Renaissance
+and succeeding period, and in France and Spain
+chestnut and walnut were favourite woods.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">{117}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the central panel of the Restoration chair-back,
+canework began to be used instead of the Early
+Jacobean carving. Cane seats were frequent, and
+loose cushions, attached by means of strings, covered
+these cane panels and seats. The illustration (p. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>)
+shows a Jacobean chair of this period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;">
+<img src="images/img119.jpg" width="401" height="450" alt="OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Waring</i><br />
+<br />
+OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS. LATE JACOBEAN.<br />
+<br />
+(Height, 3 ft. 3 in.; width, 3 ft.; depth, 1 ft. 10 in.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Belonging to these later Jacobean days are chests
+of drawers of oak with finely panelled fronts. We
+illustrate two specimens, showing the old brass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">{118}</a></span>
+metal work and the drop-handles. They are usually
+in two parts, and are very deep from back to front.
+These are two typical examples of this kind of furniture,
+which was in general use up to the days of
+Queen Anne, when pieces are frequently found
+supported on a stand.</p>
+
+<p>In the picture by Caspar Netscher, showing a
+Dutch lady at her toilet, a good idea is conveyed of
+the kind of chair in use in Holland in the latter half
+of the seventeenth century, upholstered in brocade,
+and the rich tapestry tablecloth is a noticeable
+feature.</p>
+
+<p>Before entering upon the last phase of Stuart furniture,
+and leaving the days of Jacobean oak with its
+fine carving and handsome appearance&mdash;the careful
+result of selecting the timber and splitting it to show
+the fine figure of the wood&mdash;the attention of the reader
+should be drawn to the fact that the appearance of
+the surface of furniture made subsequent to this
+period begins to approach the results of the modern
+cabinetmaker with his polishes and spirit varnishes
+and highly glazed panels and table tops. The lover
+of old oak abominates varnish. The Elizabethan
+and Jacobean carved oak furniture received only
+a preliminary coat of dark varnish in its early
+days, mixed with oil and not spirit, which sank into
+the wood and was not a surface polish, and was
+probably used to preserve the wood. These old
+pieces, which have received centuries of rubbing with
+beeswax and oil, have resulted in producing a rich,
+warm tone which it is impossible to copy by any of
+the subtle arts known to the modern forger. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">{119}</a></span>
+collector should make himself thoroughly familiar
+with the appearance of this old oak by a careful
+examination of museum pieces, which, when once
+seen, cannot easily be forgotten.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img121.jpg" width="450" height="441" alt="CHEST OF DRAWERS." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Waring.</i><br />
+<br />
+CHEST OF DRAWERS. PANELLED FRONT; LATE JACOBEAN.<br />
+<br />
+(Height, 3 ft. 4 in.; width, 3 ft. 10 in.; depth, 1 ft. 10 in.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Italian Renaissance furniture probably received
+an oil varnish, the composition of which, like the
+varnish employed for old violins, has been lost, but
+after centuries of careful usage and polishing, the
+result, as seen in the fine specimens in the Victoria<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">{120}</a></span>
+and Albert Museum, is to give to them the appearance
+of bronze.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 223px;">
+<img src="images/img122.jpg" width="223" height="400" alt="CHARLES II. OAK CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Hampton &amp; Sons.</i><br />
+<br />
+CHARLES II. OAK CHAIR.<br />
+<br />
+Open back carved with shell and
+scrolled foliage. Stuffed seat covered
+with old damask.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is little doubt that the Great Fire, which did
+such immense destruction in London in 1666, in
+which some eighty-nine churches and thirteen
+thousand houses were demolished,
+gave a considerable
+impetus to the manufacture
+of furniture in the
+new style. It is not a
+pleasing reflection to think
+how many fine pieces
+of Elizabethan and early
+Jacobean furniture were
+consumed in the flames,
+including much of Inigo
+Jones's work.</p>
+
+<p>Under the genius of Sir
+Christopher Wren many
+of the city churches were
+rebuilt, including St. Paul's
+Cathedral; and Greenwich
+Hospital and Hampton
+Court were enlarged according
+to Wren's designs,
+with the co-operation of
+the master woodcarver,
+Grinling Gibbons. In later
+Jacobean days a splendour of style and an excellence
+of workmanship were the outcome of the fine achievements
+in interior woodwork by Grinling Gibbons and
+the school he founded.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">{121}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The work of Grinling Gibbons consisted of most
+natural chains of flowers and foliage, fruit, or birds or
+cherubs' heads, all faithfully reproduced untrammelled
+by convention. St. Paul's Cathedral, Hampton
+Court, Chatsworth, and
+Petworth House all contain
+work by him of
+singular beauty. He
+trained many assistants
+to help him to carry
+on his work, and one
+of them, Selden, lost his
+life in endeavouring to
+save the carved room
+at Petworth from a destructive
+fire. The soft
+wood of the lime was
+his favourite for detailed
+carving; for church
+panelling or choir stalls,
+such as at St. Pauls, he
+employed oak; in his
+medallion portraits or
+figure work he preferred
+pear or close-grained
+boxwood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 257px;">
+<img src="images/img123.jpg" width="257" height="450" alt="CHARLES II. OPEN HIGH-BACK OAK
+CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Hampton &amp; Sons.</i><br />
+<br />
+CHARLES II. OPEN HIGH-BACK OAK
+CHAIR.<br />
+<br />
+Finely carved legs and stretcher. Stuffed
+seat covered in old Spanish silk damask.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gradual development
+of the chair in the
+later Stuart days in the direction of upholstered seat
+will be noticed in the specimens which are given as
+illustrations. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes
+in 1685 by Louis XIV. drove some thousands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">{122}</a></span>
+of French workmen&mdash;weavers, glass-workers, and
+cabinetmakers&mdash;to this country. The silk-weaving
+industry established by them at Spitalfields
+was one of the results, and
+silk stuffs and brocades were
+used for covering the seats
+and backs of furniture. At
+Hampton Court the crystal
+glass chandeliers were made
+by French workmen, whom
+Wren was glad to employ
+to assist him to make that
+palace a worthy rival to
+Versailles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 213px;">
+<img src="images/img124.jpg" width="213" height="500" alt="CHARLES II. CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster &amp; Co.</i><br />
+<br />
+CHARLES II. CHAIR.<br />
+<br />
+Cane back and seat, finely carved
+legs and stretcher.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 219px;">
+<img src="images/img125.jpg" width="219" height="500" alt="JAMES II. CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Fenton &amp; Sons.</i><br />
+<br />
+JAMES II. CHAIR.<br />
+<br />
+With cane back and seat, and finely turned legs and stretcher.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chair here illustrated
+shows the commencement
+of the use of cane
+work in place of wood for
+the panel in back and for
+the seat. The James II.
+chair illustrated shows the
+later development of the
+cane-back. The William
+and Mary chair (illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_125">125</a>) shows how the cane-back
+was retained later than
+the cane-seat, and how rich
+damask was employed for
+the upholstered seat. It is
+interesting to see how the stretcher, which in earlier
+days was of use to keep the feet raised from a wet or
+draughty floor, has now become capable of elaborate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">{125}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a></span>
+ornamentation. Genuine examples of chairs of
+Elizabethan and Early Stuart days show the wear
+of the feet of the sitters. The same wear is
+observable in the lower rail
+of old tables. In later
+Stuart days the stretcher
+has left its place at the
+bottom, between the two
+front legs. Since its use
+as a foot-rest, owing to
+carpeted floors, is gone, it
+is found either joining the
+legs diagonally, or higher
+up as an ornament with
+carved front. In the eighteenth
+century it has almost
+disappeared altogether.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 194px;">
+<img src="images/img127.jpg" width="194" height="450" alt="WILLIAM AND MARY CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster &amp; Co.</i><br />
+<br />
+WILLIAM AND MARY CHAIR.<br />
+<br />
+Cane back. Seat upholstered in damask.
+Finely carved legs and stretcher.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mirrors began to take a
+prominent place in interior
+decoration. The house of
+Nell Gwynne in St. James's
+Square had one room entirely
+lined with glass
+mirrors. Hampton Court
+is full of mirrors, and they
+are arranged with considerable
+skill. By an artful
+arrangement the mirror in
+the King's Writing Closet is placed at such an
+angle that the reflection of the whole suite of rooms
+may be seen in it. The looking glasses made in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">{126}</a></span>
+country in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth
+centuries were the work of Venetian and French
+workmen. The plates had a bevel of an inch in
+width, and these bevels followed the shape of the
+frame, whether square or oval. A factory was established
+near Battersea which produced some fine
+work of this nature. It will be noticed by the
+collector who is observant that the bevels differ
+considerably from modern bevels. The angle is
+not such an acute one, and sometimes the edges
+are double bevelled. Many of the mirrors of the
+time of William and Mary had an ornamented
+border of blue glass. Sometimes the mirror was
+painted with festoons of flowers and with birds in
+French manner. In imitation of Italian style the
+back of the mirror, in examples a little later, was
+worked upon in the style of intaglio, or gem cutting,
+this presenting a dull silver surface when seen from
+the front.</p>
+
+<p>In picture frames, in chimneypieces, or in mirror
+frames the school of Grinling Gibbons was still pre-eminent
+in carving. Now and again are found traces
+of Italian or Louis XIV. influence, but as a whole the
+English carver held his own, and the traditions of
+Grinling Gibbons were maintained, and he did not
+easily allow himself to be carried away by foreign
+elaborations.</p>
+
+<p>When William of Orange came over in 1688 he
+brought with him many of his own countrymen as
+military and civil advisers, and in their train came
+artists and craftsmen, who introduced Dutch art into
+England, and prepared the way for the more homely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">{127}</a></span>
+style of Queen Anne. Walnut cabinets inlaid with
+various woods, and with ivory squares representing
+miniature Dutch courtyards in the recesses of
+cabinets, had found their way into England. With
+the period of William and Mary the cabriole leg in
+chairs and in tables became popular&mdash;at first an
+English adaptation of Dutch models&mdash;but later to
+develop into the glorious creations of the age of
+walnut.</p>
+
+<p>Blue delft jars and bowls, some especially made for
+William and Mary and bearing the Royal arms and
+the cypher "W. M. R." and the Nassau motto,
+"<i>Je main tien-dray</i>," still to be seen in the Queen's
+Gallery at Hampton Court, were introduced, and it
+became fashionable to collect china. Consequently
+the furniture in rooms had to be adapted for the
+arrangement of this new class of ornament, and
+cabinets were largely made with accommodation to
+receive vases and beakers and blue bowls on their
+shelves. The earlier form have straight sides; but
+later, especially in the next reign, they follow French
+designs, and are swollen or <i>bombé</i> at the sides.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img130.jpg" width="450" height="417" alt="UPPER PORTION OF CHAIR BACK OF CUT LEATHER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">UPPER PORTION OF CHAIR BACK OF CUT LEATHER.<br />
+PORTUGUESE. LATTER PART OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>With William, too, came over the plain walnut
+card-table. Clock cases of the style termed "Grandfather"
+were of Dutch origin. The seats of chairs
+were shaped and removable. The Dutch trade with
+the East Indies had brought Oriental china and lac
+cabinets into Holland, and these, with the coming of
+William, found their way into this country. Bureaux
+with a number of secret recesses were introduced,
+and another Dutch importation from the East was
+the now celebrated chair or table leg with claw and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">{128}</a></span>
+ball foot. This came directly from China, and as in
+the case of delft, which is the earthenware replica by
+the Dutch potter of fine blue porcelain vases,
+from Nankin and Canton, where the Oriental perspective
+and design have been slavishly copied, so
+with the furniture, the old Chinese symbol of a
+dragon's foot holding a pearl, was repeated in the
+furniture by Dutch cabinetmakers. Dutch marquetry
+made an early appearance with simple ornamentation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">{129}</a></span>
+sometimes enriched by ivory or mother-of-pearl
+inlay, but later it developed into flowing floral designs
+with figures, vases, fruit, butterflies, and elaborate
+scrolls in various coloured woods, of which yellow
+was the predominant colour.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>RECENT SALE PRICES.<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">£</td><td align="center">s.</td><td align="center">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Armchair, Charles II., oak, carved with cherubs supporting crowns, and with
+turned column supports. Christie, November 20, 1903</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, pair, Charles II., oak, with cane seats and oval cane panels in the
+backs, spirally turned legs, stretchers and rails at the back. Christie,
+March 4, 1904</td><td align="right">63</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Armchair, Charles II., oak, with high back carved with arabesque foliage,
+with lions' masks and claw legs. Christie, March 29, 1904</td><td align="right">63</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, pair, nearly similar, carved with
+foliage. Christie, March 29, 1904</td><td align="right">39</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Armchair, Charles II., walnut-wood, of Italian design, carved with masks,
+cane seat and panel in back; and cushion, covered with old Flemish
+tapestry. Christie, March 4, 1904</td><td align="right">77</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">{130}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, three, Charles II., oak, with oval panels of canework in the backs,
+the borders carved with foliage, flowers, and Amorini, and surmounted
+by busts. Christie, April 12, 1904</td><td align="right">42</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, set of twelve, Charles II., of chestnut-wood, with high backs carved
+with rosette ornaments, scroll foliage, and formal blossoms, on cabriole legs
+carved with flowers and shaped stretchers. Christie, July 1, 1904</td><td align="right">462</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, pair of chestnut-wood, with high backs slightly curved, pierced and
+carved at the top, and each inlaid with two cane panels, on carved
+cabriole legs and shaped stretchers, <i>temp.</i> James II. Christie, June 2,
+1904</td><td align="right">36</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet, English marquetry, with folding doors, enclosing twelve drawers and
+small cupboard, and with four drawers below, the whole elaborately inlaid
+with vases of tulips, roses, and other flowers, small figures, birds, and insects,
+on a walnut-wood ground, 69 in. high, 47 in. wide, <i>temp.</i> William III.
+Christie, February 12, 1904</td><td align="right">105</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Mirror, in case of old English marquetry, inlaid with large flowers and foliage
+in coloured woods and ivory on walnut-wood ground, 32 in. by 28 in.,
+<i>temp.</i> William III. Christie, February 19, 1904</td><td align="right">43</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">{131}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, set of six, walnut-wood, with high, open backs, carved with foliage,
+the centre inlaid in marquetry, on carved cabriole legs and eagles' claw-and-ball
+feet, <i>temp.</i> William and Mary. Christie, June 2, 1904</td><td align="right">315</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, set of four, of similar form, open backs, carved with shell, and gadroon
+ornament, and on carved cabriole legs with hoof feet, the stretcher
+carved with a shell, <i>temp.</i> William and Mary. Christie, June 2, 1904</td><td align="right">105</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet, William and Mary, marquetry, veneered with walnut-wood, decorated
+with oval and shaped panels, inlaid, upon ebony field, 42 in. wide. Christie,
+March 18, 1904</td><td align="right">65</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet on stand, ebony, Dutch, seventeenth century, supported by six
+beaded columns with stage under and mirror panels at back, the upper part
+composed of doors carved in medallions; the centre doors enclose an
+architectural hall, inlaid in ivory, &amp;c., with gilt columns and mirror panels,
+and fitted with secret drawers, 5 ft. 3 in. wide, 6 ft. 6 in. high and 22 in.
+deep. Jenner &amp; Dell, Brighton, May 3, 1904</td><td align="right">100</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">{132}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Corner cupboard, Dutch marquetry, 8 ft. high, having carved crown-shaped
+cornice, with centre vase, four doors, with bow fronts, inlaid with flowers
+and carved raised beadings, the interior fitted. C. W. Provis &amp; Son,
+Manchester, May 9, 1904</td><td align="right">32</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Table, Dutch marquetry, with shaped front and two drawers inlaid with
+sprays of flowers in coloured woods and ivory, on cabriole legs, 32 in.
+wide. Christie, March 4, 1904</td><td align="right">37</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the kindness of the proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i>
+these items are given from their useful monthly publication,
+<i>Auction Sale Prices</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a></span></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="V" id="V"></a>V<br />
+<br />
+QUEEN<br />
+ANNE<br />
+STYLE<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a></span></h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">{135}</a></span>
+<img src="images/img137.jpg" width="500" height="279" alt="QUEEN ANNE OAK SETTLE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of Messrs. Hampton &amp; Sons</i><br />
+<br />
+QUEEN ANNE OAK SETTLE.<br />
+<br />
+Scrolled arms, panelled back and loose cushioned seat.
+Width 6 feet.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>V<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;;">QUEEN ANNE STYLE</span></h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left" style="white-space: nowrap;">Anne. 1702-1714.</td>
+<td align="left" class="bl"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1707.</b> Act of Union between England and Scotland.
+First United Parliament of Great Britain met.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1713.</b> The National Debt had risen to £38,000,000.</p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>With the age of Queen Anne domestic furniture
+departed from the ornate characteristics which had
+marked previous epochs. The tendency in English
+furniture seems to have made towards comfort and
+homeliness. The English home may not have contained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">{136}</a></span>
+so many articles of luxury then as does the
+modern house with its artistic embellishments, and a
+popular taste rapidly ripening into a genuine love of
+the fine arts. "A modern shopkeeper's house," says
+Lord Macaulay, "is as well furnished as the house of
+a considerable merchant in Anne's reign." It is very
+doubtful whether this statement holds good with
+regard to the days of Elizabeth or the days of the
+early Stuarts, but there certainly seems to have been
+in the dawn of the walnut period a curtailment of
+luxurious effects that might well tempt a casual
+observer to generalise in the belief that the days of
+Anne spelt dulness in art.</p>
+
+<p>The settle, the illustration of which is given (p. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>),
+bearing the date 1705, the year after Blenheim, shows
+that Jacobean models of early days were not forgotten.
+The inlaid borders are very effective, and
+there is nothing vulgar or offensive in the carving.
+It is simple in style and the joinery is good. A
+walnut mirror, carved and gilded (illustrated p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>),
+exhibits the same solidity. There is nothing to show
+that the glorious age of Louis XIV. had produced
+the most sumptuous and richly decorated furniture
+the modern world had seen. The simplicity of this
+carved mirror frame is as though art had begun and
+ended in England, and probably it is this insularity
+of the furniture of this period, and the almost stubborn
+neglect of the important movements going
+on in France that makes the Queen Anne style of
+peculiar interest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">{137}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 253px;">
+<img src="images/img139.jpg" width="253" height="500" alt="QUEEN ANNE MIRROR FRAME." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster &amp; Co.</i><br />
+<br />
+QUEEN ANNE MIRROR FRAME.<br />
+WALNUT, CARVED AND GILDED.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The oak desk illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_139">139</a>), dated 1696, is
+similar to the one at Abbotsford, in which Sir Walter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">{139}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a></span>
+Scott mislaid his manuscript of "Waverley," where it
+lay among his fishing-tackle for eleven years.</p>
+
+<p>Another piece of the same period is the cupboard
+with carved doors and drawers beneath (illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_140">140</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<img src="images/img141.jpg" width="319" height="400" alt="OAK DESK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">OAK DESK.<br />
+WITH INITIALS &quot;L. G.&quot; AND DATED 1696.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>From the collection of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some pretty effects were now obtained by veneering,
+which was largely coming into practice. The
+pieces with the burr-walnut panels, marked in a series
+of knot-like rings, are especially sought after. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">{140}</a></span>
+pattern was obtained from the gnarled roots of the
+walnut-tree, and applied in a decorative manner with
+excellent result.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 376px;">
+<img src="images/img142.jpg" width="376" height="500" alt="OAK CUPBOARD." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+T. E. Price Stretche, Esq.</i><br />
+<br />
+OAK CUPBOARD. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+Metal handles of drawers, eighteenth century.<br />
+<br />
+(Height 6 ft. 7 in.; width, 4 ft. 6 in.)</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">{141}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img143.jpg" width="500" height="361" alt="QUEEN ANNE WALNUT CABINET." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Brown &amp; Bool.</i><br />
+<br />
+Cabinet closed; showing fine mottled figure of
+burr walnut.<br />
+Cabinet open; showing drop-down front and
+nest of drawers.<br />
+<br />
+QUEEN ANNE WALNUT CABINET.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">{143}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img145.jpg" width="500" height="370" alt="DUTCH MARQUETRY CHAIR. QUEEN ANNE CHAIR." title="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">DUTCH MARQUETRY CHAIR.</td><td align="center">QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Hampton &amp; Sons.</i></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img145_2.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="QUEEN ANNE WALNUT ARMCHAIR. BLACK AND GOLD LAC CHAIR." title="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">QUEEN ANNE WALNUT ARMCHAIR.</td><td align="center">BLACK AND GOLD LAC CHAIR.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<i>By permission of Messrs. Waring.</i></div>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">{145}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the fine cabinet, the illustration of which is
+given (p. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>), the style is typical of this period.
+The panels of the doors are of exquisite finish, and
+show a beautiful walnut grain of peculiarly-pleasing
+mottled appearance, and the mellow effect which
+time has given to this specimen cannot be imitated
+with any degree of success in modern replicas. In
+the illustration showing this piece when open, the
+rich effect of the walnut in the middle panel may be
+noticed; the contemporary brass handles to the
+nest of drawers are typical of this style.</p>
+
+<p>In chairs and in tables the elegant cabriole and
+colt's-foot legs were now commonly adopted, and
+apparently, simple as is the construction, it is only
+when Queen Anne pieces come to be repaired that it
+is found how expensive an undertaking it is, owing
+to their ingenious construction and the patient labour
+that was expended upon them, to produce unpretentious
+and harmonious effects.</p>
+
+<p>The assertively English spirit which was the
+dominant note of the furniture of the early eighteenth
+century continued up till the early years of the reign
+of George II. During this period, which covers half
+a century, walnut was the wood mostly used in the
+manufacture of furniture, and this walnut period
+shows a quiet dignity of style and a simple proportion,
+reticently elegant and inornate without being
+severe.</p>
+
+<p>The Queen Anne oak settle, with shaped panelled
+back and scroll arms, which appears as the headpiece
+to this chapter, is especially representative of the kind
+of piece in common use at the time; oak was still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">{146}</a></span>
+employed in furniture of this nature. The legs show
+the newer design, which was already departing from
+the elegant turning of earlier Jacobean days.</p>
+
+<p>In the Queen Anne chair which is illustrated in the
+group of chairs of this period (p. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>), with open back
+and carved scroll foliage, the cabriole legs are finely
+carved with lion masks and acanthus leaf ornament,
+on lion's claw-and-ball feet. The seat is removable,
+and is stuffed. Queen Anne chairs had high carved
+or plain splat backs. The armchair in the same
+group shows this type of back. The Dutch shell-pattern
+often appears either on back or at the juncture
+of the leg with the seat. Chairs decorated in
+marquetry, in Dutch fashion, were in use at this
+period. The one illustrated with the two above-mentioned
+chairs is inlaid with birds and flowers,
+and the legs are cabriole. The seat follows the
+growing usage of being loose and stuffed.</p>
+
+<p>Dutch marquetry cabinets on stands, with straight
+uprights, were imported and became a feature in the
+early eighteenth century drawing-room (see illustration,
+p. <a href="#Page_147">147</a>). The earlier forms had straight sides,
+but later, as the fashion grew, bureaux and large
+cabinets, with the dimensions of a modern wardrobe,
+had taken their place, with <i>bombé</i> or swelled sides,
+and profusely decorated in marquetry, with vases
+and tulips and unnamed flowers of the cabinetmaker's
+invention, birds, butterflies, and elaborate
+scrollwork, in which ivory and mother-of-pearl were
+often employed as an inlay.</p>
+
+<p>The stands on which the smaller cabinets stood
+were turned with the spiral leg of Jacobean days, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">{147}</a></span>
+later they have the cabriole leg, with ball-and-claw
+or club feet. Cabinets
+and stands are
+frequently found
+together, in which
+the one is much
+earlier than the
+other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 222px;">
+<img src="images/img149.jpg" width="222" height="500" alt="DUTCH MARQUETRY CABINET." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Hampton &amp; Sons.</i><br />
+<br />
+DUTCH MARQUETRY CABINET.<br />
+<br />
+Fitted with shelves. Door richly inlaid with
+flowers and scrolled foliage. On stand with
+turned legs and stretcher.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rich damask began
+to be used in
+the furnishing of
+hangings, and in
+some of the palatial
+furniture of the
+period the looms
+of Spitalfields produced
+the coverings.
+In Queen
+Anne's bedroom
+the hangings were
+of rich silk velvet.</p>
+
+<p>Clocks of the
+variety termed
+"Grandfather,"
+either with fine
+walnut cases or
+inlaid with marquetry,
+came into
+more general use in
+the days of Queen
+Anne. An elaboration
+of carving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">{148}</a></span>
+on grandfather clock cases
+as a rule is to be regarded
+with suspicion. Plain panels
+are not so saleable as carved
+ones; the want is supplied,
+and many fine old clock
+cases are spoiled by having
+the touch of a modern hand.
+The clock illustrated is an
+untouched specimen. The
+walnut case is a fine example
+of Queen Anne marquetry
+work. The works are by
+Sam Barrow, Hermitage
+Bridge, London. The steel
+dial is richly mounted with
+cupids, masks, and scrolls in
+chased brass.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 156px;">
+<img src="images/img150.jpg" width="156" height="500" alt="QUEEN ANNE CLOCK." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Hampton &amp; Sons.</i><br />
+<br />
+QUEEN ANNE CLOCK.<br />
+<br />
+Walnut case with marquetry work.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Towards the middle of the
+eighteenth century and later,
+cabinets of Dutch importation,
+and Japanese or Chinese
+in origin, were extensively
+in use. In smaller numbers
+they had, without doubt, in
+the days of William and
+Mary, been introduced, but it
+was not until the commerce
+with the East had been
+well established that they
+became popular. In the
+cabinet illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">{149}</a></span>
+the cabinet-work is English, the drawers are all
+dovetailed in the English manner, but the lacquered
+doors come from the East. It is an especially
+interesting example, as the pagoda-like superstructure
+is not often found complete.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img151.jpg" width="500" height="437" alt="QUEEN ANNE OAK SETTLE. DATED 1705." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of Messrs. Waring.</i><br />
+<br />
+QUEEN ANNE OAK SETTLE. DATED 1705.<br />
+<br />
+With borders in marquetry.<br />
+<br />
+(Width, 5 ft.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">{150}</a></span>
+<img src="images/img152.jpg" width="355" height="500" alt="OLD LAC CABINET." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Brown &amp; Bool.</i><br />
+<br />
+OLD LAC CABINET.<br />
+ENGLISH; EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lacquered boxes had been sent home from the
+East by English, French, and Dutch merchants, for
+many years, and with characteristic ingenuity the
+French cabinetmakers had employed these as panels
+for their furniture, but the supply not being sufficient
+they had attempted a lacquer of their own, which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">{151}</a></span>
+dealt with in a subsequent chapter on Louis XIV.
+furniture. Dutch lacquer-work was a similar attempt
+on the part of the craftsman of Holland to equal the
+Oriental originals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<img src="images/img153.jpg" width="372" height="450" alt="LAC CABINET." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LAC CABINET. MIDDLE OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+(Height, 2 ft. 5 in.; width, 2 ft. 8&frac12; in.; depth, 1 ft. 6&frac12; in.; height of stand, 2 ft. 9 in.)<br />
+<br />
+(<i>From the collection of W. G. Honey, Esq., Cork.</i>)</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">{152}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img154.jpg" width="300" height="263" alt="FRONT OF LAC CABINET." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>W. G. Honey, Esq., Cork.</i><br />
+<br />
+FRONT OF LAC CABINET (ILLUSTRATED),
+WITH DOORS CLOSED.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the early eighteenth century the English craftsman
+tried his skill at lacquered furniture, it is true
+not with very successful results, but it is interesting
+to see what he has left as attempts. The illustration
+(p. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>) of a chair in black and gold lac is of English
+manufacture. The splat back and the cabriole leg
+give the date, and the specimen is a noteworthy
+example. Another piece of the first half of the
+eighteenth century
+period is the
+lac cabinet illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>).
+The metal hinges
+and corners of
+this are of chased
+brass and of English
+or Dutch
+workmanship.
+The shape and
+design of the
+drawer handles
+are frequently
+found in nests of
+drawers of this period, and there was a singular fondness
+shown at this time for numbers of small drawers
+and pigeon-holes in furniture. The now familiar
+bureau with bookcase above, and drop-down, sloping
+front covering drawers and recesses, dates from this
+time. The escutcheon of the lac cabinet is illustrated
+in detail as a tailpiece to this chapter to show the
+particular style of work found on the locks and hinges
+and drawer-handles of pieces of this nature. As has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">{153}</a></span>
+been said before, it is especially useful to the collector
+to make himself thoroughly familiar with these details
+of the various periods.</p>
+
+<p>It may be readily imagined that at a time when
+cards were the passion of everybody in society, the
+card-table became a necessary piece of furniture in
+eighteenth-century days, just before the dawn of the
+great age of mahogany, when Chippendale, and the
+school that followed him, eagerly worked in the wood
+which Raleigh discovered. They produced countless
+forms, both original and adapted from the French,
+which have enriched the <i>répertoire</i> of the cabinetmaker
+and which have brought fame to the man
+whose designs added lustre to the reputation of
+English furniture.</p>
+
+
+<h2>RECENT SALE PRICES.<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">£</td><td align="center">s.</td><td align="center">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, six, mahogany, single, and one armchair to match, with shaped legs
+and openwork backs (early eighteenth century). F. W. Kidd, &amp; Neale &amp; Son, Nottingham, November
+11, 1903</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, eight Queen Anne, walnut-wood, with high backs, on slightly cabriole
+legs, with stretchers. Christie, December 11, 1903</td><td align="right">33</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">{154}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Armchair, Queen Anne, large walnut-wood, carved with foliage, the arms
+terminating in masks, on carved cabriole legs and lion's-claw feet.
+Christie, March 29, 1904</td><td align="right">50</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet, Queen Anne, the lower part fitted with escritoire, the upper part
+with numerous drawers, shaped cornice above, 3 ft. 6 in. by 7 ft. 6 in.
+Puttick &amp; Simpson, April 12, 1904</td><td align="right">34</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, four Queen Anne, walnut-wood, with interlaced backs carved with
+rosettes and a shell at the top, on cabriole legs carved with shells and
+foliage; and a pair of chairs made to match. Christie, July 8, 1904</td><td align="right">44</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img156.jpg" width="400" height="314" alt="CHASED BRASS ESCUTCHEON OF LAC CABINET (ILLUSTRATED)." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>W. G. Honey Esq., Cork.</i><br />
+<br />
+CHASED BRASS ESCUTCHEON OF LAC CABINET (ILLUSTRATED).<br />
+<br />
+(Width, 10&frac12; in.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the kindness of the proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i>,
+these items are given from their useful monthly publication,
+<i>Auction Sale Prices</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">{155}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI<br />
+<br />
+FRENCH FURNITURE.<br />
+THE PERIOD OF<br />
+LOUIS XIV</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">{157}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img159.jpg" width="450" height="290" alt="CASSETTE. FRENCH; SEVENTEENTH CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By kind permission, from the
+collection of Dr. Sigerson, Dublin.</i><br />
+<br />
+CASSETTE. FRENCH; SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+<br />
+Containing many secret drawers.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>VI<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" >
+<tr><td align="left"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>Louis XIV.</b> (1643-1715), covering English periods of Civil War, Commonwealth,
+Charles II., James II., William and Mary, and Anne.</p></td>
+<td align="left" class="bl"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1619-1683.</b> Colbert, Minister of Finance and patron of the arts.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1661-1687.</b> Versailles built.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1662.</b> Gobelins Tapestry Works started by Colbert; Le Brun
+first director (1662-1690).</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1664.</b> Royal Academy of Painting, Architecture, and
+Sculpture founded by Colbert, to which designs of furniture were admitted.</p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>In order to arrive at a sense of proportion as to the
+value of English furniture and its relation to contemporary
+art in Europe, it is necessary to pass under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">{158}</a></span>
+hasty examination the movements that were taking
+place in France in the creation of a new style in
+furniture under the impulses of the epoch of the
+<i>Grande Monarque</i>. To estimate more correctly the
+styles of the Early Jacobean and of the later English
+furniture extending to the days of Chippendale and
+Sheraton, it must be borne in mind that England
+was not always so insular in art as the days of Queen
+Anne would seem to indicate. It is impossible for the
+cabinetmakers and the craftsmen to have utterly
+ignored the splendours of France. Louis XIV. had
+a long and eventful reign, which extended from the
+days when Charles I. was marshalling his forces to
+engage in civil war with the Parliament down to the
+closing years of Queen Anne. During his minority
+it cannot be said that Louis XIV. influenced art in
+furniture, but from 1661, contemporary with Charles
+II., when he assumed the despotic power that he
+exercised for half a century, his love of sumptuousness,
+and his personal supervision of the etiquette of a
+formal Court, in which no detail was omitted to
+surround royalty with magnificence, made him the
+patron of the fine arts, and gave his Court the most
+splendid prestige in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>As a headpiece to this chapter we give a very fine
+example of a <i>cassette</i>, or strong box, of the time of
+Louis XIV. It is securely bound with metal bands
+of exquisite design. The interior is fitted with a
+number of secret drawers.</p>
+
+<p>In the illustration (p. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>) it will be seen that the
+chair of the period of Louis Treize differed in no great
+respects from the furniture under the early Stuarts in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">{159}</a></span>
+this country. This design is by the celebrated Crispin
+de Passe, and the date is when Charles I. raised his
+standard at Nottingham, a year prior to the birth of
+Louis XIV.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 309px;">
+<img src="images/img161.jpg" width="309" height="500" alt="CHAIR OF PERIOD OF LOUIS XIII." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHAIR OF PERIOD OF LOUIS XIII.
+<br />
+DESIGNED BY CRISPIN DE PASSE, 1642.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the reign of Louis XIV.,
+tables, armoires, and cabinets were
+designed on architectural principles.
+Under the guiding influence
+of Colbert, Minister of Finance,
+architects and cabinetmakers were
+selected to design furniture for the
+Tuileries, the Louvre, and Fontainebleau.
+In the
+early years of the
+reign furniture was
+made with severe
+lines, but gradually
+it became the practice
+to fashion larger
+pieces. Immense
+tables with sumptuous
+decoration, on
+gilded claw-feet, and
+having tops inlaid
+with <i>pietra-dura</i> intended
+to carry
+bronze groups and
+porphyry vases,
+were made at the
+Gobelins factory, under the direction of the celebrated
+Le Brun. This artist loved grandeur and gorgeousness
+in decoration, and in accord with the personal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">{160}</a></span>
+ideas of Louis XIV., who had an inordinate love for
+perfect symmetry, huge pieces of furniture were built
+in magnificent manner to please the taste of the
+<i>Grande Monarque</i>. Men of genius were employed in
+the manufacture of tapestries, of furniture, and of
+metal mountings, and the interior decorations of the
+palaces were designed in harmony with the furniture
+intended for use therein.</p>
+
+<p>The most illustrious among the cabinetmakers was
+André Charles Boule, who was made, in 1673, by
+letters patent, <i>Premier ébéniste de la maison royale</i>.
+The work of this artist in wood has attained a worldwide
+celebrity, and his name even has been corrupted
+into "buhl" to denote a particular class of work
+which he perfected. His most notable productions
+are the finely chased ormolu, in which he was an
+accomplished worker, and the inlay of tortoiseshell
+and brass, sometimes varied with ebony or silver,
+which have remained the wonder of succeeding
+generations.</p>
+
+<p>Boule was born in 1642, and lived till 1732. The
+first Boule, termed "<i>Le Père</i>," he was succeeded by no
+less than four sons and nephews of the same name, in
+addition to his pupils who carried on his traditions at
+the Boule <i>atelier</i>, and a crowd of later imitators, even
+up to the present day, have followed his style in lavish
+decoration without being possessed of his skill.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy and in France marquetry of considerable
+delicacy and of fine effect had been produced long
+before the epoch of Louis XIV., but it was Boule
+who introduced a novelty into marquetry by his
+veneered work, which rapidly grew into favour till it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">{161}</a></span>
+developed into cruder colouring in inlays and unbridled
+licence in ornamentation, to which its originator
+would never have given countenance.</p>
+
+<p>The pieces of furniture usually associated with him
+are massive structures of ebony with their surfaces
+covered with tortoiseshell, in which are inlaid
+arabesques, scrolls, and foliage in thin brass or other
+metal. Upon the surface of this metal inlay further
+ornamentation was chased with the burin. This
+alternation of tortoiseshell and brass forms a brilliant
+marquetry. Into the chased designs on the metal a
+black enamel was introduced to heighten the effect,
+which was further increased by portions of the wood
+beneath the semi-transparent tortoiseshell being
+coloured black or brown or red; sometimes a bluish-green
+was used. Later imitators, not content with the
+beautiful effect of tortoiseshell, used horn in parts,
+which is more transparent, and they did not fear the
+garish effect of blue or vermilion underneath. Boule's
+creations, set in massive mounts and adornments of
+masks and bas-reliefs, cast in gilt-bronze and chased,
+were pieces of furniture of unsurpassed magnificence,
+and especially designed for the mirrored splendours
+of the <i>salons</i> of Versailles.</p>
+
+<p>In boule-work all parts of the marquetry are held
+down by glue to the bed, usually of oak, the metal
+being occasionally fastened down by small brass
+pins, which are hammered flat and chased over so
+as to be imperceptible.</p>
+
+<p>In order to economise the material, Boule, when
+his marquetry became in demand, employed a process
+which led to the use of the technical terms, <i>boule</i> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">{162}</a></span>
+<i>counter-boule</i>. The brass and the tortoiseshell were
+cut into thin sheets. A number of sheets of brass
+were clamped together with the same number of
+sheets of tortoiseshell. The design was then cut out,
+the result being that each sheet of tortoiseshell had a
+design cut out of it, into which the same design from
+one of the sheets of brass would exactly fit. Similarly
+each sheet of brass had a design cut out of it into
+which a corresponding piece of tortoiseshell would fit.
+That in which the ground is of tortoiseshell and the
+inlaid portion is brass, is considered the better, and is
+called <i>boule</i>, or the <i>première partie</i>. That in which
+the groundwork is brass and the design inlaid is of
+tortoiseshell, is called <i>counter-boule</i> or <i>contre-partie</i>.
+This latter is used for side panels.</p>
+
+<p>An examination of the specimens preserved in the
+Louvre, at the Jones Bequest at the Victoria and
+Albert Museum, or in the Wallace Collection will
+enable the student to see more readily how this
+practice works out in the finished result. In the
+illustration (p. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>) of the two pedestals the effect of
+the employment of <i>boule</i> and <i>counter-boule</i> is shown.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;">
+<img src="images/img165.jpg" width="388" height="500" alt="PEDESTALS SHOWING BOULE AND COUNTER-BOULE WORK." title="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">(<i>a.</i>)</td><td align="right">(<i>b.</i>)</td></tr>
+</table>
+PEDESTALS SHOWING BOULE AND COUNTER-BOULE WORK.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Wallace Collection.</i>)<br />
+<br />
+(a) Boule or
+<i>première partie</i>.<br />
+(b) Counter-boule or
+<i>contre-partie</i>.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Associated with Boule is Jean Bérain, who had a
+fondness for the Italian style; his designs are more
+symmetrically correct, both in ornamental detail and
+in architectural proportion. His conceptions are
+remarkable for their fanciful elaboration, and their
+wealth of profuse scrollwork. In the French national
+collections at the Louvre, at Versailles, and elsewhere
+there are many beautiful examples of his chandeliers
+of magnificent carved and gilded work. The freedom
+of the spiral arms and complex coils he introduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">{165}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a></span>
+into his candelabra have never been equalled as
+harmonious portions of a grandly conceived scheme of
+magnificent interior decoration, to which, in the days
+of Louis XIV., so much artistic talent was devoted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;">
+<img src="images/img167.jpg" width="284" height="450" alt="BOULE CABINET." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BOULE CABINET, OR ARMOIRE.<br />
+<br />
+Valued at nearly £15,000.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Jones Bequest.</i><br />
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>With regard to the value of some of the specimens
+in the national collections, it is difficult to form an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">{166}</a></span>
+estimate. The Boule cabinet, probably designed by
+Bérain, executed by Boule for Louis XIV. (illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>) would, if put up for sale at Christie's, probably
+fetch £15,000. This piece is held to be grander in
+style than any in the galleries in France. At the
+Wallace Collection there are examples which would
+bring fabulous sums if sold. A cabinet by Boule,
+in the Jones Bequest, purchased by Mr. Jones for
+£3,000 in 1881, is now worth three times that sum.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the building, decorating, and furnishing of
+Versailles Louis XIV. spent over five hundred million
+francs, in addition to which there was the army of
+workmen liable to statute labour. Some twenty
+thousand men and six thousand horses were employed
+in 1684 at the different parts of the château
+and park. In May, 1685, there were no less than
+thirty-six thousand employed.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrious craftsmen who were employed upon
+the magnificent artistic interior decorations have
+transmitted their names to posterity. Bérain,
+Lepautre, Henri de Gissey, are the best known of
+the designers. Among the painters are the names of
+Audran, Baptiste, Jouvenet, Mignard, and the best
+known of the sculptors are Coustou and Van Clève.
+Of the woodcarvers, metal-chasers, locksmiths, and
+gilders Pierre Taupin, Ambroise Duval, Delobel, and
+Goy are names of specialists in their own craft who
+transformed Versailles from a royal hunting-box into
+one of the most splendid palaces in Europe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">{167}</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2>RECENT SALE PRICES.<a name="FNanchor_1_6" id="FNanchor_1_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_6" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">£</td><td align="center">s.</td><td align="center">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Commode, Louis XIV., of inlaid king-wood, with two drawers, mounted
+with handles and masks at the corners of chased ormolu, and surmounted
+by a fleur violette marble slab, 52 in. wide. Christie, January
+22, 1904</td><td align="right">31</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Show-cabinet, of Louis XIV. design, inlaid king-wood, with glazed folding
+doors, ormolu mounts, chased and surmounted by vases, 73 in.
+high, 46 in. wide. Christie, April 12, 1904</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Casket, Louis XIV., black Boule, inlaid with Cupids, vases of flowers and
+scrolls, and fitted with four tortoiseshell and gold picqué shell-shaped
+snuff boxes. Christie, April 19, 1904</td><td align="right">73</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Commode, Louis XIV., Boule, of sarcophagus form, containing two drawers,
+at either corners are detached cabriole legs, the various panels are inlaid
+with brass and tortoiseshell, the whole is mounted with ormolu,
+surmounted by a slab of veined marble, 49 in. wide. Christie, May
+27, 1904</td><td align="right">57</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_6" id="Footnote_1_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_6"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the kindness of the proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i>,
+these items are reproduced from their useful monthly publication,
+<i>Auction Sale Prices</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">{169}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a></span></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII<br />
+<br />
+FRENCH FURNITURE.<br />
+THE PERIOD OF<br />
+LOUIS XV</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">{171}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img173.jpg" width="450" height="338" alt="COMMODE, BY CRESSENT." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Foley &amp; Eassie.</i><br />
+<br />
+COMMODE, BY CRESSENT.<br />
+<br />
+(From a drawing by Walter Eassie.)<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Wallace Collection.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>VII<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;;">FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XV</span></h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Louis XV.</td><td align="left">1715-1774</td><td align="left"  class="bl"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Petit Trianon built at Versailles.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Meissonier, Director of Royal Factories (1723-1774).</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Watteau (1684-1721). Pater (1695-1736).</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;">Lancret (1690-1743). Boucher (1704-1770).</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1751.</b> The leading ébénistes compelled to stamp their work with their names.</p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Louis XIV. died in the year following the death of
+Queen Anne, so that it will be readily seen that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">{172}</a></span>
+English art was uninfluenced by France in the days
+of William and Mary, and how insular it had become
+under Anne. The English craftsman was not fired
+by new impulses from France during such an outburst
+of decorative splendour. The reign of Louis XV.
+extends from George I. down to the eleventh year of
+the reign of George III., which year saw the cargoes
+of tea flung into Boston harbour and the beginning
+of the war with America.</p>
+
+<p>In glancing at the Louis Quinze style it will be
+observed how readily it departed from the studied
+magnificence of Louis XIV. In attempting elegance
+of construction and the elimination of much that was
+massive and cumbersome in the former style, it
+developed in its later days into meaningless ornament
+and trivial construction. At first it possessed considerable
+grace, but towards the end of the reign the
+designs ran riot in rococo details, displaying incongruous
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>It was the age of the elegant boudoir, and the
+bedroom became a place for more intimate guests
+than those received in the large reception-room. In
+the days of Louis XIV. the bed was a massive
+structure, but in the succeeding reign it became an
+elegant appendage to a room. At Versailles the
+splendid galleries of magnificent proportion were
+transformed by the Duke of Orleans, Regent of
+France (1715-1723) during the king's minority, into
+smaller <i>salons</i> covered in wainscoting, painted white
+and ornamented with gilded statues. In like manner
+the Louis Quinze decorations were ruthlessly destroyed
+by Louis-Philippe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">{173}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img175.jpg" width="450" height="317" alt="LOUIS XV. PARQUETERY COMMODE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of Messrs. Waring.</i><br />
+<br />
+LOUIS XV. PARQUETERY COMMODE.<br />
+<br />
+With chased and bronze-gilt mounts.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Formerly in the Hamilton Palace Collection.</i>)</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">{175}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img177.jpg" width="450" height="263" alt="LOUIS XV. COMMODE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LOUIS XV. COMMODE.
+<br />
+BY CAFFIERI.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">{177}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>The commode in the Wallace Collection (illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>) is of the time when Louis XV. was in his
+minority, and of the days of the Regency. It is by
+Charles Cressent (1685-1768), who was cabinetmaker
+to Philippe d'Orleans, Regent of France. This is an
+especially typical specimen of the class to which it
+belongs as showing the transition style between
+Louis XIV. and the succeeding reign.</p>
+
+<p>To establish Louis the Fifteenth's <i>petits appartements</i>
+the gallery painted by Mignard was demolished,
+and later, in 1752, the Ambassadors' Staircase was
+destroyed, the masterpiece of the architects Levau
+and Dorbay, and the marvel of Louis the Fourteenth's
+Versailles.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to bear these facts in mind in order
+to see how a new French monarch set ruthlessly new
+fashions in furniture and created a taste for his
+personal style in art. In the first part of the Louis
+Quinze period the metal mountings by Caffieri and
+Cressent are of exquisite style; they are always of
+excellent workmanship, but later they betrayed the
+tendency of the time for fantastic curves, which had
+affected the furniture to such an extent that no
+straight lines were employed, and the sides of commodes
+and other pieces were swelled into unwieldy
+proportions, and instead of symmetrical and harmonious
+results the florid style, known as the
+"rococo," choked all that was beautiful in design.
+Meissonier, Director of the Royal Factories (1723-1774),
+was mainly responsible for this unnatural
+development. He revelled in elaborate combinations
+of shellwork and impossible foliage.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">{178}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the Louis XV. commodes illustrated (pp. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>)
+it will be seen how far superior is the design and treatment
+of the one which was formerly in the celebrated
+Hamilton Collection. Its chased and gilt mounts are
+harmoniously arranged, and though the ornamentation
+is superbly rich, it breaks no canons of art by
+overloaded detail or coarse profusion. Not so much
+can be said for the other commode of the rococo
+style, even though the mounts be by Caffieri and
+executed in masterly manner. There is a wanton
+abandonment and an offensive tone in the florid
+treatment which point clearly to the decline of taste
+in art.</p>
+
+<p>The highest art of concealment was not a prominent
+feature in a Court which adopted its style
+from the caprices of Madame du Pompadour or the
+whims of Madame du Barry. But among the finest
+productions are the splendid pieces of reticent cabinetmaking
+by the celebrated Jean François Oeben, who
+came from Holland. His preference was for geometrical
+patterns, varied only with the sparing use of
+flowers, in producing his most delicate marquetry.
+In the pieces by Boule and others, not in tortoiseshell
+but in wood inlay, the wood was so displayed
+as to exhibit in the panels the grain radiating from
+the centre. Oeben did not forget this principle, and
+placed his bouquets of flowers, when, on occasion, he
+used them, in the centre of his panels, and filled up
+the panel with geometric design.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">{179}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;">
+<img src="images/img181.jpg" width="333" height="400" alt="LOUIS XV. ESCRITOIRE À TOILETTE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LOUIS XV. <i>ESCRITOIRE À TOILETTE</i>.<br />
+<br />
+Of tulip-wood and sycamore, inlaid with landscapes in coloured woods.<br />
+<br />
+Formerly in the possession of Queen Marie Antoinette.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Jones Bequest: Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The well-known maker, Charles Cressent (1685-1768),
+used rosewood, violet, and amaranth woods in
+his marquetry, and at this time many new foreign
+woods were employed by the cabinetmakers in France
+and Italy. In addition to woods of a natural colour,
+it was the practice artificially to colour light woods,
+and inlay work was attempted in which trophies of
+war, musical instruments, or the shepherd's crook<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">{180}</a></span>
+hung with ribbon, were all worked out in marquetry.
+Pictures, in coloured woods, in imitation of oil paintings
+on canvas, were foolishly attempted, and altogether
+the art of inlay, ingenious and wonderful in its construction,
+began to affect trivialities and surprising
+effects most unsuited to the range of its technique.</p>
+
+<p>In the toilet-table illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>), this misapplication
+of inlay to reproduce pictures is seen on the
+three front panels and on the middle panel above.
+The chief woods employed are tulip and sycamore,
+inlaid with tinted lime, holly, and cherry-woods.
+The mountings of the table are chased ormolu. The
+cylindrical front encloses drawers with inlaid fronts.
+Beneath this is a sliding shelf, under which is a
+drawer with three compartments, fitted with toilet
+requisites and having inlaid lids. This specimen of
+Louis Quinze work is in the Jones Collection at the
+Victoria and Albert Museum. It was formerly in
+the possession of Queen Marie Antoinette. It is
+attributed to Oeben, though from comparison with
+some of the chaster work known to have come from
+his hand it would seem to be of too fanciful marquetry
+for his restrained and sober style.</p>
+
+<p>It is especially true of the furniture of this great
+French period that it requires harmonious surroundings.
+The slightest false touch throws everything
+out of balance at once. Of this fact the inventors
+were well aware. If Dutch furniture requires the
+quiet, restful art of Cuyp or Van der Neer, or Metzu
+or Jan Steen on the surrounding walls, the interiors
+of Louis Quinze demand the works of contemporary
+French genre-painters.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">{181}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img183.jpg" width="310" height="400" alt="LOUIS XV. SECRÉTAIRE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LOUIS XV. SECRÉTAIRE.<br />
+<br />
+By Riesener, in his earlier manner.<br />
+<br />
+IN TRANSITIONAL STYLE, APPROACHING LOUIS
+SEIZE PERIOD.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Wallace Collection.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All things worked together to produce a harmonious
+<i>ensemble</i> in this brilliant period. The royal tapestry
+and Sèvres porcelain factories turned out their most
+beautiful productions to decorate rooms, furniture,
+and for the table. Tapestries from Beauvais, Gobelins,
+and Aubusson, rich silks from the looms of Lyons,
+or from Lucca, Genoa, or Venice were made for wall-hangings,
+for chair-backs, for seats, and for sofas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">{182}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Fragonard, Natoire, and Boucher painted lunettes
+over chimney-fronts, or panels of ceilings. Of great
+cabinetmakers, Riesener and David Roentgen,
+princes among <i>ébénistes</i>, worked in wonderful manner
+in tulip-wood, in holly, in rosewood, purple wood, and
+laburnum to produce marquetry, the like of which
+has never been seen before nor since.</p>
+
+<p>Associated with the period of Louis XV. is the
+love for the lacquered panel. Huygens, a Dutchman,
+had achieved good results in imitations of Oriental
+lacquer, which in France, under the hand of Martin,
+a carriage-painter, born about 1706, rivalled the
+importations from Japan. It is stated that the secret
+of the fine, transparent lac polish that he used was
+obtained from the missionaries who resided in Japan
+before the date of the massacres and foreign expulsion
+of all except the Dutch traders. Vernis-Martin,
+as his varnish was termed, became in general request.
+From 1744 for twenty years, Sieur Simon Etienne
+Martin was granted a monopoly to manufacture this
+lacquered work in the Oriental style. Although he
+declared that his secret would die with him, other
+members of his family continued the style, which was
+taken up by many imitators in the next reign. His
+varnish had a peculiar limpid transparency, and he
+obtained the wavy network of gold groundwork so
+successfully produced by Japanese and Chinese
+craftsmen. On this were delicately painted, by
+Boucher and other artists, Arcadian subjects, framed
+in rocaille style with gold thickly laid on, and so
+pure that in the bronze gilding and in the woodwork
+it maintains its fine lustre to the present day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">{183}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 376px;">
+<img src="images/img185.jpg" width="376" height="500" alt="THE &quot;BUREAU DU ROI.&quot;" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Foley &amp; Eassie.</i><br />
+<br />
+THE &quot;BUREAU DU ROI.&quot;<br />
+THE MASTERPIECE OF RIESENER.<br />
+<br />
+(From a drawing by Walter Eassie.)<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Wallace Collection.</i>)</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">{185}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the reign of Louis XV. a
+new style set in, which reverted to simpler tastes, to
+which the name "<i>À la reine</i>" was given, in deference
+to the taste which is supposed to have emanated from
+Marie Leczinska, the queen, but is said to have been
+due to Madame du Pompadour.</p>
+
+<p>At the Wallace Collection is a fine secrétaire, with
+the mounts and ornaments of gilt bronze cast and
+chased, which is illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>). The central
+panel of marquetry shows, in life size, a cock, with
+the caduceus, a snake, a banner, and symbolical instruments.
+It is by Jean François Riesener, and in
+his earliest manner, made in the later years of Louis
+Quinze in the Transitional style approaching the
+Louis Seize period.</p>
+
+<p>Among the wonderful creations of Riesener, probably
+his masterpiece is the celebrated "Bureau du
+Roi," begun in 1760 by Oeben, and completed in
+1769 by Riesener&mdash;who married the widow of Oeben,
+by the way. Its bronzes are by Duplesis, Winant, and
+Hervieux. The design and details show the transition
+between the Louis Quinze and the Louis Seize styles.</p>
+
+<p>The original, which is at the Louvre, is in marquetry
+of various coloured woods and adorned by plaques
+of gilt bronze, cast and chased. The copy from
+which our illustration is taken (p. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>) is in the
+Wallace Collection, and is by Dasson, and follows the
+original in proportions, design, and technique.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">{186}</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2>RECENT SALE PRICES.<a name="FNanchor_1_7" id="FNanchor_1_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_7" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">{187}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">£</td><td align="center">s.</td><td align="center">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Table, Louis XV., oblong, the legs are cabriole, it contains one drawer and
+a writing-slide; around the sides are inlaid panels of old Japanese lacquer,
+each panel bordered by elaborate scrollwork of chased ormolu, signed
+with "B. V. R. B.," surmounted by a slab of white marble, 39 in. wide.
+Christie, December 18, 1903</td><td align="right">1900</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Writing-table, Louis XV., marquetry, with sliding top and drawer, fitted
+with movable writing slab, compartment for ink-vases, &amp;c., signed "L.
+Doudin," Louis XV. form, with cabriole legs, the top decorated with
+scrolls forming panels, the centre one containing a Teniers figure subject,
+parquetry and inlays of flowers round the sides, corner mounts, &amp;c.,
+of ormolu, cast and chased, 30 in. wide. Christie, March 18, 1904</td><td align="right">630</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cartonnière, Louis XV., of inlaid tulip-wood, containing a clock by Palanson,
+à Paris, mounted with Chinese figures, masks, foliage and scrolls of chased
+ormolu, 48 in. high, 36 in. wide. Christie, April 22, 1904</td><td align="right">409</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Secrétaires, pair, Louis XV., small marquetry, with fall-down front, drawer
+above and door below, inlaid with branches of flowers, and mounted
+with chased ormolu, surmounted by white marble slabs, 46 in. high, 22 in.
+wide. Christie, April 29, 1904</td><td align="right">46</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cabinet, Louis XV., parquetry, with folding doors enclosing drawers, mounted
+with ormolu, surmounted by a Brescia marble slab, 30 in. high, 44 in. wide.
+Christie, April 29, 1904</td><td align="right">31</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bergères, pair of Louis XV., corner-shaped, the frames of carved and gilt wood,
+the seats and backs covered with old Beauvais tapestry. Christie, May 18,
+1904</td><td align="right">420</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Settee, Louis XV., oblong, of carved and gilt-wood, covered with panels of old
+Beauvais tapestry, 3 ft. 8 in. wide. Christie, May 18, 1904</td><td align="right">231</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Canapé, Louis XV., of carved and gilt wood, the borders carved with acanthus
+scrolls, the seat and back covered with old Beauvais silk tapestry,
+decorated, 4 ft. 6 in. wide. Christie, May 18, 1904</td><td align="right">420</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_7" id="Footnote_1_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_7"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the kindness of the proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i>
+these items are given from their useful monthly publication,
+<i>Auction Sale Prices</i>.</p></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">{189}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII<br />
+<br />
+FRENCH<br />
+FURNITURE.<br />
+THE PERIOD OF<br />
+LOUIS XVI</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">{191}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2>VIII<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;;">FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI</span></h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Louis XVI.</td><td align="left">1774-1793.</td><td align="left"  class="bl"><p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1730-1806.</b> Riesener, <i>ébéniste</i> to
+Marie Antoinette (born near
+Cologne).</p>
+<p style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 2em;"><b>1789.</b> Commencement of the
+French Revolution.</p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The so-called Louis Seize period embraces much
+that is good from the later days of the previous reign.
+The same designers were employed with the addition
+of a few younger men. Caffieri and Riesener were
+producing excellent work, and above all was Gouthière,
+whose renown as a founder and chaser of gilded
+bronze ornaments is unrivalled. Elegance and simplicity
+are again the prevailing notes. Straight lines
+took the place of the twisted contortions of the
+rococo style. Thin scrolls, garlands, ribbons and
+knots, classical cameo-shaped panels, and Sèvres
+plaques form the characteristic ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>The acanthus-leaf, distorted into unnatural proportions
+in the middle Louis Quinze period, returned
+to its normal shape, the egg-and-tongue moulding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">{192}</a></span>
+came into use, and the delicacy of the laurel-leaf was
+employed in design in Louis Seize decorations.</p>
+
+<p>In the jewel cabinet illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>), the new
+style is shown at its best. The cabinet is inlaid in
+rosewood and sycamore, and bears the name of
+"J. H. Riesener" stamped on it. The chased ormolu
+mounts are by Gouthière. The geometrical inlay is
+a tradition which Oeben left to his successors. The
+upper portion has a rising lid with internal trays. In
+the lower part is a drawer and a shelf. This piece is
+at the Victoria and Albert Museum in the Jones
+Bequest, and it is well worth detailed examination as
+being a representative specimen of the most artistic
+work produced at this period.</p>
+
+<p>Pierre Gouthière had a complete mastery over his
+technique. The estimation with which his work is
+regarded has made furniture which he mounted bring
+extraordinary prices. In 1882, at the dispersal of the
+celebrated Hamilton Palace Collection, three specimens
+with his workmanship realised £30,000.</p>
+
+<p>The Vernis-Martin panels were decorated by
+Watteau and Pater. The age of artificialities with
+its <i>fêtes-galantes</i> in the royal gardens of the Luxembourg
+and in the pleasure parks of the Court, with
+the ill-starred Marie Antoinette playing at shepherds
+and shepherdesses, had its influence upon art.
+Watteau employed his brush to daintily paint the
+attitudes of <i>Le Lorgneur</i> upon a fan-mount, or to
+depict elegantly dressed noblemen and ladies of the
+Court dancing elaborate minuets in satin shoes, or
+feasting from exquisite Sèvres porcelain dishes in the
+damp corner of some park or old château.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">{193}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<img src="images/img195.jpg" width="278" height="500" alt="LOUIS XVI. JEWEL CABINET." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LOUIS XVI. JEWEL CABINET.<br />
+<br />
+Inlaid in rose and sycamore woods. Stamped &quot;J. H. Riesener.&quot;
+Chased Ormolu mountings by Gouthière.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Jones Bequest. Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">{195}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>The artificial pretence at Arcadian simplicity
+adopted by the Queen, in the intervals between her
+attendance at public <i>bals-masqué</i>, when she almost
+wantonly outraged the susceptibilities of the French
+people by her frivolities, found a more permanent
+form in interior decorations. Riesener and David
+designed a great deal of furniture for her. Dainty
+work-tables and writing-tables and other furniture of
+an elegant description are preserved in the national
+collection in the Louvre and at Fontainebleau, in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum in the Jones Bequest,
+and in the Wallace Collection. Tables of this nature
+are most eagerly sought after. A small table with
+plaques of porcelain in the side panels, which is said
+to have belonged to Marie Antoinette, was sold at
+Christie's for £6,000 (Hamilton Collection). There
+is a similar writing-table in the Jones Collection,
+given by Marie Antoinette to Mrs. Eden, afterwards
+Lady Auckland.</p>
+
+<p>During the period under Louis Seize, when
+Fragonard and Natoire deftly painted the panels
+of rooms and filled ceilings with flying cupids
+and chains of roses, when Boucher was Director
+of the Academy, the interior of rooms assumed a
+boudoir-like appearance. The walls were decorated
+in a scheme of colour. Handsome fluted pillars
+with fine classic feeling were the framework of
+panelling painted in delicate and subdued tones.
+Oval mirrors, avoiding all massive construction,
+lightened the effect, and mantelpieces of white
+marble, and furniture evidently designed for use,
+completed the interiors of the homes of the <i>grands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">{196}</a></span>
+seigneurs</i>. Sometimes the walls were painted, giving
+a lustrous appearance resembling silk, and this style
+is the forerunner of the modern abomination known
+as wall-paper.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving this period of French furniture,
+when so much marquetry work was done of unsurpassed
+beauty and of unrivalled technique, a word
+may be said as to the number of woods used. Oeben
+and Riesener and their contemporaries used many
+foreign woods, of which the names are unfamiliar.
+Mr. Pollen, in his "South Kensington Museum
+Handbook to Furniture and Woodwork," has given
+the names of some of them, which are interesting as
+showing the number of woods especially selected for
+this artistic cabinetmaking. Tulip-wood is the
+variety known as <i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>. Rosewood
+was extensively used, and holly (<i>ilex aquifolium</i>), maple
+(<i>acer campestre</i>), laburnum (<i>cytisus Alpinus</i>), and
+purple wood (<i>copaifera pubiflora</i>). Snake-wood was
+frequently used, and other kinds of light-brown wood
+in which the natural grain is waved or curled,
+presenting a pleasant appearance, and obviating the
+use of marquetry (<i>see</i> "Woods used," p. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In the great collections to which reference has been
+made, in well-known pieces made by Riesener his
+name is found stamped on the panel itself, or sometimes
+on the oak lining. The large bureau in the
+Wallace Collection (Gallery xvi., No. 66) is both signed
+and dated "20th February, 1769." This piece, it is
+said, was ordered by Stanislas Leczinski, King of
+Poland, and was once one of the possessions of
+the Crown of France.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">{197}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img199.jpg" width="450" height="306" alt="LOUIS XVI. RIESENER COMMODE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Waring.</i><br />
+<br />
+LOUIS XVI. RIESENER COMMODE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>With regard to the cost of pieces of furniture
+by the great master <i>ébénistes</i>, it is on record that
+a secrétaire which was exhibited at Gore House
+in 1853, and made originally for Beaumarchais by
+Riesener, cost 85,000 francs, a sum not much
+less than £4,000. Celebrated copies have been
+made from these old models. The famous cabinet
+with mounts by Gouthière, now in the possession
+of the King, was copied about twenty-five years
+ago for the Marquis of Hertford, by permission
+of Queen Victoria. The piece took years to complete,
+and it is interesting to have the evidence of its
+copyists that the most difficult parts to imitate were
+the metal mounts. This replica cost some £3,000,
+and is now in the Wallace Collection. The copy
+of the famous bureau or escritoire in the Louvre,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">{198}</a></span>
+known as the "Bureau de St. Cloud," was made by
+permission of the Emperor Napoleon III., and cost
+£2,000. Another copy of the same piece exhibited
+at the French International Exhibition was sold for
+£3,500 to an English peeress. Many fine copies of
+Riesener's work exist, and in the illustration (p. <a href="#Page_197">197</a>)
+a copy is given of a handsome commode, which
+exhibits his best style under the influence of his
+master, Oeben.</p>
+
+
+<h2>RECENT SALE PRICES.<a name="FNanchor_1_8" id="FNanchor_1_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_8" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">£</td><td align="center">s.</td><td align="center">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinets, pair of Louis XVI., dwarf ebony, the panels inlaid with black and gold
+lacquer, decorated with birds and trees in the Chinese taste, mounted
+with foliage borders of chased ormolu, and surmounted by veined black
+marble slabs, 45 in. high, 35 in. wide. Christie, November 20, 1903</td><td align="right">39</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Suite of Louis XVI. furniture, with fluted borders and legs, painted white and
+pale green, the seats, backs, and arms covered with old Beauvais tapestry,
+with vases and festoons of flowers and conventional arabesques in poly-chrome,
+on white ground in pale green borders, consisting of an oblong
+settee, 72 in. wide, eight fauteuils. Christie, December 18, 1903</td><td align="right">1470</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">{199}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="center" rowspan="3" valign="top" style="white-space: nowrap">
+     </td>
+   <td valign="bottom" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 110pt">
+     }</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Secrétaire, Louis XVI., upright marquetry, with fall-down front, drawer
+above, and folding doors below, inlaid with hunting trophies on trellis-pattern
+ground, mounted with foliage, friezes, and corner mounts of chased
+ormolu, and surmounted by a Breccia marble slab, stamped "J. Stumpff.
+Me.," 56 in. high, 40 in. wide. Christie, February 12, 1904</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="2">315</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="2">0</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="2">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Commode, <i>en suite</i>, with five drawers, 58 in. wide. Christie, February 12,
+1904</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Work-table, Louis XVI., oval, in two tiers, upon a tripod stand, with double
+candle branches above; the top tier is composed of a Sèvres plaque,
+painted with sprays of roses; around this is a gallery of chased ormolu;
+the second tier is of parquetry, this has also a balcony; the tripod base
+is of mahogany, with mounts of ormolu, cast and chased; the nozzles
+for the two candles above are similar in material and decoration, width of
+top tier, 13 in. Christie, March 18, 1904</td><td align="right">714</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Table, Louis XVI., marquetry, signed "N. Petit," top inlaid with musical
+trophy, &amp;c., mounts, &amp;c., of ormolu, cast and chased, 30 in. wide. Christie,
+March 18, 1904</td><td align="right">99</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">{200}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Fauteuils, pair, Louis XVI. (stamped "J. Leglartier"), tapered oblong
+backs and curved arms, turned legs, white and gilt, covered with Beauvais
+tapestry, with subjects from "Fables de la Fontaine," and other designs.
+Flashman &amp; Co., Dover, April 26, 1904</td><td align="right">75</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3"  align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Console-table, Louis XVI., carved and painted wood, with fluted legs and
+stretchers, and open frieze in front, surmounted by a slab of white marble,
+5 ft. 4 in. wide. Christie, May 6, 1904</td><td align="right">46</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Commode, Louis XVI., containing three drawers, in front it is divided into
+three rectangular sunk panels of parquetry, each bordered with mahogany,
+with ormolu mounts, surmounted by a slab of fleur-de-pêche
+marble, 57 in. wide. Christie, May 27, 1904</td><td align="right">357</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Commode, Louis XVI., stamped with the name of "J. H. Reisener," with tambour
+panels in front and drawers at the top; it is chiefly composed of
+mahogany, the central panel inlaid in a coloured marquetry; on either
+side, and at the ends, are panels of tulip-wood parquetery, the whole is
+mounted with ormolu, surmounted by a slab of veined marble, 34 in. wide.
+Christie, May 27, 1904</td><td align="right">3150</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_8" id="Footnote_1_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_8"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the kindness of the proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i>
+these items are given from their useful monthly publication,
+<i>Auction Sale Prices</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a></span></p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX<br />
+<br />
+FRENCH<br />
+FURNITURE.<br />
+THE FIRST<br />
+EMPIRE STYLE</h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">{203}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img205.jpg" width="450" height="318" alt="PORTRAIT OF MADAME RÉCAMIER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PORTRAIT OF MADAME RÉCAMIER.
+<br />
+(After David.)<br />
+<br />
+Showing Empire settee and footstool.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>In the Louvre.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>IX<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;;">FRENCH FURNITURE&mdash;THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot" style="text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 3em;"><p><b>1789.</b> Commencement of French
+Revolution.</p>
+
+<p><b>1798.</b> Napoleon's campaign in
+Egypt.</p>
+
+<p><b>1805.</b> Napoleon prepares to invade
+England; Battle of
+Trafalgar; French naval
+power destroyed.</p>
+
+<p><b>1806.</b> Napoleon issued Berlin
+Decree to destroy trade of
+England.</p>
+
+<p><b>1812.</b> Napoleon invaded Russia,
+with disastrous retreat from
+Moscow.</p>
+
+<p><b>1814.</b> Napoleon abdicated.</p>
+
+<p><b>1815.</b> Wellington defeated Napoleon
+at Waterloo.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>When Louis XVI. called together the States-General
+in 1789, which had not met since 1614,
+the first stone was laid of the French Republic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">{204}</a></span>
+After the king was beheaded in 1793, the Reign
+of Terror followed, during which the wildest licence
+prevailed. Under the Directory, for four years from
+1795, the country settled down until the rise of
+Napoleon Bonaparte, who took the government in
+his own hands with the title of Consul, and in 1804
+called himself Emperor of the French.</p>
+
+<p>During the Reign of Terror the ruthless fury of a
+nation under mob-law did not spare the most
+beautiful objects of art which were associated with
+a hated aristocracy. Furniture especially suffered,
+and it is a matter for wonderment that so much
+escaped destruction. Most of the furniture of the
+royal palaces was consigned to the spoliation of
+"the Black Committee," who trafficked in works of
+great price, and sold to foreign dealers the gems
+of French art for less than a quarter of their real
+value. So wanton had become the destruction of
+magnificent furniture that the Convention, with an
+eye on the possibilities of raising money in the
+future, ordered the furniture to be safely stored
+in the museums of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>After so great a social upheaval, art in her turn
+was subjected to revolutionary notions. Men cast
+about to find something new. Art, more than ever,
+attempted to absorb the old classic spirit. The
+Revolution was the deathblow to Rococo ornament.
+With the classic influences came ideas from Egypt,
+and the excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii
+provided a further source of design. A detail of a
+portion of a tripod table found at Pompeii shows
+the nature of the beautiful furniture discovered.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">{205}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As early as 1763, Grimm wrote: "For some years
+past we are beginning to inquire for antique ornaments
+and forms. The interior and exterior decorations
+of houses, furniture, materials of dress, work
+of the goldsmiths, all bear alike the stamp of the
+Greeks. The fashion passes from
+architecture to millinery; our
+ladies have their hair dressed <i>à la
+Grecque</i>." A French translation
+of Winckelmann appeared in 1765,
+and Diderot lent his powerful aid
+in heralding the dawn of the
+revival of the antique long before
+the curtain went up on the events
+of 1789.</p>
+
+<p>Paris in Revolution days assumed
+the atmosphere of ancient Rome.
+Children were given Greek and
+Roman names. Classical things
+got rather mixed. People called
+themselves "Romans." Others had
+Athenian notions. Madame Vigée-Lebrun
+gave <i>soupers à la Grecque</i>.
+Madame Lebrun was Aspasia, and
+M. l'Abbé Barthélemy, in a Greek
+dress with a laurel wreath on his
+head, recited a Greek poem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 145px;">
+<img src="images/img207.jpg" width="145" height="350" alt="DETAIL OF TRIPOD
+TABLE FOUND AT
+POMPEII." title="" />
+<span class="caption">DETAIL OF TRIPOD
+TABLE FOUND AT
+POMPEII.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>At Naples Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These, among a thousand other signs of the
+extraordinary spirit of classicism which possessed
+France, show how deep rooted had become the
+idea of a modern Republic that should emulate
+the fame of Athens and of Rome. The First<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">{206}</a></span>
+Consul favoured these ideas, and his portraits represent
+him with a laurel wreath around his head
+posing as a Cæsar.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img208.jpg" width="400" height="384" alt="SERVANTE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By kind permission from the
+collection of Dr. Sigerson, Dublin.</i><br />
+<br />
+SERVANTE.<br />
+<br />
+Marble top; supported on two ormolu legs elaborately chased with figures of
+Isis. Panelled at back with glass mirror.<br />
+<br />
+FRENCH; LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In transition days before the style known as
+Empire had become fixed there is exhibited in art
+a feeling which suggests the deliberate search after
+new forms and new ideas. To this period belongs
+the <i>servante</i>, which, by the kindness of Dr. Sigerson,
+of Dublin, is reproduced from his collection.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">{207}</a></span>
+The claw-foot, the ram's head, the bay-leaf, and a
+frequent use of caryatides and animal forms, is a
+common ornamentation in furniture of the Empire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">{208}</a></span>
+period. In this specimen the two legs of ormolu
+have these characteristics, and it is noticeable that
+the shape of the leg and its details of ornament bear
+a striking resemblance to the leg of the Pompeiian
+table illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>). But the deities of Egypt
+have contributed a new feature in the seated figure of
+the goddess Isis.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;">
+<img src="images/img209.jpg" width="366" height="450" alt="JEWEL CABINET OF THE EMPRESS MARIE LOUISE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">JEWEL CABINET OF THE EMPRESS MARIE LOUISE.<br />
+<br />
+Made on the occasion of her marriage with the Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte,
+in 1810.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>At Fontainebleau.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon himself encouraged the classic spirit
+which killed all memories of an <i>ancien régime</i>. He
+would have been pleased to see all the relics of the
+former glories of France demolished. He had at
+one time a project to rebuild Versailles as a classic
+temple.</p>
+
+<p>At the height of his splendour he became the
+patron of the fine arts, and attempted to leave
+his impression upon art as he did upon everything
+else. New furniture was designed for the Imperial
+palaces. Riesener was alive, but it does not appear
+that he took any part in the new creations. David,
+the great French painter, an ardent Republican,
+was won over to become a Court painter. At
+Malmaison and at Fontainebleau there are many fine
+examples of the First Empire period which, however,
+cannot be regarded as the most artistic in French
+furniture. Preserved at Fontainebleau is the jewel
+cabinet, made by Thomire and Odiot, at the Emperor's
+orders as a wedding gift, in 1810, to the
+Empress Marie Louise, in emulation of the celebrated
+Riesener cabinet at the Trianon. The wood used for
+this, and for most of the Empire cabinets, is rich
+mahogany, which affords a splendid ground for the
+bronze gilt mounts (<i>see</i> p. <a href="#Page_207">207</a>).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">{209}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The portrait of Madame Récamier, by David, which
+is in the Louvre, given as headpiece to this chapter,
+shows the severe style of furniture in use at the zenith
+of the Empire period. The couch follows classic
+models, and the tall candelabrum is a suggestion
+from Herculaneum models.</p>
+
+<p>The influence that this classic revival had upon
+furniture in this country is told in a subsequent
+chapter. In regard to costume, the gowns of the
+First Empire period have become quite fashionable
+in recent years.</p>
+
+<p>Although this style of furniture degenerated into
+commonplace designs with affectedly hard outlines,
+it had a considerable vogue. In addition to the
+influence it had upon the brothers Adam and upon
+Sheraton, it left its trace on English furniture up
+till the first quarter of the nineteenth century.
+The chair illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_210">210</a>) is about the year
+1800 in date. There is presumptive evidence that
+this chair was made in Bombay after European design.
+It is of rosewood, carved in relief with honeysuckle
+and floral design. The scrolled ends of the top rail
+show at once its French derivation.</p>
+
+<p>In the national collections in this country there are
+very few specimens of Empire furniture. The Duke
+of Wellington has some fine examples at Apsley
+House, treasured relics of its historic associations
+with the victor of Waterloo. The demand in France,
+for furniture of the First Empire style has in all
+probability denuded the open market of many fine
+specimens. Owing to the fact that this country was
+at war with France when the style was at its height,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">{210}</a></span>
+the number of Empire pieces imported was very
+limited, nor does First Empire furniture seem to have
+greatly captivated the taste of English collectors, as
+among the records of sales of furniture by public
+auction very little has come under the hammer.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 203px;">
+<img src="images/img212.jpg" width="203" height="300" alt="ARMCHAIR, ROSEWOOD." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By kind permission of
+the Rev. H. V. Le Bas.</i><br />
+<br />
+ARMCHAIR, ROSEWOOD.<br />
+<br />
+Carved in relief with honeysuckle pattern.
+Formerly in possession of the Duke of Newcastle.<br />
+<br />
+ENGLISH; LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">{211}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="X" id="X"></a>X<br />
+<br />
+CHIPPENDALE<br />
+AND<br />
+HIS STYLE</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">{213}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;">
+<img src="images/img215.jpg" width="344" height="350" alt="TABLE MADE BY CHIPPENDALE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+TABLE MADE BY CHIPPENDALE.<br />
+<br />
+(Height, 29<span style="font-size: small;"><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> in.; width, 32<span style="font-size: small;"><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> in.; depth, 21<span style="font-size: small;"><sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> in.)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>X<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;;">CHIPPENDALE AND HIS STYLE</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">George I.</td><td align="left">1714-1727.</td>
+<td align="left"  class="bl" rowspan="3"><p>Horace Walpole built Strawberry
+Hill (1750)</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Chambers (1726-1796)
+built Pagoda at Kew
+about 1760.</p>
+
+<p>Chippendale's <i>Director</i> published
+(1754).</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">George II.</td><td align="left">1727-1760.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">George III.</td><td align="left">1760-1820.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Thomas Chippendale, the master cabinetmaker of
+St. Martin's Lane, has left a name which, like that of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">{214}</a></span>
+Boule, has become a trade term to mark a certain
+style in furniture. With the dawn of the age of
+mahogany, Chippendale produced designs that were
+especially adapted to the new wood; he relied solely
+upon the delicate carving for ornament, and rejected
+all inlay.</p>
+
+<p>Discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh, who brought
+specimens home with him, mahogany did not come
+into general use till about 1720. The material then
+used by Chippendale and his school was the splendid
+mahogany from the great untouched forests, producing
+at that time timber the like of which, in dimension and
+in quality, is now unprocurable. The cheaper "Honduras
+stuff" was then unknown, and English crews
+landed and cut timber from the Spanish possessions
+in spite of the protests of the owners. Many a stiff
+fight occurred, and many lives were lost in shipping
+this stolen mahogany to England to supply the
+demand for furniture. These nefarious proceedings
+more than once threatened to bring about war
+between England and Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The furniture of France, during the four great
+periods treated in the previous chapters, was designed
+for the use of the nobility. One wonders
+what furniture was in common use by the peasantry
+in France. In England, too, much of the furniture
+left for the examination of posterity was made for
+the use of the wealthy classes. In Jacobean days,
+settles and chairs, especially the Yorkshire and
+Derbyshire types, were in more common use, and
+the homely pieces of Queen Anne suggest less
+luxurious surroundings, but it was left for Chippendale<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">{215}</a></span>
+to impress his taste upon all classes. In the
+title-page of his great work, the <i>Director</i>, published<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">{216}</a></span>
+in 1754, he says that his designs are "calculated to
+improve and refine the present taste, and suited to
+the fancy and circumstances of persons in all degrees
+of life."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 309px;">
+<img src="images/img217.jpg" width="309" height="500" alt="OLIVER GOLDSMITH&#39;S CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">OLIVER GOLDSMITH&#39;S CHAIR.<br />
+<br />
+Wood, painted green, with circular seat, carved arms, and high
+back. Bequeathed by Oliver Goldsmith in 1774 to his friend,
+Dr. Hawes.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Bethnal Green Museum.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>His book of designs, as may naturally be supposed,
+was not greatly bought by the working classes, but
+fifteen copies of the <i>Director</i> went to Yorkshire, and
+many other copies were subscribed for in other parts
+of the country, so that local cabinetmakers began at
+once to fashion their furniture after his styles.</p>
+
+<p>The common form of chair at the time was similar
+to the specimen illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>), which formerly
+belonged to Oliver Goldsmith, and was bequeathed
+by him to his friend, Dr. Hawes. This is of soft
+wood, probably beech, painted green, with circular
+seat, curved arms, and high back. Chippendale
+revolutionised this inartistic style, and for the first
+time in the history of the manufacture of furniture
+in England, continental makers turned their eyes to
+this country in admiration of the style in vogue here,
+and in search of new designs.</p>
+
+<p>It might appear, on a hasty glance at some of
+Chippendale's work, that originality was not his
+strong point. His claw-and-ball feet were not his
+own, and he borrowed them and the wide, spacious
+seats of his chairs from the Dutch, or from earlier
+English furniture under Dutch influence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img219.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt="CHIPPENDALE SETTEE; WALNUT." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+CHIPPENDALE SETTEE; WALNUT. ABOUT 1740.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>From the collection of Sir W. E. Welby-Gregory, Bart.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sir William Chambers, the architect of Somerset
+House, whose fondness for Chinese ornament produced
+quite a craze, and who built the Pagoda
+in Kew Gardens, gave Chippendale another source
+of inspiration. In his later days he came under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">{221}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a></span>
+influence of the Gothic revival and was tempted to
+misuse Gothic ornament.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img221.jpg" width="500" height="316" alt="CHIPPENDALE SETTEE, OAK." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+CHIPPENDALE SETTEE, OAK. ABOUT 1740.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>By courtesy of V. J. Robinson, Esq., C.I.E.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>His second style shows the Louis XIV. French
+decoration in subjection. In his ribbon-back chairs
+he employed the Louis XVI. ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>But Chippendale was the most masterly adapter
+that England has ever produced. His adaptions
+became original under his hand, and his creations
+are sturdy and robust, tempered by French subtleties,
+and having, here and there, as in the fretwork in the
+chair-legs and angles, a suggestion of the East. He
+is the prince of chair-makers. His chairs are never
+unsymmetrical. He knew the exact proportion of
+ornament that the structure would gracefully bear.
+The splats in the chairs he made himself are of such
+accurate dimensions in relation to the open spaces on
+each side that this touch alone betrays the hand of
+the master, which is absent in the imitations of his
+followers.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration given of the Chippendale table in
+Chinese style (p. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>), is a beautiful and perfect piece
+of a type rarely met with. It was made by Chippendale
+for the great-grandmother of the present owner.
+A similar table was in the possession of the Princess
+Josephine. In chairs, the back was sometimes of
+fret-cut work, as was also the design of the legs, with
+fretwork in the angles, which betray his fondness
+for the Chinese models. The Gothic style influenced
+Chippendale only to a slight degree. Horace Walpole
+at Strawberry Hill set the fashion in England,
+which fortunately was short-lived.</p>
+
+<p>Collectors divide Chippendale's work into three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">{222}</a></span>
+periods. To the first they assign the more solid
+chairs or settees with cabriole legs and Louis XIV.
+ornament, harmoniously blended with Queen Anne
+style. These chairs and settees are often found with
+claw-and-ball feet, and are frequently of walnut.
+Two fine examples of settees, the one of oak, the
+other of walnut, are illustrated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 291px;">
+<img src="images/img224.jpg" width="291" height="300" alt="RIBBON PATTERN. CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RIBBON PATTERN. CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>From the &quot;Director.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second
+period embraces
+the fine creations
+which have the
+celebrated Louis
+XVI. ribbon ornamentation
+in the
+backs. From one
+of the designs
+in Chippendale's
+book, here illustrated,
+the elegance
+of the style
+is shown. It is
+exuberant enough,
+but the author
+complains in his
+volume that "In executing many of these drawings,
+my pencil has but faintly carved out those images
+my fancy suggested; but in this failure I console
+myself by reflecting that the greatest masters of every
+art have laboured under the same difficulties." The
+ribbon-backed chair illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_223">223</a>) is one of the
+two given to an ancestor of the present owner by the
+fourth Duke of Marlborough in 1790. They were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">{223}</a></span>
+formerly at Blenheim, and there is an added interest
+in them owing to the fact that the seats were worked
+by Sarah, the great Duchess of Marlborough.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<img src="images/img225.jpg" width="360" height="500" alt="RIBBON-BACKED CHIPPENDALE CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+RIBBON-BACKED CHIPPENDALE CHAIR, FORMERLY AT BLENHEIM,
+THE SEAT WORKED BY SARAH, DUCHESS OF MARLBOROUGH.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">{224}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The latest style of Chippendale's work is the
+Gothic. There are many pieces in existence which
+he probably had to produce to satisfy the taste of
+his fashionable clients, but the style is atrocious, and
+the less said about them the better. The illustration
+(p. <a href="#Page_225">225</a>) of a chair-back from his design-book shows
+how offensive it could be.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;">
+<img src="images/img226.jpg" width="366" height="400" alt="CHIPPENDALE CORNER CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+CHIPPENDALE CORNER CHAIR, ABOUT 1780.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Reproduced by kindness of the Hon. Sir Spencer
+Ponsonby-Fane, G.C.B., I.S.O.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fine corner-chair, here illustrated, exhibits the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">{225}</a></span>
+strength and solidity he could impart to his work.
+His chairs were meant to sit upon, and are of excellent
+carpentry. The square, straight legs are a
+feature of much of his work. The examples belonging
+to the India Office and the Governors of the
+Charterhouse illustrated (pp. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>) show the type
+that he made his own and with which his name has
+been associated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;">
+<img src="images/img227.jpg" width="256" height="275" alt="GOTHIC CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">GOTHIC CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>From the &quot;Director.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although his chairs
+are sought after as especially
+beautiful in
+design (his father was
+a maker of chairs before
+him) he made
+many other objects of
+furniture. The mirrors
+he designed are exquisite
+examples of
+fine woodcarving. The
+one illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>)
+shows the mastery he
+had over graceful outline.
+Bureau bookcases with drop-down fronts have
+been successfully produced since his day after his
+models. The one illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>) shows a secret
+drawer, which is reached by removing the left-hand
+panel. Card-tables, settees, knife-boxes, tea-caddies,
+sideboards, and overmantles were made by him,
+which show by their diversity of technique that there
+was more than one pair of hands at work in carrying
+out his designs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">{226}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 272px;">
+<img src="images/img228.jpg" width="272" height="450" alt="MAHOGANY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR. ABOUT 1740." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+MAHOGANY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR. ABOUT 1740.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>Property of the India Office.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The collecting of Chippendale furniture has become
+so fashionable of late years that genuine old pieces
+are difficult to procure. It is true that two old chairs
+were discovered in a workhouse last year, but when
+specimens come into the market they usually bring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a></span>
+large prices. Two elbow state-chairs, with openwork
+backs, were sold a little while ago for seven
+hundred and eighty guineas, and a set of six small
+chairs brought ninety-three guineas about the same
+time. But even this is not the top price reached,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">{228}</a></span>
+for two chairs at Christie's realised eleven hundred
+pounds!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img229.jpg" width="310" height="450" alt="MAHOGANY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR. 1770." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+MAHOGANY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR. 1770.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>By permission of the Master of the Charterhouse.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Chippendale, the shopkeeper, of St Martin's Lane,
+who took orders for furniture, which he or his sons, or
+workmen under their direct supervision, executed, was
+one person, and Chippendale, who had quarrelled with
+the Society of Upholsterers, and published a book
+of designs on his own account, which quickly ran
+through three editions, was another person. In the
+one case he was a furniture maker whose pieces
+bring enormous prices. In the other he was the
+pioneer of popular taste and high-priest to the
+cabinetmakers scattered up and down England,
+who quickly realised the possibilities of his style,
+and rapidly produced good work on his lines.</p>
+
+<p>These pieces are by unknown men, and no doubt
+much of their work has been accredited to Chippendale
+himself. The illustration (p. <a href="#Page_232">232</a>) shows a
+mahogany chair well constructed, of a time contemporary
+with Chippendale and made by some
+smaller maker. This type of chair has been copied
+over and over again till it has become a recognised
+pattern. It finds its counterpart in china in the old
+willow-pattern, which originated at Coalport and has
+been adopted as a stock design.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<img src="images/img231.jpg" width="276" height="500" alt="CHIPPENDALE MIRROR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of the
+proprietors of the &quot;Connoisseur.&quot;</i><br />
+<br />
+CHIPPENDALE MIRROR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Furniture is not like silver, where the mark of the
+maker was almost as obligatory as the hall mark.
+Artists, both great and small, have signed their
+pictures, and in the glorious days of the great French
+<i>ébénistes</i> and metal-chasers, signed work is frequently
+found. But in England, at a time when furniture of
+excellent design, of original conception, and of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">{231}</a></span>
+thoroughly good workmanship was produced in
+great quantities, the only surviving names are those
+of designers or cabinetmakers who have published
+books.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<img src="images/img233.jpg" width="276" height="450" alt="CHIPPENDALE BUREAU BOOKCASE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster &amp; Co.</i><br />
+<br />
+CHIPPENDALE BUREAU BOOKCASE.<br />
+<br />
+With drop-down front, showing secret drawer.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>So great was the influence of the style of Chippendale
+that it permeated all classes of society. An
+interesting engraving by Stothard (p. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>) shows the
+interior of a room, and is dated 1782, the year that
+Rodney gained a splendid victory over the French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">{232}</a></span>
+fleet in the West Indies, and the year that saw the
+independence of the United States recognised.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 223px;">
+<img src="images/img234.jpg" width="223" height="350" alt="MAHOGANY CHAIR." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster &amp; Co.</i><br />
+<br />
+MAHOGANY CHAIR.<br />
+IN THE CHIPPENDALE STYLE. LATE
+EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a></span>
+<img src="images/img235.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt="COTTAGE CHAIRS, BEECHWOOD." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COTTAGE CHAIRS, BEECHWOOD.<br />
+LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, IN STYLE
+OF CHIPPENDALE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Kitchen furniture or cottage furniture was made on
+the same lines by makers all over the country. The
+wood used was not mahogany; it was most frequently
+beech. Chairs of this make are not museum examples,
+but they are not devoid of a strong artistic feeling,
+and are especially English in character. More often
+than not the soft wood of this class of chair is found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">{235}</a></span>
+to be badly worm-eaten. Two chairs of this type, of
+beech, are illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a>), and it is interesting to
+note that, as in the instance of the Yorkshire and
+Derbyshire chairs of Jacobean days made by local
+makers, it is not common to find many of exactly
+the same design. The craftsman gave a personal
+character to his handiwork, which makes such
+pieces of original and artistic interest, and cabinetmaking
+and joinery was not then so machine-made
+as it is now.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<img src="images/img237.jpg" width="282" height="450" alt="INTERIOR OF ROOM, ABOUT 1782." title="" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF ROOM, ABOUT 1782.<br />
+<br />
+(<i>From engraving after Stothard.</i>)</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">{236}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It may be here remarked that the earlier pieces of
+the eighteenth century were polished much in the
+same manner as was old oak previously described.
+Highly polished surfaces and veneers, and that
+abomination "French polish," which is a cheap
+and nasty method of disguising poor wood, bring
+furniture within the early nineteenth-century days,
+when a wave of Philistine banalities swept over
+Europe.</p>
+
+
+<h2>RECENT SALE PRICES.<a name="FNanchor_1_9" id="FNanchor_1_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_9" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">£</td><td align="center">s.</td><td align="center">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Side table, Chippendale, with gadrooned border, the front boldly carved with
+a grotesque mask, festoons of flowers and foliage, on carved legs with claw
+feet, 64 in. long. Christie, February 14, 1902</td><td align="right">126</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Tea-caddy, Chippendale mahogany, square, with four divisions, the borders carved
+with rosettes and interlaced riband ornament, the sides inlaid with four
+old Worcester oblong plaques painted with exotic birds, insects, fruit, flowers,
+and festoons in colours on white ground, 10 in. square. Christie,
+February 6, 1903</td><td align="right">52</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">{237}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Fire-screen, Chippendale mahogany, containing a panel of old English petit-point
+needlework, worked with a basket of flowers in coloured silks,
+on pillar and tripod carved with foliage and ball-and-claw feet. Christie,
+December 4, 1903</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Armchairs, pair large Chippendale mahogany, with interlaced backs carved
+with foliage, the arms terminating in carved and gilt eagles' heads.
+Christie, January 22, 1904</td><td align="right">88</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Cabinet, Chippendale mahogany, with glazed folding doors enclosing
+shelves, and with cupboards and eight small drawers below, the
+borders fluted, 8 ft. high, 8 ft. wide. Christie, January 22, 1904</td><td align="right">67</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Chairs, set of six Chippendale mahogany, with open interlaced backs, with scroll
+tops, carved with foliage and shell ornament, on carved cabriole legs
+and ball-and-claw feet. Christie, January 22, 1904</td><td align="right">102</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Table, Chippendale, oblong, cabriole legs, carved with shells, &amp;c., on claw feet,
+surmounted by a veined white marble slab, 53 in. wide. Christie, March 4,
+1904</td><td align="right">73</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">{238}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Settee, Chippendale mahogany, with double back with scroll top, carved
+with arabesque foliage, the arms terminating in masks, on legs carved
+with lions' masks and claw feet, 54 in. wide. Christie, April 12, 1904</td><td align="right">278</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"  style="text-indent: -2em;">Mirror, Chippendale, carved with gilt, 88 in. high, 50 in. wide. Christie,
+May 18, 1904</td><td align="right">94</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_9" id="Footnote_1_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_9"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the kindness of the proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i>
+these items are given from their useful monthly publication
+<i>Auction Sale Prices</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">{239}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI<br />
+<br />
+SHERATON, ADAM,<br />
+AND HEPPELWHITE<br />
+STYLES</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">{241}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img243.jpg" width="450" height="284" alt="HEPPELWHITE SETTEE, MAHOGANY." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster &amp; Co.</i><br />
+<br />
+HEPPELWHITE SETTEE, MAHOGANY.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>XI<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;;">SHERATON, ADAM, AND HEPPELWHITE STYLES</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Robert Adam</td><td align="left">1728-1792.</td>
+<td align="left"  rowspan="2" class="bl"><p><b>1752.</b> Loch and Copeland's designs published.</p>
+
+<p><b>1765.</b> Manwaring's designs published.</p>
+
+<p><b>1770.</b> Ince and Mayhew's designs published.</p>
+
+<p><b>1788.</b> Heppelwhite's designs published.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Thomas Sheraton</td><td align="left">1751-1806.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<p>In the popular conception of the furniture of the
+three Georges the honours are divided between
+Chippendale and Sheraton. Up till recently all
+that was not Chippendale was Sheraton, and all that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">{242}</a></span>
+was not Sheraton must be Chippendale. The one
+is represented by the straight-legged mahogany chairs
+or cabriole legs with claw-and-ball feet and the backs
+elaborately carved; the other with finely tapered legs,
+built on elegant lines, and of satinwood, having
+marquetry decoration or painted panels.</p>
+
+<p>This is the rough generalisation that obtained in
+the earlier days of the craze for collecting eighteenth-century
+furniture. Heppelwhite and Adam (more
+often than not alluded to as Adams), are now added
+to the list, and auction catalogues attempt to differentiate
+accordingly. But these four names do not
+represent a quarter of the well-known makers who
+were producing good furniture in the days between
+the South Sea Bubble in 1720 and the battle of
+Waterloo in 1815.</p>
+
+<p>In this chapter it will be impossible to give more
+than a passing allusion to the less-known makers
+of the eighteenth century, but to those who wish to
+pursue the matter in more detailed manner the
+Bibliography annexed (p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>) gives ample material
+for a closer study of the period.</p>
+
+<p>The four brothers Adam, sons of a well-known
+Scottish architect, were exponents of the classic style.
+Robert Adam was the architect of the fine houses
+in the Adelphi, and he designed the screen and
+gateway at the entrance to the Admiralty in 1758.
+James is credited with the designing of interior
+decorations and furniture. Carriages, sedan-chairs,
+and even plate were amongst the artistic objects
+to which these brothers gave their stamp. The
+classical capitals, mouldings and niches, the shell<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">{245}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a></span>
+flutings and the light garlands in the Adam style, are
+welcome sights in many otherwise dreary streets in
+London. Robert, the eldest brother, lived from 1728
+to 1792, and during that time exercised a great
+influence on English art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img245.jpg" width="450" height="304" alt="SHERATON ARMCHAIR.
+ADAM ARMCHAIR." title="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">SHERATON ARMCHAIR; MAHOGANY, ABOUT 1780.</td>
+<td align="center">ADAM ARMCHAIR; MAHOGANY, ABOUT 1790.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img245_2.jpg" width="450" height="352" alt="ARMCHAIR OF WALNUT.
+CHAIR OF WALNUT." title="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">ARMCHAIR OF WALNUT, SHIELD-BACK CARVED WITH THREE OSTRICH FEATHERS. IN HEPPELWHITE STYLE. LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</td>
+<td align="center">CHAIR OF WALNUT, SHIELD-BACK; IN THE STYLE OF HEPPELWHITE. LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</td></tr>
+</table>
+(<i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1790, a set of designs of English furniture were
+published by A. Heppelwhite. In these chairs with
+pierced backs, bookcases with fancifully framed glass
+doors, and mahogany bureaux, the influence of Chippendale
+is evident, but the robustness of the master
+and the individuality of his style become transformed
+into a lighter and more elegant fashion, to
+which French <i>finesse</i> and the Adam spirit have
+contributed their influence.</p>
+
+<p>In the illustration (p. <a href="#Page_243">243</a>) various types of chairs
+of the period are given. A chair termed the
+"ladder-back" was in use in France at the same
+time. In Chardin's celebrated picture of "<i>Le jeu de
+l'oye</i>," showing the interior of a parlour of the middle
+eighteenth century, a chair of this type is shown.</p>
+
+<p>The Heppelwhite settee illustrated as the headpiece
+to this chapter shows the delicate fluting in the
+woodwork, and the elaborated turned legs which
+were beginning to be fashionable at the close
+of the eighteenth century. The two chairs by
+Heppelwhite &amp; Co., illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_243">243</a>), are typical
+examples of the elegance of the style which has an
+individuality of its own&mdash;a fact that collectors are
+beginning to recognise.</p>
+
+<p>The shield-back chair with wheat-ear and openwork
+decoration, and legs in which the lathe has
+been freely used, are characteristic types. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">{246}</a></span>
+elegance of the legs in Heppelwhite chairs is
+especially noticeable. The designers departed from
+Chippendale with results exquisitely symmetrical,
+and of most graceful ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>Hogarth, in his biting satires on the absurdities of
+Kent, the architect, painter, sculptor, and ornamental
+gardener, whose claims to be any one of the four
+rest on slender foundations, did not prevent fashionable
+ladies consulting him for designs for furniture,
+picture frames, chairs, tables, for cradles, for silver
+plate, and even for the construction of a barge.
+It is recorded by Walpole that two great ladies
+who implored him to design birthday gowns for
+them were decked out in incongruous devices: "the
+one he dressed in a petticoat decorated in columns of
+the five orders, and the other like a bronze, in a
+copper-coloured satin, with ornaments of gold."</p>
+
+<p>Heppelwhite learned the lesson of Hogarth, that
+"the line of beauty is a curve," and straight lines
+were studiously avoided in his designs. Of the
+varieties of chairs that he made, many have the
+Prince of Wales's feathers either carved upon them
+in the centre of the open-work back or japanned
+upon the splat, a method of decoration largely
+employed in France, which has not always stood the
+test of time, for when examples are found they often
+want restoration. Of satin-wood, with paintings
+upon the panels, Heppelwhite produced some good
+examples, and when he attempted greater elaboration
+his style in pieces of involved design and intricacy of
+detail became less original, and came into contact
+with Sheraton. His painted furniture commands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">{247}</a></span>
+high prices, and the name of Heppelwhite will stand
+as high as Chippendale or Sheraton for graceful
+interpretations of the spirit which invested the
+late eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Before dealing with Sheraton in detail, the names
+of some lesser known makers contemporary with him
+may be mentioned. Matthias Lock, together with
+a cabinetmaker named Copeland, published in 1752
+designs of furniture which derived their inspiration
+from the brothers Adam, which classic feeling later,
+in conjunction with the Egyptian and Pompeian
+spirit, dominated the style of the First Empire.
+Josiah Wedgewood, with his Etruscan vases, and
+Flaxman, his designer, filled with the new classic
+spirit, are examples in the world of pottery of
+the influences which were transmitted through the
+French Revolution to all forms of art when men
+cast about in every direction to find new ideas
+for design.</p>
+
+<p>Ince and Mayhew, two other furniture designers,
+published a book in 1770, and Johnson outdid
+Chippendale's florid styles in a series of designs he
+brought out, which, with their twisted abortions, look
+almost like a parody of Thomas Chippendale's worst
+features. There is a "Chairmaker's Guide," by
+Manwaring and others in 1766, which contains
+designs mainly adapted from all that was being
+produced at the time. It is not easy to tell the
+difference between chairs made by Manwaring and
+those made by Chippendale, as he certainly stands
+next to the great master in producing types which
+have outlived ephemeral tastes, and taken their
+stand as fine artistic creations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">{248}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among other names are those of Shearer, Darly,
+and Gillow, all of whom were notable designers and
+makers of furniture in the period immediately preceding
+the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Sheraton, contemporary with William
+Blake the dreamer, shares with him the unfortunate
+posthumous honour of reaching sensational prices in
+auction rooms. There is much in common between
+the two men. Sheraton was born in 1751 at Stockton-on-Tees,
+and came to London to starve. Baptist
+preacher, cabinetmaker, author, teacher of drawing,
+he passed his life in poverty, and died in distressed
+circumstances. He was, before he brought out his
+book of designs, the author of several religious works.
+Often without capital to pursue his cabinetmaking
+he fell back on his aptitude for drawing, and gave
+lessons in design. He paid young Black, who
+afterwards became Lord Provost of Edinburgh, half
+a guinea a week as workman in his cabinetmaker's
+shop in Soho. In a pathetic picture of those days
+the Lord Provost, in his <i>Memoirs</i>, tells how Sheraton
+and his wife and child had only two cups and saucers
+and the child had a mug, and when the writer took
+tea with them the wife's cup and saucer were given
+up to the guest, and she drank her tea from a
+common mug. This reads like Blake's struggles
+when he had not money enough to procure copper-plates
+on which to engrave his wonderful visions.</p>
+
+<p>That the styles of Chippendale and Sheraton
+represent two distinct schools is borne out by what
+Sheraton himself thought of his great predecessor.
+Speaking in his own book of Chippendale's previous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">{249}</a></span>
+work he says: "As for the designs themselves they
+are wholly antiquated, and laid aside, though possessed
+of great merit according to the times in which they
+were executed." From this it would appear that the
+Chippendale style, at the time of Sheraton's "Cabinetmaker's
+and Upholsterer's Drawing Book," published
+in 1793, had gone out of fashion.</p>
+
+<p>The woods mostly employed by Sheraton were
+satinwood, tulip-wood, rosewood, and apple-wood,
+and occasionally mahogany. In place of carved
+scrollwork he used marquetry, and on the cabinets
+and larger pieces panels were painted by Cipriani
+and Angelica Kauffman. There is a fine example
+of the latter's work in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p>Sheraton borrowed largely from the French style
+under Louis XVI., when the lines had become
+severer; he came, too, under the influence of the
+Adam designs. He commonly used turned legs, and
+often turned backs, in his chairs. His later examples
+had a hollowed or spoon back to fit the body of the
+sitter. When he used mahogany he realised the
+beauty of effect the dark wood would give to inlay
+of lighter coloured woods, or even of brass. The
+splats and balusters, and even the legs of some of
+his chairs, are inlaid with delicate marquetry work.</p>
+
+<p>Ornament for its own sake was scrupulously
+eschewed by Sheraton. The essential supports and
+uprights and stretcher-rails and other component
+parts of a piece of furniture were only decorated as
+portions of a preconceived whole. The legs were
+tapered, the plain surfaces were inlaid with marquetry,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">{250}</a></span>
+but nothing meaningless was added. In France
+Sheraton's style was termed "<i>Louis Seize à l'Anglaise</i>."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<img src="images/img252.jpg" width="316" height="500" alt="OLD ENGLISH SECRÉTAIRE." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Hampton &amp;. Sons.</i><br />
+<br />
+OLD ENGLISH SECRÉTAIRE.<br />
+<br />
+Rosewood and satinwood. Drop-down front.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was the firm of Heppelwhite that first introduced
+the painted furniture into England, and under
+Sheraton it developed into an emulation of the
+fine work done by Watteau and Greuze in the days
+of Marie Antoinette.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">{251}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among the varied pieces that Sheraton produced
+are a number of ingenious inventions in furniture,
+such as the library-steps he made for George III. to
+rise perpendicularly from the top of a table frame,
+and when folded up to be concealed within it. His
+bureau-bookcases and writing-cabinets have sliding
+flaps and secret drawers and devices intended to
+make them serve a number of purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 204px;">
+<img src="images/img253.jpg" width="204" height="300" alt="SHIELD-BACK CHAIR. MAHOGANY." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>By permission of
+Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster &amp; Co.</i><br />
+<br />
+SHIELD-BACK CHAIR. MAHOGANY.<br />
+LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the front of his chairs is frequently found the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">{252}</a></span>
+inverted bell flower, and another of his favourite
+forms of decoration is the acanthus ornament, which
+he puts to graceful use.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of his work, and of that of Heppelwhite
+&amp; Co., was lasting, and much of the late
+eighteenth century and early nineteenth century
+cabinetmaking owes its origin to their designs. The
+old English secrétaire illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_250">250</a>), of rose
+and satinwood, with drawer above and fall-down
+front, having cupboard beneath with doors finely
+inlaid with plaques of old lac, is of the date when
+Heppelwhite was successfully introducing this class
+of French work into England. It is especially
+interesting to note that the drawer-handles are
+mounted with old Battersea enamel.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of definitely pronouncing as to the
+maker of many of the pieces of furniture of the
+late eighteenth century is recognised by experts.
+The chair illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_251">251</a>) cannot be assigned to
+any particular designer, though its genuine old
+feeling is indisputable. In the fine collection of
+old furniture of this period at the Victoria and
+Albert Museum will be found many examples of
+chairs with no other title assigned to them than
+"late eighteenth century." This fact speaks for
+itself. A great and growing school had followed
+the precepts of Chippendale and Heppelwhite and
+Sheraton. This glorious period of little more than
+half a century might have been developed into a new
+Renaissance in furniture. Unfortunately, the early
+days of the nineteenth century and the dreary
+Early Victorian period, both before and after the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">{253}</a></span>
+great Exhibition of 1851, display the most tasteless
+ineptitude in nearly every branch of art. From
+the days of Elizabeth down to the last of the
+Georges, English craftsmen, under various influences,
+have produced domestic furniture of great beauty.
+It is impossible to feel any interest in the Windsor
+chair, the saddle-bag couch, or the red mahogany
+cheffonière. The specimens of misapplied work
+shown at the Bethnal Green Museum, relics of the
+English exhibits at the first Exhibition, are unworthy
+of great traditions.</p>
+
+<p>The awakened interest shown by all classes in old
+furniture will do much to carry the designers back to
+the best periods in order to study the inheritance the
+masters have left, and it is to be hoped that the
+message of the old craftsmen dead and gone will
+not fall on deaf ears.</p>
+
+
+<h2>RECENT SALE PRICES.<a name="FNanchor_1_10" id="FNanchor_1_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_10" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">{254}</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">£</td><td align="center">s.</td><td align="center">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chairs, wheel back, set of seven (including armchair), Adam, carved, mahogany.
+Good condition. Brady &amp; Sons, Perth, September 1, 1902</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mirror, Adam, in gilt frame, Corinthian pillar sides, ornamental glass panel
+at top, surmounted by a carved wood eagle figure. Gudgeon &amp; Sons, Winchester,
+November 11, 1903</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mantelpiece, Adam, carved wood, with Corinthian column supports, carved
+and figures and festoons. France &amp; Sons, December 16, 1903</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mirrors, pair, oval, Adam, carved and gilt wood frame. Christie, March 18,
+1904</td><td align="right">46</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cabinet or enclosed buffet, Adam, on Empire lines, veneered on oak with
+grained Spanish mahogany, in the frieze is a long drawer, and below a
+cupboard, the whole on square feet, doors inlaid, handles, &amp;c., of ormolu,
+3 ft. 9 in. wide. Flashman &amp; Co.,
+Dover, April 26, 1904</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Side-tables, pair hare-wood, by Adam, with rounded corners, on square-shaped
+tapering legs, the sides and borders inlaid with marquetry, in
+coloured woods, 53 in. wide. Christie, June 2, 1904</td><td align="right">105</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bookcase, 4 ft. 8 in., mahogany, Heppelwhite, inlaid tulip-wood with box and
+ebony lines, fitted shelves and drawers, enclosed by doors. Phillips, Son and
+Neale, November 17, 1903</td><td align="right">44</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Settee, Heppelwhite, square-shaped, 6 ft., and three elbow chairs. Gudgeon &amp;
+Sons, Winchester, March 9, 1904</td><td align="right">38</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">{255}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Console-table, Heppelwhite satinwood, the top shaped as a broken ellipse,
+and of hare-wood with inlays of husks and flowers round a fan-pattern
+centre with borderings in ebony and other woods on a filling of
+satinwood; the edge is bound with ormolu, reeded and cross banded,
+below is the frieze of satin-wood inlaid with honeysuckle, pateræ, and
+other ornament in holly, &amp;c., and supported on a pair of carved
+square tapered legs painted and gilt, and with pendants of husks
+and acanthus capitals, 4 ft. 3 in. wide. Flashman &amp; Co., Dover,
+April 26, 1904</td><td align="right">40</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Suite of Heppelwhite mahogany furniture, with open shield backs, with
+vase-shaped centres carved, the back, arms and legs widely fluted, consisting
+of a settee, 74 in. wide, and ten armchairs. Christie, June 2, 1904</td><td align="right">325</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Knife-box, oblong, Sheraton mahogany, with revolving front, inlaid with
+Prince-of-Wales's feathers and borders in satinwood, 19&frac12; in. wide. Christie,
+November 21, 1902</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sideboard, Sheraton, mahogany, satinwood inlaid, fitted with brass rails.
+Dowell, Edinburgh, November 14, 1903</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">0<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">{256}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wardrobe, Sheraton mahogany, banded with satinwood, with folding doors
+above and below, and five drawers in the centre, 7 ft. high, 8 ft. wide.
+Christie, January 22, 1904</td><td align="right">60</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chairs, set of eighteen Sheraton, with oval backs with rail centres, fluted
+and slightly carved with foliage and beading, the seats covered with
+flowered crimson damask; and a pair of settees, <i>en suite</i>, 6 ft. wide.
+Christie, February 26, 1904</td><td align="right">126</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Armchairs, pair, Sheraton, with shield-shaped backs, painted with Prince of
+Wales feathers, and pearl ornament on black ground. Christie, March 28,
+1904</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cabinet, Sheraton satinwood, with glazed folding doors enclosing shelves,
+drawer in the centre forming secretary, and folding-doors below, painted
+with baskets of flowers, &amp;c., 7 ft. 9 in. high, 41 in. wide. Christie, March 28,
+1904</td><td align="right">189</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Secrétaire, Sheraton small satinwood, with revolving tambour front, drawer
+and folding doors below, inlaid with arabesque foliage, 23 in. wide.
+Christie, April 29, 1904</td><td align="right">47</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_10" id="Footnote_1_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_10"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the kindness of the proprietors of the <i>Connoisseur</i>
+these items are given from their useful monthly publication,
+<i>Auction Sale Prices</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII<br />
+<br />
+HINTS<br />
+TO COLLECTORS</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">{259}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img261.jpg" width="450" height="266" alt="DESIGN FOR SPURIOUS MARQUETRY WORK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">DESIGN FOR SPURIOUS MARQUETRY WORK.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>XII<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;;">HINTS TO COLLECTORS</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The demand for old furniture has become so great
+that there is an increasing difficulty in supplying it.
+In order to satisfy the collector many artifices have
+been practised which in varying degree are difficult
+to detect, according to the skill and ingenuity of the
+present-day manufacturer of "antique" furniture.</p>
+
+<p>Replicas of old pieces are frequently made, and
+the workmanship is so excellent, and the copy of
+the old craftsman's style so perfect, that it only
+requires a century or two of wear to give to the
+specimen the necessary tone which genuine old
+furniture has naturally acquired.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">{260}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In particular, French ornate furniture from the
+days of Boule to the Empire period has received
+the flattering attention of the fabricator by being
+imitated in all its details. These high-class French
+pieces are fine examples of cabinetmaking, and it is
+not easy for anybody who has not a special expert
+knowledge to pronounce definitely upon their authenticity.
+Doubts have even been expressed regarding
+certain pieces in the great national collections; in
+fact the art of the forger in regard to old French
+furniture, of which specimens change hands at anything
+from £1,000 to £10,000, has reached a very
+high level of excellence, having almost been elevated
+to one of the fine arts. If a clever workman possessed
+of great artistic feeling turns his attention to forging
+works of art, it is obvious that his triumph is complete
+over amateurs possessed of less artistic taste
+and knowledge than himself.</p>
+
+<p>Many secret processes are employed to impart an
+appearance of age to the wood and to the metal
+mountings. The cruder methods are to eat off the
+sharper edges of the metal mountings by means of
+acid, and to discolour the newer surfaces by the aid
+of tobacco juice, both of which are not difficult to
+detect. The steady manufacture of these finer pieces
+goes on in France, and it has been found that the
+foggy atmosphere of London is especially useful in
+producing the effect of age upon the finer work,
+consequently many forged pieces are shipped to
+London to be stored in order to ripen until considered
+fit for the American market, where so many
+forgeries have been planted. The reward is great,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">{263}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a></span>
+and even considering the amount of trouble bestowed
+upon such pieces and the excellence of the artistic
+work where the highest skilled labour is employed,
+the profit is enormous. The parvenu buys his
+Louis XIV. or Louis XV. suite, and pays an
+immense sum for pieces which are stated to have
+come from some French nobleman's château, whose
+name must not be divulged, and so the interesting
+deal is brought to a successful termination.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 419px;">
+<img src="images/img263.jpg" width="419" height="500" alt="&quot;MADE-UP&quot; BUFFET." title="" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;MADE-UP&quot; BUFFET.<br />
+<br />
+The middle portion, consisting of the two drawers and three panelled cupboards above,
+is genuine old carved oak. The stand, with the finely turned legs and rails, and the
+whole of the upper portion, is modern.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As an object-lesson as to the truth of the above
+remarks, the Wallace Collection contains a modern
+French copy in facsimile, by Dasson, of the celebrated
+"Bureau du Roi" of the Louis XV. period, the
+original being in the Louvre. The original is fully
+described in the chapter on Louis XV. style, and
+it is not too much to assert that ninety-nine per
+cent. of the visitors to the Collection could not say
+that this copy was not an old French specimen of
+over a century and a quarter ago, and the remaining
+one, unless he happened to be an expert, would not
+question its genuineness.</p>
+
+<p>Old oak has always been a favourite with the
+public, and from the modern Flemish monstrosities,
+carved in evil manner and displaying proportions in
+the worst possible taste, to the equally vulgar home
+production in buffet or sideboard, and stocked by
+many dealers in so-called "antique" furniture, the
+number of grotesque styles foisted upon the public
+within the last fifteen years has been remarkable.
+One wonders what has become of the high-backed
+oak chairs, nearly black with repeated applications
+of permanganate of potash, having flaming red-leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">{264}</a></span>
+seats. They seem to have mysteriously disappeared
+from up-to-date "antique" stores of late. The public
+has taken to inquiring into art matters a little more
+closely. Nowadays the latest thing is "fumed" oak,
+which is modern oak discoloured by means of
+ammonia, which darkens the surface of the wood
+to a depth of a sixteenth of an inch. It is not infrequent
+to find an attempt made to represent this
+as old oak after an elaborate treatment with linseed
+oil, turpentine, and beeswax, though an examination
+of the interior edges of the wood will discover its
+modernity at once.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, such tricks as these are not practised by
+any firm of standing, who cannot afford to damage
+their reputation by any misrepresentation. As a
+general rule a dealer will readily point out the
+details of workmanship and offer technical information
+of much value to a beginner, if he discovers that
+his customer is a collector desirous of acquiring only
+fine specimens. It is more often than not the folly
+of the public, and not the dishonesty of the dealer,
+which results in trade frauds being committed in the
+attempt to execute some impossible and imperative
+order, which the moneyed collector has given. The
+difference between the genuine and the replica is
+most clearly made by old-fashioned firms of high
+standing. It is only when the collector enters into
+the arena and endeavours to set forth in quest of
+bargains, where he pits his skill against that of the
+dealer in the hope of outwitting the latter, that he is
+obviously on dangerous ground. In the one case he
+pays a higher price and obtains the benefit of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">{265}</a></span>
+experience of a firm with expert knowledge, in the
+other he relies on his own judgment in picking up a
+bargain from some one whom he believes to be
+possessed of less knowledge than himself. If he is
+successful he is not slow to brag about his cleverness;
+but if he is worsted in the encounter, and pays, let us
+say, five pounds for an object which he fondly believed
+was worth fifty, if genuine, and which he subsequently
+discovers is worth less than he gave, there is nothing
+too bad to say concerning his antagonist.</p>
+
+<p>It is chiefly by the character of carved work that
+old pieces can be recognised. There are three classes
+of pitfalls to avoid.</p>
+
+<p>1. Fraudulent pieces throughout, of modern wood
+and of modern carving.</p>
+
+<p>2. "Made-up" pieces which often consist of
+genuine old pieces of carved wood pieced together
+ingeniously from fragments of carvings, with modern
+additions.</p>
+
+<p>3. "Restored" pieces which are mainly old and
+should have received, if admitted to a collection, only
+the necessary repairs to make them serviceable.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the first class, fraudulent throughout,
+it is the hope of the writer that enough has
+already been written in this volume to point the
+way to the reader and to assist him to follow his
+natural inclinations in developing the necessary
+critical taste to readily detect pieces wholly false in
+character and feeling.</p>
+
+<p>"Made-up" pieces present a greater difficulty.
+Considerable skill has been exercised in combining
+certain parts of old furniture into a whole which is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">{266}</a></span>
+however, mostly inharmonious. In pieces of this
+nature there is an absence of feeling in style and
+carving. It is difficult to define the exact meaning
+of the word "feeling" as applied to art objects, it is
+a subtle expression of skill and poetry which communicates
+itself to the lover of art. It is so subtle
+and elusive that experts will tell one that such and
+such a piece requires to be "lived with" to test its
+authenticity. Mr. Frederick Roe, whose volume on
+"Ancient Coffers and Cupboards" displays a profound
+knowledge of his subject, writes, "it occasionally
+happens that pieces are so artfully made up that
+only living with them will enable the collector to
+detect the truth. In dealing with pieces of this
+suspicious kind one often has to fall back on a sort
+of instinct. With critical collectors of every sort
+this innate sense plays a very important part."</p>
+
+<p>Two specimens of "made-up" furniture are reproduced,
+which will bear close study in order to
+appreciate the difficulty of collecting old oak.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration of the buffet (p. <a href="#Page_261">261</a>) has many
+points of interest. The general appearance of the
+piece is not inharmonious. It has been carefully
+thought out and no less carefully put into effect.
+The middle portion, consisting of the three drawers
+and the three cupboards above, up to and including
+the shelf partition at the top, is the only old part.
+The handles, locks, and escutcheons of the two
+drawers are old, but the hinges above are modern
+copies of old designs, and the handles of the cupboards
+are modern replicas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img269.jpg" width="500" height="347" alt="CABINET OF
+OLD OAK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CABINET OF
+OLD OAK.<br />
+<br />
+MADE UP FROM
+SEVERAL PIECES
+OF GENUINE
+OLD CARVED OAK.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The massive stand with artistically turned rails in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">{269}</a></span>
+Jacobean style, is soft wood artfully fumed and
+generously beeswaxed. The whole of the top portion
+has been added and is soft wood very well
+carved. The carving of the panels is also well
+executed, and is evidently a copy of some old design.</p>
+
+<p>The older portion is a fine piece of early Jacobean
+work, and it is not difficult to distinguish between
+the feeling of this and the expression conveyed by
+the modern woodwork. The patina of the wood
+after two centuries of exposure and polishing has
+that peculiarly pleasing appearance which accompanies
+genuine old woodwork. The edges of the
+carving have lost their sharp angles, and the mellowness
+of the middle panels are in strong contrast to
+the harsher tone of those of the upper portion.</p>
+
+<p>Such a piece as this would not deceive an expert,
+nor, perhaps, is it intended to, or greater care would
+have been bestowed upon it, but it is sufficiently
+harmonious in composition not to offend in a glaring
+manner, and might easily deceive a tyro.</p>
+
+<p>The next piece illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>) is interesting
+from another point of view. It is a more elaborate
+attempt to produce a piece of old furniture in which
+the details themselves have all the mellowness of fine
+old oak. In fact, with the exception of one portion,
+some eight inches by three, to which allusion will be
+made later, the whole of it is genuine old oak.</p>
+
+<p>The three panels at the top are finely carved and
+are Jacobean work. The two outside panels at the
+bottom, though of a later period, are good work.
+The middle panel at the bottom is evidently a portion
+of a larger piece of carving, because the pattern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">{270}</a></span>
+abruptly breaks off, and it was most certainly not
+designed by the old carver to lie on its side in this
+fashion.</p>
+
+<p>The two heads at the top corners have been cut
+from some old specimen, and artfully laid on. The
+carving on both sides, running below each head from
+top to bottom, is of two distinct designs joined in
+each case in a line level with the upper line of the
+lower panels. The two uprights on each side of
+the middle lower panel are exquisite pieces of carved
+work, but certainly never intended to be upright.
+They are evidently portions of a long, flowing ornament,
+as their cut-off appearance too plainly shows.</p>
+
+<p>The top panels have done duty elsewhere, as part
+of the ornamental carving at the top and bottom of
+each lozenge is lost. The long line of scrolled
+carving above them is distinctly of interest. On
+the left hand, from the head to the middle of the
+panel, a piece of newer carving has been inserted,
+some eight inches long. The wood, at one time
+darkened to correspond with the adjacent carving,
+has become lighter, which is always the case when
+wood is stained to match other portions. The
+carving in this new portion follows in every detail
+the lines of the older design, and is a very pretty
+piece of "faking."</p>
+
+<p>The cross-piece running from left to right, dividing
+the lower panels from the upper, is in three parts.
+An examination of the design shows that the last
+three circles on the right, and the last four on the
+left, are of smaller size than the others. The design
+evidently belonged to some other piece of furniture,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">{271}</a></span>
+and has been removed to do service in this "made-up"
+production.</p>
+
+<p>In all probability the two uprights enclosing the
+top middle panel, and the two uprights on the outside
+at the bottom were once portions of a carved bedstead,
+as they are all of the same size and design. It
+is a notorious trick to slice an old carved bedpost
+into four pieces, skilfully fitting the pieces into
+"made-up" furniture.</p>
+
+<p>There is a prevalent idea that worm-holes are
+actually produced in furniture, in order to give a
+new piece a more realistic appearance. There are
+traditions of duck-shot having been used, and there
+is little doubt that holes were drilled by makers who
+knew their public. But it is improbable that such
+artifices would be of much use for deceptive purposes
+nowadays. As a matter of fact, worm-holes are
+avoided by any one who gives a moment's thought
+to the matter. To get rid of worm in furniture is
+no easy task, and they eventually ruin any pieces
+they tenant.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration (p. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>) shows a piece of Spanish
+chestnut badly honeycombed by furniture worms.
+In chairs, especially, their havoc is almost irreparable,
+and in the softer woods the legs become too rotten to
+be repaired or even strengthened. Metal plates are
+often screwed on the sides to prevent the chairs
+falling to pieces, but they become useless to sit upon
+without fear of disaster.</p>
+
+<p>The insect is really the boring wood-beetle, which
+is armed with formidable forceps, to enable it to
+burrow through the wood. The worm, the larva of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">{272}</a></span>
+this beetle, is also provided with boring apparatus,
+and this insect, whether as beetle or as worm, is a
+deadly enemy to all furniture. The "death-watch"
+is also accused of being a depredator of books and of
+furniture of soft wood.</p>
+
+<p>To remove worms from furniture is a costly
+undertaking, requiring the greatest skill. Large
+pieces of furniture have actually to be taken to
+pieces and the whole of the damaged parts removed
+with a chisel. In cases where the legs, or slender
+supports, have been attacked, the difficulty is one
+requiring the specialist's most delicate attention.
+Various applications are recommended, but cannot
+be stated to be reliable. Injecting paraffin is said
+to be the best remedy, and putting the pieces in a
+chamber where all the openings have been sealed, and
+lighting pans of sulphur underneath the furniture,
+allowing the specimens to remain in this fumigating
+bath for some days is another method resorted to.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to Chippendale furniture, a word
+of caution is necessary. It is as impossible for
+Chippendale and his workmen to have produced
+all the furniture attributed to them as it is for the
+small factory at Lowestoft to have made all the
+china with which it is credited. As has been shown
+in the chapter on Thomas Chippendale, his styles
+were most extensively copied by his contemporaries
+all over the country and by many makers after him,
+and modern makers produce a great quantity of
+"Chippendale" every year. Only a careful examination
+of museum pieces will train the eye of the
+collector. The fine sense of proportion, at once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">{273}</a></span>
+noticeable in the genuine Chippendale chair, is
+absent in the modern copy, and, above all, the
+carving in the latter is thin and poor. In the old
+days the wastage of wood was not a thing which
+the master had in his mind. In modern copies
+the curl of the arm, or the swell at the top of the
+back, shows a regard for economy. There is a
+thin, flat look about the result, which ought not
+to be mistaken. Scrolls and ribbon-work are often
+added to later pieces made in the style of Chippendale,
+which have enough wood in their surfaces to
+bear carving away.</p>
+
+<p>An ingenious device is adopted
+in cases of inlaid pieces of a small
+nature, such as imitation Sheraton
+clock-cases and knife-boxes and
+the frames of mirrors. Old engravings
+are procured of scrollwork,
+usually from the end of
+some book. The illustration (p. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>) shows the class
+of engravings selected. These engravings are coated
+with a very thin layer of vellum, which is boiled down
+to a liquid, and carefully spread over them. After
+this treatment they are ready to be glued on to the
+panels to be "faked," and, when coated over with
+transparent varnish, they present the appearance of
+an ivory and ebony inlay.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/img275.jpg" width="150" height="105" alt="DESIGN FOR
+SPURIOUS MARQUETRY
+WORK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">DESIGN FOR
+SPURIOUS MARQUETRY
+WORK.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The frauds practised in satinwood and painted
+pieces are many and are exceedingly difficult to
+detect. Much of Sheraton's furniture was veneered
+with finely selected specimens of West India satinwood.
+These carefully chosen panels were painted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">{274}</a></span>
+by Cipriani and others. The modern "faker" has
+not the material to select from, as the satinwood
+imported is not so beautiful nor so richly varied in
+grain as in the old days. He removes a side panel
+from an old piece, and substitutes another where its
+obnoxious presence is not so noticeable. To this
+old panel he affixes a modern coloured print after
+one of Sheraton's artists, which, when carefully
+varnished over and skilfully treated so as to
+represent the cracks in the supposed old painting,
+is ready for insertion in the "made-up" sideboard,
+to catch the fancy of the unwary collector.</p>
+
+<p class='center'>FINIS.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img276.jpg" width="250" height="230" alt="PIECE OF SPANISH CHESTNUT SHOWING
+RAVAGES OF WORMS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PIECE OF SPANISH CHESTNUT SHOWING
+RAVAGES OF WORMS.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">{275}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+
+<h3>A</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Adam, the brothers, and their style, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <b><a href="#Page_241">241</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a></b></li>
+
+<li>Adam armchair (illustrated), <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Admiralty, screen and gateway, designed by Robert Adam, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, furniture of, prices realised at auction, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; insularity of furniture in reign of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; well-constructed furniture of period of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li>Apsley House, collection of furniture at, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Armoire, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li>Ascham, quotation from, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li>Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, chair at, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>B</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Baroque, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li>Barrow, Sam, name of maker, on Queen Anne clock, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Battersea enamel, its use on furniture, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>Bérain, Jean, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Blenheim, chair from, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Bodleian Library, Oxford, illustration of chair at, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bombé</i>, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li>Bookcase by Chippendale, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li>Boucher, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li>Boule, André Charles, and his marquetry, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; cabinet (illustrated), <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; and counter-boule (illustrated), showing difference between, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li>Bridal chest (German), <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li>Bromley-by-Bow, "Old Palace," oak panelling from, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li>Brown and Bool, Messrs., specimens from collection of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li>Buhl work, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>Bureau, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>Burr-walnut panels, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">{276}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Butter-cupboard, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li></ul>
+
+
+<h3>C</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Cabinet, ebony, formerly property of Oliver Cromwell, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Cabriole, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>Cabriole-leg, introduction of into England, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Caffieri, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>Cambridge, King's College Chapel, woodwork of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Cane seats and backs of chairs, adoption of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; work in chairs, later development of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+
+<li>Carolean, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li>Carving supplanted by cane-work panels, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li>Caryatides, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Cassette</i>, (strong box) of period of Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Cassone</i>, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; (marriage coffer), the Italian, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+
+<li>Catherine of Braganza, fashions introduced by, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>Cecil, Lord Burleigh, quotation from, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li>Chair, Charles I., <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Chippendale, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; "Cromwellian," 96</li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; high-backed, Portuguese, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Italian (1620), <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Jacobean, made from timber of Drake's <i>Golden Hind</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; James I., <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; James II., <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Louis XIII. period, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; ribbon-back, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Oliver Goldsmith's, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; with arms of first Earl of Strafford, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+
+<li>Chairs, test as to age of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; types of Jacobean (illustrated), <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; types of Queen Anne period (illustrated), <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; upholstered, adopted in late Elizabethan days, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+
+<li>Chambers, Sir William, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Chardin, picture by, showing ladder-back chair, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li>Charles I. furniture, prices realised at auction, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; II. furniture, prices realised at auction, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; II., repartee of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+
+<li>Charterhouse, specimen at, illustration of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Chatsworth, work of Grinling Gibbons at, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests of drawers, Jacobean, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li>China collecting, influence of, on furniture, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Chinese and Japanese cabinets, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>"Chinese" Chippendale, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale, Thomas, and his style, <b><a href="#Page_213">213</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; his <i>Director</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; bureau-bookcase, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; furniture, tricks concerning, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>; prices of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">{277}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Cipriani, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Classic models paramount, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li>Claw-and-ball feet adopted by Chippendale, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; feet (prior to Chippendale), <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; foot, introduction of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+
+<li>Clock, "Grandfather," introduction of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Clocks, "Grandfather," <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li>Colbert, the guiding spirit of art under Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Collectors, hints to, <b><a href="#Page_259">259</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a></b></li>
+
+<li>Commode, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>Commodes (illustrated), Cressent, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_173">173</a>; Caffieri, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>; Riesener, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+
+<li><i>Contre partie</i>, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>Copeland, designs of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Copies of old furniture, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; of fine French pieces, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+
+<li>Cottage furniture (Chippendale style), <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li>Counter-boule, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash;-boule, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+
+<li>Court cupboard, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li>Cowley, quotation from, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li>Cradle, with initials and date, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Cressent, Charles, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>Crispin de Passe, chair designed by, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Cromwellian chair, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Cromwell's ebony cabinet, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Cushions for chairs when adopted, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>D</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Darly, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li>Dated pieces&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="IX"><li>  1593, Elizabethan bedstead, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+<li>  1603, Mirror, carved oak frame, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li>  1603, Court cupboard, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+<li>  1616, Oak table, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li>  1623, Chair, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+<li>  1641, Cradle, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+<li>  1642, Chair, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+<li>  1653, Cabinet, <i><a href="#frontispiece">frontispiece</a></i></li>
+<li>  1760-69, "Bureau du roi," <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+<li>  1769, Bureau, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li>  1810, Jewel cabinet, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li></ul></li>
+
+
+<li>David, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Derbyshire chairs, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li>Diderot, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Director</i>, designs of chair-backs from, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li>Drake, Sir Francis, chair made from timber of <i>Golden Hind</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawers, chests of, Jacobean, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li>Dressers, Normandy, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; "Welsh," <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li>Dublin Museum, illustration of oak chest at, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li>Dutch art, introduction of, by William of Orange, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; house, interior of (illustrated), <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; lacquer work, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; marquetry, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; marquetry chair, illustrated, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; marquetry, prices realised at auction, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>E</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Eassie, Walter, illustrations from drawings by, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li>Egyptian design, influence of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Eighteenth century, early, well-constructed furniture of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; interior of room (illustrated), <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li>Elizabethan mansions, some noteworthy, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Elizabethan woodwork, fine example of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">{278}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Empire style furniture, <b><a href="#Page_202">202</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a></b></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; its influence on English makers, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>England, Renaissance in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <b><a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_78">78</a></b></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>F</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Farmhouse furniture, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li>Figure in wood, how obtained, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>Fire of London, destruction of furniture by, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li>First Empire style, <b><a href="#Page_203">203</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a></b></li>
+
+<li>Flemish wood-carving, its influence on English craftsmen, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Fontainebleau, illustration of jewel cabinet at, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Foreign workmen employed in England, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Fragonard, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li>France, Renaissance in, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li>Francis I., patron of the new art, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li>Frauds perpetrated on collectors, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>French polish, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li>French Revolution, vandalism during, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>G</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Gate-leg table, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; table, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li>Gibbons, Grinling, work of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Gillow, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Golden Hind</i>, chair made from timbers of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li>Goldsmith, Oliver, chair of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Gothic, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; revival, its influence on Chippendale, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Gouthière, Pierre, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li>Grandfather clock, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; clock, introduction of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Great Hall at Hampton Court, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Grimm, quotation from, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li>Grotesque design prevalent in Elizabethan furniture, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h3>H</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Hall, Hampton Court, the Great, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Middle Temple, carved screen at, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li>Hampton Court, the Great Hall at, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Court, work of Grinling Gibbons at, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Hampton &amp; Sons, Messrs., pieces from collection of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Harrington, Sir John, quotation from, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li>Henry VII.'s chapel, Westminster Abbey, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; VIII., patron of the new art, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Heppelwhite, the style of, <b><a href="#Page_241">241</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a></b></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; chairs (illustrated), <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Herculaneum and Pompeii, influence of excavations at, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Hints to Collectors, <b><a href="#Page_259">259</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a></b></li>
+
+<li>Hogarth, William, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>Holbein in England, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Honey, W. G., Esq., specimen from collection of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li>Huygens, Dutch lacquer of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">{279}</a></span></li></ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<h3>I</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Ince &amp; Mayhew's designs, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>India office, specimen at, illustration of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li>Ingenious contrivances of Sheraton's furniture, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li>Inlay, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; in Elizabethan pieces, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Italian art dominates Elizabethan fashion, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li>Italy, Renaissance in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>J</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Jacobean, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; furniture, its fine simplicity, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean furniture, prices realised at auction, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>James I., chair at Knole House, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; II. furniture, prices realised at auction, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Japanese and Chinese cabinets, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Japanese lac imitated, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li>Jones Bequest, illustrations of specimens in, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Inigo, his influence, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>K</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Kauffman, Angelica, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Kent, eighteenth-century designer, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>Kew Gardens, pagoda at, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>King's College Chapel, Cambridge, woodwork of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Kitchen furniture (Chippendale style), <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li>Knole House, James I. furniture at, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>L</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Lac, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Japanese and Chinese imitated, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li>Lacquer, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancaster &amp; Co., Messrs. Harold G., specimens from collection of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather work, cut design, Portuguese chair-back, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li>Le Bas, Rev. H. V., illustration of specimen in possession of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Lebrun, Madame, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li>Leczinski, Stanislas, King of Poland, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Linen pattern, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Lock, Matthias, designs of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Louis XIII., chair of period of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; XIV., period of, <b><a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_167">167</a></b></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; XV., period of, <b><a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_187">187</a></b></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; XVI., period of, <b><a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a></b></li>
+
+<li>Louvre, copy of picture in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; illustration of portrait in, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>M</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Macaulay, Lord, quotation from, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li>"Made-up" pieces, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li>Madrid National Museum, illustration of specimen at, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>Mahogany period, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; how procured by British captains, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Sir Walter Raleigh's discovery of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Mansions built in Elizabethan days, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">{280}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Manwaring, designs of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Marie Antoinette, furniture belonging to, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li>Marie Louise, jewel cabinet of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Marquetry, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Dutch, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Dutch, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; elaborate, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; in Elizabethan pieces, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; work, spurious, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li>Martin, Sieur Simon Etienne (<i>Vernis-Martin</i>), <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li>Martin's varnish (<i>Vernis-Martin</i>), <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Meissonier, inspirer of rococo style, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Middle Temple Hall, carved oak screen at, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li>Mirrors, arrangement in Hampton Court galleries, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; at Nell Gwynne's house, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Chippendale, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; made by French and Italian workmen, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Queen Anne, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; various forms of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>Mortise, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Mother-of-pearl inlay, seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li>Munich National Museum, illustration of specimen at, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>N</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Naples Museum, illustration of table at, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li>Napoleon, his influence on art, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Natoire, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li>Needlework decorated cabinet, Charles II. period, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Netherlands, Renaissance in, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Netscher, Caspar, illustration after picture by, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>Normandy dressers, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li>Notable examples of sixteenth, century English woodwork, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>O</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Oak, collectors of, hints to, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; furniture, the collector's polish for, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; period, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; polish, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Oeben, Jean François, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>Old oak, polish for, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>P</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Parquetry, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Passe Crispin de, chair designed by, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Pater, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li>Penshurst Place, Indo-Portuguese furniture at, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>Petworth House, work of Grinling Gibbons at, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Polish</i>, French, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; oil, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Pollen, J., Hungerford, quotation from, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Pompeii, influence of excavations at, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Ponsonby-Fane, Right Hon. Sir Spencer, specimens in collection of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Portuguese furniture, late seventeenth century, in England, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">{281}</a></span></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>Q</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Queen Anne cabinet (illustrated), <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; chairs (illustrated), <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; furniture, prices realised at auction, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; mirror frame (illustrated), <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; settle (illustrated), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>R</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Raleigh, Sir Walter, mahogany first brought home by, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Récamier, portrait of, by David, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Reeded, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li>Renaissance, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; in England, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <b><a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_78">78</a></b></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; in France, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; in Italy, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; in Spain, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; on the Continent, <b><a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a></b></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; origin of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li>Restored, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; cupboard showing over-elaboration, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li>"Restored" pieces, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li>Revolution in France, vandalism during, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Ribbon-back chair (illustrated), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; ornamentation adapted from France, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>; (illustrated) <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; pattern, early use of, by French woodcarvers, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li>Riesener, Jean François, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Robinson, V. J., Esq., C.I.E., furniture belonging to, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li>Rococo, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li>Roe, Mr. Frederick, quotation from, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>Roentgen, David, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>S</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Sackville, Lord, early Jacobean furniture in collection of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li>St. Paul's Cathedral, work of Grinling Gibbons at, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Secret drawers, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; drawers, pieces with, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; drawers, Sheraton's love of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; processes to impart age to spurious pieces, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Settee, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; upholstered, early Jacobean, at Knole, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Settle, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Sèvres porcelain as decoration to furniture, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; porcelain in harmony with furniture, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Shattock, Esq., T. Foster, specimens from collection of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li>Shearer, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheraton, Thomas, and his style, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <b><a href="#Page_241">241</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a></b></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; chair (illustrated), <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; mechanical contrivances of his furniture, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; poverty of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+<li>    his opinion of Chippendale, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">{282}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Sigerson, Dr., Dublin, specimens from collection of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li>Sixteenth-century woodwork, fine example of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li>Spain, Renaissance in, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li>Spanish furniture (illustrated), cabinet, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; chest, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>Spitalfields' velvet for furniture, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; weaving founded by aliens, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li>Splat, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Stothard, copy of engraving by, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li>Strafford, first Earl of, chair with arms of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li>Strapwork, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; borrowed from Flemish designers, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>; illustrated, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; Elizabethan, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Stretche, Esq., T. E. Price, specimens from collection of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li>Stretcher, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; in chairs, evolution of the, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; wear given to, by feet of sitters, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li>Sutton, Thomas, founder of Charterhouse Hospital, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li>Symonds, John Addington, "The Renaissance in Italy," quoted, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<h3>T</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Table, gate-leg, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>Tapestry factory established at Mortlake, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; in harmony with furniture, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Tenon, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Terror, Reign of, vandalism during, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Timber split to give figure in surface, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>Transition between Gothic and Renaissance, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Turned work, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>U</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Upholstered chairs adopted in late Elizabethan days, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; seat (William and Mary), <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>V</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Vandyck at the Court of Charles I., <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li>Varnish, oil, composition of, not now known, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; spirit, a modern invention, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; <i>Vernis-Martin</i>, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Veneer, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Veneered work, its adoption, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Veneers, woods used as, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Vernis-Martin</i> (Martin's varnish), <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li>Versailles, sums spent upon building, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; vandalism at, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>W<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">{283}</a></span></h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Wallace Collection, illustrations of specimens, at, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li>Walnut period, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Walnut veneer, Queen Anne period, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Walpole, Horace, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Waring, Messrs., specimens from collection of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li>Watteau, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li>Wedgwood, Josiah, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Wellington, Duke of, collection in possession of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Welsh dresser, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li>Westminster Abbey, Henry VII.'s chapel, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>William and Mary furniture, prices realised at auction, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Winckelmann, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li>Woods preferred by Grinling Gibbons, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; used for delicate carving by foreign schools, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; used in furniture, <i>see</i> <b><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_TERMS_USED">Glossary</a></b>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+<li>  &mdash;&mdash; with fancy names, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; botanical names of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Woodwork, sixteenth century, fine examples of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li>Worms, ravages of furniture, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Wren, Sir Christopher, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<h3>Y</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX"><li>Yorkshire chairs, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li></ul>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p class='center'>
+<b>The Gresham Press</b>,<br />
+UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED,<br />
+WOKING AND LONDON.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
+</html>
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Old Furniture, by Arthur Hayden
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chats on Old Furniture
+       A Practical Guide for Collectors
+
+Author: Arthur Hayden
+
+Release Date: January 8, 2011 [EBook #34877]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Delphine Lettau, Susan Skinner and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
+
+
+[Illustration: _Jacobean Chair._]
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
+
+_Press Notices, First Edition._
+
+"Mr. Hayden knows his subject intimately."--_Pall Mall Gazette._
+
+"The hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen; so that
+altogether this is a model book of its kind."--_Athenaeum._
+
+"A useful and instructive volume."--_Spectator._
+
+"An abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and
+well-constructed history."--_Daily News._
+
+"Mr. Hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough."--_Scotsman._
+
+"A book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than usual
+merit."--_Vanity Fair._
+
+"Mr. Hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines, and has made
+his book what it purports to be--a practical guide for the
+collector."--_Saturday Review._
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD CHINA
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+_Second Edition._
+
+_Price_ 5s. _net._
+
+_With Coloured Frontispiece and Reproductions of 156 Marks and 89
+Specimens of China._
+
+A List of SALE PRICES and a full INDEX increase the usefulness of the
+Volume.
+
+This is a handy book of reference to enable Amateur Collectors to
+distinguish between the productions of the various factories.
+
+_Press Notices, First Edition._
+
+"A handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful, and the
+china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations, and for the author's
+obvious love and understanding of his subject."--_St. James's Gazette._
+
+"All lovers of china will find much entertainment in this
+volume."--_Daily News._
+
+"It gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to know
+about the principal varieties of English ware. We can warmly commend the
+book to the china collector."--_Pall Mall Gazette._
+
+"One of the best points about the book is the clear way in which the
+characteristics of each factory are noted down separately, so that the
+veriest tyro ought to be able to judge for himself if he has a piece or
+pieces which would come under this heading, and the marks are very
+accurately given."--_Queen._
+
+
+IN PREPARATION.
+
+CHATS ON OLD PRINTS
+
+_Price_ 5s. _net._
+
+_Illustrated with Coloured Frontispiece and 70 Full-page Reproductions
+from Engravings._
+
+With GLOSSARY of Technical Terms, BIBLIOGRAPHY, full INDEX and TABLE of
+more than 350 of the principal English and Continental Engravers from
+the XVIth to the XIXth centuries, together with copious notes as to
+PRICES and values of old prints.
+
+LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN, ADELPHI TERRACE.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+Chats on Old Furniture
+
+A Practical Guide for Collectors
+
+By Arthur Hayden
+
+Author of "Chats on English China"
+
+LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN
+1 ADELPHI TERRACE. MCMVI
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_First Edition, 1905._
+_Second   "     1906._
+
+_All rights reserved._
+
+
+[Illustration: _Portion of Carved Walnut Virginal._]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This volume has been written to enable those who have a taste for the
+furniture of a bygone day to arrive at some conclusion as to the
+essential points of the various styles made in England.
+
+An attempt has been made to give some lucid historical account of the
+progress and development in the art of making domestic furniture, with
+especial reference to its evolution in this country.
+
+Inasmuch as many of the finest specimens of old English woodwork and
+furniture have left the country of their origin and crossed the
+Atlantic, it is time that the public should awaken to the fact that the
+heritages of their forefathers are objects of envy to all lovers of art.
+It is a painful reflection to know that the temptation of money will
+shortly denude the old farmhouses and manor houses of England of their
+unappreciated treasures. Before the hand of the despoiler shall have
+snatched everything within reach, it is the hope of the writer that this
+little volume may not fall on stony ground, and that the possessors of
+fine old English furniture may realise their responsibilities.
+
+It has been thought advisable to touch upon French furniture as
+exemplified in the national collections of such importance as the Jones
+Bequest at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the Wallace Collection,
+to show the influence of foreign art upon our own designers. Similarly,
+Italian, Spanish, and Dutch furniture, of which many remarkable examples
+are in private collections in this country, has been dealt with in
+passing, to enable the reader to estimate the relation of English art to
+contemporary foreign schools of decoration and design.
+
+The authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum have willingly
+extended their assistance in regard to photographs, and by the special
+permission of the Board of Education the frontispiece and other
+representative examples in the national collection appear as
+illustrations to this volume.
+
+I have to acknowledge generous assistance and courteous permission from
+owners of fine specimens in allowing me facilities for reproducing
+illustrations of them in this volume.
+
+I am especially indebted to the Right Honourable Sir Spencer
+Ponsonby-Fane, G.C.B., I.S.O., and to the Rev. Canon Haig Brown, Master
+of the Charterhouse, for the inclusion of illustrations of furniture of
+exceptional interest.
+
+The proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ have generously furnished me with
+lists of prices obtained at auction from their useful monthly
+publication, _Auction Sale Prices_, and have allowed the reproduction of
+illustrations which have appeared in the pages of the _Connoisseur_.
+
+My thanks are due to Messrs. Hampton, of Pall Mall, for their kind
+permission to include as illustrations several fine pieces from their
+collection of antique furniture. I am under a similar obligation to
+Messrs. Waring, who have kindly allowed me to select some of their
+typical examples.
+
+To my other friends, without whose kind advice and valuable aid this
+volume could never have appeared, I tender a grateful and appreciative
+acknowledgment of my indebtedness.
+
+    ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+[Illustration: _Italian Chair about 1620_]
+
+[Illustration: _Spanish Chest._]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+PREFACE                                                                7
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS                                                 13
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                          19
+
+GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED                                                23
+
+CHAPTER
+
+   I. THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT                                31
+
+  II. THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE                                         57
+
+ III. STUART OR JACOBEAN (SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)                        79
+
+  IV. STUART OR JACOBEAN (LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)                  109
+
+   V. QUEEN ANNE STYLE                                               133
+
+  VI. FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.                     155
+
+ VII. FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XV.                      169
+
+VIII. FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI.                     189
+
+  IX. FRENCH FURNITURE. THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE                       201
+
+   X. CHIPPENDALE AND HIS STYLE                                      211
+
+  XI. SHERATON, ADAM, AND HEPPELWHITE STYLES                         239
+
+ XII. HINTS TO COLLECTORS                                            257
+
+INDEX                                                                275
+
+[Illustration: _Chippendale Bureau Bookcase._]
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+JACOBEAN OAK CABINET; decorated with mother-of-pearl, ebony, and ivory.
+Dated 1653. (By permission of the Board of Education)     _Frontispiece_
+
+CARVED WOOD FRAME; decorated with gold stucco. Sixteenth Century.
+Italian                                                     _Title page_
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+CHAPTER I.--THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT.
+
+   PORTION OF CARVED CORNICE, Italian, Sixteenth Century              33
+
+   FRAME OF WOOD, with female terminal figures, Italian,
+      late Sixteenth Century                                          35
+
+   FRONT OF COFFER, Italian, late Fifteenth Century                   38
+
+   BRIDAL CHEST, Gothic design, middle of Fifteenth Century           39
+
+   FRONT OF OAK CHEST, French, Fifteenth Century                      44
+
+   WALNUT SIDEBOARD, French, middle of Sixteenth Century              45
+
+   CABINET, FRENCH (LYONS), second half of Sixteenth Century          48
+
+   EBONY AND IVORY MARQUETRY CABINET, French, middle of
+      Sixteenth Century                                               50
+
+   SPANISH CABINET AND STAND, carved chestnut, first half
+      of Sixteenth Century                                            51
+
+   SPANISH CHEST, carved walnut, Sixteenth Century                    52
+
+CHAPTER II.--THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE.
+
+   CARVED OAK CHEST, English, Sixteenth Century                       59
+
+   BENCH OF OAK, French, about 1500                                   60
+
+   PORTION OF CARVED WALNUT VIRGINAL, Flemish, Sixteenth Century      61
+
+   CARVED OAK COFFER, French, showing interlaced ribbon-work          61
+
+   FIREPLACE AND OAK PANELLING, "Old Palace," Bromley-by-Bow.
+     Built in 1606                                                    64
+
+   ELIZABETHAN BEDSTEAD, dated 1593                                   66
+
+   PANEL OF CARVED OAK, English, early Sixteenth Century              68
+
+   MIRROR, in oak frame, English, dated 1603                          71
+
+   COURT CUPBOARD, carved oak, English, dated 1603                    73
+
+         "      "    carved oak, early Seventeenth Century            74
+
+         "      "    about 1580                                       75
+
+   ELIZABETHAN OAK TABLE                                              78
+
+CHAPTER III.--STUART OR JACOBEAN. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+   GATE-LEG TABLE                                                     81
+
+   OAK CHAIR, made from Sir Francis Drake's ship, the _Golden Hind_   83
+
+   OAK TABLE, dated 1616, bearing arms of Thomas Sutton               85
+
+   CHAIR USED BY JAMES I.                                             87
+
+   JACOBEAN CHAIR, at Knole                                           89
+
+   JACOBEAN STOOL, at Knole                                           90
+
+   CARVED WALNUT DOOR (UPPER HALF), French, showing ribbon-work       91
+
+   OAK CHAIR, with arms of first Earl of Strafford                    93
+
+   ITALIAN CHAIR, about 1620                                          94
+
+   HIGH-BACK OAK CHAIR, Early Jacobean, formerly in
+      possession of Charles I.                                        95
+
+   JACOBEAN CHAIRS, various types                                     97
+
+   EBONY CABINET, formerly the property of Oliver Cromwell            99
+
+   JACOBEAN CARVED OAK CHAIRS, Yorkshire and Derbyshire types        101
+
+   JACOBEAN OAK CUPBOARD, about 1620                                 101
+
+   JACOBEAN OAK CHAIRS                                               105
+
+   CARVED OAK CRADLE, time of Charles I., dated 1641                 107
+
+CHAPTER IV.--STUART OR JACOBEAN. LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+   INTERIOR OF DUTCH HOUSE, latter half of Seventeenth Century       111
+
+   CABINET OF TIME OF CHARLES II., showing exterior                  112
+
+      "    "   "                   showing interior                  113
+
+   PORTUGUESE HIGH-BACK CHAIR                                        115
+
+   OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS, late Jacobean                               117
+
+    "    "   panelled front, late Jacobean                           119
+
+   CHARLES II. OAK CHAIR                                             120
+
+   CHARLES II. OPEN HIGH-BACK OAK CHAIR                              121
+
+   CHARLES II. CHAIR, cane back and seat                             122
+
+   JAMES II. CHAIR, cane back and seat                               123
+
+   WILLIAM AND MARY CHAIR                                            125
+
+   PORTUGUESE CHAIR-BACK (UPPER PORTION), cut leather work           128
+
+CHAPTER V.--QUEEN ANNE STYLE.
+
+   QUEEN ANNE OAK SETTLE                                             135
+
+   QUEEN ANNE MIRROR FRAME, carved walnut, gilded                    137
+
+   OAK DESK, dated 1696                                              139
+
+   OAK CUPBOARD                                                      140
+
+   QUEEN ANNE CABINET, burr-walnut panel                             141
+
+   QUEEN ANNE CHAIRS, various types                                  143
+
+   DUTCH MARQUETRY CABINET                                           147
+
+   QUEEN ANNE CLOCK                                                  148
+
+   QUEEN ANNE SETTLE, oak, dated 1705                                149
+
+   OLD LAC CABINET                                                   150
+
+   LAC CABINET, middle of Eighteenth Century                         151
+
+    "     "     showing doors closed                                 152
+
+    "     "     chased brass escutcheon                              154
+
+CHAPTER VI.--FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.
+
+   CASSETTE, French, Seventeenth Century                             157
+
+   CHAIR OF PERIOD OF LOUIS XIII.                                    159
+
+   PEDESTALS, showing boule and counter-boule work                   163
+
+   BOULE CABINET, OR ARMOIRE                                         165
+
+CHAPTER VII.--FRENCH FURNITURE. LOUIS XV.
+
+   COMMODE, by Cressent                                              171
+
+   COMMODE, formerly in the Hamilton Collection                      173
+
+   COMMODE, by Caffieri                                              175
+
+   ESCRITOIRE A TOILETTE, formerly in possession of Marie Antoinette 179
+
+   SECRETAIRE, by Riesener                                           181
+
+   "BUREAU DU ROI," the masterpiece of Riesener                      183
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--FRENCH FURNITURE. LOUIS XVI.
+
+   JEWEL CABINET, "J. H. Riesener," Mounts by Gouthiere              193
+
+   COMMODE, by Riesener                                              197
+
+CHAPTER IX.--FRENCH FURNITURE. THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE.
+
+   PORTRAIT OF MADAME RECAMIER, after David                          203
+
+   DETAIL OF TRIPOD TABLE found at Pompeii                           205
+
+   SERVANTE, French, late Eighteenth Century                         206
+
+   JEWEL CABINET OF THE EMPRESS MARIE LOUISE                         207
+
+   ARMCHAIR, rosewood, showing Empire influence                      210
+
+CHAPTER X.--CHIPPENDALE AND HIS STYLE.
+
+   TABLE MADE BY CHIPPENDALE                                         213
+
+   OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR                                          215
+
+   CHIPPENDALE SETTEE, walnut, about 1740                            217
+
+       "          "    oak, about 1740                               219
+
+   CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK, ribbon pattern                            222
+
+   RIBBON-BACKED CHIPPENDALE CHAIR, formerly at Blenheim             223
+
+   CHIPPENDALE CORNER CHAIR, about 1780                              224
+
+   GOTHIC CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK                                     225
+
+   MAHOGANY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR, about 1740                            226
+
+      "         "         "    about 1770                            227
+
+   CHIPPENDALE MIRROR                                                229
+
+   CHIPPENDALE BUREAU BOOKCASE                                       231
+
+   MAHOGANY CHAIR, Chippendale Style                                 232
+
+   COTTAGE CHAIRS, beechwood, Chippendale style                      233
+
+   INTERIOR OF ROOM OF ABOUT 1782, after Stothard                    235
+
+CHAPTER XI.--SHERATON, ADAM, AND HEPPELWHITE STYLES.
+
+   HEPPELWHITE SETTEE, mahogany                                      241
+
+   SHERATON, Adam, and Heppelwhite Chairs                            243
+
+   OLD ENGLISH SECRETAIRE                                            250
+
+   SHIELD-BACK CHAIR, late Eighteenth Century                        251
+
+CHAPTER XII.--HINTS TO COLLECTORS.
+
+   DESIGN FOR SPURIOUS MARQUETRY WORK                                259
+
+   "MADE-UP" BUFFET                                                  261
+
+   CABINET OF OLD OAK, "made-up"                                     267
+
+   DESIGN FOR SPURIOUS MARQUETRY WORK                                273
+
+   PIECE OF SPANISH CHESTNUT, showing ravages of worms               274
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+GENERAL.
+
+    Ancient Furniture, Specimens of. H. Shaw. Quaritch. 1836. L10
+    10s., now worth L3 3s.
+
+    Ancient and Modern Furniture. B. J. Talbert. Batsford. 1876. 32s.
+
+    Antique Furniture, Sketches of. W. S. Ogden. Batsford. 1889. 12s.
+    6d.
+
+    Carved Furniture and Woodwork. M. Marshall. W. H. Allen. 1888.
+    L3.
+
+    Carved Oak in Woodwork and Furniture from Ancient Houses. W. B.
+    Sanders. 1883. 31s. 6d.
+
+    Decorative Furniture, English and French, of the Sixteenth,
+    Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. W. H. Hackett. 7s. 6d.
+
+    Ecclesiastical Woodwork, Remains of. T. T. Bury. Lockwood. 1847.
+    21s.
+
+    French and English Furniture. E. Singleton. Hodder. 1904.
+
+    Furniture, Ancient and Modern. J. W. Small. Batsford. 1883. 21s.
+
+    Furniture and Decoration. J. A. Heaton. 1890-92.
+
+    Furniture and Woodwork, Ancient and Modern. J. H. Pollen.
+    Chapman. 1874-5. 21s. and 2s. 6d.
+
+    Furniture and Woodwork. J. H. Pollen. Stanford. 1876. 3s. 6d.
+
+    Furniture of the Olden Time. F. C. Morse. Macmillan. 12s. 6d.
+
+    Gothic Furniture, _Connoisseur_. May, 1903.
+
+    History of Furniture Illustrated. F. Litchfield. Truslove. 25s.
+
+    Marquetry, Parquetry, Boulle and other Inlay Work. W. Bemrose.
+    1872 and 1882.
+
+    Old Furniture, English and Foreign. A. E. Chancellor. Batsford.
+    L1 5s.
+
+    Old Furniture from Twelfth to Eighteenth Century. Wyman. 1883.
+    10s. 6d.
+
+    Style in Furniture and Woodwork. R. Brook. Privately printed.
+    1889. 21s.
+
+
+PARTICULAR.
+
+    ENGLISH.--Adam R. & J., The Architecture, Decoration an
+    Furniture of R. & J. Adam, selected from works published
+    1778-1822. London. 1880.
+
+    Adam, The Brothers. _Connoisseur._ May, June and August, 1904.
+
+    Ancient Wood and Iron Work in Cambridge. W. B. Redfern. Spalding.
+    1887. 31s. 6d.
+
+    Chippendale, T. Cabinet Makers' Directory. Published in 1754,
+    1755 and 1762. (The best edition is the last as it contains 200
+    plates as against 161 in the earlier editions. Its value is about
+    L12.)
+
+    Chippendale and His Work. _Connoisseur_, January, July, August,
+    September, October, November, December, 1903, January, 1904.
+
+    Chippendale, Sheraton and Heppelwhite, The Designs of. Arranged
+    by J. M. Bell. 1900. Worth L2 2s.
+
+    Chippendale's Contemporaries. _Connoisseur_, March, 1904.
+
+    Chippendale and Sheraton. _Connoisseur_, May, 1902.
+
+    Coffers and Cupboards, Ancient. Fred Roe. Methuen & Co. 1903. L3
+    3s.
+
+    English Furniture, History of. Percy Macquoid. Published by
+    Lawrence & Bullen in 7s. 6d. parts, the first of which appeared
+    in November, 1904.
+
+    English Furniture and Woodwork during the Eighteenth Century. T.
+    A. Strange. 12s. 6d.
+
+    Furniture of our Forefathers. E. Singleton. Batsford. L3 15s.
+
+    Hatfield House, History of. Q. F. Robinson. 1883.
+
+    Hardwicke Hall, History of. Q. F. Robinson. 1835.
+
+    Heppelwhite, A., Cabinet Maker. Published 1788, 1789, and 1794,
+    and contains about 130 plates. Value L8 to L12. Reprint issued in
+    1897. Worth L2 10s.
+
+    Ince and Mayhew. Household Furniture. N.d. (1770). Worth L20.
+
+    Jacobean Furniture. _Connoisseur_, September, 1902.
+
+    Knole House, Its State Rooms, &c. (Elizabethan and other
+    Furniture.) S. J. Mackie. 1858.
+
+    Manwaring, R., Cabinet and Chairmaker's Real Friend. London.
+    1765.
+
+    Mansions of England in the Olden Time. J. Nash. 1839-49.
+
+    Old English Houses and Furniture. M. B. Adam. Batsford. 1889.
+    25s.
+
+    Old English Oak Furniture. J. W. Hurrell. Batsford. L2 2s.
+
+    Old English Furniture. Frederick Fenn and B. Wyllie. Newnes. 7s.
+    6d. net.
+
+    Old Oak, The Art of Collecting. _Connoisseur_, September, 1901.
+
+    Sheraton, T. Cabinet Maker's Drawing Book. 1791-3 edition
+    contains 111 plates. Value L13. 1794 edition contains 119 plates.
+    Value L10.
+
+    Sheraton T. Cabinet Directory. 1803.
+
+    Staircases and Handrails of the Age of Elizabeth. J. Weale. 1860.
+
+    Upholsterer's Repository. Ackermann. N.d. Worth L5.
+
+    FRENCH.--_Dictionnaire de l'Ameublement._ H. Havard. Paris. N.d.
+    Worth L5.
+
+    _Dictionnaire Raisonne._ M. Viollet-le-Duc. 1858-75. 6 vols.
+    Worth L10.
+
+    French Furniture. Lady Dilke. Bell. 1901.
+
+    French Eighteenth Century Furniture, Handbook to the. Jones
+    Collection Catalogue. 1881.
+
+    French Eighteenth Century Furniture, Handbook to the. Wallace
+    Collection Catalogue. 1904.
+
+    History of Furniture. A. Jacquemart. Chapman. 1878. 31s. 6d.
+    Issued in Paris in 1876, under the title _Histoire du Mobilier_.
+
+    _Le Meuble en France au XVI Siecle._ E. Bonnaffe. Paris. 1887.
+    Worth 10s.
+
+    JAPANESE.--Lacquer Industry of Japan. Report of Her Majesty's
+    Acting-Consul at Hakodate. J. J. Quin. Parliamentary Paper. 8vo.
+    London. 1882.
+
+    SCOTTISH.--Scottish Woodwork of Sixteenth and Seventeenth
+    Centuries. J. W. Small. Waterston. 1878. L4 4s.
+
+    SPANISH.--Spanish and Portuguese. Catalogue of Special Loan
+    Exhibition of Spanish and Portuguese Ornamental Art. 1881.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED
+
+
+    _Armoire._--A large cupboard of French design of the dimensions
+    of the modern wardrobe. In the days of Louis XIV. these pieces
+    were made in magnificent style. The Jones Collection at the
+    Victoria and Albert Museum has several fine examples. (See
+    illustration, p. 165.)
+
+    _Baroque._--Used in connection with over ornate and incongruous
+    decoration as in _rococo_ style.
+
+    _Bombe._--A term applied to pieces of furniture which swell out
+    at the sides.
+
+    _Boule._--A special form of marquetry of brass and tortoiseshell
+    perfected by Andre Charles Boule in the reign of Louis XIV. (See
+    Chapter VI., where specimens of this kind of work are
+    illustrated.) The name has been corrupted into a trade term
+    _Buhl_, to denote this style of marquetry. Boule or _Premiere
+    partie_ is a metal inlay, usually brass, applied to a
+    tortoiseshell background. See also _Counter-boule_.
+
+    _Bureau._--A cabinet with drawers, and having a drop-down front
+    for use as a writing-table. Bureaux are of many forms. (See
+    illustration, p. 231.)
+
+    _Cabriole._--Used in connection with the legs of tables and
+    chairs which are curved in form, having a sudden arch outwards
+    from the seat. (See illustration, p. 143.)
+
+    _Caryatides._--Carved female figures applied to columns in Greek
+    architecture, as at the Erectheum at Athens. They were employed
+    by woodcarvers, and largely introduced into Renaissance
+    furniture of an architectural character. Elizabethan craftsmen
+    were especially fond of their use as terminals, and in the
+    florid decoration of elaborate furniture.
+
+    _Cassone._--An Italian marriage coffer. In Chapter I. will be
+    found a full description of these _cassoni_.
+
+    _Commode._--A chest of drawers of French style. In the chapters
+    dealing with the styles of Louis XIV., Louis XV., and Louis
+    XVI., these are fully described and illustrations are given.
+
+    _Counter-Boule._ _Contre partie._--See Chapter VI., where
+    specimens of this work are illustrated. It consists of a brass
+    groundwork with tortoiseshell inlay.
+
+    _French Polish._--A cheap and nasty method used since 1851 to
+    varnish poor-looking wood to disguise its inferiority. It is
+    quicker than the old method of rubbing in oil and turpentine
+    and beeswax. It is composed of shellac dissolved in methylated
+    spirits with colouring matter added.
+
+    _Gate-leg table._--This term is self-explanatory. The legs of
+    this class of table open like a gate. They belong to Jacobean
+    days, and are sometimes spoken of as Cromwellian tables. An
+    illustration of one appears on the cover.
+
+    _Gothic._--This term was originally applied to the mediaeval
+    styles of architecture. It was used as a term of reproach and
+    contempt at a time when it was the fashion to write Latin and to
+    expect it to become the universal language. In woodcarving the
+    Gothic style followed the architecture. A fine example of the
+    transition between Gothic and the oncoming Renaissance is given
+    (p. 44).
+
+    _Inlay._--A term used for the practice of decorating surfaces
+    and panels of furniture with wood of various colours,
+    mother-of-pearl, or ivory. The inlay is let into the wood of
+    which the piece inlaid is composed.
+
+    _Jacobean._--Strictly speaking, only furniture of the days of
+    James I. should be termed Jacobean. But by some collectors the
+    period is held to extend to James II.--that is from 1603 to
+    1688. Other collectors prefer the term Carolean for a portion of
+    the above period, which is equally misleading. Jacobean is only
+    a rough generalisation of seventeenth-century furniture.
+
+    _Lacquer._ _Lac._--A transparent varnish used in its perfection
+    by the Chinese and Japanese. (See "Consular Report on Japanese
+    Lacquered Work," in Bibliography.) Introduced into Holland and
+    France, it was imitated with great success. Under Louis XV.
+    Vernis-Martin became the rage (_q.v._).
+
+    _Linen Pattern._--A form of carving panels to represent a folded
+    napkin. This particular design was largely used in France and
+    Germany prior to its adoption here. (See illustration, p. 60.)
+
+    _Marquetry._--Inlays of coloured woods, arranged with some
+    design, geometric, floral, or otherwise, are classed under this
+    style. (See also _Parquetry_.)
+
+    _Mortise._--A term in carpentry used to denote the hole made in
+    a piece of wood to receive the end of another piece to be joined
+    to it. The portion which fits into the mortise is called the
+    tenon.
+
+    _Oil Polish._--Old furniture, before the introduction of
+    varnishes and French polish and other inartistic effects, was
+    polished by rubbing the surface with a stone, if it was a large
+    area as in the case of a table, and then applying linseed oil
+    and polishing with beeswax and turpentine. The fine tone after
+    centuries of this treatment is evident in old pieces which have
+    a metallic lustre that cannot be imitated.
+
+    _Parquetry._--Inlays of woods of the same colour are termed
+    parquetry work in contradistinction to marquetry, which is in
+    different colour. Geometric designs are mainly used as in
+    parquetry floors.
+
+    _Reeded._--This term is applied to the style of decoration by
+    which thin narrow strips of wood are placed side by side on the
+    surface of furniture.
+
+    _Renaissance._--The style which was originated in Italy in the
+    fifteenth century, supplanting the Mediaeval styles which
+    embraced Byzantine and Gothic art; the new-birth was in origin a
+    literary movement, but quickly affected art, and grew with
+    surprising rapidity, and affected every country in Europe. It is
+    based on Classic types, and its influence on furniture and
+    woodwork followed its adoption in architecture.
+
+    _Restored._--This word is the fly in the pot of ointment to all
+    who possess antiquarian tastes. It ought to mean, in furniture,
+    that only the most necessary repairs have been made in order to
+    preserve the object. It more often means that a considerable
+    amount of misapplied ingenuity has gone to the remaking of a
+    badly-preserved specimen. Restorations are only permissible at
+    the hands of most conscientious craftsmen.
+
+    _Rococo._--A style which was most markedly offensive in the time
+    of Louis XV. Meaningless elaborations of scroll and shell work,
+    with rocky backgrounds and incongruous ornamentations, are its
+    chief features. _Baroque_ is another term applied to this
+    overloaded style.
+
+    _Settee._--An upholstered form of the settle.
+
+    _Settle._--A wooden seat with back and arms, capable of seating
+    three or four persons side by side.
+
+    _Splat._--The wooden portion in the back of a chair connecting
+    the top rail with the seat.
+
+    _Strapwork._--This is applied to the form of decoration employed
+    by the Elizabethan woodcarvers in imitation of Flemish
+    originals. (See p. 68.)
+
+    _Stretcher._--The rail which connects the legs of a chair or a
+    table with one another. In earlier forms it was used as a
+    footrest to keep the feet from the damp or draughty rush floor.
+
+    _Tenon._--"Mortise and Tenon joint." (See _Mortise_.)
+
+    _Turned Work._--The spiral rails and uprights of chairs were
+    turned with the lathe in Jacobean days. Prior to the
+    introduction of the lathe all work was carved without the use of
+    this tool. Pieces of furniture have been found where the maker
+    has carved the turned work in all its details of form, either
+    from caprice or from ignorance of the existence of the quicker
+    method.
+
+    _Veneer._--A method of using thin layers of wood and laying them
+    on a piece of furniture, either as marquetry in different
+    colours, or in one wood only. It was an invention in order to
+    employ finer specimens of wood carefully selected in the parts
+    of a piece of furniture most noticeable. It has been since used
+    to hide inferior wood.
+
+    _Vernis-Martin_ (Martin's Varnish).--The lacquered work of a
+    French carriage-painter named Martin, who claimed to have
+    discovered the secret of the Japanese lac, and who, in 1774, was
+    granted a monopoly for its use. He applied it successfully to
+    all kinds of furniture, and to fan-guards and sticks. In the
+    days of Madame du Pompadour Vernis-Martin had a great vogue, and
+    panels prepared by Martin were elaborately painted upon by
+    Lancret and Boucher. To this day his varnish retains its lustre
+    undimmed, and specimens command high prices.
+
+
+Woods used in Furniture.
+
+    _High-class Work._--Brazil wood, Coromandel, Mahogany, Maple,
+    Oak (various kinds), Olive, Rosewood, Satinwood, Sandalwood,
+    Sweet Cedar, Sweet Chestnut, Teak, Walnut.
+
+    _Commoner Work._--Ash, Beech, Birch, Cedars (various), Deals,
+    Mahogany (various kinds), Pine, Walnut.
+
+    _Marquetry and Veneers._--Selected specimens for fine figuring
+    are used as veneers, and for marquetry of various colours the
+    following are used as being more easily stained: Holly,
+    Horsechestnut, Sycamore, Pear, Plum Tree.
+
+    _Woods with Fancy Names._
+
+    King Wood, Partridge Wood, Pheasant Wood, Purple Wood,
+    Snakewood, Tulip Wood.
+
+These are more rare and finely-marked foreign woods used sparingly in
+the most expensive furniture. To arrive at the botanical names of these
+is not an easy matter. To those interested a list of woods used by
+cabinet-makers with their botanical names is given in Mr. J. Hungerford
+Pollen's "Introduction to the South Kensington Collection of Furniture."
+At the Museum at Kew Gardens and in the Imperial Institute are
+collections of rare woods worth examination.
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT
+
+
+[Illustration: Portion of carved cornice of pinewood, from the Palazzo
+Bensi Ceccini, Venice.
+
+Italian; middle of sixteenth century.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT
+
+    ITALY. Flight of Greek scholars to Italy upon capture of
+    Constantinople by the Turks--1453.
+
+    Rediscovery of Greek art.
+
+    Florence the centre of the Renaissance.
+
+    Leo X., Pope (1475-1521).
+
+    Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1520). Raphael (1483-1520). Michael
+    Angelo (1474-1564).
+
+    FRANCE. Francis I. (1515-1547).
+
+    Henry IV. (1589-1610).
+
+    SPAIN. The crown united under Ferdinand and Isabella
+    (1452-1516).
+
+    Granada taken from the Moors--1492.
+
+    Charles V. (1519-1555).
+
+    Philip II. (1555-1598).
+
+    GERMANY. Maximilian I., Emperor of Germany (1459-1519).
+
+    Holbein (1498-1543).
+
+
+In attempting to deal with the subject of old furniture in a manner not
+too technical, certain broad divisions have to be made for convenience
+in classification. The general reader does not want information
+concerning the iron bed of Og, King of Bashan, nor of Cicero's table of
+citrus-wood, which cost L9,000; nor are details of the chair of Dagobert
+and of the jewel-chest of Richard of Cornwall of much worth to the
+modern collector.
+
+It will be found convenient to eliminate much extraneous matter, such as
+the early origins of furniture and its development in the Middle Ages,
+and to commence in this country with the Tudor period. Broadly speaking,
+English furniture falls under three heads--the Oak Period, embracing the
+furniture of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries; the Walnut
+Period, including the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries;
+the Mahogany Period, beginning with the reign of George III. It may be
+observed that the names of kings and of queens have been applied to
+various styles of furniture as belonging to their reign. Early Victorian
+is certainly a more expressive term than early nineteenth century.
+Cromwellian tables, Queen Anne chairs, or Louis Seize commodes all have
+an especial meaning as referring to styles more or less prevalent when
+those personages lived. As there is no record of the makers of most of
+the old English furniture, and as a piece of furniture cannot be judged
+as can a picture, the date of manufacture cannot be precisely laid down,
+hence the vagueness of much of the classification of old furniture.
+Roughly it may in England be dealt with under the Tudor, the Stuart, and
+the Georgian ages. These three divisions do not coincide exactly with
+the periods of oak, of walnut, and of mahogany, inasmuch as the oak
+furniture extended well into the Stuart days, and walnut was prevalent
+in the reigns of George I. and George II. In any case, these broad
+divisions are further divided into sub-heads embracing styles which
+arose out of the natural development in taste, or which came and went at
+the caprice of fashion.
+
+[Illustration: Frame of wood, carved with floral scrollwork, with female
+terminal figures.
+
+Italian; late sixteenth century.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The formation of a definite English character in the furniture of the
+three periods must be examined in conjunction with the prevailing styles
+in foreign furniture showing what influences were at work. Many
+conditions governed the introduction of foreign furniture into England.
+Renaissance art made a change in architecture, and a corresponding
+change took place in furniture. Ecclesiastical buildings followed the
+continental architecture in form and design, and foreign workmen were
+employed by the Church and by the nobility in decorating and
+embellishing cathedrals and abbeys and feudal castles. The early Tudor
+days under Henry VII. saw the dawn of the Renaissance in England. Jean
+de Mabuse and Torrigiano were invited over the sea by Henry VII., and
+under the sturdy impulse of Henry VIII. classical learning and love of
+the fine arts were encouraged. His palaces were furnished with
+splendour. He wished to emulate the chateau of Francis at Fontainebleau.
+He tried to entice the French king's artists with more tempting terms.
+Holbein, the great master of the German school, came to England, and his
+influence over Tudor art was very pronounced. The florid manner of the
+Renaissance was tempered with the broader treatment of the northern
+school. The art, too, of the Flemish woodcarvers found sympathetic
+reception in this country, and the harmonious blending of the designs of
+the Renaissance craftsmen of the Italian with those of the Flemish
+school resulted in the growth in England of the beautiful and
+characteristic style known as Tudor.
+
+[Illustration: FRONT OF COFFER. CHESTNUT WOOD. ITALIAN; LATE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY.
+
+With shield of arms supported by two male demi figures terminating in
+floral scrollwork.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The term Renaissance is used in regard to that period in the history of
+art which marked the return to the classic forms employed by the Greeks
+and Romans. The change from the Gothic or Mediaeval work to the classic
+feeling had its origin in Italy, and spread, at first gradually but
+later with amazing rapidity and growing strength, into Germany, Spain,
+the Netherlands, France, and finally to England.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+BRIDAL CHEST. GOTHIC DESIGN.
+
+MIDDLE OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_Munich National Museum._)]
+
+The Renaissance was in origin a literary movement, and its influence in
+art came through literature. The enthusiasm of the new learning acting
+on craftsmen already trained to the highest degree of technical skill
+produced work of great brilliance.
+
+Never did the fine arts rise to such transcendent heights as in Italy
+from the fourteenth to the middle of the seventeenth centuries. The late
+John Addington Symonds, in his work on "The Renaissance in Italy," deals
+in a comprehensive manner with this memorable period, during which every
+city in Italy, great or small, was producing wonderful works of art, in
+painting, in sculpture, in goldsmiths' work, in woodcarving, in
+furniture, of which now every civilised country struggles to obtain for
+its art collections the scattered fragments of these great days. "During
+that period of prodigious activity," he says, "the entire nation seemed
+to be endowed with an instinct for the beautiful and with the capacity
+for producing it in every conceivable form."
+
+In the middle of the fourteenth century the Renaissance style in
+woodwork was at first more evident in the churches and in the palaces of
+the nobility in the Italian states. Some of the most magnificent
+examples of carved woodwork are preserved in the choir-stalls, doorways
+and panelling of the churches and cathedrals of Italy. The great artists
+of the day gave their talents to the production of woodwork and
+furniture in various materials. Wood was chiefly employed in making
+furniture, usually oak, cypress, ebony, walnut, or chestnut, which last
+wood is very similar in appearance to oak. These were decorated with
+gilding and paintings, and were inlaid with other woods, or agate,
+lapis-lazuli, and marbles of various tints, with ivory, tortoiseshell,
+mother-of-pearl, or with ornaments of hammered silver.
+
+The Victoria and Albert Museum contains some splendid examples of
+fourteenth and fifteenth century Italian Renaissance furniture, which
+illustrate well the magnificence and virility of the great art movement
+which influenced the remainder of Europe. In particular, carved and
+gilded frames, and marriage coffers (_cassoni_) given to brides as part
+of their dowry to hold the bridal trousseau, are richly and effectively
+decorated. The frame of carved wood (illustrated p. 35), with fine
+scroll work and female terminal figures, is enriched with painting and
+gilding. The frame on the title-page of this volume is of carved wood,
+decorated with gold stucco. Both these are sixteenth-century Italian
+work. In fact, the study of the various types and the different kinds of
+ornamentation given to these _cassoni_ would be an interesting subject
+for the student, who would find enough material in the collection at the
+Victoria and Albert Museum to enable him to follow the Renaissance
+movement from its early days down to the time when crowded design,
+over-elaboration, and inharmonious details grew apace like so many weeds
+to choke the ideals of the master spirits of the Renaissance.
+
+The front of the late fifteenth-century coffer (illustrated p. 38) is of
+chestnut wood, carved with a shield of arms supported by two male
+demi-figures, terminating in floral scroll work. There are still traces
+of gilding on the wood.
+
+At first the lines followed architecture in character. Cabinets had
+pilasters, columns, and arches resembling the old Roman temples. The
+illustration of a portion of a cornice of carved pinewood appearing as
+the headpiece to this chapter shows this tendency. The marriage coffers
+had classic heads upon them, but gradually this chaste style gave place
+to rich ornamentation with designs of griffins and grotesque masks. The
+chairs, too, were at first very severe in outline, usually with a high
+back and fitted with a stretcher between the legs, which was carved, as
+was also the back of the chair.
+
+In the middle of the fifteenth century Gothic art had attained its
+high-water mark in Germany before the new art from Italy had crossed the
+Alps. We reproduce a bridal chest, of the middle of the fifteenth
+century, from the collection in the Munich National Museum, which shows
+the basis of Gothic art in England prior to the revival and before
+further foreign influences were brought to bear on English art (p. 39).
+
+The influence of Italian art upon France soon made itself felt. Italian
+architects and craftsmen were invited by Francis I. and by the
+Princesses of the House of Medici, of which Pope Leo X. was the
+illustrious head, to build palaces and chateaux in the Renaissance
+style. The Tuileries, Fontainebleau, and the Louvre were the result of
+this importation. Primaticcio and Cellini founded a school of sculptors
+and wood-carvers in France, of which Jean Goujon stands pre-eminent. The
+furniture began gradually to depart from the old Gothic traditions, as
+is shown in the design of the oak chest of the late fifteenth century
+preserved in the Dublin Museum, which we illustrate, and commenced to
+emulate the gorgeousness of Italy. This is a particularly instructive
+example, showing the transition between the Gothic and the Renaissance
+styles.
+
+[Illustration: FRONT OF OAK CHEST. FRENCH; FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_Dublin Museum._)]
+
+The French Renaissance sideboard in the illustration (p. 45) is a fine
+example of the middle of the sixteenth century. It is carved in walnut.
+The moulded top is supported in front by an arcading decorated with two
+male and two female terminal figures, which are enriched with masks and
+floral ornament. Behind the arcading is a table supporting a cupboard
+and resting in front on four turned columns; it is fitted with three
+drawers, the fronts of which, as well as that of the cupboard, are
+decorated with monsters, grotesque masks, and scroll work.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of T. Foster Shattock, Esq._
+
+WALNUT SIDEBOARD.
+
+FRENCH; MIDDLE OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+The impulse given by Francis I. was responsible for much decorative work
+in the early period of the French Renaissance, and many beautiful
+examples exist in the churches and chateaux of France to which his name
+has been given. It is noticeable that the chief difference between the
+Italian and the French Renaissance lies in the foundation of Gothic
+influence underlying the newer Renaissance ornament in French work of
+the period. Flamboyant arches and Gothic canopies were frequently
+retained and mingled with classic decoration. The French clung to their
+older characteristics with more tenacity, inasmuch as the Renaissance
+was a sudden importation rather than a natural development of slower
+growth.
+
+The French Renaissance cabinet of walnut illustrated (p. 48) is from
+Lyons, and is of the later part of the sixteenth century. It is finely
+carved with terminal figures, masks, trophies of ornaments, and other
+ornament. In comparison with the sixteenth-century ebony cabinet of the
+period of Henry IV., finely inlaid with ivory in most refined style, it
+is obvious that a great variety of sumptuous furniture was being made by
+the production of such diverse types as these, and that the craftsmen
+were possessed of a wealth of invention. The range of English
+craftsmen's designs during the Renaissance in this country was never so
+extensive, as can be seen on a detailed examination of English work.
+
+[Illustration: CABINET OF WALNUT
+
+FRENCH (LYONS); SECOND HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Carved with terminal figures, masks, and trophies of arms.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+In Spain the Italian feeling became acclimatised more readily than in
+France. In the sixteenth century the wood carving of Spain is of
+exceeding beauty. The decoration of the choir of the cathedral at
+Toledo is held to be one of the finest examples of the Spanish
+Renaissance. In furniture the cabinets and buffets of the Spanish
+craftsmen are of perfect grace and of characteristic design. The older
+Spanish cabinets are decorated externally with delicate ironwork and
+with columns of ivory or bone painted and richly gilded, exhibiting
+Moorish influence in their character. Many of the more magnificent
+specimens are richly inlaid with silver, and are the work of the artists
+of Seville, of Toledo, or of Valladolid. The first illustration of a
+cabinet and stand is a typically Spanish design, and the second
+illustration of the carved walnut chest in the National Archaelogical
+Museum at Madrid is of the sixteenth century, when the Spanish
+wood-carvers had developed the Renaissance spirit and reached a very
+high level in their art.
+
+Simultaneously with the Italianising of French art a similar wave of
+novelty was spreading over the Netherlands and Germany. The Flemish
+Renaissance approaches more nearly to the English in the adaptation of
+the Italian style, or it would be more accurate to say that the English
+is more closely allied to the art of the Netherlands, as it drew much of
+its inspiration from the Flemish wood-carvers. The spiral turned legs
+and columns, the strap frets cut out and applied to various parts, the
+squares between turnings often left blank to admit of a little ebony
+diamond, are all of the same family as the English styles. Ebony inlay
+was frequently used, but the Flemish work of this period was nearly all
+in oak. Marqueterie of rich design was made, the inlay being of various
+coloured woods and shaded. Mother-of-pearl and ivory were also employed
+to heighten the effect.
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH CABINET.
+
+Ebony and ivory marquetry work.
+
+MIDDLE OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_From the collection of M. Emile Peyre._)]
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH CABINET AND STAND. CARVED CHESTNUT;
+
+FIRST HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Width of cabinet, 3 ft. 2 in.; depth, 1 ft. 4 in.; height, 4 ft. 10 in.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The Italian Renaissance laid a light hand upon the Flemish artists, who,
+while unavoidably coming under its influence, at first copied its
+ornateness but subsequently proceeded on their own lines. Much quaint
+figure work, in which they greatly excelled, was used by the Flemish
+wood-carvers in their joinery. It is grotesque in character, and, like
+all their work, boldly executed. The influx of foreign influences upon
+the Netherlands was in the main as successfully resisted as is the
+encroachment of the sea across their land-locked dykes. The growth of
+the Spanish power made Charles V. the most powerful prince in Europe.
+Ferdinand of Spain held the whole Spanish peninsula except Portugal,
+with Sardinia and the island of Sicily, and he won the kingdom of
+Naples. His daughter Joanna married Philip, the son of Maximilian of
+Austria, and of Mary the daughter of Charles the Bold. Their son Charles
+thus inherited kingdoms and duchies from each of his parents and
+grandparents, and besides the dominions of Ferdinand and Isabella, he
+held Burgundy and the Netherlands. In 1519 he was chosen Emperor as
+Charles V. Flooded with Italian artists and Austrian and Spanish rulers,
+it is interesting to note how the national spirit in art was kept alive,
+and was of such strong growth that it influenced in marked manner the
+English furniture of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century,
+as will be shown in a subsequent chapter.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH CHEST; CARVED WALNUT.
+
+SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_In the National Museum, Madrid._)]
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                              L  s. d.
+Chest, Gothic, carved with parchemin panels, with a
+    wrought-iron lock, from Nuremburg Castle, German, about
+    1500. Christie, January 29, 1904                         31 10  0
+
+Cabinet, walnut wood, of architectural design, with folding
+    doors above and below and small drawers, carved with
+    arabesque foliage and scrolls in relief, and with
+    columns at the angles, 69 in. high, 38 in. wide,
+    French, middle of the sixteenth century. Christie,
+    April 12, 1904                                           21  0  0
+
+Coffer, oak, the front divided by six buttresses, the steel
+    lock pierced with tracery, 65 in. long, 46 in. high,
+    French, late fifteenth century. Christie, May 6, 1904
+                                                            126  0  0
+
+Coffer, large walnut wood, the whole of the front and sides
+    carved in low relief, the lock is rectangular, and
+    pierced with flamboyant tracery, French (provincial),
+    early part of the fifteenth century, 84 in. wide, 36 in.
+    high. Christie, May 6, 1904                              50  8  0
+
+Coffer, walnut wood, the front and sides divided into
+    arch-shaped panels containing Gothic tracery, 86 in.
+    wide, 32 in. high, French, fifteenth century. Christie,
+    May 6, 1904                                              52 10  0
+
+Chair, walnut wood, with semicircular seat, the back
+    composed of six upright rectangular panels, each
+    containing various forms of Gothic tracery; below is a
+    longitudinal panel of tracery, 27 in. wide, 29 in. high,
+    French or Flemish, fifteenth century. Christie, May 6,
+    1904                                                     91  7  0
+
+Credence, oak, with folding doors and drawers above and
+    shelf beneath, the corners are returned, the various
+    door panels, &c., carved in low relief; at the back
+    below is linen fold panelling, 54 in. wide, 62 in. high,
+    probably French, early sixteenth century. Christie, May
+    6, 1904                                                 336  0  0
+
+Cabinet, walnut-wood, in two parts, of rectangular form,
+    with folding doors above and below, and two drawers in
+    the centre, carved with grotesque terminal figure and
+    gadrooned mouldings, strapwork and duplicated rosettes,
+    French work, early seventeenth century, 78 in. high, 48
+    in. wide. Christie, May 6, 1904                         110  5  0
+
+Cabinet, walnut-wood, in two parts, of rectangular form,
+    with folding doors below and door above; at the sides
+    are terminal male and female figures, the centres of the
+    doors carved, 92 in. high, 49 in. wide, French work
+    (Lyons School), second quarter of sixteenth century.
+    Christie, May 6, 1904                                    99 15  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
+
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+CARVED OAK CHEST.
+
+ENGLISH; SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Panels finely carved with Gothic tracery.]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
+
+    Henry VIII.      1509-1547.
+    Edward VI.       1547-1553.
+    Mary             1553-1558.
+    Elizabeth        1558-1603.
+
+    1525. Hampton Court built.
+
+    1566. Increased commercial prosperity. Foundation of Royal
+    Exchange by Sir Thomas Gresham.
+
+    1580. Drake comes home from the New World with plunder worth
+    half a million.
+
+    1585. Antwerp captured by the Duke of Parma; flight of merchants
+    to London. Transfer of commercial supremacy from Antwerp to
+    London. Beginning of carrying trade, especially with Flanders.
+
+[Illustration: BENCH OF OAK. FRENCH; ABOUT 1500.
+
+With panels of linen ornament. Seat arranged as a coffer.
+
+(Formerly in the collection of M. Emile Peyre.)
+
+(_Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh._)]
+
+
+The opening years of the sixteenth century saw the beginnings of the
+Renaissance movement in England. The oak chest had become a settle with
+high back and arms. The fine example of an early sixteenth-century oak
+chest illustrated (p. 59) shows how the Gothic style had impressed
+itself on articles of domestic furniture. The credence, or tasting
+buffet, had developed into the Tudor sideboard, where a cloth was spread
+and candles placed. With more peaceful times a growth of domestic
+refinement required comfortable and even luxurious surroundings. The
+royal palaces at Richmond and Windsor were filled with costly foreign
+furniture. The mansions which were taking the place of the old feudal
+castles found employment for foreign artists and craftsmen who taught
+the English woodcarver. In the early days of Henry VIII. the classical
+style supplanted the Gothic, or was in great measure mingled with it.
+Many fine structures exist which belong to this transition period,
+during which the mixed style was predominant. The woodwork of King's
+College Chapel at Cambridge is held to be an especially notable example.
+
+[Illustration: PORTION OF CARVED WALNUT VIRGINAL.
+
+FLEMISH; SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH CARVED OAK COFFER.
+
+Showing interlaced ribbon work.
+
+SECOND HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(Height, 2 ft. 1 in.; width, 3 ft. 1 in.)
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The Great Hall at Hampton Court dates from 1531, or five years after
+Cardinal Wolsey had given up his palace to Henry VIII. Its grand
+proportions, its high-pitched roof and pendants, display the art of the
+woodcarver in great excellence. This hall, like others of the same
+period, had an open hearth in the centre, on which logs of wood were
+placed, and the smoke found its way out through a cupola, or louvre, in
+the roof.
+
+The roofs of the Early Tudor mansions were magnificent specimens of
+woodwork. But the old style of king-post, queen-post, or hammer-beam
+roof was prevalent. The panelling, too, of halls and rooms retained the
+formal character in its mouldings, and various "linen" patterns were
+used, so called from their resemblance to a folded napkin, an
+ornamentation largely used towards the end of the Perpendicular style,
+which was characteristic of English domestic architecture in the
+fifteenth century. To this period belongs the superb woodcarving of the
+renowned choir stalls of Henry VII.'s Chapel in Westminster Abbey.
+
+The bench of oak illustrated (p. 60) shows a common form of panel with
+linen ornament, and is French, of about the year 1500. The seat, as will
+be seen, is arranged as a locked coffer.
+
+[Illustration: FIREPLACE AND OAK PANELLING FROM THE "OLD PALACE" AT
+BROMLEY-BY-BOW. BUILT IN 1606.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The Elizabethan woodcarver revelled in grotesque figure work, in
+intricate interlacings of strapwork, borrowed from the Flemish, and
+ribbon ornamentation, adapted from the French. He delighted in massive
+embellishment of magnificent proportions. Among Tudor woodwork the
+carved oak screen of the Middle Temple Hall is a noteworthy example of
+the sumptuousness and splendour of interior decoration of the English
+Renaissance. These screens supporting the minstrels' gallery in old
+halls are usually exceptionally rich in detail. Gray's Inn (dated 1560)
+and the Charterhouse (dated 1571) are other examples of the best period
+of sixteenth-century woodwork in England.
+
+Christ Church at Oxford, Grimsthorp in Lincolnshire, Kenninghall in
+Norfolk, Layer Marney Towers in Essex, and Sutton Place at Guildford,
+are all representative structures typical of the halls and manor houses
+being built at the time of the English Renaissance.
+
+In the Victoria and Albert Museum has been re-erected a room having the
+oak panelling from the "Old Palace" at Bromley-by-Bow, which was built
+in 1606. The massive fireplace with the royal coat of arms above, with
+the niches in which stand carved figures of two saints, together with
+the contemporary iron fire-dogs standing in the hearth, give a picture
+of what an old Elizabethan hall was like.
+
+[Illustration: ELIZABETHAN BEDSTEAD. DATED 1593.
+
+Carved oak, ornamented in marquetry.
+
+(Height, 7 ft. 4 in.; length, 7 ft. 11 in.; width, 5 ft. 8 in.)
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+Under Queen Elizabeth new impulses stirred the nation, and a sumptuous
+Court set the fashion in greater luxury of living. Gloriana, with her
+merchant-princes, her fleet of adventurers on the high seas, and the
+pomp and circumstance of her troop of foreign lovers, brought foreign
+fashions and foreign art into commoner usage. The growth of luxurious
+habits in the people was eyed askance by her statesmen; "England
+spendeth more in wines in one year," complained Cecil, "than it did in
+ancient times in four years." The chimney-corner took the place of the
+open hearth; chimneys were for the first time familiar features in
+middle-class houses. The insanitary rush-floor was superseded by wood,
+and carpets came into general use. Even pillows, deemed by the hardy
+yeomanry as only fit "for women in child-bed," found a place in the
+massive and elaborately carved Elizabethan bedstead.
+
+The illustration of the fine Elizabethan bedstead (on p. 66) gives a
+very good idea of what the domestic furniture was like in the days
+immediately succeeding the Spanish Armada. It is carved in oak; with
+columns, tester, and headboard showing the classic influence. It is
+ornamented in marquetry, and bears the date 1593.
+
+All over England were springing up town halls and fine houses of the
+trading-classes, and manor houses and palaces of the nobility worthy of
+the people about to establish a formidable position in European
+politics. Hatfield House, Hardwick Hall, Audley End, Burleigh, Knole,
+and Longleat, all testify to the Renaissance which swept over England at
+this time. Stately terraces with Italian gardens, long galleries hung
+with tapestries, and lined with carved oak chairs and elaborate cabinets
+were marked features in the days of the new splendour. Men's minds, led
+by Raleigh, the Prince of Company Promoters, and fired by Drake's
+buccaneering exploits, turned to the New World, hitherto under the heel
+of Spain. Dreams of galleons laden with gold and jewels stimulated the
+ambition of adventurous gallants, and quickened the nation's pulse. The
+love of travel became a portion of the Englishman's heritage. The
+Italian spirit had reached England in full force. The poetry and
+romances of Italy affected all the Elizabethan men of letters.
+Shakespeare, in his "Merchant of Venice" and his other plays, plainly
+shows the Italian influence. In costume, in speech, and in furniture, it
+became the fashion to follow Italy. To Ascham it seemed like "the
+enchantment of Circe brought out of Italy to mar men's manners in
+England."
+
+[Illustration: PANEL OF CARVED OAK.
+
+ENGLISH; EARLY SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Showing interlaced strapwork.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The result of this wave of fashion on the domestic furniture of England
+was to impart to it the elegance of Italian art combined with a national
+sturdiness of character seemingly inseparable from English art at all
+periods. As the reign of Queen Elizabeth extended from the year 1558 to
+the year 1603, it is usual to speak of architecture and furniture of
+the latter half of the sixteenth century as Elizabethan.
+
+A favourite design in Elizabethan woodwork is the interlaced strapwork
+(see illustration p. 68), which was derived from similar designs
+employed by the contemporary stonecarver, and is found on Flemish
+woodwork of the same period. The panel of a sixteenth-century Flemish
+virginal, carved in walnut, illustrated, shows this form of decoration.
+Grotesque terminal figures, half-human, half-monster, supported the
+front of the buffets, or were the supporting terminals of cornices. This
+feature is an adaptation from the Caryatides, the supporting figures
+used instead of columns in architecture, which in Renaissance days
+extended to woodwork. Table-legs and bed-posts swelled into heavy,
+acorn-shaped supports of massive dimensions. Cabinets were sometimes
+inlaid, as was also the room panelling, but it cannot be said that at
+this period the art of marquetry had arrived at a great state of
+perfection in this country.
+
+It is noticeable that in the rare pieces that are inlaid in the Late
+Tudor and Early Jacobean period the inlay itself is a sixteenth of an
+inch thick, whereas in later inlays of more modern days the inlay is
+thinner and flimsier. In the Flemish examples ivory was often used, and
+holly and sycamore and box seem to have been the favourite woods
+selected for inlay.
+
+Take, for example, the mirror with the frame of carved oak, with scroll
+outline and narrow bands inlaid with small squares of wood, alternately
+light and dark. This inlay is very coarsely done, and unworthy to
+compare with Italian marquetry of contemporary date, or of an earlier
+period. The uprights and feet of the frame, it will be noticed, are
+baluster-shaped. The glass mirror is of nineteenth-century manufacture.
+The date carved upon the frame is 1603, the first year of the reign of
+James I., and it is stated to have come from Derby Old Hall.
+
+The Court cupboard, also of the same date, begins to show the coming
+style of Jacobean ornamentation in the turning in the upright pillars
+and supports and the square baluster termination. The massive carving
+and elaborate richness of the early Elizabethan period have given place
+to a more restrained decoration. Between the drawers is the design of a
+tulip in marquetry, and narrow bands of inlay are used to decorate the
+piece. In place of the chimerical monsters we have a portrait in wood of
+a lady, for which Arabella Stuart might have sat as model. The days were
+approaching when furniture was designed for use, and ornament was put
+aside if it interfered with the structural utility of the piece. The
+wrought-iron handle to the drawer should be noted, and in connection
+with the observation brought to bear by the beginner on genuine
+specimens in the Victoria and Albert Museum and other collections, it is
+well not to let any detail escape minute attention. Hinges and lock
+escutcheons and handles to drawers must not be neglected in order to
+acquire a sound working knowledge of the peculiarities of the different
+periods.
+
+[Illustration: MIRROR.
+
+Glass in oak frame with carved scroll outline and narrow bands inlaid
+with small squares of wood. The glass nineteenth century.
+
+ENGLISH. DATED 1603.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+[Illustration: COURT CUPBOARD, CARVED OAK.
+
+ENGLISH. DATED 1603.
+
+Decorated with narrow bands inlaid, and having inlaid tulip between
+drawers.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+In contrast with this specimen, the elaborately carved Court cupboard of
+a slightly earlier period should be examined. It bears carving on
+every available surface. It has been "restored," and restored pieces
+have an unpleasant fashion of suggesting that sundry improvements have
+been carried out in the process. At any rate, as it stands it is
+over-laboured, and entirely lacking in reticence. The elaboration of
+enrichment, while executed in a perfectly harmonious manner, should
+convey a lesson to the student of furniture. There is an absence of
+contrast; had portions of it been left uncarved how much more effective
+would have been the result! As it is it stands, wonderful as is the
+technique, somewhat of a warning to the designer to cultivate a studied
+simplicity rather than to run riot in a profusion of detail.
+
+[Illustration: COURT CUPBOARD, CARVED OAK.
+
+ABOUT 1580. (RESTORED.)
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+Another interesting Court cupboard, of the early seventeenth century,
+shows the more restrained style that was rapidly succeeding the earlier
+work. This piece is essentially English in spirit, and is untouched save
+the legs, which have been restored.
+
+[Illustration: _By kind permission of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq._
+
+COURT CUPBOARD, EARLY SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+With secret hiding-place at top.]
+
+The table which is illustrated (p. 78) is a typical example of the table
+in ordinary use in Elizabethan days. This table replaced a stone altar
+in a church in Shropshire at the time of the Reformation.
+
+It was late in the reign of Queen Elizabeth that upholstered chairs
+became more general. Sir John Harrington, writing in 1597, gives
+evidence of this in the assertion that "the fashion of cushioned chayrs
+is taken up in every merchant's house." Wooden seats had hitherto not
+been thought too hard, and chairs imported from Spain had leather seats
+and backs of fine tooled work richly gilded and decorated. In the latter
+days of Elizabeth loose cushions were used for chairs and for window
+seats, and were elaborately wrought in velvet, or were of satin
+embroidered in colours, with pearls as ornamentation, and edged with
+gold or silver lace.
+
+The upholstered chair belongs more properly to the Jacobean period, and
+in the next chapter will be shown several specimens of those used by
+James I.
+
+In Elizabethan panelling to rooms, in chimneypieces, doorways, screens
+such as those built across the end of a hall and supporting the
+minstrels' gallery, the wood used was nearly always English oak, and
+most of the thinner parts, such as that designed for panels and smaller
+surfaces, was obtained by splitting the timber, thus exhibiting the
+beautiful figure of the wood so noticeable in old examples.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                             L   s. d.
+Chest, oak, with inlaid panels under arches, with caryatid
+    figures carved in box-wood, English, temp. Elizabeth.
+    Christie, January 29, 1904.                              40  9  0
+
+Tudor mantelpiece, with elaborately carved jambs, panels,  }
+    brackets, sides, and cornice, 6 ft. by 7 ft. 3 in. high.}
+    Herbert Wright, Ipswich, February 19, 1904             }
+                                                           } 155  0 0
+Old oak panelling, in all about 60 ft. run and 6 ft. 6 in. }
+    high, with 17 carved panels and 3 fluted pilasters     }
+    fitted in same, part being surmounted by a cornice.    }
+    Herbert Wright, Ipswich, February 19, 1904             }
+
+Credence, walnut-wood, with a cupboard and drawer above and
+    shelf beneath, the corners are returned, the central
+    panel has carved upon it, in low relief, circular
+    medallions, pierced steel hinges and lock, 36 in. wide,
+    50 in. high, early sixteenth century. Christie, May 6,
+    1904                                                    346  0  0
+
+Bedstead, Elizabethan, with panelled and carved canopy top,
+    supported by fluted and carved pillars, inlaid and
+    panelled back, with raised figures and flowers in
+    relief, also having a carved panelled footboard. C. W.
+    Provis & Son, Manchester, May 9, 1904                    22 10  0
+
+Bedstead, oak Elizabethan, with carved back, dated 1560, and
+    small cupboard fitted with secret sliding panel, and
+    further having carved and inlaid panelled top with
+    inlaid panels, the whole surmounted with heavy cornice.
+    C. W. Provis & Son, Manchester, May 9, 1904              33  0  0
+
+Sideboard, Elizabethan old oak, 6 ft. 2 in. wide by 7 ft. 6
+    in. high, with carved canopy top; also fitted with
+    gallery shelf, supported by lions rampant. C. W. Provis
+    & Son, Manchester. May 9, 1904                           60  0  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+[Illustration: _By kindness of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq._
+
+ELIZABETHAN OAK TABLE.]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+STUART OR JACOBEAN. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring._
+
+GATE-LEG TABLE.]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+STUART OR JACOBEAN. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+    James I.          1603-1625.
+    Charles I.        1625-1649.
+    The Commonwealth  1649-1660.
+
+    1619. Tapestry factory established at Mortlake, under Sir
+    Francis Crane.
+
+    ---- Banqueting Hall added to Whitehall by Inigo Jones.
+
+    1632. Vandyck settled in London on invitation of Charles I.
+
+    1651. Navigation Act passed; aimed blow (1572-1652) at Dutch
+    carrying trade. All goods to be imported in English ships or in
+    ships of country producing goods.
+
+
+With the advent of the House of Stuart the England under James I. saw
+new fashions introduced in furniture. It has already been mentioned that
+the greater number of old houses which are now termed Tudor or
+Elizabethan were erected in the days of James I. At the beginning of a
+new monarchy fashion in art rarely changes suddenly, so that the early
+pieces of Jacobean furniture differ very little from Elizabethan in
+character. Consequently the Court cupboard, dated 1603, and mirror of
+the same year (illustrated on p. 70), though bearing the date of the
+first year of the reign of James, more properly belong to Tudor days.
+
+In the Bodleian Library at Oxford there is preserved a chair of fine
+workmanship and of historic memory. It was made from the oak timbers of
+the _Golden Hind_, the ship in which Sir Francis Drake made his
+adventurous voyage of discovery round the world. In spite of many secret
+enemies "deaming him the master thiefe of the unknowne world," Queen
+Elizabeth came to Deptford and came aboard the _Golden Hind_ and "there
+she did make Captain Drake knight, in the same ship, for reward of his
+services; his armes were given him, a ship on the world, which ship, by
+Her Majestie's commandment, is lodged in a dock at Deptford, for a
+monument to all posterity."
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+OAK CHAIR MADE FROM THE TIMBER OF THE _GOLDEN HIND_. COMMONLY CALLED
+"SIR FRANCIS DRAKE'S CHAIR."
+
+(_At the Bodleian Library._)]
+
+It remained for many years at Deptford dockyard, and became the resort
+of holiday folk, who made merry in the cabin, which was converted into a
+miniature banqueting hall; but when it was too far decayed to be
+repaired it was broken up, and a sufficient quantity of sound wood was
+selected from it and made into a chair, which was presented to the
+University of Oxford. This was in the time of Charles II., and the poet
+Cowley has written some lines on it, in which he says that Drake and
+his _Golden Hind_ could not have wished a more blessed fate, since to
+"this Pythagorean ship"
+
+          "... a seat of endless rest is given
+    To her in Oxford, and to him in heaven--"
+
+which, though quite unintentional on the part of the poet, is curiously
+satiric.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the Master of the Charterhouse._
+
+OAK TABLE, DATED 1616, BEARING ARMS OF THOMAS SUTTON, FOUNDER OF THE
+CHARTERHOUSE HOSPITAL.]
+
+The piece is highly instructive as showing the prevailing design for a
+sumptuous chair in the late seventeenth century. The middle arch in the
+back of the chair is disfigured by a tablet with an inscription, which
+has been placed there.
+
+Of the early days of James I. is a finely carved oak table, dated 1616.
+This table is heavily moulded and carved with garlands between cherubs'
+heads, and shields bearing the arms of Thomas Sutton, the founder of the
+Charterhouse Hospital. The upper part of the table is supported on
+thirteen columns, with quasi-Corinthian columns and enriched shafts,
+standing on a moulded H-shaped base. It will be seen that the designers
+had not yet thrown off the trammels of architecture which dominated much
+of the Renaissance woodwork. The garlands are not the garlands of
+Grinling Gibbons, and although falling within the Jacobean period, it
+lacks the charm which belong to typical Jacobean pieces.
+
+At Knole, in the possession of Lord Sackville, there are some fine
+specimens of early Jacobean furniture, illustrations of which are
+included in this volume. The chair used by King James I. when sitting to
+the painter Mytens is of peculiar interest. The cushion, worn and
+threadbare with age, is in all probability the same cushion used by
+James. The upper part of the chair is trimmed with a band of gold
+thread. The upholstering is red velvet, and the frame, which is of oak,
+bears traces of gilding upon it, and is studded with copper nails. The
+chair in design, with the half circular supports, follows old Venetian
+patterns. The smaller chair is of the same date, and equally interesting
+as a fine specimen; the old embroidery, discoloured and worn though it
+be, is of striking design and must have been brilliant and distinctive
+three hundred years ago. The date of these pieces is about 1620, the
+year when the "Pilgrim Fathers" landed in America.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CHAIR USED BY JAMES I.
+
+In the possession of Lord Sackville.]
+
+From the wealth of Jacobean furniture at Knole it is difficult to
+make a representative selection, but the stool we reproduce (p. 90) is
+interesting, inasmuch as it was a piece of furniture in common use. The
+chairs evidently were State chairs, but the footstool was used in all
+likelihood by those who sat below the salt, and were of less
+significance. The stuffed settee which finds a place in the
+billiard-room at Knole and the sumptuous sofa in the Long Gallery, with
+its mechanical arrangement for altering the angle at the head, are
+objects of furniture difficult to equal. The silk and gold thread
+coverings are faded, and the knotted fringe and gold braid have
+tarnished under the hand of Time, but their structural design is so
+effective that the modern craftsman has made luxurious furniture after
+these models.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+JACOBEAN CHAIR AT KNOLE.
+
+In the possession of Lord Sackville.]
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+JACOBEAN STOOL AT KNOLE.
+
+In the possession of Lord Sackville.]
+
+[Illustration: UPPER HALF OF CARVED WALNUT DOOR.
+
+Showing ribbon work.
+
+FRENCH; LATTER PART OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(Height of door, 4 ft. 7 in.; width, 1 ft. 11 in.)
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+Carved oak chests were not largely made in Jacobean days--not, at any
+rate, for the same purpose as they were in Tudor or earlier times. As
+church coffers they doubtless continued to be required, but for
+articles of domestic furniture other than as linen chests their
+multifarious uses had vanished. Early Jacobean coffers clearly show the
+departure from Elizabethan models. They become more distinctly English
+in feeling, though the interlaced ribbon decoration, so frequently used,
+is an adaptation from French work, which pattern was now becoming
+acclimatised. The French carved oak coffer of the second half of the
+sixteenth century (illustrated p. 61) shows from what source some of the
+English designs were derived.
+
+In the portion of the French door which we give as an illustration (on
+p. 91), it will be seen with what grace and artistic excellence of
+design and with what restraint the French woodcarvers utilised the
+running ribbon. The ribbon pattern has been variously used by designers
+of furniture; it appears in Chippendale's chair-backs, where it almost
+exceeds the limitations of the technique of woodcarving.
+
+Art in the early days of Charles I. was undimmed. The tapestry factory
+at Mortlake, established by James I., was further encouraged by the
+"White King." He took a great and a personal interest in all matters
+relating to art. Under his auspices the cartoons of Raphael were brought
+to England to foster the manufacture of tapestry. He gave his patronage
+to foreign artists and to foreign craftsmen, and in every way attempted
+to bring English art workers into line with their contemporaries on the
+Continent. Vandyck came over to become "Principal painter of Their
+Majesties at St. James's," keeping open table at Blackfriars and living
+in almost regal style. His grace and distinction and the happy
+circumstance of his particular style being coincident with the most
+picturesque period in English costume, have won him a place among the
+world's great painters. Fine portraits, at Windsor and at Madrid, at
+Dresden and at the Pitti Palace, at the Louvre and in the Hermitage at
+Petersburg, testify to the European fame of the painter's brilliant
+gallery representing the finest flower of the English aristocracy,
+prelates, statesmen, courtiers and beautiful women that were gathered
+together at the Court of Charles I. and his Queen Henrietta Maria.
+
+[Illustration: OAK CHAIR.
+
+CHARLES I. PERIOD.
+
+With arms of Thomas Wentworth, first Earl of Strafford (1593-1641).
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+In Early Stuart days the influence of Inigo Jones, the Surveyor of Works
+to Charles I., made itself felt in woodwork and interior decorations. He
+was possessed with a great love and reverence for the classicism of
+Italy, and introduced into his banqueting hall at Whitehall (now the
+United Service Museum), and St. Paul's, Covent Garden, a chaster style,
+which was taken up by the designers of furniture, who began to abandon
+the misguided use of ornament of later Elizabethan days. In the
+Victoria and Albert Museum is an oak chair with the arms of Thomas
+Wentworth, first Earl of Strafford, which, in addition to its historic
+interest, is a fine example of the chair of the period of Charles I.
+(illustrated p. 93).
+
+[Illustration: ITALIAN CHAIR, ABOUT 1620.
+
+Thence introduced into England.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+It is certain that the best specimens of Jacobean furniture of this
+period, with their refined lines and well-balanced proportions, are
+suggestive of the stately diction of Clarendon or the well-turned lyrics
+of Herrick.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Son_
+
+HIGH-BACK OAK CHAIR. EARLY JACOBEAN.
+
+Elaborately carved with shell and scroll foliage.
+
+(Formerly in the Stuart MacDonald family, and originally in the
+possession of King Charles I.)]
+
+In the illustration of a sixteenth-century chair in common use in Italy,
+it will be seen to what source the Jacobean woodworkers looked for
+inspiration. The fine, high-backed oak Stuart chair, elaborately carved
+with bold shell and scroll foliage, having carved supports, stuffed
+upholstered seats, and loose cushion covered in old Spanish silk damask,
+is a highly interesting example. It was long in the possession of the
+Stuart MacDonald family, and is believed to have belonged to Charles I.
+
+The gate-leg table, sometimes spoken of as Cromwellian, belongs to this
+Middle Jacobean style. It cannot be said with any degree of accuracy
+that in the Commonwealth days a special style of furniture was
+developed. From all evidence it would seem that the manufacture of
+domestic furniture went on in much the same manner under Cromwell as
+under Charles. Iconoclasts as were the Puritans, it is doubtful whether
+they extended their work of destruction to articles in general use. The
+bigot had "no starch in his linen, no gay furniture in his house."
+Obviously the Civil War very largely interfered with the encouragement
+and growth of the fine arts, but when furniture had to be made there is
+no doubt the Roundhead cabinetmaker and the Anabaptist carpenter
+produced as good joinery and turning as they did before Charles made his
+historic descent upon the House in his attempt to arrest the five
+members.
+
+There is a style of chair, probably imported from Holland, with leather
+back and leather seat which is termed "Cromwellian," probably on account
+of its severe lines, but there is no direct evidence that this style was
+peculiarly of Commonwealth usage. The illustration (p. 97) gives the
+type of chair, but the covering is modern.
+
+That Cromwell himself had no dislike for the fine arts is proved by his
+care of the Raphael cartoons, and we are enabled to reproduce an
+illustration of a fine old ebony cabinet with moulded front, fitted with
+numerous drawers, which was formerly the property of Oliver Cromwell. It
+was at Olivers Stanway, once the residence of the Eldred family. The
+stand is carved with shells and scrolls, and the scroll-shaped legs are
+enriched with carved female figures, the entire stand being gilded. This
+piece is most probably of Italian workmanship, and was of course made
+long before the Protector's day, showing marked characteristics of
+Renaissance style.
+
+[Illustration: JACOBEAN CHAIR, CANE BACK CROMWELLIAN CHAIR.
+
+ARMCHAIR. DATED 1623. ARMCHAIR. WITH INLAID BACK.
+
+JACOBEAN CHAIRS.
+
+(_By permission of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq._)]
+
+The carved oak cradle (p. 107), with the letters "G. B. M. B." on one
+side, and "October, 14 dai," on the other, and bearing the date 1641,
+shows the type of piece in common use. It is interesting to the
+collector to make a note of the turned knob of wood so often found on
+doors and as drawer handles on untouched old specimens of this period,
+but very frequently removed by dealers and replaced by metal handles of
+varying styles, all of which may be procured by the dozen in Tottenham
+Court Road, coarse replicas of old designs. Another point worthy of
+attention is the wooden peg in the joinery, securing the tenon into the
+mortice, which is visible in old pieces. It will be noticed in several
+places in this cradle. In modern imitations, unless very thoughtfully
+reproduced, these oaken pegs are not visible.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+EBONY CABINET.
+
+On stand gilded and richly carved.
+
+FORMERLY THE PROPERTY OF OLIVER CROMWELL.
+
+(From Olivers Stanway, at one time the seat of the Eldred family.)]
+
+In the page of Jacobean chairs showing the various styles, the more
+severe piece, dated 1623, is Early Jacobean, and the fine unrestored
+armchair of slightly later date shows in the stretcher the wear given by
+the feet of the sitters. It is an interesting piece; the stiles in the
+back are inlaid with pearwood and ebony. The other armchair with its
+cane panels in back is of later Stuart days. It shows the transitional
+stage between the scrolled-arm type of chair, wholly of wood, and the
+more elaborate type (illustrated p. 123) of the James II. period.
+
+[Illustration: JACOBEAN CARVED OAK CHAIRS.
+
+Yorkshire, about 1640.
+
+Derbyshire; early seventeenth century.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the Rt. Hon. Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane,
+G.C.B, I.S.O._
+
+JACOBEAN OAK CUPBOARD. ABOUT 1620.]
+
+In addition to the finer pieces of seventeenth-century furniture to be
+found in the seats of the nobility, such as at Penshurst, or in the
+manor houses and homes of the squires and smaller landowners, there was
+much furniture of a particularly good design in use at farmsteads from
+one end of the country to the other, in days when a prosperous class of
+yeoman followed the tastes of their richer neighbours. This farmhouse
+furniture is nowadays much sought after. It was of local manufacture,
+and is distinctly English in its character. Oak dressers either plain or
+carved, were made not only in Wales--"Welsh Dressers" having become
+almost a trade term--but in various parts of England, in Yorkshire,
+in Derbyshire, in Sussex, and in Suffolk. They are usually fitted with
+two or three open shelves, and sometimes with cupboards on each side.
+The better preserved specimens have still their old drop-handles and
+hinges of brass. It is not easy to procure fine examples nowadays, as it
+became fashionable two or three years ago to collect these, and in
+addition to oak dressers from the farmhouses of Normandy, equally old
+and quaint, which were imported to supply a popular demand, a great
+number of modern imitations were made up from old wood--church pews
+largely forming the framework of the dressers, which were not difficult
+to imitate successfully.
+
+The particular form of chair known as the "Yorkshire chair" is of the
+same period. Certain localities seem to have produced peculiar types of
+chairs which local makers made in great numbers. It will be noticed that
+even in these conditions, with a continuous manufacture going on, the
+patterns were not exact duplicates of each other, as are the
+machine-made chairs turned out of a modern factory, where the maker has
+no opportunity to introduce any personal touches, but has to obey the
+iron law of his machine.
+
+As a passing hint to collectors of old oak furniture, it may be observed
+that it very rarely happens that two chairs can be found together of the
+same design. There may be a great similarity of ornament and a
+particularly striking resemblance, but the chair with its twin companion
+beside it suggests that one, if not both, are spurious. The same
+peculiarity is exhibited in old brass candlesticks, and especially the
+old Dutch brass with circular platform in middle of candlestick. One
+may handle fifty without finding two that are turned with precisely the
+same form of ornament.
+
+The usual feature of the chair which is termed "Yorkshire" is that it
+has an open back in the form of an arcade, or a back formed with two
+crescent-shaped cross-rails, the decorations of the back usually bearing
+acorn-shaped knobs either at the top of the rail or as pendants. This
+type is not confined to Yorkshire, as they have frequently been found in
+Derbyshire, in Oxfordshire, and in Worcestershire, and a similar variety
+may be found in old farmhouses in East Anglia.
+
+In the illustration of the two oak chairs (p. 105), the one with arms is
+of the Charles I. period, the other is later and belongs to the latter
+half of the seventeenth century.
+
+The Jacobean oak cupboard (illustrated p. 101) is in date about 1620. At
+the side there are perforations to admit air, which shows that it was
+used as a butter cupboard. The doors have an incised decoration of
+conventional design. The lower part is carved in style unmistakably
+Jacobean in nature. The pattern on the two uprights at the top is
+repeatedly found in pieces evidently designed locally for use in
+farmhouses.
+
+It is not too much to hope that enough has been said concerning Jacobean
+furniture of the early and middle seventeenth century to show that it
+possesses a peculiar charm and simplicity in the lines of its
+construction, which make it a very pleasing study to the earnest
+collector who wishes to procure a few genuine specimens of old
+furniture, which, while being excellent in artistic feeling, are not
+unprocurable by reason of their rarity and excessive cost. It should be
+within the power of the careful collector, after following the hints in
+this volume, and after examining well-selected examples in such a
+collection as that at the Victoria and Albert Museum, to obtain, without
+unreasonable expenditure, after patient search, one or two Jacobean
+pieces of undoubted authenticity.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Fenton & Sons._
+
+JACOBEAN OAK CHAIRS.
+
+Armchair, time of Charles I.
+
+Yorkshire chair. Late seventeenth century.]
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                              L  s. d.
+Cabinet, Jacobean oak, with two drawers, and folding doors
+    below enclosing drawers, decorated with rectangular
+    panels in relief, inlaid in ebony and ivory, and with
+    baluster columns at the side--48 in. high, 46 in. wide.
+    Christie, November 27, 1903                              44  2  0
+
+Cabinet, Jacobean black oak, 5 ft. wide by 6 ft. 2 in. high,
+    fitted with cupboards above and below, with sunk
+    panelled folding doors, carved with busts of warriors in
+    high relief, the pilasters carved with mask heads and
+    caryatid figures, the whole carved with floral scrolls
+    and other devices. Capes, Dunn & Pilcher, Manchester,
+    December 9, 1903                                         57  0  0
+
+Chairs, set of three Jacobean oak, with canework seats, and
+    panels in the backs, the borders carved with scrolls,
+    and on scroll legs with stretchers. Christie, January
+    29, 1904                                                 52 10  0
+
+Table, Cromwell, oak, on spiral legs. Dowell, Edinburgh,
+    March 12, 1904                                           11  0  6
+
+Elbow-chair, oak, Scotch, back having carved wheel, "A. R.,
+    1663." Dowell, Edinburgh, March 12, 1904                 60 18  0
+
+Cabinet, Jacobean oak, with drawer and folding doors below,
+    with moulded rectangular panels and balusters in relief,
+    50 in. high, 46 in. wide. Christie, July 1, 1904         35 14  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+[Illustration: CRADLE, TIME OF CHARLES I.
+
+CARVED OAK; WITH LETTERS G. B. M. B. DATED 1641.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+STUART OR JACOBEAN.
+
+LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+[Illustration: (_After picture by Caspar Netscher_)
+
+INTERIOR OF DUTCH HOUSE.
+
+LATTER HALF OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+STUART OR JACOBEAN. LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+    Charles II.            1660-1685.
+    James II.              1685-1688.
+    William and Mary.      1689-1694.
+    William                1694-1702.
+
+    Sir Christopher Wren  (1632-1723).
+    Grinling Gibbons      (1648-1726).
+
+    1660. Bombay became a British possession. Importation of
+    Indo-Portuguese furniture.
+
+    1666. Great Fire in London. Much valuable furniture destroyed.
+
+    1675-1710. St. Paul's Cathedral built under Wren's direction.
+
+    1685. Edict of Nantes revoked. Spitalfields' silk industry
+    founded by French refugees.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CABINET OF THE TIME OF CHARLES II.
+
+With exterior finely decorated with needlework.]
+
+
+After the Civil War, when Charles II. came into his own again, the
+furniture of the Restoration period most certainly took its colour from
+the gay Court with which the Merry Monarch surrounded himself. The
+cabinet which we reproduce has the royal arms embroidered on the cover,
+and is a beautiful example of intricate cabinetmaking. The surface of
+the piece is entirely covered with needlework. On the front stand a
+cavalier and lady, hand-in-hand. On the side panel a cavalier is leading
+a lady on horseback. On the back a man drives a laden camel, and on
+another panel is shown the traveller being received by an old man in the
+grounds of the same castle which appears all through the scenes. This
+suggests the love-story of some cavalier and his lady. The casket is
+worthy to have held the love-letters of the Chevalier Grammont to La
+Belle Hamilton.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CABINET OF THE TIME OF CHARLES II.
+
+Showing interior and nest of drawers.]
+
+As is usual in pieces of this nature, the cabinet contains many artfully
+devised hiding places. A tiny spring behind the lock reveals one secret
+drawer, and another is hidden beneath the inkwell. There are in all five
+of such secret compartments--or rather five of them have been at present
+discovered--there may be more. The illustration of the cabinet open
+shows what a nest of drawers it holds.
+
+In the days of plots, when Titus Oates set half the nation by the ears,
+when James solemnly warned the merry Charles of plots against his life,
+provoking the cynical retort, "They will never kill me, James, to make
+you king," secret drawers were no doubt a necessity to a fashionable
+cabinet.
+
+Catherine of Braganza, his queen, brought with her from Portugal many
+sumptuous fashions in furniture, notably cabinets and chairs of Spanish
+and Portuguese workmanship. The cavaliers scattered by the Civil War
+returned, and as in their enforced exile on the Continent they had
+cultivated foreign tastes, it was only natural that Dutch, French, and
+Italian work found its way to this country and effected the character of
+the early furniture of the Charles II. period. From Portugal came the
+high-backed chair, having the back and the seat of leather cut with
+fine design, and coloured or gilded. This leather work is of exquisite
+character, and we reproduce a portion of a Portuguese chair-back of this
+period to show the artistic excellence of the design. With Catherine of
+Braganza came the marriage dower of Bombay, and from India, where the
+settlement of Goa had been Portuguese for centuries, were sent to Europe
+the carved chairs in ebony, inlaid in ivory, made by the native workmen
+from Portuguese and Italian models, but enriched with pierced carving
+and intricate inlay of ivory in a manner which only an Oriental
+craftsman can produce. Having become fashionable in Portugal, they made
+their appearance in England, and rapidly became popular. At Penshurst
+Place there are several fine specimens of this Indo-Portuguese work,
+with the spindles of the chair-backs of carved ivory; and in the
+Ashmolean Museum at Oxford there is the well-known chair which was
+presented by Charles II. to Elias Ashmole.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+PORTUGUESE HIGH-BACK CHAIR.
+
+Seat and back formed of two panels of old stamped leather, studded with
+brass bosses.]
+
+Both in this later Stuart period and in the days of the first Charles
+inlay was considerably used to heighten the carved designs on oak
+tables, chairs, and cabinets. The growth of commerce was responsible for
+the introduction of many varieties of foreign woods, which were used to
+produce finer effects in marquetry than the rude inlay of Elizabethan
+days.
+
+The Frontispiece to this volume represents a very handsome cabinet of
+English workmanship, inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl. It is an
+unusually fine example of the middle seventeenth century, and bears the
+date 1653, the year when Cromwell forcibly dissolved the Rump Parliament
+and was declared "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth."
+
+Up till now oak--the hard, tough, English variety, and not the more
+modern Baltic oak or American varieties now used--was the material for
+the tool of the carver to work upon. With the introduction of more
+flowing lines and curves, a wealth of detail, it is not unnatural to
+find that softer woods began to find favour as more suitable to the new
+decorations. The age of walnut was approaching when, under William the
+Dutchman, and in the days of Queen Anne, a newer style of furniture was
+to arise, made by craftsmen trained in the precepts of Grinling Gibbons
+and following the conceptions of Sir Christopher Wren. It must be borne
+in mind that in Italy the softer woods, such as lime, willow, sycamore,
+chestnut, walnut, and cypress, had long been used for the delicate
+carving during the height of the Renaissance and succeeding period, and
+in France and Spain chestnut and walnut were favourite woods.
+
+In the central panel of the Restoration chair-back, canework began to be
+used instead of the Early Jacobean carving. Cane seats were frequent,
+and loose cushions, attached by means of strings, covered these cane
+panels and seats. The illustration (p. 122) shows a Jacobean chair of
+this period.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring_
+
+OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS. LATE JACOBEAN.
+
+(Height, 3 ft. 3 in.; width, 3 ft.; depth, 1 ft. 10 in.)]
+
+Belonging to these later Jacobean days are chests of drawers of oak with
+finely panelled fronts. We illustrate two specimens, showing the old
+brass metal work and the drop-handles. They are usually in two parts,
+and are very deep from back to front. These are two typical examples of
+this kind of furniture, which was in general use up to the days of Queen
+Anne, when pieces are frequently found supported on a stand.
+
+In the picture by Caspar Netscher, showing a Dutch lady at her toilet, a
+good idea is conveyed of the kind of chair in use in Holland in the
+latter half of the seventeenth century, upholstered in brocade, and the
+rich tapestry tablecloth is a noticeable feature.
+
+Before entering upon the last phase of Stuart furniture, and leaving the
+days of Jacobean oak with its fine carving and handsome appearance--the
+careful result of selecting the timber and splitting it to show the fine
+figure of the wood--the attention of the reader should be drawn to the
+fact that the appearance of the surface of furniture made subsequent to
+this period begins to approach the results of the modern cabinetmaker
+with his polishes and spirit varnishes and highly glazed panels and
+table tops. The lover of old oak abominates varnish. The Elizabethan and
+Jacobean carved oak furniture received only a preliminary coat of dark
+varnish in its early days, mixed with oil and not spirit, which sank
+into the wood and was not a surface polish, and was probably used to
+preserve the wood. These old pieces, which have received centuries of
+rubbing with beeswax and oil, have resulted in producing a rich, warm
+tone which it is impossible to copy by any of the subtle arts known to
+the modern forger. The collector should make himself thoroughly
+familiar with the appearance of this old oak by a careful examination of
+museum pieces, which, when once seen, cannot easily be forgotten.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring._
+
+CHEST OF DRAWERS. PANELLED FRONT; LATE JACOBEAN.
+
+(Height, 3 ft. 4 in.; width, 3 ft. 10 in.; depth, 1 ft. 10 in.)]
+
+The Italian Renaissance furniture probably received an oil varnish, the
+composition of which, like the varnish employed for old violins, has
+been lost, but after centuries of careful usage and polishing, the
+result, as seen in the fine specimens in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum, is to give to them the appearance of bronze.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+CHARLES II. OAK CHAIR.
+
+Open back carved with shell and scrolled foliage. Stuffed seat covered
+with old damask.]
+
+There is little doubt that the Great Fire, which did such immense
+destruction in London in 1666, in which some eighty-nine churches and
+thirteen thousand houses were demolished, gave a considerable impetus to
+the manufacture of furniture in the new style. It is not a pleasing
+reflection to think how many fine pieces of Elizabethan and early
+Jacobean furniture were consumed in the flames, including much of Inigo
+Jones's work.
+
+Under the genius of Sir Christopher Wren many of the city churches were
+rebuilt, including St. Paul's Cathedral; and Greenwich Hospital and
+Hampton Court were enlarged according to Wren's designs, with the
+co-operation of the master woodcarver, Grinling Gibbons. In later
+Jacobean days a splendour of style and an excellence of workmanship were
+the outcome of the fine achievements in interior woodwork by Grinling
+Gibbons and the school he founded.
+
+The work of Grinling Gibbons consisted of most natural chains of flowers
+and foliage, fruit, or birds or cherubs' heads, all faithfully
+reproduced untrammelled by convention. St. Paul's Cathedral, Hampton
+Court, Chatsworth, and Petworth House all contain work by him of
+singular beauty. He trained many assistants to help him to carry on his
+work, and one of them, Selden, lost his life in endeavouring to save the
+carved room at Petworth from a destructive fire. The soft wood of the
+lime was his favourite for detailed carving; for church panelling or
+choir stalls, such as at St. Pauls, he employed oak; in his medallion
+portraits or figure work he preferred pear or close-grained boxwood.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+CHARLES II. OPEN HIGH-BACK OAK CHAIR.
+
+Finely carved legs and stretcher. Stuffed seat covered in old Spanish
+silk damask.]
+
+The gradual development of the chair in the later Stuart days in the
+direction of upholstered seat will be noticed in the specimens which are
+given as illustrations. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 by
+Louis XIV. drove some thousands of French workmen--weavers,
+glass-workers, and cabinetmakers--to this country. The silk-weaving
+industry established by them at Spitalfields was one of the results, and
+silk stuffs and brocades were used for covering the seats and backs of
+furniture. At Hampton Court the crystal glass chandeliers were made by
+French workmen, whom Wren was glad to employ to assist him to make that
+palace a worthy rival to Versailles.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+CHARLES II. CHAIR.
+
+Cane back and seat, finely carved legs and stretcher.]
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Fenton & Sons._
+
+JAMES II. CHAIR.
+
+With cane back and seat, and finely turned legs and stretcher.]
+
+The chair here illustrated shows the commencement of the use of cane
+work in place of wood for the panel in back and for the seat. The James
+II. chair illustrated shows the later development of the cane-back. The
+William and Mary chair (illustrated p. 125) shows how the cane-back was
+retained later than the cane-seat, and how rich damask was employed for
+the upholstered seat. It is interesting to see how the stretcher, which
+in earlier days was of use to keep the feet raised from a wet or
+draughty floor, has now become capable of elaborate ornamentation.
+Genuine examples of chairs of Elizabethan and Early Stuart days show the
+wear of the feet of the sitters. The same wear is observable in the
+lower rail of old tables. In later Stuart days the stretcher has left
+its place at the bottom, between the two front legs. Since its use as a
+foot-rest, owing to carpeted floors, is gone, it is found either joining
+the legs diagonally, or higher up as an ornament with carved front. In
+the eighteenth century it has almost disappeared altogether.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+WILLIAM AND MARY CHAIR.
+
+Cane back. Seat upholstered in damask. Finely carved legs and
+stretcher.]
+
+Mirrors began to take a prominent place in interior decoration. The
+house of Nell Gwynne in St. James's Square had one room entirely lined
+with glass mirrors. Hampton Court is full of mirrors, and they are
+arranged with considerable skill. By an artful arrangement the mirror in
+the King's Writing Closet is placed at such an angle that the reflection
+of the whole suite of rooms may be seen in it. The looking glasses made
+in this country in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries
+were the work of Venetian and French workmen. The plates had a bevel of
+an inch in width, and these bevels followed the shape of the frame,
+whether square or oval. A factory was established near Battersea which
+produced some fine work of this nature. It will be noticed by the
+collector who is observant that the bevels differ considerably from
+modern bevels. The angle is not such an acute one, and sometimes the
+edges are double bevelled. Many of the mirrors of the time of William
+and Mary had an ornamented border of blue glass. Sometimes the mirror
+was painted with festoons of flowers and with birds in French manner. In
+imitation of Italian style the back of the mirror, in examples a little
+later, was worked upon in the style of intaglio, or gem cutting, this
+presenting a dull silver surface when seen from the front.
+
+In picture frames, in chimneypieces, or in mirror frames the school of
+Grinling Gibbons was still pre-eminent in carving. Now and again are
+found traces of Italian or Louis XIV. influence, but as a whole the
+English carver held his own, and the traditions of Grinling Gibbons were
+maintained, and he did not easily allow himself to be carried away by
+foreign elaborations.
+
+When William of Orange came over in 1688 he brought with him many of his
+own countrymen as military and civil advisers, and in their train came
+artists and craftsmen, who introduced Dutch art into England, and
+prepared the way for the more homely style of Queen Anne. Walnut
+cabinets inlaid with various woods, and with ivory squares representing
+miniature Dutch courtyards in the recesses of cabinets, had found their
+way into England. With the period of William and Mary the cabriole leg
+in chairs and in tables became popular--at first an English adaptation
+of Dutch models--but later to develop into the glorious creations of the
+age of walnut.
+
+Blue delft jars and bowls, some especially made for William and Mary and
+bearing the Royal arms and the cypher "W. M. R." and the Nassau motto,
+"_Je main tien-dray_," still to be seen in the Queen's Gallery at
+Hampton Court, were introduced, and it became fashionable to collect
+china. Consequently the furniture in rooms had to be adapted for the
+arrangement of this new class of ornament, and cabinets were largely
+made with accommodation to receive vases and beakers and blue bowls on
+their shelves. The earlier form have straight sides; but later,
+especially in the next reign, they follow French designs, and are
+swollen or _bombe_ at the sides.
+
+[Illustration: UPPER PORTION OF CHAIR BACK OF CUT LEATHER.
+
+PORTUGUESE. LATTER PART OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+With William, too, came over the plain walnut card-table. Clock cases of
+the style termed "Grandfather" were of Dutch origin. The seats of chairs
+were shaped and removable. The Dutch trade with the East Indies had
+brought Oriental china and lac cabinets into Holland, and these, with
+the coming of William, found their way into this country. Bureaux with a
+number of secret recesses were introduced, and another Dutch importation
+from the East was the now celebrated chair or table leg with claw and
+ball foot. This came directly from China, and as in the case of delft,
+which is the earthenware replica by the Dutch potter of fine blue
+porcelain vases, from Nankin and Canton, where the Oriental perspective
+and design have been slavishly copied, so with the furniture, the old
+Chinese symbol of a dragon's foot holding a pearl, was repeated in the
+furniture by Dutch cabinetmakers. Dutch marquetry made an early
+appearance with simple ornamentation, sometimes enriched by ivory or
+mother-of-pearl inlay, but later it developed into flowing floral
+designs with figures, vases, fruit, butterflies, and elaborate scrolls
+in various coloured woods, of which yellow was the predominant colour.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                              L  s. d.
+
+Armchair, Charles II., oak, carved with cherubs supporting
+    crowns, and with turned column supports. Christie,
+    November 20, 1903                                        15  4  6
+
+Chairs, pair, Charles II., oak, with cane seats and oval
+    cane panels in the backs, spirally turned legs,
+    stretchers and rails at the back. Christie, March 4,
+    1904                                                     63  0  0
+
+Armchair, Charles II., oak, with high back carved with
+    arabesque foliage, with lions' masks and claw legs.
+    Christie, March 29, 1904                                 63  0  0
+
+Chairs, pair, nearly similar, carved with foliage. Christie,
+    March 29, 1904                                           39 18  0
+
+Armchair, Charles II., walnut-wood, of Italian design,
+    carved with masks, cane seat and panel in back; and
+    cushion, covered with old Flemish tapestry. Christie,
+    March 4, 1904                                            77 14  0
+
+Chairs, three, Charles II., oak, with oval panels of
+    canework in the backs, the borders carved with foliage,
+    flowers, and Amorini, and surmounted by busts. Christie,
+    April 12, 1904                                           42  0  0
+
+Chairs, set of twelve, Charles II., of chestnut-wood, with
+    high backs carved with rosette ornaments, scroll
+    foliage, and formal blossoms, on cabriole legs carved
+    with flowers and shaped stretchers. Christie, July 1,
+    1904                                                    462  0  0
+
+Chairs, pair of chestnut-wood, with high backs slightly
+    curved, pierced and carved at the top, and each inlaid
+    with two cane panels, on carved cabriole legs and shaped
+    stretchers, _temp._ James II. Christie, June 2,
+    1904                                                     36 15  0
+
+Cabinet, English marquetry, with folding doors, enclosing
+    twelve drawers and small cupboard, and with four drawers
+    below, the whole elaborately inlaid with vases of
+    tulips, roses, and other flowers, small figures, birds,
+    and insects, on a walnut-wood ground, 69 in. high, 47
+    in. wide, _temp._ William III. Christie, February 12,
+    1904                                                    105  0  0
+
+Mirror, in case of old English marquetry, inlaid with large
+    flowers and foliage in coloured woods and ivory on
+    walnut-wood ground, 32 in. by 28 in., _temp._ William
+    III. Christie, February 19, 1904                         43  3  0
+
+Chairs, set of six, walnut-wood, with high, open backs,
+    carved with foliage, the centre inlaid in marquetry, on
+    carved cabriole legs and eagles' claw-and-ball feet,
+    _temp._ William and Mary. Christie, June 2, 1904        315  0  0
+
+Chairs, set of four, of similar form, open backs, carved
+    with shell, and gadroon ornament, and on carved cabriole
+    legs with hoof feet, the stretcher carved with a shell,
+    _temp._ William and Mary. Christie, June 2, 1904        105  0  0
+
+Cabinet, William and Mary, marquetry, veneered with
+    walnut-wood, decorated with oval and shaped panels,
+    inlaid, upon ebony field, 42 in. wide. Christie, March
+    18, 1904                                                 65  2  0
+
+Cabinet on stand, ebony, Dutch, seventeenth century,
+    supported by six beaded columns with stage under and
+    mirror panels at back, the upper part composed of doors
+    carved in medallions; the centre doors enclose an
+    architectural hall, inlaid in ivory, &c., with gilt
+    columns and mirror panels, and fitted with secret
+    drawers, 5 ft. 3 in. wide, 6 ft. 6 in. high and 22 in.
+    deep. Jenner & Dell, Brighton, May 3, 1904              100  0  0
+
+Corner cupboard, Dutch marquetry, 8 ft. high, having carved
+    crown-shaped cornice, with centre vase, four doors, with
+    bow fronts, inlaid with flowers and carved raised
+    beadings, the interior fitted. C. W. Provis & Son,
+    Manchester, May 9, 1904                                  32  0  0
+
+Table, Dutch marquetry, with shaped front and two drawers
+    inlaid with sprays of flowers in coloured woods and
+    ivory, on cabriole legs, 32 in. wide. Christie, March 4,
+    1904                                                     37 16  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+QUEEN ANNE STYLE
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons_
+
+QUEEN ANNE OAK SETTLE.
+
+Scrolled arms, panelled back and loose cushioned seat. Width 6 feet.]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+QUEEN ANNE STYLE
+
+    Anne  1702-1714.
+
+    1707. Act of Union between England and Scotland. First United
+    Parliament of Great Britain met.
+
+    1713. The National Debt had risen to L38,000,000.
+
+
+With the age of Queen Anne domestic furniture departed from the ornate
+characteristics which had marked previous epochs. The tendency in
+English furniture seems to have made towards comfort and homeliness. The
+English home may not have contained so many articles of luxury then as
+does the modern house with its artistic embellishments, and a popular
+taste rapidly ripening into a genuine love of the fine arts. "A modern
+shopkeeper's house," says Lord Macaulay, "is as well furnished as the
+house of a considerable merchant in Anne's reign." It is very doubtful
+whether this statement holds good with regard to the days of Elizabeth
+or the days of the early Stuarts, but there certainly seems to have been
+in the dawn of the walnut period a curtailment of luxurious effects that
+might well tempt a casual observer to generalise in the belief that the
+days of Anne spelt dulness in art.
+
+The settle, the illustration of which is given (p. 149), bearing the
+date 1705, the year after Blenheim, shows that Jacobean models of early
+days were not forgotten. The inlaid borders are very effective, and
+there is nothing vulgar or offensive in the carving. It is simple in
+style and the joinery is good. A walnut mirror, carved and gilded
+(illustrated p. 137), exhibits the same solidity. There is nothing to
+show that the glorious age of Louis XIV. had produced the most sumptuous
+and richly decorated furniture the modern world had seen. The simplicity
+of this carved mirror frame is as though art had begun and ended in
+England, and probably it is this insularity of the furniture of this
+period, and the almost stubborn neglect of the important movements going
+on in France that makes the Queen Anne style of peculiar interest.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+QUEEN ANNE MIRROR FRAME.
+
+WALNUT, CARVED AND GILDED.]
+
+The oak desk illustrated (p. 139), dated 1696, is similar to the one at
+Abbotsford, in which Sir Walter Scott mislaid his manuscript of
+"Waverley," where it lay among his fishing-tackle for eleven years.
+
+Another piece of the same period is the cupboard with carved doors and
+drawers beneath (illustrated p. 140).
+
+[Illustration: OAK DESK.
+
+WITH INITIALS "L. G." AND DATED 1696.
+
+(_From the collection of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq._)]
+
+Some pretty effects were now obtained by veneering, which was largely
+coming into practice. The pieces with the burr-walnut panels, marked in
+a series of knot-like rings, are especially sought after. This pattern
+was obtained from the gnarled roots of the walnut-tree, and applied in a
+decorative manner with excellent result.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of T. E. Price Stretche, Esq._
+
+OAK CUPBOARD. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Metal handles of drawers, eighteenth century.
+
+(Height 6 ft. 7 in.; width, 4 ft. 6 in.)]
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Brown & Bool._
+
+Cabinet closed; showing fine mottled figure of burr walnut.
+
+Cabinet open; showing drop-down front and nest of drawers.
+
+QUEEN ANNE WALNUT CABINET.]
+
+[Illustration: DUTCH MARQUETRY CHAIR. QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.
+
+_By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._]
+
+[Illustration: QUEEN ANNE WALNUT ARMCHAIR. BLACK AND GOLD LAC CHAIR.
+
+_By permission of Messrs. Waring._]
+
+In the fine cabinet, the illustration of which is given (p. 141), the
+style is typical of this period. The panels of the doors are of
+exquisite finish, and show a beautiful walnut grain of peculiarly-pleasing
+mottled appearance, and the mellow effect which time has given to this
+specimen cannot be imitated with any degree of success in modern
+replicas. In the illustration showing this piece when open, the rich
+effect of the walnut in the middle panel may be noticed; the
+contemporary brass handles to the nest of drawers are typical of this
+style.
+
+In chairs and in tables the elegant cabriole and colt's-foot legs were
+now commonly adopted, and apparently, simple as is the construction, it
+is only when Queen Anne pieces come to be repaired that it is found how
+expensive an undertaking it is, owing to their ingenious construction
+and the patient labour that was expended upon them, to produce
+unpretentious and harmonious effects.
+
+The assertively English spirit which was the dominant note of the
+furniture of the early eighteenth century continued up till the early
+years of the reign of George II. During this period, which covers half a
+century, walnut was the wood mostly used in the manufacture of
+furniture, and this walnut period shows a quiet dignity of style and a
+simple proportion, reticently elegant and inornate without being severe.
+
+The Queen Anne oak settle, with shaped panelled back and scroll arms,
+which appears as the headpiece to this chapter, is especially
+representative of the kind of piece in common use at the time; oak was
+still employed in furniture of this nature. The legs show the newer
+design, which was already departing from the elegant turning of earlier
+Jacobean days.
+
+In the Queen Anne chair which is illustrated in the group of chairs of
+this period (p. 143), with open back and carved scroll foliage, the
+cabriole legs are finely carved with lion masks and acanthus leaf
+ornament, on lion's claw-and-ball feet. The seat is removable, and is
+stuffed. Queen Anne chairs had high carved or plain splat backs. The
+armchair in the same group shows this type of back. The Dutch
+shell-pattern often appears either on back or at the juncture of the leg
+with the seat. Chairs decorated in marquetry, in Dutch fashion, were in
+use at this period. The one illustrated with the two above-mentioned
+chairs is inlaid with birds and flowers, and the legs are cabriole. The
+seat follows the growing usage of being loose and stuffed.
+
+Dutch marquetry cabinets on stands, with straight uprights, were
+imported and became a feature in the early eighteenth century
+drawing-room (see illustration, p. 147). The earlier forms had straight
+sides, but later, as the fashion grew, bureaux and large cabinets, with
+the dimensions of a modern wardrobe, had taken their place, with _bombe_
+or swelled sides, and profusely decorated in marquetry, with vases and
+tulips and unnamed flowers of the cabinetmaker's invention, birds,
+butterflies, and elaborate scrollwork, in which ivory and
+mother-of-pearl were often employed as an inlay.
+
+The stands on which the smaller cabinets stood were turned with the
+spiral leg of Jacobean days, and later they have the cabriole leg, with
+ball-and-claw or club feet. Cabinets and stands are frequently found
+together, in which the one is much earlier than the other.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+DUTCH MARQUETRY CABINET.
+
+Fitted with shelves. Door richly inlaid with flowers and scrolled
+foliage. On stand with turned legs and stretcher.]
+
+Rich damask began to be used in the furnishing of hangings, and in some
+of the palatial furniture of the period the looms of Spitalfields
+produced the coverings. In Queen Anne's bedroom the hangings were of
+rich silk velvet.
+
+Clocks of the variety termed "Grandfather," either with fine walnut
+cases or inlaid with marquetry, came into more general use in the days
+of Queen Anne. An elaboration of carving on grandfather clock cases as
+a rule is to be regarded with suspicion. Plain panels are not so
+saleable as carved ones; the want is supplied, and many fine old clock
+cases are spoiled by having the touch of a modern hand. The clock
+illustrated is an untouched specimen. The walnut case is a fine example
+of Queen Anne marquetry work. The works are by Sam Barrow, Hermitage
+Bridge, London. The steel dial is richly mounted with cupids, masks, and
+scrolls in chased brass.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton & Sons._
+
+QUEEN ANNE CLOCK.
+
+Walnut case with marquetry work.]
+
+Towards the middle of the eighteenth century and later, cabinets of
+Dutch importation, and Japanese or Chinese in origin, were extensively
+in use. In smaller numbers they had, without doubt, in the days of
+William and Mary, been introduced, but it was not until the commerce
+with the East had been well established that they became popular. In the
+cabinet illustrated (p. 150) the cabinet-work is English, the drawers
+are all dovetailed in the English manner, but the lacquered doors come
+from the East. It is an especially interesting example, as the
+pagoda-like superstructure is not often found complete.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring._
+
+QUEEN ANNE OAK SETTLE. DATED 1705.
+
+With borders in marquetry.
+
+(Width, 5 ft.)]
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Brown & Bool._
+
+OLD LAC CABINET.
+
+ENGLISH; EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+Lacquered boxes had been sent home from the East by English, French,
+and Dutch merchants, for many years, and with characteristic ingenuity
+the French cabinetmakers had employed these as panels for their
+furniture, but the supply not being sufficient they had attempted a
+lacquer of their own, which is dealt with in a subsequent chapter on
+Louis XIV. furniture. Dutch lacquer-work was a similar attempt on the
+part of the craftsman of Holland to equal the Oriental originals.
+
+[Illustration: LAC CABINET. MIDDLE OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(Height, 2 ft. 5 in.; width, 2 ft. 8-1/2 in.; depth, 1 ft. 6-1/2 in.;
+height of stand, 2 ft. 9 in.)
+
+(_From the collection of W. G. Honey, Esq., Cork._)]
+
+[Illustration: _W. G. Honey, Esq., Cork._
+
+FRONT OF LAC CABINET (ILLUSTRATED), WITH DOORS CLOSED.]
+
+In the early eighteenth century the English craftsman tried his skill at
+lacquered furniture, it is true not with very successful results, but it
+is interesting to see what he has left as attempts. The illustration (p.
+143) of a chair in black and gold lac is of English manufacture. The
+splat back and the cabriole leg give the date, and the specimen is a
+noteworthy example. Another piece of the first half of the eighteenth
+century period is the lac cabinet illustrated (p. 151). The metal hinges
+and corners of this are of chased brass and of English or Dutch
+workmanship. The shape and design of the drawer handles are frequently
+found in nests of drawers of this period, and there was a singular
+fondness shown at this time for numbers of small drawers and
+pigeon-holes in furniture. The now familiar bureau with bookcase above,
+and drop-down, sloping front covering drawers and recesses, dates from
+this time. The escutcheon of the lac cabinet is illustrated in detail as
+a tailpiece to this chapter to show the particular style of work found
+on the locks and hinges and drawer-handles of pieces of this nature. As
+has been said before, it is especially useful to the collector to make
+himself thoroughly familiar with these details of the various periods.
+
+It may be readily imagined that at a time when cards were the passion of
+everybody in society, the card-table became a necessary piece of
+furniture in eighteenth-century days, just before the dawn of the great
+age of mahogany, when Chippendale, and the school that followed him,
+eagerly worked in the wood which Raleigh discovered. They produced
+countless forms, both original and adapted from the French, which have
+enriched the _repertoire_ of the cabinetmaker and which have brought
+fame to the man whose designs added lustre to the reputation of English
+furniture.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                              L  s. d.
+Chairs, six, mahogany, single, and one armchair to match,
+    with shaped legs and openwork backs (early eighteenth
+    century). F. W. Kidd, & Neale & Son, Nottingham,
+    November 11, 1903                                        25  4  0
+
+Chairs, eight Queen Anne, walnut-wood, with high backs, on
+    slightly cabriole legs, with stretchers. Christie,
+    December 11, 1903                                        33 12  0
+
+Armchair, Queen Anne, large walnut-wood, carved with
+    foliage, the arms terminating in masks, on carved
+    cabriole legs and lion's-claw feet. Christie, March 29,
+    1904                                                     50  8  0
+
+Cabinet, Queen Anne, the lower part fitted with escritoire,
+    the upper part with numerous drawers, shaped cornice
+    above, 3 ft. 6 in. by 7 ft. 6 in. Puttick & Simpson,
+    April 12, 1904                                           34  0  0
+
+Chairs, four Queen Anne, walnut-wood, with interlaced backs
+    carved with rosettes and a shell at the top, on cabriole
+    legs carved with shells and foliage; and a pair of
+    chairs made to match. Christie, July 8, 1904             44  2  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_, these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+[Illustration: _W. G. Honey Esq., Cork._
+
+CHASED BRASS ESCUTCHEON OF LAC CABINET (ILLUSTRATED).
+
+(Width, 10-1/2 in.)]
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE.
+
+THE PERIOD OF
+
+LOUIS XIV
+
+
+[Illustration: _By kind permission, from the collection of Dr. Sigerson,
+Dublin._
+
+CASSETTE. FRENCH; SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Containing many secret drawers.]
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV
+
+    LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715), covering English periods of Civil War,
+    Commonwealth, Charles II., James II., William and Mary, and
+    Anne.
+
+    1619-1683. Colbert, Minister of Finance and patron of the arts.
+
+    1661-1687. Versailles built.
+
+    1662. Gobelins Tapestry Works started by Colbert; Le Brun first
+    director (1662-1690).
+
+    1664. Royal Academy of Painting, Architecture, and Sculpture
+    founded by Colbert, to which designs of furniture were admitted.
+
+
+In order to arrive at a sense of proportion as to the value of English
+furniture and its relation to contemporary art in Europe, it is
+necessary to pass under hasty examination the movements that were
+taking place in France in the creation of a new style in furniture under
+the impulses of the epoch of the _Grande Monarque_. To estimate more
+correctly the styles of the Early Jacobean and of the later English
+furniture extending to the days of Chippendale and Sheraton, it must be
+borne in mind that England was not always so insular in art as the days
+of Queen Anne would seem to indicate. It is impossible for the
+cabinetmakers and the craftsmen to have utterly ignored the splendours
+of France. Louis XIV. had a long and eventful reign, which extended from
+the days when Charles I. was marshalling his forces to engage in civil
+war with the Parliament down to the closing years of Queen Anne. During
+his minority it cannot be said that Louis XIV. influenced art in
+furniture, but from 1661, contemporary with Charles II., when he assumed
+the despotic power that he exercised for half a century, his love of
+sumptuousness, and his personal supervision of the etiquette of a formal
+Court, in which no detail was omitted to surround royalty with
+magnificence, made him the patron of the fine arts, and gave his Court
+the most splendid prestige in Europe.
+
+As a headpiece to this chapter we give a very fine example of a
+_cassette_, or strong box, of the time of Louis XIV. It is securely
+bound with metal bands of exquisite design. The interior is fitted with
+a number of secret drawers.
+
+In the illustration (p. 159) it will be seen that the chair of the
+period of Louis Treize differed in no great respects from the furniture
+under the early Stuarts in this country. This design is by the
+celebrated Crispin de Passe, and the date is when Charles I. raised his
+standard at Nottingham, a year prior to the birth of Louis XIV.
+
+[Illustration: CHAIR OF PERIOD OF LOUIS XIII.
+
+DESIGNED BY CRISPIN DE PASSE, 1642.]
+
+During the reign of Louis XIV., tables, armoires, and cabinets were
+designed on architectural principles. Under the guiding influence of
+Colbert, Minister of Finance, architects and cabinetmakers were selected
+to design furniture for the Tuileries, the Louvre, and Fontainebleau. In
+the early years of the reign furniture was made with severe lines, but
+gradually it became the practice to fashion larger pieces. Immense
+tables with sumptuous decoration, on gilded claw-feet, and having tops
+inlaid with _pietra-dura_ intended to carry bronze groups and porphyry
+vases, were made at the Gobelins factory, under the direction of the
+celebrated Le Brun. This artist loved grandeur and gorgeousness in
+decoration, and in accord with the personal ideas of Louis XIV., who
+had an inordinate love for perfect symmetry, huge pieces of furniture
+were built in magnificent manner to please the taste of the _Grande
+Monarque_. Men of genius were employed in the manufacture of tapestries,
+of furniture, and of metal mountings, and the interior decorations of
+the palaces were designed in harmony with the furniture intended for use
+therein.
+
+The most illustrious among the cabinetmakers was Andre Charles Boule,
+who was made, in 1673, by letters patent, _Premier ebeniste de la maison
+royale_. The work of this artist in wood has attained a worldwide
+celebrity, and his name even has been corrupted into "buhl" to denote a
+particular class of work which he perfected. His most notable
+productions are the finely chased ormolu, in which he was an
+accomplished worker, and the inlay of tortoiseshell and brass, sometimes
+varied with ebony or silver, which have remained the wonder of
+succeeding generations.
+
+Boule was born in 1642, and lived till 1732. The first Boule, termed
+"_Le Pere_," he was succeeded by no less than four sons and nephews of
+the same name, in addition to his pupils who carried on his traditions
+at the Boule _atelier_, and a crowd of later imitators, even up to the
+present day, have followed his style in lavish decoration without being
+possessed of his skill.
+
+In Italy and in France marquetry of considerable delicacy and of fine
+effect had been produced long before the epoch of Louis XIV., but it was
+Boule who introduced a novelty into marquetry by his veneered work,
+which rapidly grew into favour till it developed into cruder colouring
+in inlays and unbridled licence in ornamentation, to which its
+originator would never have given countenance.
+
+The pieces of furniture usually associated with him are massive
+structures of ebony with their surfaces covered with tortoiseshell, in
+which are inlaid arabesques, scrolls, and foliage in thin brass or other
+metal. Upon the surface of this metal inlay further ornamentation was
+chased with the burin. This alternation of tortoiseshell and brass forms
+a brilliant marquetry. Into the chased designs on the metal a black
+enamel was introduced to heighten the effect, which was further
+increased by portions of the wood beneath the semi-transparent
+tortoiseshell being coloured black or brown or red; sometimes a
+bluish-green was used. Later imitators, not content with the beautiful
+effect of tortoiseshell, used horn in parts, which is more transparent,
+and they did not fear the garish effect of blue or vermilion underneath.
+Boule's creations, set in massive mounts and adornments of masks and
+bas-reliefs, cast in gilt-bronze and chased, were pieces of furniture of
+unsurpassed magnificence, and especially designed for the mirrored
+splendours of the _salons_ of Versailles.
+
+In boule-work all parts of the marquetry are held down by glue to the
+bed, usually of oak, the metal being occasionally fastened down by small
+brass pins, which are hammered flat and chased over so as to be
+imperceptible.
+
+In order to economise the material, Boule, when his marquetry became in
+demand, employed a process which led to the use of the technical terms,
+_boule_ and _counter-boule_. The brass and the tortoiseshell were cut
+into thin sheets. A number of sheets of brass were clamped together with
+the same number of sheets of tortoiseshell. The design was then cut out,
+the result being that each sheet of tortoiseshell had a design cut out
+of it, into which the same design from one of the sheets of brass would
+exactly fit. Similarly each sheet of brass had a design cut out of it
+into which a corresponding piece of tortoiseshell would fit. That in
+which the ground is of tortoiseshell and the inlaid portion is brass, is
+considered the better, and is called _boule_, or the _premiere partie_.
+That in which the groundwork is brass and the design inlaid is of
+tortoiseshell, is called _counter-boule_ or _contre-partie_. This latter
+is used for side panels.
+
+An examination of the specimens preserved in the Louvre, at the Jones
+Bequest at the Victoria and Albert Museum, or in the Wallace Collection
+will enable the student to see more readily how this practice works out
+in the finished result. In the illustration (p. 163) of the two
+pedestals the effect of the employment of _boule_ and _counter-boule_ is
+shown.
+
+[Illustration: (_a._) (_b._)
+
+PEDESTALS SHOWING BOULE AND COUNTER-BOULE WORK.
+
+(_Wallace Collection._)
+
+(_a_) Boule or _premiere partie_.
+
+(_b_) Counter-boule or _contre-partie_.]
+
+Associated with Boule is Jean Berain, who had a fondness for the Italian
+style; his designs are more symmetrically correct, both in ornamental
+detail and in architectural proportion. His conceptions are remarkable
+for their fanciful elaboration, and their wealth of profuse scrollwork.
+In the French national collections at the Louvre, at Versailles, and
+elsewhere there are many beautiful examples of his chandeliers of
+magnificent carved and gilded work. The freedom of the spiral arms and
+complex coils he introduced into his candelabra have never been
+equalled as harmonious portions of a grandly conceived scheme of
+magnificent interior decoration, to which, in the days of Louis XIV., so
+much artistic talent was devoted.
+
+[Illustration: BOULE CABINET, OR ARMOIRE.
+
+Valued at nearly L15,000.
+
+_Jones Bequest._
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+With regard to the value of some of the specimens in the national
+collections, it is difficult to form an estimate. The Boule cabinet,
+probably designed by Berain, executed by Boule for Louis XIV.
+(illustrated p. 165) would, if put up for sale at Christie's, probably
+fetch L15,000. This piece is held to be grander in style than any in the
+galleries in France. At the Wallace Collection there are examples which
+would bring fabulous sums if sold. A cabinet by Boule, in the Jones
+Bequest, purchased by Mr. Jones for L3,000 in 1881, is now worth three
+times that sum.
+
+Upon the building, decorating, and furnishing of Versailles Louis XIV.
+spent over five hundred million francs, in addition to which there was
+the army of workmen liable to statute labour. Some twenty thousand men
+and six thousand horses were employed in 1684 at the different parts of
+the chateau and park. In May, 1685, there were no less than thirty-six
+thousand employed.
+
+The illustrious craftsmen who were employed upon the magnificent
+artistic interior decorations have transmitted their names to posterity.
+Berain, Lepautre, Henri de Gissey, are the best known of the designers.
+Among the painters are the names of Audran, Baptiste, Jouvenet, Mignard,
+and the best known of the sculptors are Coustou and Van Cleve. Of the
+woodcarvers, metal-chasers, locksmiths, and gilders Pierre Taupin,
+Ambroise Duval, Delobel, and Goy are names of specialists in their own
+craft who transformed Versailles from a royal hunting-box into one of
+the most splendid palaces in Europe.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                              L  s. d.
+Commode, Louis XIV., of inlaid king-wood, with two drawers,
+    mounted with handles and masks at the corners of chased
+    ormolu, and surmounted by a fleur violette marble slab,
+    52 in. wide. Christie, January 22, 1904                  31 10  0
+
+Show-cabinet, of Louis XIV. design, inlaid king-wood, with
+    glazed folding doors, ormolu mounts, chased and
+    surmounted by vases, 73 in. high, 46 in. wide. Christie,
+    April 12, 1904                                           30  9  0
+
+Casket, Louis XIV., black Boule, inlaid with Cupids, vases
+    of flowers and scrolls, and fitted with four
+    tortoiseshell and gold picque shell-shaped snuff boxes.
+    Christie, April 19, 1904                                 73 10  0
+
+Commode, Louis XIV., Boule, of sarcophagus form, containing
+    two drawers, at either corners are detached cabriole
+    legs, the various panels are inlaid with brass and
+    tortoiseshell, the whole is mounted with ormolu,
+    surmounted by a slab of veined marble, 49 in. wide.
+    Christie, May 27, 1904                                   57 15  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_, these items
+are reproduced from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale
+Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XV
+
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Foley & Eassie._
+
+COMMODE, BY CRESSENT.
+
+(From a drawing by Walter Eassie.)
+
+(_Wallace Collection._)]
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE. THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XV
+
+    Louis XV.        1715-1774
+
+    Petit Trianon built at Versailles.
+
+    Meissonier, Director of Royal Factories (1723-1774).
+
+    Watteau (1684-1721). Pater (1695-1736).
+
+    Lancret (1690-1743). Boucher (1704-1770).
+
+    1751. The leading ebenistes compelled to stamp their work with
+    their names.
+
+
+Louis XIV. died in the year following the death of Queen Anne, so that
+it will be readily seen that English art was uninfluenced by France in
+the days of William and Mary, and how insular it had become under Anne.
+The English craftsman was not fired by new impulses from France during
+such an outburst of decorative splendour. The reign of Louis XV. extends
+from George I. down to the eleventh year of the reign of George III.,
+which year saw the cargoes of tea flung into Boston harbour and the
+beginning of the war with America.
+
+In glancing at the Louis Quinze style it will be observed how readily it
+departed from the studied magnificence of Louis XIV. In attempting
+elegance of construction and the elimination of much that was massive
+and cumbersome in the former style, it developed in its later days into
+meaningless ornament and trivial construction. At first it possessed
+considerable grace, but towards the end of the reign the designs ran
+riot in rococo details, displaying incongruous decoration.
+
+It was the age of the elegant boudoir, and the bedroom became a place
+for more intimate guests than those received in the large
+reception-room. In the days of Louis XIV. the bed was a massive
+structure, but in the succeeding reign it became an elegant appendage to
+a room. At Versailles the splendid galleries of magnificent proportion
+were transformed by the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France (1715-1723)
+during the king's minority, into smaller _salons_ covered in
+wainscoting, painted white and ornamented with gilded statues. In like
+manner the Louis Quinze decorations were ruthlessly destroyed by
+Louis-Philippe.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring._
+
+LOUIS XV. PARQUETERY COMMODE.
+
+With chased and bronze-gilt mounts.
+
+(_Formerly in the Hamilton Palace Collection._)]
+
+[Illustration: LOUIS XV. COMMODE.
+
+BY CAFFIERI.]
+
+The commode in the Wallace Collection (illustrated p. 171) is of the
+time when Louis XV. was in his minority, and of the days of the Regency.
+It is by Charles Cressent (1685-1768), who was cabinetmaker to Philippe
+d'Orleans, Regent of France. This is an especially typical specimen of
+the class to which it belongs as showing the transition style between
+Louis XIV. and the succeeding reign.
+
+To establish Louis the Fifteenth's _petits appartements_ the gallery
+painted by Mignard was demolished, and later, in 1752, the Ambassadors'
+Staircase was destroyed, the masterpiece of the architects Levau and
+Dorbay, and the marvel of Louis the Fourteenth's Versailles.
+
+It is necessary to bear these facts in mind in order to see how a new
+French monarch set ruthlessly new fashions in furniture and created a
+taste for his personal style in art. In the first part of the Louis
+Quinze period the metal mountings by Caffieri and Cressent are of
+exquisite style; they are always of excellent workmanship, but later
+they betrayed the tendency of the time for fantastic curves, which had
+affected the furniture to such an extent that no straight lines were
+employed, and the sides of commodes and other pieces were swelled into
+unwieldy proportions, and instead of symmetrical and harmonious results
+the florid style, known as the "rococo," choked all that was beautiful
+in design. Meissonier, Director of the Royal Factories (1723-1774), was
+mainly responsible for this unnatural development. He revelled in
+elaborate combinations of shellwork and impossible foliage.
+
+In the Louis XV. commodes illustrated (pp. 173, 175) it will be seen how
+far superior is the design and treatment of the one which was formerly
+in the celebrated Hamilton Collection. Its chased and gilt mounts are
+harmoniously arranged, and though the ornamentation is superbly rich, it
+breaks no canons of art by overloaded detail or coarse profusion. Not so
+much can be said for the other commode of the rococo style, even though
+the mounts be by Caffieri and executed in masterly manner. There is a
+wanton abandonment and an offensive tone in the florid treatment which
+point clearly to the decline of taste in art.
+
+The highest art of concealment was not a prominent feature in a Court
+which adopted its style from the caprices of Madame du Pompadour or the
+whims of Madame du Barry. But among the finest productions are the
+splendid pieces of reticent cabinetmaking by the celebrated Jean
+Francois Oeben, who came from Holland. His preference was for
+geometrical patterns, varied only with the sparing use of flowers, in
+producing his most delicate marquetry. In the pieces by Boule and
+others, not in tortoiseshell but in wood inlay, the wood was so
+displayed as to exhibit in the panels the grain radiating from the
+centre. Oeben did not forget this principle, and placed his bouquets of
+flowers, when, on occasion, he used them, in the centre of his panels,
+and filled up the panel with geometric design.
+
+[Illustration: LOUIS XV. _ESCRITOIRE A TOILETTE_.
+
+Of tulip-wood and sycamore, inlaid with landscapes in coloured woods.
+
+Formerly in the possession of Queen Marie Antoinette.
+
+(_Jones Bequest: Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The well-known maker, Charles Cressent (1685-1768), used rosewood,
+violet, and amaranth woods in his marquetry, and at this time many new
+foreign woods were employed by the cabinetmakers in France and Italy.
+In addition to woods of a natural colour, it was the practice
+artificially to colour light woods, and inlay work was attempted in
+which trophies of war, musical instruments, or the shepherd's crook
+hung with ribbon, were all worked out in marquetry. Pictures, in
+coloured woods, in imitation of oil paintings on canvas, were foolishly
+attempted, and altogether the art of inlay, ingenious and wonderful in
+its construction, began to affect trivialities and surprising effects
+most unsuited to the range of its technique.
+
+In the toilet-table illustrated (p. 179), this misapplication of inlay
+to reproduce pictures is seen on the three front panels and on the
+middle panel above. The chief woods employed are tulip and sycamore,
+inlaid with tinted lime, holly, and cherry-woods. The mountings of the
+table are chased ormolu. The cylindrical front encloses drawers with
+inlaid fronts. Beneath this is a sliding shelf, under which is a drawer
+with three compartments, fitted with toilet requisites and having inlaid
+lids. This specimen of Louis Quinze work is in the Jones Collection at
+the Victoria and Albert Museum. It was formerly in the possession of
+Queen Marie Antoinette. It is attributed to Oeben, though from
+comparison with some of the chaster work known to have come from his
+hand it would seem to be of too fanciful marquetry for his restrained
+and sober style.
+
+It is especially true of the furniture of this great French period that
+it requires harmonious surroundings. The slightest false touch throws
+everything out of balance at once. Of this fact the inventors were well
+aware. If Dutch furniture requires the quiet, restful art of Cuyp or Van
+der Neer, or Metzu or Jan Steen on the surrounding walls, the interiors
+of Louis Quinze demand the works of contemporary French genre-painters.
+
+[Illustration: LOUIS XV. SECRETAIRE.
+
+By Riesener, in his earlier manner.
+
+IN TRANSITIONAL STYLE, APPROACHING LOUIS SEIZE PERIOD.
+
+(_Wallace Collection._)]
+
+All things worked together to produce a harmonious _ensemble_ in this
+brilliant period. The royal tapestry and Sevres porcelain factories
+turned out their most beautiful productions to decorate rooms,
+furniture, and for the table. Tapestries from Beauvais, Gobelins, and
+Aubusson, rich silks from the looms of Lyons, or from Lucca, Genoa, or
+Venice were made for wall-hangings, for chair-backs, for seats, and for
+sofas.
+
+Fragonard, Natoire, and Boucher painted lunettes over chimney-fronts, or
+panels of ceilings. Of great cabinetmakers, Riesener and David Roentgen,
+princes among _ebenistes_, worked in wonderful manner in tulip-wood, in
+holly, in rosewood, purple wood, and laburnum to produce marquetry, the
+like of which has never been seen before nor since.
+
+Associated with the period of Louis XV. is the love for the lacquered
+panel. Huygens, a Dutchman, had achieved good results in imitations of
+Oriental lacquer, which in France, under the hand of Martin, a
+carriage-painter, born about 1706, rivalled the importations from Japan.
+It is stated that the secret of the fine, transparent lac polish that he
+used was obtained from the missionaries who resided in Japan before the
+date of the massacres and foreign expulsion of all except the Dutch
+traders. Vernis-Martin, as his varnish was termed, became in general
+request. From 1744 for twenty years, Sieur Simon Etienne Martin was
+granted a monopoly to manufacture this lacquered work in the Oriental
+style. Although he declared that his secret would die with him, other
+members of his family continued the style, which was taken up by many
+imitators in the next reign. His varnish had a peculiar limpid
+transparency, and he obtained the wavy network of gold groundwork so
+successfully produced by Japanese and Chinese craftsmen. On this were
+delicately painted, by Boucher and other artists, Arcadian subjects,
+framed in rocaille style with gold thickly laid on, and so pure that in
+the bronze gilding and in the woodwork it maintains its fine lustre to
+the present day.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Foley & Eassie._
+
+THE "BUREAU DU ROI."
+
+THE MASTERPIECE OF RIESENER.
+
+(From a drawing by Walter Eassie.)
+
+(_Wallace Collection._)]
+
+Towards the close of the reign of Louis XV. a new style set in, which
+reverted to simpler tastes, to which the name "_A la reine_" was given,
+in deference to the taste which is supposed to have emanated from Marie
+Leczinska, the queen, but is said to have been due to Madame du
+Pompadour.
+
+At the Wallace Collection is a fine secretaire, with the mounts and
+ornaments of gilt bronze cast and chased, which is illustrated (p. 181).
+The central panel of marquetry shows, in life size, a cock, with the
+caduceus, a snake, a banner, and symbolical instruments. It is by Jean
+Francois Riesener, and in his earliest manner, made in the later years
+of Louis Quinze in the Transitional style approaching the Louis Seize
+period.
+
+Among the wonderful creations of Riesener, probably his masterpiece is
+the celebrated "Bureau du Roi," begun in 1760 by Oeben, and completed in
+1769 by Riesener--who married the widow of Oeben, by the way. Its
+bronzes are by Duplesis, Winant, and Hervieux. The design and details
+show the transition between the Louis Quinze and the Louis Seize styles.
+
+The original, which is at the Louvre, is in marquetry of various
+coloured woods and adorned by plaques of gilt bronze, cast and chased.
+The copy from which our illustration is taken (p. 183) is in the Wallace
+Collection, and is by Dasson, and follows the original in proportions,
+design, and technique.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                             L  s.  d.
+Table, Louis XV., oblong, the legs are cabriole, it
+    contains one drawer and a writing-slide; around the
+    sides are inlaid panels of old Japanese lacquer, each
+    panel bordered by elaborate scrollwork of chased
+    ormolu, signed with "B. V. R. B.," surmounted by a slab
+    of white marble, 39 in. wide. Christie, December 18,
+    1903                                                   1900  0  0
+
+Writing-table, Louis XV., marquetry, with sliding top and
+    drawer, fitted with movable writing slab, compartment
+    for ink-vases, &c., signed "L. Doudin," Louis XV. form,
+    with cabriole legs, the top decorated with scrolls
+    forming panels, the centre one containing a Teniers
+    figure subject, parquetry and inlays of flowers round
+    the sides, corner mounts, &c., of ormolu, cast and
+    chased, 30 in. wide. Christie, March 18, 1904           630  0  0
+
+Cartonniere, Louis XV., of inlaid tulip-wood, containing a
+    clock by Palanson, a Paris, mounted with Chinese
+    figures, masks, foliage and scrolls of chased ormolu,
+    48 in. high, 36 in. wide. Christie, April 22, 1904      409 10  0
+
+Secretaires, pair, Louis XV., small marquetry, with
+    fall-down front, drawer above and door below, inlaid
+    with branches of flowers, and mounted with chased
+    ormolu, surmounted by white marble slabs, 46 in. high,
+    22 in. wide. Christie, April 29, 1904                    46  4  0
+
+Cabinet, Louis XV., parquetry, with folding doors enclosing
+    drawers, mounted with ormolu, surmounted by a Brescia
+    marble slab, 30 in. high, 44 in. wide. Christie, April
+    29, 1904                                                 31 10  0
+
+Bergeres, pair of Louis XV., corner-shaped, the frames of
+    carved and gilt wood, the seats and backs covered with
+    old Beauvais tapestry. Christie, May 18, 1904           420  0  0
+
+Settee, Louis XV., oblong, of carved and gilt-wood, covered
+    with panels of old Beauvais tapestry, 3 ft. 8 in. wide.
+    Christie, May 18, 1904                                  231  0  0
+
+Canape, Louis XV., of carved and gilt wood, the borders
+    carved with acanthus scrolls, the seat and back covered
+    with old Beauvais silk tapestry, decorated, 4 ft. 6 in.
+    wide. Christie, May 18, 1904                            420  0  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE.
+THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE.
+THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI
+
+    Louis XVI.      1774-1793.
+
+    1730-1806. Riesener, _ebeniste_ to Marie Antoinette (born near
+    Cologne).
+
+    1789. Commencement of the French Revolution.
+
+
+The so-called Louis Seize period embraces much that is good from the
+later days of the previous reign. The same designers were employed with
+the addition of a few younger men. Caffieri and Riesener were producing
+excellent work, and above all was Gouthiere, whose renown as a founder
+and chaser of gilded bronze ornaments is unrivalled. Elegance and
+simplicity are again the prevailing notes. Straight lines took the place
+of the twisted contortions of the rococo style. Thin scrolls, garlands,
+ribbons and knots, classical cameo-shaped panels, and Sevres plaques
+form the characteristic ornamentation.
+
+The acanthus-leaf, distorted into unnatural proportions in the middle
+Louis Quinze period, returned to its normal shape, the egg-and-tongue
+moulding came into use, and the delicacy of the laurel-leaf was
+employed in design in Louis Seize decorations.
+
+In the jewel cabinet illustrated (p. 193), the new style is shown at its
+best. The cabinet is inlaid in rosewood and sycamore, and bears the name
+of "J. H. Riesener" stamped on it. The chased ormolu mounts are by
+Gouthiere. The geometrical inlay is a tradition which Oeben left to his
+successors. The upper portion has a rising lid with internal trays. In
+the lower part is a drawer and a shelf. This piece is at the Victoria
+and Albert Museum in the Jones Bequest, and it is well worth detailed
+examination as being a representative specimen of the most artistic work
+produced at this period.
+
+Pierre Gouthiere had a complete mastery over his technique. The
+estimation with which his work is regarded has made furniture which he
+mounted bring extraordinary prices. In 1882, at the dispersal of the
+celebrated Hamilton Palace Collection, three specimens with his
+workmanship realised L30,000.
+
+The Vernis-Martin panels were decorated by Watteau and Pater. The age of
+artificialities with its _fetes-galantes_ in the royal gardens of the
+Luxembourg and in the pleasure parks of the Court, with the ill-starred
+Marie Antoinette playing at shepherds and shepherdesses, had its
+influence upon art. Watteau employed his brush to daintily paint the
+attitudes of _Le Lorgneur_ upon a fan-mount, or to depict elegantly
+dressed noblemen and ladies of the Court dancing elaborate minuets in
+satin shoes, or feasting from exquisite Sevres porcelain dishes in the
+damp corner of some park or old chateau.
+
+[Illustration: LOUIS XVI. JEWEL CABINET.
+
+Inlaid in rose and sycamore woods. Stamped "J. H. Riesener." Chased
+Ormolu mountings by Gouthiere.
+
+(_Jones Bequest. Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+The artificial pretence at Arcadian simplicity adopted by the Queen, in
+the intervals between her attendance at public _bals-masque_, when she
+almost wantonly outraged the susceptibilities of the French people by
+her frivolities, found a more permanent form in interior decorations.
+Riesener and David designed a great deal of furniture for her. Dainty
+work-tables and writing-tables and other furniture of an elegant
+description are preserved in the national collection in the Louvre and
+at Fontainebleau, in the Victoria and Albert Museum in the Jones
+Bequest, and in the Wallace Collection. Tables of this nature are most
+eagerly sought after. A small table with plaques of porcelain in the
+side panels, which is said to have belonged to Marie Antoinette, was
+sold at Christie's for L6,000 (Hamilton Collection). There is a similar
+writing-table in the Jones Collection, given by Marie Antoinette to Mrs.
+Eden, afterwards Lady Auckland.
+
+During the period under Louis Seize, when Fragonard and Natoire deftly
+painted the panels of rooms and filled ceilings with flying cupids and
+chains of roses, when Boucher was Director of the Academy, the interior
+of rooms assumed a boudoir-like appearance. The walls were decorated in
+a scheme of colour. Handsome fluted pillars with fine classic feeling
+were the framework of panelling painted in delicate and subdued tones.
+Oval mirrors, avoiding all massive construction, lightened the effect,
+and mantelpieces of white marble, and furniture evidently designed for
+use, completed the interiors of the homes of the _grands seigneurs_.
+Sometimes the walls were painted, giving a lustrous appearance
+resembling silk, and this style is the forerunner of the modern
+abomination known as wall-paper.
+
+Before leaving this period of French furniture, when so much marquetry
+work was done of unsurpassed beauty and of unrivalled technique, a word
+may be said as to the number of woods used. Oeben and Riesener and their
+contemporaries used many foreign woods, of which the names are
+unfamiliar. Mr. Pollen, in his "South Kensington Museum Handbook to
+Furniture and Woodwork," has given the names of some of them, which are
+interesting as showing the number of woods especially selected for this
+artistic cabinetmaking. Tulip-wood is the variety known as _Liriodendron
+tulipifera_. Rosewood was extensively used, and holly (_ilex
+aquifolium_), maple (_acer campestre_), laburnum (_cytisus Alpinus_),
+and purple wood (_copaifera pubiflora_). Snake-wood was frequently used,
+and other kinds of light-brown wood in which the natural grain is waved
+or curled, presenting a pleasant appearance, and obviating the use of
+marquetry (_see_ "Woods used," p. 29).
+
+In the great collections to which reference has been made, in well-known
+pieces made by Riesener his name is found stamped on the panel itself,
+or sometimes on the oak lining. The large bureau in the Wallace
+Collection (Gallery xvi., No. 66) is both signed and dated "20th
+February, 1769." This piece, it is said, was ordered by Stanislas
+Leczinski, King of Poland, and was once one of the possessions of the
+Crown of France.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Waring._
+
+LOUIS XVI. RIESENER COMMODE.]
+
+With regard to the cost of pieces of furniture by the great master
+_ebenistes_, it is on record that a secretaire which was exhibited at
+Gore House in 1853, and made originally for Beaumarchais by Riesener,
+cost 85,000 francs, a sum not much less than L4,000. Celebrated copies
+have been made from these old models. The famous cabinet with mounts by
+Gouthiere, now in the possession of the King, was copied about
+twenty-five years ago for the Marquis of Hertford, by permission of
+Queen Victoria. The piece took years to complete, and it is interesting
+to have the evidence of its copyists that the most difficult parts to
+imitate were the metal mounts. This replica cost some L3,000, and is now
+in the Wallace Collection. The copy of the famous bureau or escritoire
+in the Louvre, known as the "Bureau de St. Cloud," was made by
+permission of the Emperor Napoleon III., and cost L2,000. Another copy
+of the same piece exhibited at the French International Exhibition was
+sold for L3,500 to an English peeress. Many fine copies of Riesener's
+work exist, and in the illustration (p. 197) a copy is given of a
+handsome commode, which exhibits his best style under the influence of
+his master, Oeben.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                             L s.  d.
+Cabinets, pair of Louis XVI., dwarf ebony, the panels inlaid
+    with black and gold lacquer, decorated with birds and
+    trees in the Chinese taste, mounted with foliage borders
+    of chased ormolu, and surmounted by veined black marble
+    slabs, 45 in. high, 35 in. wide. Christie, November 20,
+    1903                                                    39 18  0
+
+Suite of Louis XVI. furniture, with fluted borders and legs,
+    painted white and pale green, the seats, backs, and arms
+    covered with old Beauvais tapestry, with vases and
+    festoons of flowers and conventional arabesques in
+    poly-chrome, on white ground in pale green borders,
+    consisting of an oblong settee, 72 in. wide, eight
+    fauteuils. Christie, December 18, 1903                1470  0  0
+
+Secretaire, Louis XVI., upright marquetry, with fall-down   }
+    front, drawer above, and folding doors below, inlaid    }
+    with hunting trophies on trellis-pattern ground, mounted}
+    with foliage, friezes, and corner mounts of chased      }
+    ormolu, and surmounted by a Breccia marble slab, stamped}
+    "J. Stumpff. 315 0 0 Me.," 56 in. high, 40 in. wide.    }
+    Christie, February 12, 1904 Commode, _en suite_, with   }
+    five drawers, 58 in. wide. Christie, February 12, 1904  }
+                                                            } 714  0  0
+Work-table, Louis XVI., oval, in two tiers, upon a tripod   }
+    stand, with double candle branches above; the top tier  }
+    is composed of a Sevres plaque, painted with sprays of  }
+    roses; around this is a gallery of chased ormolu; the   }
+    second tier is of parquetry, this has also a balcony;   }
+    the tripod base is of mahogany, with mounts of ormolu,  }
+    cast and chased; the nozzles for the two candles above  }
+    are similar in material and decoration, width of top    }
+    tier, 13 in. Christie, March 18, 1904
+
+Table, Louis XVI., marquetry, signed "N. Petit," top inlaid
+    with musical trophy, &c., mounts, &c., of ormolu, cast
+    and chased, 30 in. wide. Christie, March 18, 1904       99 15  0
+
+Fauteuils, pair, Louis XVI. (stamped "J. Leglartier"),
+    tapered oblong backs and curved arms, turned legs, white
+    and gilt, covered with Beauvais tapestry, with subjects
+    from "Fables de la Fontaine," and other designs.
+    Flashman & Co., Dover, April 26, 1904                   75  0  0
+
+Console-table, Louis XVI., carved and painted wood, with
+    fluted legs and stretchers, and open frieze in front,
+    surmounted by a slab of white marble, 5 ft. 4 in. wide.
+    Christie, May 6, 1904                                   46  0  0
+
+Commode, Louis XVI., containing three drawers, in front it
+    is divided into three rectangular sunk panels of
+    parquetry, each bordered with mahogany, with ormolu
+    mounts, surmounted by a slab of fleur-de-peche marble,
+    57 in. wide. Christie, May 27, 1904                    357  0  0
+
+Commode, Louis XVI., stamped with the name of "J. H.
+    Reisener," with tambour panels in front and drawers at
+    the top; it is chiefly composed of mahogany, the central
+    panel inlaid in a coloured marquetry; on either side,
+    and at the ends, are panels of tulip-wood parquetery,
+    the whole is mounted with ormolu, surmounted by a slab
+    of veined marble, 34 in. wide. Christie, May 27, 1904
+                                                          3150  0  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE. THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE
+
+
+[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF MADAME RECAMIER.
+
+(After David.)
+
+Showing Empire settee and footstool.
+
+(_In the Louvre._)]
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+FRENCH FURNITURE--THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE
+
+    1789. Commencement of French Revolution.
+
+    1798. Napoleon's campaign in Egypt.
+
+    1805. Napoleon prepares to invade England; Battle of Trafalgar;
+    French naval power destroyed.
+
+    1806. Napoleon issued Berlin Decree to destroy trade of England.
+
+    1812. Napoleon invaded Russia, with disastrous retreat from
+    Moscow.
+
+    1814. Napoleon abdicated.
+
+    1815. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
+
+
+When Louis XVI. called together the States-General in 1789, which had
+not met since 1614, the first stone was laid of the French Republic.
+After the king was beheaded in 1793, the Reign of Terror followed,
+during which the wildest licence prevailed. Under the Directory, for
+four years from 1795, the country settled down until the rise of
+Napoleon Bonaparte, who took the government in his own hands with the
+title of Consul, and in 1804 called himself Emperor of the French.
+
+During the Reign of Terror the ruthless fury of a nation under mob-law
+did not spare the most beautiful objects of art which were associated
+with a hated aristocracy. Furniture especially suffered, and it is a
+matter for wonderment that so much escaped destruction. Most of the
+furniture of the royal palaces was consigned to the spoliation of "the
+Black Committee," who trafficked in works of great price, and sold to
+foreign dealers the gems of French art for less than a quarter of their
+real value. So wanton had become the destruction of magnificent
+furniture that the Convention, with an eye on the possibilities of
+raising money in the future, ordered the furniture to be safely stored
+in the museums of Paris.
+
+After so great a social upheaval, art in her turn was subjected to
+revolutionary notions. Men cast about to find something new. Art, more
+than ever, attempted to absorb the old classic spirit. The Revolution
+was the deathblow to Rococo ornament. With the classic influences came
+ideas from Egypt, and the excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii
+provided a further source of design. A detail of a portion of a tripod
+table found at Pompeii shows the nature of the beautiful furniture
+discovered.
+
+As early as 1763, Grimm wrote: "For some years past we are beginning to
+inquire for antique ornaments and forms. The interior and exterior
+decorations of houses, furniture, materials of dress, work of the
+goldsmiths, all bear alike the stamp of the Greeks. The fashion passes
+from architecture to millinery; our ladies have their hair dressed _a la
+Grecque_." A French translation of Winckelmann appeared in 1765, and
+Diderot lent his powerful aid in heralding the dawn of the revival of
+the antique long before the curtain went up on the events of 1789.
+
+Paris in Revolution days assumed the atmosphere of ancient Rome.
+Children were given Greek and Roman names. Classical things got rather
+mixed. People called themselves "Romans." Others had Athenian notions.
+Madame Vigee-Lebrun gave _soupers a la Grecque_. Madame Lebrun was
+Aspasia, and M. l'Abbe Barthelemy, in a Greek dress with a laurel wreath
+on his head, recited a Greek poem.
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL OF TRIPOD TABLE FOUND AT POMPEII.
+
+(_At Naples Museum._)]
+
+These, among a thousand other signs of the extraordinary spirit of
+classicism which possessed France, show how deep rooted had become the
+idea of a modern Republic that should emulate the fame of Athens and of
+Rome. The First Consul favoured these ideas, and his portraits
+represent him with a laurel wreath around his head posing as a Caesar.
+
+[Illustration: _By kind permission from the collection of Dr. Sigerson,
+Dublin._
+
+SERVANTE.
+
+Marble top; supported on two ormolu legs elaborately chased with figures
+of Isis. Panelled at back with glass mirror.
+
+FRENCH; LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+In transition days before the style known as Empire had become fixed
+there is exhibited in art a feeling which suggests the deliberate search
+after new forms and new ideas. To this period belongs the _servante_,
+which, by the kindness of Dr. Sigerson, of Dublin, is reproduced from
+his collection. The claw-foot, the ram's head, the bay-leaf, and a
+frequent use of caryatides and animal forms, is a common ornamentation
+in furniture of the Empire period. In this specimen the two legs of
+ormolu have these characteristics, and it is noticeable that the shape
+of the leg and its details of ornament bear a striking resemblance to
+the leg of the Pompeiian table illustrated (p. 205). But the deities of
+Egypt have contributed a new feature in the seated figure of the goddess
+Isis.
+
+[Illustration: JEWEL CABINET OF THE EMPRESS MARIE LOUISE.
+
+Made on the occasion of her marriage with the Emperor Napoleon
+Bonaparte, in 1810.
+
+(_At Fontainebleau._)]
+
+Napoleon himself encouraged the classic spirit which killed all memories
+of an _ancien regime_. He would have been pleased to see all the relics
+of the former glories of France demolished. He had at one time a project
+to rebuild Versailles as a classic temple.
+
+At the height of his splendour he became the patron of the fine arts,
+and attempted to leave his impression upon art as he did upon everything
+else. New furniture was designed for the Imperial palaces. Riesener was
+alive, but it does not appear that he took any part in the new
+creations. David, the great French painter, an ardent Republican, was
+won over to become a Court painter. At Malmaison and at Fontainebleau
+there are many fine examples of the First Empire period which, however,
+cannot be regarded as the most artistic in French furniture. Preserved
+at Fontainebleau is the jewel cabinet, made by Thomire and Odiot, at the
+Emperor's orders as a wedding gift, in 1810, to the Empress Marie
+Louise, in emulation of the celebrated Riesener cabinet at the Trianon.
+The wood used for this, and for most of the Empire cabinets, is rich
+mahogany, which affords a splendid ground for the bronze gilt mounts
+(_see_ p. 207).
+
+The portrait of Madame Recamier, by David, which is in the Louvre, given
+as headpiece to this chapter, shows the severe style of furniture in use
+at the zenith of the Empire period. The couch follows classic models,
+and the tall candelabrum is a suggestion from Herculaneum models.
+
+The influence that this classic revival had upon furniture in this
+country is told in a subsequent chapter. In regard to costume, the gowns
+of the First Empire period have become quite fashionable in recent
+years.
+
+Although this style of furniture degenerated into commonplace designs
+with affectedly hard outlines, it had a considerable vogue. In addition
+to the influence it had upon the brothers Adam and upon Sheraton, it
+left its trace on English furniture up till the first quarter of the
+nineteenth century. The chair illustrated (p. 210) is about the year
+1800 in date. There is presumptive evidence that this chair was made in
+Bombay after European design. It is of rosewood, carved in relief with
+honeysuckle and floral design. The scrolled ends of the top rail show at
+once its French derivation.
+
+In the national collections in this country there are very few specimens
+of Empire furniture. The Duke of Wellington has some fine examples at
+Apsley House, treasured relics of its historic associations with the
+victor of Waterloo. The demand in France, for furniture of the First
+Empire style has in all probability denuded the open market of many fine
+specimens. Owing to the fact that this country was at war with France
+when the style was at its height, the number of Empire pieces imported
+was very limited, nor does First Empire furniture seem to have greatly
+captivated the taste of English collectors, as among the records of
+sales of furniture by public auction very little has come under the
+hammer.
+
+[Illustration: _By kind permission of the Rev. H. V. Le Bas._
+
+ARMCHAIR, ROSEWOOD.
+
+Carved in relief with honeysuckle pattern Formerly in possession of the
+Duke of Newcastle.
+
+ENGLISH; LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+CHIPPENDALE
+
+AND
+
+HIS STYLE
+
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+TABLE MADE BY CHIPPENDALE.
+
+(Height, 29-3/8 in.; width, 32-3/8 in.; depth, 21-5/8 in.)]
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+CHIPPENDALE AND HIS STYLE
+
+    George I.      1714-1727.
+    George II.      1727-1760.
+    George III.      1760-1820.
+
+    Horace Walpole built Strawberry Hill (1750)
+
+    Sir William Chambers (1726-1796) built Pagoda at Kew about 1760.
+
+    Chippendale's _Director_ published (1754).
+
+
+Thomas Chippendale, the master cabinetmaker of St. Martin's Lane, has
+left a name which, like that of Boule, has become a trade term to mark
+a certain style in furniture. With the dawn of the age of mahogany,
+Chippendale produced designs that were especially adapted to the new
+wood; he relied solely upon the delicate carving for ornament, and
+rejected all inlay.
+
+Discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh, who brought specimens home with him,
+mahogany did not come into general use till about 1720. The material
+then used by Chippendale and his school was the splendid mahogany from
+the great untouched forests, producing at that time timber the like of
+which, in dimension and in quality, is now unprocurable. The cheaper
+"Honduras stuff" was then unknown, and English crews landed and cut
+timber from the Spanish possessions in spite of the protests of the
+owners. Many a stiff fight occurred, and many lives were lost in
+shipping this stolen mahogany to England to supply the demand for
+furniture. These nefarious proceedings more than once threatened to
+bring about war between England and Spain.
+
+The furniture of France, during the four great periods treated in the
+previous chapters, was designed for the use of the nobility. One wonders
+what furniture was in common use by the peasantry in France. In England,
+too, much of the furniture left for the examination of posterity was
+made for the use of the wealthy classes. In Jacobean days, settles and
+chairs, especially the Yorkshire and Derbyshire types, were in more
+common use, and the homely pieces of Queen Anne suggest less luxurious
+surroundings, but it was left for Chippendale to impress his taste upon
+all classes. In the title-page of his great work, the _Director_,
+published in 1754, he says that his designs are "calculated to improve
+and refine the present taste, and suited to the fancy and circumstances
+of persons in all degrees of life."
+
+[Illustration: OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR.
+
+Wood, painted green, with circular seat, carved arms, and high back.
+Bequeathed by Oliver Goldsmith in 1774 to his friend, Dr. Hawes.
+
+(_Bethnal Green Museum._)]
+
+His book of designs, as may naturally be supposed, was not greatly
+bought by the working classes, but fifteen copies of the _Director_ went
+to Yorkshire, and many other copies were subscribed for in other parts
+of the country, so that local cabinetmakers began at once to fashion
+their furniture after his styles.
+
+The common form of chair at the time was similar to the specimen
+illustrated (p. 215), which formerly belonged to Oliver Goldsmith, and
+was bequeathed by him to his friend, Dr. Hawes. This is of soft wood,
+probably beech, painted green, with circular seat, curved arms, and high
+back. Chippendale revolutionised this inartistic style, and for the
+first time in the history of the manufacture of furniture in England,
+continental makers turned their eyes to this country in admiration of
+the style in vogue here, and in search of new designs.
+
+It might appear, on a hasty glance at some of Chippendale's work, that
+originality was not his strong point. His claw-and-ball feet were not
+his own, and he borrowed them and the wide, spacious seats of his chairs
+from the Dutch, or from earlier English furniture under Dutch influence.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CHIPPENDALE SETTEE; WALNUT. ABOUT 1740.
+
+(_From the collection of Sir W. E. Welby-Gregory, Bart._)]
+
+Sir William Chambers, the architect of Somerset House, whose fondness
+for Chinese ornament produced quite a craze, and who built the Pagoda in
+Kew Gardens, gave Chippendale another source of inspiration. In his
+later days he came under the influence of the Gothic revival and
+was tempted to misuse Gothic ornament.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CHIPPENDALE SETTEE, OAK. ABOUT 1740.
+
+(_By courtesy of V. J. Robinson, Esq., C.I.E._)]
+
+His second style shows the Louis XIV. French decoration in subjection.
+In his ribbon-back chairs he employed the Louis XVI. ornamentation.
+
+But Chippendale was the most masterly adapter that England has ever
+produced. His adaptions became original under his hand, and his
+creations are sturdy and robust, tempered by French subtleties, and
+having, here and there, as in the fretwork in the chair-legs and angles,
+a suggestion of the East. He is the prince of chair-makers. His chairs
+are never unsymmetrical. He knew the exact proportion of ornament that
+the structure would gracefully bear. The splats in the chairs he made
+himself are of such accurate dimensions in relation to the open spaces
+on each side that this touch alone betrays the hand of the master, which
+is absent in the imitations of his followers.
+
+The illustration given of the Chippendale table in Chinese style (p.
+213), is a beautiful and perfect piece of a type rarely met with. It was
+made by Chippendale for the great-grandmother of the present owner. A
+similar table was in the possession of the Princess Josephine. In
+chairs, the back was sometimes of fret-cut work, as was also the design
+of the legs, with fretwork in the angles, which betray his fondness for
+the Chinese models. The Gothic style influenced Chippendale only to a
+slight degree. Horace Walpole at Strawberry Hill set the fashion in
+England, which fortunately was short-lived.
+
+Collectors divide Chippendale's work into three periods. To the first
+they assign the more solid chairs or settees with cabriole legs and
+Louis XIV. ornament, harmoniously blended with Queen Anne style. These
+chairs and settees are often found with claw-and-ball feet, and are
+frequently of walnut. Two fine examples of settees, the one of oak, the
+other of walnut, are illustrated.
+
+[Illustration: RIBBON PATTERN. CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK.
+
+(_From the "Director."_)]
+
+The second period embraces the fine creations which have the celebrated
+Louis XVI. ribbon ornamentation in the backs. From one of the designs in
+Chippendale's book, here illustrated, the elegance of the style is
+shown. It is exuberant enough, but the author complains in his volume
+that "In executing many of these drawings, my pencil has but faintly
+carved out those images my fancy suggested; but in this failure I
+console myself by reflecting that the greatest masters of every art have
+laboured under the same difficulties." The ribbon-backed chair
+illustrated (p. 223) is one of the two given to an ancestor of the
+present owner by the fourth Duke of Marlborough in 1790. They were
+formerly at Blenheim, and there is an added interest in them owing to
+the fact that the seats were worked by Sarah, the great Duchess of
+Marlborough.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+RIBBON-BACKED CHIPPENDALE CHAIR, FORMERLY AT BLENHEIM, THE SEAT WORKED
+BY SARAH, DUCHESS OF MARLBOROUGH.]
+
+The latest style of Chippendale's work is the Gothic. There are many
+pieces in existence which he probably had to produce to satisfy the
+taste of his fashionable clients, but the style is atrocious, and the
+less said about them the better. The illustration (p. 225) of a
+chair-back from his design-book shows how offensive it could be.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CHIPPENDALE CORNER CHAIR, ABOUT 1780.
+
+(_Reproduced by kindness of the Hon. Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane, G.C.B.,
+I.S.O._)]
+
+The fine corner-chair, here illustrated, exhibits the strength and
+solidity he could impart to his work. His chairs were meant to sit upon,
+and are of excellent carpentry. The square, straight legs are a feature
+of much of his work. The examples belonging to the India Office and the
+Governors of the Charterhouse illustrated (pp. 226, 227) show the type
+that he made his own and with which his name has been associated.
+
+[Illustration: GOTHIC CHIPPENDALE CHAIR-BACK.
+
+(_From the "Director."_)]
+
+Although his chairs are sought after as especially beautiful in design
+(his father was a maker of chairs before him) he made many other objects
+of furniture. The mirrors he designed are exquisite examples of fine
+woodcarving. The one illustrated (p. 229) shows the mastery he had over
+graceful outline. Bureau bookcases with drop-down fronts have been
+successfully produced since his day after his models. The one
+illustrated (p. 231) shows a secret drawer, which is reached by removing
+the left-hand panel. Card-tables, settees, knife-boxes, tea-caddies,
+sideboards, and overmantles were made by him, which show by their
+diversity of technique that there was more than one pair of hands at
+work in carrying out his designs.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+MAHOGANY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR. ABOUT 1740.
+
+(_Property of the India Office._)]
+
+The collecting of Chippendale furniture has become so fashionable of
+late years that genuine old pieces are difficult to procure. It is true
+that two old chairs were discovered in a workhouse last year, but when
+specimens come into the market they usually bring large prices. Two
+elbow state-chairs, with openwork backs, were sold a little while ago
+for seven hundred and eighty guineas, and a set of six small chairs
+brought ninety-three guineas about the same time. But even this is not
+the top price reached, for two chairs at Christie's realised eleven
+hundred pounds!
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+MAHOGANY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR. 1770.
+
+(_By permission of the Master of the Charterhouse._)]
+
+Chippendale, the shopkeeper, of St Martin's Lane, who took orders for
+furniture, which he or his sons, or workmen under their direct
+supervision, executed, was one person, and Chippendale, who had
+quarrelled with the Society of Upholsterers, and published a book of
+designs on his own account, which quickly ran through three editions,
+was another person. In the one case he was a furniture maker whose
+pieces bring enormous prices. In the other he was the pioneer of popular
+taste and high-priest to the cabinetmakers scattered up and down
+England, who quickly realised the possibilities of his style, and
+rapidly produced good work on his lines.
+
+These pieces are by unknown men, and no doubt much of their work has
+been accredited to Chippendale himself. The illustration (p. 232) shows
+a mahogany chair well constructed, of a time contemporary with
+Chippendale and made by some smaller maker. This type of chair has been
+copied over and over again till it has become a recognised pattern. It
+finds its counterpart in china in the old willow-pattern, which
+originated at Coalport and has been adopted as a stock design.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of the proprietors of the "Connoisseur."_
+
+CHIPPENDALE MIRROR.]
+
+Furniture is not like silver, where the mark of the maker was almost as
+obligatory as the hall mark. Artists, both great and small, have signed
+their pictures, and in the glorious days of the great French _ebenistes_
+and metal-chasers, signed work is frequently found. But in England, at a
+time when furniture of excellent design, of original conception, and
+of thoroughly good workmanship was produced in great quantities, the
+only surviving names are those of designers or cabinetmakers who have
+published books.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+CHIPPENDALE BUREAU BOOKCASE.
+
+With drop-down front, showing secret drawer.]
+
+So great was the influence of the style of Chippendale that it permeated
+all classes of society. An interesting engraving by Stothard (p. 235)
+shows the interior of a room, and is dated 1782, the year that Rodney
+gained a splendid victory over the French fleet in the West Indies, and
+the year that saw the independence of the United States recognised.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+MAHOGANY CHAIR.
+
+IN THE CHIPPENDALE STYLE. LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: COTTAGE CHAIRS, BEECHWOOD. LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, IN
+STYLE OF CHIPPENDALE.]
+
+Kitchen furniture or cottage furniture was made on the same lines by
+makers all over the country. The wood used was not mahogany; it was most
+frequently beech. Chairs of this make are not museum examples, but they
+are not devoid of a strong artistic feeling, and are especially English
+in character. More often than not the soft wood of this class of chair
+is found to be badly worm-eaten. Two chairs of this type, of beech,
+are illustrated (p. 233), and it is interesting to note that, as in the
+instance of the Yorkshire and Derbyshire chairs of Jacobean days made by
+local makers, it is not common to find many of exactly the same design.
+The craftsman gave a personal character to his handiwork, which makes
+such pieces of original and artistic interest, and cabinetmaking and
+joinery was not then so machine-made as it is now.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ROOM, ABOUT 1782.
+
+(_From engraving after Stothard._)]
+
+It may be here remarked that the earlier pieces of the eighteenth
+century were polished much in the same manner as was old oak previously
+described. Highly polished surfaces and veneers, and that abomination
+"French polish," which is a cheap and nasty method of disguising poor
+wood, bring furniture within the early nineteenth-century days, when a
+wave of Philistine banalities swept over Europe.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                             L  s. d.
+Side table, Chippendale, with gadrooned border, the front
+    boldly carved with a grotesque mask, festoons of
+    flowers and foliage, on carved legs with claw feet, 64
+    in. long. Christie, February 14, 1902                  126  0  0
+
+Tea-caddy, Chippendale mahogany, square, with four
+    divisions, the borders carved with rosettes and
+    interlaced riband ornament, the sides inlaid with four
+    old Worcester oblong plaques painted with exotic birds,
+    insects, fruit, flowers, and festoons in colours on
+    white ground, 10 in. square. Christie, February 6, 1903 52 10  0
+
+Fire-screen, Chippendale mahogany, containing a panel of old
+    English petit-point needlework, worked with a basket of
+    flowers in coloured silks, on pillar and tripod carved
+    with foliage and ball-and-claw feet. Christie, December
+    4, 1903                                                 17 17  0
+
+Armchairs, pair large Chippendale mahogany, with interlaced
+    backs carved with foliage, the arms terminating in
+    carved and gilt eagles' heads. Christie, January 22,
+    1904                                                    88  4  0
+
+Cabinet, Chippendale mahogany, with glazed folding doors
+    enclosing shelves, and with cupboards and eight small
+    drawers below, the borders fluted, 8 ft. high, 8 ft.
+    wide. Christie, January 22, 1904                        67  4  0
+
+Chairs, set of six Chippendale mahogany, with open
+    interlaced backs, with scroll tops, carved with foliage
+    and shell ornament, on carved cabriole legs and
+    ball-and-claw feet. Christie, January 22, 1904         102 18  0
+
+Table, Chippendale, oblong, cabriole legs, carved with
+    shells, &c., on claw feet, surmounted by a veined white
+    marble slab, 53 in. wide. Christie, March 4, 1904       73  0  0
+
+Settee, Chippendale mahogany, with double back with scroll
+    top, carved with arabesque foliage, the arms terminating
+    in masks, on legs carved with lions' masks and claw
+    feet, 54 in. wide. Christie, April 12, 1904            278  5  0
+
+Mirror, Chippendale, carved with gilt, 88 in. high, 50 in.
+    wide. Christie, May 18, 1904                            94 10  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+SHERATON, ADAM,
+
+AND HEPPELWHITE
+
+STYLES
+
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+HEPPELWHITE SETTEE, MAHOGANY.]
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+SHERATON, ADAM, AND HEPPELWHITE STYLES
+
+    Robert Adam     1728-1792.
+    Thomas Sheraton 1751-1806.
+
+    1752. Loch and Copeland's designs published.
+
+    1765. Manwaring's designs published.
+
+    1770. Ince and Mayhew's designs published.
+
+    1788. Heppelwhite's designs published.
+
+
+In the popular conception of the furniture of the three Georges the
+honours are divided between Chippendale and Sheraton. Up till recently
+all that was not Chippendale was Sheraton, and all that was not
+Sheraton must be Chippendale. The one is represented by the
+straight-legged mahogany chairs or cabriole legs with claw-and-ball feet
+and the backs elaborately carved; the other with finely tapered legs,
+built on elegant lines, and of satinwood, having marquetry decoration or
+painted panels.
+
+This is the rough generalisation that obtained in the earlier days of
+the craze for collecting eighteenth-century furniture. Heppelwhite and
+Adam (more often than not alluded to as Adams), are now added to the
+list, and auction catalogues attempt to differentiate accordingly. But
+these four names do not represent a quarter of the well-known makers who
+were producing good furniture in the days between the South Sea Bubble
+in 1720 and the battle of Waterloo in 1815.
+
+In this chapter it will be impossible to give more than a passing
+allusion to the less-known makers of the eighteenth century, but to
+those who wish to pursue the matter in more detailed manner the
+Bibliography annexed (p. 19) gives ample material for a closer study of
+the period.
+
+The four brothers Adam, sons of a well-known Scottish architect, were
+exponents of the classic style. Robert Adam was the architect of the
+fine houses in the Adelphi, and he designed the screen and gateway at
+the entrance to the Admiralty in 1758. James is credited with the
+designing of interior decorations and furniture. Carriages,
+sedan-chairs, and even plate were amongst the artistic objects to which
+these brothers gave their stamp. The classical capitals, mouldings and
+niches, the shell flutings and the light garlands in the Adam style,
+are welcome sights in many otherwise dreary streets in London. Robert,
+the eldest brother, lived from 1728 to 1792, and during that time
+exercised a great influence on English art.
+
+[Illustration: SHERATON ARMCHAIR; MAHOGANY, ABOUT 1780.
+
+ADAM ARMCHAIR; MAHOGANY, ABOUT 1790.
+
+ARMCHAIR OF WALNUT, SHIELD-BACK CARVED WITH THREE OSTRICH FEATHERS.
+IN HEPPELWHITE STYLE. LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+CHAIR OF WALNUT, SHIELD-BACK; IN THE STYLE OF HEPPELWHITE.
+LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_Victoria and Albert Museum._)]
+
+In 1790, a set of designs of English furniture were published by A.
+Heppelwhite. In these chairs with pierced backs, bookcases with
+fancifully framed glass doors, and mahogany bureaux, the influence of
+Chippendale is evident, but the robustness of the master and the
+individuality of his style become transformed into a lighter and more
+elegant fashion, to which French _finesse_ and the Adam spirit have
+contributed their influence.
+
+In the illustration (p. 243) various types of chairs of the period are
+given. A chair termed the "ladder-back" was in use in France at the same
+time. In Chardin's celebrated picture of "_Le jeu de l'oye_," showing
+the interior of a parlour of the middle eighteenth century, a chair of
+this type is shown.
+
+The Heppelwhite settee illustrated as the headpiece to this chapter
+shows the delicate fluting in the woodwork, and the elaborated turned
+legs which were beginning to be fashionable at the close of the
+eighteenth century. The two chairs by Heppelwhite & Co., illustrated (p.
+243), are typical examples of the elegance of the style which has an
+individuality of its own--a fact that collectors are beginning to
+recognise.
+
+The shield-back chair with wheat-ear and openwork decoration, and legs
+in which the lathe has been freely used, are characteristic types. The
+elegance of the legs in Heppelwhite chairs is especially noticeable. The
+designers departed from Chippendale with results exquisitely
+symmetrical, and of most graceful ornamentation.
+
+Hogarth, in his biting satires on the absurdities of Kent, the
+architect, painter, sculptor, and ornamental gardener, whose claims to
+be any one of the four rest on slender foundations, did not prevent
+fashionable ladies consulting him for designs for furniture, picture
+frames, chairs, tables, for cradles, for silver plate, and even for the
+construction of a barge. It is recorded by Walpole that two great ladies
+who implored him to design birthday gowns for them were decked out in
+incongruous devices: "the one he dressed in a petticoat decorated in
+columns of the five orders, and the other like a bronze, in a
+copper-coloured satin, with ornaments of gold."
+
+Heppelwhite learned the lesson of Hogarth, that "the line of beauty is a
+curve," and straight lines were studiously avoided in his designs. Of
+the varieties of chairs that he made, many have the Prince of Wales's
+feathers either carved upon them in the centre of the open-work back or
+japanned upon the splat, a method of decoration largely employed in
+France, which has not always stood the test of time, for when examples
+are found they often want restoration. Of satin-wood, with paintings
+upon the panels, Heppelwhite produced some good examples, and when he
+attempted greater elaboration his style in pieces of involved design and
+intricacy of detail became less original, and came into contact with
+Sheraton. His painted furniture commands high prices, and the name of
+Heppelwhite will stand as high as Chippendale or Sheraton for graceful
+interpretations of the spirit which invested the late eighteenth
+century.
+
+Before dealing with Sheraton in detail, the names of some lesser known
+makers contemporary with him may be mentioned. Matthias Lock, together
+with a cabinetmaker named Copeland, published in 1752 designs of
+furniture which derived their inspiration from the brothers Adam, which
+classic feeling later, in conjunction with the Egyptian and Pompeian
+spirit, dominated the style of the First Empire. Josiah Wedgewood, with
+his Etruscan vases, and Flaxman, his designer, filled with the new
+classic spirit, are examples in the world of pottery of the influences
+which were transmitted through the French Revolution to all forms of art
+when men cast about in every direction to find new ideas for design.
+
+Ince and Mayhew, two other furniture designers, published a book in
+1770, and Johnson outdid Chippendale's florid styles in a series of
+designs he brought out, which, with their twisted abortions, look almost
+like a parody of Thomas Chippendale's worst features. There is a
+"Chairmaker's Guide," by Manwaring and others in 1766, which contains
+designs mainly adapted from all that was being produced at the time. It
+is not easy to tell the difference between chairs made by Manwaring and
+those made by Chippendale, as he certainly stands next to the great
+master in producing types which have outlived ephemeral tastes, and
+taken their stand as fine artistic creations.
+
+Among other names are those of Shearer, Darly, and Gillow, all of whom
+were notable designers and makers of furniture in the period immediately
+preceding the nineteenth century.
+
+Thomas Sheraton, contemporary with William Blake the dreamer, shares
+with him the unfortunate posthumous honour of reaching sensational
+prices in auction rooms. There is much in common between the two men.
+Sheraton was born in 1751 at Stockton-on-Tees, and came to London to
+starve. Baptist preacher, cabinetmaker, author, teacher of drawing, he
+passed his life in poverty, and died in distressed circumstances. He
+was, before he brought out his book of designs, the author of several
+religious works. Often without capital to pursue his cabinetmaking he
+fell back on his aptitude for drawing, and gave lessons in design. He
+paid young Black, who afterwards became Lord Provost of Edinburgh, half
+a guinea a week as workman in his cabinetmaker's shop in Soho. In a
+pathetic picture of those days the Lord Provost, in his _Memoirs_, tells
+how Sheraton and his wife and child had only two cups and saucers and
+the child had a mug, and when the writer took tea with them the wife's
+cup and saucer were given up to the guest, and she drank her tea from a
+common mug. This reads like Blake's struggles when he had not money
+enough to procure copper-plates on which to engrave his wonderful
+visions.
+
+That the styles of Chippendale and Sheraton represent two distinct
+schools is borne out by what Sheraton himself thought of his great
+predecessor. Speaking in his own book of Chippendale's previous work he
+says: "As for the designs themselves they are wholly antiquated, and
+laid aside, though possessed of great merit according to the times in
+which they were executed." From this it would appear that the
+Chippendale style, at the time of Sheraton's "Cabinetmaker's and
+Upholsterer's Drawing Book," published in 1793, had gone out of fashion.
+
+The woods mostly employed by Sheraton were satinwood, tulip-wood,
+rosewood, and apple-wood, and occasionally mahogany. In place of carved
+scrollwork he used marquetry, and on the cabinets and larger pieces
+panels were painted by Cipriani and Angelica Kauffman. There is a fine
+example of the latter's work in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+Sheraton borrowed largely from the French style under Louis XVI., when
+the lines had become severer; he came, too, under the influence of the
+Adam designs. He commonly used turned legs, and often turned backs, in
+his chairs. His later examples had a hollowed or spoon back to fit the
+body of the sitter. When he used mahogany he realised the beauty of
+effect the dark wood would give to inlay of lighter coloured woods, or
+even of brass. The splats and balusters, and even the legs of some of
+his chairs, are inlaid with delicate marquetry work.
+
+Ornament for its own sake was scrupulously eschewed by Sheraton. The
+essential supports and uprights and stretcher-rails and other component
+parts of a piece of furniture were only decorated as portions of a
+preconceived whole. The legs were tapered, the plain surfaces were
+inlaid with marquetry, but nothing meaningless was added. In France
+Sheraton's style was termed "_Louis Seize a l'Anglaise_."
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Hampton &. Sons._
+
+OLD ENGLISH SECRETAIRE.
+
+Rosewood and satinwood. Drop-down front.]
+
+It was the firm of Heppelwhite that first introduced the painted
+furniture into England, and under Sheraton it developed into an
+emulation of the fine work done by Watteau and Greuze in the days of
+Marie Antoinette.
+
+Among the varied pieces that Sheraton produced are a number of ingenious
+inventions in furniture, such as the library-steps he made for George
+III. to rise perpendicularly from the top of a table frame, and when
+folded up to be concealed within it. His bureau-bookcases and
+writing-cabinets have sliding flaps and secret drawers and devices
+intended to make them serve a number of purposes.
+
+[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. Harold G. Lancaster & Co._
+
+SHIELD-BACK CHAIR. MAHOGANY.
+
+LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+On the front of his chairs is frequently found the inverted bell
+flower, and another of his favourite forms of decoration is the acanthus
+ornament, which he puts to graceful use.
+
+The influence of his work, and of that of Heppelwhite & Co., was
+lasting, and much of the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth
+century cabinetmaking owes its origin to their designs. The old English
+secretaire illustrated (p. 250), of rose and satinwood, with drawer
+above and fall-down front, having cupboard beneath with doors finely
+inlaid with plaques of old lac, is of the date when Heppelwhite was
+successfully introducing this class of French work into England. It is
+especially interesting to note that the drawer-handles are mounted with
+old Battersea enamel.
+
+The difficulty of definitely pronouncing as to the maker of many of the
+pieces of furniture of the late eighteenth century is recognised by
+experts. The chair illustrated (p. 251) cannot be assigned to any
+particular designer, though its genuine old feeling is indisputable. In
+the fine collection of old furniture of this period at the Victoria and
+Albert Museum will be found many examples of chairs with no other title
+assigned to them than "late eighteenth century." This fact speaks for
+itself. A great and growing school had followed the precepts of
+Chippendale and Heppelwhite and Sheraton. This glorious period of little
+more than half a century might have been developed into a new
+Renaissance in furniture. Unfortunately, the early days of the
+nineteenth century and the dreary Early Victorian period, both before
+and after the great Exhibition of 1851, display the most tasteless
+ineptitude in nearly every branch of art. From the days of Elizabeth
+down to the last of the Georges, English craftsmen, under various
+influences, have produced domestic furniture of great beauty. It is
+impossible to feel any interest in the Windsor chair, the saddle-bag
+couch, or the red mahogany cheffoniere. The specimens of misapplied work
+shown at the Bethnal Green Museum, relics of the English exhibits at the
+first Exhibition, are unworthy of great traditions.
+
+The awakened interest shown by all classes in old furniture will do much
+to carry the designers back to the best periods in order to study the
+inheritance the masters have left, and it is to be hoped that the
+message of the old craftsmen dead and gone will not fall on deaf ears.
+
+
+RECENT SALE PRICES.[1]
+
+                                                             L  s. d.
+Chairs, wheel back, set of seven (including armchair), Adam,
+    carved, mahogany. Good condition. Brady & Sons, Perth,
+    September 1, 1902                                       27  2  6
+
+Mirror, Adam, in gilt frame, Corinthian pillar sides,
+    ornamental glass panel at top, surmounted by a carved
+    wood eagle figure. Gudgeon & Sons, Winchester, November
+    11, 1903                                                 7 10  0
+
+Mantelpiece, Adam, carved wood, with Corinthian column
+    supports, carved and figures and festoons. France &
+    Sons, December 16, 1903                                 20  0  0
+
+Mirrors, pair, oval, Adam, carved and gilt wood frame.
+    Christie, March 18, 1904                                46  4  0
+
+Cabinet or enclosed buffet, Adam, on Empire lines, veneered
+    on oak with grained Spanish mahogany, in the frieze is a
+    long drawer, and below a cupboard, the whole on square
+    feet, doors inlaid, handles, &c., of ormolu, 3 ft. 9 in.
+    wide. Flashman & Co., Dover, April 26, 1904             15  0  0
+
+Side-tables, pair hare-wood, by Adam, with rounded corners,
+    on square-shaped tapering legs, the sides and borders
+    inlaid with marquetry, in coloured woods, 53 in. wide.
+    Christie, June 2, 1904                                 105  0  0
+
+Bookcase, 4 ft. 8 in., mahogany, Heppelwhite, inlaid
+    tulip-wood with box and ebony lines, fitted shelves and
+    drawers, enclosed by doors. Phillips, Son and Neale,
+    November 17, 1903                                       44  0  0
+
+Settee, Heppelwhite, square-shaped, 6 ft., and three elbow
+    chairs. Gudgeon & Sons, Winchester, March 9, 1904       38  0  0
+
+Console-table, Heppelwhite satinwood, the top shaped as a
+    broken ellipse, and of hare-wood with inlays of husks
+    and flowers round a fan-pattern centre with borderings
+    in ebony and other woods on a filling of satinwood; the
+    edge is bound with ormolu, reeded and cross banded,
+    below is the frieze of satin-wood inlaid with
+    honeysuckle, paterae, and other ornament in holly, &c.,
+    and supported on a pair of carved square tapered legs
+    painted and gilt, and with pendants of husks and
+    acanthus capitals, 4 ft. 3 in. wide. Flashman & Co.,
+    Dover, April 26, 1904                                   40  0  0
+
+Suite of Heppelwhite mahogany furniture, with open shield
+    backs, with vase-shaped centres carved, the back, arms
+    and legs widely fluted, consisting of a settee, 74 in.
+    wide, and ten armchairs. Christie, June 2, 1904        325 10  0
+
+Knife-box, oblong, Sheraton mahogany, with revolving front,
+    inlaid with Prince-of-Wales's feathers and borders in
+    satinwood, 19-1/2 in. wide. Christie, November 21, 1902  7 17  6
+
+Sideboard, Sheraton, mahogany, satinwood inlaid, fitted with
+    brass rails. Dowell, Edinburgh, November 14, 1903       30  9  0
+
+Wardrobe, Sheraton mahogany, banded with satinwood, with
+    folding doors above and below, and five drawers in the
+    centre, 7 ft. high, 8 ft. wide. Christie, January 22,
+    1904                                                    60 18  0
+
+Chairs, set of eighteen Sheraton, with oval backs with rail
+    centres, fluted and slightly carved with foliage and
+    beading, the seats covered with flowered crimson damask;
+    and a pair of settees, _en suite_, 6 ft. wide. Christie,
+    February 26, 1904                                      126  0  0
+
+Armchairs, pair, Sheraton, with shield-shaped backs, painted
+    with Prince of Wales feathers, and pearl ornament on
+    black ground. Christie, March 28, 1904                  28  7  0
+
+Cabinet, Sheraton satinwood, with glazed folding doors
+    enclosing shelves, drawer in the centre forming
+    secretary, and folding-doors below, painted with baskets
+    of flowers, &c., 7 ft. 9 in. high, 41 in. wide.
+    Christie, March 28, 1904                               189  0  0
+
+Secretaire, Sheraton small satinwood, with revolving tambour
+    front, drawer and folding doors below, inlaid with
+    arabesque foliage, 23 in. wide. Christie, April 29, 1904
+                                                            47  5  0
+
+[1] By the kindness of the proprietors of the _Connoisseur_ these items
+are given from their useful monthly publication, _Auction Sale Prices_.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+HINTS TO COLLECTORS
+
+
+[Illustration: DESIGN FOR SPURIOUS MARQUETRY WORK.]
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+HINTS TO COLLECTORS
+
+
+The demand for old furniture has become so great that there is an
+increasing difficulty in supplying it. In order to satisfy the collector
+many artifices have been practised which in varying degree are difficult
+to detect, according to the skill and ingenuity of the present-day
+manufacturer of "antique" furniture.
+
+Replicas of old pieces are frequently made, and the workmanship is so
+excellent, and the copy of the old craftsman's style so perfect, that it
+only requires a century or two of wear to give to the specimen the
+necessary tone which genuine old furniture has naturally acquired.
+
+In particular, French ornate furniture from the days of Boule to the
+Empire period has received the flattering attention of the fabricator by
+being imitated in all its details. These high-class French pieces are
+fine examples of cabinetmaking, and it is not easy for anybody who has
+not a special expert knowledge to pronounce definitely upon their
+authenticity. Doubts have even been expressed regarding certain pieces
+in the great national collections; in fact the art of the forger in
+regard to old French furniture, of which specimens change hands at
+anything from L1,000 to L10,000, has reached a very high level of
+excellence, having almost been elevated to one of the fine arts. If a
+clever workman possessed of great artistic feeling turns his attention
+to forging works of art, it is obvious that his triumph is complete over
+amateurs possessed of less artistic taste and knowledge than himself.
+
+Many secret processes are employed to impart an appearance of age to the
+wood and to the metal mountings. The cruder methods are to eat off the
+sharper edges of the metal mountings by means of acid, and to discolour
+the newer surfaces by the aid of tobacco juice, both of which are not
+difficult to detect. The steady manufacture of these finer pieces goes
+on in France, and it has been found that the foggy atmosphere of London
+is especially useful in producing the effect of age upon the finer work,
+consequently many forged pieces are shipped to London to be stored in
+order to ripen until considered fit for the American market, where so
+many forgeries have been planted. The reward is great, and even
+considering the amount of trouble bestowed upon such pieces and the
+excellence of the artistic work where the highest skilled labour is
+employed, the profit is enormous. The parvenu buys his Louis XIV. or
+Louis XV. suite, and pays an immense sum for pieces which are stated to
+have come from some French nobleman's chateau, whose name must not be
+divulged, and so the interesting deal is brought to a successful
+termination.
+
+[Illustration: "MADE-UP" BUFFET.
+
+The middle portion, consisting of the two drawers and three panelled
+cupboards above, is genuine old carved oak. The stand, with the finely
+turned legs and rails, and the whole of the upper portion, is modern.]
+
+As an object-lesson as to the truth of the above remarks, the Wallace
+Collection contains a modern French copy in facsimile, by Dasson, of the
+celebrated "Bureau du Roi" of the Louis XV. period, the original being
+in the Louvre. The original is fully described in the chapter on Louis
+XV. style, and it is not too much to assert that ninety-nine per cent.
+of the visitors to the Collection could not say that this copy was not
+an old French specimen of over a century and a quarter ago, and the
+remaining one, unless he happened to be an expert, would not question
+its genuineness.
+
+Old oak has always been a favourite with the public, and from the modern
+Flemish monstrosities, carved in evil manner and displaying proportions
+in the worst possible taste, to the equally vulgar home production in
+buffet or sideboard, and stocked by many dealers in so-called "antique"
+furniture, the number of grotesque styles foisted upon the public within
+the last fifteen years has been remarkable. One wonders what has become
+of the high-backed oak chairs, nearly black with repeated applications
+of permanganate of potash, having flaming red-leather seats. They seem
+to have mysteriously disappeared from up-to-date "antique" stores of
+late. The public has taken to inquiring into art matters a little more
+closely. Nowadays the latest thing is "fumed" oak, which is modern oak
+discoloured by means of ammonia, which darkens the surface of the wood
+to a depth of a sixteenth of an inch. It is not infrequent to find an
+attempt made to represent this as old oak after an elaborate treatment
+with linseed oil, turpentine, and beeswax, though an examination of the
+interior edges of the wood will discover its modernity at once.
+
+Of course, such tricks as these are not practised by any firm of
+standing, who cannot afford to damage their reputation by any
+misrepresentation. As a general rule a dealer will readily point out the
+details of workmanship and offer technical information of much value to
+a beginner, if he discovers that his customer is a collector desirous of
+acquiring only fine specimens. It is more often than not the folly of
+the public, and not the dishonesty of the dealer, which results in trade
+frauds being committed in the attempt to execute some impossible and
+imperative order, which the moneyed collector has given. The difference
+between the genuine and the replica is most clearly made by
+old-fashioned firms of high standing. It is only when the collector
+enters into the arena and endeavours to set forth in quest of bargains,
+where he pits his skill against that of the dealer in the hope of
+outwitting the latter, that he is obviously on dangerous ground. In the
+one case he pays a higher price and obtains the benefit of the
+experience of a firm with expert knowledge, in the other he relies on
+his own judgment in picking up a bargain from some one whom he believes
+to be possessed of less knowledge than himself. If he is successful he
+is not slow to brag about his cleverness; but if he is worsted in the
+encounter, and pays, let us say, five pounds for an object which he
+fondly believed was worth fifty, if genuine, and which he subsequently
+discovers is worth less than he gave, there is nothing too bad to say
+concerning his antagonist.
+
+It is chiefly by the character of carved work that old pieces can be
+recognised. There are three classes of pitfalls to avoid.
+
+1. Fraudulent pieces throughout, of modern wood and of modern carving.
+
+2. "Made-up" pieces which often consist of genuine old pieces of carved
+wood pieced together ingeniously from fragments of carvings, with modern
+additions.
+
+3. "Restored" pieces which are mainly old and should have received, if
+admitted to a collection, only the necessary repairs to make them
+serviceable.
+
+With regard to the first class, fraudulent throughout, it is the hope of
+the writer that enough has already been written in this volume to point
+the way to the reader and to assist him to follow his natural
+inclinations in developing the necessary critical taste to readily
+detect pieces wholly false in character and feeling.
+
+"Made-up" pieces present a greater difficulty. Considerable skill has
+been exercised in combining certain parts of old furniture into a whole
+which is, however, mostly inharmonious. In pieces of this nature there
+is an absence of feeling in style and carving. It is difficult to define
+the exact meaning of the word "feeling" as applied to art objects, it is
+a subtle expression of skill and poetry which communicates itself to the
+lover of art. It is so subtle and elusive that experts will tell one
+that such and such a piece requires to be "lived with" to test its
+authenticity. Mr. Frederick Roe, whose volume on "Ancient Coffers and
+Cupboards" displays a profound knowledge of his subject, writes, "it
+occasionally happens that pieces are so artfully made up that only
+living with them will enable the collector to detect the truth. In
+dealing with pieces of this suspicious kind one often has to fall back
+on a sort of instinct. With critical collectors of every sort this
+innate sense plays a very important part."
+
+Two specimens of "made-up" furniture are reproduced, which will bear
+close study in order to appreciate the difficulty of collecting old oak.
+
+The illustration of the buffet (p. 261) has many points of interest. The
+general appearance of the piece is not inharmonious. It has been
+carefully thought out and no less carefully put into effect. The middle
+portion, consisting of the three drawers and the three cupboards above,
+up to and including the shelf partition at the top, is the only old
+part. The handles, locks, and escutcheons of the two drawers are old,
+but the hinges above are modern copies of old designs, and the handles
+of the cupboards are modern replicas.
+
+[Illustration: CABINET OF OLD OAK.
+
+MADE UP FROM SEVERAL PIECES OF GENUINE OLD CARVED OAK.]
+
+The massive stand with artistically turned rails in Jacobean style,
+is soft wood artfully fumed and generously beeswaxed. The whole of the
+top portion has been added and is soft wood very well carved. The
+carving of the panels is also well executed, and is evidently a copy of
+some old design.
+
+The older portion is a fine piece of early Jacobean work, and it is not
+difficult to distinguish between the feeling of this and the expression
+conveyed by the modern woodwork. The patina of the wood after two
+centuries of exposure and polishing has that peculiarly pleasing
+appearance which accompanies genuine old woodwork. The edges of the
+carving have lost their sharp angles, and the mellowness of the middle
+panels are in strong contrast to the harsher tone of those of the upper
+portion.
+
+Such a piece as this would not deceive an expert, nor, perhaps, is it
+intended to, or greater care would have been bestowed upon it, but it is
+sufficiently harmonious in composition not to offend in a glaring
+manner, and might easily deceive a tyro.
+
+The next piece illustrated (p. 267) is interesting from another point of
+view. It is a more elaborate attempt to produce a piece of old furniture
+in which the details themselves have all the mellowness of fine old oak.
+In fact, with the exception of one portion, some eight inches by three,
+to which allusion will be made later, the whole of it is genuine old
+oak.
+
+The three panels at the top are finely carved and are Jacobean work. The
+two outside panels at the bottom, though of a later period, are good
+work. The middle panel at the bottom is evidently a portion of a larger
+piece of carving, because the pattern abruptly breaks off, and it was
+most certainly not designed by the old carver to lie on its side in this
+fashion.
+
+The two heads at the top corners have been cut from some old specimen,
+and artfully laid on. The carving on both sides, running below each head
+from top to bottom, is of two distinct designs joined in each case in a
+line level with the upper line of the lower panels. The two uprights on
+each side of the middle lower panel are exquisite pieces of carved work,
+but certainly never intended to be upright. They are evidently portions
+of a long, flowing ornament, as their cut-off appearance too plainly
+shows.
+
+The top panels have done duty elsewhere, as part of the ornamental
+carving at the top and bottom of each lozenge is lost. The long line of
+scrolled carving above them is distinctly of interest. On the left hand,
+from the head to the middle of the panel, a piece of newer carving has
+been inserted, some eight inches long. The wood, at one time darkened to
+correspond with the adjacent carving, has become lighter, which is
+always the case when wood is stained to match other portions. The
+carving in this new portion follows in every detail the lines of the
+older design, and is a very pretty piece of "faking."
+
+The cross-piece running from left to right, dividing the lower panels
+from the upper, is in three parts. An examination of the design shows
+that the last three circles on the right, and the last four on the left,
+are of smaller size than the others. The design evidently belonged to
+some other piece of furniture, and has been removed to do service in
+this "made-up" production.
+
+In all probability the two uprights enclosing the top middle panel, and
+the two uprights on the outside at the bottom were once portions of a
+carved bedstead, as they are all of the same size and design. It is a
+notorious trick to slice an old carved bedpost into four pieces,
+skilfully fitting the pieces into "made-up" furniture.
+
+There is a prevalent idea that worm-holes are actually produced in
+furniture, in order to give a new piece a more realistic appearance.
+There are traditions of duck-shot having been used, and there is little
+doubt that holes were drilled by makers who knew their public. But it is
+improbable that such artifices would be of much use for deceptive
+purposes nowadays. As a matter of fact, worm-holes are avoided by any
+one who gives a moment's thought to the matter. To get rid of worm in
+furniture is no easy task, and they eventually ruin any pieces they
+tenant.
+
+The illustration (p. 274) shows a piece of Spanish chestnut badly
+honeycombed by furniture worms. In chairs, especially, their havoc is
+almost irreparable, and in the softer woods the legs become too rotten
+to be repaired or even strengthened. Metal plates are often screwed on
+the sides to prevent the chairs falling to pieces, but they become
+useless to sit upon without fear of disaster.
+
+The insect is really the boring wood-beetle, which is armed with
+formidable forceps, to enable it to burrow through the wood. The worm,
+the larva of this beetle, is also provided with boring apparatus, and
+this insect, whether as beetle or as worm, is a deadly enemy to all
+furniture. The "death-watch" is also accused of being a depredator of
+books and of furniture of soft wood.
+
+To remove worms from furniture is a costly undertaking, requiring the
+greatest skill. Large pieces of furniture have actually to be taken to
+pieces and the whole of the damaged parts removed with a chisel. In
+cases where the legs, or slender supports, have been attacked, the
+difficulty is one requiring the specialist's most delicate attention.
+Various applications are recommended, but cannot be stated to be
+reliable. Injecting paraffin is said to be the best remedy, and putting
+the pieces in a chamber where all the openings have been sealed, and
+lighting pans of sulphur underneath the furniture, allowing the
+specimens to remain in this fumigating bath for some days is another
+method resorted to.
+
+With regard to Chippendale furniture, a word of caution is necessary. It
+is as impossible for Chippendale and his workmen to have produced all
+the furniture attributed to them as it is for the small factory at
+Lowestoft to have made all the china with which it is credited. As has
+been shown in the chapter on Thomas Chippendale, his styles were most
+extensively copied by his contemporaries all over the country and by
+many makers after him, and modern makers produce a great quantity of
+"Chippendale" every year. Only a careful examination of museum pieces
+will train the eye of the collector. The fine sense of proportion, at
+once noticeable in the genuine Chippendale chair, is absent in the
+modern copy, and, above all, the carving in the latter is thin and poor.
+In the old days the wastage of wood was not a thing which the master had
+in his mind. In modern copies the curl of the arm, or the swell at the
+top of the back, shows a regard for economy. There is a thin, flat look
+about the result, which ought not to be mistaken. Scrolls and
+ribbon-work are often added to later pieces made in the style of
+Chippendale, which have enough wood in their surfaces to bear carving
+away.
+
+An ingenious device is adopted in cases of inlaid pieces of a small
+nature, such as imitation Sheraton clock-cases and knife-boxes and the
+frames of mirrors. Old engravings are procured of scrollwork, usually
+from the end of some book. The illustration (p. 259) shows the class of
+engravings selected. These engravings are coated with a very thin layer
+of vellum, which is boiled down to a liquid, and carefully spread over
+them. After this treatment they are ready to be glued on to the panels
+to be "faked," and, when coated over with transparent varnish, they
+present the appearance of an ivory and ebony inlay.
+
+[Illustration: DESIGN FOR SPURIOUS MARQUETRY WORK.]
+
+The frauds practised in satinwood and painted pieces are many and are
+exceedingly difficult to detect. Much of Sheraton's furniture was
+veneered with finely selected specimens of West India satinwood. These
+carefully chosen panels were painted by Cipriani and others. The modern
+"faker" has not the material to select from, as the satinwood imported
+is not so beautiful nor so richly varied in grain as in the old days. He
+removes a side panel from an old piece, and substitutes another where
+its obnoxious presence is not so noticeable. To this old panel he
+affixes a modern coloured print after one of Sheraton's artists, which,
+when carefully varnished over and skilfully treated so as to represent
+the cracks in the supposed old painting, is ready for insertion in the
+"made-up" sideboard, to catch the fancy of the unwary collector.
+
+FINIS.
+
+[Illustration: PIECE OF SPANISH CHESTNUT SHOWING RAVAGES OF WORMS.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+A
+
+Adam, the brothers, and their style, 209, 241-256
+
+Adam armchair (illustrated), 243
+
+Admiralty, screen and gateway, designed by Robert Adam, 242
+
+Anne, Queen, furniture of, prices realised at auction, 153
+  ---- insularity of furniture in reign of, 136
+  ---- well-constructed furniture of period of, 145
+
+Apsley House, collection of furniture at, 209
+
+Armoire, _see_ GLOSSARY, 23
+
+Ascham, quotation from, 68
+
+Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, chair at, 115
+
+
+B
+
+Baroque, _see_ GLOSSARY, 23
+
+Barrow, Sam, name of maker, on Queen Anne clock, 148
+
+Battersea enamel, its use on furniture, 252
+
+Berain, Jean, 162
+
+Blenheim, chair from, 222
+
+Bodleian Library, Oxford, illustration of chair at, 82
+
+_Bombe_, _see_ GLOSSARY, 23
+
+Bookcase by Chippendale, 225, 231
+
+Boucher, 182, 195
+
+Boule, Andre Charles, and his marquetry, 160-162
+  ---- cabinet (illustrated), 165
+  ---- _see_ GLOSSARY, 23
+  ---- and counter-boule (illustrated), showing difference between, 163
+
+Bridal chest (German), 43
+
+Bromley-by-Bow, "Old Palace," oak panelling from, 65
+
+Brown and Bool, Messrs., specimens from collection of, 141, 150
+
+Buhl work, 160
+
+Bureau, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+Burr-walnut panels, 139
+
+Butter-cupboard, 104
+
+
+C
+
+Cabinet, ebony, formerly property of Oliver Cromwell, 99
+
+Cabriole, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+Cabriole-leg, introduction of into England, 127
+
+Caffieri, 177, 191
+
+Cambridge, King's College Chapel, woodwork of, 63
+
+Cane seats and backs of chairs, adoption of, 117
+  ---- work in chairs, later development of, 122
+
+Carolean, _see_ GLOSSARY, 25
+
+Carving supplanted by cane-work panels, 117
+
+Caryatides, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+_Cassette_, (strong box) of period of Louis XIV., 158
+
+_Cassone_, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+  ---- (marriage coffer), the Italian, 42
+
+Catherine of Braganza, fashions introduced by, 114
+
+Cecil, Lord Burleigh, quotation from, 66
+
+Chair, Charles I., 93, 95
+  ---- Chippendale, 223, 224, 226, 227, 232, 233
+  ---- "Cromwellian," 96
+  ---- high-backed, Portuguese, 114
+  ---- Italian (1620), 94
+  ---- Jacobean, made from timber of Drake's _Golden Hind_, 83
+  ---- James I., 87, 89
+  ---- James II., 123
+  ---- Louis XIII. period, 159
+  ---- ribbon-back, 222, 223
+  ---- Oliver Goldsmith's, 215
+  ---- with arms of first Earl of Strafford, 93
+
+Chairs, test as to age of, 100
+  ---- types of Jacobean (illustrated), 97, 100, 105, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124
+  ---- types of Queen Anne period (illustrated), 143
+  ---- upholstered, adopted in late Elizabethan days, 75
+
+Chambers, Sir William, 216
+
+Chardin, picture by, showing ladder-back chair, 245
+
+Charles I. furniture, prices realised at auction, 106
+  ---- II. furniture, prices realised at auction, 129
+  ---- II., repartee of, 114
+
+Charterhouse, specimen at, illustration of, 227
+
+Chatsworth, work of Grinling Gibbons at, 121
+
+Chests of drawers, Jacobean, 117
+
+China collecting, influence of, on furniture, 127
+
+Chinese and Japanese cabinets, 148
+
+"Chinese" Chippendale, 213, 221
+
+Chippendale, Thomas, and his style, 213-238;
+    his _Director_, 215
+  ---- bureau-bookcase, 225, 231
+  ---- furniture, tricks concerning, 272;
+    prices of, 227, 236
+
+Cipriani, 249
+
+Classic models paramount, 205
+
+Claw-and-ball feet adopted by Chippendale, 216
+  ---- feet (prior to Chippendale), 146
+  ---- foot, introduction of, 127
+
+Clock, "Grandfather," introduction of, 127
+
+Clocks, "Grandfather," 147
+
+Colbert, the guiding spirit of art under Louis XIV., 159
+
+Collectors, hints to, 259-274
+
+Commode, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+Commodes (illustrated), Cressent, 171;
+  Louis XIV., 173;
+  Caffieri, 175;
+  Riesener, 197
+
+_Contre partie_, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+Copeland, designs of, 247
+
+Copies of old furniture, 259, 263
+  ---- of fine French pieces, 185, 197
+
+Cottage furniture (Chippendale style), 232
+
+Counter-boule, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+  -----boule, 161
+
+Court cupboard, 70
+
+Cowley, quotation from, 85
+
+Cradle, with initials and date, 96
+
+Cressent, Charles, 177, 178
+
+Crispin de Passe, chair designed by, 159
+
+Cromwellian chair, 96
+
+Cromwell's ebony cabinet, 96
+
+Cushions for chairs when adopted, 75
+
+
+D
+
+Darly, 248
+
+Dated pieces--
+  1593, Elizabethan bedstead, 66
+  1603, Mirror, carved oak frame, 71
+  1603, Court cupboard, 73
+  1616, Oak table, 85
+  1623, Chair, 97
+  1641, Cradle, 96
+  1642, Chair, 159
+  1653, Cabinet, _frontispiece_
+  1760-69, "Bureau du roi," 185
+  1769, Bureau, 196
+  1810, Jewel cabinet, 207
+
+David, 195, 208, 209
+
+Derbyshire chairs, 103
+
+Diderot, 205
+
+_Director_, designs of chair-backs from, 222, 225
+
+Drake, Sir Francis, chair made from timber of _Golden Hind_, 82
+
+Drawers, chests of, Jacobean, 117
+
+Dressers, Normandy, 103
+  ---- "Welsh," 100
+
+Dublin Museum, illustration of oak chest at, 44
+
+Dutch art, introduction of, by William of Orange, 124
+  ---- house, interior of (illustrated), 111
+  ---- lacquer work, 151
+  ---- marquetry, 128, 146
+  ---- marquetry chair, illustrated, 143
+  ---- marquetry, prices realised at auction, 132
+
+
+E
+
+Eassie, Walter, illustrations from drawings by, 171, 183
+
+Egyptian design, influence of, 247
+
+Eighteenth century, early, well-constructed furniture of, 145
+  ---- interior of room (illustrated), 235
+
+Elizabethan mansions, some noteworthy, 67
+
+Elizabethan woodwork, fine example of, 65
+
+Empire style furniture, 202-210
+  ---- its influence on English makers, 209
+
+England, Renaissance in, 37, 59-78
+
+
+F
+
+Farmhouse furniture, 100
+
+Figure in wood, how obtained, 76, 118
+
+Fire of London, destruction of furniture by, 120
+
+First Empire style, 203-210
+
+Flemish wood-carving, its influence on English craftsmen, 49
+
+Fontainebleau, illustration of jewel cabinet at, 207
+
+Foreign workmen employed in England, 37
+
+Fragonard, 182, 195
+
+France, Renaissance in, 43
+
+Francis I., patron of the new art, 47
+
+Frauds perpetrated on collectors, 259-274
+
+French polish, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24, 236
+
+French Revolution, vandalism during, 204
+
+
+G
+
+Gate-leg table, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+  ---- table, 95
+
+Gibbons, Grinling, work of, 121
+
+Gillow, 248
+
+_Golden Hind_, chair made from timbers of, 82
+
+Goldsmith, Oliver, chair of, 215, 216
+
+Gothic, _see_ GLOSSARY, 25
+  ---- revival, its influence on Chippendale, 221
+
+Gouthiere, Pierre, 191, 192, 197
+
+Grandfather clock, 147
+  ---- clock, introduction of, 127
+
+Great Hall at Hampton Court, 63
+
+Grimm, quotation from, 205
+
+Grotesque design prevalent in Elizabethan furniture, 69
+
+
+H
+
+Hall, Hampton Court, the Great, 63
+  ---- Middle Temple, carved screen at, 65
+
+Hampton Court, the Great Hall at, 63
+  ---- Court, work of Grinling Gibbons at, 121
+
+Hampton & Sons, Messrs., pieces from collection of, 59, 95, 99, 115,
+    120, 121, 135, 143, 147, 148, 250
+
+Harrington, Sir John, quotation from, 75
+
+Henry VII.'s chapel, Westminster Abbey, 63
+  ---- VIII., patron of the new art, 37
+
+Heppelwhite, the style of, 241-256
+  ---- chairs (illustrated), 243
+
+Herculaneum and Pompeii, influence of excavations at, 204, 209
+
+Hints to Collectors, 259-274
+
+Hogarth, William, 246
+
+Holbein in England, 37
+
+Honey, W. G., Esq., specimen from collection of, 151
+
+Huygens, Dutch lacquer of, 182
+
+
+I
+
+Ince & Mayhew's designs, 247
+
+India office, specimen at, illustration of, 226
+
+Ingenious contrivances of Sheraton's furniture, 251
+
+Inlay, _see_ GLOSSARY, 25
+  ---- in Elizabethan pieces, 69
+
+Italian art dominates Elizabethan fashion, 68
+
+Italy, Renaissance in, 41
+
+
+J
+
+Jacobean, _see_ GLOSSARY, 25
+  ---- furniture, its fine simplicity, 104
+
+Jacobean furniture, prices realised at auction, 106, 129
+
+James I., chair at Knole House, 86
+  ---- II. furniture, prices realised at auction, 130
+
+Japanese and Chinese cabinets, 148
+
+Japanese lac imitated, 182
+
+Jones Bequest, illustrations of specimens in, 165, 179, 193
+  ---- Inigo, his influence, 93
+
+
+K
+
+Kauffman, Angelica, 249
+
+Kent, eighteenth-century designer, 246
+
+Kew Gardens, pagoda at, 216
+
+King's College Chapel, Cambridge, woodwork of, 63
+
+Kitchen furniture (Chippendale style), 232
+
+Knole House, James I. furniture at, 86
+
+
+L
+
+Lac, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+  ---- Japanese and Chinese imitated, 182
+
+Lacquer, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+
+Lancaster & Co., Messrs. Harold G., specimens from collection of, 122, 123,
+    137, 231, 232, 241, 251
+
+Leather work, cut design, Portuguese chair-back, 128
+
+Le Bas, Rev. H. V., illustration of specimen in possession of, 210
+
+Lebrun, Madame, 205
+
+Leczinski, Stanislas, King of Poland, 196
+
+Linen pattern, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+
+Lock, Matthias, designs of, 247
+
+Louis XIII., chair of period of, 159
+  ---- XIV., period of, 157-167
+  ---- XV., period of, 171-187
+  ---- XVI., period of, 191-200
+
+Louvre, copy of picture in, 203
+  ---- illustration of portrait in, 209
+
+
+M
+
+Macaulay, Lord, quotation from, 96, 136
+
+"Made-up" pieces, 265
+
+Madrid National Museum, illustration of specimen at, 52
+
+Mahogany period, 34
+  ---- how procured by British captains, 214
+  ---- Sir Walter Raleigh's discovery of, 214
+
+Mansions built in Elizabethan days, 67
+
+Manwaring, designs of, 247
+
+Marie Antoinette, furniture belonging to, 179, 180, 195
+
+Marie Louise, jewel cabinet of, 208
+
+Marquetry, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+  ---- Dutch, 128
+  ---- Dutch, 146
+  ---- elaborate, 180, 182
+  ---- in Elizabethan pieces, 69
+  ---- work, spurious, 273
+
+Martin, Sieur Simon Etienne (_Vernis-Martin_), 182
+
+Martin's varnish (_Vernis-Martin_), _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+Meissonier, inspirer of rococo style, 177
+
+Middle Temple Hall, carved oak screen at, 65
+
+Mirrors, arrangement in Hampton Court galleries, 123
+  ---- at Nell Gwynne's house, 123
+  ---- Chippendale, 229
+  ---- made by French and Italian workmen, 124
+  ---- Queen Anne, 136
+  ---- various forms of, 124
+
+Mortise, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+
+Mother-of-pearl inlay, seventeenth century, 116
+
+Munich National Museum, illustration of specimen at, 39
+
+
+N
+
+Naples Museum, illustration of table at, 205
+
+Napoleon, his influence on art, 208
+
+Natoire, 182, 195
+
+Needlework decorated cabinet, Charles II. period, 112
+
+Netherlands, Renaissance in, 49
+
+Netscher, Caspar, illustration after picture by, 111
+
+Normandy dressers, 103
+
+Notable examples of sixteenth, century English woodwork, 65
+
+
+O
+
+Oak, collectors of, hints to, 103, 118
+  ---- furniture, the collector's polish for, 118
+  ---- period, 34
+  ---- polish, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+
+Oeben, Jean Francois, 178
+
+Old oak, polish for, 118
+
+
+P
+
+Parquetry, _see_ GLOSSARY, 26
+
+Passe Crispin de, chair designed by, 159
+
+Pater, 192
+
+Penshurst Place, Indo-Portuguese furniture at, 115
+
+Petworth House, work of Grinling Gibbons at, 121
+
+_Polish_, French, 24;
+  ---- oil, 26
+
+Pollen, J., Hungerford, quotation from, 196
+
+Pompeii, influence of excavations at, 204, 208, 247
+
+Ponsonby-Fane, Right Hon. Sir Spencer, specimens in collection of, 101, 224
+
+Portuguese furniture, late seventeenth century, in England, 114
+
+
+Q
+
+Queen Anne cabinet (illustrated), 141
+  ---- chairs (illustrated), 143
+  ---- furniture, prices realised at auction, 153
+  ---- mirror frame (illustrated), 137
+  ---- settle (illustrated), 149, 155
+
+
+R
+
+Raleigh, Sir Walter, mahogany first brought home by, 214
+
+Recamier, portrait of, by David, 209
+
+Reeded, _see_ GLOSSARY, 27
+
+Renaissance, _see_ GLOSSARY, 27
+  ---- in England, 37, 59-78
+  ---- in France, 43
+  ---- in Italy, 41
+  ---- in the Netherlands, 49
+  ---- in Spain, 48
+  ---- on the Continent, 33-55
+  ---- origin of, 38, 41
+
+Restored, _see_ GLOSSARY, 27
+  ---- cupboard showing over-elaboration, 73
+
+"Restored" pieces, 265
+
+Revolution in France, vandalism during, 204
+
+Ribbon-back chair (illustrated), 222
+  ---- ornamentation adapted from France, 64;
+    (illustrated) 60
+  ---- pattern, early use of, by French woodcarvers, 92
+
+Riesener, Jean Francois, 185, 191, 192, 195, 197, 208
+
+Robinson, V. J., Esq., C.I.E., furniture belonging to, 219
+
+Rococo, _see_ GLOSSARY, 27
+
+Roe, Mr. Frederick, quotation from, 266
+
+Roentgen, David, 182
+
+
+S
+
+Sackville, Lord, early Jacobean furniture in collection of, 86
+
+St. Paul's Cathedral, work of Grinling Gibbons at, 121
+
+Secret drawers, 114
+  ---- drawers, pieces with, 113, 157, 231
+  ---- drawers, Sheraton's love of, 251
+  ---- processes to impart age to spurious pieces, 260
+
+Settee, _see_ GLOSSARY, 27
+  ---- upholstered, early Jacobean, at Knole, 90
+
+Settle, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28, 60
+  ---- Queen Anne style, 145, 149
+
+Sevres porcelain as decoration to furniture, 191
+  ---- porcelain in harmony with furniture, 181
+
+Shattock, Esq., T. Foster, specimens from collection of, 45
+
+Shearer, 248
+
+Sheraton, Thomas, and his style, 209, 241-256
+  ---- chair (illustrated), 243
+  ---- mechanical contrivances of his furniture, 251
+  ---- poverty of, 248;
+    his opinion of Chippendale, 248
+
+Sigerson, Dr., Dublin, specimens from collection of, 157, 206
+
+Sixteenth-century woodwork, fine example of, 65
+
+Spain, Renaissance in, 48
+
+Spanish furniture (illustrated), cabinet, 51;
+  chest, 52
+
+Spitalfields' velvet for furniture, 147
+  ---- weaving founded by aliens, 122
+
+Splat, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+Stothard, copy of engraving by, 231, 235
+
+Strafford, first Earl of, chair with arms of, 94
+
+Strapwork, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+  ---- borrowed from Flemish designers, 64;
+    illustrated, 61, 68
+  ---- Elizabethan, 69
+
+Stretche, Esq., T. E. Price, specimens from collection of, 75, 78, 97, 139, 140
+
+Stretcher, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+  ---- in chairs, evolution of the, 122
+  ---- wear given to, by feet of sitters, 100
+
+Sutton, Thomas, founder of Charterhouse Hospital, 86
+
+Symonds, John Addington, "The Renaissance in Italy," quoted, 41
+
+
+T
+
+Table, gate-leg, _see_ GLOSSARY, 24
+
+Tapestry factory established at Mortlake, 92
+  ---- in harmony with furniture, 181
+
+Tenon, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+Terror, Reign of, vandalism during, 204
+
+Timber split to give figure in surface, 76, 118
+
+Transition between Gothic and Renaissance, 44, 47, 63
+
+Turned work, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+
+U
+
+Upholstered chairs adopted in late Elizabethan days, 75
+  ---- seat (William and Mary), 122
+
+
+V
+
+Vandyck at the Court of Charles I., 92
+
+Varnish, oil, composition of, not now known, 119
+  ---- spirit, a modern invention, 118
+  ---- _Vernis-Martin_, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+Veneer, _see_ GLOSSARY, 28
+
+Veneered work, its adoption, 139
+
+Veneers, woods used as, _see_ GLOSSARY, 29
+
+_Vernis-Martin_ (Martin's varnish), _see_ GLOSSARY, 28, 182
+
+Versailles, sums spent upon building, 166;
+  vandalism at, 172, 177
+
+
+W
+
+Wallace Collection, illustrations of specimens, at, 163, 171, 181, 183
+
+Walnut period, 34
+
+Walnut veneer, Queen Anne period, 139
+
+Walpole, Horace, 221
+
+Waring, Messrs., specimens from collection of, 81, 117, 119, 143, 149, 197
+
+Watteau, 192
+
+Wedgwood, Josiah, 247
+
+Wellington, Duke of, collection in possession of, 209
+
+Welsh dresser, 100
+
+Westminster Abbey, Henry VII.'s chapel, 63
+
+William and Mary furniture, prices realised at auction, 130
+
+Winckelmann, 205
+
+Woods preferred by Grinling Gibbons, 121
+  ---- used for delicate carving by foreign schools, 116
+  ---- used in furniture, _see_ GLOSSARY, 29
+  ---- with fancy names, 29;
+    botanical names of, 196
+
+Woodwork, sixteenth century, fine examples of, 65
+
+Worms, ravages of furniture, 234, 271, 274
+
+Wren, Sir Christopher, 120
+
+
+Y
+
+Yorkshire chairs, 103
+
+
+    THE GRESHAM PRESS,
+    UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED,
+    WOKING AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Old Furniture, by Arthur Hayden
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